Wildlife Conservation Society Birds of Brazil: The Atlantic Forest of Southeast Brazil, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro 9781501704307

Table of contents :
Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Birding in Brazil
The Atlantic Forest of Southeast Brazil: Protecting Wild Brazil
Species Accounts
SERIEMAS
RHEAS
TINAMOUS
WOOD QUAILS
CHACHALACAS, GUANS, & CURASSOWS
SCREAMERS
DUCKS & SWANS
GREBES
FRIGATEBIRDS
TROPICBIRDS
CORMORANTS AND DARTERS
BOOBIES
ALBATROSSES
SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS
STORM PETRELS
PENGUINS
HERONS, BITTERNS, & EGRETS
IBISES & SPOONBILLS
LIMPKIN
STORKS
FLAMINGOES
AMERICAN VULTURES
HAWKS, EAGLES, & KITES
FALCONS AND CARACARAS
RAILS, GALLINULES, COOTS
FINFOOTS
PLOVERS & LAPWINGS
SANDPIPERS, SNIPES, PHALAROPES
GULLS AND TERNS
STERCORARIUS
PIGEONS AND DOVES
PARROTS
CUCKOOS AND ANIS
TYPICAL OWLS
POTOOS
NIGHTHAWKS AND NIGHTJARS
SWIFTS
HUMMINGBIRDS
TROGONS
KINGFISHERS
MOTMOTS
PUFFBIRDS
JACAMARS
TOUCANS
WOODPECKERS
WOODCREEPERS
OVENBIRDS
LEAFTOSSERS AND MINERS
ANTTHRUSHES
ANTPITTAS
GNATEATERS
CRESCENTCHESTS
TAPACULOS
COTINGAS
JAYS
SWALLOWS AND MARTINS
MOCKINGBIRDS
WRENS
GNATCATCHERS AND GNATWRENS
PIPITS
THRUSHES
References
Index of English Names
Index of Portuguese Names
Index of Scientic Names

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Parks and Places Some notable places for bird finding. Prior authorization for visits may be necessary. 1 PN Serra das Lontras 2 Reserva Biológica Una 3 RPPN Estação Veracel 4 Serra Bonita 5 PN Marinho Abrolhos 6 RPPN Mata do Passarinho 7 PE Rio Doce 8 PN Serra do Cipó 9 PN Serra da Canastra 10 RPPN Santuário do Caraça 11 PE Ibitipoca 12 PN Caparaó 13 Reserva Biológica de Sooretama 14 Reserva Natural Vale

15 Reserva Biológica de Comboios 16 Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi 17 PE do Desengano 18 Serra dos Órgãos 19 REGUA (Reserva Ecológica de Guapiaçu) 20 Reserva Biológica União 21 Cabo Frio 22 PN Tijuca 23 Ilha Grande 24 PN Itatiaia 25 PN Serra da Bocaina 26 Campos do Jordão 27 São Luiz do Paraitinga

28 Ubatuba and Paraty 29 Ilhabela 30 Estação Ecológica Jureia-Itatins 31 Ilha do Cardoso 32 Serra do Japi 33 PE Carlos Botelho 34 PE Intervales 35 Petar (Parque Estadual Turístico Alto Ribeira) 36 Itirapina 37 Fazenda Bacury and Tanquã 38 Estação Ecológica de Caetetus 39 PE Morro do Diabo

PN: National park | PE: State park | RPPN: Private Natural Heritage Reserve

Protecting Wild Brazil Chapter Text Authors Martha Argel (WCS) Photographers Ciro Albano Theo Anderson Boeri Studio Demis Bucci Fabio Colombini Valdemir Cunha Carolina Da Riva Pavel Dodonov Lilian Sayuri Fitorra

Tim Hirsch

John A. Gwynne (WCS)

Bruno Lima Luciano Lima Silvia Faustino Linhares Luiz Claudio Marigo

André Saidenberg José Robson dos Santos Mucio Scorzelli Guilherme Serpa Robson Silva e Silva Lindolfo Souto Thiago Tolêdo Flávio Varricchio Wallace Wittkoff

(In Memoriam, 1950-2014)

Dimitri Matoszko Fabio Olmos Haroldo Palo Jr. Júnior Petar Ernesto Reghran/ PULSAR Imagens

Advisory Committee Martha Argel (WCS) Juan Mazar Barnett

(In Memoriam, 1975-2012)

Dennis Driesmans Beyer (Animalia Consultoria em Meio Ambiente)

Dante R. C. Buzzetti Braulio Carlos (Pantanal Bird Club)

Pedro F. Develey

(SAVE Brasil/BirdLife) Neiva Guedes (Projeto Arara Azul) John A. Gwynne (WCS)

Alexine Keuroghlian (WCS) Katherine Lemcke (WCS) Vincent Kurt Lo (IBAMA) André De Luca (SAVE Brasil/BirdLife)

Maria Antonietta Pivatto (Photo In Natura)

Wandir Ribeiro

(Jatobá Engenharia Florestal)

Rômulo Ribon

(Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto)

Fernanda Marques (WCS) Fernanda Melo

Robert S. Ridgely

Leonardo Vianna Mohr

Fernando C. Straube

Vitor Piacentini

Eduardo Martins Venticinque

(Caiman Ecological Refuge)

(ICMBio – Ministério do Meio Ambiente) (Museu de Zoologia da USP)

(Rainforest Trust)

(Hori Consultoria Ambiental) (WCS)

Carlos Yamashita (IBAMA)

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY

THE ATLANTIC FOREST OF SOUTHEAST BRAZIL INCLUDING SÃO PAULO & RIO DE JANEIRO Senior Author: Robert S. Ridgely WCS Project Director: John A. Gwynne Art Director: Guy Tudor WCS Project Coordinator and Translator: Martha Argel Book Design and Production: Terry Clarke Artists: Guy Tudor

Michael DiGiorgio

Dale Dyer

John A. Gwynne

Barry Van Dusen

Sophie Webb

Species Maps: Robert S. Ridgely, Maria Allen, and Terry Clarke

Comstock Publishing Associates a division of Cornell University Press Ithaca and London

Copyright © 2016 by Wildlife Conservation Society Species accounts and associated maps on pages 32–400 copyright © 2016 by Robert S. Ridgely (Recommended citation: Ridgely, Robert S., John A. Gwynne, Guy Tudor, and Martha Argel. Wildlife Conser vation Society Birds of Brazil: The Atlantic Forest of Southeast Brazil, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2016. Ridgely. Species Accounts.) Illustrations by Guy Tudor from The Birds of South America, Volume 1: The Oscine Passerines, copyright © 1989; The Birds of South America, Volume 2: The Suboscine Passerines, copyright © 1994; and Field Guide to South American Songbirds, copyright © 2009, by Robert S. Ridgely and Guy Tudor. Used by permission of the illustrator and the University of Texas Press. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2016 by Cornell University Press First printing, Cornell Paperbacks, 2016 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wildlife Conservation Society birds of Brazil / WCS project director, John A. Gwynne; senior author, Robert S. Ridgely. v. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. The Pantanal and Cerrado of Central Brazil ISBN 978-0-8014-7646-4 (v. 1 : pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-5017-0453-6 (v. 2 : pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Birds--Brazil--Identification. I. Gwynne, John A. II. Ridgely, Robert S., 1946- III. Wildlife Conservation Society (New York, N.Y.) IV. Title: Birds of Brazil. QL689.B8W53 2010 598.0981--dc22 2010013388 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at www. cornellpress.cornell.edu. Paperback printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Projeto Aves do Brasil gratefully acknowledges the vision and generosity of donors who have made this project possible:

Sam and Nora Wolcott Fundação Grupo Boticário Fibria Votorantim Abigail Congdon and Joe Azrack Polly Bruckmann Edith McBean Graham Arader Muriel Matalon The Penates Foundation Adeline and Ted Kurz Dane Nichols Anonymous Donors

The Wildlife Conservation Society gratefully dedicates this volume to Sam and Nora Wolcott. Their unwavering support of Projeto Aves do Brasil has enabled the world to better understand and appreciate the wonders of Brazil’s birds.

Contents Acknowledgments

x

Introduction

xii

Birding in Brazil

xiv

The Atlantic Forest of Southeast Brazil: Protecting Wild Brazil Species Accounts

1 31

References

402

Indexes of English, Portuguese, and Scientific Names

403

Acknowledgments This field guide, the second in WCS’s Birds of Brazil series, following The Pantanal and Cerrado of Central Brazil (2010), represents a labor of love from more than a hundred people who care about birds. We believe fervently that well designed, easy-to-use field guides that are also accessible to Brazilians in Portuguese editions will lead to an enhanced awareness of Brazil’s extraordinary natural heritage and create a desire to protect it. This series was the dream of Márcio Ayres, the visionary first program director of Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Brazil. He believed such a series would inspire a new generation of Brazilian birders and conservationists. His dream became real when Robert (Bob) Ridgely agreed to contribute his encyclopedic field knowledge of neotropical birds to the project, and Guy Tudor generously allowed the re-use of his landmark passerine illustrations from their Birds of South America series. Once again, Bob has synthesized his panoramic overview of South American birds, keen field observations, evocative species accounts, and extensive map database, ably digitized into maps by Maria Allen. Martha Argel’s local knowledge of Brazilian ornithology and her networking connections have been crucial to coordination of the project in Brazil, and her tireless research and persistence have provided a tremendous wealth of information. Martha also translated this book into Portuguese. Field checking by Dante Buzzetti, Vitor Piacentini, and Fernando Straube supports many species accounts, and Wikiaves has been an invaluable resource for validating distributions. Guy Tudor, éminence grise of neotropical bird illustration, whose unparalleled art forms the core of this series, also lent direction to other illustrators—Michael DiGiorgio, Dale Dyer, Barry Van Dusen, Sophie Webb, and myself—who painted hundreds of nonpasserines. Working with expert digital artist Terry Clarke, Guy also supervised modification of some illustrations to depict proper local races for the region. Terry designed and produced the pages for this guide, a tough task due to the mandate of compactness for field use. We are fortunate, too, that Marybeth Sollins once again worked with us as editor. We are grateful to Tim Hirsch, deputy director of the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, who found time to help research and turn massive drafts of information into the conservation chapter’s clear vision of the extreme pressures on nature in our region, as well as its wonders. More than a dozen scientists served as advisers, mostly in Brazil, lending their combined expertise to shape the book’s conservation chapter. Representing conservation organizations, universities, tour operators, private organizations, and Brazilian government agencies, they include Juan Mazar Barnett (our good friend, so able and so greatly missed), Dennis Beyer, Dante Buzzetti, Braulio Carlos, Pedro Develey, Vincent Lo, André De Luca, Leonardo Vianna Mohr, Vitor Piacentini, Tietta Pivatto, Wandir Ribeiro, Rômulo Ribon, Fernando C. Straube, and Carlos Yamashita. We also appreciate the participation of the many generous, talented photographers listed on page ii. Critical information about key species, taxonomy, and site records came from many sources, including Ciro Albano, Bruno Arantes, Mauricio Arantes, Eduardo Gelli Araújo, Claudia Bauer, Demis Bucci, Igor Camacho, Fabricio Vasconcelos Costa, Marco Aurélio Crozariol, Advaldo Dias do Prado, Márcio Efe, Marcos Eugênio, Luiz Fernando Figueiredo, Carla S. Fontana, Alexandre Gabriel Franchin, Vanessa Kanaan, Guy Kirwan, Evair Legal, Luciano Lima, Moyses Bossi Lima, the Lymington Foundation, William Menq, Jeremy Minns, Cesar Musso, Wagner Nogueira, Fabio Olmos, José Fernando Pacheco, Frederick Pallinger, Sergio Posso, Bruno Rennó, Francisco Mallet Rodrigues, Cristiano E. Rovedder, Adrian Eisen Rupp, André Saidenberg, Guilherme Serpa, Robson Silva e Silva, Elis and Rick Simpson, Juliana Sinhorini, Vitor Torga, Flávio K. Ubaid, Marcelo Villegas Vallejos, Alan Vedoveli, and Sandro Von Matter. x

A pair of Large-tailed Antshrikes

George Barrowclough, Joel Cracraft, and Paul Sweet provided wisdom and access to the incomparable study collection of the American Museum of Natural History. Kristof Zyskowski, collections manager at Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, also generously supported our artists with specimens. Sônia Aragaki and adviser Wandir Ribeiro provided important botanical information. Nicholas and Raquel Locke at REGUA and Pousada Betânia provided us access to their protected forests. Many friends, including Mariana Albuquerque, Ângela Camargo, Luciana Chiyo, Col. Joel Corrêa, Cal Martins, Claiton Martins-Ferreira, Jarbas Mattos, Liliane Milanelo, João Quental, Octavio Campos Salles, and Plinio Senna, provided a huge pool of photos from which we selected illustrations for the conservation chapter. This project began while I was the chief creative officer/vice president for design at WCS. I continue to steer the project, find support for its many parts, oversee design and finances, and coordinate the work of those cited above as well as publishers, legal advisers, development experts, publicists, event planners, and many others, all of whom we thank wholeheartedly. WCS Brazil is especially grateful for the generosity of its dedicated supporters who saw the need to make information about Brazil’s especially rich birdlife more available to the world. Sam and Nora Wolcott, our far-seeing patrons, continue to be the project’s angels. Abigail Congdon and Joe Azrack, nature photographer Polly Bruckmann, the Penates Foundation’s Sandra Montrone, Addie and Ted Kurz, Dane Nichols, and anonymous donors all deserve heartfelt thanks for their contributions to this project. Central to our mission is affordability for nearly every Brazilian, made possible by the thoughtful, generous support of Fundação Grupo Boticário and Fibria, to whom we were introduced by Peter Milko, our São Paulo publisher, and Jim Brumm. This project owes its existence to the kindness of many friends. Graham Arader generously provided the launch for the first guide in the series, aided energetically by conservation’s extraordinary supporter, Edith McBean. Muriel Matalon graciously assisted with the launch in Brazil. Bea and Pepe Esteves, Eleanor Briggs, John Danilovich (former United States Ambassador to Brazil) and Irene Danilovich, and Loring McAlpin, provided much-appreciated insights. Special tribute goes to Guto Carvalho, mastermind of the innovative Avistar bird fair, and Reinaldo Guedes, creator of Wikiaves, the extraordinary grassroots photography database. Both bring Brazilians closer to their own birds. Special thanks go to Peter J. Potter, former editor in chief, and Katherine Hue-Tsung Liu, associate editor, at Cornell University Press and to Peter Milko at Editora Horizonte in São Paulo, assisted by Diogo do Nascimento, for their unflagging faith in this series. I am especially grateful for the assistance of many at WCS. CEOs Bill Conway, Jim Large, Steve Sanderson, and Cristián Samper; International Program heads John Robinson and Josh Ginsberg; and Latin American Program directors Avecita Chicchon and Julie Kunen all provided encouragement, as did Evelyn Junge, assisted by Scott Wight. Despite being fully occupied with the Amazon Waters initiative, WCS Brazil’s Carlos Durigan, Karl Didier, Jean Boubli, Ana Garrido, Alexine Keuroghlian, and Valéria Guimarães have been faithful supporters of this project. In New York, Sofia Baca, Jenn Blaha, Eileen Cruz-Minnis, Raquel Diaz, Carlos Fajardo, Kimio Honda, Valerie Kind, Kat Lemke, Anne Rice Mesquita, Lillian Bonilla Ortiz, Natalia Piland, and Matthew Richter are among the many who have helped beyond measure. Special thanks go to our team’s always encouraging spouses, Peg Ridgely, Mikel Folcarelli, Michelle Le Marchant, Humberto Moura Neto, and Linda Lee.

Adult Tawny-browed Owl with juvenile

John A. Gwynne xi

Introduction This field guide—the second in the Wildlife Conservation Society Birds of Brazil series, published in English and Portuguese editions— concentrates on the bird-rich habitats of southeastern Brazil, the area where most Brazilians live. We hope that these guides will inspire a wider culture of conservation in Brazil by stimulating birding there, and make bird identification easy for beginning birders. We provide illustrations and individual species accounts for most of the region’s resident birds and migrants. Land birds are our focus, but we also include many pelagic species. Illustrations rather than photos facilitate comparison between similar species, to better show the field marks that differentiate them. To further aid identification, species accounts and maps face illustrations. Different colors on species maps indicate the ranges of resident and migrant birds. Colored dots indicate isolated locations beyond a normal range, or sole locations of rarer species. See the color code inside the front cover. Symbols for the status of species of high conservation concern and symbols indicating endemics and near endemics are also shown. Brazil’s vast size and wealth of birds make a one-volume field guide too bulky and complex in content for easy field use. The entire Atlantic Forest, from Brazil’s far northeast to its southern border, and west into Paraguay and Argentina, is so loaded with species (with many so localized) that even a single Atlantic Forest guide would become too massive for field use. But a more localized regional guide eliminates species unlikely to be present and allows room for distribution maps and information on local habitats and conservation issues. The southeast Atlantic Forest region covered in this volume has 927 bird species and encompasses not only forest but a wide variety of habitats. There is no sharp demarcation between its less humid inland habitats and those of the Pantanal and Cerrado (see the first guide in the series). They share many bird species, as the dry savannas of central Brazil blend with the western reaches of the Atlantic Forest and, in the north, the Atlantic Forest blends with caatinga. In this book’s opening chapter we discuss the link between birds and habitat. We also present an overview of environmental information that all Brazilians, especially those with public responsibility, should know. This information is not typically available in Brazil, and public and governmental environmental awareness is low. Although many may know that the Atlantic Forest has dwindled by about 90% since 1500, few realize that its remaining lowland and semideciduous forests, and restinga, are still at great risk of destruction or loss. In response to this threat, private groups, foundations, and corporations are trying to take on what should be the normal obligation of government, developing and managing successful environmental initiatives in the region. Brazil’s avifauna (1902 species, of which 269 are endemic) comprises nearly one-fifth of the world’s bird species. But Brazil also has the largest number of threatened species in the New World (at least 126). In the region covered by this guide alone, there are 140 Brazilian endemic bird species, 105 near endemics (which we define as species whose distribution lies mainly in Brazil but which is shared with one or more adjacent countries), and 83 species (and many more local subspecies) at risk of extinction. These high numbers create an urgent imperative for bird protection. In the face of this crisis, Brazil’s challenge is to create a framework of more effective environmental safeguards within which to achieve economic and social success. With this guide, we aim to instill in a nation of potential birders the delight and sheer joy of birding. This, we hope, will lead in turn to their active engagement in protecting and restoring the Atlantic Forest. John A. Gwynne and Martha Argel xii

Yellow-fronted Woodpeckers

Brazil has undergone immense changes in recent decades, many of them still continuing. As Brazil has changed so too has ornithology. When I began my work in the Neotropics during the 1960s, hardly a hundred people had any interest in its birds. Now thousands do, including legions of amateurs who go birding just for fun, and I can’t tell you how gratifying it is to have witnessed and been part of this process. The production of books depicting some of the region’s prolific birdlife has been crucial, and even in this day of digital photography and apps they remain important. The present guide is our latest contribution to the field. The issue of taxonomy and names continues to challenge anyone writing books such as this. Part of the explosion in bird knowledge has resulted from the publication of a multitude of scientific articles, many highly technical, concerning bird evolutionary relationships. The committees charged with evaluating such findings struggle to correct previously established classifications. But continuing research often produces new results, and decisions about taxonomy must be revised again. Sometimes this means that a generic name must be changed (e.g., Buteo to Rupornis), or that a formerly single species is now believed to constitute two. For this guide I have followed two main sources for names and taxonomy: the IOC World Bird List and the official CBRO list (Comitê Brasileiro de Registros Ornitológicos). Sometimes, however, IOC and CBRO don’t agree, and I’ve had to select my preferred course. On rare occasions I don’t agree with either, and then have followed my own (usually conservative) course. In recent years bird photography has exploded in Brazil, with spectacular results. There is now an excellent website, WikiAves, on which one can find photographs of almost every bird in Brazil. These have been of great value to the artists who created the plates for this book, and to me as I fine-tuned textual details. Each WikiAves entry includes a map showing where photos and vocalization recordings were made. Because there are so many records in total, the result is a complete map of the modern distribution of most Brazilian birds—a resource that we’ve drawn on freely. We hope that this book will help you to know more about the birds around you, and to care about those that are at risk of disappearing forever. Now it’s up to you: get out, look at, and appreciate your birds. Robert S. Ridgely President, Rainforest Trust

Blue Manakins displaying at lek xiii

Birding in Brazil When foreign visitors to Brazil think about traveling to see forests, they tend to consider only Amazonia and its rainforests. But the Atlantic Forest of southeast Brazil, with many distinct habitats that harbor at least 927 bird species, provides an extraordinarily different experience for birders and other ecotourists. To maximize that experience, review this guide’s opening chapter, which describes the region’s habitats, their characteristics, and distinctive species. Each type of habitat (forests, cerrado, mangroves, highelevation grasslands) hosts particular species of birds. In addition, species of the region’s northern habitats differ from those of the south, as do those found at different elevations. Visiting Brazil Brazil is large. Geographically it is the fifth largest nation on the planet—larger than Western Europe–and covers approximately the area of the continental United States. Travel distances are vast, requiring advance planning of itineraries. Bear in mind that the Brazilian summer (January–February) is vacation time, with many people traveling and many flights, tours, and hotels booked ahead of time. Major airports are usually located outside urban centers, so it is easy to avoid the challenges of navigating unfamiliar cities and go directly to the countryside where the birds are. Familiar car rental companies are easily found at many airports, and road conditions are generally very good in eastern and southern Brazil. Most international flights arrive in São Paulo or Rio de Janeiro, with both offering easy access to domestic flights as well as nearby world-class birding spots. If time is short, go to the botanical gardens in both cities to see toucans, woodcreepers, guans, tanagers, and hummingbirds. There is good birding year-round in Brazil, but it is perhaps best in September and October, the advent of the bird breeding season as well as the dry season. It can be very hot and humid in January and February (above 100 °F/37 °C), though slightly cooler at higher altitudes. June to August is a cooler time, with São Paulo usually ranging from 50 °F/10 °C to the high 80s F/mid-20s C, trending warmer northward (and down to freezing at higher elevations). During the rainy season (October−March), afternoon showers are typical. Visiting Brazil is easier if you speak a few words of Portuguese, but English is now often spoken in major urban areas. Brazil has a reciprocal visa policy: if your country (e.g., United States, Australia, New Zealand) requires Brazilians to obtain a visa, you will need a visa to enter Brazil. A yellow fever vaccination is recommended but not required in southeastern Brazil. Polio and tetanus shots are recommended. Malaria is unusual in the region, but dengue and other mosquito-borne diseases occur in some towns. Use insect repellent as well as sunblock. The currency in Brazil is the real (R$). US dollars and euros are not accepted, and one must change money upon arrival in Brazil. Not all ATMs in Brazil are international, even at airports. Credit cards (especially Visa and Mastercard) are widely accepted in urban hotels and restaurants.

xiv

Birdwatching tourism in Brazil, including staying in ecolodges, visiting protected areas and private reser ves, and hiring local guides, can indirectly increase protection of many birds such as King Vultures, which now have only very local populations in the Atlantic Forest.

Birding in the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro Many birders go initially to Itatiaia, the first of Brazil’s majestic national parks. Located between Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, and easily reached by car in two to three hours, it offers grand vistas and upland birding. Itatiaia boasts more than 370 species, from Green-billed Toucan to Gilt-edged and Brassy-breasted Tanager, Swallow-tailed Cotinga, and Frilled Coquette. Here, it is also possible to find highland species such as Itatiaia Spinetail, Green-crowned Plovercrest, Blackand-gold Cotinga, and twenty species of hummingbirds. Near beautiful beaches and islands of Ubatuba and Paraty, located between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, lowland forests offer 400 species, including Saffron Toucanet, Channel-billed Toucan, Barethroated Bellbird, Buff-throated Purpletuft (Ubatuba), Black-hooded Antwren (Paraty), Spotted Bamboowren, Red-necked Tanager, and Long-billed Wren (in mangroves). More than 430 species have been recorded at Intervales State Park and its buffer zone, in southern São Paulo state. There, within the largest surviving area of continuous Atlantic Forest, you may see Blackfronted Piping Guan, Long-Trained Nightjar, Helmeted Woodpecker, Serra do Mar Tyrant Manakin, Swallow-tailed Cotinga, Temminck’s Seedeater, and Azure Jay. In araucaria forest about two hours from São Paulo, Campos do Jordão is noted for Araucaria Tit-Spinetail, Vinaceous-breasted Amazon, Rustybarred Owl, and Bay-chested Warbling Finch. In the Serra dos Órgãos area, near Rio de Janeiro, there is good birding at Teresópolis, REGUA, and Nova Friburgo, with sightings of Black Hawk-Eagle, Crescent-chested Puffbird, Brazilian Tanager, and Blue-naped Chlorophonia. Exploring further in the Southeast Near Belo Horizonte, Serra do Cipó’s beautiful if outlandish upland landscapes offer Horned Sungem, Cipó Canastero, Gray-backed Tachuri, and Blue Finch. Other birding spots in Minas Gerais state include Serra da Canastra (with cerrado specialties such as Brazilian Merganser and Cock-tailed Tyrant) and private reserve Mata do Passarinho at Bandeira (which protects Stresemann’s Bristlefront). In Espírito Santo the best-known birding spot is Reserva da Vale (Linhares), one of the last remnants of the impressively tall lowland forest that once extended to south Bahia. This is one of the last places in the Atlantic Forest with a confirmed presence of Harpy Eagle (very rare, but known to nest here). Other species include Redbilled Curassow, Solitary Tinamou, Ochre-marked and Maroon-faced Parakeet, Reichenow’s Parrot, Minute Hermit, Ocellated Poorwill, Black-cheeked Gnateater, Banded and White-winged Cotinga, and Black-headed Berryeater. For hummingbirds, such as the Frilled Coquette, go to the picturesque small town of Santa Teresa and the Augusto Ruschi Biological Reserve. Two hours away there is a possibility of finding Cherry-throated Tanager at Caetés forest (which needs protection) at Vargem Alta. In South Bahia, Estação Veracel near Porto Seguro (famous for its beaches and excellent tourism facilities) boasts Banded and Whitewinged Cotinga, Hook-billed Hermit, Red-browed Amazon, and Blackheaded Berryeater. For Pink-legged Graveteiro, Pin-tailed Manakin, and Spot-billed Toucanet try Serra Bonita. Other good places to try are Monte Pascoal National Park and Una Biological Reserve. The map on page i identifies some excellent birding locations, but there are also others. The Internet is a good resource for finding ecotourism pousadas (inns) that are keen to welcome birders and provide local bird guides and species lists. Look for information about towns such as Gonçalves, Ilhabela, Extrema, Angra dos Reis, Iporanga, Itanhaém, Tapiraí, and Pedra Azul.

Many hummingbirds are attracted to sugar-water feeders. xv

PHOTO: J. PETAR, ORNATE HAWK-EAGLES, IPORANGA, SP

THE ATLANTIC FOREST OF SOUTHEAST BRAZIL

Protecting Wild Brazil

The Atlantic Forest: a globally important mar vel of biological diversity.

Exuberant with Life The Atlantic Forest (Mata Atlântica) bursts with life, much of it found only here in Brazil. Once the forest stretched for 3,000 km in a continuous swathe along Brazil’s southeast coast, and in some places far inland. Now it remains mostly as tiny fragments.

The Atlantic Forest extends from Brazil’s far northeast to its southern border, and west into Paraguay and Argentina. This volume covers itscentral zone.

The story of the Atlantic Forest is the story of Brazil itself, one of remarkable resilience and survival. Even the settled name for Portuguese South America (Terra do Brasil) sprang from the forest - from the iconic Pau-Brasil or Brazilwood tree, whose prized red dye made fortunes and was nearly exploited to extinction. Despite the harsh impact of all the subsequent cycles of Brazil’s development, from sugarcane to cattle, gold, coffee, highways, and huge cities, the Atlantic Forest still survives. Although reduced to a fraction of its original area, almost all of its bird species remain. It sustains more than 100 million Brazilians who live within its domain and depend on it for fresh water and clean air. Its plant and animal species and its landscapes, which have shaped Brazil’s past and define the nation’s cultural identity, will continue to do so if we treasure what’s left.

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THE ATLANTIC FOREST OF SOUTHEAST BRAZIL

When Europeans arrived in Brazil in 1500, they saw wondrous sights: giant red macaws, iridescent blue butterflies, and golden monkeys. The magic of the Atlantic Forest continues to enchant visitors today.

PHOTO: G. SERPA, TINGUÁ, RJ PHOTO: T. ANDERSON, SOUTHERN MURIQUI

What makes the Atlantic Forest special?

The Atlantic Forest is a patchwork of diverse landscapes (not all of them even forests), whose biological diversity is among the highest of all global biomes. It stretches from near the Equator to beyond the tropics, rising in elevation from sea level nearly 3,000 m. The ocean-facing slopes receive far more moisture and rainfall than the drier forests of the interior.

Muriquis are found only here. PHOTO: J. R. SANTOS

These contrasts have created one of the most varied ecosystems on Earth, formed over millions of years as the forest has expanded and retreated with the flux of global climate. Plant and animal species have found their niches within this shifting mosaic, evolving into overlapping and interdependent webs of life. The diversity of species is breathtaking. More than 450 tree species have been found in a single hectare. The biome is home to 1,000 species of birds, more than 2,100 of butterflies, 24 of primates, 450 of amphibians, and 20,000 of flowering plants, of which some 8,000 grow only here. This extraordinary ecosystem is one of the great natural marvels of the planet, but it hangs on by a thread. If we protect what’s left and take action to connect the fragments that remain in southeast Brazil where most Brazilians live, the miracle of its survival will continue.

Ancient trees still survive in the Atlantic Forest. 3

Diversity Results from Many Habitats The Atlantic Forest’s diversity reveals itself as you pass through its many habitats, starting at sea level. Offshore islands and tidal mangroves give way to restinga (the highly threatened vegetation that grows on coastal white-sand soils), and to lowland forest. Slope and montane forests rise in the south to araucaria (Araucaria angustifolia) forests and high-altitude grasslands. Beyond lie the drier semideciduous forests of the interior plateau and, further still, the cerrado savanna. Each type of landscape has its own collection of bird species. You can see this in just a short trip from a city on the plateau down to the beach. Look closely. You will notice that the birds you’ve seen in your upland local park are never seen in the lowland forests or at the beach. This simple observation helps to explain why the protection of just one habitat will never ensure the survival of the rich diversity of the Atlantic Forest.

Emergent trees

Canopy

Sub-canopy

Understor y

Forest floor Different birds inhabit different forest levels. Toucans live high in the emergent trees and canopy. Woodcreepers climb tree trunks in the subcanopy. Manakins flit through the understory. Antthrushes patrol the forest floor. High-elevation Grasslands

Araucaria Forests

Montane Forests Semideciduous Forests Cerrados Some birds, including Bare-throated Bellbird, Yellow-legged Thrush, and Blue-naped Chlorophonia, migrate between different altitudes within the coastal ranges in annual cycles that are still not fully understood.

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Vanishing habitats. In 1500, the

coast of Brazil was almost completely forested. Although people had lived here for at least 12,000 years, European ‘discovery’ brought fundamental, far-reaching change to the regional ecology. Five hundred years later, only a minuscule fraction of original Atlantic Forest remains. Considering only larger patches of intact forest, just 7 to 8 percent of the original area survives. Adding up all the fragments (more than 250,000), a little over 11 percent is left. The tiny fragments of forest are much less viable for wildlife conservation than the larger ones. The amount of surviving habitat varies greatly within the Atlantic Forest mosaic. The steep slopes of the Serra do Mar, the coastal mountain range, are the best preserved thanks to their sheer inaccessibility and because they are partly protected as parks. At the other extreme are the tidal mangroves, white-sand restinga, and lowland forests that are being devastated by coastal development. And inland, semideciduous forest is almost gone, converted to agriculture.

Green-billed Toucan

Black-tailed Tityra

Rufous-headed Tanager

When forests become fragmented, bird species begin to disappear. Nine years after a large forest at Campinas, SP, was reduced to an isolated 252 hectares, researchers observed the loss of Green-billed Toucan, two trogons and eight other species. In the next fifteen years it lost thirty more, including Rufous-headed Tanager, Black-tailed Tityra, and many lower and midlevel insect-eaters. (Willis, 1979; Aleixo & Vielliard, 1995).

Coastal mountains capture onshore winds’ moisture, much of which falls as rain on ocean-facing slopes where orchids, bromeliads, and other epiphytes thrive. Inland-facing slopes support drier semi-deciduous forest.

Montane Forests

Lowland Forests

THIS IS A TYPICAL SECTION GOING FROM THE SÃO PAULORIO COASTAL LOWLANDS (RIGHT) TOWARDS MINAS GERAIS IN THE INTERIOR (LEFT).

Restingas

Mangroves

Atlantic Ocean 5

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, A MANGROVE WATERWAY

Mangroves Mangroves grow in the tidal mud of coastal areas where forest and ocean meet. Here, many species of commercially valuable fish and shellfish spend their early lifestages in sheltered, nutrient-rich waters before venturing offshore.

Valuable habitat. A single hectare of mangrove forest is estimated to yield approximately three-quarters of a ton of fish and shrimp for local fishing businesses each year. The value of this benefit to local communities has too often been overlooked as coastal development, industry, and illegal occupation usurp mangrove habitat. Those mangroves that remain are magical places to visit, with intricate waterways that meander through broadleafed thickets and bright red crabs scuttling up the exposed mesh of oyster-clad roots at low tide. Here you can see Yellow-crowned Night Heron, Little Blue Heron, and egrets feeding in the mudflats and nesting in the mangrove trees. You may spot ospreys plummeting into the water for fish. Some birds, like the Bicolored Conebill, are found only in this habitat. The spectacular Scarlet Ibis was thought to be extinct in southeast Brazil. Then, in the 1980s, a colony appeared in a most unlikely place, the highly polluted port of Cubatão. Now the species thrives in several areas along the São Paulo coast. 6

Scarlet Ibis Little Blue Heron Little Wood Rail

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, RESTINGA DE JURUBATIBA, RJ

Restingas The sandy plains of coastal Brazil harbor a varied type of vegetation known as restinga. Creeping plants grow sparsely on dunes, gradually becoming an impenetrable mass of shrubs. This gives way to picturesque woodland of low, twisted trees adorned in places with a colorful understory of terrestrial bromeliads. Finally the woodland becomes a lush, tall restinga forest.

Restingas vary. In São Paulo state, restinga forests

are wetter and often flooded, with tree branches laden with epiphytes (plants that ‘piggy back’ on trees for support). In Rio de Janeiro state, restingas are arid, cactusfilled landscapes along coastal lagoons. In Bahia, they often consist of clumps of small trees and shrubs amid a thin carpet of herbaceous vegetation.

Unique birds. The endangered Restinga Antwren occurs only along a small stretch of Rio’s coast, much of which is protected in Costa do Sol State Park. A tiny population of Black-hooded Antwrens, long thought extinct, was discovered in swampy restinga at Angra dos Reis in 1987. Different forms of restinga support particular bird species. Restingas, like mangroves, face myriad pressures from coastal development. Each patch of restinga is an almost unique mini-ecosystem. If we destroy one, we also destroy a bit of the restingas’ extraordinary diversity.

Restinga Antwren Red-tailed Amazon Brazilian Tanager 7

PHOTO: C. DA RIVA, UBATUBA, SP

Lowland Forests Rich rainforests. Lush forests grow in the hot, wet

lowlands of Brazil’s Atlantic seaboard. Once, immense 40-meter-tall trees adorned with epiphytes and flowering vines dominated the region. These giants now exist in only a few places. Remarkably the remaining lowland forests still harbor an enormous diversity of life. There are few other habitats in the world where so many species are so localized. Devastated in the past, the lowland forests (below 500 m) continue to face intense pressure from cattle grazing, banana plantations, and urban expansion, among other threats. To ameliorate this situation, landowners can create ecological corridors between the precious forest fragments that remain and keep their vibrant ecosystems viable.

Specialty species. Just as the species of lowland birds differ from those at higher elevations, so the selection changes as you move up the coast from the south. Azure Jays screech in the forest canopies and White-necked Hawks hunt in the lowland forests of Vale do Ribeira and Jureia in southern São Paulo state. Further up the coast at Ubatuba there are Brown-backed Parrotlets and Buff-throated Purpletufts. Northward, in Bahia and Espírito Santo, there are many highly localized rare species, such as Red-billed Curassow, Whitewinged Cotinga, and Hook-billed Hermit. 8

Red-browed Amazon Channel-billed Toucan Red-billed Curassow

PHOTO: V. CUNHA, VISCONDE DE MAUÁ, RJ

Montane Forests Mountain and forest vistas. The forested uplands of southeast Brazil’s coastal ranges offer stunning views across verdant slopes and valleys, explosions of pink, purple, or yellow blossoms depending on the season, and sometimes the blue hint of ocean far below. Climbing uphill, you will find that habitats and bird species vary with altitude. On a good day, you may find 100 or more kinds of birds. Mid-elevation forests. Nurtured by high humidity, the

lush forests found between 500 and 1,500 m above sea level (many of which are intact) are rich in palms, vines, bamboos, orchids, and bromeliads. The variety of bird species here is extraordinary (with 38 species of antbird alone). When bamboos are in seed, they attract nomadic specialists like Buffy-fronted Seedeater, Uniform Finch, and the elusive Purple-winged Ground Dove.

High-elevation forest. Further up the mountainside, above 1,500 m, you reach the low-growing elfin forest landscape of contorted trees loaded with dripping moss and lichens. Here you may hear the long, ethereal whistle of the Black-and-gold Cotinga ringing through the mist. Other characteristic species are Hooded Berryeater, Rufous-tailed Antbird, and Bay-chested and Buffthroated Warbling Finches.

Black-and-gold Cotinga Green-crowned Plovercrest Pileated Parrot 9

PHOTO: F. COLOMBINI, CAMPOS DO JORDÃO, SP

Araucaria Forests Elegant trees. The candelabra-like shapes of Araucaria angustifolia dominate the distinctive upland landscape where araucaria forest remains. This emblematic tree, with its mighty trunk pushing up through the canopy, is a living reminder of the araucaria forests that thrived in the southern hemisphere in the time of the dinosaurs. Felled extensively for its excellent timber during Brazil’s twentieth-century construction boom, the araucaria is now critically endangered. Mysterious forest. The dark, humid interior of an araucaria forest is an ethereal, almost magical place. The twisted Podocarpus trees covered with dense patches of lichens and mosses intermingle with ferns, orchids, and bromeliads. Araucaria seeds. Araucaria seeds (pinhão) are an important food for parrots, parakeets, porcupines, agoutis, and squirrels. Cooked pinhão is a favorite treat at southern Brazil’s midwinter festivals; however, excessive seed collection can threaten the survival of the vulnerable araucaria ecosystem. Good birding. Araucaria Tit-Spinetail is unique to this landscape. Other characteristic species found here include Mantled and White-rumped Hawks, Rusty-barred Owl, Vinaceous-breasted Amazon, Green-billed Toucan, Black-capped Piprites, and White-rimmed Warbler. 10

Araucaria Tit-Spinetail Vinaceous-breasted Amazon White-rumped Hawk

High-elevation Grasslands

PHOTO: F. VARRICCHIO, SERRA DOS ÓRGÃOS NP, RJ

The highest elevations of the coastal ranges and interior plateau of southeast Brazil are places of grand vistas and rocky outcrops, covered with grasses, herbaceous plants, and low shrubs. Many species of plants and several of birds are only found in these habitats. Highland meadows (campos de altitude) poke out of the forest atop the Serra do Mar and Mantiqueira ranges. Gray-backed Tachuris and Crested and Velvety Black Tyrants perch on low shrubs, while pairs of Itatiaia Spinetails may remain hidden in low brush nearby. Male Green-crowned Plovercrests gather to sing in leks among Chusquea bamboos. A Hellmayr’s Pipit may rise up, singing, to hover in short display flights.

Stone gardens. The rocky meadows (campos rup-

estres) of the highest plateaus and summits of the Espinhaço range of central Minas Gerais, and north into Bahia, comprise a habitat rich in endemic plants and animals found only in Brazil. Ecosystem specialists among the birds here are the spectacular Hyacinth Visorbearer, Cipó Canastero, and Pale-throated Serra Finch. These delicate high-altitude habitats with their rare vegetation are vulnerable to damage from fires, grazing, and tourist activity such as off-trail hiking, parking, and camping. Please take great care when visiting these beautiful sites.

Pale-throated Serra Finch Hyacinth Visorbearer Crested Black Tyrant 11

PHOTO: S. F. LINHARES, JATAÍ, SP

Semideciduous Forests Inland Atlantic forest. West of southeast Brazil’s

coastal mountain ranges lies the planalto, a vast plateau. Here, forests are semideciduous, with some trees dropping their leaves in autumn. Once, semideciduous forest interspersed with cerrado savanna covered the interior of São Paulo state and eastern Minas Gerais. Today, cattle ranches, plantations, and monoculture forests of eucalyptus or pine have taken its place, and it is unlikely that any primary forest remains. Remnant semideciduous forest has been fragmented into a few patches like the Serra da Cantareira, a miraculous survivor on the edges of sprawling São Paulo. Among the bird species that semideciduous forests support are the Three-toed Jacamar and Band-tailed Manakin. Larger forest remnants provide habitat for Black-fronted Piping Guan, Red-and-green Macaw, Rufous-capped Motmot, Tufted Antshrike, and Rio de Janeiro Antbird.

Mitigating isolation. Conservation of remaining forest patches is vital, but this alone will not protect the habitat-sensitive species that live here. By creating ecological corridors that connect and enlarge isolated forest fragments, we may increase the chance of local survival for many species. 12

Plush-crested Jay Surucua Trogon Three-toed Jacamar

Cerrados

PHOTO: P. DODONOV, SÃO CARLOS, SP

Savanna meets forest. There is no clear border between central Brazil’s cerrado habitats of open and wooded savanna and the Atlantic Forest. The landscapes meet in a patchy mosaic where cerrado intermingles with semideciduous forest. Cerrado vegetation grows in the more acidic soils where typical Atlantic Forest plants cannot survive. This intermingling brings central Brazil’s characteristic open-habitat fauna such as the Greater Rhea, Ocellated Crake, Blue-and-yellow Macaw, Cock-tailed Tyrant, Bearded Tachuri, Sharp-tailed Grass Tyrant, and White-rumped and Shrike-like Tanagers into parts of our region. Going fast. Like central Brazil’s cerrados, those of the southeast are under severe threat: they lie in the path of central São Paulo state’s most intensive production areas for sugarcane, citrus trees, and biofuel crops. With conversion of cerrado to agricultural use comes the loss of its characteristic species. Lesser Nothura and Campo Miner, whose main ranges lie in central Brazil’s cerrados, have not been seen at their ranges’ eastern edge in São Paulo state since the 1980s. The cerrados of the region must be saved. It would be a sad irony if the quest for ‘clean’ biofuel to combat climate change were to displace the cerrado ecosystem and all the precious life it supports.

Curl-crested Jay Black-throated Saltator Collared Crescentchest 13

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, RIO DE JANEIRO, RJ

Secondary Forest Whenever a forest clearing is left unused for some time, seeds lying dormant in the soil, deposited by animals or the wind, germinate and grow. They create capoeira, a young forest of spindly, ‘pioneer’ trees that shoot up quickly toward the light of the sun. As slower-growing larger trees emerge in the shade and take over the canopy, a more mature secondary forest takes shape. While never identical to primary forest, old secondary forest can look similar and support a great variety of species. Much of the beautiful forest in the parks of southeast Brazil that appears to be primary forest may actually be secondary growth, some of it hundreds of years old.

Valuable for birds. Many birds depend on capoeira,

especially in farmed areas. Gray-fronted Dove, Squirrel Cuckoo, White-spotted Woodpecker, Rufous Gnateater, and Southern Antpipit all colonize nascent forest.

Effective reforestation. Regeneration is a natural pro-

cess, but we can accelerate it by planting a mixture of native trees from surrounding areas to create a diverse and revitalized ecosystem. With time, vibrant forests return and provide habitat for many dozens of bird species and other life forms.

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Planalto Hermit Rufous Gnateater White-bellied Warbler

PHOTO: D. BUCCI, RED-LEGGED SERIEMA SHARES PASTURE WITH CATTLE

Farms The traditional fazendas or ranches of southeast Brazil are excellent places to begin birdwatching. Made up of a variety of habitats – pasture, cropland, orchards, gardens, capoeiras, marshes, and forest patches – these landscapes harbor dozens of bird species that have acclimated to the presence of human activity. Some of these birds – Burrowing Owl, Southern Lapwing, Guira Cuckoo, Rufous Hornero, Tropical Kingbird – are generalists found in almost every non-forest habitat in southeast Brazil, natural or man-made. Others, such as Roadside Hawk, Blue-winged Parrotlet, Great Kiskadee, Common Tody-flycatcher, and Creamy-bellied and Pale-breasted Thrushes, originally inhabited the forest edge. Still others (Red-legged Seriema, Curl-crested Jay, and Narrow-billed Woodcreeper) have established themselves in farm landscapes that resemble their disappearing cerrado habitats.

Diversity matters. Farmlands managed with a mix of

crops, pasture, and native vegetation are more beneficial for wildlife and people than vast monocultures that create barren landscapes through excessive use of herbicides and pesticides. Farms with diverse habitats also support thriving populations of pollinating insects and bees that are essential to sustainable agriculture and healthy ecosystems.

Blue-winged Parrotlet Campo Flicker Saffron Finch 15

PHOTO: G. SERPA, BIRDWATCHERS IN RIO DE JANEIRO, RJ

Cities Urban birds. There are plenty of birds in Brazilian cities, in parks, yards, tree-lined streets, flying overhead, and many cities now have birding clubs. A surprising number of species occupy the tall trees of parks. Looking carefully, birders may even find 100 or more species over time in urban residential areas. Some birds flourish in cities. The Great Kiskadee, for example, will eat almost anything including scraps of table-food; its unmistakable call (“Bem-ti-vi!”) is a familiar sound in most neighborhoods. Rufous-bellied Thrush, Sayaca Tanager, Bananaquit, and Swallow-tailed Hummingbird will appear quickly on your balcony and in your garden if you leave out fruit scraps or set up a feeder near sheltering vegetation.

Plant native trees. Remember that birds of this re-

gion are part of a complex food web including plants, insects, and much more. If we enhance our cityscapes by planting many varieties of native vegetation, we will also provide a more welcoming environment for a variety of bird species.

Urban-dwellers need nature, too. Nature matters

just as much to people as it does to birds. An unrelieved landscape of concrete and an environment of polluted air and water are harmful to our physical and mental health, our quality of life, and our spiritual well-being.

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Plain Parakeet Squirrel Cuckoo Roadside Hawk

How many urban birds can you find?

Southern House Wren

Most cities of southeast Brazil share similar groups of bird species. Some of the most common are listed below.

Ruddy Ground Dove Bananaquit

Swallow-tailed Hummingbird

Sayaca Tanager

Rufous-collared Sparrow Blue-and-white Swallow

Pale-breasted Thrush

Shiny Cowbird

Eared Dove

Rufous-bellied Thrush

Palm Tanager House Sparrow

Explore more! After you have seen most of these

birds (and perhaps more) in your neighborhood, go to city parks to find other species. Take a trip to farms that have forest and cerrado habitats to find more variety. To see even more species, visit national and state parks, and other protected areas, where extensive native vegetation is home to hundreds of species.

Great Kiskadee 17

PHOTO: PULSAR, SOOTY TERNS, TRINDADE ISLAND, ES

Islands and Ocean The coastline of southeast Brazil is dotted with hundreds of islands.

Forested islands. There are still areas of well-preserved forest and extensive areas of restinga on several large islands not far offshore. Separated from the mainland by only narrow stretches of water, they are wonderful places for birdwatching. On islands such as Ilha Grande, Ilhabela, Ilha Comprida, and Ilha do Cardoso you will find almost as many species as in mainland forest. Rocky islands. In contrast, small inaccessible rocky islands, some of which are visible from the famous beaches of southeast Brazil, host important breeding colonies of seabirds. At one time the Brazilian navy used Alcatrazes Island, an important nesting site, for target practice; hopefully this will never happen again. The Abrolhos Archipelago. Brazil’s first marine national park, off the coast of southern Bahia, is an important breeding and calving area for Humpback Whales that migrate up the coast each year from the Antarctic. The archipelago also includes large breeding colonies of Redbilled Tropicbird, Brown Noddy, and Masked Booby that can be seen from boats that tour the park. The birds are best left undisturbed to avoid the risk of scaring them off and leaving their eggs vulnerable to predators. 18

Masked Booby Red-billed Tropicbird South American Tern

PHOTO: F. OLMOS WILSON’S STORM PETRELS, ALCATRAZES ARCHIPELAGO, SP PHOTO: F. OLMOS. SUBADULT ATLANTIC YELLOW-NOSED ALBATROSS, UBATUBA, SP

The open ocean. Many kinds of pelagic birds (species that live on the open sea) inhabit the Brazilian Atlantic. Seagoing birdwatchers can spot Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross year round, and Black-browed Albatross in winter. Smaller pelagic species include Spectacled Petrel, White-chinned Petrel, and Great Shearwater. Trindade Island, 1,200 km off the coast of Espírito Santo, is the only known breeding place for the endemic Trindade Petrel. Threats. The populations of some pelagic bird species are dwindling rapidly. The practice of long-line fishing, in which baited hooks suspended over several kilometers accidentally catch seabirds, has contributed significantly to their decline. Conservationists working with fishermen are attempting to reduce seabird mortality in Brazilian waters. Ocean pollution is another serious threat. A study

of one hundred pelagic birds found in Brazilian waters showed that all had been contaminated by particles of plastics and pesticide residues. Rapid growth of the offshore petroleum industry increases the risk of oil spills, another serious threat to seabirds. The exploitation of oil will be a poor investment if destroys the priceless resources of the ocean. Strict anti-pollution measures must be enforced. Rarely seen from land, albatrosses are one of the wonders of the open ocean. 19

Does the Kinglet Calyptura still exist?

PHOTO: T. ANDERSON. INSERT: G. TUDOR

Previously unknown species are still being found in the Atlantic Forest. In 1980, the Gray-winged Cotinga was discovered in high-elevation elfin forest west of Rio. The Restinga Antwren was first described in 1990. The Blackfaced Lion Tamarin, a monkey species new to science, remained undiscovered until 1990 in the coastal forests near São Paulo state’s southern border. And recently, a new species of antbird, the São Paulo Marsh Antwren, was found in cattail marsh between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, a region inhabited by millions of people.

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Black-faced Lion Tamarin was hiding from science near the coast.

Video finally captured the stunning Cherr y-throated Tanager in 2012. PHOTO: D. MATOSZKO, UBATUBA, SP

Not extinct, just hiding. Other species have ‘returned’ from apparent extinction. The Black-hooded Antwren, described in the nineteenth century, was lost until 1987. The beautiful Cherry-throated Tanager was known only from one 1870 museum specimen. A 1941 sighting hinted that it still existed, and a 1998 photo proved it. Now it is known from at least three places. The tiny Kinglet Calyptura may also still exist. Many were recorded during the nineteenth century; then the species vanished until a pair was seen in 1996 in the foothills of Serra dos Órgãos. Birdwatchers in Brazil and abroad eagerly hope that it will reappear.

VIDEO: C. ALBANO, VARGEM ALTA, ES

The Mysteries Around Us

Birdwatchers are finding sites forrare Brown-backed Parrotlets.

Bellbirds have little lowland habitat left.

PHOTO: M. SCORZELLI, RIO DE JANEIRO, RJ. INSERT: R. SILVA E SILVA PHOTO: M. ARGEL, RIO DE JANEIRO, RJ

Everyday mysteries. When you start looking at birds

near home, you will notice more species and begin to ask questions about them. What birds will come to bananas hung on the balcony? Will Ashy-tailed Swifts reappear on the same week this year as last? Will unusual species show up unexpectedly? For instance, bellbird populations may be in trouble, with both their lowland and upland habitats disappearing, but wandering young birds show up in urban parks, even in Rio and São Paulo. Where are they going? Biodiversity islands remain in cities built where wild forests used to grow.

PHOTO: B. LIMA, PERUÍBE, SP

Unraveling these small mysteries can provide personal joys, but can also be useful to science, particularly if observations are recorded over long periods. The more we understand birds’ needs and distributions the more we can protect them.

It’s not too late. Although we have not yet identified

every life-form in the Atlantic Forest, we are starting to understand what we can do to ensure the survival of many. Several birds are on the verge of extinction here. Hence birders are looking for unrecorded sites for Harpy Eagles, Red-billed Curassows and Stresemann’s Bristlefront, all known from just a few scattered places. Can more populations be found? It may be perilously late to save some rare species, but it is still possible to protect most native flora and fauna if we take action.

Life-sized decoys lured Scarlet Ibis back to a mangrove site in São Paulo state. 21

Cage-bird trapping has devastated populations of wild Amazons.

Protecting Parrots Three magnificent parrot species unique to southeast Brazil are threatened with extinction. We have the knowledge to protect them if we want to.

Vinaceous-breasted Amazon

The Vinaceous-breasted Amazon’s stronghold lies in montane forests, extending into capoeiras, rural properties with tall trees, and even pine and eucalyptus plantations. Once found from south Bahia to Argentina, this parrot’s habitat is now mostly gone. In our region, the best place to see this specialty is Campos do Jordão. The Red-browed Amazon lives north of Rio de Janeiro in rare large patches of lowland forest, and areas of combined forest, capoeira, and small farms. Protected in several locations, including Reserva da Vale, Sooretama, and Rio Doce and Desengano State Parks, it is under heavy pressure from loss of forests. No one knows how many remain; learning more about their distribution will help us protect them. Only about 6,700 Red-tailed Amazons can be found along a short stretch of the south coast. Most nest and roost on wooded islands, flying to the mainland to find food in tall restinga and lowland forest. With fewer large trees with nest cavities, this species needs our help. Its habitat is already depleted; new encroaching coastal development poses further severe threats to its survival. 22

Red-browed Amazon Red-tailed Amazon Each of these Atlantic Forest endemics tends to live in different habitat, with Vinaceous-breasted at higher elevations, and Red-browed and Red-tailed in lowlands.

PHOTO: L. LIMA, CAMPOS DO JORDÃO, SP. INSERT: L. S. FITORRA PHOTO: W. WITTKOFF

These amazons are often found in fragments of forest under tremendous pressure from urban and agricultural encroachments. Frequently parrot nestlings are taken for pets, or adults have nowhere to nest.

We can bring back our parrots. Flocks of wild ama-

What parrots need. Breeding pairs need places to nest, either cavities in big trees or nest boxes. Boxes can be placed in smaller trees, which enables nesting in secondary forest. All nests must be out of reach of human nest-thieves. Amazons do not seem to need pristine forest, but they need a year-round supply of fruit from a variety of native trees. People can make a difference. When one neighborhood decides to protect an area with a parrot nest, others are inspired to do the same. When we protect habitat for amazons or other large birds we are protecting dozens of other species of birds, frogs, and mammals, hundreds of native plants, and thousands of invertebrates.

Vinaceous-breasted Amazons at their nest box. PHOTO: A. SAIDENBERG

zons can be restored to many areas where they once occurred. Elsewhere, parrot recoveries have had great success. In the Pantanal the efforts of local people and scientists brought Hyacinth Macaws back from near extinction. This could also work with wild amazons in the Atlantic Forest. Even Red-and-green Macaws could be brought back with programs to reintroduce captive birds.

What food does a wild parrot need? Field researchers provide answers. 23

Juçara palm trees are harvested whole, depriving birds of a vital fruit source. PHOTO: L. SOUTO, CHANNEL-BILLED TOUCAN

Heart of the Forest Food for birds, and more. Juçara is a slender palm that grows in wild forest, producing abundant clumps of nutritious, purple-black fruit after six years’ growth. Toucans, cotingas, guans, bellbirds, tanagers, and many mammals rely on it, especially when other fruit is scarce. They eat the fruit whole, digesting the nutritious part. Intact seeds pass through the digestive system or are regurgitated. If dropped in a suitable spot the seed can re-sprout, providing a naturally sustainable food source.

A regurgitating toucan often ‘plants’ juçara seeds.

A single jar of juçara palm heart (barely enough for a salad or pizza) requires the killing of an entire tree. Regularly harvested areas can be stripped quickly and completely of this endangered tree, eliminating a vital nutrition source from many mammal and bird species’ diets. This juçara story illustrates how our own behavior, even in cities, can have profound, if unintended, consequences on wild habitats. Fifty-plus bird species eat juçara fruit. 24

PHOTO: L. SOUTO, YELLOW-LEGGED THRUSH

Cut too young. Most juçara never bear fruit. Poachers illegally cut huge numbers of young palms (palmitos) from the wild to sell the prized heart of palm, the succulent tissue in the growing-point of the trunk. Heart of palm is a favorite food in Brazil and worldwide, and its illegal extraction brings fast profits.

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, RESENDE, RJ. INSERT: J. PETAR, RED-RUFFED FRUITCROW

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, ITATIAIA, RJ

Be a smart consumer. Even if you live in an urban area you can act to protect wild Brazil. As most juçara palmito products are illegally extracted in the wild, learn to eat farm-grown palmitos such as pupunha or açaí. If your palmito is not labeled as legal and sustainable, don’t buy it. Provide alternatives. You can support projects that enable local communities to earn income from sustainable sources. Initiatives such as Projeto Juçara in the Ubatuba region and the Instituto Socioambiental in Vale do Ribeira support local incomes from sustainable harvesting of juçara fruit rather than the whole tree. Juçara fruit is just as nutritious and delicious as fruit of the açaí, its close cousin from the Amazon, known internationally for its health benefits. Our actions impact nature. This story of the juçara is just one example of the impact of our choices, both good and bad. What we eat, how we build, our sources of energy, and our methods of waste disposal all affect the ecosystems on which we depend, even if they are far away. Smarter choices will lead to a brighter future for people and the natural world. We can choose to protect riverside vegetation and our cities’ water sources. 25

Don’t our children deserve safe, clean water?

PHOTO: H. PALO, RIO BETARI, SP

Many believe that environmental protection impedes progress. That belief disregards evidence that natural ecosystems provide basic services on which human society relies. Such services include natural processes of water filtration, erosion control, and cleansing of the atmosphere, among others. Even as cities run out of clean water, some Brazilian legislators are trying to reduce protection of riverside forests that protect watersheds! But cutting forests releases carbon, depletes soil, and destabilizes the climate.

Forests filter pollution from water and air. City trees

PHOTO: L. LIMA, CANTAGALO, RJ

Ecosystem Services

Too-tiny habitat patches provide minimal ecosystem ser vices PHOTO: T. TOLÊDO EARED PYGMY-TYRANT

cool and moisten air, reducing some harmful impacts of climate change. Vegetation on hillsides protects against landslides. Crops depend on pollination by birds, bats, and insects, whose very survival requires the existence of healthy ecosystems.

Now or later? Protecting wild habitats and the benefits

they provide is an excellent investment for the future. The pressure of economic expansion based on unbridled exploitation of natural resources endangers the existence of the very ecosystem services that we depend on. The future cost of repairing our environment will be much higher than the cost of protecting it now.

26

In our busy lives, we forget our impact on other denizens of our planet.

Rio’s original forest? It was actually replanted by hand.

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, TIJUCA FOREST, RJ

Need for More Wild Habitat

Connecting tiny forests. Isolation tends to lead to spe-

Fewer than fifteen Stresemann’s Bristlefronts may exist today.

BLUE-NAPED CHLOROPHONIA

cies’ extinction, so it is critical to create corridors that link and enlarge isolated habitats. Larger areas harbor more diversity, improve the likelihood of species’ survival in the face of environmental catastrophes, disease, or fire, and allow for movement in search of food and breeding opportunities.

Reforestation. Almost 250 Brazilian organizations have joined the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact, aiming to restore more than a million hectares by 2020. The strategy is to encourage landowners to protect and revive forests on their own properties. Few people know that Rio’s Tijuca Forest was replanted in the mid-nineteenth century to protect the city’s watershed. That forest is now old and wild enough to have ecological value, supporting relationships between species. Today Tijuca Forest is a model for the creation of twentyfirst century ecological corridors, as well as an important green space for city dwellers.

STRESEMANN’S BRISTLEFRONT

Today much of the Atlantic Forest consists of hundreds of thousands of fragments surrounded by intensive agriculture areas or cities. Almost all are privately owned and many are too small and isolated to guarantee the longterm survival of habitat specialty birds and other species.

Eco-corridors between elevations help vertical migrants, including chlorophonias. 27

Privately-owned REGUA is replanting new lowland forests. PHOTO: C. DA RIVA

Creating New Reserves Extraordinary efforts by NGOs, Brazilian private companies, and individuals are creating and connecting forests all over the Atlantic Forest region, supplementing the government’s limited activities.

Reserva Ecológica de Guapiaçu (REGUA), in Rio de

Janeiro state, is an inspired non-profit organization that buys land and replants native lowland forest. Its new forests connect directly to adjacent upland Três Picos State Park so birds can eventually migrate vertically from the mountains to the lowlands each year. REGUA works with local communities, provides environmental education, and trains bird guides at its birding lodge (www.regua. co.uk). Over 450 species are recorded here, a hundred of which are found only in the Atlantic Forest. RPPN Serra Bonita, is a complex of privately owned protected areas in one of the last significant remnants of moist submontane forest in south Bahia. Managed by Instituto Uiraçu, the reserve generates income from a bird lodge and other sustainable activities to help fund restoration, park patrols, and other conservation actions (www.uiracu.org.br).

Fundação Grupo Boticário de Proteção à Natureza

is protecting 5500 acres of forest, Reserva Natural Salto Morato in nearby Paraná, with 300 bird species already recorded. 28

Private nature reser ves (RPPN) are gaining momentum, with more than 762 established in the Atlantic Forest alone. Some landowners are creating ecotourism sites where visitors can restore their connections with nature and benefit from its calming powers.

PHOTO: L. C. MARIGO, REGUA, RJ ARCHITECTURE: BOERI STUDIO

IPÊ (Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas) has created the

largest continuous reforestation corridor in Brazil, with 1.4 million planted trees forming a 1700-acre link between two important remnants of semideciduous forest in western São Paulo.

Fibria protects important areas in the highly sensitive zone of south Bahia and north Espírito Santo. Its Fazenda Alcoprado protects the Hook-billed Hermit, probably Brazil’s scarcest hummingbird. There, field research brings good news: this bird can traverse eucalyptus plantations adjacent to native vegetation. SOS Mata Atlântica creates widespread public awareness about vanishing nature and supports many efforts to find sustainable economic alternatives involving conservation and local benefits.

Votorantim supports 76,000-acre Legado das Águas in south São Paulo, the largest privately owned Atlantic Forest reserve in Brazil. Amazingly 90% of it is primary forest. What more can we do? No matter where we live, we can join in conservation efforts like those described above and throughout this chapter.

What do we have to lose? Imagine the future with

your city completely covered in concrete under clouds of polluted air. Now imagine it green – filled with parks, an extension of its natural surroundings – and alive with birds and birdsong. The answer is obvious.

Imagine cities where planted buildings cool and clean the air and wild birds can return. 29

Species Accounts

SERIEMAS (Cariamidae) are large, very long-legged and long-tailed birds typical of the cerrado but now also found in open agricultural terrain.

RED-LEGGED SERIEMA Cariama cristata

89-94 cm|35-37”

Fairly common and widespread (for such a large bird) in cerrado, campos, and extensive agricultural areas (where it especially favors large pastures). To 2000 m (Itatiaia). Originally a bird of Brazil’s interior, subsequent to deforestation seriemas moved into many coastal lowland areas, though they always avoid populated areas. Unmistakable and very large, with extremely long legs and heavy hooked bill reddish. Conspicuous long-feathered and upstanding frontal crest. Iris pale brownish gray, with some pale blue skin around eye; one of the few birds to have eyelashes. Brownish gray above with faint darker vermiculations; grayish white below with some narrow white streaking. Outer tail feathers broadly white-tipped; in flight shows boldly black-and-white banded flight feathers. The seriema cannot possibly be confused with anything else; it has an oddly prehistoric look. It sometimes looks quite brown due to staining from dust and soil. Seen singly or in pairs, seriemas stride through open country in search of prey, usually large insects, rodents, lizards, and frogs; they are also reputed to eat many snakes, but do not consume carrion. Sometimes one will make a quick flight to take a commanding view from a fence post or low tree, slipping back to the ground when disturbed or even if just nervous. Typically wary, it walks away once you get too close, running if really pressed, but only rarely do they flush and fly off. A signature bird of the cerrado and open country. Unlike so many large birds the seriema has adapted well to the recent changes across its homeland, and seems not to be persecuted (perhaps because of its supposed fondness for killing snakes). Somewhat surprisingly, seriemas are very vocal, with a memorable call that often is one of the first bird sounds greeting the dawn. Their loud yelping call, given by both sexes (sometimes even as a duet), is a long series of strident notes that gradually fade away, e.g., “kyup-kyúp-kyup-kyup-kyupkyup-kyo-kyo-kyo-kyo.” RHEAS (Rheidae) are ratites, an ancient flightless group of birds that includes the ostriches, emus, and kiwis found in Africa, Australia, and New Zealand respectively. The two species of rheas, whose fossil ancestors lived more than 40 million years ago, are South America’s heaviest birds.

GREATER RHEA Rhea americana

145-160 cm|57-63”

Uncommon and now very local in campos, cerrado, and open agricultural areas (mainly very large pastures) in interior São Paulo and adjacent Minas Gerais. 300-1200 m (Serra da Canastra). Apparently never found in the coastal lowlands, that region having been too extensively forested for them. One of Brazil’s iconic birds, numbers in our area have declined due to habitat alteration and destruction. Mostly 500-1200 m. Unmistakable, as by far our largest and heaviest bird; flightless. Very long legs grayish and unfeathered; iris pale. Mostly gray. Neck very long, its basal half and the breast blackish in , more or less uniform gray in the smaller . Feathers of upperparts loose and floppy, almost forming a bustle over rear parts; has no tail. Ranges almost entirely in open areas, though sometimes into woodland edge. Rheas occur principally in small groups but sometimes in larger ones composed mainly of young birds. They walk along slowly, feeding as they go on a variety of plants, insects, and small vertebrates. Rather wary, they always keep a considerable distance between themselves and the observer, moving away almost imperceptibly as they are approached. Startled at close range, a rhea will lower its neck and rapidly zigzag away, raising wings and shuffling its feathers. s incubate and care for the young alone, with a harem of several s laying eggs in a large nest hidden in tall grass, up to 20-30 in a single nest. After a few days – the eggs hatch more or less synchronously – chicks follow their father around for several months, a wonderful sight indeed. Rheas vocalize only rarely, but breeding s make a deep booming sound somewhat akin to a cow’s bellow or even a lion’s roar.

BI

33

RED-LEGGED SERIEMA SERIEMA

GREATER RHEA EMA

TINAMOUS (Tinamidae) Plump, terrestrial birds that range in both forested and semiopen areas. They vocalize frequently, mostly the males, and are heard far more often than seen. DWARF TINAMOU Taoniscus nanus EN

LESSER NOTHURA Nothura minor EN

14-15 cm|5.5-6”

Now rare and very local in grassy cerrado and campo sujo in N São Paulo and adjacent Minas Gerais. All São Paulo records are old, but this tiny and inconspicuous tinamou could [easily] be overlooked; endangered by widespread habitat conversion to agriculture. 500-1200 m. Iris yellow; legs dull yellowish. Above rufous brown, barred and scaled whitish, paler below; breast and flanks barred blackish. In flight primaries uniformly blackish (unlike the nothuras, no pale barring). Recognize this smallest of the tinamous by its tiny size, but beware other tinamous’ chicks! Cf. also Ocellated Crake. Favors tall grass, only very rarely emerging to feed at roadsides. Insect-like song easily overlooked, a succession of high-pitched, cricket-like “teerirre tititi” and “tii” notes, given mainly at dawn and dusk. 18-19 cm|7-7.5”

Very rare and local in cerrado and campo sujo in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. Most or all records are old; obviously endangered by widespread habitat conversion (apparently it requires large areas of prime habitat). 5001200 m. Iris yellow; legs yellowish. Above rufescent brown with blackish chevrons and white streaking; crown rufous brown. Below ochraceous buff, foreneck streaked brown. Much more numerous Spotted Nothura is larger (often hard to judge) and less rich ochraceous below with a whiter throat. Pale barring on Lesser’s primaries is less evident when flushed. Lesser Nothura apparently never occurs in agricultural areas, where Spotted can be numerous. Behavior of the two similar, though Lesser rarely leaves its favored tall grass. Like Dwarf Tinamou, hides and escapes fires by slipping into armadillo holes. Song, given especially late in afternoon, a series of high-pitched, piping notes at varying paces (higher-pitched than Spotted’s).

SPOTTED NOTHURA Nothura maculosa

24-26 cm|9.5-10.25”

Fairly common and widespread in campos, cerrado, and pastures in agricultural terrain; most numerous in interior, though some now range in coastal lowlands. To at least 1200 m. Iris yellow; legs yellowish. Above brown with blackish chevrons and white streaking; crown blacker. Below buff with blackish streaking and barring; throat whiter. Some birds are paler, others darker, and some are merely stained by reddish soil. In flight primaries barred yellowish buff. The most frequently seen member of its family; cf. the much scarcer Lesser and White-bellied Nothuras. Seen singly, less often in pairs, regularly in fields or standing in roads and sometimes quite tame. Flushed birds burst up underfoot and fly off, scaling away on set wings after rapid wingbeats. Typical song a series of 6-10 clear, well-enunciated “prip” notes followed by several faster notes that descend and fade away. Also gives a simpler musical trill, also high-pitched.

WHITE-BELLIED NOTHURA Nothura boraquira

27-28 cm|10.5-11”

RED-WINGED TINAMOU Rhynchotus rufescens

40-42 cm|15.75-16.5”

Uncommon in grassy areas and pastures in NE Minas Gerais and S Bahia, having recently spread from NE Brazil caatinga. To at least 700 m. Iris yellow, legs bright yellow (much brighter than in Spotted Nothura). Above like Spotted Nothura. Below buffy whitish, foreneck and breast streaked brown and blackish, with midbelly whitish. Spotted Nothura is slightly smaller, buffier below (especially on belly), and its legs are duller yellow. White-bellied’s behavior similar to Spotted, though it favors less altered terrain. Song a leisurely series of sweet whistles, almost random in pitch, e.g., “pseeu pii” (at times recalling a Striped Cuckoo), very different from Spotted’s. Fairly common and widespread in campos, cerrado, and larger agricultural area; mainly found inland, but has spread into some formerly forested areas nearer coast. To at least 2100 m (Itatiaia) but usually below 1500 m. Large and long-necked, with yellow iris and dusky-olive legs. Face, neck, and breast cinnamon-buff with blackish crown and white throat. Above brown scaled blackish and white. Belly buffy whitish, flanks scaled darker. In flight shows large rufous area in primaries. Much larger than the nothuras, Red-wingeds favor tall grass where they are heard far more often than seen, though regularly spotted on roadsides and in fields. Prefers to run when alarmed, but when pressed flushes with a great roar of wings, often flying a long way. Song one of the classic sounds of the cerrado, a far-carrying musical phrase “plee-dip, deer, deer.”

35 DWARF TINAMOU INHAMBU-CARAPÉ

LESSER NOTHURA CODORNA-MINEIRA

SPOTTED NOTHURA CODORNA-COMUM

WHITE-BELLIED NOTHURA CODORNA-DO-NORDESTE

RED-WINGED TINAMOU PERDIZ

SOLITARY TINAMOU Tinamus solitarius

43-45 cm|17-17.75”

UNDULATED TINAMOU Crypturellus undulatus

25.5-28 cm|10 -11”

YELLOW-LEGGED TINAMOU Crypturellus noctivagus

25.5-28 cm|10-11”

Rare to locally uncommon on ground in humid and montane forest from S Bahia to S São Paulo; now scarce anywhere in Bahia, and relatively more numerous in São Paulo (where it also occurs in araucaria forest). Has declined due to hunting and deforestation, and now essentially extirpated from all inland São Paulo and apparently even from Itatiaia. To 1200 m. Our largest tinamou. Iris large and dark; bill blackish; legs gray. Grayish brown with buffyish throat and stripe from behind eye down neck; faintly scaled darker on wings, lower back, and rump. Somewhat grayer on breast, buffier on belly with some dark barring. Looks uniform aside from the neck stripe; can be identified on the basis of large size alone. A reclusive, shy bird of heavy forest, rarely emerging into the open though occasionally spotted while walking along or near a little-used road or trail. Except when breeding usually seen alone. Upon your approach will either freeze or slowly walk away; if you’re too close, it may flush with a thunderous roar and rocket away. Song, apparently given by both sexes, a simple short whistled note, “whooo,” given at very long intervals (sometimes several minutes or more). When breeding also gives a beautiful tremulous “rrrrrrro.” CRYPTURELLUS tinamous are small to midsized members of their family, plump in shape and subdued in coloration, with browns and grays predominating. Shy and furtive, they are hard to see as they walk on the ground searching for fallen fruit and seeds, either in forest or woodland; they fly only rarely. All are best known from s’ distinctive vocalizations. The alone raises the young, several s having contributed their beautiful, highly glossed eggs to his clutch. Uncommon on ground in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland in N São Paulo and SW Minas Gerais. 300-900 m. Iris reddish brown; bill grayish; legs yellowish olive. Above plain brownish gray with blackish vermiculations. Below pale grayish, foreneck with vermiculations, becoming more rufescent on belly, especially on crissum. Uniform-looking, without obvious field marks; usually identified from its distinctive voice (though seeing one sing is rare). Tataupa Tinamou is smaller, pink-billed, etc. Shy, though seen more often than many tinamous, sometimes even walking on trails or along road edges. Now coming to be fed at a few places. Frequently heard song a series of whistled notes with distinctive cadence, “whooó, oo-whooóu,” inflected upward at end.

VU

Rare to uncommon and local on ground inside humid forest in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo, in Bahia also in semideciduous forest; has declined due to deforestation and poaching. To at least 700 m. Iris dark brown; bill blackish; legs greenish yellow (southward) to bright yellow (northward). Gray above with buff superciliary (conspicuous in birds from Bahia, though much less so southward), and dusky to blackish barring on mantle and wings; rump more rufous with bolder barring. Throat pale buff, chest gray, lower underparts buff with extensive black barring on flanks and crissum. Variegated Tinamou, also found in lowland forest, has a gray head, rufous foreneck and breast, and more boldly barred upperparts. Very shy and hard to see. Solitary Yellow-leggeds walk quietly on the forest floor, rarely lingering in the open. ’s distinctive song a slow, hollow sounding “whooo, whoo-o,“ repeated at long intervals.

VARIEGATED TINAMOU Crypturellus variegatus

25.5-28 cm|10-11”

Rare to uncommon and local inside humid forest in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. Below 200 m. Iris brown; bill blackish; legs yellow. Head gray with neck, upper back, and chest rich rufous; above otherwise blackish boldly barred with cinnamon-rufous. Lower underparts buffy whitish, flanks and crissum barred dusky. A handsome tinamou, easily recognized. Behavior much as in Yellow-legged Tinamou, and equally hard to observe, hardly ever leaving the forest interior. ’s beautiful song consists of a single long mournful whistled note followed by a pause and then 4-6 shorter notes that slide upward; higher-pitched than Yellow-legged’s song.

37

SOLITARY TINAMOU MACUCO

UNDULATED TINAMOU JAÓ

YELLOW-LEGGED TINAMOU JAÓ-ZABELÊ

N

VARIEGATED TINAMOU INHAMBU-ANHANGÁ

BROWN TINAMOU Crypturellus obsoletus

26-28 cm|10.25-11”

Fairly common on ground inside humid and foothill forest and woodland from Espírito Santo and E Minas Gerais to S São Paulo (formerly also further W); a few N into SE Bahia. Mostly 500-1800 m, locally to 2100 m (Serra dos Órgãos); occurs lower where forest remains. Iris orangey red; bill dusky; legs greenish yellow. Uniform dark grayish brown above with chestnut undertones. Head dark gray, throat gray. Below rich rufous-chestnut, lower flanks and crissum buffier and barred blackish. The typical tinamou of SE Brazil mountain forests. Cf. smaller Little Tinamou (only in lowlands). Shy and retiring and heard dozens of times for every time one is seen, though now being fed at a few places. Has several songs, all having a vibrant penetrating quality that recalls a police whistle. Most frequent is a short series of whistled notes, usually with brief pause after the first and then quickly rising, e.g., “tre-e-e, tree-tri-tri-tritri?” Another song lasts much longer and has many more fast rising notes.

LITTLE TINAMOU Crypturellus soui

23-24 cm|9-9.5”

Rare to uncommon and local in secondary woodland, humid forest borders, and shrubby regenerating clearings (including restinga) in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 800 m. Iris brown; bill dusky; legs olive. Grayish to rufescent brown above with distinctly grayer head. Throat pale grayish to whitish, chest dusky-olive; lower underparts ochraceous with obscure blackish barring on flanks and crissum. Females brighter and more rufescent. Small-billed Tinamou has pink bill and grayer underparts. Extremely furtive, rarely emerging from dense thickets and when discovered often just freezing. Heard far more often than seen, with song a series of clear tremulous whistles, each higherpitched than the previous, becoming louder before abruptly stopping. Also gives a slurred, quavering whistle that rises and then falls, e.g., “pee-ee-ee-yer-r-r.”

TATAUPA TINAMOU Crypturellus tataupa

23-24 cm|9-9.25”

Locally fairly common in semideciduous woodland and secondary woodland (including restinga) but absent from extensive forest. Locally to 1200 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Bill coral pink; legs dull purplish red. Head, neck, and breast gray, throat whitish. Above rufescent brown; belly pale grayish, flanks white with prominent black chevrons. Small-billed Tinamou is smaller, usually has dark-tipped bill and brighter pink legs. Little Tinamou is more rufescent and has a dusky bill. Devilishly hard to see, though on rare occasions will approach an imitation of its song. Song a descending series of whistled notes (like a policeman blowing his whistle), the first few longer and with longer intervening pauses, then accelerating and falling, e.g., “drreeyp? dreeyp? dreey dreey dreey dri dri-dridri-dridri-dru.” Also has a shorter version, “dreeyp? dreey-dri-dri-dru.”

SMALL-BILLED TINAMOU Crypturellus parvirostris

21-22cm|8.5-8.75”

Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in scrubby clearings, young second-growth, and tall grass virtually throughout (though scarce in Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo). Locally to 1400 m (Serra do Espinhaço). Bill coral pink usually with dusky tip; legs pink. Very like larger Tataupa Tinamou. Beyond voice and its smaller size, best distinguished by leg color (duller reddish in Tataupa); Small-billed’s shorter legs impart a “dumpier” look. Both are frequently heard but hard to see, occasionally noted while scurrying across a road or pausing at edge. Song starts with hesitant clear whistled notes, then accelerates and rises into a series of piping notes before descending into “churrs.” A shorter song consists of only two long trills. WOOD QUAILS (Odontophoridae) are terrestrial birds with variegated gray, brown, and rufous plumage that range in forest. Though seen only infrequently, in some places they are often heard.

SPOT-WINGED WOOD QUAIL Odontophorus capueira

26.5-29 cm|10.5-11.5”

Rare to locally uncommon on ground inside humid and montane forest (including araucaria) from S Bahia to S São Paulo (where now rare or extirpated in W). Declining due to deforestation and hunting. To 1600 m. Plump and short-tailed. Ocular area bright orange-pink; heavy grayish bill. Above brown mottled with black and buff; superciliary tawny-orange and expressive bushy crest rufous; profuse white spots on wings. Below mainly gray. Heard much more often than seen, walking on forest floor in pairs or groups (“coveys”) of up to 8-10 individuals, scratching in leaf litter. When discovered they scurry off or, if you’re lucky, crouch and freeze. Unmistakable melodic song, given especially around dusk, sometimes as a duet, a loud “koló-koló-koló…“ that can continue for half a minute or more.

39

BROWN TINAMOU INHAMBUGUAÇU

LITTLE TINAMOU TURURIM

TATAUPA TINAMOU INHAMBU-CHINTÃ

SMALL-BILLED TINAMOU INHAMBU-CHORORÓ

SPOT-WINGED WOOD QUAIL URU

CHACHALACAS, GUANS, & CURASSOWS (Cracidae) are large or mid-sized birds, superficially pheasant-like but plainer. They inhabit forest and woodland, and mainly are arboreal. Many species are heavily hunted, and thus in many areas are rare or even extirpated. ORTALIS chachalacas are the smallest cracids, and inhabit secondary growth and borders where their loud vocalizations attract attention. Both our species have a small patch of bare red skin on throat (often hardly visible), bluish dusky bills, and slaty facial skin; legs bluish gray. EAST BRAZILIAN CHACHALACA Ortalis araucuan

43-46 cm|17-18”

SCALED CHACHALACA Ortalis squamata

48-51 cm|19-20”

RUSTY-MARGINED GUAN Penelope superciliaris

61-66 cm|24-26”

DUSKY-LEGGED GUAN Penelope obscura

66-71 cm|26-28”

Rare to locally uncommon in secondary woodland, humid forest borders, shrubby clearings, and restinga from E Bahia to NE Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. To at least 800 m. Brown above, more rufescent on crown and nape and somewhat scaled grayish on mantle; tail bronzy brown, outer feathers rufouschestnut (mainly visible in flight). Foreneck and throat blackish conspicuously spotted and scaled white; lower underparts whitish to pale grayish, lower flanks and crissum rufescent. Scaled Chachalaca occurs well to the south (no overlap). Rusty-margined Guan is substantially smaller, etc. Occurs in small family groups. Generally shy, usually remaining in thick cover and seen while moving across an opening; where not hunted, however, can quickly become much tamer and easier to see, sometimes even coming to feeding stations. Though basically arboreal, it sometimes drops to the ground. Its raucous vocalizations are given especially around dawn, e.g., a repeated “krara-kakok, krara-kakok…,“ usually with more than one bird being involved in the cacophony. In alarm gives a “kree-kree-kree…,” often while flushing. By some considered conspecific with Speckled Chachalaca (O. guttata) of Amazonia; that has pink legs, etc. Has been called White-bellied Chachalaca (e.g., by H. Sick), despite that name in general use for a Middle American species, O. leucogastra.

Rare and very local in secondary woodland, restinga, and shrubby clearings in lowlands of extreme S São Paulo (at least at Ilha do Cardoso); also recent records from semideciduous forest in N São Paulo. To 500 m. Resembles East Brazilian Chachalaca (no overlap), but slightly larger, darker, and duller generally, especially on its brownish gray belly. East Brazilian Chachalaca occurs well to north (no overlap). Cf. also Rusty-margined Guan. Behavior as in East Brazilian Chachalaca: wary under hunting pressure, though tamer where protected and comes to feeders at a few places. Voice also similar. Like the East Brazilian has been treated as conspecific with Speckled Chachalaca. An alternate course might be to consider this and East Brazilian as conspecific, excluding Speckled. PENELOPE guans are forest-based cracids, larger than the chachalacas. Both our species have large red dewlaps, gray facial skin, and generally dark plumage. In many areas still hunted and thus shy and hard to see; where protected, guans become tamer and more numerous. The two seem not to occur together. Locally fairly common and relatively widespread in humid, semideciduous, and montane forest and woodland and borders (including restinga), locally also in parks and gardens; survives in surprisingly small forest patches. Locally to 2200 m in São Paulo, though mostly below 1500 m. Legs pinkish dusky. Mostly blackish brown with narrow whitish superciliary. Almost always shows rufescent edging on wing-coverts and inner wing feathers, and whitish chevrons on foreneck and breast feathers. Lower underparts browner. Resembles slightly larger Dusky-legged Guan, which differs in lacking rufescent edging on its wingcoverts and flight feathers, and in having grayer legs (no pinkish). Usually in pairs and small groups (group size can be larger where protected, such as in Rio’s Botanical Garden). Primarily arboreal, though drops to ground especially when feeding. Hops with surprising grace and agility from branch to branch and also walks on larger horizontal limbs. Guans feed on fruit from a variety of trees and give various harsh guttural honking calls, especially loud while flushing. Locally fairly common in humid and montane forest and woodland and borders from E Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to São Paulo (where scarcer and more local in W). Locally to 2250 m (Itatiaia). Legs dusky. Resembles slightly smaller Rusty-margined Guan but darker overall; differs most notably in lacking rufescent wing-edging and in having whitish streaking on mantle (this area plain in Rusty-margined); legs darker. Behavior and voice similar. Dusky-leggeds have become numerous and tame where protected (e.g., at Itatiaia and in parks around São Paulo city), coming to gardens and even yards where food (fruit or corn) is offered.

41

EAST BRAZILIAN CHACHALACA ARACUÃ-DE-BARRIGA-BRANCA

SCALED CHACHALACA ARACUÃ-ESCAMADO

RUSTY-MARGINED GUAN JACUPEMBA

DUSKY-LEGGED GUAN JACUGUAÇU

BLACK-FRONTED PIPING GUAN Pipile jacutinga

70-75 cm|27.5-29.5”

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland in S São Paulo; formerly much more widespread, with a distribution that extended N to S Bahia and much further inland along rivers in São Paulo. Locally to 1050 m. An unmistakable, strikingly plumaged guan, now sadly greatly reduced in numbers, especially by hunting; reintroductions are being attempted (e.g., at REGUA in Rio de Janeiro and Fazenda Macedônia (in Ipaba, Minas Gerais), though our best population is still at Intervales and adjacent areas. Bill pale blue with black tip; wide eye-ring white; large dewlap mostly bright red, blue toward front (apparently smaller when not breeding); legs coral pink. Mainly black with shaggy white crown and nape and a very conspicuous white patch on wing-coverts; sparse white streaking on breast and belly. This spectacular bird resembles no other. Found in at most small groups, the piping guan is almost entirely arboreal and can be quite conspicuous in the early morning when it frequently perches in the open, often in cecropias, but feeding a great deal on palm fruits. Seems quieter than the piping guans of Amazonia, but breeding birds in Sep-Oct occasionally give a distinctive wing-whirring display in which the bird glides downward between two trees while giving two mechanical rattles (created by vibrating flight feathers), a short one followed by a pause and then a longer one. Alarmed birds give a soft descending “pseeu.” Sometimes classified in genus Aburria. CRAX curassows are magnificent very large, partially terrestrial cracids. Tragically they are now much reduced in numbers due to excessive hunting and massive habitat destruction; they are among the most endangered Neotropical birds. Both our species have long recurved crown feathers that form an expressive bushy crest, in s revealing some white.

EN

RED-BILLED CURASSOW Crax blumenbachii CR

89-96.5 cm|35-38”

Rare and very local in humid forest and borders, often near small streams, in lowlands of N Espírito Santo, perhaps a few lingering in adjacent Bahia and Minas Gerais; formerly much more widespread, with a distribution that extended S to Rio de Janeiro and N into SE Bahia. To 500 m (perhaps only formerly). ’s bill black with red knob and small wattles on side; ’s bill dusky bluish with yellowish tip. black with white belly. blackish above and on foreneck with rufescent vermiculations on flight feathers. Belly rufous. Not to be confused: the Bare-faced Curassow occurs nowhere near it. Occurs in pairs, less often small family groups, that when feeding walk about on forest floor, coming out to edge, and even to clearings, where not persecuted. Where populations persist – now mainly at a few sites around Linhares – can be relatively tame, though normally very wary. They subsist on a wide variety of fruits and nuts, most often picking these up from the ground. Breeding s give a very low-pitched booming song that carries far but is hard to follow to its source. Both sexes give a squealing “heeyr” in alarm, and also various clucks. One can only hope that the various attempts underway to reestablish populations of this elegant bird will achieve lasting success.

BARE-FACED CURASSOW Crax fasciolata

86-94 cm|34-37”

Rare and local in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland in N São Paulo and adjacent Minas Gerais. To 800 m (São Carlos). has cere and base of bill yellow, ’s bill dusky; has dusky legs, in yellowish or pinkish. black with white belly and white-tipped tail feathers. blackish above with narrow white barring except on neck; tail white-tipped. Belly buff. The only curassow in its range, hence essentially unmistakable. As with the Redbilled Curassow, numbers of the equally elegant Bare-faced have been much reduced by hunting and habitat destruction; however at least this species has a large range and therefore is not endangered. Behavior of the two similar. ’s song a deep low booming, “oom, oom, boo-boóp, boo-boo-boó.” Nervous birds also give various squealing calls.

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BLACK-FRONTED PIPING GUAN JACUTINGA

RED-BILLED CURASSOW MUTUM-DO-SUDESTE

BARE-FACED CURASSOW MUTUM-DE-PENACHO

SCREAMERS (Anhimidae) are very large, goose-like waterbirds, related to ducks, with heavy legs that

are conspicuous but local in marshy and flooded areas, there walking on the ground or floating vegetation, also perching in low trees. A sharp spur protrudes from the bend of wing.

HORNED SCREAMER Anhima cornuta

84-91.5 cm|33-36”

Uncommon and local in marshes and around lakes and ponds in the interior. Formerly more widespread, and now most numerous in W and N São Paulo (there spreading due to new dams) and E Minas Gerais. Locally to 900 m. Unmistakable. Small iris yellow; heavy legs grayish. Mainly glossy black, feathers of crown and especially foreneck broadly edged silvery whitish; belly white. In flight wings long and broad, showing a large silvery white patch on wing-coverts (marginally visible on perched birds). A long slender whitish “horn” (actually a feather shaft) springs from forehead, arching forward. Pairs stand around on grassy areas near water or in low trees, also on marshy ground, sometimes perching on shrubs and trees. Often wary, especially where still hunted. Flushes ponderously, seeming to struggle to get aloft, but also can soar high, almost resembling a huge vulture. Herbivorous, screamers graze on leaves and the roots of aquatic plants. Powerful voice, audible for several kilometers and certainly not a scream, a deep, throaty “guu-uulp, güü” uttered by perched birds, often interspersed with honking and gulps. Southern Screamer (Chauna torquata) has wandered recently to N and E São Paulo. Equally large as Horned Screamer, Southern differs in being mainly gray with a curled crest and an obvious black and white “choker” around neck. Legs and facial skin coral pink. DUCKS & SWANS (Anatidae) are familiar aquatic birds with webbed feet and dense waterproof plumage occurring widely on lakes, ponds, and marshes (though many species are rare). Most are strong fliers, some being migratory from the south.

BLACK-NECKED SWAN Cygnus melancoryphus

104-122 cm|41- 48”

Casual austral winter visitant to marsh-fringed ponds and lakes near coast of S São Paulo (Iguape). Unmistakable. Extremely large, s bigger than s. Legs and conspicuous red caruncles at base of bill red (bigger in s). Adult pure white with contrasting black head and neck; a variable amount of white around eye. Juveniles are more brownish, but head and neck already contrastingly darker. Stately and beautiful, this swan is numerous in far-southern Brazil and is prone to wandering. Sometimes even rests on the ocean. It feeds by extending the long neck under water, pulling up submerged aquatic plants. Except when breeding, gregarious. Rather noisy in flight, taking off after pattering on the surface for a long distance, the long neck outstretched.

MUSCOVY DUCK Cairina moschata

76-84 cm|30-33” 68.5-73.5|27-29”

Widespread but generally uncommon (usually less numerous in more populated areas, though a few occur around São Paulo city) around lakes, ponds, marshes, and rivers; locally also in mangroves. Locally to 1200 m (Serra da Canastra). Bill mixed blackish and pink, legs black; has red caruncles at base of bill. glossy greenish black with slight bushy crest; in flight shows white upper- and underwing-coverts, white more extensive in older birds. markedly smaller; lacks crest, shows less white in wing. Juveniles are blackish with little or no gloss; white in wing reduced or absent. Nearly unmistakable, though juvenile might be taken for a cormorant; cf. also Comb Duck (white underparts, etc.). Confusion most likely with domesticated Muscovies (which sometimes range far from houses), though these generally show scattered white feathers in their plumage. Unlike their ungainly domestic brethren, wild Muscovies are elegant, alert, wary birds, flying heavily but strongly. They graze on short grass and also dabble in shallow water, associating with other waterfowl only infrequently. Muscovies perch freely in trees, and usually nest in tree cavities. They are surprisingly quiet, giving occasional hisses or softly quacks.

COMB DUCK Sarkidiornis melanotos

68.5-71 cm|27-28” 53.5-56 cm|21-22”

Rare, local, and nomadic/erratic in marshes, rice fields, and along rivers; in our area recorded mainly from interior São Paulo (e.g., Tanquã). To 700 m. has large fleshy knob over bill (largest when breeding). Head, neck, and underparts white with head and neck speckled black; sides broadly blackish, crissum tinged yellow. Upperparts black glossed green and purple. In flight wings all dark. like but markedly smaller and lacking bill knob. Sides scalloped grayish, crissum whitish. Muscovy Duck lacks white on head, neck, and underparts. Cf. also Neotropic Cormorant. Often seen in small flocks, at times with whistling ducks. Sometimes active at night; generally shy. Occasionally perches in trees, usually nesting in tree hollows. Western Hemisphere birds are sometimes recognized as a separate species, American Comb Duck (S. sylvicola).

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HORNED SCREAMER ANHUMA

BLACK-NECKED SWAN CISNE-DE-PESCOÇO-PRETO

MUSCOVY DUCK PATO-DO-MATO

COMB DUCK PATO-DE-CRISTA

WHISTLING DUCKS are handsome, long-necked, and rather long-legged ducks that unlike most waterfowl range mainly in the tropics. Noisy and gregarious, they are often active at night.

WHITE-FACED WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna viduata

43-48 cm|17-19”

Common and widespread in marshes and around ponds and lakes; one of our more numerous waterfowl, even present in many urban parks. Mostly below 1200 m. Bill blackish; legs gray. Foreface and patch on neck white (often stained brown from feeding in mud) contrasting with black head and neck. Brown above, scapular feathers edged buff. Lower neck and breast rich rufous-chestnut; broad area on flanks narrowly barred black and white, midbelly black. In flight shows dark wings and tail. The white face is obvious, even when stained; juveniles, however, at first are entirely brownish. Lacks the white in wing of Black-bellied Whistling Duck, or at base of tail in Fulvous. Generally found in flocks, sometimes quite large, often standing at water’s edge, sometimes together with other whistling ducks, especially Black-bellieds. Feeds by grazing in shallow water or wet grassy areas. Most frequent call a shrill “whee-see-seu,” given most often in flight.

BLACK-BELLIED WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna autumnalis 46-51 cm|18-20”

Locally fairly common around ponds, marshes, rice fields, and even mangroves; has increased recently and now fairly widespread, though still less so than the White-faced. Mostly below 900 m. Bill and legs pinkish red. Face and upper neck gray; crown, stripe on hindneck, and chest rufous brown. Breast gray, large area on belly black. Above rufous brown, wing-coverts whitish, tail black. Juvenile has gray bill and legs and a subdued version of adult’s pattern. In flight shows a broad and conspicuous white wingstripe. Not likely confused: the only whistling duck with red bill and legs and a white wingstripe. The two pochards have similar wingstripes but otherwise are totally different. Behavior much as in White-faced Whistling Duck, though Black-bellied often perches in trees, especially on open dead branches; it nests in tree holes. In flight has a “droopy” silhouette, with head held downward and legs dangling. Call a high-pitched whistle, “wi-chi-tee” or “wit-chee, wit-chee-chee.”

FULVOUS WHISTLING DUCK Dendrocygna bicolor

48-53.5 cm|19-21”

BRAZILIAN TEAL Amazonetta brasiliensis

38-40.5 cm|15-16”

Uncommon to locally and erratically fairly common in marshes and around ponds and lakes in São Paulo, with scattered records elsewhere; the least numerous whistling duck. To 900 m. Bill and legs bluish gray. Head, neck, and underparts rich tawny-fulvous with some diagonal whitish furrows on sides of neck. Conspicuous creamy whitish tips to elongated flank feathers (these often giving the effect of a single broad stripe on sides); crissum creamy white. Above blackish, feathers edged tawny with barred effect. In flight wings look dark (chestnut and blackish), but shows a conspicuous white “ring” above tail, on uppertail-coverts. Not likely confused; by far the most uniform-looking whistling duck. Behavior as in White-faced Whistling Duck, though in some areas Fulvous seems especially fond of rice fields. Call a rather shrill whistle, “ki-wheeah,” characteristically two-noted, most often given in flight.

Fairly common and widespread in and around shallow ponds and marshes, regularly in agricultural regions around small stock ponds; also in mangroves and even in some urban parks. Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1600 m or higher. Legs bright red (both sexes), as is ’s bill; ’s bill gray. mainly pale brown with contrasting whitish rear cheeks and upper neck; breast tawnier, some dark spots on sides. similar but with two large white spots on face, whitish lower cheeks and sides of neck; tail blackish. In flight both sexes have a large iridescent green area on wing-coverts and white triangle on inner secondaries. The flashy wing pattern is unique. No other duck shares the ’s red bill and whitish face. For , cf. of much rarer Southern Pochard. This relatively long-necked duck occurs widely in small groups of up to a dozen or so birds that loaf on open shorelines, sometimes with whistling ducks though usually remaining apart. They feed by dabbling in shallow water. Call, given mainly in flight, a high-pitched whistled “sweeu” or “swu-eét,” often repeated.

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WHITE-FACED WHISTLING DUCK IRERÊ

BLACK-BELLIED WHISTLING DUCK MARRECA-CABOCLA

FULVOUS WHISTLING DUCK MARRECA-CANELEIRA

BRAZILIAN TEAL ANANAÍ

ANAS are “typical” ducks found principally on freshwater, there “tipping up” in the shallows, not diving. They fly strongly, springing up directly from the water. Most species are scarce in our region.

WHITE-CHEEKED PINTAIL Anas bahamensis

44-47 cm|17.25- 18.5”

Uncommon to fairly common, but local in ponds, lakes, and marshes; found both along the coast in saline lagoons and around mangroves, and inland on freshwater (including around São Paulo city). To 750 m (São Paulo). Bill blue-gray with conspicuous coral red base (smaller and paler in ). Lower face and foreneck snowy white contrasting with dark brown crown and hindneck; blackish above, scapular feathers edged tawny-buff; rather long pointed tail buffy whitish. Below buff to brown spotted black. similar but duller with less contrasty face pattern; tail shorter. In flight secondaries cinnamon with iridescent green speculum. The bright white face renders this elegant duck almost unmistakable, but cf. Brazilian Teal and Silver Teal. Found in pairs or small groups, loafing on sandy or muddy shorelines and swimming on open water, usually not consorting with other ducks.

YELLOW-BILLED PINTAIL Anas georgica

48-56 cm|19-22”

Very rare and local on lakes and ponds in S São Paulo, principally around São Paulo city. 750 m (São Paulo). Status here unclear, in part due to confusion with Yellow-billed Teal; numbers very small, and as yet not known to breed. Slim, rather long-necked, and nicely proportioned. Bill bright yellow with dusky tip, black on culmen. Pale buffy brown, darker above with feathers edged buff; long pointed tail buffy brown. Below buffy brown, sides and flanks with obvious dark chevrons. somewhat smaller. Young birds apparently have dark-bills. Resembles Yellow-billed Teal though that is smaller, short-tailed, and more grayish (less buffy) overall; the teal has plain flanks lacking dark chevrons. Behavior much as in Yellow-billed Teal.

YELLOW-BILLED TEAL Anas flavirostris

40.5-43 cm|16-17”

Rare and local on lakes and ponds in São Paulo, especially around the city itself (even in urban parks such as the Botanical Garden), apparently a recent immigrant here. 500-800 m. Bill yellow with dusky tip, blackish culmen. Plain, small, and compact with short neck. Head and neck pale brown with fine dusky speckles (usually looks darker than body); otherwise brown and dusky above, feathers cinnamon-edged; rather short tail dusky. Below buffyish, breast with dark chevrons but flanks plain and unmarked. As with the pintail, young birds apparently have dark bills. In flight wings show dark green speculum edged with buff and whitish. Yellow-billed Pintail is larger and longer-tailed; it shows normally conspicuous dark chevrons on flanks. Found in small flocks, swimming and loafing on shorelines, sometimes with other waterfowl. Formerly usually called Speckled Teal.

BLUE-WINGED TEAL Anas discors

37-40.5 cm|14.5-16”

Rare boreal vagrant to ponds and marshes in S São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, generally as single birds, seen in various months. To 750 m. Breeding plumage has blue-gray head and neck, black crown, and striking white crescent before eye. Above mostly blackish, feathers edged buff; buffyish below, densely dotted black, crissum black with white spot in front. and nonbreeding much duller, essentially buffy brown with whitish preocular spot. In flight all birds have a large pale blue area on wing-coverts, green speculum. Look for this rarity with other waterfowl; seemingly it can turn up most anywhere. Breeds in North America.

RED SHOVELER Anas platalea

48-53.5 cm|19-21”

Very rare winter visitant to ponds, lakes, and marshes in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Jun-Jul); few records. To 400 m. Distinctive oversized bill blackish with spatulate shape; legs yellowish. ’s iris white; it has pale brownish gray head and is mostly blackish above. Below contrastingly cinnamon-rufous with dense black dotting; crissum black with white spot in front. essentially grayish brown densely marked with blackish chevrons and speckles. In flight all birds have a W and green speculum. Wing pattern similar to Blue-winged Teal’s, but the shoveler otherwise is quite different. In its usual range occurs in pairs or small flocks, foraging in shallow water, swimming birds holding the bill low. Breeds in s. South America.

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WHITE-CHEEKED PINTAIL MARRECA-TOICINHO

YELLOW-BILLED PINTAIL MARRECA-PARDA

YELLOW-BILLED TEAL MARRECA-PARDINHA

BLUE-WINGED TEAL MARRECA-DE-ASA-AZUL

RED SHOVELER MARRECA-COLHEREIRA

SILVER TEAL Anas versicolor

38-42 cm|15-16.5”

Uncommon and local on marshy lakes and ponds in São Paulo, including around São Paulo city; apparently a recent immigrant. 500-800 m. Bill blue with yellow at base of maxilla. Lower face and neck buff contrasting with blackish crown and nape. Above blackish and brown; breast buff spotted black, flanks whitish with profuse black chevrons. has less yellow on bill, is grayer generally. In flight shows green speculum narrowly edged buff. White-cheeked Pintail is larger and slimmer with red on bill and whiter cheeks. Attractive and compact, usually seen in pairs or small groups while loafing on muddy banks or in emergent vegetation; often with ducks such as Yellow-billed Teals.

RINGED TEAL Callonetta leucophrys

36-37 cm|14.25-14.5”

Very rare winter visitant to ponds and marshes in S São Paulo (Jul-Aug). 600 m. Bill pale blue (grayer in ); legs pink. has face and upper neck creamy buff outlined narrowly by dark brown crown and hindneck; back rich reddish chestnut. Breast pale pinkish buff dotted black; flanks look broadly pale gray (actually finely vermiculated), crissum white. has complex facial pattern of brown and white. Above brown; below whitish irregularly barred and mottled brown. In flight both sexes have iridescent green speculum and oval white patch on greater coverts. unique and beautiful; usually occurs in pairs, facilitating recognition of . In its usual range this dainty little duck often perches on fence posts and in low trees.

SOUTHERN POCHARD Netta erythrophthalma

46-48 cm|18-19”

Uncommon and decidedly local on ponds and lakes. To at least 900 m (Araxá). ’s iris red (often inconspicuous), ’s brown; ’s bill pale blue, ’s grayer. has head, neck, and breast glossy blackish with chestnut overtones; otherwise dark brown, more chestnut on sides. mainly brown with striking whitish facial pattern (less obvious in some birds). In flight shows conspicuous white wingstripe. No other Brazilian duck is as dark as the , while ’s facial pattern is unique; both sexes show a “peaked” head shape. Feeds mainly by diving, but also pokes about in shallow water. Flight swift and direct, taking off after pattering on surface.

ROSY-BILLED POCHARD Netta peposaca

53.5-57 cm|21-22.5”

Rare and very local around ponds, lakes, and marshes in São Paulo, apparently a recent immigrant here and recently mainly in Piracicaba (at Tanquã, an important wetland threatened by inundation from a dam). 500 m. ’s iris red, ’s dark; ’s bill rosy pink with obvious knob at base, ’s blue-gray with minimal knob. has head, neck, chest, and upperparts black, head with purplish overtones. Sides vermiculated black (looking gray), with crissum white. grayish brown (grayer above; browner below, especially on sides), with contrasting white crissum and variable facial pattern (usually with whitish superciliary and throat). In flight shows conspicuous white wingstripe. Beautiful unmistakable. Southern Pochard is smaller with more contrasting facial pattern and less heavy bill. Usually found in small groups, often consorting with other ducks. This hefty duck flies strongly, and is highly migratory.

BRAZILIAN MERGANSER Mergus octosetaceus CR

50-54 cm|19.25-21.25”

Extremely rare and very local along clear streams and smaller rivers with gallery forest in SO Minas Gerais (e.g., Serra da Canastra NP and surroundings); apparently now extirpated from São Paulo and even at Canastra threatened by pending diamond mining proposals. 500-1100 m. Long slender serrated bill black; legs reddish pink. has head, neck, and long wispy crest black with iridescent green sheen; above blackish, below vermiculated dark gray and whitish. browner above and crest shorter. In flight shows large “doubled” white patch on secondaries. Nearly unmistakable; Neotropic Cormorant can occur on the same streams. Now one of the world’s rarest waterfowl, this merganser’s decline is due to the degradation and development (damming) of watercourses. Persists at only a few sites, each holding only a few pairs. Pairs and small family groups swim, rest on rocks, and dive for small fish and invertebrates. Flight swift and direct, following watercourses. Usually nests in tree holes (their scarcity may restrict breeding).

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SILVER TEAL MARRECA-CRICRI

RINGED TEAL MARRECA-DE-COLEIRA

SOUTHERN POCHARD MARRECA-PRETA

ROSY-BILLED POCHARD MARRECÃO

BRAZILIAN MERGANSER PATO-MERGULHÃO

MASKED DUCK Nomonyx dominicus

33-35 cm|13-14”

Rare to uncommon but very local in marshy overgrown ponds and shallow lakes; seasonal, or erratic, at most sites. To at least 900 m. A chunky, heavyset duck with short thick neck and stiff tail usually held on water’s surface (occasionally cocked, e.g., by in display). ’s bill mainly bright blue, ’s bluish gray. Breeding rufous-chestnut with contrasting black face; back spotted black (also flanks, but these usually hidden). Below buff. and nonbreeding have face buff crossed by two prominent dark horizontal stripes; below dull buff, breast spotted blackish. Not often seen in flight, both sexes then showing a square white patch on secondaries. Not likely confused with any other ducks, but cf. Pied-billed Grebe. Rather secretive, favoring ponds (often surprisingly small) with abundant emergent and floating vegetation, and adept at hiding; early in the day sometimes more in the open. Swims very low in the water, not associating with other ducks but sometimes with grebes. Feeds by diving, also by simply sinking, grebe-like, beneath the surface. GREBES (Podicipedidae) are small duck-like diving birds with lobed toes; Great Grebe is considerably larger. Found on lakes and ponds, they fly only rarely and come to land only to nest.

LEAST GREBE Tachybaptus dominicus

24 cm|9.5”

Fairly common and widespread in marshy ponds and lakes, sometimes even where quite small. To 1500 m. Iris golden yellow; slender blackish bill can look slightly upturned. Adult has blackish crown, slaty gray face and neck (with black throat when breeding). Blacker above, grayer below sometimes tinged brown, rearparts often looking whitish and fluffy. Flying birds show a white wingstripe. Immature has duller eye, paler bill, whitish throat. Pied-billed Grebe is larger and browner with dark iris and a heavier pale bill. Pairs or small groups frequent quiet ponds and lakes, often in wooded or forested areas. As with the Pied-billed, nests are placed on floating rafts of vegetation; young are often carried on a parent’s back, or under a wing. Usually quiet, but nesting birds give a descending churring (vaguely Laterallus crake-like) and soft purring calls.

PIED-BILLED GREBE Podilymbus podiceps

33-34.5 cm|13-13.75”

Uncommon and somewhat local on ponds and lakes (these can be surprisingly isolated, but usually are fairly large). To 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Thick bill chalky whitish with conspicuous black ring when breeding; narrow eye-ring white. Adult grayish brown, darker and browner above, paler below with grayer face and neck and black throat patch; median underparts and belly white extending to often puffed-up undertail-coverts. Nonbreeders have duller bill and head and neck more cinnamon brown, whitish throat. Much stockier than the smaller Least Grebe; Least’s thin bill and beady yellow eye are usually obvious. Typically sedentary, pairs occupy quiet marshy ponds, usually not attracting much attention. Dives readily, sometimes “sinking” below surface without a ripple. Breeding birds give a fast series of distinctive hollow “kow” notes as well as various clucks and whinnies.

GREAT GREBE Podiceps major

71-76 cm|28-30”

Rare and very local in S São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; apparently only a recent immigrant here but now known to breed locally. Found on both freshwater ponds and lakes (where they nest), and on salt water. To 900 m. Large with long and slender neck. Long, dagger-like bill yellowish to gray. Breeding birds have blackish face and crown, sometimes showing a partial recurved crest; foreneck and chest rufous. Otherwise blackish to grayish above, whitish below, undertailcoverts often rufous or buff. Nonbreeders have grayer face and show less rufous, sometimes looking more uniformly grayish. In flight shows conspicuous white on secondaries and inner primaries. Seen singly and in pairs, with birds on the ocean and in bays probably being austral migrants. Floats effortlessly on the water, diving for fish and crustaceans. Nests are floating platforms constructed by a pair at a marshy edge. Breeding birds can be noisy, giving a wailing “waaaah.” Sometimes placed in monotypic genus Podicephorus. Silvery Grebe (P. occipitalis) is a vagrant to Guarapiranga Reservoir, São Paulo. A small grebe with short pointed blackish bill, tuft of silvery grayish feathers on ear-coverts, and snowy white underparts.

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MASKED DUCK MARRECA-DE-BICO-ROXO

breeding adult

nonbreeding adult

juv. LEAST GREBE MERGULHÃO-PEQUENO

breeding adult PIED-BILLED GREBE MERGULHÃO

juv.

nonbreeding adult

GREAT GREBE MERGULHÃO-GRANDE

nonbreeding adult

FRIGATEBIRDS (Fregatidae) are large, mainly black oceanic birds with long narrow wings and long deeply forked tail that are numerous along the coast.

MAGNIFICENT FRIGATEBIRD Fregata magnificens

99-104 cm|39-41”

Common, widespread, and conspicuous along coast, with individuals occasionally wandering slightly inland. Unmistakable. Very large, with extremely long, narrow, crooked wings and long deeply forked tail (though latter often looks pointed). Long hooked bill grayish. black with purple and green sheens on upperparts; large distensible red throat-pouch inflated in display, sometimes even while flying. also mainly black, but sides of neck and entire breast white, some whitish scaling on axillars, and pale brownish band on upperwingcoverts. Juvenile has entire head white and more extensively white underparts. Supremely aerial, floating effortlessly for long periods, sometimes circling very high, almost out of sight. When they flap at all, wingbeats very deep. Feeding birds congregate around fishing boats, hoping for scraps; they also eat fish and refuse, swooping and grabbing from surface with bill. Also kleptoparasitic, harrying other seabirds and forcing them to disgorge. Frigatebirds cannot swim. Roosts on trees on islands and in mangroves, sometimes even on ships’ rigging (may even sleep on the wing!). Nests very locally in sometimes large colonies. CR Lesser Frigatebird (F. ariel) breeds in small numbers on remote Ilha da Trindade; to date unrecorded from mainland waters. Smaller than Magnificent, s differ in white “spur” from breast to underwing base; s similar aside from size. CR Great Frigatebird (F. minor) is a vagrant to off Espírito Santo coast (Nov 2011). Very like Magnificent; has pinkish (not blackish) feet, brownish upperwing band; red (not blue) orbital ring, gray (not black) throat, no white under wing. TROPICBIRDS (Phaethontidae) are mainly white seabirds with extremely long tails.

RED-BILLED TROPICBIRD Phaethon aethereus

43-48 cm|17-19”

Fairly common breeder on Abrolhos Archipelago off S Bahia; otherwise pelagic (one Cabo Frio record). A gleaming white seabird with heavy red bill and tail streamers (46-53 cm; 18-21”) as long as the bird itself. Adult has black eyestripe and narrow black barring on back, rump, and inner upperwing-coverts; in flight shows black outer primaries. Juvenile has more yellowish bill and lacks tail streamers; black eyestripes connect on nape. Wary and solitary at sea, often flying well above water, plunge-diving after fish and squid. Swims occasionally, tail streamers cocked out of water. Nests in inaccessible recesses of coastal cliffs. EN White-tailed Tropicbird (P. lepturus) also nests on Abrolhos Archipelago, but only a few. Differs from Redbilled in lacking blackish barring; has broad blackish bar on secondary coverts. Bill yellow to orange. Red-tailed Tropicbird (P. rubricauda) is a vagrant to the Abrolhos (Sep 1997). The whitest tropicbird, often tinged rosy pink, with red bill and red tail streamers. CORMORANTS (Phalacrocoracidae) and DARTERS (Anhingidae) are superficially duck-like aquatic birds; bill structures very different. They feed on fish. Their plumage is not waterproof, so both are often seen perched with wings outstretched to dry. EN

NEOTROPIC CORMORANT Phalacrocorax brasilianus

61-66 cm|24-26”

ANHINGA Anhinga anhinga

84-89 cm|33-35”

Widespread and locally common on ponds, lakes, along rivers, and coast (not venturing far out to sea). Mostly below 1500 m. Bill long, slender, and hooked at tip; gular pouch and facial skin dull yellow to orange (brighter when breeding), outlined white; iris blue. Breeding adult black, somewhat browner above, with white plumes on sides of neck. Nonbreeders duller, lacking white on face and neck. Immature grayish to dusky brown above, paler grayish brown below; juvenile even paler below, whitish on sides of head. Our only cormorant; cf. Anhinga. No duck has a similar bill. Highly gregarious, along coast sometimes in large flocks; quite nomadic. Swims low in water, bill tilted up; dives after fish. Flight strong and steady, with neck held slightly kinked; high-flying birds often form loose V-formations. Uncommon around freshwater lakes, ponds, and marshes, even scarcer in Bahia and N Minas Gerais. To 1200 m. Distinctive shape: small head, long slender neck, and long fan-shaped tail. Sharply pointed bill yellow to orange; facial skin bluish (brighter when breeding). glossy black with contrasting upperwing-coverts silvery white, feathers edged black; tail tipped brown. Breeding birds have white head and neck plumes. ’s head, neck, and chest grayish buff. Immature brown-backed with reduced white on wing. Though vaguely cormorant-like, the larger and much less gregarious Anhinga shouldn’t be confused. Often seen perched at water’s edge. Swimming birds stay low in water, occasionally with only head and neck protruding; dives for fish, skewering prey with bill. Sometimes soars high overhead with tail broadly fanned.

55 imm.

MAGNIFICENT FRIGATEBIRD FRAGATA, TESOURÃO

adult RED-BILLED TROPICBIRD RABO-DE-PALHA-DE-BICO-VERMELHO

breeding adult

NEOTROPIC CORMORANT BIGUÁ

imm.

ANHINGA BIGUATINGA

BOOBIES (Sulidae) are large seabirds with long, pointed wings, tapered tails, and strong pointed bills. They range widely in tropical oceans, and nest colonially on remote islands, thus avoiding predators. BROWN BOOBY Sula leucogaster

EN

66-73.5 cm|26-29”

Locally common along entire coast, nesting on offshore islands, in largest numbers along São Paulo coast (especially Alcatrazes, smaller colonies elsewhere). Bill and feet yellowish; bare skin around eyes bluish in s, yellowish in s. Upperparts, throat, and chest chocolate brown sharply demarcated from white underparts; underwing-coverts also white. Immature has less contrast on underparts and underwing-coverts, but overall pattern still apparent. Immature Masked Booby is notably larger with whitish to white collar on hindneck (never seen in Browns) and whiter underparts. By far our commonest booby, Browns are gregarious and range widely in coastal waters, entering bays such as around Rio de Janeiro; seen regularly from beaches. Feeds by plunge-diving into water at a shallow angle in pursuit of small fish. In flight they often scale low over the water. They rest on rocks, buoys, and piers, but at night they usually roost on islands. Red-footed Booby (Sula sula) is a vagrant to Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo coast. Adults have red feet, bluish bill. Dark morph uniform brown; white morph (rarer) like Masked but smaller with mainly blackish tail, white tertials.

MASKED BOOBY Sula dactylatra

79-86.5 cm|31-34”

Rare to locally uncommon along coast, less numerous southward; nests very locally, in largest numbers on Abrolhos Archipelago off S Bahia and on Ilha de Trindade. Bill yellow (brighter in s, paler in s); legs olive. Pure white with contrasting black flight feathers and black tail. Immature brown above with whitish to white collar on hindneck (more conspicuous as bird ages), also brown on throat; often also shows some whitish on uppertail-coverts. Adult unmistakable. Younger birds confusable with immature Brown Booby, which is smaller with at least a shadow of adult’s two-toned pattern below; Brown never has white on hindneck. General behavior as in Brown Booby but Masked is much more pelagic, usually feeding beyond the sight of land though occasionally one flies past a headland or even lands on rocks or a buoy. Masked’s plunge-dives are more vertical, less oblique. ALBATROSSES (Diomedeidae) are very large, long- and narrow-winged seabirds with long heavy bills. They range principally in S oceans, nesting on islands, and occur in Brazilian waters mainly during winter, out to sea. Two species are regular here, with others much rarer (not included).

BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS Thalassarche melanophris

84-89 cm|33-35”

Rare austral winter visitant, mainly immatures, to offshore waters of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (mostly Jun-Aug); carcasses occasionally wash up on beaches, especially in São Paulo. Adult’s fairly heavy bill rich orange-yellow; immature’s grayish horn with black tip, gradually becoming yellower. Adult has head, neck, and underparts white with black eye-smudge; upperparts brownish black with white rump and grayish tail. Immature shows partial dusky collar on foreneck. In flight underwing white broadly margined with black, more uniformly dark in young birds, the white gradually coming in. Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross has a slenderer bill that is all dark in young birds, black with a yellow ridge in adults. Unless becalmed, albatrosses sail effortlessly on stiff outstretched wings, flapping only occasionally. They gather around fishing trawlers in search of scraps, but mainly feed on squid and fish. Breeds on subantarctic islands.

ATLANTIC YELLOW-NOSED ALBATROSS Thalassarche chlororhynchos

72.5-77.5 cm|28.5-30.5”

EN

Rare to occasionally uncommon austral winter visitant to offshore waters of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (mostly Apr-Sep); accidental further N. As with Black-browed, carcasses occasionally wash up on beaches. Adult’s long, rather slender bill black with bright yellow culmen; immature’s all black. Head, neck, and underparts white with black eye-smudge and wash of gray on cheeks; upperparts blackish with white rump and grayish tail. In flight underwing white, only narrowly margined with black. Aside from bill color, young birds resemble adult. Black-browed Albatross is larger with a stouter bill, yellow in adults and black-tipped in immatures; regardless of age stage, underwing more extensively black. Behavior as in Black-browed; the two regularly occur together. Often called simply Yellow-nosed Albatross. Breeds on South Atlantic islands.

57 imm. adult BROWN BOOBY ATOBÁ

adult

MASKED BOOBY ATOBÁ-GRANDE

adult

imm.

adult

BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS ALBATROZ-DE-SOBRANCELHA

ATLANTIC YELLOW-NOSED ALBATROSS ALBATROZ-DE-NARIZ-AMARELO

SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS (Procellariidae) are mid-sized to fairly large oceanic birds with (like albatrosses) extrenal tubular nostrils and relatively dull plumage. Their flight is gliding on stiff narrow wings. WHITE-CHINNED PETREL Procellaria aequinoctialis VU

SPECTACLED PETREL Procellaria conspicillata VU

EN

53.5-56 cm|21-22”

Status much as in better known White-chinned Petrel, from which Spectacled was recently split; likewise recorded mainly from dead birds washing ashore. Differs in having a variable but usually conspicuous white “ring” encircling eye. Breeds on South Atlantic islands.

TRINDADE PETREL Pterodroma arminjoniana CR

53.5-56 cm|21-22”

Casual austral winter visitant to offshore waters of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (mostly Apr-Aug); accidental further N. Stout ivory-colored bill with black lines. Uniform sooty brown, usually with small white chin patch (hard to see). Cf. Spectacled Petrel. Sooty Shearwater is smaller with slender dark bill, narrower wings flashing silvery below. A heavily built petrel, here infrequently seen alive; usually just carcasses wash up on beaches. Flight steady and powerful on set wings when windy. Further S congregates around fishing boats. Breeds on subantarctic islands.

35.5-38 cm|14-15”

Breeds on Ilha de Trindade far out in South Atlantic, with a recent estimate of 1130 pairs. As yet not recorded from offshore waters in our area. A large “gadfly petrel” with long wings and heavy dark bill. Variable. Uniform brownish sooty above. Light morph white below with brownish chest band outlining white throat patch. Dark morph (more frequent) brownish sooty below with whitish chin. Intermediates occur. Underwing shows much white (light morph) to a jaeger-like primary flash (in dark morph). Highly pelagic, occurring in continental waters only in storms. Given adequate wind, flight fast with long glides and much banking. Infrequently attracted to boats. Atlantic Petrel (P. incerta) is known from a few beached casualties (Sep). Resembles light-morph Trindade Petrel but underwing dark and with less white on throat.

CAPE PETREL Daption capense

38-40.5 cm|15-16”

Casual winter visitant to offshore waters of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Bill and legs black. Unmistakable, with unique boldly pied plumage. Above and on throat sooty blackish, back and rump white with conspicuous black spots and chevrons; broad tail-tip black. Below white. In flight upperwing blackish with two large, prominent white patches, underwing mainly white. Further south occurs in loose flocks and frequently attracted to ships, picking at objects on surface. Flies with short glides interspersed with bursts of shallow wingbeats. Often called Pintado Petrel. Breeds on subantarctic islands.

SOUTHERN FULMAR Fulmarus glacialoides

46-49.5 cm|18-19.5”

Casual winter visitant to offshore water of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (JunOct). Bill mainly pinkish with black tip; legs also pinkish. Head, neck, and underparts white; upperparts pale pearly gray. In flight upperwing shows white flash in inner primaries, underwing white. Our whitest seabird, vaguely gull-like though fulmars glide low over the water on stiff bowed wings. Behavior as in Cape Petrel, likewise often following ships. Breeds on subantarctic islands.

SLENDER-BILLED PRION Pachyptila belcheri

25.5-26.5 cm|10-10.5”

Casual winter visitant to offshore waters of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (mostly Jun-Aug); rarely seen at sea in our area, but occasional mass mortalities result in birds washing ashore. Small and rather pale. Bill thin. Pale gray above with white superciliary and dark cheeks; tail with small black tip. Below white, with gray intruding onto sides of chest. In flight upperwing pale gray with narrow but conspicuous black “M” pattern on wing-coverts and outer primaries. Unmistakable aside from Antarctic Prion (see below). A very small shearwater that flies rapidly low over the water, often in small groups. What causes the mortality incidents remains unknown. Breeds on subantarctic islands. Antarctic Prion (P. desolata) is even rarer than Slender-billed. It differs in its slightly heavier bill, darker face with narrower white superciliary, wider black tail tip. Often called Dove Prion. Blue Petrel (Halobaena caerulea) has washed ashore once, in Rio de Janeiro (Jul). Slightly larger than the prions, differing in white tail tip and lack of superciliary. Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) is a vagrant to São Paulo coast. Very large (albatrosssized) with very heavy yellowish bill. Young birds (most frequent) uniform sooty but become paler with age, most grayish, a few much whiter. Breeds on subantarctic islands.

59

WHITE-CHINNED PETREL WHITE-CHINNED PETREL PARDELA-PRETA PARDELA-PRETA

light morph

dark morph SPECTACLED PETREL PARDELA-DE-ÓCULOS SPECTACLED PETREL PARDELA-DE-ÓCULOS HERALD PETREL TRINDADE PETREL GRAZINA-DE-TRINDADE GRAZINA-DE-TRINDADE

CAPE PETREL POMBA-DO-CABO

CAPE PETREL POMBA-DO-CABO

SOUTHERN FULMAR PARDELÃO-PRATEADO

SOUTHERN FULMAR PARDELÃO-PRATEADO

SLENDER-BILLED SLENDER-BILLEDPRION PRION FAIGÃO-DE-BICO-FINO FAIGÃO-DE-BICO-FINO

GREAT SHEARWATER Puffinus gravis

46-48 cm|18-19”

Summer visitant to offshore waters, mainly from Rio de Janeiro S (mostly AprOct). Long slender blackish bill. Blackish cap contrasts with white nuchal collar; brownish above, feathers edged paler, with contrasting white uppertail-coverts. Below mostly white, some brownish on sides of chest and midbelly. Upperwing dark, underwing white with dark markings. Much larger than Manx Shearwater. Glides low over water on stiff wings, if there is much wind rarely flaps. Swims readily; much attracted to fishing boats; picks at food from surface and even dives. Often called Greater Shearwater. Breeds on South Atlantic islands. Sooty Shearwater (P. griseus) occurs very rarely, typically well offshore. Uniform sooty, relieved only by silvery white underwing seen as bird banks. Breeds on subantarctic islands. Cory’s Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) and Cape Verde Shearwater (C. edwardsii), the latter a recent split from Cory’s, migrate to Brazilian waters in small numbers from nesting islands in North Atlantic. Cory’s is slightly larger than Great with heavier yellowish bill, no obvious nuchal collar, etc.; sometimes named C. borealis. Cape Verde resembles Cory’s but is considerably smaller (size of Manx) with slimmer grayish bill.

MANX SHEARWATER Puffinus puffinus

33-35 cm|13-13.75”

Rare summer visitant to offshore and coastal waters, mainly from Rio de Janeiro S (Sep-May). Small, bicolored, with slender all-blackish bill. Blackish above, white below. Underwing mainly white, trailing edge dark. Great Shearwater is much larger. Audubon’s Shearwater is similar but undertail coverts dark (white in Manx). In our area Manx almost always seen singly, but elsewhere regularly in flocks. Many birds here are in weakened condition or even have come ashore. Has typical shearwater flight, fast and close to the water, often a burst of stiff shallow wingbeats followed by short glides. Breeds on North Atlantic islands.

AUDUBON’S SHEARWATER Puffinus lherminieri

30-31 cm|11.75-12.25”

A few pairs are known to nest on Ilhas Itatiaia off Espírito Santo; no records elsewhere in our area. Closely resembles Manx Shearwater, but slightly smaller with blackish undertail-coverts; neither character easy to see in the field. Behavior similar. STORM PETRELS (Hydrobatidae) are small seabirds found on oceans around the world though relatively few occur in Brazilian waters. They fly low and, compared to shearwaters, glide relatively little.

CR

WILSON’S STORM PETREL Oceanites oceanicus

16-18 cm|6.25-7”

Uncommon to occasionally more numerous visitant to offshore waters, mainly from Rio de Janeiro S (Apr-Oct). Bill and legs black, yellow on webs of feet sometimes visible. Sooty black with rounded white band on uppertail-coverts extending around to flanks. In flight shows contrasting paler greater wingcoverts. Flight low and fast over water, pausing to look for food, often dangling feet; often gather around ships, feeding at stern. Breeds on subantarctic and antarctic islands. Leach’s Storm Petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) is a vagrant to Rio de Janeiro coast (Angra dos Reis specimen); normally highly pelagic. Larger than Wilson’s Storm Petrel with longer wings and longer, forked tail (fork often hard to see).

WHITE-BELLIED STORM PETREL Fregetta grallaria

19-20.5 cm|7.5- 8”

MAGELLANIC PENGUIN Spheniscus magellanicus

68.5-71 cm|27-28”

Casual vagrant to oceanic waters far off coast from Espírito Santo to São Paulo. Sooty black above with narrow white rump band. Throat blackish contrasting sharply with white underparts; underwing-coverts also white. Strikingly patterned and easily identified. Usually solitary, flying close to water, changing direction erratically. Breeds on subantarctic island. PENGUINS (Sphenicidae) are well known oceanic birds whose wings are flipper-like and adapted for swimming; they cannot fly. Their feathers are dense and scale-like. Only one species occurs as far N as our area. Austral winter visitant in variable numbers to coast of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, mainly during second half of year, only a few getting further north. Unmistakable. Adult blackish above with broad white eyestripe looping down sides of neck and outlining black throat. Below white with two black chest bands. The vast majority here, however, are young birds with grayish face, smudgy throat and chest bands. Adept swimmers, penguins leave the water only when breeding, or when sick, emaciated, or oiled, as most of our birds are; many that arrive here end up dying. If encountered on a beach, give them space and let them rest. Breeds in S South America.

61

GREAT SHEARWATER PARDELA-DE-BICO-PRETO

MANX SHEARWATER PARDELA-SOMBRIA

AUDUBON’S SHEARWATER PARDELA-DE-ASA-LARGA

WILSON’S STORM PETREL ALMA-DE-MESTRE WHITE-BELLIED STORM PETREL PAINHO-DE-BARRIGA-BRANCA

adult imm. adult

MAGELLANIC PENGUIN PINGUIM-DE-MAGALHÃES

HERONS, BITTERNS, & EGRETS (Ardeidae) are long-necked and long-legged wading birds whose long pointed bills are adapted for feeding on fish and invertebrates in shallow water. Many species are gregarious and easy to see, though a few others are notably adept at hiding. RUFESCENT TIGER HERON Tigrisoma lineatum

66-76 cm|26-20”

FASCIATED TIGER HERON Tigrisoma fasciatum

61-69 cm|24-27”

Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread around ponds and lakes, along streams and rivers, and in marshes. To 1000 m. Large. Iris yellow; bill dusky with yellow below and at base; legs grayish olive. Adult has head and neck rich rufous-chestnut; above vermiculated dusky and buff. Throat and median foreneck white bordered with black; belly grayish buff. Immature very different: above cinnamon rufous with prominent black chevrons, bold banding and spotting across wings. Below paler with blackish bars and chevrons. Attains adult plumage over four years, gradually losing the banding and spotting. Cf. much scarcer Pinnated Bittern, and the rare Fasciated Tiger Heron (in different, rocky stream habitat). Usually stands motionless and hunched over at water’s edge or in shallows, sometimes allowing a close approach; preys mainly on fish and frogs, also snakes and even small birds. Perches freely in trees. Flushed birds often fly off with a complaining “gwok.” At night gives various groans and croaks, sometimes in series.

VU

Rare and very local along fast-flowing rocky streams and rivers in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. Mostly 400-800 m. Iris yellow; bill blackish with yellow at base; legs grayish olive. Adult very dark, essentially blackish above with narrow buffy whitish barring. Throat and median foreneck white bordered with black. Immature identical to immature of much more numerous Rufescent Tiger Heron; in the hand Fasciated has three narrow white tail bands (four in Rufescent), and slightly shorter bill. The two tiger herons generally separate by habitat. Fasciateds tend to be wary and inconspicuous though they sometimes stand on boulders out in the water.

LEAST BITTERN Ixobrychus exilis

28-30.5 cm|11-12”

STRIPE-BACKED BITTERN Ixobrychus involucris

30.5-33 cm|12-13”

Rare to uncommon and very local in freshwater marshes in lowlands; inconspicuous and easily overlooked. To at least 700 m. Very small, with slender body. Iris yellow; bill mainly orange-yellow; legs yellowish. has black median crown with rich ochraceous face, neck, and underparts; midthroat and stripe down median foreneck white. Above black with two thin buff stripes down back; wing-coverts ochraceous buff and rufous. browner above, lightly streaked brown below. In flight both sexes show pale wing-coverts contrasting with black flight feathers. Easily identified from its small size and colorful plumage, but cf. scarcer Stripe-backed Bittern. Striated Heron is larger, etc. An inveterate skulker, climbing in reeds as it stalks prey; when spotted in the open, usually “freezes,” often with neck outstretched. Flushed birds fly low, then pitch back into cover. Distinctive call a low-pitched, guttural “wrohh” repeated steadily and slowly. Rare and very local in lowland marshes from Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo; a few Bahia records. Distribution poorly understood; inconspicuous and easily overlooked. To 300 m. Very small. Iris yellow; bill orange-yellow; legs greenish. Median crown black with grayish buff face and sides of neck; above boldly streaked buff, yellowish, and black; wing-coverts buff. Below mainly buffy yellowish, foreneck looking streaked. In flight pale wing-coverts contrast with black flight feathers. Least Bittern is dark above and less obviously streaked. Behavior as in Least; how the two segregate ecologically is uncertain. Call a series of muffled “hoo” notes, faster-paced than in Least.

PINNATED BITTERN Botaurus pinnatus

66-73 cm|26-28”

Rare and local in freshwater marshes and adjacent wet pastures and rice fields in lowlands from Bahia to São Paulo. To 600 m (Rio Paraíba valley). Cryptically patterned, and despite large size easily overlooked. Iris yellow; bill yellowish with dusky culmen; legs yellow. Buff above, crown and hindneck narrowly barred dark brown, back and wings striped and vermiculated blackish. Throat white, foreneck and underparts buffy whitish streaked pale brown. Immature of superficially similar (and much commoner) Rufescent Tiger Heron has broadly banded upperparts, with markings much less intricate than in the bittern. Immature Black-crowned Night Heron is smaller and more streaked above. A solitary bird that generally hides in marshy cover, hunting for frogs and rodents. Usually “freezes” when spotted in open, crouching or stretching neck skyward. Rarely vocal, but breeding s give a booming “pooo.”

63 imm.

RUFESCENT TIGER HERON SOCÓ-BOI

adult

FASCIATED TIGER HERON SOCÓ-BOI-ESCURO

adult

LEAST BITTERN SOCOÍ-VERMELHO

STRIPE-BACKED BITTERN SOCOÍ-AMARELO

PINNATED BITTERN SOCÓ-BOI-BAIO

STRIATED HERON Butorides striata

38-43 cm|15-17”

Common and wide-ranging nearly anywhere there is fresh water (equally favoring ponds, rivers, marshes, coastal lagoons, etc.; sometimes even mangroves). Mostly below 1500 m, a few locally to 1800 m. A small, chunky heron with short yellowish legs (more orange when breeding); iris yellow, bill blackish above and yellow below. Adult has crown and shaggy crest black; above gray, wing-coverts more blackish with obvious buff to gray edging. Sides of head, neck, and breast gray (some birds more maroon), with throat and stripe down middle of underparts white bordered brown; belly pale grayish. Immature has crown rufous-streaked and is browner generally, with underparts streaked brown and white. A familiar and often tame heron that should be easily recognized, but cf. the even smaller Ixobrychus bitterns. Essentially solitary, hunting from a perch over or next to water, usually not actually wading; takes prey with quick short jabs of bill. Flicks tail sideways when nervous, and crest often raised. Flying birds often give a characteristic abrupt and complaining “kyow.”

BOAT-BILLED HERON Cochlearius cochlearius

48-53.5 cm|19 -21”

Rare and local in mangroves and around coastal lagoons and freshwater ponds, mainly in coastal lowlands from Bahia to São Paulo. Mostly below 300 m. Very broad, shovel-shaped bill mostly black (underside yellow); large eye also black. Adult has crown and long wide crest black with narrow white forehead; upperparts pale pearly gray. Face, throat, and breast white; belly rufous-buff. Subadults and immatures have shorter crest and are browner above and buffier below (especially on breast); this plumage is frequently seen. Black-crowned Night Heron has a normally shaped heron bill, is mainly black above; Boat-billeds look much paler at night. Strictly nocturnal. Not often seen unless specifically sought out at communal roosting or nesting sites situated in thick foliage near water, from which they disperse to feed alone at night, when wary. Despite their unusual bill, Boat-billeds feed much like other herons while standing in shallow water. Flushed birds give a lowpitched “qua” or “kwa” in flight (a bit duck-like).

BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON Nycticorax nycticorax 57-62 cm|22.5-24.5”

Locally fairly common around lakes, ponds, rivers, and coastal lagoons, about equally in fresh and saltwater situations; also locally in ponds in urban parks. To 1000 m. Stocky, with distinctive hunched silhouette. Stout bill blackish; iris red; legs yellowish. Adult has crown and back glossy black with two long white occipital plumes and narrow white forehead; wings pale gray. Face and entire underparts white. Immature very different, with iris more orange, yellowish lower mandible. Brown above with prominent buffy whitish streaks and spots; below whitish heavily streaked dark brown. Subadult patterned like adult but browner. Adult distinctive and easily recognized. The brown and streaky immature resembles immature Yellow-crowned Night Heron, which see (Yellow-crowned is strictly coastal). Cf. also the scarce Pinnated Bittern. True to its name, mainly active at night, flying out from communal roosts at dusk to feed at water’s edge, most often solitarily. When dependent young are in the nest, the parents also feed by day. Flying birds give an abrupt and low-pitched “wuok” call.

YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT HERON Nyctanassa violacea

36-61 cm|22-24”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in mangroves and around lagoons and on beaches along entire coast; not recorded inland. Iris orange (redder when breeding); stout bill blackish; legs yellowish (more orange when breeding). Adult has black head with contrasting creamy white crown stripe and white stripe on lower face, also long black-and-white occipital plumes (longest when breeding). Otherwise gray, feathers of back and wing-coverts edged whitish and dusky. Some, perhaps subadults, are duller. Immature very different, rather closely resembling immature of better known Black-crowned Night Heron. Yellow-crowned differs in its stouter and all blackish bill, somewhat longer legs, and darker and slatier upperparts with the spotting above and streaking below finer and more sharply defined. Somewhat less nocturnal than Blackcrowned, even at mid-day regularly seen standing on mudflats and beaches. Roosts and nests in mangroves. Feeds mainly on crabs. Call in flight similar to Black-crowned’s but recognizably higher-pitched and more nasal, e.g., “kwak.”

65 STRIATED HERON SOCOZINHO

BOAT-BILLED HERON ARAPAPÁ

adult adult imm. imm.

BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON SOCÓ-DORMINHOCO

adult imm.

adult imm. YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT HERON SOCÓ-DO-MANGUE

CATTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis

47-52 cm|18-20”

Very common and widespread in various types of open agricultural terrain. Mostly below 1000 m, smaller numbers higher. Fairly small and stocky. Lores yellowish (bright green when breeding); stout, fairly short bill yellow (orange or reddish when breeding); legs olive yellowish to greenish (reddish when breeding). Adult white; breeding birds acquire buff plumes on crown, back, and chest (a trace of the buff color is always retained). Immature duller white. Snowy Egret and immature Little Blue Heron are larger and more slender, have different bill and leg colors. Cattle Egrets look heavy-jowled, rather different from the slim-faced appearance of other white herons. Highly gregarious, especially at their roosts from which birds fan out to feed in open country. True to their name, Cattle Egrets often feed around cattle, pursuing insects that the cows flush, but they also forage in other semiopen areas such as plowed fields and even roadsides. They tend not to feed in actual marshes. Belying its present abundance, this egret is a relatively recent (1960s) immigrant to Brazil, having colonized South America from the Old World in the nineteenth century, apparently arriving first in Guyana. EGRETTA egrets and herons are “classic” members of the family, both of our species sporting aigrettes (plumes) on their head, neck, and breast when breeding. Historically thousands were slaughtered so these beautiful feathers could adorn ladies’ hats, though happily this horrifying practice has long since ceased.

LITTLE BLUE HERON Egretta caerulea

58.5-63.5 cm|23-25 “

Locally common around lagoons and on tidal mudflats and beaches along coast, also regular in mangroves; much smaller numbers occur inland (especially in São Paulo), there ranging in marshes and around ponds and rivers. Mostly below 600 m, vagrants higher. Lores greenish (bluer when breeding); fairly heavy bicolored bill bluish gray with black tip; legs greenish. Adult dark blue-gray with reddish maroon head and neck. Head and neck of breeding birds more intensely colored, with elongated plumes then springing from crown, chest, and back. Immature white aside from inconspicuous dusky tips to outer primaries. They require several years to attain adult plumage; subadults look pied, white with irregular dark patches. Adult is our only all-dark heron. Compare white immature Little Blues to the slimmer, more graceful Snowy Egret. Though they can feed quite actively, they also often stand motionless in wait for unsuspecting prey. Unlike most other herons, Little Blue sometimes flies with neck partially outstretched, especially soon after taking off.

SNOWY EGRET Egretta thula

56-61 cm|22-24”

Fairly common to common and widespread in marshes and around lakes, ponds, and beaches and lagoons, even tolerating polluted areas; most numerous along coast, especially in and near mangroves. Mostly below 1500 m, a few higher. Iris and lores yellow (latter almost orange when breeding); slender bill black; legs black with bright yellow feet. Adult entirely white; when breeding, beautiful filmy aigrettes spring from the crown, back, and chest. Immature similar, but bill can be more yellowish or greenish; greenish yellow extends up rear of legs (as it does on some nonbreeding adults). Great Egret is much larger with proportionately longer neck and heavier bright yellow bill. Immature Little Blue Heron has a stouter bicolored bill, all greenish yellow legs. Elegant and lovely, Snowy Egrets tend to feed more actively than many other herons, often dancing and prancing about gracefully. They sometimes also stir shallow water, trembling a foot so as to startle hidden prey into view. When feeding conditions are favorable it can gather in large numbers, then often associating with other herons.

GREAT EGRET Ardea alba

91.5-99 cm|36-39”

Common and widespread in marshes and around lakes, ponds, and coastal lagoons, even where polluted; also often present around ponds in urban parks. Mostly below 1500 m, a few higher. Iris yellow, lores yellow-green (brighter green when breeding); heavy bill bright yellow; legs black. Large, slender, and long-necked. Entirely white. When breeding, long filmy aigrettes spring from back and foreneck. Snowy Egret is markedly smaller and has a slenderer black bill and black legs with only the feet yellow. Immature (white) Little Blue Heron has a bicolored bill, greenish legs. Feeding behavior similar to Cocoi Heron’s, standing motionless or moving slowly through shallow water, occasionally stabbing at prey. Great Egret is notably with flocks of a hundred or more birds gathering when conditions are right. Usually quiet, but like the other egrets can give a low-pitched throaty “ahhrrr” when flushed.

67 CATTLE EGRET GARÇA-VAQUEIRA

imm.

imm.

breeding adult LITTLE BLUE HERON GARÇA-AZUL

adult

SNOWY EGRET GARÇA-BRANCA-PEQUENA

imm.

GREAT EGRET GARÇA-BRANCA-GRANDE

breeding adult

adult breeding adult

CAPPED HERON Pilherodius pileatus

56-58.5 cm|22-23 cm

Uncommon but widespread in marshes, swampy areas, and along larger rivers; favors more wooded areas than many herons. To 800 m. Bill and facial skin cobalt to turquoise blue (more intense when breeding, when bill sometimes tipped purplish); legs grayish. Adult has “peaked” black crown with very long white head plumes (longest when breeding), small white forecrown patch. Face, neck, and breast creamy buff (deepest on neck, and when breeding). Above very pale pearly gray; belly white. Immature lacks plumes, has grayish crown streaking and no buff. Beautiful and unique; no egret has black on crown or blue on bill. Looks chunky in flight, with broad wings recalling Black-crowned Night Heron. Generally solitary though occasionally a few associate loosely while feeding, standing quietly and spearing prey. Usually wary and quick to flush, then often settling in trees.

COCOI HERON Ardea cocoi

112-122 cm|44-48”

WHISTLING HERON Syrigma sibilatrix

56-58.5 cm|22-23”

Fairly common and widespread around ponds, rivers, and marshes; generally more numerous southward. Mostly below 1000 m. Very large and long-necked. Iris yellow; facial skin greenish (bluer when breeding); massive bill yellow (orange when breeding); legs greenish. Adult has black crown, white neck and breast, and black belly with white thighs; upperparts pale bluish gray. Breeding birds develop long plumes: black on head, white on breast, and grayish white on scapulars. Immature less boldly patterned, more uniform grayish but already with a black crown; it lacks plumes. In flight shows much whitish on wing-coverts. Handsome and striking, the Cocoi is our only large, boldly black-and-white heron. It stands and waits for prey in shallows and at water’s edge, usually motionless but also slowly stalking ahead. Though most often solitary, gathers in groups where feeding conditions are good, then sometimes together with other herons. Usually quiet, disturbed birds utter a complaining “kwawk” as they flush.

Fairly common and widespread in grasslands and pastures, usually but not always near water; more numerous southward, and absent from all but far S Bahia. Mostly below 1000 m, smaller numbers to 1800 m. Rather heavy bill pink with black tip; bare facial skin pale blue, iris whitish; legs grayish, for a heron rather short. Crown and occipital plumes slaty with face, neck, and breast golden buff; belly white. Above bluish gray with wing-coverts buff streaked blackish and white rump conspicuous in flight. Immature has more streaked neck. Cf. Capped Heron (also with blue on face, but much paler with all-blue bill, etc.). Forages solitarily or in small loose groups, standing motionless before striking out at prey (large insects, frogs, worms, etc.). Though often in damp situations, generally they do not wade into water and do not associate with other herons. Distinctive call (the “whistle”), given especially in flight and sometimes with bill wide open, a shrill and piercing “weeee… weeee…,” sometimes in series. IBISES & SPOONBILLS (Threskiornithidae) are somewhat heron-like wading birds with, except in the spoonbill, decurved bills. Unlike the herons, they fly with their neck outstretched. Some species are on the next two pages.

BUFF-NECKED IBIS Theristicus caudatus

71-76 cm|28-30”

Fairly common to common and widespread in pastures and other grasslands, also locally in cerrado and campo rupestre, mainly in São Paulo and S Minas Gerais, smaller numbers in Rio de Janeiro. To at least 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). A large ibis, strikingly patterned. Iris red; bare black face and stripe on sides of chin; long decurved bill blackish; legs salmon pink. Adult has buff head, neck, and breast; crown and patches on hindneck and breast rufous, throat and chest paler; belly extensively black. Above mainly gray, becoming silvery on wing-coverts (this showing as a large area in flight and contrasting with black flight feathers). Immature duller with dusky streaking on head, neck, and underparts. An open country ibis, Buff-necked is not at all restricted to water and wades only rarely. Conspicuous birds, they range in (often noisy) groups and mainly forage on dry ground, picking at grass and probing soil for insects, even frogs. They tend to be wary, but sometimes are tamer when roosting in trees (often palms) around farm buildings. Often fly for long distances high above the ground, attention then often being drawn to them by their loud, farcarrying “tur-túrt” call, characteristically doubled. Roosting birds sometimes give lengthy choruses accompanied by bowing and other displays.

69 CAPPED HERON GARÇA-REAL

COCOI HERON GARÇA-MOURA

breeding adult

imm.

WHISTLING HERON MARIA-FACEIRA

imm. adult

BUFF-NECKED IBIS CURICACA

SCARLET IBIS Eudocimus ruber

56-61 cm|22-24”

Fairly common but very local in mangroves and on mudflats in coastal São Paulo, where perhaps most numerous around Cubatão. Formerly occurred N to Rio de Janeiro, and could recolonize (it became very rare in São Paulo, but now is increasing there); also a few recent records from Todos os Santos Bay near Salvador in Bahia (perhaps increasing?). Long decurved bill, facial skin, and legs pinkish (bill blackish in some birds when breeding). Intense scarlet with small black wingtips. Juvenile brown above with contrasting white rump; head, neck, and chest lightly streaked whitish; lower underparts also white, tinged pink and gradually intensifying to red with age. The fabulous adults are unmistakable, especially in flight; younger birds easily told from other ibises by the contrasting rump and belly. A notably gregarious ibis that roosts in mangroves and then disperses at low tide to forage in shallow water and on mudflats, probing into mud for small crabs. Sometimes occurs with flocks of egrets and other wading birds, but more often is on its own.

GREEN IBIS Mesembrinibis cayennensis

56-58.5 cm|22-23”

BARE-FACED IBIS Phimosus infuscatus

48-51 cm|19 -20”

WHITE-FACED IBIS Plegadis chihi

56-61 cm|22-24”

LIMPKIN Aramus guarauna

66-71 cm|26-28”

Local and uncommon around forested ponds, lakes, and streams in S Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and interior São Paulo with a few old Bahia records. Mostly 300-1200 m. Long decurved bill and rather short legs green (brighter and bluer when breeding); bare orbital area green. Adult dark bronzy green, somewhat blacker below; short bushy crest usually not too obvious but shiny green feathers on nape and hindneck usually are. Immature duller and blacker. Bare-faced Ibis is smaller and blacker with reddish facial skin, bill, and legs; it favors more open areas. Cf. also White-faced Ibis. Usually solitary, ranging at most in pairs or small dispersed groups. Wades in shallows, probing into mud and between stones; most active at dawn and dusk, sometimes feeding even at night. Flight jerky, with stiff quick wingstrokes. Distinctive call a mellow rolling “koro-koro-koro-koro” or “klu-klu-klu-klu,” given especially in flight and recalling Greater Ani. Uncommon in marshes, open grassy areas around ponds and lakes, and damp pastures in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais; in small numbers along São Paulo coast, maybe in expansion from S Brazil - increasing in coastal Santa Catarina (F. Straube). To 1000 m. Bare face and legs pinkish, long slender bill duller reddish brown. Adult black, glossed bronzy green above. Immature duller and less bronzy with duskier bill. White-faced Ibis is larger and longer-legged; breeding birds have more chestnut on their foreparts. The stockier Green Ibis has greenish bill and legs. A gregarious ibis most often seen in groups, sometimes with other wading birds; feeds mainly by probing damp ground, often flooded rice fields. Flight strong and steady, often quite high.

Rare visitant (mostly Jul-Jan) to marshes and around ponds and lakes, sometimes also coastal mudflats, mainly in São Paulo. Does not breed here. Occasionally to 800 m (Salesópolis). Iris red; facial skin reddish edged by white feathers; long decurved bill dusky and legs grayish (redder when breeding). Above dark metallic bronzy green. Breeding adult has head, neck, and underparts rich chestnut, wings with bronzy iridescence. Nonbreeders dull grayish dusky, head and neck with fine whitish streaking. Bare-faced Ibis is smaller and stockier with much shorter legs; its bill is pinker, plumage blacker. Cf. also Limpkin. Behavior much as in Bare-faced, but White-faced flies with long neck and legs outstretched, flapping interspersed with short glides on bowed wings. LIMPKIN (Aramidae) is a monotypic family of vaguely ibis-like bird, but actually most closely related to the Cranes (Gruidae). Fairly common around marshes and ponds, in both open and wooded situations. Locally to 900 m (Franca). Large and long-necked, with long drooping bill horn-colored with dark tip. Dark brown streaked white on head, hindneck, and upper back. Ibises have slenderer decurved bills, lack prominent streaking. Immature Black-crowned Night Heron has a shorter thick neck, heavier straight bill. Limpkins feed primarily on apple snails (Pomacea spp.) and perch freely in low trees, becoming tame where not persecuted. Flight strong with neck outstretched and legs dangled, wings jerking on the upstroke. Often noisy, with a variety of loud wailing calls given even at night, e.g., “carr-rr-rao.”

71 adult

adult SCARLET IBIS GUARÁ

imm.

GREEN IBIS COROCORÓ

BARE-FACED IBIS TAPICURU

WHITE-FACED IBIS CARAÚNA

breeding adult LIMPKIN CARÃO

imm.

ROSEATE SPOONBILL Platalea ajaja

76 cm|30”

WOOD STORK Mycteria americana

94 cm|37“

MAGUARI STORK Ciconia maguari

104 cm|41”

Locally fairly common visitant to brackish and saltwater lagoons and mudflats along coast, especially in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo and near mangroves; uncommon and quite local in marshes and along rivers inland. Not known to nest in our area, spoonbills occurring here being derived from further S and W. To 1000 m. Long, flat spatulate bill, yellowish; iris red, legs reddish. Adult has unfeathered head whitish to pale grayish, with blackish nape. Otherwise mostly pink, brightest when breeding and in older birds; neck, upper back, and chest white. Pinkest (at times almost red) on stripe on wing-coverts, both above and below; tail orange; a buff chest-tuft when breeding. Younger birds whiter overall, becoming pinker over three years. Virtually unmistakable but cf. Scarlet Ibis and Chilean Flamingo (both occurring only along coast). Gregarious, often joining other wading birds in shallow pools, feeding birds striding ahead and sweeping bills from side to side. Flies with neck outstretched and legs trailing. Formerly placed in monotypic genus Ajaia. STORKS (Ciconiidae) are large, long-legged wading birds that (unlike herons) fly with neck and legs extended and sometimes soar to great heights on flat wings. None is numerous in our area. Wide-ranging but only locally fairly common, in marshes and ponds; most numerous in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. To 1000 m. Blackish bill long and heavy, decurved at tip; legs dusky with pinkish feet. Adult has unfeathered dark gray head and neck, paler on crown with black band just to rear. Otherwise white with black flight feathers (mainly hidden except in flight) and black tail. Immature dingier, with head and neck partially feathered and browner. Maguari Stork has a straight bill, bare red face and reddish legs; it shows more black on closed wing. King Vulture has a somewhat similar flight pattern. The only stork at all numerous in our area; perhaps breeds in small colonies (especially N São Paulo) but most birds may come from farther west. Congregates in flocks when feeding conditions are good, often consorting with herons and egrets. Foraging birds shuffle in shallow water, sweeping their bills sideways. Though ungainly on the ground or when perched, Wood Storks are masterful fliers and can soar very high and fly great distances. Rare wanderer to open fields and marshy grasslands, usually but not always near water, in recent years easier to see in Rio de Janeiro and W São Paulo; has bred in interior São Paulo. To 400 m. Long straight bill grayish with darker tip; bare face orange-red; legs orange-red. Mostly white (though head and neck often look grayish from staining); scapulars, greater coverts, and flight feathers black, also tail. At rest shows much more black on wings than Wood Stork, the difference obvious even at great distances; also note straight bill, etc. Here usually seen as solitary birds, standing in the open or patiently stalking prey.

JABIRU Jabiru mycteria

132-137 cm|52-54”

Rare but apparently regular visitant to marshes, ponds, and rivers to interior São Paulo, a few vagrants elsewhere; not known to breed. To 900 m. Unmistakable: a huge stork with massive upswept bill; bill and legs blackish. Bare black head and neck with broad red band around neck (sometimes looks “swollen”). All white. Immatures dingier and grayer, with duller red on neck. Most often seen standing in or near shallow water, towering over other wading birds. Though takeoff is labored, once airborne Jabirus fly strongly, sometimes soaring very high. FLAMINGOES (Phoenicopteridae) are large, ultra-distinctive, very long-legged wading birds with unique, bent-downward bills that feed in shallow water.

CHILEAN FLAMINGO Phoenicopterus chilensis

99–109 cm|39-43”

Rare austral wanderer to lagoons and mudflats, mainly in coastal São Paulo but also Rio de Janeiro and even (as a vagrant) inland. To 800 m. Unmistakable. Iris pale yellow; bent-downward (“broken-nose”) bill whitish at base, black at tip; very long legs yellowish gray with pink “knees” and feet. Mainly pale pink, deepest on neck and chest; wing-coverts and tertials pinkish red. In flight the coverts contrast with mainly black flight feathers. Juvenile considerably whiter, even pale grayish, with pale pink mainly on wings. Cf. Roseate Spoonbill (really very different). Here flamingoes are seen singly or in very small groups, though elsewhere highly gregarious; the explanation for their recent increase remains uncertain. They feed on various aquatic invertebrates by wading in shallow water, sometimes holding the head underwater. Though they must run in order to take flight, once airborne flamingoes fly strongly, their long neck and legs outstretched. Breeds in S and W South America.

73 adults

ROSEATE SPOONBILL COLHEREIRO

imm.

WOOD STORK CABEÇA-SECA

imm.

adult

MAGUARI STORK MAGUARI

JABIRU JABURU, TUIUIÚ

adults

CHILEAN FLAMINGO FLAMINGO-CHILENO

AMERICAN VULTURES (Cathartidae) are large, superficially eagle-like birds whose small heads and necks are featherless, apparently so as to remain less soiled while feeding on carrion, their principal food. Their feet are relatively weak, not suitable for carrying food. They are strong fliers, and large numbers gather at good food sources. Recent evidence points to their forming a separate order, not especially close to either the diurnal raptors or the storks. TURKEY VULTURE Cathartes aura

66-76 cm|26-30”

Common and widespread in open lands and borders of forest and woodland and along coast. Mostly below 1800 m, occasionally to 2500 m. Bare head reddish and warty with whitish nape band; legs reddish pink. Blackish, wingcoverts often edged brown. In flight wings long and fairly broad, tail fairly long. Pale shafts on outer primaries show from above; from below wings look two-toned, with silvery gray flight feathers and blackish coverts. Immatures have head entirely blackish to grayish. Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture is slightly smaller and blacker; adults have head mainly yellow-orange, and whitish shafts of outer primaries form a patch as seen from above; it favors more open terrain. A familiar bird, mainly seen in flight but also when perched, especially on snags and on or near ground in open terrain. Resting birds sometimes face the sun with wings outstretched. Flying birds usually tilt from side to side, with wings held in a V-shaped dihedral, flapping only infrequently. At times they can soar very high. Turkey Vultures locate carrion mainly through their keen sense of smell and can even find food beneath the forest canopy. In Black and King Vultures the sense of smell is less well developed; they watch for Turkey Vultures’ descent and follow them down.

LESSER YELLOW-HEADED VULTURE Cathartes burrovianus 57-64 cm|23-25”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in open agricultural regions and grasslands, including campos, cerrado, and restinga; often most numerous where marshy. To 1200 m. Bare head and neck mostly orange-yellow with blue on crown; legs pinkish. Black. In flight wings resemble Turkey Vulture’s but shafts of outer primaries whitish, from above forming a conspicuous patch. Immature’s head dusky. Sometimes joins Turkey Vultures at carrion, but never seems as numerous. Flight style similar, also in a dihedral but not tilting as much and rarely flying very high, preferring to sail along relatively low above ground.

BLACK VULTURE Coragyps atratus

56-63.5 cm|22-25”

KING VULTURE Sarcoramphus papa

71-81 cm|28-32”

Very common, locally even abundant, and familiar in open terrain, with numbers greatest in settled areas, often especially in cities; fewer where forest is extensive. To 2400 m. Bill blackish with pale tip; legs also blackish. Bare head and upper neck dark gray. Dull black. In flight has broad, fairly long wings, and rather short tail (silhouette very different from Turkey Vulture); outer primaries have whitish base conspicuous from both above and below. Immature King Vulture is much larger and shows white mottling on underwingcoverts. Turkey Vulture has a different flight profile (longer wings, longer tail) and typically flies in a dihedral, gliding without much flapping; Blacks tend to intersperse short bouts of sailing with bursts of shallow and stiff wingbeats, though they also can soar very high. They often become tame around towns, there roosting in large groups, especially where there is abundant refuse around garbage dumps and along some shorelines. They can be aggressive around animal carcasses, and unlike Cathartes even capture some live prey. Uncommon and now rather local in wilder, mainly forested areas. Though formerly doubtless widespread across SE Brazil, the King Vulture now is basically absent from all deforested and settled areas; it is especially scarce in Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. Mostly below 1000 m, a few to 1600 m or even higher. Large. Adult’s bill caruncles orange-red, tip of bill red; head and neck bare and multicolored, with wrinkled head mostly gray, and “ruff” on neck dusky. Adult mostly white with flight feathers, rump, and short tail black. Immature sooty gray with whitish mottling on underwing-coverts; bare head grayish. Adult’s feathers are acquired over four-plus years. In flight the broad wings are held flat. Adult nearly unmistakable, though flight pattern resembles Wood Stork’s. Immatures can be confused, at least at distances when the size difference isn’t apparent, with much smaller Black Vulture (which has a pale patch in primaries, none on coverts). Kings are usually found solitarily or in pairs, soaring high in the sky, usually apart from the “lesser” vultures. Kings dominate the others at carcasses and, unlike them, are only rarely seen perched.

75 TURKEY VULTURE URUBU-DE-CABEÇA-VERMELHA

imm.

adults

imm.

LESSER YELLOW-HEADED VULTURE URUBU-DE-CABEÇA-AMARELA

adult

BLACK VULTURE URUBU-PRETO

adult

KING VULTURE URUBU-REI

adults

imm.

HAWKS, EAGLES, & KITES (Accipitridae) are the primary family of diurnal birds of prey, most with strongly hooked bills and sharp talons, adapted for killing and carrying prey. They are strong fliers, with many species soaring regularly, but others do not and are much less conspicuous. Identification can be difficult, many species having different plumages (age stages, morphs). Note that Ospreys are now considered to represent a separate family, Pandionidae. OSPREY Pandion haliaetus

54-58.5 cm|21-23”

Uncommon but widespread and conspicuous boreal migrant to areas near larger bodies of water, both fresh and salt. Mainly below 1000 m. A unique, fish-eating raptor whose rough soles and reversible hind toe aid in grasping its slippery prey. Slight bushy crest. Iris yellow; legs yellowish. Head and underparts white; some dark streaking on crown and chest. Dark brown eyestripe extends to nape and upperparts; tail barred grayish and dark brown, paler and grayer from below. Immature has brown-streaked crown, feathers above with buffy whitish edging. In flight long fairly narrow wings are held distinctively “crooked” with black patch at bend of wing. Totally distinctive in habitat, silhouette, and behavior. Generally solitary, Ospreys typically perch on branches near water and hunt while hovering and then plunging in feet-first after a fish near the surface. They usually glide on set wings, with flapping deep and deliberate. Ospreys give a variety of yelping or piping calls including an upward-inflected “cleeyp,” sometimes repeated. Breeds in North America (and Old World), with young birds remaining in South America for several years prior to returning north for breeding.

SWALLOW-TAILED KITE Elanoides forficatus

56-61 cm|22-24”

Uncommon to locally fairly common, widespread, and conspicuous in and above canopy of humid and montane forest and woodland; has a complex status, local breeders apparently migrating north during winter (mainly absent Apr-Jul), with some migrants from North America evidently present during summer. To at least 1700 m. A beautiful, graceful raptor with long pointed wings and unmistakable very long, deeply forked tail. Head, neck, and underparts white contrasting with black upperparts, wings, and tail. At close range back and upperwing-coverts can sometimes be seen to have a blue or green gloss. Preeminently aerial, resting birds perching inconspicuously in forest canopy or on snags. Flight graceful and buoyant, with deep slow wingstrokes and long periods of easy gliding and soaring (sometimes high). Rather gregarious, though less so when breeding. Feeds on insects captured in the air or snatched from foliage. Also captures frogs, lizards, and snakes. Usually quiet but can give shrill piping calls, especially in flight.

WHITE-TAILED KITE Elanus leucurus

38-40.5 cm|15-16”

PEARL KITE Gampsonyx swainsonii

23-25 cm|9 -10”

Uncommon but widespread and always conspicuous in pastures and open agricultural areas, also in natural grasslands. Mostly below 1200 m, locally to 1700 m. Seems most numerous in cultivated regions, and has increased due to agricultural expansion. Iris red; legs yellow. Adult has head, neck, and underparts white, some black in front of eye; back and wings pale pearly gray with extensive black on wing-coverts; long tail white, slightly notched. In flight wings long and pointed; underwing white with primaries blackish, black patch near bend of wing. Juvenile has a more orange eye, brown streaking on crown and nape, and pale gray tail. This lovely kite should not be confused; Plumbeous Kite is much grayer and favors wooded rather than open terrain; it does not hover like the White-tailed so often does. American Kestrel often occurs with it and also hovers, but has very different face pattern, rufous in tail, etc. Usually perches in the open, foraging mainly in the early morning and later afternoon. Flight languid and graceful with deep wing strokes and wings held in a shallow dihedral while gliding. Hunts mainly while hovering with body angled upward at around 45 degrees, dropping to the ground after rodents, its primary prey. Very quiet. Uncommon and somewhat local but increasing in open and agricultural areas; now seems most numerous in interior São Paulo. Locally to 1000 m. Small and quite falcon-like. Iris carmine; legs yellow. Adult slaty blackish above with forehead and cheeks creamy buff and white nuchal collar; tail gray above, paler below. White below with blackish patch on sides of chest and buff thighs. In flight wings pointed, underwing pale. Not likely confused, as no other falcon-like raptor is so pale and small. American Kestrel has rufous above and on its longer tail, has spotting or streaking below, etc. Perches in the open on wires or atop low trees, capturing insects and small lizards in a short dive to ground. Often confiding. Not especially vocal.

77

OSPREY ÁGUIA-PESCADORA

SWALLOW-TAILED KITE GAVIÃO-TESOURA

WHITE-TAILED KITE GAVIÃO-PENEIRA

adults

imm.

PEARL KITE GAVIÃOZINHO

ICTINIA kites are attractive notably aerial raptors, mainly gray, with pointed wings; the primaries are spread when soaring.

PLUMBEOUS KITE Ictinia plumbea

34.5-37 cm|13.5- 14.5”

Fairly common in canopy of humid and semideciduous forest and woodland; most numerous inland. Apparently present mainly during summer (ca. AugFeb), when it breeds, with hardly any records at other times. Mostly below 1200 m. Iris red; short legs orange-yellow. Adult leaden gray, head slightly paler and mantle darker; wings blackish with inner webs of primaries rufous (usually hidden on perched birds); tail blackish with two white bands (not evident from above). In flight rufous in primaries is usually obvious. Immature has whitish head streaked blackish; above slaty, feathers edged paler; below buffy whitish streaked dark gray; primaries with less rufous. On perched birds wings extend well past tail. Cf. very rare Mississippi Kite. Generally conspicuous birds, Plumbeous Kites soar and glide gracefully, often high in the sky; when flying, can be quite gregarious. They subsist primarily on insects captured in flight, sometimes snatched from the canopy and often consumed while still on the wing. Perched birds tend to rest on open limbs and snags.

MISSISSIPPI KITE Ictinia mississippiensis

35.5-38 cm|14- 15”

Generally similar to the much more numerous Plumbeous Kite, the Mississippi Kite is a boreal migrant to SW Brazil, with only a single recent record from our area (in N Minas Gerais). It is recorded regularly on southward passage (Oct-Nov) in W Mato Grosso do Sul, so is quite possible in W São Paulo. Adult has whitish head contrasting with dark gray mantle and contrasting pale gray secondaries showing as an obvious panel on upperwing; tail all black (no white bands). Immatures differ in having reddish brown (not gray) streaking below. Mississippi’s tail is longer and its wings shorter than Plumbeous Kite’s (not extending past tail tip). Behavior much as in Plumbeous; migrants often occur in flocks. Breeds in North America. HARPAGUS kites are sluggish forest-based raptors, both species with a dark throat stripe. They have two notches in their maxilla.

DOUBLE-TOOTHED KITE Harpagus bidentatus

31.5-35.5 cm|12.5 -14”

RUFOUS-THIGHED KITE Harpagus diodon

31.5-35.5 cm|12.5 -14”

Rare in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia, Espírito Santo, NE Minas Gerais, and (old records only) N Rio de Janeiro. Below 400 m. Iris orange; legs yellow. Adult has bluish gray head and brownish gray upperparts; rather long tail blackish with three narrow pale grayish bands and tip. Throat with dusky median stripe; below with variable amount of grayish or brown barring, breast more solidly rufous; crissum white. more uniform rufous below, with little or no barring. In flight wings fairly long and rounded, their underside (especially underwing-coverts) mainly white, contrasting with dark body; crissum feathers fluffy and white. Immature dark brown above, scapulars often mottled whitish. Pale buff below with variable amount of brown streaking and barring. In flight recalls an Accipiter, though the kite’s wings are longer and more bowed and its white crissum is more conspicuous. Immature Rufous-thighed Kite has rufous thighs and underwingcoverts. Immature Gray-lined Hawk is larger, lacks the throat stripe, and has a prominent pale brow and malar stripe. Usually spotted while perching quietly, most often at edge, often allowing a close approach; hunts for lizards and large insects and elsewhere known to follow monkey troops. Soars regularly, especially during mid-morning when it sometimes circles high. Perched birds occasionally give a thin whistled call, e.g., “wheeey-whit, pii, wheeey-whit!” Uncommon summer breeding resident in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, smaller numbers in semideciduous and gallery forest; apparently migrates to Amazonia and NE Brazil during austral winter (mainly absent May-Jul). To 1600 m. Iris reddish orange, cere and loral skin yellow; legs yellow. Handsome adult has gray head and neck, slaty blackish upperparts; rather long tail blackish with three narrow pale grayish bands and tip. Throat with dusky stripe; below pale gray with white crissum and rufous thighs. In flight wings fairly long and rounded, with rufous underwing-coverts. Immature brown above, whitish below with usually obvious brown streaking and some barring; thighs already rufous. Cf. range-restricted Double-toothed Kite. Bicolored Hawk has different behavior and overall aspect (though similar plumage); it lacks the throat stripe and rufous underwing-coverts. Behavior much as in Double-toothed Kite, also soaring regularly.

79

adult

adult

PLUMBEOUS KITE SOVI

imm. imm.

MISSISSIPPI KITE SAUVEIRO-DO-NORTE

adult

adult imm.

DOUBLE-TOOTHED KITE GAVIÃO-RIPINA

adult

imm.

imm. adult

RUFOUS-THIGHED KITE GAVIÃO-BOMBACHINHA

imm.

adult imm.

adult

HOOK-BILLED KITE Chondrohierax uncinatus

38-43 cm|15- 17”

Uncommon and local in humid and semideciduous forest and woodland, locally into montane areas, also in araucaria forest. To at least 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Iris whitish; bare crescent above eye yellow-orange and heavy and strongly hooked bill with greenish cere and facial skin combine to impart a strange visage; legs orange-yellow. Complex plumage variation. Lightmorph adult slaty gray to blackish above; below barred gray and whitish or pale buff; tail black with two broad whitish bands. In flight broad, rounded wings are narrow at their base and held somewhat forward, mainly grayish with primaries banded blackish. Light-morph adult slaty brown above with gray face and prominent rufous nuchal collar; below coarsely barred rufous brown and creamy whitish. In flight shows rufous-barred underwing-coverts, banded flight feathers. Scarce dark-morph adult (both sexes) more or less uniform brownish black, including underwing; tail bands as in light morph. Light-morph immature brown above with blackish crown; white to creamy white nuchal collar, sides of neck, and underparts, the latter often with coarse dusky barring (sometimes extensive); tail with three gray bands, narrower than adult’s. Dark-morph immature as in adult but tail bands narrower. This often confusing raptor is usually better recognized from its face pattern and large bill rather than any single plumage character; in flight its “paddle-shaped” wings are distinctive, but it can then resemble a Roadside Hawk. Rather sluggish, perching for long periods as it scans the canopy for land snails; also eats small lizards and frogs. Soars regularly, but usually not for very high or for long. Perched birds infrequently give a fast chattered “weh-keh-eh-eheheheheh.”

SNAIL KITE Rostrhamus sociabilis

40.5-45 cm|16-17.75”

Widespread and locally fairly common to common and conspicuous around marshes, ponds, and sometimes wet pastures; locally even in city parks. To at least 1200 m. Iris red; bill slender and very sharply hooked, with cere, lores, and orbital ring yellow-orange to occasionally red (duller in juveniles); legs orange-red to orange-yellow. Adult slaty black; uppertail-coverts, crissum, basal half of tail, and tail-tip white. Adult blackish brown above with buffy whitish forehead and superciliary; throat buffy whitish, below creamy buff heavily mottled and streaked dark brown; rearparts and tail as in . Immature similar but browner above, more heavily streaked below. In flight wings broad and rounded, ’s underside blackish, and immature’s browner with whitish flight feathers. The bill shape is diagnostic. Cf. immature Great Black Hawk (larger, with a many-banded tail) and dark-morph Hook-billed Kite (very different soft part coloration, etc.). Notably gregarious, gathering in groups where feeding conditions are good, and may undertake local movements. Usually perches in the open, often on fence posts, sometimes even on wires. Flight surprisingly agile, quartering slowly over wetlands on slightly bowed wings, searching for the Pomacea snails that comprise most of its diet; eats crabs and small turtles when snails are in short supply. Uses its bill to pry them out, often at regularly used perches. Perched birds occasionally give a nasal “eh-eh-eh-eh-eh,” also a raspy “kahhrrrr.”

LONG-WINGED HARRIER Circus buffoni

48-50 cm|19-20” 55-57 cm|20-22.5”

Rare to locally uncommon in campos, cerrado, open agricultural areas, and marshes; a bit more numerous inland than along coast. To 1200 m (Canastra). Variable, but always shows contrasting silvery gray flight feathers with black barring. Light-morph black above with white forehead and eyestripe; white below with black band across upper chest; rump white, tail with several gray bands. In flight wings long and narrow, upperwing-coverts black, underwing uniformly barred. Light-morph browner above with whitish superciliary and malar area, and dark “crescent” behind ear-coverts; breast and belly pale buff with sparse dark streaking, heaviest on chest. Rare dark morph (both sexes) mostly sooty black; wings and tail as in light morph. Flying birds are distinctive, but when seen perched – not often – dark-morph birds can be tricky; cf. Zone-tailed Hawk. Usually seen in steady flight low over the ground, occasionally sometimes higher, with wings held in a shallow dihedral and sometimes tilting from side to side; not often seen perched. When prey is spotted it pulls up and plunges feet-first to the ground.

81 HOOK-BILLED KITE CARACOLEIRO

adult

imm. adult dark-morph adult

light-morph imm.

adult

SNAIL KITE GAVIÃO-CARAMUJEIRO

adult adult

adult

adult

LONG-WINGED HARRIER GAVIÃO-DO-BANHADO

light-morph adult

dark-morph adult

imm.

light-morph adult

light-morph adult

ACCIPITER hawks are forest-based raptors whose rather short and rounded wings and squared-off tails assist them in maneuvering through dense cover as they pursue prey, principally birds. Females are markedly larger than males. TINY HAWK Accipiter superciliosus

20.5-23 cm|8-9” 26-28 cm|10-11”

Rare and local in humid and foothill forest and borders; now seems most numerous in E and S São Paulo. Locally to 900 m (Jurupará). Very small. Iris orange-red. Adult blackish above, blackest on crown; white below narrowly and evenly barred dark gray except on throat; tail blackish with 3-4 dark gray bands. Immatures are relatively often seen, and are dimorphic. Typical birds grayish above with darker crown, tail banded brown and grayish brown; below pale buff narrowly barred rufous. Rufous morph rufous brown above with darker crown; buff below obscurely barred rufous. This species’ diminutive size is usually sufficient for identification. The larger Rufous-thighed Hawk has rufous-buff cheeks (adults) and rufous thighs. Barred Forest Falcon, also larger, has more extensive yellow facial skin, lacks the darker crown, has a more graduated tail. This fierce little Accipiter ambushes small birds from hidden perches mainly in the subcanopy; it even regularly captures hummingbirds. In early morning one occasionally suns itself in the open, but it rarely or never soars.

RUFOUS-THIGHED HAWK Accipiter erythronemius

25.5 cm|10-11” 28-30.5 cm|11-12”

Uncommon but widespread in a variety of wooded and forest-edge habitats; but much less numerous in Espírito Santo and E Bahia. Locally to 1900 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Iris and legs yellow. Adult has cheeks and throat rufous-buff, slaty gray upperparts; tail blackish with 3-4 grayish bands. Below white with variable amount of rufous barring, thighs solidly rufous and crissum white. In flight wings rather short and rounded, pale flight feathers with bold dark banding. Immature brown above, feathers sometimes with rufous edging; below buffy whitish with some brown streaking and barring, already with rufous thighs. Our most numerous Accipiter, and has even become established in São Paulo city, seeming commoner there than in surrounding forest areas. Seen singly, rarely remaining in the open for long though at times can be very bold. A small bird predator that dashes swiftly through cover, relying on surprise for a successful capture; also ambushes from hidden perches. Sometimes circles or sails high, our only Accipiter to do so. Usually silent but breeding s give a “kyu-kyu-kyu-kyu-kyu.” Sometimes considered conspecific with Sharp-shinned Hawk (A. striatus) of North America, despite the huge range disjunction and marked plumage differences.

BICOLORED HAWK Accipiter bicolor

33-36 cm|13-14” 43-46 cm|16-18”

Widespread but always rare in humid, semideciduous, and montane forest, woodland, and borders. To 1700 m. Iris orange-yellow; legs yellow. Adult has blackish crown and slaty gray upperparts; rather long tail blackish with 2-3 gray bands; underwing-coverts rufous. Below uniform gray with rufous thighs (but these are often hidden by belly feathers), crissum white. Immature dark brown above with blacker crown; partial nuchal collar buff to white. Note adult’s overall two-toned gray appearance. Young birds can be tricky to identify. Immature Collared Forest Falcon is closest but has a dark crescent on ear-coverts, longer legs, and longer more graduated tail. Adult of the smaller Rufous-thighed Kite has similar plumage but its structure and behavior differ; note its median throat stripe, lacking blackish crown, etc. Cf. also even rarer Gray-bellied Hawk. Bicolored Hawk is usually inconspicuous, though hunting birds can be bold, almost fearless. Rarely perches in the open, hunting from an ambush by dashing off after an unsuspecting quarry. Unlike Rufous-thighed Hawk, rarely flies above the canopy. Generally quiet, though territorial birds give a cackling, “keh-keh-keh-keh….”

GRAY-BELLIED HAWK Accipiter poliogaster 38-44 cm|15-17.25” 44-51 cm|17.25-20”

Rare and local in humid and montane forest and borders; possibly most numerous in S São Paulo. Mostly below 1000 m, rarely higher. Iris, cere and orbital skin, and legs yellow. Adult slaty blackish above, blacker on crown with cheeks either blackish or gray (seemingly two morphs); tail blackish with three gray bands and white tip. Below white to very pale gray, crissum white. Immature very different, remarkably like larger Ornate Hawk-Eagle: brownish black above with rufous cheeks, nuchal collar, and sides of chest; white below with bold black barring and spotting. The eagle has feathered legs and a much longer, pointed crest. Adult Bicolored Hawk is grayer below with rufous thighs. Cf. Slaty-backed Forest Falcon (very rare in N lowlands). Behavior much as in Bicolored Hawk, though Gray-bellied favors forest canopy; likewise not known to soar. Call a shrill rising whistle, “wheey? wheey? wheey?”

83

TINY HAWK GAVIÃO-MIUDINHO

rufous-morph imm. gray-morph imm.

adult

adult

adult adult RUFOUS-THIGHED HAWK GAVIÃO-MIÚDO

imm.

BICOLORED HAWK GAVIÃO-BOMBACHINHA-GRANDE

adults imm.

GRAY-BELLIED HAWK TAUATÓ-PINTADO

adult

imm.

adults

The following two species were formerly placed in the genus Leucopternis but were recently separated into two new genera, mainly on the basis of genetic differences.

MANTLED HAWK Pseudastur polionotus

49.5-53.5 cm|19.5-21”

Rare to uncommon in foothill and montane forest and borders from S Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly 300-1200 m. Cere and lores bluish gray; legs yellow. Head, neck, upper back, and underparts white; upperparts slaty black, many feathers of back and rump tipped white often giving a scaly look. Rather short tail mainly white, upperside with broad black band at base. In flight wings broad and rounded, underwing mainly whitish, outer primaries black. Immature shows blackish streaking on crown and nape. Most likely confused with smaller White-necked Hawk, which has a very different tail pattern and differing behavior (rarely soaring, etc.). Sometimes found perching quietly at forest edge, then often allowing a close approach, but comes into its own when soaring effortlessly over mountain forests, regularly quite high. Call a drawn-out scream, “wheeeyr,” shrill and high-pitched, sometimes doubled, given both in flight and while perched.

WHITE-NECKED HAWK Amadonastur lacernulatus VU

43-47 cm|17-18.5”

Uncommon in humid and foothill forest, sometimes also woodland and borders, from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 800 m. Cere and lores bluish gray; legs yellow. Head, neck, upper back, and underparts white; above slaty black, nearly unmarked. Tail white with broad black subterminal band (visible from both above and below). Immature has dusky streaking on hindcrown and nape. In flight underwing mainly whitish, flight feathers sharply edged black. Mantled Hawk is larger with a mainly white tail and more white markings on its mantle. White-necked is mainly a lowland bird while Mantled favors mountainous regions. White-necked seems relatively sluggish, infrequently perching high and sometimes even quite low inside forest; it mainly eats insects and has been seen following army ant swarms. Soars only briefly, flying birds more often just moving between trees. Less vocal than Mantled Hawk, with call a simple “shreeyr” sometimes several times in succession. Hawk, with call a simple “shreeyr” sometimes several times in succession.

GRAY-HEADED KITE Leptodon cayanensis

46-53.5 cm|18-21”

Uncommon but widespread in humid and semideciduous forest, woodland, and borders. Mainly below 1000 m, occasionally to 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Often looks oddly small-headed. Adult’s cere and legs bluish gray. Adult has pearly gray head, slaty blackish upperparts, and white underparts; tail black with two pale grayish bands. In flight has fairly long and rounded wings and long tail; underwing-coverts black and flight feathers barred, the dark wings contrasting with white underparts. Immatures dimorphic, with yellow cere and legs. Light morph has head, neck, and underparts white with small black crown patch; above dark brown. Dark morph has blackish brown head and blackish-streaked underparts (some almost solidly dark across chest, others with throat white except for a dark median stripe or rusty neck). All immatures have white underwing-coverts. Streaked immatures especially confusing, often best known by their unusual shape (small head, long tail, etc.). Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle differs in shape, bright orange cere, black lores, and blacker upperparts with white leading edge to wing. Ranges in forest canopy, sometimes perching in the open in early morning. Soars especially during territorial display. Its wide diet includes insects, snakes, lizards, and small birds. Gives a loud nasal cackling, “kuh-kuh-kuh-kuh-kuh-kuh” both in flight and when perched; also a distinctive slurred “kreee-yow.”

CRANE HAWK Geranospiza caerulescens

46.5-51 cm|18.25-20”

Uncommon but widespread in humid, semideciduous, and foothill forest and woodland. Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Iris yellowish white, cere gray; long legs pinkish red. Gray with fine whitish barring below and on wings; long tail black with two white bands. In flight wings rather long and rounded, with conspicuous white band crossing black primaries. Immatures show more whitish barring below. Some individuals have buffier lower belly and crissum; tail bands can also be buff. The distinctive shape, long reddish legs, and barred underparts should identify perched birds; white primary band unique. Forages by hopping from branch to branch and on trunks, probing into crevices and epiphytes with its double-jointed legs, flapping to maintain balance. Soars regularly, though usually not too high or for very long. Call an infrequent “sweeoo.”

85

MANTLED HAWK GAVIÃO-POMBO-GRANDE

WHITE-NECKED HAWK GAVIÃO-POMBO-PEQUENO

imm.

adult imm.

adult

GRAY-HEADED KITE GAVIÃO-DE-CABEÇA-CINZA

adult adult CRANE HAWK GAVIÃO-PERNILONGO

imm.

ROADSIDE HAWK Rupornis magnirostris

33-38 cm|13-15”

Common to very common in forest and woodland borders, clearings, agricultural areas, even in and around many towns and cities. One of Brazil’s most numerous and widespread raptors. To 2000 m. Iris pale yellow, cere yellow, legs bright yellow. Adult brownish gray above and on throat; tail banded dull gray and blackish. Below white with broad rufous streaking on chest, lower underparts with rufous barring. Immature browner above, often with whitish superciliary and speckling on neck; streaking and barring on underparts browner. At all ages flying birds show extensive area of rufous in primaries, visible especially from both above and below, not equaled in any other hawk. Cf. immature Gray-lined Hawk. Roadside is a conspicuous and often tame raptor, well named so often does it perch along roads. Though seeming sluggish at times, it actually is quite fierce, capturing a wide variety of prey. Perched birds often wiggle tail sideways. Regularly flies with shallow flaps interspersed with short glides, but also soars, sometimes quite high, especially during display when often very vocal. Calls include rapidly repeated screams, e.g., “kree-kree-kree… ” and a slurred “kreeeah.” Formerly placed in genus Buteo. BUTEO hawks are “typical” midsized raptors, with broad rounded wings and broad, often fanned tails that are adapted for frequent soaring. They favor semiopen areas and forest edge, and prey mainly on small mammals. Two species (Roadside and White-tailed) have recently been split out.

GRAY-LINED HAWK Buteo nitidus

40.5-45 cm|16-17.75”

Uncommon and local in semideciduous forest and woodland (including restinga) and adjacent clearings in interior São Paulo (where apparently a recent immigrant), E Bahia, Espírito Santo, and (old records only) N Rio de Janeiro. Mostly below 600 m. Iris brown; cere and legs yellow. Adult pale gray above, palest on head and neck, with dark gray barring; tail black with 2-3 white bands. Below white with dense gray barring. In flight underwing whitish with fine gray barring. Immature dark brown above with face and bold superciliary whitish. Below whitish to creamy buff, heavily streaked and spotted brown. Attractive adults are easy to identify, young birds more difficult but note their often blotchy pattern below; cf. young Roadside Hawk (pale-eyed, etc.). Perches at varying heights, hunting a variety of prey, often attacking from an ambush. Soars regularly, but usually not too high. Calls include a repeated whistled phrase, “wuu-yeéuw,” and a single abrupt loud “keeeuw.” Sometimes called Gray Hawk.

SHORT-TAILED HAWK Buteo brachyurus

39.5-43 cm|15.5-17”

Uncommon in semiopen areas and forest and woodland borders. Mostly below 1500 m, occasionally to 2100 m. Light-morph adult (predominant) blackish brown above, this extending onto sides of head and neck imparting a hooded effect; forehead whitish. Below white. Tail grayish brown with indistinct pale bars. In flight underwing pale, underwing-coverts white and flight feathers with faint dark barring. Dark-morph adult sooty black but for whitish forehead; tail as in light-morph. In flight blackish underwing-coverts contrast with paler flight feathers. Light-morph immature has head streaked pale buff, dark streaking on sides; dark-morph immature has whitish markings below and on underwing. Light-morph White-tailed Hawk is larger and has a black subterminal band on white tail. Compared to dark morph, Zone-tailed Hawk has comparatively longer and narrower wings and tail, the latter showing an obvious white band; it flies in a dihedral. Short-tailed – whose tail is not particularly short – is almost always seen in flight, most often soaring high, occasionally with vultures and other raptors. Perched birds are usually hidden in the canopy of trees. Hunts on the wing, after sighting prey (usually a bird) folding its wings and plummeting after it. Generally silent but gives a high-pitched whistle, “kleeeeu.”

WHITE-RUMPED HAWK Buteo leucorrhous

35-38 cm|13-15”

Rare to locally uncommon in foothill and montane forest (Including araucaria forest) of Rio de Janeiro, extreme S Minas Gerais, and S São Paulo. Mostly 5001800 m. Conspicuous orange-yellow eye; yellow-orange legs. Adult black with white rump (usually hidden when perched) and crissum, and rufous on thighs; tail blackish with single gray band (from below contrastingly white). In flight shows contrasting white underwing-coverts. Immature has rufous streaking on head and back; below creamy whitish with coarse blackish streaking. Usually noted in flight, soaring low over mountainous terrain; infrequently seen perched. Call a high-pitched squealing whistle, “skee-ee-ee-a.” Now sometimes placed in genus Parabuteo, though behavior and appearance are very different from its supposed congener, Harris’s Hawk.

87 imm. ROADSIDE HAWK GAVIÃO-CARIJÓ

adult

adult

imm.

adult adult

GRAY-LINED HAWK GAVIÃO-PEDRÊS

imm.

light-morph adults

SHORT-TAILED HAWK GAVIÃO-DE-RABO-CURTO

dark morph

WHITE-RUMPED HAWK GAVIÃO-DE-SOBRE-BRANCO

imm.

adults

imm.

adult

ZONE-TAILED HAWK Buteo albonotatus

47-56 cm|18.5-22”

Rare to locally uncommon in forest and woodland borders and semiopen areas, records scattered and less numerous southward. To at least 1200 m. Cere and legs yellow. Adult uniform slaty blackish; rather long, narrow tail blackish with one wide and several narrow white bands. In flight wings rather long and narrow, two-toned with black underwing-coverts and paler flight feathers. Immature has variable amount of white speckling below and its tail lacks obvious white bands. Zone-taileds fly with a marked dihedral, seeming to mimic the much more numerous Turkey Vulture; apart from its featherless head, the vulture differs in its larger size and lack of tail bands. Dark-morph Short-tailed Hawk has broader and shorter wings and much less obvious tail banding. Zone-taileds are not often seen perched but when they are, separation from other dark raptors can be tricky (c.f. Great Black Hawk and dark-morph Long-winged Harrier). Generally flies fairly low. Not especially vocal, perched birds occasionally giving a rough scream, “reeeeah.”

SWAINSON’S HAWK Buteo swainsoni

48-56 cm|19-22”

WHITE-TAILED HAWK Geranoaetus albicaudatus

51-61 cm|20-24”

Very rare boreal migrant to open terrain in Rio de Janeiro and E São Paulo; occurs mainly during southward passage (Nov-Jan), wintering in Argentina. Cere and legs yellow. Light-morph adult (predominant) dark brown above with whitish uppertail-coverts; tail gray with blackish barring, underside dusky with more numerous darker bars and subterminal band. Throat white contrasting with brown chest band; below buffy whitish. In flight underwingcoverts contrastingly creamy whitish. Dark-morph adult uniform dark brown with whitish undertail-coverts; underwing less contrasty. Intermediates occur, as does a rare rufous morph. Most birds seen in Brazil are immatures; these are variable, usually with buffyish face and dark eyeline and malar streak; buff below with often heavy dark spotting and chevrons and usually a blotch on sides of chest. Immatures confusing but fortunately they already show adult’s distinctive underwing pattern and pale uppertail-coverts. That the Swainson’s flies with a slight dihedral helps. Migrants sometimes rest on ground. Breeds in North America. Broad-winged Hawk (B. platypterus), another boreal migrant, occurs as a vagrant to Rio de Janeiro. Adult dark brown above; white below, extensively rufous on breast with some rufous belly barring; a single white tail band. Most birds occurring here are immatures: brown above with dark malar, whitish below with brown streaking. Immature Gray-lined Hawk has a paler face and bolder whitish superciliary, blotchier streaking below especially on sides. Uncommon to locally fairly common in various types of open terrain including certain agricultural areas; deforestation has likely resulted in an increase. To at least 2000 m. Cere and legs yellow. Light-morph adult slaty gray above and on sides of head and throat (forming “hood”), with usually prominent rufous scapulars; rump and tail white with wide black subterminal band. Below white. In flight underwing mainly whitish, flight feathers more grayish. Dark-morph adult (less numerous) uniform slaty gray, some birds with a little rufous on scapulars; tail as in light-morph. Immatures blackish brown above with pale brow and dark malar, usually with some rufous on scapulars; buffy whitish below with usually extensive dark mottling; tail grayish, palest on uppertail-coverts. A magnificent, powerful raptor that tends to perch low, even on the ground, but also soars majestically to great heights. It sometimes hunts while hovering into wind and is regularly attracted to fires. Until recently placed in genus Buteo.

HARRIS’S HAWK Parabuteo unicinctus

48-53.5 cm|19-21”

Rare to locally uncommon in semideciduous woodland and agricultural terrain, locally even urban areas including especially São Paulo city; perhaps increasing in our area, for reasons that remain uncertain. To 900 m. Cere, lores, and legs yellow. Adult sooty blackish with extensively rufous wing-coverts, also thighs; crissum white. Uppertail-coverts, base and tip of tail white; tail otherwise black. In flight wings rather long and narrow, underwing-coverts rufous (but wings usually look all dark). Immature browner with buffy whitish mottling and streaking; already some rufous on wing-coverts; underwing paler than in adults, tail pattern less distinct. Handsome adult distinctive, but young birds can be confusing; cf. the larger White-tailed and Savanna Hawks and /immature Snail Kite. This rather aggressive raptor often perches in the open, sometimes several together; elsewhere it is known to hunt cooperatively. Gives a high-pitched scream, e.g., “kreee, kreee, kreee.”

89 imm. ZONE-TAILED HAWK GAVIÃO-URUBU

light-morph imm.

adults

dark-morph adult

light-morph adults

SWAINSON’S HAWK GAVIÃO-PAPA-GAFANHOTO

dark-morph adult

imm.

light-morph adults

WHITE-TAILED HAWK GAVIÃO-DE-RABO-BRANCO

imm.

HARRIS’S HAWK GAVIÃO-ASA-DE-TELHA

adult imm.

adult

RUFOUS CRAB HAWK Buteogallus aequinoctialis

42-46 cm|16.5-18”

SAVANNA HAWK Heterospizias meridionalis

53.5-61 cm|21-24”

Now apparently extirpated from mangroves along the São Paulo coast with no records since the nineteenth century (at Iguape). As it still occurs in coastal Paraná, definitely to be looked for here; the reasons for its decline in São Paulo remain obscure, especially as what would appear to be adequate mangrove habitat remains. Below 50 m. Cere and facial skin and legs yellow-orange. Head and throat gray; above otherwise gray with feathers more or less heavily edged rufous; short tail blackish with single narrow and irregular whitish band; inner primaries and secondaries black-tipped and rufous basally (visible as a wide band on closed wing). Below dull cinnamon-rufous narrowly barred blackish. In flight underwing primarily rufous, especially flight feathers. Immature brown above with narrow whitish superciliary and cheeks, dark eyeline; wings with tawny patch at base of primaries; tail brownish gray with numerous dark bars. Below buffy whitish with variable amount of dark streaking and spotting. This mangrove obligate will normally be known by habitat, where few similar raptors are found; the larger Great Black Hawk can occur in mangroves, and immatures are similar aside from the size difference and the Rufous Crab Hawk’s tawny-rufous in wings. Savanna Hawk is considerably larger and not as dark above, and it too occupies an entirely different habitat. Seen singly or in pairs, often perching low and regularly even resting on mud, where it hunts for crabs. Also circles low over the mangroves, often while calling vociferously, a fast and shrill “kree-kee-kee-kee-kee-kee.” Common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas virtually throughout. Locally to at least 1500 m. Large and long-legged. Base of bill and legs yellow. Handsome adult mostly dull cinnamon-rufous with upperparts and wings variably mixed with gray, underparts with inconspicuous fine black barring; rather short tail black with white median band and tip. In flight wings very long and broad with underside, especially flight feathers, rather bright rufous, flight feathers tipped black. Immature variable and sometimes confusing though in its earliest stages showing at least some rufous, first on its wing-coverts, scapulars, and thighs. Sooty brown above with buffy whitish forehead and superciliary; below buffy whitish usually heavily streaked and mottled dusky; tail blackish with narrow buff banding. Look for this species’ long legs and its rufous (even when limited in extent); immature Great Black Hawk is shorter-legged and never shows any rufous. Cf. also young of the smaller, less powerful, and longer-tailed Harris’s Hawk. A conspicuous big raptor, the Savanna Hawk often perches low, regularly even on the ground; it also soars freely and majestically, on broad flat wings. Feeds on a variety of small mammals, birds, frogs, reptiles, and even large insects and regularly attracted to fires. Not very vocal, with call a drawn-out scream, “kreeeeeeur.” Formerly placed in genus Buteogallus.

BLACK-COLLARED HAWK Busarellus nigricollis

46-51 cm|18-20”

Uncommon to locally fairly common around marshy ponds and reservoirs in interior São Paulo, to which it has apparently only recently spread from the west. Elsewhere mainly absent, with a few records from coastal Rio de Janeiro; aside from there, mostly 300-800 m. Unmistakable adult bright rufous above with contrasting creamy whitish head and throat; nape and back sparsely streaked black; short tail blackish with narrow rufous bands near base and a white tip. Below bright cinnamon-rufous with conspicuous broad black crescent across chest. In flight wings very broad and rounded, mostly cinnamon-rufous with contrasting black primaries and trailing edge to secondaries. Immature much duller, though it already shows the contrasting whitish head and a dark brown collar; above brown mottled and barred rufous, below pale buff mottled and streaked dark brown. Usually perches low, pouncing on fish in shallow water or just beneath floating vegetation, its unusual spiny soles aiding it in grasping prey. Usually tame, allowing a close approach. Though it often seems sluggish, Black-collared Hawks are capable of soaring to great heights on their broad flat wings. Perched birds regularly give a drawn-out, low-pitched and raspy “reh-h-h-h-h-h-h-h-h.”

91

RUFOUS CRAB HAWK GAVIÃO-CARANGUEJEIRO

adult

imm.

adult

imm.

SAVANNA HAWK GAVIÃO-CABOCLO

imm. adult

adult

BLACK-COLLARED HAWK GAVIÃO-VELHO

adult

imm. imm.

adult

GREAT BLACK HAWK Buteogallus urubitinga

53.5-61 cm|21-24”

Rare to uncommon but widespread in humid and semideciduous forest and woodland borders, especially near water, and locally in mangroves; less numerous around populated areas. Mostly below 1000 m. Cere and fairly long legs yellow. Adult uniform slaty black with basal half of rather short tail white. In flight wings broad and rounded, underwing blackish and showing little pattern (flight feathers paler, sometimes some white at base of primaries). Immature has buff face with dark brown eyeline and malar streak; dark brown above with variable amount of buff streaking and mottling. Below pale buff coarsely streaked dark brown, thighs barred. Tail somewhat longer than adult’s, grayish with 5-8 narrow blackish bars. Adult, though a large bird, is much less massive than Crowned Solitary Eagle, adults of which are basically gray (not black) and have a short crest. Immature most likely confused with immature Savanna Hawk, though even the youngest Savannas show at least some rufous, especially on their wings (Great Blacks never do). Cf. also immature Black-chested Buzzard-Eagle. Though often sluggish and unsuspicious, Great Blacks are powerful birds of prey capable of capturing quite large birds and mammals; they also take snakes, amphibians, and even fish. They regularly perch low, even on the ground, but also soar high. Most frequent call a piercing and quite loud “ku-eeeeeeeeeeeee-uu,” rather drawn-out. Also gives a shrill “k-reeeeee” and (in flight) an extended fast “kukukukukukuku.” Sometimes placed in genus Urubitinga.

CROWNED SOLITARY EAGLE Harpyhaliaetus coronatus EN

71-84 cm|28-33”

Rare in cerrado and grasslands and around woodland patches in wilder parts of the interior and in mountainous regions. Mostly 500-2000 m. Huge. Adult gray, often tinged brownish and somewhat darker on bushy crest and mantle; short tail black with single white band and tip. In flight has uniformly gray wings with outer primaries blackish. Immature, which already shows a crest, brown above with buffy whitish face and brow. Below buffy whitish variably streaked dusky, often darker on sides of chest; thighs dark brown. Underwing rather pale and uniform, flight feathers with black tips and trailing edge. Can usually be known by its immense size alone. Adult Great Black Hawk is blacker and lacks the crest; immature also lacks crest and has barred (not dark) thighs. Immature Black-chested Buzzard Eagle, also a very large bird, is darker and more heavily marked below, including on its underwing. Pairs of this spectacular eagle occupy very extensive territories where they frequently perch in the open, most often in trees but also on the ground or on termitaries. Preys primarily on terrestrial mammals and birds. Call surprisingly weak, a plaintive descending “peeeeeeur.” Sometimes placed in genus Urubitinga, or in Buteogallus. Often called simply the Crowned Eagle, though that name conflicts with an African raptor.

BLACK-CHESTED BUZZARD-EAGLE Geranoaetus melanoleucus 62-68 cm|25-27”

Rare to uncommon and local in semiopen, usually hilly or mountainous terrain in Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. Mostly 500-1800 m. Large and impressive. Cere and legs yellow. Adult unmistakable, with a short, wedge-shaped tail that barely protrudes past wings in flight. Upperparts and throat gray, merging into a black shield on breast; belly white with dusky vermiculations. Wing-coverts pale gray vermiculated black; short tail dark gray. In flight wings long and broad, especially at their base (this, combined with the short tail, imparts an unusual, delta-wing effect); underwing-coverts whitish, flight feathers grayer. Immatures require three years to acquire adult plumage and have a longer tail than adult. At first rather pale on head and underparts with obvious barring on thighs; then becoming much darker and more uniform, showing little streaking; finally, remaining dark, especially on underparts, but by then will have acquired gray wing-coverts. Immature Crowned Solitary Eagle is even larger and decidedly paler below, with less blotchy streaking; it also has a paler underwing. The buzzard-eagle is a powerful raptor that mainly takes various small mammals and is regularly seen in pairs, gliding effortlessly along cliffs on flat or slightly raised wings. They often perch on rocks and cliff faces. Call a surprisingly high-pitched “kee-ee-u” or “kere-kee-kee.”

93 GREAT BLACK HAWK GAVIÃO-PRETO

imm.

adult

adult

imm.

adult

adult

imm. CROWNED SOLITARY EAGLE ÁGUIA-CINZENTA

imm.

adult

BLACK-CHESTED BUZZARD-EAGLE ÁGUIA-CHILENA

imm.

adult imm.

HAWK-EAGLES are magnificent, large, forest-based raptors, none of them especially numerous. All three, especially the Black, are often seen soaring at mid-day on outstretched wings. BLACK-AND-WHITE HAWK-EAGLE Spizaetus melanoleucus 53.5-61 cm|21-24”

Rare in humid forest and woodland, locally also in more semideciduous situations and into lower montane areas. To 1200 m (Itatiaia). Iris yellow and cere bright orange with black lores; legs yellow. Adult has short black crest and snowy white head, neck, and underparts; above otherwise black. Tail blackish with three grayish bands, underside whitish with 3-4 dark bars. In flight wings broad and relatively long, their underside mainly white, with faint dark barring on flight feathers. From above wings show a prominent white leading edge on inner wing (“headlights”). Immature slightly browner above. Immature Ornate Hawk-Eagle has long pointed crest, lacks Black-and-white’s conspicuous orange and black on face and the black-barred flanks and thighs. In flight its wings are proportionately shorter, its tail longer; it lacks Black-and-white’s white leading edge. Immature light-morph Gray-headed Kite is remarkably similar, but it too lacks the orange and black on face. This exceptionally handsome eagle is most often seen in graceful soaring or gliding flight, much less often when perched. It hunts mainly from the wing, stooping swiftly on unsuspecting prey (primarily good-sized birds such as pigeons and parrots), but sometimes also waits in ambush from a hidden perch. Unlike our other two hawk-eagles, Black-and-white is not very vocal, only occasionally giving a fast whistled “whip-whip-whip-whip-wheéyp.”

ORNATE HAWK-EAGLE Spizaetus ornatus

58.5-68 cm|23-26.75”

BLACK HAWK-EAGLE Spizaetus tyrannus

63.5-71 cm|25-28”

Rare in humid forest and borders, occasionally up into foothills, mainly from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1200 m (Serra da Gandarela). A beautifully patterned hawk-eagle whose long erectile pointed crest is usually held straight up. Iris bright orange-yellow. Adult has black crown and crest; face, neck, upper back, and sides of chest rich rufous bordered by long black malar stripe; above brownish black. Below white with breast, belly, and thighs prominently barred black. Long tail boldly banded black and pale gray. In flight wings broad and rounded, mostly whitish with flight feathers banded blackish. Immature has head, neck, and underparts white and already has the crest (mixed black and white) and blackish barring at least on flanks and thighs; above browner. The smaller Black-and-white Hawk-Eagle has conspicuous orange and black on face; it lacks the long pointed crest and never shows black barring below. Plumage of immature Gray-bellied Hawk is superficially much like adult Ornate, but it differs its smaller size, much shorter crest, and unfeathered legs. Cf. also young light-morph Gray-headed Kite. Despite its large size this spectacular handsome hawk-eagle is not a terribly conspicuous bird, seeming to soar less than the others and less likely to move out over adjacent open areas. Flying birds vocalize frequently, with call’s quality being similar to Black’s though with different pattern, the long slurred note coming first, e.g., “wheeeeer, whip, whip, whip.” Rare to locally uncommon in humid and lower montane forest and borders from SE Bahia to São Paulo. To 2000 m (Itatiaia). Iris orange-yellow. Adult black with short erectile bushy crest basally white; flanks and thighs barred white. Long tail banded black and dusky-gray, its underside boldly banded black and paler gray. In flight wings long, broad, and rounded and held slightly forward with a notably indented rear margin (“butterfly wings”) with underwing-coverts black and flight feathers boldly banded black and white. Immature has creamy whitish superciliary; crown and sides of head mottled black and white. Above blackish brown, below mixed buff and blackish (streaked on chest, barred lower down, especially on thighs); underwingcoverts more marked with white than in adult. No other blackish raptor has such conspicuous banding on the underside of its wings. Cf. Ornate HawkEagle (which really is quite different). Black-morph Hook-billed Kite has a somewhat similar flight pattern. A powerful bird of prey that hunts birds up to the size of large parrots and small to midsized mammals, stooping on them from a hidden perch. Most apt to be seen during soaring flight, especially during sunny midmornings, when its frequent and loud vocalizing often draws attention to it. That call is a loud and far-carrying whistled “wheep, wheep, whee-teeeeeeeyr” with that distinctive long final drawn-out note (also sometimes given on its own).

95 BLACK-AND-WHITE HAWK-EAGLE GAVIÃO-PATO

ORNATE HAWK-EAGLE GAVIÃO-DE-PENACHO

adult

adult

imm.

imm.

BLACK HAWK-EAGLE GAVIÃO-PEGA-MACACO

adult

adult

imm. imm.

CRESTED EAGLE Morphnus guianensis VU

HARPY EAGLE Harpia harpyja VU

71-84 cm|28-33”

Very rare and now very local in humid forest and borders from SE Bahia to S São Paulo, with only a single recent record (Belmonte, Bahia); the species may well be extirpated from the rest of our region. Mainly in lowlands, but recorded to 1700 m (Caparaó). Very large. Almost the length of a Harpy Eagle but more slightly built, with broad tail proportionately longer (with proportions almost those of an Accipiter). much larger than . Cere gray, legs yellow. Long, erectile, single-pointed crest. Light-morph adult has head and chest pale ashy to brownish gray with crest black; above blackish with wing-coverts fringed whitish; tail boldly banded black and pale gray. Below white with some fine cinnamon barring. In flight wings broad and rounded with underwing-coverts white, flight feathers white barred with blackish. Rare dark-morph (“banded”) adult blacker above with foreneck blackish; lower underparts boldly barred black and white. Intermediates between the two occur. Younger birds are somewhat variable. Head, neck, and underparts white (foreparts gradually becoming grayer with age), wing-coverts (especially) and back with whitish marbling; tail at first with narrow banding. The even larger Harpy Eagle has broader wings, a shorter tail, and much thicker legs. Adult Harpies are obvious enough, but younger individuals of the two are readily confused (especially Cresteds vs. Harpies). Note especially the Harpy’s bifurcated crest (which develops quite early), and in flight its black on underwing-coverts. Hawk-eagles are much smaller. Surprisingly secretive for such a large bird, Crested Eagles usually remain within the canopy though occasionally one will rest on an open branch at the forest’s edge. Like Harpies, Crested Eagles often ignore people and thus all too frequently they get shot. Occasionally one will circle above the canopy or sail across a valley, but unlike the hawk-eagles Crested does not soar. Feeds on small to midsized mammals (even small monkeys), snakes, and some birds. Call rarely heard, a hawk-eagle-like scream, “wheeeeyr-br,” very high-pitched. Acutely threatened by deforestation and shooting. 89-99 cm|35-39”

Very rare and now very local in humid forest and borders in lowlands from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. Recent records – there are only a few – exist from SE Bahia (Serra Bonita), Espírito Santo, and SE Minas Gerais. To 800 m. A huge, powerful eagle; very heavily built, with massive bill, legs, and talons. much larger than . Long, erectile, double-pointed crest. Iris amber. Adult has head and neck pale gray with crest blackish; above blackish; broad, fairly long tail boldly banded black and pale gray. Broad chest band black; below white with thighs barred black. In flight wings very broad and rounded, underwing-coverts white with conspicuous black bar and black axillars, flight feathers white with black barring. Young birds require four years to acquire adult plumage. Head (even the crest), neck, and underparts white; wing-coverts and back pale gray (gradually darkening); tail at first with more and narrower banding and underwing-coverts initially lacking the black. The Harpy is so huge that confusion is improbable except with Crested Eagle; cf. under that smaller and slenderer species. An indication of the adult Harpy’s black chest band appears early on, and these often provide a clue. Considered the most powerful bird of prey in the world, Harpy Eagles feed on various midsized mammals (including monkeys and sloths) and larger birds. Nonetheless, given its large size, the Harpy is a remarkably inconspicuous bird, remaining inside forest and only on rare occasions perching at edge or launching across an open area; it does not soar. Likely because of their size, Harpies are unafraid of people, and rarely flee. They thus present tempting targets and, at least in the past, have all too often been shot. One hopes that such incidents will never happen again, and that Harpy populations can gradually recover, with the loss of their forest habitat and a reduced prey base then becoming the most serious threats to their survival. Harpies have nearly or entirely disappeared from vast regions, including most of SE Brazil. A whistled “wheeeee” or “wheeee-wheea” is given infrequently, especially around nests, which are very large and placed high above ground in emergent trees; the same site is often used for many years.

97

CRESTED EAGLE UIRAÇU-FALSO

dark-morph adult

light-morph adult light-morph adult

imm.

imm.

HARPY EAGLE HARPIA

adult

imm. adult imm.

FALCONS & CARACARAS (Falconidae) comprise another group of diurnal birds of prey, but note

that recent (genetic) evidence indicates they are not closely related to the hawks and eagles (Accipitridae). They differ in their notched upper mandibles and other anatomical characters.

RED-THROATED CARACARA Ibycter americanus

51-56 cm|20-22”

Apparently extirpated from our region, with old records from interior São Paulo and from SE Bahia (Rio Pardo). A few are still present in nearby Goiás and Mato Grosso do Sul, so recolonization is conceivable. This unmistakable caracara inhabited the canopy and borders of semideciduous and humid forest and woodland. Below 500 m. Bare face and small throat patch red. Glossy black with contrasting white belly. Immature’s face more yellowish and bare throat blackish. Occurs in monospecific groups of five to six birds that fly with slow deep wingstrokes, generally through or just above the canopy, never soaring. Foraging birds can descend lower, and at such times may be notably unsuspicious. Feeds mainly on bee and wasp eggs and larvae obtained by ripping apart their nests, somehow without being stung; also eats some fruit. No other bird, not even the great macaws, can generate as much noise as a group of this caracara. Most frequent is a raucous “kra-kra-kra-kra-kow” or just a “kra-kow;” also sometimes a mellower “kowh” that can be repeated multiple times. In flight gives a drawn-out “krraah.”

YELLOW-HEADED CARACARA Milvago chimachima

40-45 cm|15.75-17.25”

Very common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, regular even in cities and towns and along beaches; in recent years has increased tremendously and now almost omnipresent. To 2100 m (Serra dos Órgãos, Itatiaia). A small caracara with weak bill and talons. Adult creamy to yellowish buff with narrow dark postocular streak; mantle blackish brown. Uppertailcoverts buff with rather long and rounded tail yellowish buff with narrow dusky bars and broad tip. In flight wings dark with prominent buff patch in primaries. Immature much darker, with head and neck streaked brown, throat and breast mottled and streaked, belly barred. Cf. especially Chimango Caracara (much scarcer). Southern Crested Caracara is much larger, blackish and white, etc. Seen singly or in pairs and conspicuous everywhere; often patrols highways for roadkill, and also walks regularly on ground and accompanies cattle. Eats mainly carrion, but also takes some live food. Flight consists of several shallow flaps followed by a glide on down-bent wings; sometimes flies quite high but does not really soar. Frequently gives an unpleasant, rather nasal scream, “screeeah.”

CHIMANGO CARACARA Milvago chimango

38-42 cm|15-16.5”

SOUTHERN CRESTED CARACARA Caracara plancus

51-58.5 cm|20-23”

Rare but apparently increasing in semiopen habitats along S São Paulo coast (mainly on Ilha Comprida, where often right on the beach). Occurs mainly during winter, and perhaps colonizing from further south (where it is very numerous). Mostly below 100 m; once at 600 m (Leme, São Paulo). Resembles Yellow-headed Caracara though slightly smaller; often shows some pinkish at base of bill. Darker and more uniform brown (sometimes quite rufescent) with little streaking, and little or no barring on tail. In flight shows an equally obvious buff patch in primaries. Behavior, including its omnivorous diet, much the same, but vocalizations are less screechy, often sharper. Fairly common to common and widespread in cerrado, semiopen, and agricultural areas, and forest/woodland borders. To 2100 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Cere, base of heavy bill, and facial skin orange reddish to yellow (perhaps yellower in younger birds, though some have suggested that this occurs when the bird is excited); bill pale blue, rather long legs yellow. Adult has black crown with slight bushy crest contrasting with buffy whitish to whitish sides of head, throat, and breast; neck, back, and breast with narrow blackish barring. Uppertail-coverts and basal half of tail whitish with faint dark barring and black tip. Belly and thighs blackish, crissum white. Wings blackish to blackish brown with white patch in primaries conspicuous in flight. Immature browner overall with adult’s white areas buffier; upper back and underparts somewhat streaked. Adult unmistakable. Younger birds should show enough head pattern and bill color as to be recognizable; in flight their flashy wing and tail pattern will be obvious. Usually perches in the open, often on fences or the ground. Flies strongly with steady, deep wingbeats, sometimes ascending high but soaring only briefly. An opportunistic feeder, mainly eating carrion and regularly feeding with vultures but also takes some live prey. Like Yellow-headed Caracara regularly patrols highways for roadkill. Usually quiet, but has various low guttural calls or cackles. Sometimes called Southern Caracara, even though it is not the southernmost-ranging caracara.

99 RED-THROATED CARACARA GRALHÃO

YELLOW-HEADED CARACARA CARRAPATEIRO

imm.

CHIMANGO CARACARA CHIMANGO

adult

adult

imm. adult

adult

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SOUTHERN CRESTED CARACARA CARCARÁ

LAUGHING FALCON Herpetotheres cachinnans

46-51 cm|18-20”

BARRED FOREST FALCON Micrastur ruficollis

33-38 cm|13-15”

CRYPTIC FOREST FALCON Micrastur mintoni

33-38 cm|13-15”

Uncommon but widespread in canopy and borders of humid and semideciduous forest and woodland (including restinga) and adjacent cleared areas with scattered trees; has increased with deforestation. Mostly below 1100 m, a few to 1600 m. A distinctive “puffy-headed” raptor, with pale buff head and underparts and contrasting broad black mask from lores to nape; faint blackish streaking on crown. Above dark brown; tail blackish with 3-4 buff bands. In flight blackish wings show a caracara-like prominent buff patch in primaries. Much slimmer Yellow-headed Caracara has similar buff coloration but no broad mask (only a thin eyestripe). Usually seen singly, perched upright on a prominent branch with good visibility; often remains motionless for long periods scanning for snakes, its primary prey. Flies with stiff shallow wingbeats (recalling an amazon parrot); does not soar. Well known from its distinctive, loud, “laughing” vocalizations, given primarily at dawn and dusk but also at other times (even at night). Most frequent is a “guá-co, guá-co, guá-co…” or simply “guá, guá, guá…,” at times repeated for several minutes. The calls can be less measured, breaking into what sounds like maniacal laughter. Pairs occasionally vocalize together, calling in syncopation. MICRASTUR forest falcons are inconspicuous forest-dwelling raptors with short rounded wings, long graduated tails, fairly distinct facial ruffs. They are heard far more often than seen. Widespread but uncommon inside humid, montane, and (locally) semideciduous forest and woodland, though rare or even locally absent in coastal lowlands. To 1600 m. Facial skin and orbital area bright yellow; long legs yellow. Graymorph adult slaty above, wings somewhat browner (especially in s); throat whitish, below white barred black. Tail blackish with 3-4 narrow white bars and tip. Rufous-morph browner above and with rufous chest. Immature dark brown above usually with partially broken whitish to buff nuchal collar. Buff to whitish below with coarse dusky barring (some all barred below, others almost unmarked). In north, cf. rare Cryptic Forest Falcon. Adult Tiny Hawk is much smaller, lacks extensive yellow facial skin, and has wider gray tail banding. Immature Bicolored Hawk also has wider grayish tail banding and never shows barring below. Perches quietly inside forest, mainly low and at midlevels; hard to spot except when flushing. Eats some birds, and also attends army antswarms. Like the other forest falcons, does not soar or fly above canopy. Song a sharp staccato “our!” or “ahnk!” repeated at several-second intervals, speeding up when excited. Agitated birds give a faster or more varied series.

Rare and local inside humid forest in lowlands of SE Bahia and N Espírito Santo. Below 100 m. Only recently described as a species, having long been confused with Lined Forest Falcon (M. gilvicollis) of Amazonia. Resembles graymorph Barred Forest Falcon (which seems to be absent in Cryptic’s lowland forest). Differs in its white iris, reddish orange facial skin and orbital area, and single white tail band; dusky barring below sparser, mainly on breast, and fainter. Immatures very similar. Behavior nearly identical, with song a repeated “uhk, uhk, uhk…,” often continuing for a minute or more, typically faster and lower-pitched than Barred’s song. COLLARED FOREST FALCON Micrastur semitorquatus 51-58.5 cm|20-23” Uncommon in humid, montane, and semideciduous forest and woodland. To 1600 m. Large and lanky, with very long tail. Base of bill and orbital area olive; legs yellow. Adult blackish above, black of hindcrown arching across cheeks as a crescent; tail blackish with 3-4 narrow whitish bands. White to buff below (rarely tawny), the color extending up as narrow nuchal collar. Scarce dark morph all sooty blackish, sometimes with pale spotting or barring below. Immatures browner than adult above, nuchal collar less distinct or rufescent. Below whitish to deep buff, coarsely barred or chevroned dark brown. Much larger than other forest falcons, with unique facial pattern. Usually furtive, but a fierce predator, feeding mainly on birds. Song a steadily repeated series of hollow “ow” notes. Also gives a faster series of 8-11 “ko” notes ending with two lower-pitched “oow” notes. Slaty-backed Forest Falcon (Micrastur mirandollei) Very rare inside humid forest in lowlands of S Bahia and N Espírito Santo; known only from two old records. Cere, lores, and orbital ring bright yellow. Adult uniform gray above, uniform whitish below; tail blackish with 3 narrow white bars. Immature has coarse dark mottling below. Larger than Barred and Cryptic Forest Falcons; never neatly barred below.

101

LAUGHING FALCON ACAUÃ

BARRED FOREST FALCON GAVIÃO-CABURÉ

adult imm. imm. light-morph adult CRYPTIC FOREST FALCON FALCÃO-CRÍPTICO

rufous-morph adult adults

COLLARED FOREST FALCON GAVIÃO-RELÓGIO

adults adult

imm.

FALCO falcons vary in size from the small kestrel to the large and powerful Peregrine. s are much smaller than s. They fly very fast on long pointed wings.

BAT FALCON Falco rufigularis

24-28 cm|9.5-11”

Uncommon at edge of forest and woodland and in adjacent clearings, where often perching on isolated snags. Mostly below 1000 m, a few to 1500 m. Small. Head blackish, upperparts dark slaty; tail with narrow white bars. Throat, sides of neck, and chest buffy whitish; breast and upper belly blackish narrowly barred whitish; lower belly and crissum rufous. In flight wings narrow and basically dark. Cf. much rarer Orange-breasted Falcon. White-collared Swift has much the same shape. Singletons or pairs perch for protracted periods on their favored snags, but capture their prey (birds, large insects, bats) on the wing. Call a shrill “kee-kee-kee-kee…”

ORANGE-BREASTED FALCON Falco deiroleucus

35.5-40.5 cm|14-16”

Very rare and local at edge of humid forest and around gorges with extensive cliffs, where they nest; recorded only from S Bahia, SE Minas Gerais, S Espírito Santo, and N Rio de Janeiro. To at least 600 m. Very large talons obvious when perched. Resembles smaller Bat Falcon but blacker above with white throat, orange-rufous chest and sides of neck, dark “vest” on breast with coarser and more prominent buff to whitish barring. Immature paler below. In flight broad-based wings resemble Peregrine’s more than Bat Falcon. The much more numerous Bat Falcon can be hard to distinguish, s being almost as large as Orange-breasteds. Perches on snags and cliffs, launching out to hunt birds up to the size of parrots. Cackling call, given mostly around eyries, a loud “kyah-kyah-kyah-kyah.”

PEREGRINE FALCON Falco peregrinus

38-48 cm|15-19”

APLOMADO FALCON Falco femoralis

37-43 cm|14.5-17”

AMERICAN KESTREL Falco sparverius

25.5-29 cm|10-11”

Uncommon summer visitant to open areas, principally near coast and larger bodies of water but also roosting on tall buildings and towers in larger cities such as São Paulo and Rio. Mainly a boreal migrant (Oct-Apr), but birds from austral populations could occur as well; not known to breed here. Mostly below 1000 m. Large and heavily built with long, pointed, and broad-based wings. Adult dark bluish gray above, head blacker; wide black moustache and whitish cheeks; tail with buffyish barring. Below white with variable amount of blackish barring, sides tinged pinkish buff. In flight underwing whitish with black barring. Immature browner above with buffier head and often a pale brow; below buffy whitish with often extensive dark streaking. Except in favored locales usually seen singly, perching in the open, often on snags, sometimes even resting on the ground. Hunts for larger birds, either stooping on them from above or overtaking them in very fast flight. Nearly cosmopolitan, but not nesting in Neotropical lowlands. Uncommon in open, often grassy areas including larger pastures and agricultural fields, sometimes even in cities such as São Paulo. To 1800 m. A handsome, slender, long-tailed falcon. Adult bluish gray above with buffy whitish superciliary, white cheeks, and small black moustache; tail blackish with narrow white bars. Throat and chest mainly white; breast band and sides blackish with narrow white barring; lower underparts and thighs rufous-buff. In flight wings show narrow white trailing edge. Immature browner above, chest more streaked. Peregrine Falcon is larger with broader wings and a proportionately shorter tail. Seen singly or in pairs, perching in the open and most often pursuing birds (even swifts and hummingbirds) in level flight; also hawks insects, and regularly attracted to grass fires. Generally silent. Common, widespread, and conspicuous in open and semiopen areas, both natural agricultural, even locally in heavily built-up areas. To 2000 m (Serra do Espinhaço). Small but with a long tail. blue-gray crown, white face with black moustache and ear stripe; rufous back contrasts with blue-gray wings; tail rufous with black subterminal band and white on sides. Below whitish sparsely spotted black. rufous above barred blackish, face pattern as in ; tail brown barred blackish. Below whitish streaked brown. Cf. Pearl Kite (dark gray above, etc.). A familiar raptor that regularly perches on roadside wires and hunts while hovering, plunging to ground after insects and small mammals. Quite vocal, with distinctive call a shrill “killy-killy-killy…”

103 BAT FALCON CAURÉ

ORANGE-BREASTED FALCON FALCÃO-DE-PEITO-LARANJA

adult PEREGRINE FALCON FALCÃO-PEREGRINO

adult imm. APLOMADO FALCON FALCÃO-DE-COLEIRA

imm.

adult

AMERICAN KESTREL QUIRIQUIRI

RAILS, GALLINULES, & COOTS (Rallidae) are small to midsized, typically skulking birds that favor dense vegetation near water. Many are best known from their calling. Some, especially certain gallinules, regularly swim. OCELLATED CRAKE Micropygia schomburgkii

15 cm|6”

Uncommon and very local in remaining tall-grass campos in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. 500-1200 m. Bill bluish gray; iris bright red; legs pink. Above buffy brown with numerous black-edged white spots. Face and underparts bright yellowish buff. If you are fortunate enough to see this rarity, its minute size and profuse spotting will be distinctive. Secretive, seeming almost invisible in tall grass, emerging in response to playback or when forced out by fire. Far-carrying ventriloquial song, often given as a duet, a combination of almost musical tinkling notes, “titititititi…” and high-pitched growls.

YELLOW-BREASTED CRAKE Porzana flaviventer

14 cm|5.5”

RUFOUS-SIDED CRAKE Laterallus melanophaius

15 cm|6”

Rare and very local in marshes in S Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. To 500 m (Piracicaba). Fairly heavy blackish bill; legs yellow. Crown and stripe through eye blackish, separated by white superciliary; brown above streaked and spotted with white, tertials and scapulars broadly edged buff. Sides of neck and breast creamy buff, throat and belly whitish; flanks and crissum boldly barred black. Uniquely colored for a rail in our marshes. Ocellated Crake inhabits grassland; it is obviously spotted above and lacks the dark crown. Though not particularly shy, Yellow-breasteds are hard to see as they favor such dense growth; on calm early mornings one occasionally will rest in the sun on a grass stem. Call, not often heard, a weak and semimusical “piii di,” easily passed over. LATERALLUS crakes are small, inconspicuous rails with short stout bills and short often cocked tails. Heard far more often than seen, most range in marshy areas. Fairly common and widespread in marshes and damp areas with luxuriant grass; the most numerous Laterallus in open areas. To at least 1000 m. Bill dusky with bright green at base of maxilla; legs brownish. Olive brown above. Face, sides of neck, and breast rufous with white median underparts, flanks boldly banded black and white. Cf. rarer Rufous-faced and Red-and-white Crakes. Creeps about in dense grass and other vegetation where usually very hard to see but sometimes in the open soon after dawn and can respond to playback. Presence generally revealed by its abrupt descending churring, “tr-r-r-r-r-r-r-r,” that lasts several seconds and often is answered by another bird, likely its mate. Also gives high-pitched tinkling calls and a “treeeeeng.”

RUFOUS-FACED CRAKE Laterallus xenopterus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Apparently very rare and local (but likely overlooked) in marshy or seasonally flooded campos in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais; only a few records (Itirapina, Felixlândia). 750-800 m. Bill and legs bluish gray. Head, hindneck, and upper back rufous; bold black-and-white wing-barring; tail black. Foreneck ochraceous buff, throat and lower underparts white, flanks boldly barred black. Rufous-sided Crake lacks wing-barring, has green on bill, etc. Poorly known; very hard to see. Call a descending churring much like Rufous-sided’s.

RED-AND-WHITE CRAKE Laterallus leucopyrrhus

15 cm|6”

Rare and local in marshes, often quite small and surrounded by forest or woodland, from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro to S São Paulo. Mostly 600-1500 m, locally down to sea level (Ubatuba). Bill dusky with bright yellow and green at base; legs pink. Head and neck rich rufous, extending down to sides, contrasting with mainly white underparts. Above dark olive brown. Flanks boldly barred black; crissum white or mixed black and white. An attractive, richly colored crake with distinctive pink legs; the much more numerous Rufous-sided Crake is more olivaceous above (much less rufescent) and has brownish legs. General behavior as in Rufous-sided; voice virtually identical.

RUSSET-CROWNED CRAKE Laterallus viridis

16 cm|6.25”

Uncommon and seemingly somewhat local (perhaps overlooked) in dense undergrowth of woodland, restinga, and regenerating cleared areas; not tied to vicinity of water. To 1100 m. Bill blackish; iris bright red; legs pink. Crown rufous with contrasting gray face. Uniform olive brown above; rich cinnamonrufous below, paler on throat. Not likely confused, but cf. the larger Uniform Crake (with longer and greener bill, and more uniform rufous, lacking gray on face, etc.). Difficult to see, even birds responding to playback typically remaining in such thick vegetation that they stay hidden. Occasionally climbs up into thickets. Song a long and loud descending churring, more sputtering and hesitant toward end; more staccato than in Rufous-sided.

105 OCELLATED CRAKE MAXALALAGÁ

YELLOW-BREASTED CRAKE SANÃ-AMARELA

RUFOUS-SIDED CRAKE SANÃ-PARDA

RUFOUS-FACED CRAKE SANÃ-DE-CARA-RUIVA

RED-AND-WHITE CRAKE SANÃ-VERMELHA

RUSSET-CROWNED CRAKE SANÃ-CASTANHA

SPECKLED RAIL Coturnicops notatus

14 cm|5.5”

GRAY-BREASTED CRAKE Laterallus exilis

14 cm|5.5”

Rare and very local in marshes, rice fields, and flooded pastures; thus far known only from three sites in SE São Paulo (recently, Pindamonhangaba and Tremebé) but possibly has a wider distribution, and more overlooked than rare. 500-800 m. Bill bluish gray; iris bright red; legs gray. A tiny rail with unique, mainly blackish plumage with white streaking on head, neck, breast, and back, and white barring on belly; wings with wavy white barring. In flight shows a conspicuous white patch on secondaries. Poorly known and extremely hard to see due to its small size and inhabiting such dense grassy vegetation; thought perhaps migratory, or at least dispersive. Only a few records, some from when birds have been seen during rice harvest (JanMar). A “koowee-cack” call has been described and apparently is given at night. One of the least known Neotropical birds, this enigmatic species may be partially nocturnal. Uncommon in wet areas with tall grass, marshy vegetation around lakes, and rice fields; probably occurs in most of our area, but only very locally, where there is suitable habitat; easily overlooked unless voice is known. To at least 900 m (Uberaba). Bill blackish with pale green at mandible base; iris bright red; legs brownish yellow. Head and foreneck gray with whitish throat; nape and upper back contrastingly chestnut. Otherwise olive brown above; belly white, flanks and crissum banded black. The combination of gray foreneck and chestnut nape patch is unique. Furtive and usually nearly invisible, creeping mouse-like in dense grass, sometimes ascending a grass stem but hardly ever emerging from cover. Song a short descending churring, often introduced by scratchy notes; typically harsher and briefer than Rufous-sided Crake’s song. Also gives a high-pitched tinkling call, “ti, tee-tee-tee-tee-tu.”

PAINT-BILLED CRAKE Neocrex erythrops

18.5 cm|7.25”

Rare and very local in marshes, tall grass in wet areas, and rice fields; so far only recorded from SE Bahia, Espírito Santo, and E Minas Gerais, but perhaps overlooked. To ca. 850 m. Bill basally bright orange-red, otherwise yellowish green; iris dark red; legs salmon pink. Head and underparts dark gray with median throat white and blackish and white barring on flanks; hindcrown and upperparts olive brown. Red on bill should preclude confusion with other crakes; but cf. Small-billed Tinamou. Like so many smaller rails, hard to see, but reported sometimes to emerge from dense cover to feed at dawn and dusk; sometimes seen during rice harvest. When pressed sometimes will fly off weakly for a short distance; most crakes merely run away. Song a series of chirping notes delivered at an irregular pace; long-continued, it can go on for several minutes with only momentary pauses. Excited birds give a low churring.

ASH-THROATED CRAKE Porzana albicollis

22 cm|8.5”

Fairly common in damp grasslands (including pastures) and marsh edges; spreading with deforestation, now relatively widespread. To at least 1200 m. Bill yellowish olive; iris dark red; legs dull reddish. Above brown, feathers black-centered giving streaky appearance. Face and underparts gray with white midthroat and dark brown and white banding on belly. Gray-breasted Crake is much smaller. Often occurring far from any open water, Ash-throated Crakes sneak into the open more often than many rails and also flush more readily, flying a short distance with legs dangling before dropping back into cover. Distinctive song, apparently given by , a far-carrying “kr-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-row,” repeated rapidly many times at an accelerating pace for up to over two minutes (with quality reminiscent of a Limpkin), sometimes interspersed with the ’s higher-pitched “kra-kra-kra” calls. Also has a sharp, Barred Forest Falcon-like “ar” call.

SPOT-FLANKED GALLINULE Porphyriops melanops

25.5 cm|10”

Rare and very local on small, marsh-fringed ponds in generally open terrain. To at least 300 m. Small frontal shield and bill lime green; iris red. Crown and foreface blackish, slatier on sides of head, neck, and breast. Above olive brown, wing-coverts more chestnut; flanks brownish boldly spotted white, sides of crissum white. Common Gallinule is larger and has bright red bill. Usually seen swimming in loose groups, their short tails partially cocked. Relatively quiet, but sometimes gives soft clucks and cackles. Sometimes placed in genus Gallinula.

107 SPECKLED RAIL PINTO-D’ÁGUA-CARIJÓ

GRAY-BREASTED CRAKE SANÃ-DO-CAPIM

PAINT-BILLED CRAKE TURU-TURU

ASH-THROATED CRAKE SANÃ-CARIJÓ

SPOT-FLANKED GALLINULE FRANGO-D’ÁGUA-CARIJÓ

PARDIRALLUS rails are midsized, marsh-dwelling rails with brightly colored, fairly long and slightly decurved bills, and pink legs. SPOTTED RAIL Pardirallus maculatus

26 cm|10 .75”

BLACKISH RAIL Pardirallus nigricans

28 cm|11”

Rare and very local in marshes and adjacent rice fields from E Bahia to S São Paulo; doubtless somewhat overlooked. Locally to 750 m (São Paulo). Bill yellowish green with red spot at base of mandible; iris red; legs coral pink. Above blackish boldly spotted and streaked white, wings browner. Throat and foreneck streaked and spotted black and white; below coarsely barred black and white. Immature duller with variable amount of barring below. So boldly patterned that it is unmistakable. A secretive bird that mainly remains in heavy cover, only occasionally emerging to feed more in the open on floating vegetation, especially in the early morning. Gives a variety of grunts and squeals, e.g., “skee-ruh, skee-ruh, skee-ruh…”. Fairly common but somewhat local in marshy areas around ponds and in overgrown wet pastures. To 1700 m (Campos do Jordão). Bill entirely lime green; iris red; legs coral pink. A very dark rail. Differs from Plumbeous Rail in having a whitish throat (not very conspicuous) and more olivaceous brown upperparts, the feathers lacking any dark centers so looking smoother. The two species are best separated by bill color, that of Blackish lacking any blue or red. Behavior similar to Plumbeous Rail, though Blackish is even more furtive, emerging less often into the semiopen. Disturbed birds may flush a short distance but generally they don’t fly often or far. Distinctive song also given as a duet, giving a series of loud and sharply upslurred squeals, “scree-eet?” preceded by some short low-pitched growls and interspersed with descending chatters. Also has a call that is amazingly similar to Roadside Hawk’s common call.

PLUMBEOUS RAIL Pardirallus sanguinolentus

29 cm|11.5”

Uncommon in marshes and adjacent rice fields and wet ditches from Rio de Janeiro and S Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. To 900 m (Mantiqueira). Bill lime green with base of maxilla turquoise and base of mandible bright red; iris red; legs coral pink. Very dark overall. Head, neck, and underparts dark slaty gray, blacker on crissum; mantle and tail rufescent brown with some feathers centered blackish. Immature duller with whitish throat and grayish bill. Blackish Rail favors smaller marshes and ponds surrounded by woodland, not the open marshes of Plumbeous, so only infrequently are the two together; bill of Blackish is lime green without any blue or red. As with all rails the Plumbeous is reclusive, hiding out in dense reedbeds and the like, but it is easier to see in some areas, there feeding more in the semiopen, often on floating vegetation, never far from cover except when scampering across a road or other opening. Can be quite vocal, s giving a shrieking “zhee-reet!” the accompanying with repeated low-pitched hooting or grunting calls. Sometimes calls at night.

MANGROVE RAIL Rallus longirostris

35 cm|13.75”

Uncommon, local, and secretive in mangroves along coast from Bahia to São Paulo; likely overlooked to some extent. A large, dull-plumaged rail with fairly long and slightly decurved bill showing extensive bright reddish orange on mandible; iris dull orange; legs also reddish orange (but sometimes so muddy that color is obscured). Above light grayish brown with extensive dusky streaking on mantle. Small area on throat white, foreneck and breast dull buff, belly conspicuously barred dusky and white. This rail is a mangrove obligate, reducing the likelihood of confusion with other rails. The only other rails normally in mangroves are Gray-necked and Little Wood Rails, both very different and more brightly colored with no barring on underparts. Mangrove Rails are found singly or in pairs, sneaking among mangrove roots and remaining hard to see though at low tide they sometimes venture out onto muddy banks searching for crabs, their preferred food. Occasionally they even swim across channels. Call a fast, raucous series of unpleasant-sounding “keh” notes that are rapidly repeated for 5-10 seconds before pausing; lowerpitched guttural notes are sometimes interspersed (perhaps from its mate). Now usually considered a separate species from Clapper Rail (R. crepitans) of North America, with different voice, etc).

109

SPOTTED RAIL SARACURA-CARIJÓ

BLACKISH RAIL SARACURA-SANÃ

PLUMBEOUS RAIL SARACURA-DO-BANHADO

MANGROVE RAIL SARACURA-MATRACA

UNIFORM CRAKE Amaurolimnas concolor

20.5 cm|8”

Rare, secretive, and very local in swampy forest, secondary woodland, and near streams; most records in coastal plain from E Bahia to São Paulo. To 500 m. Bill greenish yellow; iris red; legs coral pink. More or less uniform rufous brown, paler and more rufescent below with whitish throat. Russetcrowned Crake is smaller with dark bill and gray on face; voice very different. In shape reminiscent of a miniature wood rail. Poorly known and doubtless under-recorded due to its shy nature and favored dense swampy habitat. Found singly or (more rarely) in pairs, walking quite erectly while flicking or pumping its cocked tail; when alarmed, crouches and usually scurries off. Distinctive song, given mainly in the calm of dusk, a series of loud upslurred whistled notes that rise and become louder, then fade away, basically a repetition of a “tooeee” note. ARAMIDES wood rails are large, colorful, long-billed denizens of marshes and swampy woodlands. They are easier to see than many rails, regularly leaving cover while foraging. All have rufous primaries (obvious in flight), and notably loud vocalizations.

LITTLE WOOD RAIL Aramides mangle

30 cm|11.75”

Rare to locally uncommon in mangroves and adjacent marshes along coast; also very locally in semideciduous woodland in far interior São Paulo. To 750 m (São Paulo). Bill mainly lime green with bright orange at base of maxilla; iris red; legs coral pink. Head, hindneck, and upper back bluish gray; above otherwise brownish olive. Throat whitish; underparts rufous. Gray-necked Wood Rail (sometimes with it in/near mangroves) is larger and has yellow on maxilla and an obviously gray chest. Behavior as in much better known Gray-necked Wood Rail. Distinctive call, very different from other wood rails (recalling extralimital Rufous-necked Wood Rail, A. axillaris), a loud ringing “cheeu” repeated steadily at a rate of 1-2 calls per second, sometimes given as a duet.

GRAY-NECKED WOOD RAIL Aramides cajaneus

35-37 cm|13.75-14.5”

SLATY-BREASTED WOOD RAIL Aramides saracura

35-37 cm|13.75-14.5”

Fairly common and widespread in habitats ranging from marshes to swampy woodland and lake, pond, and river margins, also locally in mangroves; the most numerous forest rail in the interior of our region. To at least 1000 m. Bill greenish yellow with yellow at base; iris red; legs coral pink. Head, neck, and chest gray, browner on crown and whiter on throat; above brownish olive, below cinnamon-rufous, with rump, tail, and lower belly black. Birds inhabiting mangroves of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo lack the brown in crown. Slatybreasted Wood Rail has mainly gray underparts (extending to belly), rufous of upper back extending to hindneck. Cf. also Little Wood Rail (mainly in or near mangroves). Usually wary, remaining in shady cover, emerging early and late to feed at muddy margins. Probes mud or leaf litter, flicking aside leaves with bill. Best known from its loud cackling calls, given as an antiphonal duet or even chorus, mostly at dawn and dusk but sometimes at night or even mid-day. Phrasing varies, but a repeated “kok” or “ko-kee” is often followed by a descending “kow-kow-kow-kow-kow;” this can vary to a “kok-a-lok” or “ko-wey-hee.” During vigorous singing bouts the birds can sound maniacal, the chorus going on for several minutes. Fairly common in swampy forest and woodland, often along streams but also regularly emerging to feed in adjacent open areas, even lawns, from S Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. To 2200 m (Itatiaia). Bill lime green, more orange-brown at maxilla base; iris red; legs coral pink. Head and most of underparts gray, throat whiter; hindneck to upper back rufous becoming olive brown further back; lower belly, crissum, and tail blackish. The most numerous wood rail in the mountain forests of SE Brazil, and the only one to range into higher elevations. Gray-necked Wood Rail is extensively cinnamon-rufous below (not almost entirely slaty gray) and in our area seems to favor less humid regions. General behavior much as in Gray-necked, but Slaty-breasted seems less shy, and has even become fairly tame in certain city parks where there are lots of people. Calls also similar, but tend to be slower, usually a repetition or mixture of “kowak” or “kwa” notes.

111

UNIFORM CRAKE SARACURA-LISA

LITTLE WOOD RAIL SARACURA-DO-MANGUE

GRAY-NECKED WOOD RAIL TRÊS-POTES

SLATY-BREASTED WOOD RAIL SARACURA-DO-MATO

PURPLE GALLINULE Porphyrula martinica

31 cm|12”

AZURE GALLINULE Porphyrula flavirostris

25 cm|10”

Locally fairly common in marshes and around ponds and lakes. Mostly below 1000 m. Beautiful adult has pale blue frontal shield, stout bill red tipped yellow, and very long yellow legs, much duller in immatures. Adult has head, neck, and underparts deep violet-blue, lower belly blacker with crissum white; above bronzy green. Immature much duller, brownish above with bluish tinge on wings, buffy whitish below with white crissum. Azure Gallinule is smaller and never as buffy and brown. Common Gallinule is much slatier overall. Walks on floating vegetation, tail usually cocked exposing the fluffy white crissum. Swims rarely, but does clamber about in waterside vegetation. Flight seems weak and slow, but birds disperse and can turn up in odd places. Gives various clucks and cackles, including a fast “kuh-kuh-kuh-kuh-kúh-kuh-kuh” and a querulous “wenh?” This and the next species are often placed in genus Porphyrio. Rare and irregular around marshy ponds and in floating vegetation; few records, perhaps dispersing birds from its main range. Small, with faded plumage. Stout bill and small frontal shield yellowish green; legs yellow. Olive brown above with some dusky streaking; wings strongly tinged azure blue, tail dusky. Face and sides of neck and breast azure blue (sometimes pale), breast only tinged; white below. Immature browner above and buffier below, wings already tinged blue. Immature Purple Gallinule is much heftier. Cf. Ash-throated Crake. Shyer than Purple Gallinule, favoring grassy vegetation; swims rarely or never. Flushed birds stagger off with their legs dangling; having landed, they often hold wings up briefly. Usually silent, but gives a series of soft clucks.

COMMON GALLINULE Gallinula galeata

35 cm|13 ¾”

Widespread and fairly common to common around ponds and marshes, including ponds in towns and cities, even brackish areas near coast; more numerous southward. To at least 1300 m. Frontal shield and stout bill bright red, bill tipped yellow; legs yellowish. Adult slaty gray (back and wings browner, head and neck blacker) with irregular white stripe down sides, and white sides of crissum. Immature drabber and (especially below) paler, showing white on flanks and crissum. Young Purple Gallinules are much browner and buffier. Commons swim a lot, usually with head nodding back and forth; they also walk on marshy vegetation and damp ground. Flight weak, generally low over water. Gives a variety of cackled calls, most frequent a series that becomes notably louder before trailing off. Formerly named G. chloropus, then called Common Moorhen.

RED-GARTERED COOT Fulica armillata

43 cm|17”

SUNGREBE Heliornis fulica

30 cm|12”

Rare and very local on freshwater ponds and lake, with recent records in Rio de Janeiro (now numerous at Lagoa de Geribá) and São Paulo; may be expanding its range. Bill and shield yellow with dark red stripe at their junction; legs yellowish with red at base (the “garter”), hard to see. Uniform slaty, head and neck blacker; sides of crissum white. Common Gallinule has red bill, white on sides, etc. Usually seen swimming, not too far from shore. Nesting still not recorded for the Rio birds, but seems likely. White-winged Coot (F. leucoptera) is known from recent São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro records. Slightly smaller than Red-gartered, with pale yellow bill; frontal shield varies from pale yellow to bright orange-yellow. In flight wings show narrow white trailing edge. Red-fronted Coot (F. rufifrons) is known from one 1933 record from Magé, RJ. FINFOOTS (Heliornithidae) are slender aquatic birds that vaguely recall ducks; other species occur in Africa and Asia. Rare and very local on sluggish forest-fringed streams and rivers and marshy lakes and ponds; known mainly from interior São Paulo, a few records from Rio de Janeiro and S Bahia. Locally to 800 m. An inconspicuous aquatic bird with small head and slender neck. Legs boldly patterned in black and yellow; bill bicolored ( ’s bright red above when breeding). Crown and hindneck black with white superciliary and stripe down neck; has cinnamon cheeks. Olive brown above, whitish below. Superficially grebe- or duck-like. Generally swims alone, low in water, pumping head, remaining close to cover and when frightened sometimes retreating to land. has folds of skin under wings in which young can shelter or even be carried. Usually quiet, occasionally giving loud cackling calls vaguely recalling a wood rail.

113

adult

imm.

PURPLE GALLINULE FRANGO-D’ÁGUA-AZUL

AZURE GALLINULE FRANGO-D’ÁGUA-PEQUENO COMMON GALLINULE FRANGO-D’ÁGUA-COMUM

imm.

adult

RED-GARTERED COOT CARQUEJA-DE-BICO-MANCHADO

SUNGREBE PICAPARRA

PLOVERS & LAPWINGS (Charadriidae) are shorebirds with short stout bills that inhabit open areas and water edge, including along the coast. Some are migratory. Coverage continues on the next page. SOUTHERN LAPWING Vanellus chilensis

35 cm|14”

Common, widespread, and conspicuous in open areas with short grass, most often near water; also frequent around houses. To 2000 m. Beautiful and unmistakable, one of our most numerous and familiar birds. Long wispy crest; eye red, also a red orbital ring; bill rosy pink with black tip; legs mostly pinkish. Head and neck brownish gray with whitish foreface and black forehead and midthroat; breast black. Above brownish gray with bronze and green scapulars, white rump, and mainly black tail. Lower underparts white. In flight shows broad wings with carpal spur at bend, broad white band on coverts and black flight feathers. Found in pairs and small groups that attract attention through their bold demeanor and loud calls, nesting pairs aggressive in defense of their “turf,” flying at the intruder, protesting vociferously and sometimes landing with wings raised. Often active at night, sometimes even feeding then; forages mainly on land. Calls include a strident “keh-keh-keh-keh-keh…,” given at the slightest provocation and quickly becoming tiresome.

PIED PLOVER Hoploxypterus cayanus

23 cm|9”

Uncommon and local on sandy and muddy areas along rivers and around ponds in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais; a few records (perhaps wanderers) from coastal lowlands. Mostly 300-700 m. Bill dusky; eye-ring red; rather long legs coral red. Face black extending down hindneck to upper back and to a broad pectoral band; a conspicuous white “diadem” encircles grayish midcrown. Grayish brown above with broad black and white band down sides of back; rump white, tail black. Mostly white below. In flight shows flashy pattern with black primaries, white inner flight feathers, grayish brown forewing. Beautiful and elegant, hardly to be confused. Found alone or in pairs, sometimes associating with stilts or Southern Lapwings. Feeds by running in short bursts, pausing to pick at prey, then continuing; wades only infrequently. Most frequent call a mellow “whoyt” or whee-whoyt,” also a querulous “wheeyp,” all sometimes given at night. Often placed in genus Vanellus and then called Pied Lapwing.

WHITE-BACKED STILT Himantopus melanurus

39 cm|15.5”

Locally fairly common and conspicuous around shallow ponds and in marshes in open areas including along coast; more numerous and widespread southward, especially in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. To at least 1200 m. Needle-like black bill; very long legs bright reddish pink. Black above and white below with forecrown and band across upper back also white. somewhat browner on mantle, immatures even more so. In flight wings black, with white of rump extending up lower back as a wedge; the pink legs trail far behind the tail, and often are dangled loosely. Unmistakable aside from Black-necked Stilt, found to N (see below). Often found in groups that feed while wading, usually occurring on their own but sometimes with other shorebirds (e.g., yellowlegs). They nest in loose colonies on muddy ground or in very shallow water, fully in the open. Noisy and excitable, stilts quickly become aware of one’s approach, circling while protesting with sharp strident calls (e.g., “kreh-kreh-kreh…”), at times repeated endlessly, especially when youngsters are about. Classified in the family Recurvirostridae. Black-necked Stilt (H. mexicanus) replaces White-backed Stilt northward, with apparent overlap in N Minas Gerais and Bahia; most stilts seen are clearly one species or the other, but there seem be some intermediates (more study is needed). Black-necked has a smaller area of white on forehead and white patch above eye, and lacks white across upper back.

AMERICAN OYSTERCATCHER Haematopus palliatus

44.5 cm|17.5”

Uncommon and local along coast from Espírito Santo to São Paulo; one record from Salvador, Bahia. Favors rocky areas, also open sandy beaches; disturbance has reduced overall numbers. Unmistakably large and boldly pied. Long, laterally compressed bill bright coral red; fairly short legs dull pink; iris pale yellow with red eye-ring. Head, neck, and chest black; otherwise dark brown above and pure white below. In flight shows a bold white stripe on inner flight feathers, white rump, and black tail. Young birds have a dusky bill tip. A conspicuous bird, usually in pairs though small groups gather when not breeding; generally wary. Feeds mainly by prying open shells of various mollusks (including oysters). Often noisy, calling even at night, giving a loud piercing “wheep!” or “kleep!” sometimes repeated or run together. Classified in the family Haematopodidae.

115

SOUTHERN LAPWING QUERO-QUERO

PIED PLOVER MEXERIQUEIRA

WHITE-BACKED STILT PERNILONGO-DE-COSTAS-BRANCAS

AMERICAN OYSTERCATCHER PIRU-PIRU

BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER Pluvialis squatarola

29 cm|11.5”

Locally fairly common boreal migrant to coast, favoring mudflats, lagoons, and beaches (mainly Aug-Apr). Bill rather stout. Nonbreeding plumage pale grayish to brownish gray above with whitish mottling; superciliary whitish, ear-coverts dusky. Below white, breast mottled and streaked dusky. Juvenile browner above. Breeding plumage (seen on departing birds in Mar-Apr) mottled silvery white and black above with forecrown white extending around sides of head to sides of breast; face and underparts black with lower belly and crissum white. In flight shows white wingstripe, white rump and pale tail, whitish underwing with black axillars (“armpits”). Cf. American Golden Plover. Scatters out to feed but usually roosts in groups. Often adopts a hunched posture. Distinctive call, often given in flight, a slurred whistle, “whee-oo-wee.” Breeds in arctic North America and Asia.

AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER Pluvialis dominica

26 cm|10.25”

Uncommon boreal migrant to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo coast (mostly Oct-Jan, a few to Apr); few inland records. Favors grassier areas than Blackbellied, but transients occur on beaches. Similar to Black-bellied, but smaller with slimmer bill. Nonbreeding plumage grayish brown above mottled whitish or golden with fairly prominent whitish superciliary and dusky crown. Whitish below, breast and flanks mottled grayish. Juvenile more mottled golden above, grayer below. Breeding plumage (seen on northward passage) blackish brown above heavily spangled golden yellow; forehead white extending as stripe around face and down sides; face and underparts black. In flight shows dark wings and rump and smoky gray underwing. Nonbreeding Black-bellied Plover is less dark above with less obvious superciliary and crown; in flight shows white wingstripe and black axillars, both lacking in Golden. Behavior similar, though generally less wary. Flight call a distinctive “kweedlee.” Breeds in arctic North America. Tawny-throated Dotterel (Oreopholus ruficollis) is an austral vagrant to Rio de Janeiro coast. Elegant with erect carriage, brownish and gray with orange-tawny throat and black belly patch. Favors dry ground with sparse vegetation.

SEMIPALMATED PLOVER Charadrius semipalmatus

VU

18 cm|7.25”

Fairly common boreal migrant along coast (inland records few), favoring mudflats, shorelines, and beaches (mostly Aug-Apr, some though winter). Bill stubby with orange base (brighter when breeding); legs orange-yellow. Brown above with white forehead, whitish superciliary, and white nuchal collar. White below with brown chest band (often broken at center). Breeding plumage has more contrasty facial pattern, black chest band. In flight shows white wingstripe and white sides to rump. Collared Plover is smaller with daintier bill, lacks nuchal collar, shows rufous on head. Gregarious, bunching up at rest but scattering while feeding. Call a distinctive “ch-veet,” given especially in flight. Breeds in N North America. Wilson’s Plover (C. wilsonia) breeds locally on coastal beaches of Bahia. Resembles Semipalmated, but larger with heavier black bill, flesh-colored legs.

COLLARED PLOVER Charadrius collaris

16 cm|6.25”

RUDDY TURNSTONE Arenaria interpres

24 cm|9.5”

Uncommon and somewhat local on shorelines and beaches, most numerous along coast but also occurs inland. To 1000 m. Clean-cut, with slender black bill and pinkish legs. Adult sandy brown with white forecrown, black frontal band and loral stripe; back of head and sides of neck tinged cinnamon (brighter in ). Below white with narrow black chest band. Immature duller, chest band browner. Semipalmated Plover (strictly coastal) has heavier bill that usually shows orange; Collared lacks its white nuchal collar. Found in pairs and small groups, scampering on open ground, sometimes short grass, occasionally far from water. Call a sharp ‘kip,” often in series. Fairly common boreal migrant along coast, favoring rocky areas, beaches, and lagoons (mostly Sep-Apr, a few nonbreeders year-round). Short legs bright orange; short black bill. Nonbreeding plumage brown above with varying amounts of rufous; throat white outlined by smudgy blackish chest band; below white. Breeding plumage much brighter: head white with complex blackpied pattern; above mainly rufous; below white with “double-lobed” black chest band. In flight shows white midback and basal tail, bold wing pattern. Often in small groups, feeding by poking between rocks and in beach wrack. Most frequent call an abrupt “kutikuk.” Breeds in arctic North America and Eurasia. Rufous-chested Dotterel (Charadrius modestus) and Two-banded Plover (C. falklandicus) are austral vagrants to São Paulo coast. Dotterel has a solid brownish gray foreneck; plover is black-legged, usually shows two breast bands.

117 BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER BATUIRUÇU-CINZA

nonbreeding adults

AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER BATUIRUÇU

nonbreeding adults

adults

imm.

SEMIPALMATED PLOVER BATUÍRA -DE-BANDO

COLLARED PLOVER BATUÍRA-DE-COLEIRA

adults imm.

RUDDY TURNSTONE VIRA-PEDRAS

nonbreeding adults

WATTLED JACANA Jacana jacana

24 cm|9.5”

SOUTH AMERICAN PAINTED SNIPE Nycticryphes semicollaris

20.5 cm|8”

Common, widespread, and conspicuous in marshes and around ponds. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to nearly 2000 m. Unmistakable, with extremely long toes and nails – both readily apparent in the field – enabling them to walk with ease on floating vegetation. Bill yellow with rosy red bi-lobed frontal shield and lappets. Adult has head, neck, and underparts black; upperparts rufous-chestnut. In flight shows unmistakable pale greenish yellow flight feathers. Both sexes have a carpal spur on wing. Immature lacks red and yellow on bill; brown above with white superciliary and black from eyestripe to hindneck; below white; greenish yellow flight feathers as in adult. The long toes and yellow in wing are unique. Jacanas parade around on marsh vegetation, sometimes in small groups. Flight usually low on stiff wings with neck outstretched and long legs extended. Noisy, giving a variety of loud cackling and chattering calls. Classified in the family Jacanidae.

Rare, local, and very inconspicuous in freshwater marshes, wet grassy areas in restinga, and rice fields near the coasts of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo; so far not recorded elsewhere, but possible. Unique. Long greenish bill, drooping at tip where more orangey; yellowish to lime green legs. Rich dark brown on head, neck, and breast with narrow white stripe the length of the crown and a broader and very conspicuous white stripe from in front of wing extending down sides of back (where buffier). Wings brownish vermiculated black and with scattered large white spots; lower underparts whitish. Immature more barred and streaked. South American Snipe is larger, has longer and straighter bill, paler and brown plumage overall. Rarely encountered, tending not to move around much, usually crouching; freezes upon being discovered, lowering head toward the danger so as to break up its profile. When pressed may scurry into heavier cover; flushed birds rarely fly far, and stay low. Perhaps somewhat crepuscular. Probes into mud with bill, the tip of which is flexible. Classified in the family Rostratulidae. SANDPIPERS, SNIPES, & PHALAROPES (Scolopacidae) comprise a widespread and rather variable group of shorebirds, with most found near fresh and salt water and only a few on dry ground. The vast majority are boreal migrants to our area, only the two snipes being resident. Clad in shades of brown, gray, and white, many species are tricky to identify, but these elegant birds will repay the effort!

SOUTH AMERICAN SNIPE Gallinago paraguaiae

29 cm|11,5”

Fairly common and widespread in marshes and wet grassy areas including flooded fields and pastures; more numerous southward. To at least 1500 m. Very long straight bill dusky; short legs olive. Dark brown above with head striped buffyish and conspicuous golden buff stripes down length of back. Foreneck streaked and mottled dusky, sides and flanks coarsely barred. In flight shows mainly dark wings with narrow white trailing edge, barred underwing-coverts; tail short, orange-rufous with blackish subterminal band and white toward sides. Cf. much less numerous, and far larger, Giant Snipe. A close-sitting bird that favors dense grassy cover, only infrequently emerging to feed or rest in the open. Typically flushes almost at your feet, giving a raspy call in protest, usually flying far away. Displaying birds fly high overhead, emitting loud harsh vibrating sounds produced by air rushing through tail feathers during “power dives.” Also gives a repeated “kak” or “kik” call while perched on ground or fence post.

GIANT SNIPE Gallinago undulata

44.5-45 cm|17.5-17.75”

Rare and local in wet grassy areas including and seasonally flooded pastures; originally mainly occurred inland, but with deforestation has spread locally into coastal lowlands. To 1500 m. Extremely long bill thicker at base and flattened on forehead. Resembles South American Snipe but larger and “bulkier” (given a decent view, the difference is obvious). Differs in its bolder cinnamon edging above and bolder dark bars and chevrons below. In flight shows barred flight feathers, no white in tail. Except when displaying even harder to see than the South American; active mainly at night, with displays commencing at dusk. Displaying (“roding”) birds can be heard from a long way off and give an accelerating “whoa kor-cho, whoa kor-cho, whoa, kor-cho” simultaneous with a low muffled sound from rush of air through tail feathers. On the ground gives a fast nasal “wer-jr, wer-jr, wer-jr….,” often from a grass hummock. Least Seedsnipe (Thinocorus rumicivorus) is an austral vagrant to São Paulo coast. Very small, hardly larger than House Sparrow; bill short and sturdy. Brown above cryptically patterned with golden fringes giving scaly appearance. ’s face and breast gray with black stripe down center and white throat; brownish there. Wings pointed. Classified in the family Thinocoridae.

imm.

119

adult WATTLED JACANA JAÇANÃ

SOUTH AMERICAN PAINTED SNIPE NARCEJA-DE-BICO-TORTO

SOUTH AMERICAN SNIPE NARCEJA

GIANT SNIPE NARCEJÃO

adult

UPLAND SANDPIPER Bartramia longicauda

VU

31 cm|12”

Rare boreal migrant to open grassy areas and cerrado, principally inland in São Paulo and W Minas Gerais, also a few from Rio de Janeiro/São Paulo coast, mainly on southward passage (Sep-Dec) en route to its wintering grounds on Argentine pampas. To 1200 m (Canastra). Small head, long slim neck, and long tail extending past wings. Rather short slender bill yellowish; large eye imparts “wide-eyed” look. Above brown mottled blackish, feathers edged buff. Buffy whitish below with brown streaking, barring, and chevrons. In flight shows contrasting blackish primaries, underwing densely barred. Distinctive, but cf. nonbreeding American Golden Plover. Found singly or in small groups, showing no affinity for water, “Uppies” forage in grass, where tall remaining mostly hidden and confoundingly hard to spot. Flies with shallow stiff wingbeats; upon alighting wings often held up briefly. Call a distinctive mellow “plip-plip-plip” or “huu-huu-huuit,” mainly given in flight. Breeds in North America. Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis), much smaller than the Upland, is equally charming. It occurs here only as a rare southward-bound transient, so far mainly along São Paulo coast. Buffy overall, plain below and scaled blackish above. Large dark eye; legs yellow. By some placed in genus Calidris.

WHIMBREL Numenius phaeopus

43-45 cm|17-17.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common boreal migrant (mainly Sep-May) along coast, seemingly less numerous southward. Flexible in terms of foraging habitats; sometimes roosts in mangroves. Large with unmistakably long decurved bill (longer in s); legs bluish gray. Brown above, feathers edged buffyish, with crown and eyestripe dark brown separated by pale buff superciliary. Below buffy whitish, breast and flanks streaked and barred brown. In flight wings look uniform brownish. Hudsonian Godwit (equally large) has upturned bill, very different wing and tail pattern, etc. Scatters out to feed on beaches, mudflats, and rocky areas (usually not wading), gathering in flocks when roosting. Often wary. Frequently heard call a vigorous fast “whi-whi-whi-whi-whi” on one pitch. Breeds in arctic North America and Eurasia. American birds are sometimes considered as a separate species, Hudsonian (or American) Whimbrel (N. hudsonicus).

HUDSONIAN GODWIT Limosa haemastica

39.5-40.5 cm|15.5-16”

Rare boreal migrant (mainly Aug-Mar, a few at other times) to mudflats and lagoons, and beaches along Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo coast; so far not recorded inland, but possible. Large with bill long and slightly upturned, pinkish with terminal half blackish (longer in s). Nonbreeding plumage brownish gray to brownish above with whitish superciliary; foreneck grayish, throat and underparts whitish. Breeding plumage birds (seen during northward passage) handsome with whitish face, dark brown upperparts scaled buff, mainly rich chestnut ( s) or buff ( s) underparts. In flight shows bold white wingstripe, black underwingcoverts, black tail with white uppertail coverts. Foraging birds often wade into deep water probing mud for food. Breeds in arctic North America.

WILLET Tringa semipalmata

38 cm|15”

RED KNOT Calidris canutus

27 cm|10.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common boreal migrant (mostly Sep-Apr, a few throughout year) to mudflats and shorelines along coast, more numerous northward. Large with fairly heavy bill bluish gray basally; legs grayish. Nonbreeding plumage drab: plain gray to brownish gray above and whitish below. Breeding plumage birds (infrequently seen in Brazil) browner above and somewhat barred brownish below. In flight wings with bold white wingstripe contrasting with black primaries. The rangier Greater Yellowlegs has yellow legs, plain wings. Similarly colored nonbreeding Hudsonian Godwit differs in its longer upswept bill; Willet’s wing pattern is even flashier. Often with other large shorebirds, regularly in groups, feeding by probing into mud and sand. They sometimes roost with Whimbrels in mangroves. Noisy, with loud shrill calls including a “kip-kip-kip.” Breeds in North America and West Indies.

CR

Rare to occasionally uncommon boreal migrant (mostly Sep-Jan, and Apr-May) to beaches and mudflats along coast, seemingly more numerous southward. Chunky, with black bill and short olive legs. Nonbreeding plumage plain: uniform gray above with vague whitish superciliary, whitish below with gray scaling on breast and sides. Breeding plumage birds (seen during northward passage) attractive with face and underparts mainly rich cinnamon-rufous. In flight shows only a faint wingstripe, grayish rump. Cf. Stilt Sandpiper (with a longer “droopy” bill). Feeding birds often associate with Sanderlings. Breeds in arctic North America and Siberia. Terek Sandpiper (Xenus cinereus) is an extreme vagrant from Eurasia. Drab but for its disproportionately long upswept bill and short yellow-orange legs.

121 UPLAND SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-DO-CAMPO

WHIMBREL MAÇARICÃO

HUDSONIAN GODWIT MAÇARICO-DE-BICO-VIRADO

nonbreeding adults

nonbreeding adults WILLET MAÇARICO-DE-ASA-BRANCA

RED KNOT MAÇARICO-RUIVO

nonbreeding adults

SPOTTED SANDPIPER Actitis macularius

19 cm|7.5”

SOLITARY SANDPIPER Tringa solitaria

22 cm|8.5”

GREATER YELLOWLEGS Tringa melanoleuca

33 cm|13”

Uncommon but widespread boreal migrant (Sep-Apr) to muddy and sandy shorelines, on both fresh and salt water. To 900 m. Bill dusky, yellowish toward base; legs yellowish. Nonbreeding plumage olive brown above with short white superciliary and vague eye-ring; some dusky barring on wing-coverts (especially in juveniles); usually shows white “spur” in front of wing. White below with grayish smudge on sides of chest. Breeding plumage birds have faint dusky barring above and conspicuous black spotting below, developing as birds are departing (in Mar-Apr). In flight shows white wingstripe; flies with distinctive stiff fluttery wingbeats. Often most easily recognized by its nearconstant teetering; also nods head. Less gregarious than many shorebirds, regularly occurring (often alone) in places rarely frequented by the others. Typical posture horizontal, head held low. Call a loud shrill “peet-weet” or “weet-weet-weet…“ often given in flight. Breeds in North America. Uncommon but widespread boreal migrant (Sep-Apr) to shallow ponds and pools. To 1000 m. Long slender bill blackish; legs yellowish olive. Nonbreeding plumage dark olive brown above with fine white spotting and prominent white eye-ring. Whitish below washed grayish brown across chest. Breeding plumage birds darker above with more white spotting; streaking on foreneck more extensive. In flight wings dark both above and below; outer tail feathers white barred blackish. Spotted Sandpiper teeters more, bobs less; its posture is less upright, legs paler, and it flies with stiff shallow wingbeats (not Solitary’s deep, quick wingstrokes). Lesser Yellowlegs has longer and obviously yellow legs, less dark upperparts, etc. Often nods head; upon alighting often holds wings aloft briefly. Call a clear “peet-weet,” given especially in flight. Breeds in N North America.

Fairly common boreal migrant (Sep-Apr) to muddy or marshy ponds and river edges, also lagoons and estuaries along coast. To 900 m. Long straight bill mainly blackish, often appearing upswept; long legs bright yellow. Nonbreeding plumage brownish gray above faintly spotted white; mostly white below, neck and chest streaked grayish. Breeding plumage birds darker above with white spotting; head and foreneck streaked blackish; sides barred. In flight shows dark wings, white rump, barred tail. Large, tall, and elegant. Lesser Yellowlegs is smaller (difference often not apparent unless together) and has a shorter, finer bill. Feeds while wading in shallow water, sometimes racing around and sweeping bill sideways. Most frequent call a ringing “tew-tew-tew,” a little reminiscent of Campo Flicker. Breeds in N North America.

LESSER YELLOWLEGS Tringa flavipes

27 cm|10.5”

STILT SANDPIPER Calidris himantopus

22 cm|8.5”

Fairly common boreal migrant (Sep-Apr) to muddy and marshy ponds and lagoons, especially along coast. To 1000 m. Slender straight bill black; legs bright yellow. Plumages similar to larger Greater Yellowlegs; breeding plumage birds less heavily marked. Greater’s bill more robust (typically longer than head), looking slightly upswept. Solitary Sandpiper is smaller with shorter olive legs, darker upperparts. Stilt Sandpiper has slightly decurved bill and whitish superciliary. Forages less actively than Greater Yellowlegs, generally picking at food items in shallow water. Calls less strident than Greater’s, only rarely trebled, typically a mellow “tew.” Breeds in N North America. Ruff (Calidris pugnax) is a vagrant to Minas Gerais (Belo Horizonte) from Eurasia (Feb-Mar 2013). Legs usually dull orange; bill short, pale at base. Nonbreeders brownish above and on foreneck, often looking scaly; white ovals on sides of dark tail. Appears small-headed, posture often “hump-backed.” Rare boreal migrant to shallow ponds and lagoons, mainly along coast, occurring primarily as southward-bound transient (Oct-Nov). To 500 m (Piracicaba). Long blackish bill droops toward tip; long legs olive yellowish. Nonbreeding plumage brownish gray above with short whitish superciliary; white below, foreneck with fine gray streaking. Breeding plumage birds (rarely seen here) have chestnut cheeks and barred underparts. In flight shows plain wings, white rump, barred tail. Lesser Yellowlegs is daintier with a finer bill, brighter yellow legs. Feeding birds wade into water up to belly, submerging head and probing with up-and-down thrusts. Breeds in arctic North America. Wilson’s Phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) is a casual boreal migrant to shallow ponds and lagoons in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, mainly along coast. Long thin black bill; yellowish legs. Nonbreeding plumage pale gray above; face and underparts white, ear-patch dusky. In flight shows unpatterned grayish wings. Sometimes swims.

123

SPOTTED SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-PINTADO

SOLITARY SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-SOLITÁRIO

nonbreeding adult

breeding adult

nonbreeding adults

GREATER YELLOWLEGS MAÇARICO-TITITIU

nonbreeding adult

LESSER YELLOWLEGS MAÇARICO-DE-PERNA-AMARELA

nonbreeding adults

nonbreeding adults

STILT SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-PERNILONGO

SANDERLING Calidris alba

20 cm|8”

Locally common boreal migrant (mostly Sep-May, a few year-round) to sandy and gravelly beaches along coast, smaller numbers in adjacent lagoons and rocky areas. Bill and legs black. Nonbreeding plumage pale pearly gray above with blackish lesser wing-coverts often showing at bend of wing; white below with gray smudge on sides of neck. In flight shows very bold white wingstripe. Breeding plumage birds are much more rufescent, but this plumage unlikely to be seen in Brazil. Easily the palest small shorebird; the black at bend of wing is unique. Often occurs in small groups that feed actively, and on open beaches are well known for chasing receding waves. Call a simple “chip,” but most often silent. Breeds in arctic North America and Eurasia.

WHITE-RUMPED SANDPIPER Calidris fuscicollis

18.5 cm|7.25”

Uncommon to locally and seasonally fairly common boreal migrant (Sep-May, mainly as a transient en route to and from its wintering grounds in Tierra del Fuego), on mudflats and beaches along coast, a few occurring inland around shallow ponds and in marshes. To 750 m. Bill and legs black, bill with pale spot at base. Wings longer than tail at rest. Nonbreeding plumage mottled grayish above with whitish superciliary; white below with grayish streaking across chest extending sparsely down flanks. Juvenile has rufous on crown and scapulars, some buff on chest. In breeding plumage more extensively streaked on chest. In flight shows faint white wingstripe, entirely white rump (no black center). This is the most numerous “peep” along our coast; the much scarcer Semipalmated and Least Sandpipers are smaller, etc. Pectoral Sandpiper is much browner, etc. Feeds in shallow water and by probing into mud. Flight call an almost squeaky “jeeyt.” Breeds in arctic North America.

SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER Calidris pusilla EN

16 cm|6.25”

Rare boreal migrant (Sep-Mar) along coast, favoring muddy margins of shallow lagoons and sandy flats; few records. Essentially straight bill and legs black. Nonbreeding plumage brownish gray above with vague whitish superciliary; white below with grayish streaking on sides of chest. Breeding plumage darker and browner with extensive dark streaking on foreneck. In flight shows faint white wingstripe, dark center to white rump. Much more numerous Whiterumped Sandpiper is larger and looks more “elongated” (from its longer wings), has fully white rump. Here usually seen singly, foraging in very shallow water and on mud, picking at the surface. Breeds in arctic North America.

LEAST SANDPIPER Calidris minutilla

15 cm|6”

Casual vagrant to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo coast (Oct-Mar), favoring grassy and marshy edges to ponds and lagoons, usually in fresh water situations; one inland record (Tremembé). Short, slightly drooped bill black; legs dull yellowish. Nonbreeding plumage brownish gray above with indistinct whitish superciliary; white below with dusky streaking across chest. Breeding plumage more rufescent. In flight shows faint white wingstripe, dark center to white rump. Usually recognized by its small size, leg color (in most similar shorebirds the legs are black), and characteristic hunched posture. Cf. the larger Pectoral Sandpiper. Here seen singly. Often allows a close approach, flushing close at hand and often looking short-tailed. Gives a shrill “kree-eep” in flight. Breeds in N North America.

PECTORAL SANDPIPER Calidris melanotos

21-22.5 cm|8.25-8.75”

Uncommon to locally fairly common boreal migrant (Sep-Mar) to moist grassy areas, marshes, and mudflats, most frequent in São Paulo (including inland, e.g., at Piracicaba) and near Rio de Janeiro coast. To 800 m. larger than . Bill basally pale; legs yellowish. Adult dark brown above with prominent buff to whitish streaking and edging. Face, throat, and breast pale buff prominently streaked dusky-brown, the streaking ending abruptly against the white belly. Juvenile somewhat more rufescent above. In flight shows virtually no white wingstripe, dark center to white rump. Note the sharp contrast on underparts. White-rumped Sandpiper is grayer overall (not so brown), has black legs. Pectorals often look long-necked, and frequently adopt an upright posture. They can occur in small groups that feed in wet fields, less often wading into shallow pools; they generally avoid salt water. Call a throaty “krurk” or “churt,” often given as they flush. Breeds in arctic North America and Siberia.

nonbreeding adults

SANDERLING MAÇARICO-BRANCO

WHITE-RUMPED SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-DE-SOBRE-BRANCO

nonbreeding adults

SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-RASTEIRINHO

nonbreeding adults

LEAST SANDPIPER MAÇARIQUINHO

nonbreeding adults

PECTORAL SANDPIPER MAÇARICO-DE-COLETE

125

GULLS & TERNS (Laridae) are well known, midsized to fairly large waterbirds with a world-wide

distribution. Terns are especially well represented in our area, in particular coastally. Most are white and some shade of gray, the terns with forked or notched tails. Identification can be tricky. GULLS found here are all coastal birds; only one, Kelp Gull, is at all numerous. That species is notably large; to find the others, be alert for anything smaller.

BROWN-HOODED GULL Chroicocephalus maculipennis

35.5-38|14-15”

Very rare austral winter visitant (mostly May-Sep) to São Paulo coast, and as a vagrant in Rio de Janeiro and inland. A small, delicate-looking gull. Bill and legs red. Breeding adult (only once here) has dark chocolate brown hood with white eye-crescents; mantle pale gray, neck and underparts white. In flight shows conspicuous white leading edge to wing, with most of primaries tipped black from above, black below with white patch at tip. Nonbreeders replace hood with dusky spots on head and ear-coverts; mantle browner; bill and legs duller. Young birds resemble nonbreeders but flight feathers blacker and with black tail tip. Gray-hooded Gull is larger; adults are easy, but younger birds can be confusing, Brown-hoodeds always with a whiter underwing. Mostly coastal, favoring mudflats and beaches; often associates with terns. Feeds by picking at items from water’s surface. Breeds in S South America.

GRAY-HOODED GULL Chroicocephalus cirrocephalus

41-43 cm|16-17”

Very local along coast, mainly in Rio de Janeiro, uncommon but perhaps increasing; breeding confirmed only once. Favors lagoons and mudflats, elsewhere often where salt is produced. Breeding adult has deep red bill (tipped blackish when not breeding; duskier in young birds), whitish to pale yellow iris with red eye-ring, and bright red legs. Hood pearly gray outlined with blackish (paler and not outlined in nonbreeders). Mantle gray; underparts, rump, and tail white. In flight broad-winged, showing large white wedge on leading edge of outer wing, mainly black primaries; underside extensively dusky. Immatures have splotchy brownish hood, narrow black tail-tip, and obscure upperwing pattern. Cf. Brown-hooded and Franklin’s Gulls. Gregarious, loafing in flocks of fifty or more birds in favored localities. Call a loud and harsh “craw,” often repeated. Breeds locally in South America; also in Africa.

FRANKLIN’S GULL Leucophaeus pipixcan

35.5-38 cm|14-15”

Casual vagrant to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo coast (Sep-Apr), favoring lagoons and shorelines. Bill and legs blackish (former can be tinged red). Nonbreeding adult has head and underparts white with well-defined blackish “half-hood” on head and prominent white eye-crescents. Mantle slaty gray (darker than Gray-hooded’s); rump and tail white. In flight primaries show white bar separating gray of mantle from black and white wingtips. Hood black when breeding. Immatures similar to nonbreeding birds but with little pattern on wingtips, narrow black tip to tail. Gray-hooded Gull is larger and, regardless of plumage, has much darker underwing. Brown-hooded Gull has paler mantle and much more black on underside of primaries. Overall behavior much as in Gray-hooded Gull. Breeds in North America. Laughing Gull (L. atricilla) is another vagrant, to Bahia coast, once appearing inland at São Paulo city. Laughing’s various plumages resemble Franklin’s but it never shows any white in wing-tips and head has a smudgier, less clean-cut effect. Laughing is larger and slimmer-winged.

KELP GULL Larus dominicanus

61-66 cm|24-26”

Fairly common to common along São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro coast, smaller numbers north to S Espírito Santo, nesting on islands locally; vagrants further north and inland. Adult has heavy yellow bill with red spot on lower mandible, pale iris, and yellowish legs; younger birds have blackish bill (often with pale base), dark iris, and grayish legs. Adult has white body and contrasting blackish mantle. In flight shows white trailing edge to wing and white spots on primary tips. Young birds go through a complex series of plumage changes, requiring four years to mature. Initially has a brownish, streaky mantle contrasting with paler head and underparts, whiter rump and basal tail, and broad black tail band, gradually becoming blacker above and losing the tail band. A massive, heavy gull, much larger than any other in Brazil. Cosmopolitan and often conspicuous along coast, even in cities, dominating other birds; can be quite gregarious. Calls include a deep “kyow,” a chuckling, and a drawn-out “kree-yeer.” TERNS are depicted on the two pages that follow. Smaller and slimmer than gulls, many have a deeply forked tail; their flight is more graceful. Rather than scavenging from shorelines and water, they dive for food.

127 breeding adult

imm.

nonbreeding adult

BROWN-HOODED GULL GAIVOTA-MARIA-VELHA

GRAY-HOODED GULL GAIVOTA-DE-CABEÇA-CINZA

imm.

nonbreeding adult

breeding adult

breeding adult

FRANKLIN’S GULL GAIVOTA-DE-FRANKLIN

nonbreeding adults

KELP GULL GAIVOTÃO

imm.

adult

YELLOW-BILLED TERN Sternula superciliaris

23-23.5 cm|9-10”

Rare to uncommon and local along coast, mainly in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, with only a few records from elsewhere (few inland, though a few occur along Rio Paraná; favors lagoons and sandbars. Bill yellow (dusky tip in immatures), also legs. Breeding adult pale gray above with black crown and nape and white forehead extending as narrow stripe over eye. White below. Tail quite deeply forked. Nonbreeders have crown more mottled (blacker on nape); juveniles are briefly scaly above. In flight outer primaries show extensive black. Much smaller than our other terns; cf. much larger Cabot’s Tern. Found in pairs or small groups, resting on sandbars, sometimes with other terns. Feeds while hovering over water with fast wingbeats, plunging straight down. Gives various sharp calls including a repeated “kirree-kik-kew.” Least Tern (S. antillarum) is a boreal vagrant to Rio de Janeiro. Very similar to Yellow-billed, but nonbreeders differ in their black bill. Black Tern (Chlidonias niger) is a boreal vagrant to coast. Small, with short notched tail. Nonbreeders gray above with black areas on crown and ear-coverts; white below with dusky smudge on sides. Wings uniformly gray. Body plumage much blacker when breeding.

SNOWY-CROWNED TERN Sterna trudeaui

33-35.5 cm|13-13.75”

Locally uncommon austral winter visitant (mostly Apr-Sep) to estuaries and beaches on São Paulo coast, very rare N to Rio de Janeiro. Bill black with yellow tip (considerable red at base when breeding); legs red. A mostly silvery gray tern with contrasting black eyepatch. Tail deeply forked. In flight primaries show almost no black. Migratory Cabot’s Terns, also with yellow-tipped black bills, are considerably larger; their legs are black. A graceful tern with deep wingbeats, flashing silvery; small numbers join flocks of other terns. Call a repeated “kreeyr.” Breeds in S South America.

SOUTH AMERICAN TERN Sterna hirundinacea VU

41-42 cm|16-16.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common along coast from Espírito Santo to São Paulo (vagrants in Bahia), with seasonal movements not well understood; breeds only very locally. Favors open ocean, beaches, and estuaries, nesting on islets. Bill rather long, all blood red when breeding, otherwise with blackish tip; legs also red. Above pale gray with contrasting black crown and nape; below white. Tail long and deeply forked. In flight shows some blackish in primaries. Nonbreeders have black on head restricted to eyepatch and nape. Common Terns in SE Brazil are nonbreeders and differ from South Americans in having a blackish carpal bar and usually an all-blackish bill. A graceful tern with a buoyant flight and deep wingbeats; often hovers before diving into water after small fish. Like most terns, gregarious and regularly in flocks. Call a harsh, drawn-out “keeyarr” and an often rapidly repeated “kip.”

COMMON TERN Sterna hirundo

33-38 cm|13-15”

GULL-BILLED TERN Gelochelidon nilotica

33-38 cm|13-15”

Uncommon boreal migrant (mostly Sep-May) to coast, favoring harbors and lagoons, sometimes open ocean. Resembles South American Tern. Commons seen here will generally be in nonbreeding plumage and have blackish bills with some red toward base (not all or mostly red as in South American); legs either red or blackish (always red in South American). Nonbreeding Commons show a dark carpal bar on closed wing (regardless of plumage; this never shown by South Americans). Behavior similar, but usually the two do not flock together. Breeds in Northern Hemisphere. Arctic Tern (S. paradisaea), another boreal migrant, is much more pelagic, with only a few records from coast. Closely resembles Common Tern. Bill somewhat shorter (all red when breeding), and legs decidedly shorter (evident only when resting next to a Common or South American). In flight primaries whiter, with only a narrow black trailing edge; tail whiter. Casual vagrant to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo coast. Notably heavy bill black; legs also black. Breeding adult above very pale gray with contrasting black crown and nape. Tail only shallowly forked. Nonbreeders lose the black crown, but retain a blackish eyepatch; immature brownish tinged above. In flight shows some dusky on primaries. Migratory Cabot’s Terns have much slenderer bill, more deeply forked tail. Nonbreeding Snowy-crowned Tern has a slenderer, yellow-tipped bill. Feeds by hawking insects over shallow water and nearby open terrain, not plunge-diving. Distinctive call a raspy “ka-wek, ka-wek.” Breeds locally in New and Old Worlds.

nonbreeding adult

129 imm. breeding adult

YELLOW-BILLED TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-ANÃO

nonbreeding adult

imm.

breeding adult SNOWY-CROWNED TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-DE-COROA-BRANCA

breeding adult

nonbreeding adult

nonbreeding adult SOUTH AMERICAN TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-DE-BICO-VERMELHO

nonbreeding adults COMMON TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-BOREAL

GULL-BILLED TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-DE-BICO-PRETO

breeding adult nonbreeding adult

LARGE-BILLED TERN Phaetusa simplex

38-40.5 cm|15-16”

CABOT’S TERN Thalasseus acuflavidus

40.5-43 cm|16-17”

Locally fairly common visitant to rivers and lakes in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais, but not yet known to breed; elsewhere sporadic, little more than a vagrant, including to coast. To 750 m (São Paulo). A large tern with a bold wing pattern and short, only slightly forked tail. Heavy bill bright yellow; legs yellow to yellowish green. Breeding adult has crown and ear-coverts jet black; back, rump, and tail gray; lores and underparts white. Nonbreeding adult has some white on forecrown. Immature duller generally (especially the bill), and browner above. In flight shows striking wing pattern with large area of white on greater coverts and secondaries, black primaries. The flashy flight pattern and exceptionally heavy bill should preclude confusion. Often found in small groups, most often resting on sandbars but also sometimes perching on low branches. Flight reminiscent of Royal Tern, plunge-diving for fish from considerable heights. Usually silent, but can be quite vocal around nesting colonies, giving loud squealing calls, e.g. “kreeah.” Locally common along entire coast, favoring inshore waters and bays and lagoons, nesting locally on islands, sometimes in large colonies. Another form occurs as a scarce boreal migrant. Long slender bill yellow (but black with yellow tip in migrants, which otherwise are similar; some birds have “blotchy” bills); legs black. Mostly white with contrasting black rearcrown and nape, feathers forming slight bushy crest; mantle pale gray. Tail quite deeply forked. Crown entirely black at onset of nesting season. In flight looks very white, with contrasting blackish-edged primaries visible mainly from above. Royal Tern is similar to resident birds but is larger and bill heavier and more orange. Cf. also Gull-billed and Snowy-crowned Terns. Forages by plunge-diving after small fish, often from quite high up. Quite gregarious, large flocks sometimes crowding together, often with other terns, on beaches and islets. Taxonomy uncertain: though here separated as a species, American birds are sometimes lumped with Old World populations as Sandwich Tern (T. sandvicensis), while others would subdivide American acuflavidus into two species, with South American breeding birds becoming Cayenne Tern (T. eurygnatha).

ROYAL TERN Thalasseus maximus EN

46-48 cm|18-19”

Locally fairly common along coast, mainly in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; favors bays, estuaries, and lagoons though sometimes feeding well out to sea. Known to breed only in São Paulo, there only locally and in small numbers. Stout bill reddish orange to orange; legs black. Similar to Cabot’s Tern, but mantle not quite so pale; likewise shows a fully black crown only briefly, when nesting. Tail moderately forked. Resident form of Cabot’s Tern (with yellow bill) is a smaller and slenderer bird; Royal’s bill color varies in intensity, but always is more orange. Behavior similar to Cabot’s Tern; the two often roost, feed, and even nest together. Royal’s flight tends to be slower and steadier, and often flies quite high. Call is a distinctive shrill “keer-rik,” given especially in flight.

BLACK SKIMMER Rynchops niger

43-47 cm|17-18.5”

Locally fairly common along coast, principally in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, favoring estuaries and lagoons and usually not on the actual ocean; also found locally inland along rivers and around lakes, especially in interior São Paulo. Breeding in our area seems unrecorded. To 750 m. Unmistakable. Bill unique: very compressed laterally (almost blade-like), with lower mandible considerably longer than upper; basal half bright red, outer half black. Legs also red. Adult black above with forehead and underparts white. Wings long, narrow, and pointed, above black with white trailing edge to inner flight feathers, below pale grayish. Tail somewhat forked, grayish. Nonbreeders are browner above with a vague whitish collar; bill duller. Juvenile scalier above with narrow blackish mask. Gregarious, loafing in groups that can be quite large, regularly associating with terns and sometimes gulls. Flight languid with slow graceful wingbeats. Feeding birds fly back and forth over a stretch of (usually shallow) water, the bill open with lower mandible “plowing” the water, snapping shut upon touching prey (small fish, crustaceans). Much feeding is done at night. Call a distinctive sharp nasal barking, “aow,” given mostly in flight. Classified in the family Rhynchopidae.

131 imm.

nonbreeding adult

breeding adult LARGE-BILLED TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-GRANDE

migrant resident

breeding adult CABOT’S TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-DE-BANDO

nonbreeding adult

breeding adult

nonbreeding adult

ROYAL TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-REAL

imm.

adult

adult

BLACK SKIMMER TALHA-MAR

SOOTY TERN Onychoprion fuscatus

40-41 cm|15.75-16”

A mainly pelagic tern, regular only on Abrolhos Archipelago off S Bahia and remote Ilha de Trindade; nests on both, especially the latter. Vagrants are also known from Rio de Janeiro coast. A contrastingly patterned, “black-and-white” tern. Above mostly black, with white forehead; below all white (including underwing-coverts). Tail deeply forked, outer feathers edged white. Immature mainly dusky to blackish, belly whiter, upperparts with white scaling and barring. Comes ashore only to nest. Flies buoyantly, swooping to the surface to pluck food. Rests on driftwood or flotsam when at sea. Noisy at nesting colonies, giving a shrill “ker-wacky-wack,” the din continuing at night. Breeds locally on islands in tropical oceans.

BROWN NODDY Anous stolidus

38-41 cm|15-16”

Nests commonly on Abrolhos Archipelago off S Bahia and on remote Ilha de Trindade, but hardly ever recorded elsewhere, either at sea or as vagrant on coast. Long slender black bill. Plain dark brown with contrasting white forecrown fading to grayish on mid and hindcrown; flight feathers and long, wedge-shaped tail a slightly contrasting darker brown. Immature more uniform, with white cap hardly showing; some whitish scaling above. Unmistakable in our area. Flies close to water’s surface, often in groups, feeding birds pausing to hover or swoop after food, not diving. Often active at night. Breeds locally on islands in tropical oceans. White Tern (Gygis alba) nests on Ilha de Trindade, far out in the South Atlantic, and has been seen once near Abrolhos Archipelago off S Bahia. Fairly small with short forked tail. Adult pure white except for black eye-ring. Pelagic away from its breeding islands, swooping down to surface. Nests in trees, with single eggs being placed directly on branches. STERCORARIUS jaegers and skuas mainly occur at sea; all are scarce here. Identification to species presents a major challenge.

PARASITIC JAEGER Stercorarius parasiticus

40.5-45 cm|16-18”

POMARINE JAEGER Stercorarius pomarinus

43.5-51 cm|17-20”

Rare boreal migrant (mostly Sep-May) to coastal and offshore waters. Bill hooked, usually uniformly dark (paler base in younger birds). Fairly long pointed tail feathers protrude past rest of tail, especially in breeding plumage (otherwise shorter). Light-morph adult grayish brown above with blackish crown and creamy nuchal collar. Whitish below with brownish chest band and dark crissum. Dark morph dark smoky brown with blackish crown. Immature variable, paler birds essentially brown with rusty feather edging, head and especially nape buffier, uniformly barred below with streakier foreneck. Darker birds are more uniform but still with buff nape. In flight always shows a fairly prominent white flash in outer primaries. Cf. very similar Pomarine Jaeger. Flight steady and often fast, aggressively chasing down other seabirds and forcing them to disgorge food; often flies well above surface. Also swims, and sick or lost birds sometimes rest on beaches. Breeds in arctic North America and Eurasia. Long-tailed Jaeger (S. longicaudus), also a boreal migrant, has occurred as vagrant on São Paulo coast; normally highly pelagic. Resembles Parasitic Jaeger, but smaller and more graceful. Adults have grayer upperparts and much longer central tail feathers (but these are often broken). Immatures difficult, but typically grayer (less rufescent). Regardless of age, shows reduced white wing flash (only on 1-3 primaries). Rare boreal migrant (mostly Oct-Apr) to offshore waters, very rarely coming toward coast; so far recorded mainly in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Larger and heavier-bodied than Parasitic Jaeger, with broader wings and a heavier bill that is more obviously bicolored (paler at base). Fairly long twisted tail feathers rounded at tip and projecting past rest of tail, these longer and more obvious in breeding plumage. Plumages similar to Parasitic Jaeger; dark morph more frequent. In light-morph adults breast band is typically more prominent and blackish crown extends to facial area. In flight shows an even more extensive white flash in outer primaries. Behavior as in Parasitic Jaeger, but Pomarine is even more powerful, with wingbeats slower though the bird’s flight is deceptively fast. Breeds in arctic North America and Eurasia. Chilean Skua (S. chilensis) and South Polar Skua (S. maccormicki) are each known from a few records along coast. Both are even larger and heavier-bodied than Pomarine Jaeger, with even bolder white wing flashes. Identification to species difficult, but Chilean typically is rufescent with a contrasting black cap while the polymorphic South Polar can be quite pale on head and below. Cf. other references.

133

SOOTY TERN TRINTA-RÉIS-DAS-ROCAS

adult

adult

imm.

imm. adult adult

BROWN NODDY TRINTA-RÉIS-ESCURO PARASITIC JAEGER MANDRIÃO-PARASÍTICO

imm.

dark-morph adult light-morph adult

light-morph adult

POMARINE JAEGER MANDRIÃO-POMARINO

PIGEONS & DOVES (Columbidae) comprise a cosmopolitan group of attractive but subtly colored

birds of varying sizes, with the terms “pigeon” referring to larger species, “dove” to smaller ones (though usage can be inconsistent). In Brazil they tend to be subtly colored, though elsewhere many are colorful. Some are inconspicuous forest inhabitants, but many are numerous and conspicuous in open country and settled areas. The Common or Domestic Pigeon (Columba livia), a native of the Old World with variable coloration, now is abundant in towns and cities. PATAGIOENAS pigeons are large and essentially arboreal, with broad and slightly rounded (not pointed) tails. Except for the Picazuro, they are mainly forest birds that mainly eat small fruits.

SCALED PIGEON Patagioenas speciosa

33 cm|13”

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland (including restinga) in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro; a population in W São Paulo is now much reduced. To 400 m. A unique, boldly scaled pigeon (a well-named bird!). Bill red with yellow tip; narrow reddish eye-ring. Head and upperparts rich purplish chestnut, neck boldly scaled white and blackish, upper back scaled rufous and blackish. Breast and belly vinaceous with dusky scalloping, fading to white on lower belly and crissum. somewhat duller. In poor light the scaly pattern can be hard to discern, but the mainly red bill almost always stands out. Pale-vented and Plumbeous Pigeons show no scaling. Surprisingly scarce in our area, this beautiful pigeon often rests on exposed limbs in the canopy, especially in the early morning. Song a lowpitched, lazy, rhythmic “whooo, wh-wh-whooo, wh-wh-whooo.”

PALE-VENTED PIGEON Patagioenas cayennensis

31 cm|12.5”

Fairly common but somewhat local at borders of humid forest and woodland and in clearings; often most numerous near water but by no means confined to such areas; also in araucaria forest and even campo rupestre. To 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos), but mostly below 1300 m. Iris reddish with narrow red eyering. Head bluish gray with forecrown more vinaceous and green iridescence on hindneck. Above rich vinaceous becoming gray on rump and uppertail-coverts; tail pale brownish gray with darker terminal half. Throat grayish white, breast vinaceous becoming pale gray on belly and crissum. Plumbeous Pigeon is more uniformly dark and less vinaceous, lacking the contrastingly paler basal tail and belly; its iris is pale grayish (not reddish). Plumbeous is more a forest bird. Pale-vented is an arboreal but essentially non-forest pigeon that often perches in the semiopen and, unlike Plumbeous, often flies well above tree height. Frequently heard song a rhythmic, slow-paced “wooh; wok, wuh-wooh; wuk, wuh-wooh,” faster and higher-pitched than Scaled Pigeon.

PLUMBEOUS PIGEON Patagioenas plumbea

30 cm|12”

PICAZURO PIGEON Patagioenas picazuro

36 cm|14”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo; sometimes also in araucaria forest. Mostly below 1100 m, a few up to 2000 m locally. Iris brownish gray. Essentially uniform vinaceous, somewhat paler and grayer on head, neck, and underparts; wings and tail darker and bronzier. Pale-vented Pigeon is less uniform with a notably paler belly and bicolored tail; its eye is reddish, and it is much less a forest bird. Generally found singly or in pairs (several can gather at fruiting trees), remaining in the canopy and only rarely perching in the open, so harder to see than Pale-vented. Typically flies through the canopy, not above it. Heard much more often than seen, with far-carrying song a distinctive five-noted “wuk, wuk-wuk, wuk-whoo” (song here notably different from song elsewhere in its vast range, e.g., in Amazonia; based on voice, more than one species is likely involved). Also gives a throaty growl, “rrrow.” Common and widespread in settled and cultivated areas, woodland borders, parks, and gardens. By far the most numerous large pigeon in our region, having benefitted hugely from deforestation and the spread of agriculture. To at least 2000 m (perhaps wandering higher). Iris reddish orange. Mostly grayish vinaceous, hindneck and upper back with narrow but prominent pale scaling, belly grayer; wings duskier with conspicuous white edging on greater coverts that forms an obvious band in flight; tail bluish gray with darker terminal half. Our other pigeons are smaller, and lack the white in wing, etc. The Picazuro is a notably gregarious pigeon that often flies long distances between its roosting and feeding sites, sometimes high above the ground. It feeds mainly on the ground, but nests and frequently perches in trees, sometimes even on phone wires. Its hooting song is a slow “whooo-ooo, whoó-whoo-whoo, whoó-whoo-whoo,” sometimes interspersed with low growling calls that can be given independently.

135

SCALED PIGEON POMBA-TROCAL

PALE-VENTED PIGEON POMBA-GALEGA

PLUMBEOUS PIGEON POMBA-AMARGOSA

PICAZURO PIGEON ASA-BRANCA

COLUMBINA are small ground doves with short, squared tails and pinkish legs. They are conspicuous and usually numerous in open terrain. SCALED DOVE Columbina squammata

20.5 cm|8”

Fairly common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, especially near buildings; originally found inland but, with deforestation, spreading and increasing. Locally to 1000 m. Long-tailed. Sandy brown above, head grayer, below buffy whitish; heavily scaled throughout with black. Wing-coverts show some white, and extensive rufous patch in flight feathers prominent in flight; outer tail feathers black with white tips. No other ground dove is as scaly. Found in pairs or small groups shuffling on ground with tail usually elevated. Oft-heard song a monotonously repeated “ho, h-ho; ho, h-ho; ho, h-ho…” with distinctive cadence, given through heat of day. Formerly classified in genus Scardafella.

PICUI GROUND DOVE Columbina picui

18 cm|7”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in semiopen and agricultural areas and around towns, also open restinga; mainly a bird of arid regions but now spreading, especially from the north. To 1000 m. Iris whitish. Above pale brownish gray, foreface whitish and crown grayer; below creamy whitish. Wings have an iridescent blue stripe on lesser coverts and broad white edge on greater coverts; outer tail feathers white (conspicuous when flushed). duller and browner. Shows more white in wings and tail than the other ground doves; paler than any. Found in pairs or small groups, pottering about on open ground and often tame. Hollow-sounding song a repeated “k-woo, k-woo, k-woo….”

PLAIN-BREASTED GROUND DOVE Columbina minuta

16 cm|6.25”

RUDDY GROUND DOVE Columbina talpacoti

17 cm|6.75”

BLUE GROUND DOVE Claravis pretiosa

21 cm|8.25”

PURPLE-WINGED GROUND DOVE Claravis geoffroyi

21 cm|8.25”

Uncommon to fairly common but local in agricultural areas and pastures, campos, cerrado, and open restinga; mainly in Rio de Janeiro and nearby. Locally to 1100 m. olive brown above, grayer on crown and nape; below pale grayish vinaceous. Wings have shiny violet spots on coverts, rufous in primaries (obvious as it flushes); outer tail feathers tipped white. lacks gray on head and drabber overall, throat and midbelly whiter. Ruddy Ground Dove is larger, more rufescent on rump, and has buff tail-tipping. Behavior as in Picui, but only rarely around buildings or in towns. Song a steady “who-oop, who-oop, who-oop….”

Common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas and around houses; frequent in towns and cities. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to 1900 m. ruddy vinaceous with paler face and throat and contrasting bluish gray crown. Wing-coverts with black spots and bars and primaries rufous (latter visible mainly in flight), underwing-coverts black; tail black, central feathers rufous. duller, more olive brown above and grayish buff below. Occurs in pairs and small groups that feed on ground; generally confiding and often visiting feeders. Can occur in large flocks when not breeding. Song a steady repeated “k-whoo, k-whoo, k-whoo….” CLARAVIS ground doves are larger than Columbina; less numerous and conspicuous, they favor more wooded areas. Uncommon and local on or near ground in borders of semideciduous and humid forest and woodland, occasionally up into lower montane areas. Mostly below 900 m, locally to 1200 m (Serra dos Órgãos). bluish gray, paler below and whiter on face. Wing-coverts with black spots, tertials with two black bars; tail mainly black. brown above, rump and mid-tail rufous, outer tail feathers black with buff tips. Wing-coverts with shiny purplish spots and two bars on tertials. Breast grayish brown, belly whitish. Other than exceedingly rare Purple-winged Ground Dove, Blue is unmistakable. of smaller Ruddy Ground Dove lacks the rufous rump and uppertail, purplish wing-markings. Generally found in pairs, usually feeding on ground, often on trails and little-used roads. Distinctive song a slowpaced series of abrupt “whoop” notes generally delivered from a hidden perch.

CR

Extremely rare on or near ground in montane forest with extensive bamboo from SE Bahia to S São Paulo; almost no recent records. 1000-1600 m (perhaps also higher). like Blue Ground Dove but wings with three broad purplish bars; outer tail feathers conspicuously white. like Blue but with three broad purplish wing-bars (patterned like ). Formerly much more numerous, with the reasons for its dramatic decline remaining unclear, especially given that bamboo remains extensive across much of its range here. Favored seeding bamboo. Song reported to be “oo-OOT” (H. Sick). Formerly called C. godefrida.

137 SCALED DOVE FOGO-APAGOU

PICUI GROUND DOVE ROLINHA-PICUÍ

PLAIN-BREASTED GROUND DOVE ROLINHA-DE-ASA-CANELA

RUDDY GROUND DOVE ROLINHA-CALDO-DE-FEIJÃO

BLUE GROUND DOVE POMBA-DE-ESPELHO

PURPLE-WINGED GROUND DOVE PARARU

EARED DOVE Zenaida auriculata

26 cm|10.25”

Locally common in semiopen and agricultural areas, also in cities and towns. Locally to 1700 m or even higher. Legs pink. Above brown with bluish gray crown, two dark streaks on ear-coverts, and purple iridescence on neck. Wings with large black spots on tertials; tail graduated, outer feathers broadly tipped white (conspicuous in flight). Below pale vinaceous, lower belly pale buff. Ground doves are markedly smaller and have less white in tail. The larger and heavier White-tipped Dove lacks Eared’s spots on head and wings. Conspicuous in settled areas and apparently continuing to increase, with large flocks occurring seasonally in sugarcane and soy. Often quite tame, pottering about on ground, head nodding; often in small groups. Not especially vocal, but has a subdued, low-pitched cooing, “whoo, whoo-whoo, whooh.” LEPTOTILA doves are large, plump, mainly terrestrial doves found in wooded habitats. They have coral pink legs, rufous underwing-coverts, and distinctive white tail-tipping.

WHITE-TIPPED DOVE Leptotila verreauxi

28 cm|11”

GRAY-FRONTED DOVE Leptotila rufaxilla

29 cm|11.5”

Fairly common to common and widespread on or near ground in semideciduous, humid, and montane forest and woodland and in forest borders, also regularly out into clearings and gardens but generally avoids humid lowland forest. To at least 1700 m. Inconspicuous orbital ring grayish blue in most of our area, dull purplish red farther inland and reddish in some S São Paulo birds. Grayish brown above, whitish on forecrown with pale purplish gloss on hindneck; tail blackish, outer feathers white-tipped. Throat white, below pale vinaceous. Gray-fronted Dove has an obvious blue-gray midcrown, considerably buffier foreneck, slightly narrower white tail-tipping; it favors humid forest. Usually seen singly while walking on ground at woodland edge or just inside, leaving cover much more often than Gray-fronted. Flushed birds often land on a low branch where they may nod, dip their tail, and pace nervously. Song a soft, hollow “wh-whoo-oo,” normally with distinct two-noted effect (Gray-fronted’s is single-noted).

Uncommon to fairly common on or near ground in humid and montane forest and woodland. To 1800 m. Inconspicuous orbital ring reddish. Above olive brown with forehead pale grayish and midcrown bluish gray, pale purplish on hindneck; tail blackish, outer feathers white-tipped. Face and sides of neck buff, throat whitish, underparts vinaceous, lower belly whiter. White-tipped Dove is plainer and less richly colored, lacking gray on crown and buff on face; it prefers more open habitats. Behavior as in White-tipped, but seems shyer, favoring denser habitats and rarely in the open; as a result, seen much less frequently. More often heard than seen, with song a single-noted, low-pitched “whoooh.” GEOTRYGON quail-doves resemble Leptotila but are somewhat more colorful; they lack tail-tipping. Both are shy forest inhabitants.

VIOLACEOUS QUAIL-DOVE Geotrygon violacea

23 cm|9”

RUDDY QUAIL-DOVE Geotrygon montana

23 cm|9”

Rare and very local on or near ground inside humid forest and woodland; despite its wide range, only a few records. To 900 m. Orbital ring and bill purplish red. Face whitish becoming grayer on hindneck and rich reddish chestnut glossed violet on nape and upper back (gloss strongest in s); rich chestnut brown above. Throat white, breast grayish mauve, belly white. duller above with grayer breast. Leptotila doves are duller, more grayish brown above; they show white tail-tipping, obvious as they flush. Seen singly while walking on forest floor, occasionally on roads or trails that traverse forest. Song a short hollow “ho-ooo,” given at 2-3 second intervals, usually from a branch several meters up, slightly higher-pitched than Ruddy’s. Uncommon on or near ground inside humid and lower montane forest from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1000 m, locally to 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Bill, loral line, orbital ring, and legs purplish red. above rufouschestnut glossed purple; prominent pinkish buff stripe across lower face bordered below by reddish brown malar stripe; wings and tail brown. Below pale vinaceous, belly buffier; usually shows a purplish area on sides and whitish bar in front of wing. duller with facial stripe pale cinnamon and malar stripe brown. Above olive brown; below brownish, belly buffier, usually showing a buff bar in front of wing. Juvenile has often obvious cinnamon and blackish feather edging. Found singly or in pairs inside forest where shy and infrequently seen. Flushes quietly without noisy wing-flapping (unlike Leptotila). Song a soft, low-pitched, and descending “oooo.”

139 EARED DOVE AVOANTE, POMBA-DE-BANDO

WHITE-TIPPED DOVE JURITI-PUPU

GRAY-FRONTED DOVE JURITI-GEMEDEIRA

VIOLACEOUS QUAIL-DOVE JURITI-DA-MATA

RUDDY QUAIL-DOVE PARIRI

PARROTS (Psittacidae) are familiar, often colorful birds usually with short hooked bills (very large in

some, especially the macaws) and dexterous feet, used for handling food. Most are forest birds. They vary greatly in size (from a meter to merely 12 cm!), and many are long-tailed. Notably noisy and gregarious, the vast majority nest in tree cavities; all eat fruits and seeds.

BLUE-AND-YELLOW MACAW Ara ararauna

81-86 cm|32-34”

Rare and declining in gallery forest and woodland and nearby open areas, especially where there are palms; now found mainly in W and N São Paulo, formerly to coast at least locally. Escapes from captivity can be found anywhere, even in towns and cities. Below 500 m. Unmistakable: a huge, very long-tailed parrot, bright rich blue above and golden yellow below. Bill black; bare facial skin white with lines of black feathers, small throat patch black. Flying birds in low-angled light can look deceptively red. Usually occurs in pairs or small groups and most often noticed in flight, sometimes high overhead. Very noisy, though perched birds can be amazingly quiet (and hard to see), with commonest call a very loud “rraaah!” often repeated several times. Red-and-green Macaw (A. chloropterus) formerly occurred across much of SE Brazil but now ranges only in W São Paulo, where rare and local; until recently found in Espírito Santo (a reintroduction effort there will hopefully succeed). As with Blue-and- yellow, escapes from captivity can occur anywhere. Equally unmistakable: deep red with wing-coverts largely green, blue flight feathers. Its raucous calls are even louder and deeper.

BLUE-WINGED MACAW Primolius maracana

38-42 cm|15 -16.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in semihumid forest and woodland, sometimes ranging into more open areas, even where mainly deforested. Locally to 1400 m (Ibitipoca). Bare facial skin whitish or pale yellowish. Bright green with dark red forehead, bluish crown and head, and reddish area on lower belly; also a red patch on lower back visible mainly in flight. Flight feathers blue; tail reddish with blue toward tip; underside of both olive-yellow. In our area the most often seen macaw, but even so not encountered often. Redbellied Macaw is larger, has a yellower bare facial area, no red on forehead. Red-shouldered Macaw is markedly smaller, etc. Can occur in flocks of up to several dozen individuals; they can be surprisingly tame, and feed in a variety of situations. A noisy bird, with most frequent call a repeated “reenh,” often given in flight and heralding the approach of a flock.

RED-BELLIED MACAW Orthopsittaca manilatus

46-48 cm|18-19”

Uncommon and local in gallery forest and swampy areas in N São Paulo and S Minas Gerais; strongly favors vicinity of Mauritia sp. palm groves. Locally to 900 m. Bare facial skin yellowish. Mainly green, bluer on crown with a mealy suffusion on foreneck and small red belly patch; primaries blue, but underside of wings and tail pale greenish yellow. Blue-winged Macaw has a whiter face and red forehead, red on lower back; its voice is quite different. Occurs in flocks of up to several dozen individuals that regularly are seen while flying between roosting and feeding areas. Looks slender in flight, with slim pointed wings and a narrow upswept tail. Calls are distinctively higher-pitched and more squealing than with other macaws, a repeated “kree-ee-ee” or “kree-ee-ak” that carries far.

RED-SHOULDERED MACAW Diopsittaca nobilis

33-35 cm|13-13.75”

Uncommon in semideciduous and gallery woodland and around palm groves in N São Paulo and S Minas Gerais; populations are also established in some urban areas (e.g., Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo). To 900 m. A small macaw, with only a small area of bare facial skin; bill bicolored. Bright green with bluish forecrown and red at bend of wing. Blue-winged and Red-bellied Macaws are both larger, lack red on wings, etc. White-eyed Parakeet has an entirely pale bill and scattered red feathers on body and wings. Usually found in small groups and often quite tame; persists well in settled areas. Most frequent call a somewhat nasal “nyaah,” often repeated rapidly, especially in flight.

WHITE-EYED PARAKEET Psittacara leucophthalmus

33-35 cm | 13-14”

Widespread and locally fairly common in woodland and forest borders, also frequently ranging into cleared and even urban areas. Mostly below 1100 m, occasionally wandering to 2000 m (Itatiaia). Bill pale horn; orbital ring yellowish white (the “white eye”). Bright green with scattered red feathers on head and foreneck; edge of forewing red, lesser underwing-coverts red, greater coverts yellow (the latter seen especially in flight). Cf. Red-shouldered Macaw. Usually found in flocks, sometimes large, that feed on a variety of fruits; they often fly long distances to forage. Raspy screeching calls are given both in flight and while perched, e.g., “screee-screéah” or “scrah-scrah-scra-scra.” Formerly classified in genus Aratinga.Antes classificado no gênero Aratinga.

141 BLUE-AND-YELLOW MACAW ARARA-CANINDÉ

BLUE-WINGED MACAW MARACANÃ

RED-BELLIED MACAW MARACANÃ-DO-BURITI

RED-SHOULDERED MACAW MARACANÃ-PEQUENA

WHITE-EYED PARAKEET PERIQUITÃO-MARACANÃ

PEACH-FRONTED PARAKEET Eupsittula aurea

26 cm|10.5”

GOLDEN-CAPPED PARAKEET Aratinga auricapillus

29 cm|11.5”

Fairly common and widespread in semideciduous woodland, forest borders, and agricultural areas; has spread and increased recently, presumably as a result of deforestation, and now is even found in some urban areas (e.g., São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; some probably escapees) though it remains less numerous in coastal lowlands than elsewhere. To 1500 m (Gonçalves). Conspicuous yelloworange feathered eye-ring. Forecrown orange; otherwise green above, crown tinged blue, primary coverts also blue. Foreneck pale brownish olive, below pale yellowish olive. Favors more open areas than other parakeets. Cf. Golden-capped Parakeet. A conspicuous bird that usually occurs in small flocks that fly low in compact groups. They feed on a variety of fruits and seeds, sometimes even on the ground. Calls include a variety of harsh, grating screeches, often given in series and especially in flight. Formerly classified in genus Aratinga.

Locally fairly common in humid and semihumid forest and woodland (especially at borders), mainly from E Bahia south to N São Paulo; an introduced population occurs in Rio de Janeiro city. Locally to 1000 m. Inconspicuous bare orbital ring gray. Mostly rich green with intense red and yellow around eye and on forecrown (A), more extensive in E Bahia (B); breast and belly variably washed with red (can be extensive); primary coverts blue. Peach-fronted Parakeet is much less vividly colored and has a brownish foreneck; it inhabits more open terrain. This gorgeous but declining parakeet can occur in large flocks and seems inordinately fond of perching on snags. Its unpleasant screeching calls are distinctively higher-pitched than those of the other larger parakeets. PYRRHURA parakeets are smaller and slenderer than Aratinga parakeets and their relatives (the preceding birds), and have more complex plumage patterns. They are more dependent on forest, and range in small compact groups that fly swiftly and usually “disappear” when they land, only rarely landing in the open. Perched birds generally remain quiet until suddenly they flush and are off. Apparently all are cooperative breeders.

MAROON-BELLIED PARAKEET Pyrrhura frontalis

25 cm|10”

MAROON-FACED PARAKEET Pyrrhura leucotis

25 cm|10”

Fairly common to common especially in montane forest and woodland and adjacent clearings (including araucaria forest and city parks in some areas) from SE Bahia to S São Paulo, southward occurring down to sea level. To 2000 m, but northward only above 500 m. Conspicuous white orbital ring. Mostly green with pale area on ear-coverts and obvious buffy whitish scaling on sides of neck and breast with patch on midbelly reddish maroon; tail mostly reddish maroon. The commonest parrot in montane areas; occurs with no other Pyrrhura. Flock size can be fairly large (up to 20 or more birds) and in many areas now quite tame, even coming to feeders. Most frequent call a shrill “kree-ee,” given especially while flying, often simultaneously by multiple members of the flock. Sometimes called Reddish-bellied Parakeet.

VU

Uncommon to fairly common in humid forest and woodland in lowlands from SE Bahia south locally to SE Minas Gerais and N Rio de Janeiro (where rare and local); formerly perhaps also NE São Paulo. Mostly below 300 m. Declining due to deforestation. Inconspicuous gray orbital ring. Crown grayish with maroon red face and conspicuous white cheek patch. Mainly green above; red at bend of wing and blue on flight feathers; tail mostly reddish. Foreneck prominently scaled white; below green with reddish midbelly. Beautiful and colorful; unlikely to be confused, but cf. Ochre-marked Parakeet. Typically occurs in groups of 6-10 individuals and can be quite tame. Has a variety of high-pitched screeches, often run together, given especially in flight. Sometimes called White-eared Parakeet.

OCHRE-MARKED PARAKEET Pyrrhura cruentata VU

29 cm|11.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in humid forest and woodland in lowlands from SE Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro (where now very rare and local). Below 300 m. Declining due to deforestation. Inconspicuous gray orbital ring; iris whitish. Crown blackish with maroon face and obvious buff auriculars and sides of neck. Mainly green above; a little red at bend of wing and blue on flight feathers; tail mostly reddish. Underparts (including throat) mainly green, with blue band across chest and reddish midbelly. As beautiful as the smaller Maroon-faced Parakeet; confusion improbable. Behavior of the two is similar, and occasionally they even occur together. Calls also similar, though Ochremarked’s are louder and less shrill. Sometimes called Blue-throated Parakeet.

143

PEACH-FRONTED PARAKEET PERIQUITO-REI

A A

GOLDEN-CAPPED PARAKEET JANDAIA-DE-TESTA-VERMELHA

MAROON-BELLIED PARAKEET TIRIBA

MAROON-FACED PARAKEET TIRIBA-DE-ORELHA-BRANCA

OCHRE-MARKED PARAKEET TIRIBA-GRANDE

B

BROTOGERIS parakeets are small parrots that can occur in large flocks and are not especially forest-dependent. YELLOW-CHEVRONED PARAKEET Brotogeris chiriri 20 cm|8” Fairly common to common in semideciduous forest and woodland as well as in agricultural and settled areas with scattered trees in Minas Gerais and much of São Paulo; aside from escapees, absent from coastal lowlands. 300-1400 m. A small parrot with short, wedge-shaped tail. Bill pinkish; narrow orbital ring whitish. Mostly green, darker on back and wing-coverts, with conspicuous bright yellow slash on secondary coverts (visible even on closed wing). Plain Parakeet replaces this species toward the coast; it lacks yellow in wing and has a slimmer and longer tail. Blue-winged Parrotlet is much smaller and also lacks yellow in wing. A gregarious parakeet that gathers in large flocks; often flies high and has a distinctive erratic, bounding flight. Feeds in a variety of fruiting and flowering trees, perched birds often remaining hard to see until they burst into flight with shrill chattering, often continued as they fly.

PLAIN PARAKEET Brotogeris tirica

21 cm|8.25”

Fairly common in humid and lower montane forest and woodland, also adjacent clearings and locally even in cities such as São Paulo, from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1200 m. A small parrot with rather long, pointed tail. Bill pinkish. Nearly uniform green, slightly paler below; brownish tinge on shoulders. Yellow-chevroned Parakeet normally is found in inland areas (though escaped cagebirds of both species occur out of normal range). Plain has a much slimmer, more pointed tail and lacks Yellow-chevroned’s yellow on wing. Plain’s behavior is similar; in some places it has become notably tame. Plain’s calls are similar but higher-pitched and screechier, e.g., “creecree-cree…“ or “scree-scree-scree….”

BLUE-WINGED PARROTLET Forpus xanthopterygius

12.5 cm|5”

Fairly common and widespread in semiopen and settled areas with scattered trees, also in secondary woodland and humid forest borders, sometimes even cities. Mostly below 1000 m, smaller numbers to at least 1500 m. A very small parrot with short tail. Bill whitish. Green, brighter and paler on head and underparts, face a little yellower in N birds. has greater wing-coverts, secondaries, and rump rich blue. Easily our area’s smallest parrot. Touit parrotlets are much less conspicuous birds of humid forests. Blue-wingeds are found in flocks, usually small, that perch in the semiopen and often feed on grass or the ground; they typically are easy to observe. Flies in spurts, with fast buzzy wingbeats interspersed with moments when wings are held close to body. Frequently gives a high-pitched “tzit” or “tzeet” call, especially in flight but also when perched. TOUIT parrotlets are small, chunky, distinctively marked parrots ranging very locally in humid forests. Both our species are endemic and endangered by habitat destruction (though probably neither was ever very numerous).

GOLDEN-TAILED PARROTLET Touit surdus

16 cm|6.25”

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and lower foothills from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 900 m. Bill horn-colored; narrow orbital ting gray. Green, somewhat paler below, with pale brownish scapulars. Shows some brownish yellow and reddish in facial area; with outer tail feathers golden yellow (most apparent in flight and from below). Brown-backed Parrotlet is similar but has an obvious orangey orbital ring, no yellowish brown on face, and magenta in outer tail. An inconspicuous little parrot, encountered only rarely though it can occur in quite large flocks. Most frequently noted in flight, disappearing into the canopy when it lands, so learn its voice, a loud “kreeah” (lower-pitched than Brown-backed’s call) that is repeated interminably and is given especially in flight.

BROWN-BACKED PARROTLET Touit melanonotus VU

15 cm|6”

Rare in canopy and borders of foothill and lower montane forest and woodland in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo; also a few records from SE Bahia and Espírito Santo. Mostly 500-1200 m, seasonally down to sea level (notably at Ubatuba, Oct-Feb). Bill whitish; notably wide orbital ring brownish orange. Green, somewhat paler below, with large brownish area on midback; outer tail feathers magenta red (most apparent in flight and from below). Golden-tailed Parrotlet lacks the orbital ring but shows yellowish on face; ’s outer tail yellow (not red). Behavior of this parrotlet similar to the Golden-tailed. Other than the recent spate of Ubatuba records, in general infrequently recorded. Call a shrill “scree-ee-ee,” given both in flight and while perched. Sometimes called Black-eared Parrotlet.

145 YELLOW-CHEVRONED PARAKEET PERIQUITO-DE-ASA-AMARELA

PLAIN PARAKEET PERIQUITO-VERDE

BLUE-WINGED PARROTLET TUIM

GOLDEN-TAILED PARROTLET APUIM-DE-RABO-AMARELO

BROWN-BACKED PARROTLET APUIM-DE-COSTAS-PRETAS

PILEATED PARROT Pionopsitta pileata

20 cm|8”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, including araucaria forest, mainly in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo, smaller numbers north in montane areas to SE Bahia. Mostly 500-1700 m. Bill dusky, ocular area bluish gray. Mostly bright green; with bright red crown and blue flight feathers and bend of wing, with brownish on ear-coverts. The plain can be confusing but note its chunky size ( Blue-bellied Parrot, also plain, is longer-tailed). It usually occurs in pairs or small groups, simplifying identification. Except in flight inconspicuous, feeding quietly or creeping on branches, often well above ground, unnoticed until they flush. Vocalizes mainly in flight, most often a repeated “kr-r-ree.”

REICHENOW’S PARROT Pionus reichenowi VU

26.5 cm|10.5”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. To 500 m. Bill usually horn-colored (but can be duskier, with pink at maxilla base); ocular area whitish. Head, neck, and most of underparts deep blue, merging to green on belly; crissum and base of tail red. Above green. Recalls much more numerous and widespread Scaly-headed Parrot, though that lacks Reichenow’s extensive blue. Occurs in pairs and small flocks; quite conspicuous, often perching in the open, sometimes on snags. Flies with characteristically deep wingstrokes. A noisy parrot, especially when flying, with most frequent call a repeated “kee-reenk.” Formerly considered a subspecies of Blue-headed Parrot (P. menstruus).

SCALY-HEADED PARROT Pionus maximiliani

26.5 cm|10.5”

Widespread, uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid, semideciduous, and montane forest, including araucaria forest, also regularly out into open areas with large trees (even in city parks); less common northward. To 1800 m, less numerous below 500 m. Lower part of bill whitish; in most of range (A) inconspicuous ocular ring gray, but in W São Paulo (B) white and much more conspicuous. Mostly green, feathers of head and neck scaled whitish and chest tinged blue; crissum and base of tail red. The most numerous larger parrot in much of our area. In far north, where Scaly-headed mainly occurs at higher elevations, cf. Reichenow’s Parrot. Behavior much as in Reichenow’s, though group size can be larger. Noisy, with calls, given especially in flight, including a harsh ”kreeyk” or “ka-kreeyk,” often repeated. AMAZONA amazons are large parrots with distinctive facial patterns and usually a red or orange wing speculum, visible mainly in flight. They are gregarious birds of the forest canopy, most conspicuous in flight when they fly with stiff, shallow wingbeats, pairs often evident. Amazons remain popular as cagebirds, and some are much reduced in numbers. Often called “parrots,” we favor the group name “amazon.”

ORANGE-WINGED AMAZON Amazona amazonica

32 cm|12.5”

TURQUOISE-FRONTED AMAZON Amazona aestiva

34 cm|13.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of semideciduous and humid forest and woodland, also locally in restinga, mangroves, and semiopen areas (even city parks), mainly in lowlands from E Bahia to São Paulo, where also in the interior. 400-900 m. Bill dusky; narrow grayish orbital ring. Mostly green with yellow patch on crown, extensively yellow lower cheeks, and a variable amount of blue on crown and around eyes. Wings have orange speculum (red in other amazons). Occurs mainly in pairs and small flocks, favoring riparian areas where obvious around dawn and dusk but “disappearing” at mid-day, then inactive in the leafy canopy. The amazon most tolerant of habitat alteration, but even so trapped out from many areas. Gives a wide variety of calls, the commonest in flight being a shrill “kee-wik, kee-wik, kee-wik…“ or “kwik-kwik, kwik-kwik…,” often repeated. Uncommon to locally fairly common in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland mainly in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais, but established locally elsewhere from escapees (even in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro). To at least 1500 m. Bill dusky; orbital area whitish. Mainly green with yellow face (more extensive in older birds, even extending to throat) and pale blue forehead, back and breast feathers scaled blackish. Wings have red speculum; shoulders often yellow. Cf. Orange-winged Amazon (their face patterns can be similar); the two can occur together in cities. Behavior much as in Orangewinged. Most frequent call, given especially in flight, a throaty “kra-raow.” Sometimes called Blue-fronted Amazon.

147

PILEATED PARROT CUIÚ-CUIÚ

REICHENOW’S PARROT MAITACA-DE-BARRIGA-AZUL

A

B SCALY-HEADED PARROT MAITACA-VERDE

ORANGE-WINGED AMAZON CURICA

TURQUOISE-FRONTED AMAZON PAPAGAIO-VERDADEIRO

MEALY AMAZON Amazona farinosa

38 cm|15”

Uncommon and now quite local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from SE Bahia to NE São Paulo. Locally to 600 m. Bill pale with dark tip; very wide orbital ring white. Essentially uniform green, nape and back feathers usually with a powdery (“mealy”) bloom; sometimes shows yellow on crown. Wings have red speculum; tail obviously bicolored in flight (terminal half paler). The other amazons with which Mealy occurs all have a facial pattern and also a less conspicuous orbital ring. Occurs in pairs and small flocks that tend to remain in extensive forest, only rarely flying over intervening open terrain. Gives a wide variety of calls, many very loud, the most frequent being a “choh” or “choh-choh” and a “chap-chap-chap-chaow,” both often interspersed with gurgles.

VINACEOUS-BREASTED AMAZON Amazona vinacea VU

RED-BROWED AMAZON Amazona rhodocorytha VU

32 cm|12.5”

Uncommon and local in montane forest (in many areas favoring araucaria forest) from E Minas Gerais and extreme S Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly 800-2000 m. Bill pinkish with pale tip; narrow grayish orbital ring. Mostly green with red lores and feathers of nape and breast vinaceous with dark edging (looking scaly). Wings have a red speculum and red at base of tail. Does not occur with our other amazons, being much more montane. Pileated Parrot is much smaller, etc. Occurs in pairs and small groups, and generally not very conspicuous; declining due to deforestation, but relatively numerous around Campos do Jordão. Most frequent call a simple “krow,” often repeated numerous times with varying inflections. Sometimes called Vinaceous Amazon (though it’s mainly the breast that is vinaceous). 34 cm|13.5”

Rare to uncommon and now local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, locally in restinga, in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro; threatened by deforestation. To 600 m. Maxilla whitish, lower mandible blackish; narrow grayish orbital ring. Mostly green with red forecrown, yellowish lores, and blue tinge to foreface (often prominent). Wings have a red speculum, and outer tail feathers some yellow. Replaces Red-tailed Amazon northward (no overlap), but does occur with Mealy (which has a conspicuous orbital ring and lacks red on crown) and Orange-winged (with obvious blue and yellow on face, orange wing speculum, etc.). Typically in pairs and small groups, usually not associating with other parrots though occasionally with Mealy Amazons. Most characteristic call a raucous “karow-karow,” often repeated, given both in flight and while perched.

RED-TAILED AMAZON Amazona brasiliensis

34 cm|13.5”

BLUE-BELLIED PARROT Triclaria malachitacea

32 cm|12.5”

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, including restinga and mangroves, in coastal lowlands of S São Paulo. Mostly below 50 m, occasionally to 300 m. Bill pale; narrow grayish orbital ring. Mostly green with red forehead, bluish sides of neck, and purplish mauve throat. Unlike other amazons, has no wing speculum; outer tail feathers extensively yellow with red toward base. Essentially the only amazon in its tiny range, perhaps occurring locally with much more widespread Orange-winged. Now endangered by development in the coastal region and poaching of its chicks, though it occurs in protected areas such as Ilha Comprida and Ilha do Cardoso. Behavior much as in Red-browed Amazon, though much more confined to coastal areas. Gives a variety of often semimusical squeals and squawks, both in flight and when perched, generally much less raucous than in Redbrowed and Mealy Amazons. Rare to locally uncommon in lower montane forest and woodland in the serras along the coast from Espírito Santo to S São Paulo, occasionally (mainly in winter) descending to near coast in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Mostly 400-1200 m. Rather long-tailed. Bill whitish. Uniform rich green, with large patch of purplish blue on midbreast and belly. This beautiful parrot, characteristic of wet forests, is virtually unmistakable but cf. Pileated Parrot (with shorter tail, different behavior). Found in pairs and small flocks; generally inconspicuous, shy, and hard to see, flying below the canopy. Its vocalizations are very unlike other parrots, with unique song (it seems to be one) a variable series of melodic, almost thrush-like notes given while perched, somewhat sharper in flight. Sometimes called Purple-bellied Parrot.

149 MEALY AMAZON PAPAGAIO-MOLEIRO

VINACEOUS-BREASTED AMAZON PAPAGAIO-DE-PEITO-ROXO

RED-BROWED AMAZON CHAUÁ

RED-TAILED AMAZON PAPAGAIO-DE-CARA-ROXA

BLUE-BELLIED PARROT SABIÁ-CICA

CUCKOOS & ANIS (Cuculidae) are slender, long-tailed birds found in a variety of wooded habitats but

especially forest and woodland. Their bills typically are decurved at the tip. Most are uncommon and many are hard to see, with the Guira Cuckoo and the Smooth-billed Ani being notable exceptions; a few species are quite vocal. All are insectivorous, with caterpillars being a favored food of many. COCCYZUS cuckoos are sleek arboreal birds with long graduated tails whose feathers are white-tipped.

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO Coccyzus americanus

29 cm|11.5”

Rare to occasionally uncommon boreal migrant to semideciduous and gallery woodland, humid forest borders, and clearings (Oct-Mar); migrants sometimes occur along coast, typically being found in mangroves and restinga. Occasionally to at least 900 m. Slightly decurved bill black with lower mandible yellow or orange-yellow; narrow eye-ring yellow. Grayish brown above with darker mask; white below tinged pale gray. Primaries have rufous edging that flashes prominently in flight, and usually is visible on perched birds; underside of tail black, feathers with large white tips. Juvenile has a duller eye-ring that sometimes is gray, and often less yellow on bill; underside of its tail grayer (hence the white tips contrast less). Pearly-breasted Cuckoo is similar, but differs in its slightly smaller size and lack of rufous in wings. Furtive, found singly as it sneaks about in dense leafy cover at varying heights, occasionally fluttering or running along a branch in pursuit of its large-insect prey. Migrants can occur in more open, less wooded terrain and thus sometimes are easier to see. Quiet on its wintering grounds. Breeds in North America.

PEARLY-BREASTED CUCKOO Coccyzus euleri

26.5 cm|10.5”

Rare to locally uncommon in forest borders and woodland across much of our area, but records are most frequent in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; status remains unclear, and probably at least in part migratory, with most records Oct-Mar (the period when it likely is breeding and therefore singing; thus much more apt to be found). To at least 1000 m. Resembles Yellow-billed Cuckoo, with similar yellow on lower mandible (sometimes almost orange; this can be lacking in young birds); eye-ring usually gray (narrowly yellow on some breeding birds). Differs from Yellow-billed in its slightly smaller size, and lack of rufous edging in primaries; above slightly darker and grayer. Despite its English name, only marginally grayer below than Yellow-billed (in some lights it can look slightly “pearly” but so too can the Yellow-billed). Arboreal behavior much as in Yellow-billed Cuckoo, though Pearly-breasted apparently breeds locally. Song a simple series of about 15 low-pitched guttural notes, slowly delivered, “kuow, kuow, kuow….“ Also gives a faster more raucous call.

DARK-BILLED CUCKOO Coccyzus melacoryphus

28 cm|11”

ASH-COLORED CUCKOO Coccycua cinerea

24 cm|9.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common but inconspicuous in shrubby clearings and forest and woodland borders; numbers seem lower during winter, when most or all birds apparently move to Amazonia. Mostly below 1100 m. Slender decurved bill all black; narrow eye-ring can be either gray or, especially when breeding, yellow. Olive brown above, grayer on crown with blackish mask through eyes back onto cheeks and a paler gray band down side of neck. Below pale buff. Flight feathers show no rufous; underside of tail black, feathers with large white tips visible from below. The buff on Dark-billed’s underparts should be sufficient to identify this handsome cuckoo. Generally seen singly, creeping about in dense foliage and rarely perching for very long in the open, tending to remain low. Infrequently heard song a descending series of up to a dozen guttural notes, e.g., “kwo-kwo-kwo-kwo-kolp-kolp-kolp-kolp.” Rare; apparently only a transient in our area, en route to wintering areas further north; favors woodland borders, semiopen areas. To 800 m. Slightly decurved bill all black; iris and eye-ring red. Very plain. Grayish brown above, slightly grayer on head. Throat and chest pale brownish gray, below white. Ashcolored shows no rufous in wings; its tail is not as graduated as in Coccyzus cuckoos and is gray below with feathers only very narrowly white-tipped. Unobtrusive behavior similar to the Coccyzus cuckoos. Seems to be silent in our area, but when breeding gives a series of 12-16 well-enunciated “kyow” notes. Sometimes placed in genus Micrococcyx. Breeds in S South America.

151

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO PAPA-LAGARTA-DE-ASA-VERMELHA

PEARLY-BREASTED CUCKOO PAPA-LAGARTA-DE-EULER

DARK-BILLED CUCKOO PAPA-LAGARTA-CANELA

ASH-COLORED CUCKOO PAPA-LAGARTA-CINZENTO

STRIPED CUCKOO Tapera naevia

29 cm|11.5”

PAVONINE CUCKOO Dromococcyx pavoninus

29 cm|11.5”

Fairly common and widespread, but inconspicuous, in shrubby clearings and pastures with scattered bushes and low trees. To at least 1200 m. Bill dull yellowish. Short expressive crest rufescent with blackish streaking. Pale grayish brown above with blackish streaking; superciliary buffy whitish, face and neck duskier. Tail fairly long and graduated, uppertail coverts somewhat elongated. Dull buffy whitish below tinged grayish on chest, and with blackish malar streak. Immature more rufescent above with large buff spots on crown and mantle; some scaly markings below. Guira Cuckoo is much larger, paler, and “shaggier,” with very prominent white lower back and rump. Cf. also Pavonine and Pheasant Cuckoo, both forest birds and much rarer. This cuckoo mainly creeps about unobtrusively in thick vegetation near the ground. A brood parasite, it favors birds that build domed nests as hosts. Quite vocal, with song far-carrying and easy to recognize; heard much more often than seen. Most frequent song a pure melancholy 2-noted whistle, “püü-peee,” often given from atop a bush or fence post, ruffling crest and flaring alula at same time. Also has a 5- or 6-noted song of similar quality, the last several notes short. Both are often given at night. DROMOCOCCYX are secretive but vocal cuckoos of wooded habitats, with both species being recorded mostly by voice; neither is likely to be seen without the use of tape playback. Both are brood parasites. Rare and local, and easily overlooked in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, often associated with extensive bamboo; seems slightly less rare in São Paulo than it is elsewhere. To at least 900 m. Smallheaded with short, expressive crest; uppertail-coverts somewhat elongated. Head and neck rufous with buff postocular stripe; above brownish gray with white edging on wing-coverts and spotting on tail-coverts. Fairly long tail dusky, feathers white-tipped; often spread out laterally. Throat and chest fulvous; lower underparts white. Striped Cuckoo is paler and browner above with blackish streaking; it inhabits more open areas. Cf. also larger Pheasant Cuckoo. An elusive bird, rarely recorded unless singing and even then difficult to see. Typical song a whistled “püü-peee, püü-pi-pi?” without Pheasant Cuckoo’s trill at end; there is variation, however, and some birds actually seem to give both songs!

PHEASANT CUCKOO Dromococcyx phasianellus

37-41 cm|14.5-16”

Rare and local, and easily overlooked in lower growth of semideciduous forest and woodland; distribution poorly understood, with very few records overall. To 1000 m. Appears small-headed, with a short, expressive crest. Tail long, wide, and fan-shaped with uppertail-coverts greatly elongated and nearly as long as the tail itself (often making the bird look “humpbacked”). Dark brown above with crown mixed rufous and black and a white postocular stripe; wing-coverts and inner flight feathers edged whitish. Whitish below with dusky spotting and streaking on lower throat and chest. The profile of this strange-looking cuckoo is unique. Much commoner Striped Cuckoo is paler generally, has streaking above, etc. Cf. also Pavonine Cuckoo, which sometimes also can look hump-backed. A secretive bird – though not as extremely so as the Pavonine Cuckoo – found in dense lower and middle growth, favoring viny tangles; unlike the Pavonine, not usually in bamboo. Flight labored and rarely long-sustained, usually with tail feathers spread and uppertail-coverts raised, imparting an odd overall shape. Song resembles Striped Cuckoo’s short song but with a third trilled note added, “püü- peee, pr’r’r’r;” a rising fourth or fifth note can be added.

GUIRA CUCKOO Guira guira

36-40 cm|14.25-15.75”

Very common, widespread, and conspicuous in semiopen and agricultural terrain, even around towns and in urban areas. To at least 2000 m. Iris whitish; bill orange-yellow. Conspicuous shaggy crest orange-rufous; head and neck pale buff, lightly streaked dusky. Back and wings brown with pale streaking; large area on lower back and rump whitish; long tail blackish with extensive whitish at base and tip. Below whitish, chest lightly streaked dusky. Unmistakable; nothing else even vaguely resembles it. Guira is one of the more frequently seen birds in open areas, occurring in groups of up to 1520 individuals but usually fewer than ten. Ani-like in overall behavior, Guiras often roost communally and frequently feed on the ground. They sometimes parasitize anis, and are even known occasionally to incubate the latter’s eggs alongside the anis. Quite vocal, the song being the most distinctive: a short series of descending squeals, “kree-er, kree-yer, kree-yer, kree-yer, kreeyr, kreeyr.” Most frequent call a high-pitched rattling, often given in flight.

153

STRIPED CUCKOO SACI

PAVONINE CUCKOO PEIXE-FRITO-PAVÃO

PHEASANT CUCKOO PEIXE-FRITO

GUIRA CUCKOO ANU-BRANCO

SQUIRREL CUCKOO Piaya cayana

40.5-46 cm|16-18”

LITTLE CUCKOO Coccycua minuta

28 cm|11”

Common and widespread in a variety of forested and wooded habitats, ranging mainly in canopy and at borders, occasionally moving into adjacent clearings and gardens. To 2000 m. A large and slender cuckoo with very long, graduated tail. Bill greenish yellow; iris red, orbital skin also red. Uniform rich rufouschestnut above, becoming paler vinaceous buff on throat and chest. Lower underparts dark gray, becoming black on lower belly and crissum. Underside of tail black, feathers with large white tips. Cf. much smaller Little Cuckoo (occurring only in São Paulo). Creeps about in foliage singly or in pairs, also hopping with great agility along branches; mainly eats large caterpillars. Generally an easy bird to see. Rarely flies far, but sometimes will launch across open areas, gliding downward with weak bursts of flapping. Fairly vocal. Song a fast series of “kweep” or kweeyp” notes, often repeated for a protracted period, but more frequently heard are several characteristic calls, notably an abrupt “cheek! kwahh” and a nasal “weeyadidu.” Uncommon and inconspicuous in shrubby lower growth of clearings and woodland and forest borders, mainly near water, in NW São Paulo. 350-650 m. Bill greenish yellow; iris reddish with red eye-ring. Uniform rufous-chestnut above; throat and breast tawny (paler than upperparts), belly grayish and crissum blackish. Underside of tail black, feathers broadly tipped white. Squirrel Cuckoo is so much larger that confusion is unlikely; Little is much less arboreal. Furtive, seen singly while sneaking about in dense vegetation, typically close to ground, only rarely remaining in the open for long. Though generally quiet, Little Cuckoos do have several distinctive vocalizations including a nasal drawn-out “nyaahh, neh-neh-neh-neh-neh” and a much sharper “ek” and a “chik! wreeanh.” Formerly classified in genus Piaya.

SMOOTH-BILLED ANI Crotophaga ani

33-35 cm|13.25-13.75”

Very common and widespread in agricultural and settled areas, including parks and gardens in many urban zones; smaller numbers in less modified areas. To at least 1700 m. Large black bill laterally compressed, with hump on culmen’s basal half. All dull black, with plumage sometimes looking quite unkempt. Tail long, often held at odd angles and appearing loosely attached to body. Cf. much larger Greater Ani. Ranges in groups of up to 6-10 birds, perching atop bushes and on fences and wires, also on ground. Often tame, regularly with cattle, feeding on the insects they flush, sometimes even perching on them. Flight labored and weak, a few quick flaps and unsteady glides, landing awkwardly with tail often flipping up over back. Frequently heard call a distinctive upslurred “oooo-eeek?” (or even “aaaa-ní?”), often given in alarm or in flight; also a variety of other whining and clucking vocalizations.

GREATER ANI Crotophaga major

46-49 cm|18-19”

Fairly common but local in shrubbery along rivers and lakeshores; in our area most numerous in interior São Paulo and from Rio de Janeiro to Espírito Santo. To 900 m. Iris straw yellow; black bill laterally compressed with arched ridge at base of maxilla imparting a “broken-nose” profile. Very large and long-tailed. All glossy blue-black; mantle feathers edged bronzy green, tail glossed purple. Smooth-billed Ani is much smaller and has a dark eye; it is nowhere near as glossy. Found in groups that forage near water with group size typically small (5-15 birds) though they can be much larger. Rather noisy, with a variety of strange low-pitched growling calls, also a weird long-continued bubbling chorus produced by many birds together. Most frequent is a loud “koro-koro-koro,“ often given in flight.

RUFOUS-VENTED GROUND CUCKOO Neomorphus geoffroyi 46-51 cm|18-20” CR

Requiring very large tracts of intact lowland forest, and occurring at very low densities, the ground cuckoo is, as its name implies, terrestrial. It formerly ranged from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro but now is extremely rare with just a few recent reports from N Espírito Santo and SE Minas Gerais (Rio Doce State Park). To 400 m. A unique large cuckoo with a very long tail. Heavy bill greenish yellow; orbital skin bluish; expressive bushy crest black-tipped. Head and foreneck pale brown to whitish, lightly scaled black; mantle bronzy green (Bahia) or glossy blue (elsewhere); tail purplish. Below buff. Sometimes attends swarms of army ants, when its presence can be given away by loud bill snapping; it also gives a low-pitched moan. Usually shy, but occasionally bolder, at times seeming almost fearless. The endemic SE Brazil population is at great risk of extinction.

155

SQUIRREL CUCKOO ALMA-DE-GATO

LITTLE CUCKOO CHINCOÃ-PEQUENO

SMOOTH-BILLED ANI ANU-PRETO

GREATER ANI ANU-COROCA

RUFOUS-VENTED GROUND CUCKOO JACU-ESTALO

TYPICAL OWLS (Strigidae) are nocturnal predatory birds with large heads, forward-facing eyes, hooked

bills, and powerful talons. In addition to their superb eyesight, owls also have acute hearing, the better to capture their prey, often in total darkness. Patterned mainly in shades of brown, their soft plumage and a serrated leading edge on primaries result in nearly silent flight. Rarely seen, they are better known from their vocalizations.

BARN OWL Tyto alba

35.5-40.5 cm|14-16”

SHORT-EARED OWL Asio flammeus

38-40 cm|15-15.75”

STRIPED OWL Asio clamator

35.5-38 cm|14 -15”

Widespread but generally uncommon in semiopen and agricultural area. To at least 1600 m. Iris dark brown. Heart-shaped facial area white outlined by dark rim. Light morph (illustrated) grayish and golden buff above and white below, usually dotted black and white. Less numerous dark morph grayer above and buff below with dark dots. Underwing whitish, imparting a ghostly appearance to flying birds at night; cf. Short-eared and Striped Owls (these never so white). Perched birds have narrow profile with large head and slender body. Mostly nocturnal but sometimes active in late afternoon or at dawn, hunting while flapping and gliding low over ground, legs often dangled; feeds mainly on rodents. Shelters by day in dark recesses of barns and other buildings, sometimes in tree cavities. Call a raspy shriek or hiss, “shhhhhhhh!” Now classified as a separate family, Tytonidae. Some recognize American birds as the species Tyto furcata. Uncommon and local in campos, cerrado, and adjacent agricultural areas in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. Mostly 500-1200 m. Iris yellow. Ear-tufts short and inconspicuous. Facial area buff surrounded by blackish rim, blackish around eyes. Above dusky brown with extensive buff spotting. Below pale buff with coarse dusky streaking, especially on chest. In flight shows rufous-buff patch in primaries; underwing pale with prominent black carpal patch. Striped Owl is paler overall with much longer ear-tufts. Stygian Owl is much darker generally, and likewise has long ear-tufts. Regularly seen at dusk and dawn coursing over grassy terrain with loose floppy flight, plunging to ground after prey (usually small rodents); then may perch in the open. By day roosts in tall grass. Usually silent, giving barks and squeals when breeding. Uncommon but widespread in semiopen and lightly wooded areas, sometimes around houses and in towns. To at least 1600 m. Iris amber brown. Very long ear-tufts. Facial area whitish surrounded by obvious black rim. Above buffy brown streaked and vermiculated blackish. Below whitish to pale buff with conspicuous black streaking. Short-eared Owl is darker overall with ear-tufts barely visible, yellow eye; its streaking below is much less bold. Stygian Owl is much darker overall with very different herringbone pattern below, etc. More nocturnal than the Short-ear, Striped Owls also forage in the semiopen, mostly by watching from a low perch (sometimes while balancing on power lines). Day roosts are in well-hidden places, sometimes on ground but also in trees with dense shade. Not very vocal, but has a high-pitched squealing “keeeyr” song, a low-pitched hoot, and a repeated “kyow.” Sometimes classified in Rhinoptynx or Pseudoscops.

STYGIAN OWL Asio stygius

41-43 cm|16-17”

GREAT HORNED OWL Bubo virginianus

48-56 cm|19-22”

Uncommon and local in semiopen areas with scattered tall trees (not actual forest); only one record from lowlands N of Rio de Janeiro (Anchieta). To at least 1600 m. Iris yellow-orange. Very dark overall, with long upstanding blackish ear-tufts. Facial area blackish with conspicuous whitish area on forehead. Blackish brown above; tail banded dusky brown and buff. Coarse blackish herringbone pattern below, blotchier across chest. Short-eared Owl has essentially no ear-tufts, favors more open terrain. Striped Owl is much paler, etc. Nocturnal, roosting by day singly or in pairs in trees, sometimes in plantations of exotic trees; hard to discover. Not averse to the vicinity of houses, sometimes roosting there. Apparent song a surprisingly high-pitched short “kyeeu,” given every 5-10 seconds. Also gives a much lower “whoo-oop” call. Uncommon and local in woodland and groves of trees in semiopen areas, mainly in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. To 1000 m. The largest and heaviest Brazilian owl; prominent ear-tufts set far apart. Iris yellow. Facial area brown with blackish rim. Brown above with buff and whitish mottling. Throat white, often puffed out and flared; below whitish with irregular brown barring. Short-eared, Striped, and Stygian Owls are all much smaller; ear-tufts of the latter two are set closer together, and none has fine barring below. Though generally inconspicuous, hunting birds often perch in the open; they take a variety of prey items, even other owls. Male’s song a series of deep hoots, “hoo, hoó-hoó, hoo,” often followed by the female.

157

BARN OWL SUINDARA

SHORT-EARED OWL MOCHO-DO-BANHADO STRIPED OWL CORUJA-ORELHUDA

STYGIAN OWL MOCHO-DIABO

GREAT HORNED OWL CORUJÃO-ORELHUDO

MEGASCOPS screech owls are small owls with short ear-tufts and a vermiculated pattern below. TROPICAL SCREECH OWL Megascops choliba 22-23.5 cm|8.75-9.25” Fairly common and widespread in wooded and forested habitats, also locally in gardens and around buildings, sometimes even in built-up areas. Locally to 2000 m. Iris yellow. Short but fairly conspicuous ear-tufts. Facial area grayish to brownish, outlined by black rim. Grayish to cinnamon brown above, streaked and mottled blackish and buff; scapulars with large white spots. Below whitish to pale buff with blackish herringbone pattern. Rufous morph scarce. By far the commoner of our two screech owls; cf. Black-capped. Strictly nocturnal, roosting by day in a hole or in foliage, often pressed tightly against a trunk to avoid detection. Feeds mainly on large insects. Frequently heard song a short trill that ends in a distinctive abrupt “oók!” or “oók!-oók!” with mate sometimes answering with a soft “tu-tu-tu-tu-tu.”

BLACK-CAPPED SCREECH OWL Megascops atricapilla

23.5–25 cm|8.75-9”

Uncommon in lower and middle growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. To 900 m. Iris yellow. Resembles Tropical Screech Owl, likewise with gray and rufous morphs, but crown nearly solid blackish and with ear-tufts longer. Most often identified by habitat, being much more a forest bird, and voice. Behavior similar to Tropical Screech Owl. Song a quavering trill that starts softly and typically lasts 7-10 seconds (occasionally longer), all on one pitch, very different from Tropical’s. GLAUCIDIUM pygmy owls comprise another group of small owls, even smaller than Megascops, that lack ear-tufts.

FERRUGINOUS PYGMY OWL Glaucidium brasilianum

16.5-17 cm|6.5-6.75”

Widespread and common in a variety of wooded and forested habitats, occurring virtually anywhere there are trees; frequent in clearings and gardens. Locally to 1800 m. A very small owl with yellow iris, no ear-tufts, and a pair of black “false eyes” on back of head. Coloration variable with grayish brown, brown, and rufous morphs. Above grayish to rufous brown, crown with fine pale streaking; scapulars and wing-coverts with white spots; tail dusky with whitish banding. Whitish below with chest band and profuse streaking. Cf. much scarcer Least Pygmy Owl. Partially diurnal, often perching in semiopen (even on wires) where routinely mobbed by the small birds it so frequently preys upon. Flight fast and direct. Commonest song, given day and night, a long series of “pu” notes repeated steadily and rapidly for a minute or more, sometimes commencing with sharper “wik” notes; the territorial will sometimes fly in and glare at the “intruder.”

LEAST PYGMY OWL Glaucidium minutissimum

14.5-15 cm|5.75-6”

Uncommon and local in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland in lowlands from SE Bahia to São Paulo. To 1000 m. Resembles Ferruginous Pygmy Owl, differing in its fine spotting (not streaking) on crown (this can of course be hard to see in the field). Rufescent morph is most frequent. Usually identified by habitat and voice. Least is much more a humid forest bird; where the two overlap, Ferruginous favors disturbed situations (plantations, clearings, etc.). Least’s song is distinctive and strikingly different, a doubled “too-too” (occasionally 3 notes).

BUFF-FRONTED OWL Aegolius harrisii

19-20 cm|7.5-8”

BURROWING OWL Athene cunicularia

23 cm|9”

Rare and seemingly local in lower growth of woodland and forest borders in São Paulo and S Minas Gerais, a few records north to S Bahia. Mostly 5001200 m. Iris yellowish, area around eyes blackish. Above dark brown with white spots on wings, buff spots on scapulars. Large area on forecrown, facial area, and underparts white to buff, facial area black-outlined. Those lucky enough to find this cute owl will realize that it cannot possibly be confused! It roosts in dense lower growth, and is strictly nocturnal; hard to see without tape playback (often not easy even then). ’s song a fast, quavering, rather high-pitched trill. Widespread and locally common in campos and cerrado, also having spread into agricultural terrain and even locally to urban parks and wastelands. To at least 1600 m. Yellow iris. Unusual among the owls is this long-legged, mainly diurnal, and terrestrial species. Brown above, crown streaked whitish, upperparts spotted white. Buffy whitish below with usually extensive brown barring. More or less colonial at some sites, pairs digging burrows into soft soil. Often seen perching on the ground near its burrow, staring intently at the intruder, sometimes bobbing, flying short distances when you get too close. Not very vocal, but occasionally gives a shrieking “kreeey-eek, kik! kik! kik!”

159 TROPICAL SCREECH OWL CORUJINHA-DO-MATO

BLACK-CAPPED SCREECH OWL CORUJINHA-SAPO

FERRUGINOUS PYGMY OWL CABURÉ LEAST PYGMY OWL CABURÉ-MIUDINHO

BUFF-FRONTED OWL CABURÉ-CANELA

BURROWING OWL CORUJA-BURAQUEIRA

PULSATRIX are notably large owls, our two species with much the same unmistakable bold facial pattern. SPECTACLED OWL Pulsatrix perspicillata 43-48 cm|17-19” Widespread but rare in forest and woodland in lowlands; surprisingly few records in our area (elsewhere not as scarce). Locally to 700 m. A large owl with round head that lack ear-tufts. Iris orange-yellow. Dark brown above with faint pale barring on wings and tail; short whitish brow extends to lores and around bill (forming the “spectacles”). Narrow white throat band; broad chest band blackish; below pale buff. Juvenile whitish with large blackish mask, brownish wings and tail. Cf. the much more numerous Tawny-browed Owl. Strictly nocturnal, by day roosting in heavily shaded places, emerging at dusk and then sometimes hunting in the semiopen. Song a fast series of muffled hoots with slight acceleration toward end, starting loudly but fading, “bup-bup-buh-buh-buhbuhbuh,” often echoed by its mate; has been likened to sound of a distant machine gun. The population in SE Brazil, the nominate race, is considered threatened.

TAWNY-BROWED OWL Pulsatrix koeniswaldiana

40-44 cm|15.75-17.25”

MOTTLED OWL Ciccaba virgata

30.5-34.5 cm|12-13.5”

RUSTY-BARRED OWL Ciccaba hylophila

35-37 cm|13.75- 14.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in both lowland and montane forest and woodland, including areas where fragmented, and also araucaria woodland. To 1800 m (Itatiaia), but mostly below 1200 m. Iris brown. Dark brown above with faint pale barring on wings and tail; short tawny brow extends to lores and around bill. Narrow throat band pale buff; broad chest band blackish, broken in middle; below buff. Resembles Spectacled Owl (scarce here), the Spectacled differing in its larger size, yellow eye, white brow, and paler underparts. Spectacled mainly occurs in the lowlands, Tawnybrowed being much more wide-ranging. Behavior similar, though Tawny-browed seems to come more often to feed on large insects at lights. Song has same distinctive muffled quality but is faster-paced and does not accelerate. CICCABA owls are round-headed and lack ear-tufts. They range widely in forest and woodland but are inconspicuous and strictly nocturnal. All are sometimes placed in genus Strix. Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in humid and lower montane forest and woodland. Locally to 1100 m. Iris brown; bill pale greenish. Somewhat mottled dark brown above with brown facial disk conspicuously outlined by a narrow white or buff rim (often widest on brow); tail with buffy whitish bands. Band across chest brown; lower underparts whitish to buff, streaked brown. Rusty-barred Owl favors higher elevations; it is paler below with barring (not streaking), etc. By day Mottleds roost relatively low in dense vegetation where rarely discovered. At night they hunt from branches at varying heights, but even then are often quite hard to see, tending to remain within cover. They occur more often in pairs than many owls. Rather distinctive song a series of 4-6 muffled hoots, e.g., “who- who-whó-whó-who-who.” Call a whining “wheeyow” similar to other Ciccaba. Uncommon in montane forest and woodland including araucaria forest from S Minas Gerais and S Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mainly 800-1600 m. Iris brown; bill greenish yellow. Rufescent brown above with buff to rufous edging and spotting, and white scapular spotting; tawny facial disk outlined by darker brown rim; tail banded brown and blackish. Silvery whitish below with bold rufous and black bars. A handsome owl with complex plumage pattern, unlikely to be confused in its mountain forests, where there are few other big owls. Mottled Owl has streaked pattern below, etc. Usually seen singly, perched at varying heights at forest edge; by day roosts in heavy cover, rarely discovered. Distinctive song notably fast-paced, a low-pitched and gruff “buhbuhbuhbuhbuh, buh-báh-buhbuh.” Call a simple “brurrrrr.”

BLACK-BANDED OWL Ciccaba huhula

33-37 cm|13-14.5”

Rare and local in humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills from S Bahia to S São Paulo; also very locally in semideciduous forests of W São Paulo. Locally to 800 m. Iris dark brown; bill yellow-orange (standing out against the black). Black with narrow white barring. Unique in appearance, this scarce blackish owl cannot possibly be confused. Behavior much like Mottled Owl (sometimes occurring with it), Black-banded seems easier to observe, more often perching out on open limbs and less apt to remain in heavy cover. ’s commonest song a fast “buh-buh-buh-buh-buh-buh, bwów,” often echoed by ’s softer version. Also gives a more querulous “keeyow.” The population in SE Brazil, the race albomarginata, is considered threatened.

161

SPECTACLED OWL MURUCUTUTU

juv.

TAWNY-BROWED OWL MURUCUTUTU-PEQUENO

MOTTLED OWL CORUJA-DO-MATO

RUSTY-BARRED OWL CORUJA-LISTRADA

BLACK-BANDED OWL CORUJA-PRETA

POTOOS (Nyctibiidae) are very special, solitary nocturnal birds with large, highly reflective eyes; unlike the nightjars, they perch vertically, remaining motionless on their day roosts, relying on their cryptic coloration to avoid detection. Their bills look small, but open wide to reveal a cavernous gape with which they capture large nocturnal insects in flight. All four of our species have very distinctive voices. GREAT POTOO Nyctibius grandis

48-51 cm|19-20”

Uncommon and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia, Espírito Santo, E Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro; also locally in semideciduous forest and woodland of W São Paulo. Mostly below 500 m. Very large, with strikingly large head imparting a unique silhouette. Iris brown, with huge eye reflecting brilliant orange-red, visible from tremendous distances. Looks very pale. Pale grayish above; whitish below, irregularly mottled and vermiculated dusky, with cluster of black spots on midbreast. Some birds, thought to be s, are more brownish but still quite pale. Immatures have more extensive dusky barring, so also look slightly darker. Great is by far the largest and palest potoo, with by far the largest head. By day it rests motionless on branches in the canopy, often in trees whose whitish bark more or less matches their coloration; sometimes the same branch is used over and over. At night perches on exposed branches or stubs, usually high, sallying out after large insects such as moths. Far-carrying call an explosive, guttural “bwawrrr” or “bwawrrru,” sometimes just an abrupt “bawr-bü.”

LONG-TAILED POTOO Nyctibius aethereus

51 cm|20”

COMMON POTOO Nyctibius griseus

38 cm|15”

WHITE-WINGED POTOO Nyctibius leucopterus

28 cm|11”

Rare and very local in lower and middle growth inside humid forest in lowlands from S Bahia to S São Paulo. To 400 m. Very large and long-tailed (tail extends well past wings and is also wide). Iris yellow, huge eye reflecting brilliant orange-red. Rufescent brown above streaked and marbled blackish and with prominent buffy brow; shoulders blackish, bordered below by whitish wing-coverts; tail boldly banded brown and buff. Conspicuous malar stripe whitish above and blackish below; below mottled and streaked buffy brown and blackish. Other than the Great Potoo, Long-tailed is so much larger and longer-tailed than the other potoos that confusion is improbable. Reclusive, only rarely leaving forest and infrequent even at edge; usually quite low. Roosts by day on stubs 3-6 m above ground where very hard to spot (but if not disturbed, sometimes returns over and over to the same spot). Far-carrying and distinctive song – unfortunately not heard all that often – a throaty and almost musical “raaow-ou” or “wa-roo-uh.” Also gives less distinctive muffled notes. The E Brazil population is considered threatened. Fairly common and widespread in a variety of forested and wooded habitats, also regularly to edge and trees in clearings. To at least 1200 m. Iris yellow, large eye reflecting brilliant orange-red. Typical morph grayish brown to brownish, mottled and vermiculated blackish; shoulders usually black, and almost always has whitish on wing-coverts. Malar stripe whitish and black; pale grayish to brownish below, usually with a cluster of black spots on midbreast. Dark morph darker brown overall, especially below; wings mainly blackish. Upright feathers above eye impart slight “horned” effect. Long-tailed Potoo is much larger and has very restricted range. Cf. also the rare White-winged Potoo. Roosting birds perch at varying heights, often on a broken-off stump, head stretched upward and eyes shut; they are hard to spot! They become active at dusk, flying to branches with a commanding view and sallying after large insects. Best known from its memorable and haunting song, a series of loud wailing but semimusical notes that descend in pitch, loud at first but then fading, “uu-wah, wah, who, who, wuh, wüü.”

CR

Very rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest in lowlands of SE Bahia and N Espírito Santo. Below 100 m. Iris yellow, reflecting orange-red. A relatively small potoo, mottled grayish brown above with large area of white on wing-coverts (much more obvious than in other potoos). Below pale brownish, darker on throat and palest on belly, with a cluster of black spots on midbreast. Common Potoo is substantially larger, has an obvious malar stripe, shows much less white in wing, etc.; song totally different. Only recently rediscovered in SE Brazil, and acutely threatened (mainly by deforestation), the White-winged Potoo is almost always found by tracking down its ultra-distinctive voice, a single 3-second-long clear whistled note that descends slightly, “wheeeoooooooo.”

163

GREAT POTOO URUTAU-GRANDE

LONG-TAILED POTOO URUTAU-PARDO

typical morph

dark morph

COMMON POTOO URUTAU

WHITE-WINGED POTOO URUTAU-DE-ASA-BRANCA

NIGHTHAWKS & NIGHTJARS (Caprimulgidae) are cryptically patterned nocturnal insect-eating birds with large gapes adapted for capturing insects. Many species are similar and therefore hard to identify by sight, but their songs and calls are usually distinctive. CHORDEILES nighthawks have long, usually quite narrow wings, seen as the birds fly around before dusk; nightjar wings are broader and more rounded. Two species (Least and Nacunda) are distinctive, but two (Lesser and Common), with pointed wings, are very similar. LEAST NIGHTHAWK Chordeiles pusillus

16.5 cm|6.5”

LESSER NIGHTHAWK Chordeiles acutipennis

21.5 cm|8.5”

Uncommon and local over open grassy areas and campo rupestre, generally near water, in N São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 300-1200 m. Easily the smallest nighthawk. Above brown mottled and flecked rufous and gray, most rufescent on upper back. Throat white (often hidden); chest dark brown spotted white, belly grayish barred dusky. In flight, wings have white band across primaries and conspicuous white trailing edge on flight feathers; tail narrowly tipped whitish. has smaller white wingband, trailing edge to wing buff, and small to no white tail tips. Some birds are more rufescent, especially above. Lesser Nighthawk is larger and lacks the pale trailing wing edge; its wings are more pointed. Usually seen at dusk, often in small groups, if calm well before dark, and sometimes with Lessers; flies with buoyant wing beats at low to moderate heights. In flight gives a repeated “whik” call, occasionally interspersed with a nasal “errt.” Breeding s rapidly repeat a beautiful fast “chu-chu-chu-chu-chweé,” from a perch. Local and generally uncommon in semiopen scrub and grassy areas, often (but not always) near water and perhaps most numerous along coast (e.g., in restinga). Recorded to 1200 m. Above grayish mottled with whitish and black; below whitish with white throat (hidden when bird is relaxed) and dusky barring. browner with buffier throat. At rest wings extend to or slightly beyond tail tip (in nightjars, wings are shorter than tail), with part of white primary band usually showing; tail slightly notched, barred buff with white subterminal band in . In flight shows pointed wings with white band across blackish primaries ( ’s band buff); underwing-coverts and inner flight feathers (including inner primaries) barred and spotted buff. Tricky to distinguish from Common Nighthawk; see under that species. By day, roosts on low branches in woodland patches or scrub; nests on bare ground. Most often seen at twilight and dawn, coursing about with shallow fluttery wingbeats and brief glides, remaining relatively low (Common flies higher). Breeding ’s song, given from ground, a long-continued melodious trill or purring, sometimes with pauses; it can resemble certain toads’ songs. In flight also gives a variety of strange querulous calls.

COMMON NIGHTHAWK Chordeiles minor

24 cm|9.5”

Uncommon boreal migrant (Oct-Mar) in and over a variety of habitats, sometimes even forest. Wide-ranging though rarely numerous here; migrants can turn up anywhere. To at least 1000 m. Closely resembles Lesser Nighthawk. Slightly larger and darker overall with longer, narrower, and more pointed wings (outermost primary longest) with white wingband about midway between tip and bend of wing (not nearer tip; ’s wingband narrower); underside of flight feathers more uniformly blackish (with much less buff barring). By day roosts, like Lesser Nighthawk, on open branches, but more often well above ground. Seen mainly in late afternoon when it starts to fly with a distinctive loose grace, sometimes in groups and higher above ground than Lesser typically is. Seems silent here. Breeds in North and Middle America.

NACUNDA NIGHTHAWK Chordeiles nacunda

29 cm|11.5”

Locally and seasonally fairly common in open terrain, favoring muddy places (especially where dried) and very short grass; mainly occurs inland, and almost surely breeds only there, but a few are also seen along coast. Some are likely austral migrants. To at least 1200 m. Much larger than other nighthawks. Above brown to grayish brown with intricate dusky vermiculations and black spotting (especially on wing-coverts). Throat and breast buffyish with dusky barring and white lower throat (often hidden); belly white (obvious in flying birds, but often hidden at rest). In flight shows white underwing-coverts, blackish primaries crossed by conspicuous white band; ’s tail has broad white tip. Plumage and large size distinctive; shouldn’t be confused. By day rests on bare ground, sometimes on stumps, fully out in the open – but motionless and camouflaged so usually not seen until it flushes or shuffles away. Flight languid and graceful, almost owl-like, often well above ground; regularly in small groups. Usually silent, but gives clucking calls in flight. Breeding s give a very low-pitched “prrrr-pú.” Formerly classified in genus Podager.

165 LEAST NIGHTHAWK BACURAUZINHO

LESSER NIGHTHAWK BACURAU-DE-ASA-FINA

COMMON NIGHTHAWK BACURAU-NORTE-AMERICANO

NACUNDA NIGHTHAWK CORUCÃO

SHORT-TAILED NIGHTHAWK Lurocalis semitorquatus

20 cm|8”

Uncommon and seemingly somewhat local in canopy and borders of humid and foothill forest; apparently occurs only as a summer breeding visitant (at least Oct-Mar), presumably migrating to Amazonia during winter though some may be found to remain here. Mostly below 1100 m, a few to 1600 m (Campos do Jordão). Very distinctive, with notably short and square tail and long, somewhat pointed wings; shows no white in wings or tail. Mainly dusky with extensive rufous speckling and mottling and also often with extensive whitish marbling on scapulars and inner flight feathers; belly and crissum rufescent with dusky barring. Lesser and Common Nighthawks have markedly longer, notched tails and narrower wings with a white primary band; their behavior is very different. Found singly and in pairs and seen primarily at dusk while it feeds above the forest canopy and in nearby open areas. Flight erratic and shifting, almost bat-like, with bursts of shallow wingbeats followed by glides. By day roosts lengthwise on a branch high in forest canopy where very hard to spot; unlike most members of its family, it nests on branches well above ground. Song a beautiful liquid “kuu-it” or “kuu-it, ku” that often draws attention to a flying bird.

OCELLATED POORWILL Nyctiphrynus ocellatus

21.5 cm|8.5”

Uncommon and somewhat local on or near ground inside humid and lower montane forest, locally also in semideciduous forest. To 1300 m (Caraça). brownish sooty with a few large black spots on scapulars (the “ocellations”). Below sooty with white crescent on lower throat (often hidden) and white spots on belly (usually obscured, except on singing s resting on a branch). Wings have rufous-barred flight feathers; tail barred dusky, outer feathers conspicuously tipped white. has rufous brown replacing ’s sooty. Smoothlooking, lacking the complex plumage patterns of other nightjars. Rarely emerges from the forest interior where by day it roosts on ground, relying on its cryptic, leaf-like coloration to escape detection. Mainly found when breeding and s are vocalizing, these then perching on branches up to 5-6 m above ground and more conspicuous. Distinctive song a rather explosive “pwr’r’r’r’o.” ANTROSTOMUS nightjars are notably large, forest-based nightjars formerly classified in genus Caprimulgus.

SILKY-TAILED NIGHTJAR Antrostomus sericocaudatus

28 cm|11”

Rare and local on or near ground inside foothill and lower montane forest in SE São Paulo; also an old record from W São Paulo and one from Espírito Santo. To 600 m (Intervales). Large. Mostly dark sooty brown, mottled and variegated with blackish and buff, often showing an indistinct buffy whitish brow and rufescent collar on hindneck. Buffy whitish crescent on lower throat and some whitish spotting on breast and belly. No white wingband; tail shows diagonal white corners (most evident in flight, or from below; smaller and buffier in ). Rufous Nightjar is similar but more rufescent overall; it is found in a very different, much more deciduous habitat. Inconspicuous, roosting by day on forest floor and hard to detect; around dusk often emerges into adjacent clearings (especially where these are damp). Most apt to be recorded when breeding and s are vocalizing, their distinctive and attractive song being a rhythmic “koh, koh, whee-o,” repeated over and over from a low perch.

RUFOUS NIGHTJAR Antrostomus rufus

27 cm|10.5”

Uncommon on or near ground in semideciduous forest and woodland, mostly occurring inland but a few ranging down to coast. To 1100 m (Ouro Preto). Large; often looks strangely flat-crowned. Dark rufous brown above vermiculated buff and blackish; often shows some whitish on scapulars and inner flight feathers. Rufescent brown below irregularly barred blackish, with narrow white crescent on lower throat (often hidden) and some white spots on breast. No white wingband; has outer tail feathers buffy whitish on outer third of inner web (obvious in flight), these lacking in . Pauraque (often with it) has a longer tail that shows more white laterally, a prominent white ( ) or buff ( ) wingband, and boldly patterned wing-coverts. Like the Silky-tailed Nightjar, Rufous mainly stays inside woodland, coming to the edge to feed and sing; unlike the Pauraque, only rarely does it rest on roads. Often perches on branches just above ground, s singing from such perches, giving an unmistakable, far-carrying, and rhythmic “chuk, wik-wik-weeeo,” with well-enunciated notes.

167

SHORT-TAILED NIGHTHAWK TUJU

OCELLATED POORWILL BACURAU-OCELADO

SILKY-TAILED NIGHTJAR BACURAU-RABO-DE-SEDA

RUFOUS NIGHTJAR JOÃO-CORTA-PAU

PAURAQUE Nyctidromus albicollis

27 cm|10.75”

Widespread and common in various wooded habitats and adjacent clearings, avoiding both extensive open terrain and forest interior. To 1600 m (Campos do Jordão). Tail long and rounded, at rest extending well past wings. Gray morph has complex pattern with grayish crown contrasting with rufous cheeks; grayish brown above with “straps” of large black spots on scapulars and obvious buff and white spots on wing-coverts. Large throat patch white, often flaring to sides; chest grayish, below buff barred dusky. Rufous morph (scarcer) more cinnamon-rufous generally, especially on crown and back so cheeks contrast less. has a bold white bar crossing blackish primaries and extensive white on inner webs of outer tail feathers, both conspicuous on flying birds; ’s narrower wingband buff, and white tail corners small. Generally our most numerous nightjar. Pauraques frequently rest on roads, their eyes reflecting red from a long way and flushing as a vehicle approaches. Hunts by flying up after larger insects. Inconspicuous by day, roosting on the ground and only rarely discovered. Very vocal, with most frequent song a hoarse “whe-wheeéoo” sometimes preceded by several “bup” notes (these can be given alone), or slurred into a “por-weeéyr.” Sometimes classified in genus Hydropsalis.

SCISSOR-TAILED NIGHTJAR Hydropsalis torquata

25.5-28 cm|10-11”

Fairly common and widespread in open areas, including pastures, shrubby areas, cerrado, and woodland borders. To at least 1600 m. ’s long outer tail feathers add 10-13 cm (4-5”) to overall length, but are often broken off; they are white on inner web of terminal third. Brownish gray above vermiculated dusky, with obvious rufous nuchal collar and whitish malar streak; wings with three rows of white spots. Below buffy whitish barred dusky, especially across breast where blotchy. ’s much less forked tail shows no white, rufous nuchal collar less evident. nearly unmistakable (cf. Long-trained Nightjar); can be known by her large size, nuchal collar, spots on wing. Often rests on roads, regularly with Pauraques; ’s long tail lies flat on ground so is often not noticed until it flushes. Unlike Pauraque, not very vocal, with unimpressive song a repeated, insect-like “tsik, tsik, tsik, tsik….“ Formerly called H. brasiliana.

LONG-TRAINED NIGHTJAR Macropsalis forcipata

30 cm|12”

SPOT-TAILED NIGHTJAR Hydropsalis maculicauda

19.5 cm|7.75”

Rare to uncommon and local on or near ground in montane forest and woodland from S Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. 500-1800 m. ’s mostly whitish outer tail feathers exceptionally long (when not broken, as they often are), adding up to another 38-41 cm (15-16”) to bird’s length. Very dark overall. Blackish brown above variegated and spotted whitish and buff, often showing a whitish brow and malar streak. Whitish below with extensive blackish blotching. ’s plumage much like ’s; tail much shorter, only slightly forked, blackish narrowly barred buff. is even longer-tailed than Scissor-tailed Nightjar. Both sexes are darker overall than Scissor-tailed, and their rufous nuchal collar, if any shows at all, is much less obvious. This spectacular nightjar emerges at dusk from day roosts in heavy cover to hunt at borders and along roads through forest; generally rests on or close to the ground, not on branches. Displaying s give a thin slurred “tseew” and other higher-pitched “cheeyp” notes in flight. Formerly called M. creagra, and by some classified in genus Hydropsalis. Uncommon and decidedly local in open grassland and pastures, often where seasonally flooded; thrives in some deforested regions (e.g., near Regua). To 1200 m. has crown and face blackish with contrasting buffy whitish superciliary and supramalar stripe, and obvious rufous nuchal collar; grayish brown above with a prominent white scapular stripe and much spotting on wing-coverts. Throat whitish with a broad black malar area; below whitish with coarse dusky herringbone scaling. No white wingband; tail grayish with black barring and tipped white (showing most from below, from above only on corners); lacks white in tail. The “contrasty” facial pattern is unique among our nightjars. Rests by day in grass beneath a shrub or low tree, emerging at night onto savannas and pastures; only rarely on roads. ’s song a distinctive sharp, high-pitched “pit-sweeeét,” given steadily from a low perch. Formerly classified in genus Caprimulgus.

PAURAQUE CURIANGO, BACURAU

169

gray morph

SCISSOR-TAILED NIGHTJAR BACURAU-TESOURA

LONG-TRAINED NIGHTJAR CURIANGO-TESOURÃO

SPOT-TAILED NIGHTJAR BACURAU-DE-RABO-MANCHADO

BAND-WINGED NIGHTJAR Systellura longirostris

21 cm|8.25”

Uncommon and local in rocky grasslands (e.g., campo rupestre), shrubby areas, and woodland borders, but has spread into certain cities (e.g., Rio de Janeiro, Niterói) where it roosts and nests on ledges and atop buildings. Mainly 1000-1600 m, but locally up to 2300 m (Itatiaia) and down to sea level. Notably dark, but somewhat variable. Sooty brown to grayish with dense blackish freckling, relieved by a rufous nuchal collar (which can be prominent), several rows of whitish spots on wing-coverts, white patch on lower throat (often hidden; buff in ), and some large whitish spots on breast. shows prominent white wingband in flight (less obvious and buff in ) and white tail corners (absent in ). Little Nightjar has prominent white on scapulars and lacks the densely marbled/freckled effect; its voice is utterly different. General behavior much as in other nightjars but Band-winged is unusual in that locally it has adapted to urban life. ’s song a sharp and penetrating “tseeu-it.” Some place all nightjars on this page in genus Hydropsalis; all but the last species were formerly in genus Caprimulgus.

LITTLE NIGHTJAR Setopagis parvulus

20 cm|8”

PYGMY NIGHTJAR Nyctipolus hirundinaceus

18 cm|7”

Fairly common and widespread on or near ground in semideciduous and gallery woodland, shrubby areas, and agricultural terrain. To 1200 m. Above grayish brown, often grayest on crown, with gray and buff mottling and a vague buff nuchal collar; wing-coverts with profuse whitish and buff spots and prominent white scapular spotting. Midthroat white, breast dusky with whitish spotting. s show white wingband in flight and white tail corners (both lacking in ). Cf. Spot-tailed Nightjar. Lesser Nighthawk can look similar at rest, but its pointed wings extend past tail tip. By day roosts on ground where there is some cover, emerging at dusk; sometimes rests on roads. Best known from ’s lovely song, a bubbly gurgling that sounds unworldly, “dree-eé, gur-gur-gur-gur-gur.” Uncommon and very local on and near granitic outcrops (inselbergs) in Espírito Santo and adjacent NE Minas Gerais. 300-600 m. Essentially sooty blackish with little apparent pattern (plumage very lightly flecked whitish); shows white wingband in flight and ( s only) white tail corners. So black in appearance, and occupying such a distinct habitat, that confusion is unlikely. Our subspecies, vielliardi, was only recently discovered and described, with the main range of the species lying in the caatinga; that form occurs as close to our area as Boa Nova, Bahia. Birds roost by day in small shady recesses, emerging into the open at dusk. Song a simple sharp “wheeo,” repeated steadily at a rate of about one call every two seconds.

WHITE-WINGED NIGHTJAR Eleothreptus candicans VU

21 cm|8.25”

Probably extirpated from our area; only one known record, a specimen from Orissanga (600 m), São Paulo, taken as long ago as Feb 1823. Elsewhere inhabits open campo sujo and cerrado, favoring recently burned areas. Endangered by habitat destruction, and otherwise known in Brazil only from Emas NP in S Goiás. Short-tailed. pale brownish gray above with some blackish on midcrown and face; whitish above eye and in malar area; scapulars with large blackish spots. Below pale grayish brown, whiter on belly. In flight spectacular, showing a large area of white from primary coverts to secondaries in stunning contrast with black primaries; tail white from below, grayish above. somewhat buffier, differing mainly by lacking white in wings and tail (both are banded instead). obviously unmistakable; it helps that the two sexes are usually together. Often perches atop termite mounds, usually allowing a close approach. Strangely unvocal, giving only muffled wing-whirrs and an occasional “tic.”

SICKLE-WINGED NIGHTJAR Eleothreptus anomalus

19.5 cm|7.75”

Rare and local in seasonally flooded campos adjacent to gallery forest and woodland, also sometimes cerrado grassland, in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais; few records. 800-1200 m. Very small and short-tailed, looking “dumpy” at rest. Uniform grayish brown to brown with blackish on midcrown and grayish malar area, some blackish spotting on scapulars. Tail feathers white-tipped; unique wing shape, with mainly black primaries recurved and buffy toward their base, secondaries much shorter. has normal wing shape. Becomes active at dusk, sometimes resting on roads, allowing a close approach; flutters after insects in low gliding flight. Like the White-winged Nightjar not very vocal.

171 BAND-WINGED NIGHTJAR BACURAU-DA-TELHA

LITTLE NIGHTJAR BACURAU-CHINTÃ

PYGMY NIGHTJAR BACURAUZINHO-DA-CAATINGA

WHITE-WINGED NIGHTJAR BACURAU-DE-ASA-BRANCA

SICKLE-WINGED NIGHTJAR CURIANGO-DO-BANHADO

SWIFTS (Apodidae) are highly aerial, wide-ranging birds with long, narrow, pointed stiff wings. Their small

bills open wide to capture insects in flight. They perch on vertical surfaces with short, sharp claws and unlike swallows cannot perch “normally.” The largest of our swifts, STREPTOPROCNE range widely, from the mountains to the sea. Roosts and nesting colonies can be very large, with nests a shallow half-cup of organic material plastered with saliva against a cliff face.

WHITE-COLLARED SWIFT Streptoprocne zonaris

21 cm|8.25

BISCUTATE SWIFT Streptoprocne biscutata

20.5 cm|8”

Widespread and locally fairly common, most numerous in montane areas but regularly ranging down into lowlands. To 2100 m (Itatiaia). Blackish with a bold white collar that encircles neck; tail notched (but can often look squared). Juvenile’s white collar is less well defined, and often limited to nape; it can show white scaling on chest. Much larger than other swifts except for Biscutate (q.v.). Flight of this spectacular swift is fast and powerful, on sickle-shaped wings, the wingstrokes deep and steady; they also sometimes soar on stiff outstretched wings. Foraging birds disperse widely, and then can occur in large groups of up to many hundred individuals, sometimes accompanied by other swifts (especially Cypseloides). Birds feed both high above the ground and close to it, tending to descend lower under rainy or cloudy conditions. Roosts and nests in colonies in caves and behind waterfalls, clinging head up to vertical surfaces; sometimes very noisy in such situations, giving a variety of loud screeches and chippers. Similar vocalizations are also emitted in flight. At close range the wings can be heard to produce a loud whooshing sound.

Somewhat less numerous and widespread than White-collared Swift, but still ranging widely, mainly in hilly or mountainous regions; Biscutate Swift seems to favor inland areas and rarely, if ever, descends to the coast here. It may be partially migratory, moving north in the winter. To 2100 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Closely resembles the slightly larger White-collared, Biscutate differs in having its white collar reduced to two patches, one a nape band and the other a triangular or oval patch on chest; when seen reasonably well the separation, on the sides of neck, is obvious. Tail square or slightly rounded (not notched), but this of limited value as a field character. Behavior and vocalizations similar to White-collared Swift; sometimes the two are even found in the same flock, though they do not seem to nest together, Biscutate preferring drier caves and grottos. CYPSELOIDES swifts are midsized swifts mainly seen around their roosting and nesting sites, which usually are associated with waterfalls (at least damp cliff sides). Otherwise they are wide-ranging and relatively infrequently seen, probably because they tend to fly so high, at heights where seeing them is problematic and identification impossible.

GREAT DUSKY SWIFT Cypseloides senex

18.5 cm|7.25”

Very local, but can be numerous around its nesting sites, which are scattered through our region from lowlands of E Bahia (e.g., Ituberá) to the serras of Minas Gerais (e.g., Serra da Canastra). Elsewhere rarely seen (or at least rarely identified), probably because it flies so high. Mostly 600-1300 m. Brown with a paler head (especially foreface), with a “frosty” or scaly appearance; tail square or slightly rounded. Sooty Swift is smaller, darker, and generally more uniform, lacking Great Dusky’s pale effect on head (this usually apparent even on flying birds if they are in good light and not too far away). Notably gregarious, sometimes foraging with Streptoprocne swifts. Nests and roosts in colonies around waterfalls where they cling to rockfaces, sometimes within the spray zone; known occasionally to cling to the concrete faces of dams. Flight can be very fast, but is interspersed with bouts of slower gliding. Call a somewhat buzzy churring, very different from Streptoprocne.

SOOTY SWIFT Cypseloides fumigatus

16 cm|6.25”

Uncommon and local, recorded from Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo but precise distribution still not well understood. To 2300 m, foraging widely away from its roosting/nesting sites. Uniform sooty brownish, lacking the larger Great Dusky Swift’s extensive pale “frosting” on head (though it may show a little around eye). Sooty Swift is smaller. Much less gregarious than the Great Dusky, Sooty roosts and nests on cliffs and walls in much smaller groups, sometimes just a pair or two. Behavior similar, though Sooty is more apt to forage with Chaetura swifts than the Great Dusky. Calls consist of various chippered notes that are much higher-pitched than Great Dusky’s.

173

adult

WHITE-COLLARED SWIFT ANDORINHÃO-DE-COLEIRA

BISCUTATE SWIFT ANDORINHÃO-DE-COLEIRA-FALHA

juv.

GREAT DUSKY SWIFT TAPERUÇU-VELHO

SOOTY SWIFT TAPERUÇU-PRETO

An image of the Sooty Swift (Cypseloides fumigatus), described and illustrated on the preceding two pages, also appears on p. 173, this to facilitate comparison to our two Chaetura swifts. Note the Sooty’s relatively broad and straight wings and its flight style, which includes much gliding on set wings, often held slightly below the horizontal. Sooty looks dark and uniform, and has no contrasting paler area on rump. That it, like all Cypseloides, lacks the tail spines found on Chaetura is normally not apparent in the field. CHAETURA swifts are relatively small swifts known by having a contrasting pale area on rump and uppertail. Their flight is fast, with stiff wing-beats and relatively little gliding.

SICK’S SWIFT Chaetura meridionalis

13.5 cm|5.75”

Fairly common and widespread summer visitant (Aug-Apr) to woodland/forest borders and cleared areas, also frequently in towns and cities, across much of our area. Locally to 1800 m. Blackish brown above with paler brownish gray rump and uppertail-coverts. Blackish brown below but usually with a somewhat paler throat (can be quite contrasting). Gray-rumped Swift is smaller but longer-tailed with a contrasting gray rump and very dark underparts (Sick’s Swift’s rump shows much less contrast). Typically seen in pairs or small groups, generally not flying too high and not with other swifts; favors settled regions (Gray-rumped is more associated with forest). Nowadays usually nests in chimneys or under eaves of houses, in solitary pairs (groups gather prior to northward migration); formerly they nested in tree hollows or palms, and sometimes they still do. Frequently gives fast chippered calls while flying around in formation or chasing each other. Formerly named C. andrei, and named in honor of the late Helmut Sick.

GRAY-RUMPED SWIFT Chaetura cinereiventris

11 cm|4.25”

Locally fairly common over humid and foothill forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Locally to 1100 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Tail relatively long with squared tip. Blackish above with contrasting gray rump and uppertail-coverts. Below uniform dark gray, throat slightly paler. Sick’s Swift is larger but with shorter tail, thus imparting a different silhouette; it lacks the sharply contrasting rump and favors more open, non-forested locales (the two species only rarely fly together). Behavior much as in the more familiar Sick’s, though Gray-rumped’s flock size can be larger. It likewise sometimes nests in chimneys, ancestrally in tree hollows. Voice as in Sick’s though slightly higher-pitched and screechier.

LESSER SWALLOW-TAILED SWIFT Panyptila cayennensis

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon but somewhat local over both forest and more open areas in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 600 m. Distinctive, with long and deeply forked tail usually held closed in a point. Mostly black with contrasting white throat and upper chest, extending back as a narrow nuchal collar; also a white patch on lower flanks, and another over eye. Wings long and backswept, with narrow white trailing edge to most flight feathers. Cf. Neotropical Palm Swift. Usually seen in pairs (at most very small groups), generally flying high, sometimes associating with Chaetura. Flight usually leisurely, but it can speed up or glide for protracted periods. Seems nearly silent. Breeds in solitary pairs, with beautiful nest a long, cylindrical, downwardtapering cone made of plant down (looking like felt) attached to a tree trunk or wall, sometimes in the porch of a house; the pair often sleeps there, even when not actually nesting, arriving late and departing early.

NEOTROPICAL PALM SWIFT Tachornis squamata

13 cm|5”

Fairly common but quite local near palms (especially Mauritia) in semiopen terrain in São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 300-900 m. Tail long, slender, and deeply forked but normally held closed in a point. Blackish brown above, back feathers edged gray. Below pale grayish, sides and flanks mottled dusky. In flight, wings narrow and backswept. Usually in small groups, generally not flying very high and usually remaining close to palms, not with other swifts. Somewhat colonial, with well-hidden nests attached to underside of large palm fronds; feathers are incorporated, some obtained by dive-bombing onto the backs of high-flying pigeons or parrots! Call a thin, almost buzzy “dzeeee, dzeeee-dit” or “dzee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee.” Sometimes called Fork-tailed Palm Swift, though in life the tail almost never looks forked.

175 SOOTY SWIFT TAPERUÇU-PRETO

SICK’S SWIFT ANDORINHÃO-DO-TEMPORAL

GRAY-RUMPED SWIFT ANDORINHÃO-CINZA

LESSER SWALLOW-TAILED SWIFT ANDORINHÃO-ESTOFADOR

NEOTROPICAL PALM SWIFT ANDORINHÃO-DO-BURITI

HUMMINGBIRDS (Trochilidae) are enchanting small birds whose wings in flight beat so rapidly as to

appear a blur; flight is exceptionally maneuverable and fast. Many boast glittering iridescent colors (produced by feather structure, not pigmentation) that require the correct light angle to be seen (they can look black). Especially the hermits and many females can be hard to identify. Most have long pointed bills used while feeding at flowers for nectar; many insects are also consumed. Hummingbird feeders providing sugar water are now increasingly popular, providing a wonderful spectacle.

SAW-BILLED HERMIT Ramphodon naevius

14.5-15 cm|5.75-6”

PLANALTO HERMIT Phaethornis pretrei

14.5-15 cm|5.75-6”

MARGARETTA’S HERMIT Phaethornis margarettae

14.5-15 cm|5 .75-6”

Locally fairly common in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland (locally also restinga) from Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mostly below 900 m. A distinctive hermit, large and heavy-bodied. Bill long and essentially straight, with saw-like serrations that sometimes can actually be seen in the field. Brownish olive above, with long superciliary buffy whitish and blackish cheeks, and conspicuous orange-rufous lower face and sides of throat; outer tail feathers rufous, conspicuous in flight. Below whitish with heavy blackish streaking. slightly larger and longer-billed (bill also with a tiny hook at tip) and more streaked below. Much larger than other hermits, none of which shows streaking below. Mainly solitary, favoring shady areas near streams, in some areas coming to feeders. Has two very different calls, both given in flight -- a distinctively descending “tsi-tse-tsu-tsu,” and a sharp “chit” or “chat,” often repeated interminably and rapidly. Unlike the true hermits, does not lek. PHAETHORNIS hermits are dull-plumaged, undergrowth-inhabiting hummingbirds with long decurved bills and usually elongated white-tipped central tail feathers. All have a dark mask bordered by pale stripes. s gather in leks where, while wagging their tails, they “sing” squeakily to attract s. Fairly common and widespread in lower growth and borders of montane, humid, and semideciduous forest and woodland, also out into clearings and gardens, but avoiding extensive forest. Mostly 400-1500 m, northward locally down to sea level. Lower mandible reddish. Metallic green above with bright rufous rump and uppertail-coverts. Below uniform rich cinnamon-buff. A large and relatively colorful hermit that should be easily recognized. More often in the open than most others, so more conspicuous; feeds on a wide variety of flowers and comes regularly to feeders. ’s song at leks a rapidly repeated “tsee” or “tseedi” with some variation.

EN

Rare in undergrowth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and extreme N Espírito Santo. Below 100 m. Lower mandible reddish. Dull metallic green above, rump browner and scaled blackish. Below uniform dull buffyish. Scale-throated Hermit is slightly smaller and its blackish throat scaling is usually evident; it seems not to occur with Margaretta’s, ranging at higher elevations. Found singly inside forest or, less often, at edge; endangered by deforestation. Voice as in other hermits, notes often sounding doubled. By some considered an endemic race of Great-billed Hermit, P. malaris.

SCALE-THROATED HERMIT Phaethornis eurynome

14 cm|5.5”

DUSKY-THROATED HERMIT Phaethornis squalidus

11.5cm|4.5”

Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in undergrowth of montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from S Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-2100 m, smaller numbers lower, especially southward and in winter. Lower mandible yellow. Dull metallic green above, feathers often looking scaled darker. Grayish below, feathers of throat black-centered usually resulting in a scaly look. Planalto Hermit is larger and much flashier, with obvious rufous on rump. Dusky-throated Hermit is substantially smaller. Scale-throated is the common forest-inhabiting hermit of the hills and mountains of SE Brazil, feeding mainly in forest but at times coming to edge and into gardens; it often feeds at Heliconia flowers and visits feeders. Song of s at leks is typically two-parted, e.g., “tseeu-tsi, tseeu-tsi, tseeu-tsi…,“ but there is variation.

Uncommon in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills from S Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. To 1000 m. Base of lower mandible yellow (inconspicuous). Overall appearance and coloration resembles larger Scale-throated Hermit. Dusky-throated’s throat is darker and often looks streaky (instead of scaly), but generally the two are best distinguished by size difference (Dusky-throated notably smaller), and range (Dusky-throated favoring lower elevations, though some overlap). Behavior of the two similar, though ’s song at leks is quite different, being more jumbled and less squeaky, less a rhythmic repetition of the same doubled note.

177

SAW-BILLED HERMIT BEIJA-FLOR-RAJADO

PLANALTO HERMIT RABO-BRANCO-CANELA

MARGARETTA’S HERMIT RABO-BRANCO-DE-MARGARETTE

SCALE-THROATED HERMIT RABO-BRANCO-DE-BARBA

DUSKY-THROATED HERMIT RABO-BRANCO-PEQUENO

MINUTE HERMIT Phaethornis idaliae

7 cm|2.75”

REDDISH HERMIT Phaethornis ruber

7.5-8 cm|3-3.25”

Rare to locally uncommon in undergrowth of humid forest and woodland (locally in restinga) in lowlands from extreme S Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro. To 750 m. A tiny, sexually dimorphic hermit, the smallest in the genus. Lower mandible yellow. Tail rather short and wedge-shaped, feathers narrowly whitetipped (tipping broader in ). looks dark, with upperparts dark bronzy green and the usual hermit facial pattern. Throat and breast dark grayish brown, belly grayer. not so dark, with bronzy green upperparts and orangerufous throat and breast. Reddish Hermit is almost as “minute” but differs in its conspicuous cinnamon-rufous rump and underparts, buff tipping to tail feathers, and no breast patch. Feeds singly, darting and weaving about in undergrowth, pausing to feed at flowers. Song of s at their small leks a succession of high-pitched squeaky notes that ends in a jumble.

Uncommon in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 900 m. A colorful little hermit with wedge-shaped tail, most feathers buff-tipped, central ones tipped whitish. Lower mandible yellow. bronzy green above with the usual hermit facial pattern and extensive bright rufous rump. Bright cinnamon-rufous below with small black patch on midbreast (often hard to see). paler below with black breast patch reduced or even absent. Cf. Minute Hermit (really quite different). Behavior much as in Minute Hermit. Leks are small and situated close to the ground, s there emitting a long-continued series of squeaky phrases with little evident pattern. GLAUCIS hermits resemble Phaethornis but are heavier-bodied and have rounded tails that lack elongated central feathers. The Hook-billed Hermit, though now assigned to this genus, shows some characteristics of the Saw-billed Hermit (Ramphodon).

RUFOUS-BREASTED HERMIT Glaucis hirsutus

11 cm|4.25”

HOOK-BILLED HERMIT Glaucis dohrnii

11.5 cm|4.5”

Fairly common in undergrowth and borders of humid forest and woodland (including restinga) in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo (where mainly near coast and uncommon). Mostly below 500 m, locally to 800 m (Nova Friburgo). Bill long and decurved, lower mandible yellow. Metallic green above, cheeks dusky outlined paler (especially on malar); tail rounded, most feathers rufous with black subterminal band and white tip. Below mostly dull cinnamon-rufous, s darker on throat, s paler and brighter generally. Phaethornis hermits have very different elongated central tail feathers. Cf. also the very rare Hook-billed Hermit. Favors swampy areas and vicinity of streams, often feeding at Heliconia; also captures tiny insects. Generally inconspicuous, but starting to come to feeders. s display solitarily, not in leks, giving a squeaky song from a low perch in undergrowth.

EN

Very rare and local in undergrowth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills of S Bahia and Espírito Santo. To 800 m. Resembles much commoner Rufous-breasted Hermit, but bill nearly straight and all blackish (not decurved with yellow on lower mandible), and tail upperside mostly bronzy green, more blackish below with feathers narrowly white-tipped (showing no rufous); has a quite bold white superciliary and malar streak, and throat and breast quite bright rufous. Not well known, but behavior seems much as in Rufous-breasted Hermit. Endangered due to deforestation. Call in flight a series of high-pitched but descending notes, typically four, recalling Saw-billed Hermit.

SOMBRE HUMMINGBIRD Aphantochroa cirrochloris

12 cm|4.75”

Fairly common and widespread in lower growth and (mostly) borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, adjacent clearings, and gardens. Mostly below 1100 m, locally to 1600 m. Bill very slightly decurved. Above bronzy green with a small white postocular spot; tail all blackish. Below quite uniform grayish, foreneck sometimes with some green flecking. Well-named, this drab hummingbird can often be recognized simply from its lack of field characters. Fork-tailed Woodnymph is much smaller, lacks the postocular spot, shows white tail-tipping. Sombre comes regularly to feeders. Song a sharp “spseeyk!” followed by a much more musical jumble. Also gives a fairly musical “peeu,” sometimes doubled. Gray-breasted Sabrewing (Campylopterus largipennis) occurs very locally in campo rupestre and adjacent woodland in cen. Minas Gerais. Another drab hummingbird, also grayish below, but larger than Sombre and with large white tail corners conspicuous in flight.

179 MINUTE HERMIT RABO-BRANCO-MIRIM

REDDISH HERMIT RABO-BRANCO-MIÚDO

RUFOUS-BREASTED HERMIT BALANÇA-RABO-DE-BICO-TORTO

HOOK-BILLED HERMIT BALANÇA-RABO-CANELA

SOMBRE HUMMINGBIRD BEIJA-FLOR-CINZA

SWALLOW-TAILED HUMMINGBIRD Eupetomena macroura

15-18 cm|6-7”

Common, conspicuous, and widespread in semiopen areas, woodland and forest borders, and gardens throughout (even occurring in cities such as São Paulo and Rio). To at least 1700 m. Bill fairly short for the size of the bird. Head, neck, breast, and long deeply forked tail violet-blue; otherwise shining bluish green, crissum also blue. Outer primaries thickened and flat (this sometimes evident in the field). slightly smaller and shorter-tailed. This spectacular and – happily – numerous hummingbird is nearly unmistakable. Forages for insects and at flowers in many situations though hardly ever inside forest or woodland; even perches on fences and phone wires. Notably pugnacious, usually dominating other hummingbirds at feeders, often trying to chase off conspecifics as well. Commonest call, often given in flight and in series, a husky “tchu.”

BLACK JACOBIN Florisuga fusca

12-12.5 cm|4.75-5”

Common, conspicuous, and widespread at humid and montane forest and woodland borders as well as in adjacent clearings and gardens; less numerous northward (e.g., in Bahia), and perhaps somewhat migratory or dispersive in winter. To at least 1500 m. Bill black. mostly velvety black with bronzy green sheen on lower back, uppertail-coverts, and lesser wing-coverts; narrow flank patch white. Tail mostly white, outer feathers with a narrow black terminal band, central feathers also black. slightly duller black, while immatures differ in having a rufous malar streak (sometimes extending over throat), a few even with scattered brown feathers in the black. Striking and impossible to confuse though the rufous-gaped birds can sometimes throw you off. Frequent at feeders, their flashing black-and-white plumage always attracting attention, especially as they spread and close their tails. Not very vocal, sometimes giving simple “tsit” or “tsup” call notes.

BRAZILIAN RUBY Clytolaema rubricauda

11.5 cm|4.5”

Fairly common in montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest), though especially favors edge and adjacent shrubby clearings and gardens from S Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to S São Paulo; a few SE Bahia records. Mostly 400-2100 m, a few down to coastal lowlands (perhaps mainly in winter). Straight bill black. shining green above with white postocular spot and a glittering green forecrown; uppertail-coverts more coppery, blending into mainly bronzy rufous tail; underwing-coverts also rufous. Gorget glittering rosy magenta; below metallic bluish green. Melanistic birds occur. metallic green above with white postocular spot and whitish malar streak; rufous tail much as in . Below uniform cinnamon-rufous. stunning when seen well and in good light, while , though only handsome, is easily recognized as our only hummingbird with solidly rufous underparts. Conspicuous, often perching on open twigs, sometimes quite high, and regularly frequenting hummingbird feeders . ’s squeaky song is a fast “ski-di-di,” often repeated multiple times; both sexes give a “keeu” call.

STRIPE-BREASTED STARTHROAT Heliomaster squamosus 11.5-12 cm|4.5-4.75”

Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in a variety of wooded and semiopen habitats; ranges from Bahia to São Paulo but mostly found inland, maybe only a vagrant in coastal lowlands; seems somewhat nomadic. To at least 900 m. Long straight bill black. Striking dark bronzy green above with crown glittering blue, whitish stripe on midback, and a small white postocular spot and white malar streak; tail forked, mostly dark bluish green. Gorget and long tuft on sides of neck glittering reddish purple; below dark green with a conspicuous white stripe down median underparts. Much duller metallic green above with small white postocular spot; tail less forked than in , outer feathers tipped white. Below gray with white malar streak and dusky scaling on throat, a whitish stripe down median underparts usually apparent. Some birds can be more uniform gray below. Generally conspicuous, routinely perching on high branches. Feeds at varying heights, sometimes in flowering trees with other hummingbirds, but also captures small insects, usually while hovering; also visits feeders. Both sexes give a “cheeu” call. Blue-tufted Starthroat (H. furcifer) is apparently a rare winter visitant to semiopen terrain in interior São Paulo. The beautiful , a little larger than Stripe-breasted, has long tuft on sides of neck and underparts glittering blue, gorget glittering violet-magenta. resembles Stripe-breasted but is smoother gray below with larger white tail corners.

181 SWALLOW-TAILED HUMMINGBIRD BEIJA-FLOR-TESOURA

adults

juv.

BLACK JACOBIN BEIJA-FLOR-PRETO

juv.

adults

BRAZILIAN RUBY BEIJA-FLOR-RUBI

juv. melanistic STRIPE-BREASTED STARTHROAT BICO-RETO-VERDE

nonbreeding ?

BLACK-THROATED MANGO Anthracothorax nigricollis

11 cm|4.5”

WHITE-VENTED VIOLETEAR Colibri serrirostris

12.5 cm|5”

Fairly common and widespread in semiopen areas, gardens, and forest and woodland borders. To at least 1300 m. Bill slightly decurved. shining metallic green above; tail magenta to maroon, feathers tipped black, central feathers blue-green. Throat, breast, and midbelly black, with sides of throat and breast glittering blue and green, flanks green. nearly unmistakable, like above, but white below with conspicuous black stripe down median underparts; magenta tail as in , feathers tipped whitish. can look dark and unpatterned, but is recognizable from its fairly large size, decurved bill, magenta tail, and the black below; in good light, a beautiful bird. Forages mainly in flowering trees in the open, less often in shrubbery lower; also comes regularly to feeders, and sometimes captures tiny insects while hovering. Not very vocal, but both sexes give a “tsik” note.

Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in semiopen areas, woodland borders, cerrado, and locally in gardens; most numerous inland, perhaps only nonbreeders occurring in coastal regions. To 2100 m. Bill very slightly decurved. Mostly shining green with conspicuous violet-purple ear tufts (these flared when the bird is excited); tail green with wide subterminal band steel blue; lower belly and crissum contrastingly white. No hummingbird shows a comparable ear patch; cf. Glittering-bellied Emerald. Forages mostly in the open, often close to the ground, and regularly hawks small insects; comes to feeders. Aggressive toward smaller hummingbirds, but usually chased by Swallow-taileds. Song a fast, well-enunciated, rhythmic series of 8-10 semimusical “whit” and “chup” notes usually delivered from an exposed perch.

VIOLET-CAPPED WOODNYMPH Thalurania glaucopis 10-11 cm|4-4.25” 9 cm|3.5”

Common and widespread in lower growth and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, adjacent clearings, and gardens, and even quite builtup areas; less numerous in drier and more open regions, especially inland. To at least 1600 m. Beautiful has crown glittering violet-blue with otherwise dark shining green upperparts; blue-black tail long and deeply forked. Below uniform shimmering golden green. notably smaller, with less forked tail showing small white tips; it is shining green above, uniform whitish below. of smaller Fork-tailed Woodnymph lacks the violet crown but has violet lower underparts; Fork-tailed is grayer below. One of the more numerous SE Brazil hummingbirds, frequent at feeders, the s dazzling in good light. Stays mainly in the understory, and regular inside forest, more so than most hummingbirds. Call a simple “chit,” often repeated interminably.

FORK-TAILED WOODNYMPH Thalurania furcata

9.5 cm|3.75” 8 cm|3.25”

Uncommon in lower growth of semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland and campo rupestre in N São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Locally to 1200 m (Caraça, Cipó). shining green above with crown glittering green and some violet-blue on shoulders; blue-black tail fairly long and deeply forked. Throat and upper chest glittering green; remaining underparts glittering violet-blue. closely resembles Violet-capped Woodnymph but somewhat more smoky grayish below. almost as dazzling as the Violet-capped, and should be easily distinguished. s, however, are very similar, and are best distinguished by range (though there is some overlap). Behavior and calls much as in Violet-capped.

RUBY TOPAZ Chrysolampis mosquitus

8-9 cm|3.25-3.5”

Uncommon and seemingly local and erratic (perhaps migratory to some extent) in semiopen areas and woodland borders including campo rupestre, sometimes in gardens; mainly found inland and infrequent near coast, always most numerous in Bahia and Minas Gerais. Locally to 1200 m (Cipó). has crown and nape shining ruby red and throat and chest glittering gold to green (depends on the angle), these separated by blackish on face; back and lower underparts sooty blackish; tail bright rufous, feathers tipped blackish. metallic green above, often with a tiny white postocular spot; tail basally rufous with black subterminal band and white tip. Below pale grayish. Immature like , first acquiring the glittering gold on throat. In good light is our most dazzling hummingbird; however all too often it just looks blackish, and then is sometimes best known from its flat-crowned silhouette ruffled to the rear. Drab can be confusing, but her head shape echoes ’s, and rufous in her tail should help. Feeds on flowers (including cacti) at various levels, often in the open; comes to feeders. Often called Ruby-topaz Hummingbird.

BLACK-THROATED MANGO BEIJA-FLOR-DE-VESTE-PRETA

183

WHITE-VENTED VIOLETEAR BEIJA-FLOR-DE-CANTO

VIOLET-CAPPED WOODNYMPH BEIJA-FLOR-DE-TESTA-ROXA

FORK-TAILED WOODNYMPH BEIJA-FLOR-DE-VENTRE-ROXO

RUBY TOPAZ MOSQUITINHO

GLITTERING-BELLIED EMERALD Chlorostilbon lucidus

9 cm|3.5”

BLUE-CHINNED SAPPHIRE Chlorestes notata

9 cm|3.5”

WHITE-CHINNED SAPPHIRE Hylocharis cyanus

9 cm|3.5”

RUFOUS-THROATED SAPPHIRE Hylocharis sapphirina

9 cm|3.5”

Fairly common to common and widespread in semiopen and lightly wooded areas, including campo rupestre and gardens, but generally scarcer near coast. To 2000 m. Bill coral red, tipped black; ’s with more black. glittering golden green, more bluish on throat and breast; forked tail steel blue. has whitish postocular stripe and blackish cheeks; otherwise green above and pale grayish below; tail less deeply forked, outer feathers tipped whitish. In good light the gorgeous shimmers; Blue-chinned Sapphire has less red on bill and more rounded tail. ’s facial pattern unique; its bill shows more red than any sapphire. Usually forages close to ground; regular at feeders. Commonest call, mainly given in flight, a repeated “t-j-j-jit.” Formerly named C. aureoventris. Locally fairly common in humid forest, woodland, and nearby clearings and gardens in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro (where rare, perhaps old records only). Locally to 700 m. Lower mandible reddish at base. shining green above; slightly rounded tail blue-black. Glittering green below, chin glittering blue (hard to see) and also tinged blue across foreneck. like above; below whitish with green spangles on throat, breast, and flanks (variable in extent). Cf. Glittering-bellied Emerald (forked tail, mainly red bill) and Glittering-throated Emerald (with whitish stripe up median underparts, etc.). Forages at varying heights from near ground up into flowering trees, then often with other hummingbirds. Not very vocal, with song a faint “tzz, tzz, tzz....” Sometimes classified in genus Chlorostilbon.

Locally fairly common in humid forest, woodland, and nearby clearings and gardens in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 500 m, a few to 1000 m. ’s bill coral red, tipped black; ’s blackish. Beautiful has head, throat, and chest glittering blue and white chin (hard to see). Otherwise shining green above, uppertail-coverts decidedly shining coppery; tail blueblack. Below shining bluish green. shining green above with coppery on uppertail-coverts; tail as in but outer feathers tipped whitish. Below whitish, sides of throat flecked greenish blue, sides of chest flecked green. Rufousthroated Sapphire has coppery bronze tail, rufous chin patch, and reddish lower mandible. Forages on flowers at varying heights. s gather in small leks, typically in shady places, there singing a jumbled series of Bananaquit-like notes, e.g., “swee-swee,swee-swee, see, see.” Uncommon to fairly common in humid forest, woodland, and nearby clearings and gardens in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro (where rare). Locally to 800 m. ’s bill coral red, tipped black; ’s lower mandible mainly reddish. shining green above with uppertail-coverts and tail coppery chestnut. Chin patch rufous (usually visible), with throat and breast glittering violet-blue; below shining green. like above, including the coppery-chestnut tail. Chin pale rufous; otherwise whitish below with blue spangles on sides of chest and buff crissum. The rufous chin is the mark (but other hummingbirds can have pollen there, so beware); no other similar hummingbird has the chestnut tail. Behavior much as in White-chinned Sapphire. ’s song a weak, high-pitched “tsii-tsii.”

GILDED SAPPHIRE Hylocharis chrysura

9.5 cm|3.75”

Common in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland, shrubby areas, and gardens in interior São Paulo. 300-800 m. Bill coral red, tipped black. Nearly uniform shining golden green; tail glittering coppery gold. slightly duller, with pinker bill. Easily known where it occurs, there being relatively few other hummingbirds found there; Glittering-bellied Emerald is a much purer green, with forked tail blue-black, etc. Feeds on flowers at varying heights, typically not too high; comes to feeders. ’s song a fast series of extremely high-pitched “tzz” notes lasting 3-5 seconds, easily overlooked. Also called Gilded Hummingbird.

WHITE-TAILED GOLDENTHROAT Polytmus guainumbi

10 cm|4”

Uncommon and somewhat local in shrubby areas with tall grass, usually around marshes or near water. To 1000 m. Bill rather long and decurved, basally reddish. golden green above with whitish malar streak and another above eye; rather long, wedge-shaped tail mostly green, outer feathers increasingly white toward their base. Below golden green. buffier below with green spangling. Distinctive in its restricted habitat. Tends to forage close to ground, the white in its tail flashing conspicuously, feeding at various flowers.

185 GLITTERING-BELLIED EMERALD BESOURINHO-DE-BICO-VERMELHO

BLUE-CHINNED SAPPHIRE BEIJA-FLOR-DE-GARGANTA-AZUL

WHITE-CHINNED SAPPHIRE BEIJA-FLOR-ROXO

RUFOUS-THROATED SAPPHIRE BEIJA-FLOR-SAFIRA

WHITE-TAILED GOLDENTHROAT BEIJA-FLOR-DE-BICO-CURVO

GILDED SAPPHIRE BEIJA-FLOR-DOURADO

AMAZILIA emeralds are “typical” hummingbirds with quite plain, unadorned plumage. Taxonomy is uncertain with some species, and identification can definitely be a challenge. They range in semiopen terrain and come to feeders. SAPPHIRE-SPANGLED EMERALD Amazilia lactea

9.5 cm|3.75”

Locally fairly common in forest and woodland borders and scrubby terrain, also gardens, but especially in the interior from S Bahia to São Paulo. Locally to 1600 m but mostly below 1200 m. Lower mandible reddish. Shining green above, sometimes with a tiny white postocular spot, slightly bronzier on uppertailcoverts; tail blue-black. Foreneck glittering blue, sides and flanks greener, with median belly white. slightly duller. Glittering-throated Emerald is always greener below, though at certain angles its chest can look bluer. Forages at a wide variety of flowers, and at varying heights above the ground though usually not too high. Song a rapidly repeated “tz-zz-zz-zeu.”

GLITTERING-THROATED EMERALD Amazilia fimbriata

9.5-10.5 cm|3.75-4.25”

Common and widespread in clearings, gardens, scrubby areas including restinga, and forest and woodland borders. Two forms occur here, one fairly close to coast (but also ranging well up into the mountains) from Espírito Santo southward, the other found more inland; they may be separate species. To 1200 m. Lower mandible pinkish. “Coastal” birds (A) are shining green above, sometimes showing a tiny white postocular spot; tail greenish blueblack. Foreneck glittering bluish green, sides and flanks greener, with median breast and belly white. “Inland” birds (B), here found mainly in W Minas Gerais, average smaller and have less bluish tinge on the glittering green foreneck. Sapphire-spangled Emerald is similar but much bluer across its throat and breast. Cf. also Versicolored Emerald. Behavior as in Sapphire-spangled, though seems to favor more humid regions. Song a repetition of a “tzz” note, in “coastal” birds often given as doublets (“tz-it”) and repeated multiple times.

VERSICOLORED EMERALD Amazilia versicolor

9 cm|3.5”

Common and widespread in clearings, gardens, scrubby areas, and forest and woodland borders but perhaps less numerous northward. To 1700 m. Plumage varies, with two distinctly different “types” being found at least at some localities. Lower mandible pinkish. Both are shining green above, sometimes with a tiny white postocular spot; tail bronzy green with dark subterminal band. “Greenthroated” form (A) has throat and chest glittering green, often showing blue toward center; sides and flanks green, midbelly white. “White-throated” form (B) has sides of throat and upper chest glittering green (often tinged blue) with white median throat (sometimes with scattered green spangles); sides and flanks green, midbelly white. Smaller than Glittering-throated Emerald, which otherwise is quite similar to “white-throated” Versicoloreds. Their behavior is much the same. Song a repeated “tsi” note, sometimes high-pitched, sometimes slightly more musical.

PLAIN-BELLIED EMERALD Amazilia leucogaster

9.5 cm|3.75”

Uncommon and local especially in and near the vicinity of mangroves but also in adjacent woodland, shrubbery, and gardens along coast from E Bahia to N Espírito Santo. Below 50 m. Lower mandible pinkish. Shining green above, sometimes with a tiny white postocular spot; tail bronzy green. Underparts snowy white with green spangles on sides of throat, breast, and belly (spangles can be bluer on throat). Glittering-throated Emerald has white only on median breast and belly (not extending as far as throat); “white-throated” Versicolored Emeralds are smaller and show more green on sides and flanks (the white being more extensive in Plain-bellied). Aside from range and restricted habitat, behavior as in Glittering-throated and Versicolored Emeralds. Song a simple, repeated “tsi-ti, tsi-ti, tsi-ti, tsi-ti.”

WHITE-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD Leucochloris albicollis

11 cm|4.5”

Fairly common to common in montane forest and woodland, including araucaria forest and campo rupestre, also in clearings and gardens, from S Espírito Santo and S Minas Gerais to E São Paulo; apparently some move northward or downslope during winter, a few reaching the coast, especially in São Paulo. Mostly 500-2100 m. Lower mandible reddish. Above shining green; outer tail feathers white-tipped (obvious in flight). Throat contrastingly white; breast band green, extending down flanks; midbelly white. somewhat duller. Essentially unmistakable, with its flashy plumage and bold demeanor making it one of our most conspicuous hummingbirds; often perches in the open and frequent at feeders. Distinctive song, often given as perches on a high twig in the open, a rather buzzy “skwee, zee-zee-zee-zee-zee-zee.”

187 SAPPHIRE-SPANGLED EMERALD BEIJA-FLOR-DE-PAPO-AZUL

A

B

GLITTERING-THROATED EMERALD BEIJA-FLOR-DE-GARGANTA-VERDE

A

?

VERSICOLORED EMERALD BEIJA-FLOR-VARIADO

B PLAIN-BELLIED EMERALD BEIJA-FLOR-DE-BARRIGA-BRANCA

WHITE-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD BEIJA-FLOR-DE-PAPO-BRANCO

BLACK-EARED FAIRY Heliothryx auritus

12-12.5 cm|4.75-5”

Uncommon and somewhat local at borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland and adjacent clearings in lowlands and foothills from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Below 1200 m. Bill short and straight. above shimmering bright green with contrasting black mask ending in a violet-blue spot, the green extending to chin and sides of throat; tail long and graduated, mostly white, central feathers blue-black. Below immaculate white. similar but slightly larger and longer-tailed, and lacking the green on sides of throat. Stunningly beautiful and impossible to confuse. An arboreal hummingbird, mainly keeping to midlevels and higher, though sometimes coming lower in clearings and gardens. Very active, with graceful darting flight; hovers at flowers, sometimes with tail partially cocked, at other times spreading and closing it, rarely pausing for long. Also gleans tiny insects off leaves. Visits feeders only infrequently. Not very vocal, occasionally giving a “chup” or “chip” in flight.

HORNED SUNGEM Heliactin bilophus

10-11 cm|4-4.25”

Rare and very local in cerrado and campo rupestre in N São Paulo (perhaps only old records) and cen. Minas Gerais (Serra do Espinhaço). 700-1100 m. Bill short, straight. Beautiful has dark shining blue crown with short lateral tufts glittering red, blue, and gold; above bronzy green. Lower face and throat black, ending in a point on chest; sides of neck and underparts white. Tail long, narrow, and pointed, all but central feathers white. lacks tufts and blue on head; shining green above and white below, usually with brownish throat flecking; flanks greenish; tail as in , but shorter. Tiny but long-tailed, not likely to be confused in its restricted habitat. Forages mainly at flowers close to the ground, ascending into flowering shrubs and trees only rarely. Call a sharp “chup.”

HYACINTH VISORBEARER Augastes scutatus

9 cm|3.5”

Fairly common but very local in stony campo rupestre vegetation and nearby woodland patches on slopes of the Serra do Espinhaço in cen. Minas Gerais. 900-2000 m. shining green above with glittering green forehead and throat, ending in a point on chest; lower face and sides of neck glittering blue contrasting with creamy white pectoral collar; lower underparts dark blue. much duller, essentially green above and grayish below but still showing an echo of the whitish collar. Forages close to the ground and usually conspicuous where it occurs, perching in the open on twigs, rocks, or near low flowers. ’s distinctive song a series of dry, squeaky, or chortling notes interspersed with short trills. STEPHANOXIS plovercrests are small hummingbirds found in our higher-elevations forests, the delightful males sporting spectacular long crests. The two species have usually been considered conspecific but recent evidence points to them being separate species.

GREEN-CROWNED PLOVERCREST Stephanoxis lalandi

8.5-9 cm|3.25-3.5”

VIOLET-CROWNED PLOVERCREST Stephanoxis loddigesii

8.5-9 cm|3.25-3.5”

Fairly common in lower growth and borders of montane forest and woodland, also shrubby clearings, in mountains from S Espírito Santo to NE São Paulo. Mostly 1200-2100 m; in winter a few descend to near sea level. Short bill. has an unmistakable very long, wispy crest (almost recurved toward tip) that often stands up straight above head. Crown and crest glittering green; shining green above with prominent white postocular spot; tail bronzy green, outer feathers tipped white. Large shield on throat and breast deep purple bordered on its sides with gray, lower belly grayish. has crest much reduced (the head looks “peaked”); above shining green with prominent white postocular spot; tail bronzy green, outer feathers tipped white. Below uniform gray. Unmistakable is spectacular and only to be confused with Violet-crowned Plovercrest though the two species do not co-occur. On note small size, the postocular, and her smooth gray underparts. Forages in lower growth, most often at edge, with small groups gathering where feeding conditions are optimal. Breeding s congregate in loose assemblies to sing from low perches. Song a variable series of squeaky notes recalling a hermit. Fairly common in lower growth and borders of montane forest and woodland as well as shrubby clearings and gardens in SE São Paulo. Mostly 600-1100 m. Resembles Green-crowned Plovercrest; no overlap. Bill longer. differs in having crown and crest glittering purple and much blacker underparts (with only a hint of purple); gray on the sides of neck and flanks more extensive (so the “shield” is smaller). s similar. Behavior of the two species is much alike.

189 BLACK-EARED FAIRY BEIJA-FLOR-FADA

HORNED SUNGEM CHIFRE-DE-OURO

HYACINTH VISORBEARER BEIJA-FLOR-DE-GRAVATA-VERDE

GREEN-CROWNED PLOVERCREST BEIJA-FLOR-DE-TOPETE-VERDE VIOLET-CROWNED PLOVERCREST BEIJA-FLOR-DE-TOPETE-ROXO

FRILLED COQUETTE Lophornis magnificus

7 cm|2.75”

FESTIVE COQUETTE Lophornis chalybeus

7.5 cm|3”

Uncommon and local at borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland and in clearings and gardens. To 1100 m. ’s short bill rosy red with black tip, ’s pinkish at base of mandible. has crown and bushy crest rufous with glittering green forehead and throat; above metallic green with conspicuous whitish rump band; tail bronzy green above, from below looks rufous, feathers with black tips. Fan of elongated feathers on sides of neck white tipped green; below grayish. lacks crest and fan; forecrown and throat rufous-buff (throat sometimes more whitish); above like , including tail and rump band. Below mixed grayish and green. Spectacular unmistakable; easily recognized by her rump band and rufous on crown. A fine hummingbird now coming frequently to feeders near forests (e.g., at Itatiaia). Forages at flowers at all heights; flight is often slow, the wings sometimes emitting an audible hum, the tail cocked and sometimes slowly wagged. Uncommon and local at borders of humid and lower montane forest and in clearings and gardens in S Rio de Janeiro (perhaps also Espírito Santo) and E São Paulo. Mostly below 600 m. mostly green above with glittering green forehead extending to face; conspicuous whitish rump band; uppertailcoverts and tail coppery bronze. Fan of elongated feathers on sides of neck glittering green with white tips; throat green, below mixed grayish and green, often looking streaky. green above, rump band and tail as in . Whitish below, often with blackish areas on throat and chest; some rufous on flanks. Fancy unmistakable; recognizable from her rump band and the mottling below (unlike Frilled, no rufous on face). Cf. Racket-tailed Coquette. Behavior much as in Frilled Coquette; comes to feeders, especially around Ubatuba.

RACKET-TAILED COQUETTE Discosura longicaudus 9-9.5 cm|3.5-3.75” 7.5 cm|3”

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia; a few records south to Rio de Janeiro (Tinguá). Below 100 m. largely green, glittering on forecrown, throat, and chest, with conspicuous whitish rump band; outer pair of tail feathers with conspicuous rackets (often broken). Breast band mixed blackish and buff, belly greenish. metallic green above with buffy whitish rump band; tail much shorter and lacking rackets, only slightly forked, but buffy whitish tips often somewhat bulbous. Whitish malar streak contrasts with blackish midthroat; below mixed greenish and whitish. unmistakable unless its rackets are missing. Black-bellied Thorntail similar but with white flank patch, purer white rump band, narrower tail. No overlap with Festive Coquette. More forest-based than the other coquettes, generally feeding well above ground, with tail usually held cocked.

BLACK-BELLIED THORNTAIL Discosura langsdorffi

10-11 cm|4-4.25” 7.5 cm|3”

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro but recent records only from Bahia. Below 200 m. has long wire-like outer tail feathers, usually held closed; narrow white rump band. Mainly shining green, glittering on forecrown, throat, and breast; breast and belly black with prominent white patch on lower flanks. has tail much shorter and somewhat forked. Above shining green with white rump band. Below mottled green and blackish with white malar streak; patch on lower flanks like . unmistakable; cf. Racket-tailed Coquette. Behavior much as in Racket-tailed Coquette. The thorntail sometimes hovers with its tail partially cocked. Threatened by deforestation.

AMETHYST WOODSTAR Calliphlox amethystina

7.5 cm|3” 7 cm|2.75”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, sometimes adjacent clearings and gardens, and in campo rupestre. Usually below 1000 m but wanders to 1600 m or more. Bill nearly straight. Tiny. bronzy green above with small white postocular and patch on sides of lower back extending to lower flanks; tail dark, long, and deeply forked but usually held closed in a point. Gorget glittering amethyst bordered below by white pectoral collar; belly dusky green. like above; tail shorter and unforked, dull green with black subterminal band and rufous tips. Throat whitish with scattered green and red spangles and white pectoral band (sometimes diffused); sides and flanks rufous with white midbelly; flank patch as in . Cf. coquettes. Generally found singly except at feeders; forages mainly in flowering trees, often quite high. Flight often slow and weaving, bee-like, the tail usually cocked.

191

FRILLED COQUETTE TOPETINHO-MAGNÍFICO

FESTIVE COQUETTE TOPETINHO-VERDE

RACKET-TAILED COQUETTE BEIJA-FLOR-BANDEIRINHA

BLACK-BELLIED THORNTAIL RABO-DE-ESPINHO

AMETHYST WOODSTAR BEIJA-FLOR-ESTRELINHA

nonbreeding

?

TROGONS (Trogonidae) are colorful birds with lax plumage, heavy bills, and long, graduated, square-

tipped tails. They range in forest and woodland, perching upright and often not moving that much; frequent calling often attracts attention. They consume fruit and larger insects, both often captured on the wing. Nests are placed in termitaries or tree cavities.

GREEN-BACKED TROGON Trogon viridis

28 cm|11”

Fairly common in midlevels, subcanopy, and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1000 m (a few to 1350 m). Pale blue eye-ring in both sexes. shining bluish green above, darker on head and bluer on rump and tail upperside; foreface and throat black. Tail feathers with large white corners. Chest violet-blue, breast and belly rich yellow. gray above and on throat and chest with white vermiculations on wings; underside of tail blackish, outer feathers barred and broadly tipped white. Breast and belly yellow. “yellow-bellied” Surucua Trogon has yellow eye-ring, more solidly white tail underside; in having white eye-crescents. Often in pairs that often seem sluggish and come lower at edge; small groups form during courtship. Song a fast, fairly even series of 15-20 “cow” or “cowp” notes. Both sexes give soft “chuk” notes, often doubled, and nasal churrs. Sometimes called White-tailed Trogon.

SURUCUA TROGON Trogon surrucura

27 cm|11.5”

BLUE-CROWNED TROGON Trogon curucui

25.5 cm|10”

COLLARED TROGON Trogon collaris

25.5 cm|10”

BLACK-THROATED TROGON Trogon rufus

25.5 cm|10”

Fairly common and widespread in forest and woodland and borders from Bahia to São Paulo; two “types,” possibly species. Mostly below 1350 m, locally to 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos), generally not in coastal lowlands. “Red-bellied” birds range in most of our area, the “yellow-bellied” type only from Bahia to NE São Paulo; at least around Itatiaia both are found (“yellow-bellied” types seemingly higher). Eye-ring color in s echoes belly color: orange-red when “red-bellied,” yellow when “yellow-bellied.” s always have feathered white eye-crescents. has head, neck, and chest shining violet-blue; shining green above, wing-coverts vermiculated; tail underside mostly white. Other than breast and belly color, plumages similar. gray above with white markings on wings; tail underside blackish, outer feathers broadly tipped and edged white. Both sexes of Green-backed Trogon have an obvious blue eye-ring. Cf. also Blue-crowned Trogon. Behavior and voice much as in Green-backed. Rare and local in semideciduous and gallery forest and borders in W São Paulo; also in more humid woodland in E Bahia. To 400 m. has orange eye-ring, feathered white eye-crescents. shining green above, crown and nape much bluer; wing-coverts vermiculated. Tail underside barred black and white, feathers tipped white. Throat blackish, chest shining blue; breast and belly bright red. gray above and on throat and chest, wing-coverts vermiculated. Tail underside black, outer feathers barred and tipped white. Breast and belly red, a white breast band often showing. Both sexes of larger Surucua Trogon show more white on undertail. Generally in pairs, in the open fairly often. Song a fast, even repetition of a rather high-pitched “cow” note, ending abruptly; both sexes give a “churr” call. Rare and local in midlevels of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from SE Bahia to Rio de Janeiro (only old records?). Below 300 m. ’s inconspicuous eye-ring gray; has feathered white eye-crescents. shining green above, face and throat blacker; wings vermiculated. Tail underside barred black and white, feathers tipped white. Chest shining green, with conspicuous white band separating it from bright red breast and belly. brown above and on chest; tail upperside more rufescent. Tail underside whitish freckled dusky. Below like but red paler. “red-bellied” Surucua Trogon has bluer foreneck, white tail underside; is mainly gray (not brown). Black-throated Trogon is yellow-bellied. Behavior as in other trogons though favoring forest interior. Song a fast “kyow, kyow-kyow-kyow,” higher-pitched than Black-throated Trogon; both sexes give a “churr.” Locally fairly common in lower growth of humid and montane forest and woodland from S Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly 300-1500 m. ’s eye-ring blue; has feathered white eye-crescents. shining green above (in some lights can look bluer), face and throat blacker; wings extensively vermiculated. Tail upperside bronzy green; underside barred black and white, outer feathers tipped white. Chest shining green, breast and belly rich yellow. brown above and on throat and chest; wing-coverts vermiculated buff. Tail upperside rufous, underside as in . Below like but belly paler. “yellow-bellied” Surucua Trogon has yellow eye-ring, bluer foreneck; mainly gray (not brown). Favors forest interior more than other trogons. Song a slow, measured “kyow, kow-kow-kow.”

GREEN-BACKED TROGON SURUCUÁ-GRANDE-DE-BARRIGA-AMARELA

“yellow-bellied”

“red-bellied” SURUCUA TROGON SURUCUÁ-VARIADO

BLUE-CROWNED TROGON SURUCUÁ-DE-BARRIGA-VERMELHA

COLLARED TROGON SURUCUÁ-DE-COLEIRA BLACK-THROATED TROGON SURUCUÁ-DE-BARRIGA-AMARELA

193

KINGFISHERS (Alcedinidae) are fish-eating birds with powerful long and pointed bills. They nest in burrows dug into banks, almost always near water. RINGED KINGFISHER Megaceryle torquata

39-40 cm|15.25-15.75”

Fairly common and widespread along rivers, larger streams, lakes, and near coast; occurs on both fresh and salt water. Mostly below 1000 m, a few to 1600 m or even more. Easily our largest kingfisher, with distinctive bushy crest. Massive bill dusky. Blue-gray above with white nuchal collar extending to throat; tail feathers blackish sparsely barred white. Below chestnut-rufous. has blue-gray at sides of chest, a broad blue-gray chest band; underwingcoverts white ( ), or rufous ( ). A conspicuous kingfisher that perches at all heights, sometimes raising and lowering tail. Plunges for fish from a perch. Ringed is the only kingfisher that ever flies high above ground, then often emitting a loud harsh “krek!” Also gives a loud, fast rattle (especially when flushed) and various sharp chatters.

AMAZON KINGFISHER Chloroceryle amazona

28-29 cm|11-11.5”

Uncommon to fairly common along rivers and larger streams, lakes, and ponds; mainly on fresh water. Mostly below 1000 m, a few to 1500 m. The largest green kingfisher, with very heavy blackish bill. Dark, shiny, oily green above with nuchal collar white extending to throat; outer tail feathers with some white banding. White below, with broad rufous chest band, with a broken chest band dark green. Green Kingfisher is much smaller with slighter bill and white wing-spotting; on flying birds its white in tail is more obvious. Seen singly or in pairs, often perching in the open. Flight fast and direct, usually low over water. Usually plunges for fish from a perch, occasionally while hovering. Noisy, giving a loud “cak!” or “chat!” call, sometimes doubled, also a descending series of sputtering or squeaky notes that can end in a rattle.

GREEN KINGFISHER Chloroceryle americana

19-19.5 cm|7.5-7.75”

Fairly common and widespread along rivers, streams, margins of lakes and ponds, and seashores; occurs on both fresh and salt water. To 1800 m, but most numerous in lowlands. Dark, shiny, oily green above with narrow nuchal collar white; two rows of white spots on flight feathers; outer tail feathers white. White below, with broad rufous chest band, with two green-spotted chest bands and often somewhat buff-tinged below. Smaller than the similarly plumaged Amazon Kingfisher, with Green having much more white spotting on wings. In flight it also shows more white in tail. Occurs much more often than the Amazon along small streams, and rests frequently on rocks; it always perches low. Flight fast and direct, usually low over water. Usually dives for fish from perches, even rocks, but sometimes first hovering. Flight call a raspy “dzeet” or “treet,” often doubled or trebled, like pebbles being struck together; this is sometimes given when at rest. Also has a descending series of “tsu” notes.

GREEN-AND-RUFOUS KINGFISHER Chloroceryle inda

21.5- 23 cm|8.5-9”

Rare and local along sluggish forested streams and shady lake margins in E São Paulo; old records northward to E Bahia, but recent records few or none. To 650 m. Proportionately heavy black bill. Dark oily green above with small buff streak above lores; wings and tail speckled white or pale buff. Collar on sides of neck and entire underparts rich orange-rufous, paler on throat. has green-and-white chest band. Likely only confused with much smaller American Pygmy Kingfisher. Solitary and inconspicuous, perching low over water and generally hard to see; wary. Dives directly into the water without hovering; flight swift and direct, low over water, with flushed birds usually disappearing. Flight call a sharp “dzreet,” often trebled.

AMERICAN PYGMY KINGFISHER Chloroceryle aenea

12.5-13.5 cm|5-5.25”

Rare along small sluggish streams and in swampy backwaters, also mangroves, mostly near coast in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; also an old record from SW São Paulo. Mostly below 400 m, rarely to 1000 m (Itatiaia). Easily the smallest kingfisher. Dark oily green above with small rufous streak above lores. Collar on sides of neck and underparts rich orange-rufous with midbelly and crissum white. has narrow green-and-white chest band. Green and Greenand-rufous Kingfishers are much larger, but confusion possible when seen only quickly. Found singly, perching low over shallow water (sometimes even feeding at stagnant pools). If not flushed, can be confiding; flight low and darting. Flight call a sharp but weak “tzit.”

195 RINGED KINGFISHER MARTIM-PESCADOR-GRANDE

AMAZON KINGFISHER MARTIM-PESCADOR-VERDE

GREEN KINGFISHER MARTIM-PESCADOR-PEQUENO

GREEN-AND-RUFOUS KINGFISHER MARTIM-PESCADOR-DA-MATA

AMERICAN PYGMY KINGFISHER MARTIM-PESCADOR-MIUDINHO

MOTMOTS (Momotidae) are attractive but inconspicuous birds that favor forest interior and like kingfishers nest in burrows dug into banks. They often switch their racket-tipped tails back and forth.

RUFOUS-CAPPED MOTMOT Baryphthengus ruficapillus 40-42 cm|15.75-16.5”

Locally fairly common in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo, smaller numbers north to SE Bahia. Mostly below 1200 m, locally to 1700 m (Gonçalves). Tail long and slender, with a pair of terminal rackets sometimes present but often not well developed. Crown and nape deep rufous; above rich green with broad black mask through eyes; primaries edged bluish green. Below bright olive green with broad cinnamon-rufous band across upper belly and a black chest spot (often inconspicuous). A beautiful bird, not likely confused; Amazonian Motmot (limited overlap) has blue in crown and no rufous on head. Usually occurs in pairs that especially like dense undergrowth near streams but also range more widely. More active at dawn and dusk, this motmot can be frustratingly hard to see, at other times tame and obliging. Call a short fast hooting, “hoo-oo-oo-oo-oo,” guttural and vaguely owl-like, a quality enhanced by its vocalizing mainly in the predawn and at dusk.

AMAZONIAN MOTMOT Momotus momota

40 cm|15.75”

Uncommon in lower growth of gallery and riparian forest and woodland in W São Paulo. To 500 m. Iris red. Tail long and slender, with large terminal rackets usually obvious (except when molting). Blue crown, more turquoise in front and violet to rear, encircles black midcrown; black mask through eyes. Above green, bluer on flight feathers and upperside of tail. Below bronzy olive, tawnier on belly, with a small black patch on midchest. Essentially unmistakable; Rufous-capped Motmot lacks this species’ obvious blue on its head. Found singly or in pairs, resting quietly in shady lower growth occasionally switching its tail, pendulum-like. In the early morning sometimes perches higher and more in the open. Feeds on a wide variety of food items including larger insects, lizards, snakes, and sometimes even fruit; occasionally drops to the ground. Most frequent call, given especially at dawn and dusk, a fast, hollow “hooodoo” repeated every 4-6 seconds. Formerly called Blue-crowned Motmot, this before that had been split into a complex of several species. PUFFBIRDS (Bucconidae) are chunky, stolid birds with large heads and stout hooked bills. They range mainly in forest and woodland where many are easily overlooked aside from their characteristic and often loud vocalizations. MONASA nunbirds are distinctive fairly large, mainly dark gray puffbirds with unmistakable coral red bills. Neither species is particularly numerous or wide-ranging here.

WHITE-FRONTED NUNBIRD Monasa morphoeus

25-25.5 cm|9.75-10”

Uncommon in midlevels and subcanopy of humid forest and borders in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo; one old Rio de Janeiro record, and a recent one from NE Minas Gerais. Mostly below 200 m. Bill coral red. Mostly dark gray, blacker on face and throat, with forecrown and chin white. Occurs further east than Black-fronted Nunbird; cf. Screaming Piha. Ranges in groups of up to 4-5 individuals that perch upright, often in the open, on horizontal branches and lianas. They rest quietly much of the time, frequently close together, occasionally sallying to foliage or branches in pursuit of their mostly insect prey. Flight slow, a few shallow flaps followed by a glide. Mixed flocks of insectivorous birds such as foliage-gleaners and larger tanagers often coalesce around them. From time to time a pair or the group will burst into a loud gabbling chorus that starts slowly and gradually becomes louder and faster; it can continue for several minutes. On occasion a group will line up on a branch, often all facing in the same direction. The population in E Brazil is threatened by deforestation.

BLACK-FRONTED NUNBIRD Monasa nigrifrons

26-26.5 cm|10.25-10.5”

Uncommon in lower and midlevels of riparian, gallery, and semideciduous forest and woodland in N São Paulo. Below 500 m. Bill coral red. Mostly slaty gray, blacker on foreface. As with the White-fronted, this is the only nunbird in its range, distant from White-fronted’s, so it should be instantly recognizable. Behavior much as in White-fronted Nunbird, though Black-fronteds typically range closer to the ground, and they favor swampy places and areas near water. Group size tends to be larger and they can be notably tame. Usually quiet, or giving only an occasional soft or querulous note, but then suddenly they burst into a great gabbling chorus that resembles White-fronted’s but is even more jumbled.

197

RUFOUS-CAPPED MOTMOT JURUVA

AMAZONIAN MOTMOT UDU-DE-COROA-AZUL

WHITE-FRONTED NUNBIRD TANGURUPARÁ-DE-CARA-BRANCA BLACK-FRONTED NUNBIRD BICO-DE-BRASA

BUFF-BELLIED PUFFBIRD Notharchus swainsoni

24 cm|9.5”

Rare to locally uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland from SE Bahia to S São Paulo; more numerous southward. To at least 900 m. Heavy black bill. Black above with a small whitish frontlet; sides of neck and narrow nuchal collar grayish. Throat and chest white, prominent breast band black; lower underparts buff, flanks grayer with some black barring. Nothing like it in our area. Generally solitary, less often in pairs, perching quietly for long periods on high exposed branches, abruptly sallying in pursuit of prey (mainly large insects, but also some small vertebrates), sometimes grabbing it with an audible bill snap and beating it against a branch before swallowing. The distinctive two-parted song commences with several slow, slurred, rising whistled notes before moving into a much faster jumble of rapidly repeated whistled phrases.

WHITE-EARED PUFFBIRD Nystalus chacuru

21 cm|8.25”

Fairly common and widespread at edge of semideciduous and gallery woodland, in recent decades spreading into many deforested areas; most numerous in Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and (especially) São Paulo and scarcer northward. To 1800 m. Heavy bill mostly bright orange-red. Brownish rufous above with a complex black-and-white facial pattern and a white nuchal collar. Buffy whitish below with some dusky scaling on sides. Boldly patterned and nearly unmistakable; the more barred and spotted Spot-backed Puffbird also has orange-red bill. A conspicuous bird found singly or in pairs, usually perching low and in the open, sometimes on fences or phone wires. Feeds on larger insects and lizards (sometimes surprisingly large), often captured on the ground. Song a loud, far-carrying “truu, truturay, truturay, truturay,” with a distinctive rollicking cadence; it is often given as a duet, sometimes just before dawn.

SPOT-BACKED PUFFBIRD Nystalus maculatus

19 cm|7.5”

Uncommon in semideciduous and deciduous woodland and adjacent scrub and clearings in E Bahia (though not the far SE) and NE Minas Gerais. To 900 m. Heavy bill mostly orange-red; iris yellow. Brown above conspicuously spotted and barred buffy whitish, with nuchal collar rich buff. Whitish below with orange-rufous band across lower throat and chest, with coarse black spotting on breast and down flanks. Shaped like White-eared Puffbird, but plumage very different. Occurs singly and in pairs, often perching in the open at woodland edge, though generally less conspicuous than White-eared. Feeds on larger insects and lizards. Distinctive song, as loud and far-carrying as White-eared’s, a ringing “cherowee, cherowee, che-ró,” sometimes given as a duet. Populations of the caatinga and the chaco are sometimes considered separate species, but in fact vocally and morphologically they are very close.

CRESCENT-CHESTED PUFFBIRD Malacoptila striata

19-19.5 cm|7.5-7.75”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in undergrowth of humid and montane forest and woodland, even where somewhat fragmented, from E Bahia to São Paulo. Mostly below 1600 m, a few to 2000 m or even higher. A distinctive brown puffbird of the forest interior. Grayish brown above, blacker on head and neck, with conspicuous whitish streaking on head, neck, and mantle; lores buff and “whiskers” whitish. Throat and chest rufous-buff, the chest crossed by white-and-black pectoral band (often obvious, but at times hidden); lower underparts plain grayish brown. A phlegmatic bird, found singly and in pairs; not often seen as it tends to remain motionless for protracted periods though once discovered can be very tame. Most frequent song a very long series of “teeu” notes that can continue for 20-30 seconds; a secondary song starts with 3-6 high-pitched notes, often faint and slow, before accelerating into a much louder and faster jumble.

RUSTY-BREASTED NUNLET Nonnula rubecula

14.5 cm|5.75”

Uncommon and local in lower and middle growth of humid and semideciduous forest and woodland, mostly occurring inland in São Paulo and Minas Gerais but also locally in mountains of Espírito Santo and S São Paulo. To 1200 m. Slightly decurved bill mostly blackish. Crown grayish with conspicuous buffy whitish loral area and eye-ring; face and upperparts dull grayish brown. Throat and breast orange-buff, belly contrastingly white. Essentially unique in our area. An obscure bird, retiring by nature and rarely encountered as it remains nearly motionless much of the time; occurs singly and in pairs. Most likely to be found when vocalizing, with song a fast whistled series of 10-20 “wheeu” notes.

199

BUFF-BELLIED PUFFBIRD MACURU-DE-BARRIGA-CASTANHA

WHITE-EARED PUFFBIRD JOÃO-BOBO

SPOT-BACKED PUFFBIRD RAPAZINHO-DOS-VELHOS

CRESCENT-CHESTED PUFFBIRD JOÃO-BARBUDO

RUSTY-BREASTED NUNLE MACURU

SWALLOW-WINGED PUFFBIRD Chelidoptera tenebrosa

16.5 cm|6.5”

Fairly common and conspicuous in humid forest and woodland borders and adjacent clearings from E Bahia to Espírito Santo and NE Minas Gerais (formerly also N Rio de Janeiro); also in N São Paulo, there occurring in more deciduous areas. To 600 m in São Paulo. A chunky, short-tailed bird with a distinctive silhouette; bill short and black. Blue-black above with large white patch on lower back and rump (this obvious in flight, though usually hidden at rest); underwing-coverts also white. Throat and breast dull black, belly cinnamon-rufous with crissum gray. In flight the very broad wings and short tail render it nearly unmistakable. Perched birds can recall Gray-breasted Martin, though martins are not so short-tailed; the puffbird’s “square-headed” shape can recall a small parrot. Pairs and small groups perch high on open branches, staying out even in the mid-day heat, making long sallies after insects and swooping back with a long glide. They nest in holes dug into sandy banks. Generally silent, giving occasional weak twitters. Sometimes called simply Swallow-wing. JACAMARS (Galbulidae) are distinctive slender birds with long straight bills and graduated tails. They sally into the air after flying insects, and nest in burrows dug into banks or arboreal termitaries.

BROWN JACAMAR Brachygalba lugubris

16.5-17 cm|6.5-6.75”

Uncommon and local in borders and canopy of semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland in N São Paulo. To 500 m. Long slender bill with lower mandible yellow at least basally; iris pale bluish, sometimes a yellowish eyering. Mostly sooty brown, crown and face streaked white, chin also white; wings and rather short tail glossy bluish black. Belly contrastingly white to pale buff. Small, short-tailed, and dull-plumaged, only to be confused with Threetoed Jacamar (their ranges approach each other in W São Paulo, though the Three-toed seems unrecorded there recently). Three-toed is somewhat larger with an all-black bill, longer pale feathers on crown and face, a dark throat, and grayer chest and flanks (not as dark). Has an almost hummingbird-like silhouette. Occurs in pairs and loosely associated family groups that perch on open branches, watching alertly with rapid head movements for passing insects, making long sallies after them. Calls include a shrill and piercing “piii” or “peeey?” and a fast chatter that slows and descends a little, e.g., “peedeedidideedeedee-dee-dee-dew.”

THREE-TOED JACAMAR Jacamaralcyon tridactyla

18 cm|7”

Rare to locally uncommon in borders of semideciduous forest and woodland, sometimes out into trees in adjacent pastures, now mainly in E Minas Gerais but extending into adjacent Rio de Janeiro and SE Bahia; formerly also in interior São Paulo and Espírito Santo. To 1100 m, but mostly below 500 m. Bill long and slender, all black. Mostly sooty blackish with greenish gloss and conspicuous elongated buff feathers on crown and face; chest and sides grayish, median underparts contrastingly whitish. In its restricted range this jacamar – which does have 3 instead of 4 toes as in the other jacamars – is unlikely to be confused, but cf. Brown Jacamar. Behavior much as in Brown Jacamar, the Three-toed likewise is conspicuous where still found, massive deforestation having caused it to be very local now. Call distinctive, an often long-continued series of shrill whistled notes and squeals, often sounding jumbled (in part because it may be given by several birds at once); at a distance can recall Blackish Rail!

RUFOUS-TAILED JACAMAR Galbula ruficauda

23.5-24 cm|9.25-9.5”

Fairly common to common and widespread at borders of humid and semihumid forest and woodland, especially near water and/or banks; absent, however, from S São Paulo. Locally to 1000 m. Black bill very long and slender. shining metallic golden green above with tail upperside bluish green, underside mostly rufous. Throat white, chest shining golden green; lower underparts rich rufous. has a buff throat and paler and buffier lower underparts. A beautiful jacamar, unmistakable and very unlike our other two (much duller) species. Typically in pairs that perch, often close together, on open branches, looking around alertly; usually not very high. They make short sallies after insects, often returning to the same area or even the same branch; prey includes wasps, bees, butterflies, and dragonflies, their stingers and wings usually being removed before swallowing. Most frequent call, given by both sexes, a sharp “peeyeek!” sometimes rapidly repeated or given by a pair together. ’s song a long, high-pitched, ascending series of “pee” notes ending in a trill.

201

SWALLOW-WINGED PUFFBIRD URUBUZINHO

BROWN JACAMAR ARIRAMBA-PRETA

THREE-TOED JACAMAR CUITELÃO

RUFOUS-TAILED JACAMAR BICO-DE-AGULHA

TOUCANS (Ramphastidae) are spectacular large birds with long, laterally compressed, usually colorful

bills to stretch for fruit, their primary diet; the bills are hollow and light. Toucans mainly range in the canopy of forest and woodland, the well known Toco in more open country. Most are quite vocal, giving a variety of croaking, grunting, or even squeaky sounds.

SPOT-BILLED TOUCANET Selenidera maculirostris

32-33 cm|12.5-13”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and midlevels of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, occasionally at borders or into nearby clearings, from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1400 m, a few to 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Iris yellow with a rather strange-looking “horizontal” pupil; large bare ocular area lime green; bill bluish gray with three large black spots on maxilla and pale greenish tip. has head, neck, and underparts black with conspicuous tuft of golden feathers on ear-coverts and a narrow yellow nuchal collar. Olive green above, tail duskier with narrow chestnut tip; flank patch mixed yellow and rufous, crissum red. has rufous replacing ’s black, and its ear-tuft is smaller and greener. Nothing resembles this ornately plumaged small toucan. Usually ranges in pairs, less often small groups that – unlike most toucans – are rather furtive and inconspicuous, only infrequently out in the open. Very distinctive call a low-pitched guttural growl, “grr-grr-grr-grrowgrrow-grrow-grrow-grrow-grrow,” often given by a pair in syncopation; calling birds sometimes seesaw back and forth, bowing head and raising tail up over back. PTEROGLOSSUS araçaris and toucanets are slender, boldly patterned, and long-billed toucans that have very long, graduated tails (though these are often abraded). They tend to be noisy and conspicuous. Mainly frugivorous, araçaris also take some vertebrate prey such as lizards and even baby birds.

SAFFRON TOUCANET Pteroglossus bailloni

34-35 cm|13.5-13.75”

Locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, sometimes in adjacent clearings, from SE Bahia (where scarce) to S São Paulo. Mostly 300-1300 m. Unmistakable: by far the yellowest toucan. Iris yellow with bare ocular area rosy red; bill greenish, paler toward tip, with red stripe at base of maxilla. Head, neck, and underparts bright golden yellow shading to olive on hindcrown; upperparts olive with contrasting bright red rump. slightly duller. Found in small active groups that often perch in the semiopen, peering about and often leaning forward on their perch or cocking tail. Sometimes comes for fruit at feeders, a lovely sight indeed. Calls consist of various high-pitched squeals, sometimes given in series (e.g., “kree-ik? kree-ik? kree-ik?...), and also various rattles. Formerly in monotypic genus Baillonius.

BLACK-NECKED ARAÇARI Pteroglossus aracari

41-43 cm|16-17”

CHESTNUT-EARED ARAÇARI Pteroglossus castanotis

41-43 cm|16-17”

Fairly common to common in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest, woodland, and adjacent clearings and plantations from E Bahia south to E Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro; some older records from São Paulo, but very few from here in recent years. To 1000 m. Bill essentially bicolored (pale above, dark below), with bare ocular area dark bluish gray. Head, neck, and chest black; otherwise dark olive above, with bright red rump (this shared by all the araçaris). Below yellow, belly crossed by a red band. In our area the similar Chestnut-eared Araçari occurs mainly in N São Paulo; it differs in having a much more complex pattern on bill (with brown, orange, and black on maxilla), a white iris (dark in Black-necked), maroon-chestnut on neck, and brown thighs. Usually in groups of up to half a dozen or so birds, hopping from branch to branch as they forage at varying levels. They often perch in the open early in the morning, less so at other times. Flight is level on rapidly beating wings, ending with a short glide; often a group straggles along single file following the same flight path. Commonest call a harsh querulous squeal, “skreee-yeep!” that can be repeated many times. Uncommon and local in canopy and borders of semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland in N and W São Paulo, where it replaces Black-necked Araçari (overlap limited). Locally to 900 m. Bill largely black with some orange, brown, and black on maxilla; iris white, bare ocular area bluish gray. Crown black with sides of head, throat, and nuchal collar maroon-chestnut; otherwise dark olive above, with bright red rump. Chest patch black; below yellow crossed by red band, thighs brown. Black-necked Araçari has a more simply patterned whitish and black bill, dark iris, no chestnut on neck, etc. Behavior including voice much as in Black-necked; Chestnut-eared is equally bold and easy to observe.

203 SPOT-BILLED TOUCANET ARAÇARIPOCA

SAFFRON TOUCANET ARAÇARI-BANANA

BLACK-NECKED ARAÇARI ARAÇARI-DE-BICO-BRANCO

CHESTNUT-EARED ARAÇARI ARAÇARI-CASTANHO

RAMPHASTOS toucans are spectacular, large, mainly black birds with unique long, colorful bills (somewhat longer in s than in s). They mainly range in humid or montane forests, though one, the well-known Toco, is found in more open country. Toucans nest in holes in trees and, especially when not breeding, can occur in fairly large groups. Though mainly consuming fruit of various kinds, toucans also routinely eat vertebrates including frogs and lizards, and even rob bird nests. CHANNEL-BILLED TOUCAN Ramphastos vitellinus

48-51 cm|19-20”

GREEN-BILLED TOUCAN Ramphastos dicolorus

46-48 cm|18-19”

TOCO TOUCAN Ramphastos toco

59-61 cm|23-24”

Locally fairly common in humid and lower montane forest and woodland, in some areas ranging out into clearings and even in city parks (e.g., in Rio de Janeiro). To 900 m (Teresópolis). Bill “keeled” (with slight protruding ridge along culmen), black with yellow base and blue or white at base of culmen; iris pale blue (as are the legs); bare ocular area bright red. Black above with red uppertail-coverts. Throat and chest bright orange-yellow bordered below by a yellow band; lower underparts red. A truly spectacular bird, only to be confused with Green-billed Toucan which, as its name implies, has a mainly greenish bill; both species have red on their breast. Found in pairs or small groups that forage at all levels though usually fairly high in trees; though large, noisy, and colorful, Channel-billeds are often surprisingly hard to see, especially where they are persecuted (when left alone, can become much tamer). Hops from limb to limb with springy bounds and surprising agility, using the long bill to reach for fruit or into holes. Flight is undulating, several flaps interspersed with a long glide; one sometimes will launch out and fly surprisingly high, e.g., when crossing a valley or river. Oft-heard and far-carrying call a rhythmic, repeated “kreeik,” sometimes accompanied by an upward toss of the head; somewhat higher-pitched and less nasal than Green-billed’s. The form found here, ariel, is endemic to E Brazil and is quite different from the others comprising the species; it perhaps deserves to be regarded as a distinct species (Ariel Toucan, R. ariel).

Locally fairly common in montane forest and woodland, smaller numbers into the lowlands especially in São Paulo, and in adjacent clearings and gardens including city parks in São Paulo city. Mostly 300-1800 m. Bill greenish with a black base; bare ocular area orange-red; iris bluish green. Black above with red uppertail-coverts. Throat and chest yellow suffused with orange in the middle; lower underparts red, with some black on lower belly. Channel-billed Toucan has a longer and mainly black bill, a much brighter orange “bib,” and tends to occur at lower elevations – though the two can overlap, especially during winter when some Green-billeds descend into the lowlands. Behavior much as in Channel-billed Toucan; at times the two species even flock together. Call similar to Channel-billed’s but lower-pitched and more guttural. Often called Red-breasted Toucan, though it is the green bill that is truly distinctive and was long recognized in its avicultural name, employed here. Locally fairly common in semiopen areas and clearings with scattered trees, galley woodland, humid forest and woodland borders, even some city parks (in some of the latter escaped captives may be involved). Widespread in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and S Minas Gerais, but (rather inexplicably) absent from Espírito Santo and E Bahia. To at least 1600 m. Spectacular and unmistakable. Exceptionally long bill flame-orange, with base and area at tip of maxilla black; bare ocular area also orange, eye-ring blue. In especially long-billed s the bill can look as long as the body itself! Black with white throat and chest; uppertail-coverts also white, and crissum red. Conspicuous birds, Toco Toucans occur in more open areas than the other toucans though they also range in woodland and forest edge. They are found in pairs and small groups, often perching on open snags, so almost always are easy to observe. Tocos sometimes fly high, with bouts of short flaps interspersed with long glides, and at times they will cross surprisingly wide open areas. Usually they nest in holes in trees, but termite mounds are also used. Call a short series of notably deep, very low-pitched croaks, but in general less vocal than its congeners.

205

CHANNEL-BILLED TOUCAN TUCANO-DE-BICO-PRETO

GREEN-BILLED TOUCAN TUCANO-DE-BICO-VERDE

TOCO TOUCAN TUCANUÇU

WOODPECKERS (Picidae) are a well known group of birds adapted for clinging to the trunks and

branches of trees, using their stiffened tail feathers for bracing; there they feed on insects and larvae in bark and wood. Most species “drum,” hammering hollow trunks very rapidly so as to advertise territory. PICUMNUS piculets are tiny, short-tailed woodpeckers very unlike other members of the family, unmistakable as a group. They are found mainly in forest and woodland, with one species (Spotted) in arid scrub. Their taxonomy is not fully worked out; White-barred and Ochre-collared Piculets have been considered conspecific.

OCHRE-COLLARED PICULET Picumnus temminckii

10 cm|4”

WHITE-BARRED PICULET Picumnus cirratus

10 cm|4”

WHITE-WEDGED PICULET Picumnus albosquamatus

10 cm|4”

WHITE-WEDGED PICULET Picumnus albosquamatus

10 cm|4”

SPOTTED PICULET Picumnus pygmaeus

10 cm|4”

Common in lower and middle growth of humid and montane forest and woodland, restinga forest, shrubby clearings, and gardens in S São Paulo. Old records from further north are apparently the result of confusion with White-barred Piculet. To at least 1000 m. Above olive brown with ochre nape and lower face, and black crown with white dots ( also has a patch of red on forecrown); tail black, outer feathers edged white. Chin brownish, underparts white evenly and conspicuously barred blackish, flanks and lower belly tinged buff. White-barred Piculet lacks the “ochre collar;” it mainly occurs north of this species’ range, but seems to have spread south in recent years and apparent intermediates are known. Occurs singly and in pairs, occasionally in small groups of 3-5 individuals, investigating slender stems and vines, pausing periodically to peck or hammer into dead wood, drilling tiny holes, often working the same spot for several minutes. They regularly accompany mixed flocks. Song a very high-pitched, almost sibilant “tsee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee.” Common and widespread in lower and middle growth of humid and montane forest and woodland, also in shrubby clearings and gardens, locally even in restinga, from SE Bahia to São Paulo, there meeting the range of its near relative the Ochrecollared Piculet; perhaps spreading south. To at least 1600 m. Closely resembles Ochre-collared Piculet, but lacks that species’ “ochre collar.” White-barred can also occur with White-wedged Piculet (with the two perhaps hybridizing), whose pattern below is one of heavy black chevrons (not barring). In SE Bahia, cf. also Golden-spangled Piculet. Behavior and voice as in Ochre-collared. Uncommon to fairly common in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland, sometimes also in scrubbier and more open areas, from N São Paulo (where widespread) east across S Minas Gerais to SE Bahia (where more local). To at least 800 m. Above grayish brown with white-dotted black crown (forecrown extensively red in ), also a few whitish dots on upper back and wing-coverts; tail black, outer feathers edged white. Below white with heavy black chevrons (sometimes so heavy as to look almost solid black), flanks tinged buff. Whitebarred Piculet favors more humid areas (though the two nearly occur together in N São Paulo, perhaps even hybridizing there); it has an obviously barred pattern below. Behavior much as In White-barred though more apt to forage in semiopen areas and less tied to taller trees. Voice also similar, and equally high-pitched, though the individual notes are slightly less run together.

Uncommon to fairly common in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland, sometimes also in scrubbier and more open areas, from N São Paulo (where widespread) east across S Minas Gerais to SE Bahia (where more local). To at least 800 m. Above grayish brown with white-dotted black crown (forecrown extensively red in ), also a few whitish dots on upper back and wing-coverts; tail black, outer feathers edged white. Below white with heavy black chevrons (sometimes so heavy as to look almost solid black), flanks tinged buff. Whitebarred Piculet favors more humid areas (though the two nearly occur together in N São Paulo, perhaps even hybridizing there); it has an obviously barred pattern below. Behavior much as In White-barred though more apt to forage in semiopen areas and less tied to taller trees. Voice also similar, and equally high-pitched, though the individual notes are slightly less run together. Locally fairly common in deciduous forest and woodland, adjacent shrubby clearings, and scrub in NE Minas Gerais and E Bahia. To 600 m. Distinctive, very unlike our other piculets. brown above with white spotting on back and wing-coverts; crown black with white dots (forecrown streaked red in , usually looking solid), sides of neck also spotted; tail black, outer feathers edged white. Below rufous brown prominently spotted white, especially across breast. Behavior as in other piculets. Song a very high-pitched but descending chipper lasting about 2 seconds.

207 OCHRE-COLLARED PICULET PICA-PAU-ANÃO-DE-COLEIRA

WHITE-BARRED PICULET PICA-PAU-ANÃO-BARRADO

WHITE-WEDGED PICULET PICA-PAU-ANÃO-ESCAMADO

GOLDEN-SPANGLED PICULET PICA-PAU-ANÃO-DE-PINTAS-AMARELAS SPOTTED PICULET PICA-PAU-ANÃO-PINTADO

VENILIORNIS woodpeckers are small and relatively dull-plumaged, some shade of olive above and typically barred below. See p. 211 for the rather different Checkered Woodpecker.

LITTLE WOODPECKER Veniliornis passerinus

15.5 cm|6”

Fairly common in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland, also out into clearings and gardens, in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais; somewhat less numerous north into Bahia. To at least 900 m. Small and relatively dullplumaged. has plain grayish face with red hindcrown; above yellowish olive with a few yellowish spots on wing-coverts; tail dusky. Below evenly barred olive and whitish. lacks the red hindcrown. Red-stained and Yellow-eared Woodpeckers both have yellow on the nape, usually straightforward to see; note that Little mainly occurs inland, whereas those two are only found closer to the coast. White-spotted Woodpecker is larger and has an obvious whitish postocular and supramalar stripe, etc. Occurs singly and in pairs, often foraging in the open and easy to observe, tapping into trunks and branches; most often not with flocks. Song a fast series of rattled “wik” or “kik” notes that starts slowly, with call a single “krik.”

RED-STAINED WOODPECKER Veniliornis affinis

17 cm|6.75”

Uncommon in humid and lower montane forest and woodland and their borders, also locally in restinga forest, in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. Mostly below 600 m, a few to 900 m. has red crown (forehead intermixed with brown) and golden yellowish nape; above bright yellowish olive, red staining often showing, with yellow spots on wing-coverts; tail dusky. Below rather boldly barred olive and whitish. differs in its brownish crown (no red); golden nape much as in , but usually has little or no red staining on back or wing-coverts. Yellow-eared Woodpecker is a little smaller and shows pale barring above with no red staining; it also shows a whitish superciliary and supramalar (both stripes lacking in Red-stained). Cf. also Little Woodpecker (with which Red-stained overlaps very locally in E Bahia). Found singly or in pairs, usually foraging inside forest, sometimes quite high; regularly accompanies mixed flocks. Song a fast series of up to 12-14 highpitched “kee” notes, sometimes stuttering at first; it can recall a Bat Falcon.

YELLOW-EARED WOODPECKER Veniliornis maculifrons

15.5 cm|6”

WHITE-SPOTTED WOODPECKER Veniliornis spilogaster

18 cm|7”

Fairly common in humid and lower montane forest and woodland, their borders, and adjacent clearings and gardens (locally even city parks) in Espírito Santo, E Minas Gerais, and Rio de Janeiro, with a few records from immediately adjacent SE Bahia and NE São Paulo. Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1700 m. has red crown with brownish forehead and golden yellow nape (usually quite prominent), and whitish postocular and supramalar stripe (these indistinct in a few birds); above bronzy golden olive with yellowish barring and spotting; tail dusky with dark barring. Below uniformly barred olive and whitish. lacks red on crown (which is brownish with white spotting), but usually retains some yellow on nape. Red-stained Woodpecker is larger and has a plainer face (never any stripes) and usually shows red staining on upperparts (especially in s); it never shows the pale barring and spotting above generally quite evident in Yellow-eareds. Cf. also the larger White-spotted Woodpecker. Behavior much as in Red-stained Woodpecker but Yellow-eared is more apt to occur in semiopen areas with scattered trees, outside actual forest. Song a fast series of rather harsh chippered notes. Uncommon to locally fairly common in humid and montane forest and woodland and adjacent clearings (locally even in city parks) from extreme S Minas Gerais and extreme S Rio de Janeiro through E São Paulo; most numerous in São Paulo state. To at least 1700 m. Dull. Rather dark olive above with usually prominent yellowish barring and spotting on back and wings; whitish superciliary and supramalar stripe also quite prominent, with s usually showing some red on crown. Below whitish profusely marked with olive spots, streaks, and chevrons, belly more barred. Yellow-eared Woodpecker is smaller, brighter and bronzier above, more evenly dark-barred below. Forages singly and in pairs at varying levels but usually not too high above ground; frequently accompanies mixed flocks. Song a couple of sharp “kreek” notes followed by a descending rattle that trails off; also gives various calls, including a sharp “skree-er.”

209

LITTLE WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-PEQUENO

RED-STAINED WOODPECKER PICA-PAUZINHO-AVERMELHADO

YELLOW-EARED WOODPECKER PICA-PAUZINHO-DE-TESTA-PINTADA

WHITE-SPOTTED WOODPECKER PICA-PAUZINHO-CARIJÓ

YELLOW-FRONTED WOODPECKER Melanerpes flavifrons

19 cm|7.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in humid and lower montane forest borders and adjacent clearings and gardens from E Bahia to São Paulo (where most numerous in the east and south). Mostly below 1000 m, occasionally to 2100 m (Itatiaia). An exceptionally colorful woodpecker. mostly black above with bright red crown and nape, bright yellow forehead, and bold white eye-ring; irregular area of white from midback to rump (often hidden). Throat yellow, lower underparts brownish with a bright red area down middle of breast and belly and black barring from sides to crissum. lacks red on head. Not only is this woodpecker beautiful, but it’s also conspicuous (though also somewhat local, scarce, or even absent from a few areas that appear suitable). Found in pairs and small groups – it is the most social of our woodpeckers – and often perching on open branches and snags, calling a great deal but drumming very little. Takes more fruit than many woodpeckers, and comes regularly to feeders. Noisy, with commonest call a repeated sharp and strident “tre-dede-dit,” often accompanied by flaring its wings. PICULUS woodpeckers are typical midsized woodpeckers with bold facial patterns, olive upperparts, and banded or barred underparts. They range in humid forests.

YELLOW-THROATED WOODPECKER Piculus flavigula

19.5 cm|7.75”

YELLOW-BROWED WOODPECKER Piculus aurulentus

21 cm|8.25”

GOLDEN-GREEN WOODPECKER Piculus chrysochloros

22 cm|8.75”

Rare to uncommon in humid and lower montane forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1000 m. has crown and nape bright red contrasting with an equally bright yellow face; otherwise bright olive above. Throat bright red; below whitish with even olive barring. similar but with red confined to hindcrown, though some individuals also have a little on throat. Yellow-browed Woodpecker has a very different striped head pattern; it is somewhat more montane. Forages singly and in pairs, usually remaining well above ground, working up trunks and along larger branches; sometimes accompanies mixed flocks. Feeds extensively on ants and termites, also on various larvae. Most frequent call a “shreeyr,” typically repeated 4-5 times; also gives a single abrupt “skreeyr” with a hissing or squealing quality, usually not given again for a long time. The “red-throated” population endemic to E Brazil, erythropis, differs strikingly from “yellow-throated” forms of Amazonia (the English name is singularly inappropriate for it!), and the pattern on its underparts is also markedly different (barring vs. chevrons). It likely is better recognized as a separate species (Red-throated Woodpecker, P. erythropis).

Uncommon in montane forest and woodland and adjacent clearings from Espírito Santo and S Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. Mostly 600-1800 m. olive above with bright red crown and pale yellow postocular and supramalar stripe, also a red malar stripe. Throat yellow, underparts uniformly barred whitish and dark olive. has red only on hindcrown and an even smaller red malar. In its montane range no other woodpecker really resembles it. Golden-green Woodpecker, a lowland bird, is somewhat larger and lacks this species’ yellow brow and yellow throat. Behavior much as in Yellow-throated Woodpecker, and likewise regularly with mixed flocks. Song a rather high-pitched and plaintive “kweeuw, kuu, kuu” (at times more notes are strung together). Sometimes called White-browed Woodpecker. Rare to uncommon and decidedly local in humid forest and woodland, locally also restinga, in lowlands from E Bahia to SE Minas Gerais; old records from N Rio de Janeiro. Mostly below 400 m, rarely to 800 m (Marliéria). Iris pale bluish. olive above with crown and malar stripe bright red and long yellow stripe across lower cheeks. Chin yellow, underparts heavily banded yellowish and dark olive. has crown and nape olive with at most a reddish tinge. Yellowbrowed Woodpecker has an obvious yellow superciliary as well as a cheek stripe, and is dark-eyed; a smaller bird, it is basically montane in distribution and the two species are unlikely to occur together. Veniliornis woodpeckers are decidedly smaller, etc. Forages singly and in pairs, sometimes quite low, and more apt to be in the semiopen than other Piculus; seems especially to relish ants and termites. Infrequently given call a shrill “shreeyr,” sometimes quickly doubled or trebled. The SE Brazil population, sometimes considered a separate species (P. polyzonus), is threatened by deforestation.

211 YELLOW-FRONTED WOODPECKER BENEDITO

YELLOW-THROATED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-BUFADOR

YELLOW-BROWED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-DOURADO

GOLDEN-GREEN WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-DOURADO-ESCURO

WHITE WOODPECKER Leuconerpes candidus

25.5 cm|10”

Fairly common, widespread, and conspicuous in open terrain of various types (both natural and anthropogenic) with scattered trees or groves, also in lighter woodland and around towns. In recent decades this unmistakable woodpecker has spread into many formerly forested areas; it remains less numerous in Bahia. Locally to 1900 m (Caparaó). Iris whitish (sometimes tinged blue), with unique large orbital area yellow. Mainly white, with black mantle connecting to a streak behind eye, tail also black; an inconspicuous pale yellow patch on nape and another on midbelly. No other woodpecker is anywhere near so white. Almost always in the open, White Woodpeckers prefer to perch on snags and open branches and also are frequent on palms. Very social, it ranges in groups of up to 4-5 individuals that seem to occupy very large home ranges. Regularly seen while flying high above the ground, unlike other woodpeckers not bounding noticeably, with its approach often being heralded by loud calling. That call, ultra-distinctive, is a sharp and nasal “kweeyr” that also is given while perched. Usually now classified in genus Melanerpes, but this species’ plumage, behavior, and vocalizations are so very distinct that we maintain it in monotypic Leuconerpes.

CHECKERED WOODPECKER Veniliornis mixtus

15 cm|6”

Rare and local in cerrado, campo rupestre, and open semideciduous woodland in N São Paulo and cen. Minas Gerais. To at least 1200 m (Serra do Cipó). Small. Above blackish spotted and barred white, with long white superciliary and malar stripe and plain blackish auriculars; has some red on crown (never conspicuous). Below whitish, foreneck with sparse blackish spotting and streaking. White-spotted Woodpecker also gives an overall spotted and barred impression but is much more olive generally and is basically a forest bird; cf. also Little Woodpecker (plain olive upperparts, barred underparts). Never numerous, Checkered Woodpeckers occur in low densities even in seemingly ideal habitat (which in any case in most in our area has been destroyed or severely modified). Forages by gleaning and tapping on the flaky bark of the small trees found in its habitat. Found singly or in often well separated pairs. Rather infrequently heard call a fast series of sharp notes, e.g., “ki-keh-kehkeh-keh-keh.” Formerly classified in genus Picoides, with its proper generic allocation still being a matter of taxonomic debate.

GREEN-BARRED WOODPECKER Colaptes melanochloros

28 cm|11”

CAMPO FLICKER Colaptes campestris

31 cm|12”

Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in humid and montane forest borders, semideciduous and gallery woodland, and clearings and gardens. To at least 1800 m. Upperparts golden olive boldly barred black; forecrown black, hindcrown red with creamy whitish face and red malar stripe (black in ). Throat whitish with fine black streaking; underparts yellowish (N birds brighter) with bold black spotting. This beautiful woodpecker should not be confused. Campo Flicker is larger, shows no red on crown, and has a bright yellow face and chest. Found singly or in pairs, with general behavior like most other woodpeckers though Green-barred forages on the ground more than most (though not as much as the flicker), often when feeding on ants. Song a series of loud ringing “keeu” notes often delivered from a commanding perch; call a much more run-together “kyee-r-r-r-r-r.” Formerly classified in genus Chrysoptilus. Common and widespread in open terrain of various sorts including agricultural land resulting from deforestation (often seeming most numerous in over-grazed pastures) and even including city parks (e.g., in São Paulo city); especially numerous southward. Locally to 2400 m (Itatiaia). Large. Crown and large throat patch black contrasting with bright yellow face, sides of neck, and chest; inconspicuous mottled malar streak reddish ( ) or whitish ( ). Above boldly barred black and buffy whitish; rump mostly whitish (obvious in flight). Below whitish with black scaling. Nearly unmistakable, but cf. Green-barred Woodpecker. A very conspicuous bird, the Campo Flicker forages primarily on the ground in search of ants and termites but it also perches freely in low open trees and often rests for long periods on fence posts. Sometimes in small groups. Nests in holes dug into banks or stumps, regularly also into termite mounds. Noisy, giving various loud ringing calls, with the most frequent being a “kyu! kyu! kyu-kyu,” often accompanied by wing flaring.

213

WHITE WOODPECKER BIRRO, PICA-PAU-BRANCO

GREEN-BARRED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-CARIJÓ

CAMPO FLICKER PICA-PAU-DO-CAMPO

CHECKERED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-CHORÃO

CELEUS woodpeckers are handsome, easily recognized, and obviously crested woodpeckers that mainly range in lowland forests. Two of our three species are confined to the far north.

CREAM-COLORED WOODPECKER Celeus flavus

26 cm|10.25”

Rare in humid forest and woodland, also routinely out to borders and in adjacent clearings, in lowlands of E Bahia and N Espírito Santo. Below 100 m. Bill yellow. Obvious bushy pointed crest. An unmistakable, mostly yellow woodpecker, totally unlike any other. Mainly yellow to creamy yellow (red malar stripe in ) with blackish brown on wing-coverts, upper back, and breast (the brown is usually extensive, but in a few individuals it can be almost lacking), sometimes looking like chevron markings; flight feathers mainly dusky and tail blackish. Forages at all levels, with a special fondness for arboreal ants (regularly in Cecropia) and termites; rarely with flocks. Most frequent song a loud, ringing “kree-kree-kreekree-kuh” with the last note distinctively lower-pitched. The endemic population of E Brazil, subflavus, is considered threatened by deforestation.

RINGED WOODPECKER Celeus torquatus

28 cm|11”

BLOND-CRESTED WOODPECKER Celeus flavescens

28 cm|11”

HELMETED WOODPECKER Dryocopus galeatus

28 cm|11”

Rare in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and N Espírito Santo. Below 100 m. Bill gray. Obvious bushy pointed crest. Head and neck pale cinnamon-buff (red malar stripe in ); above rich rufous with bold black barring and markings on wings. Large shield on breast black; lower underparts whitish with coarse black barring. Boldly patterned, this handsome woodpecker should not be confused. Occurs in widely separated pairs that appear to have large territories, generally foraging well above the ground either on its own or in pairs and not associating with flocks. Bores into wood for insects and larvae and, like other Celeus also eats many ants and termites. Call a loud ringing “klee! klee! klee!” usually given at quite long intervals. This endemic population is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Atlantic Blackbreasted Woodpecker (C. tinnunculus); it is endangered due to deforestation. Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in humid and lower montane forest and woodland, smaller numbers out to edge and larger trees in clearings, locally even in city parks. To at least 1500 m. A spectacular woodcreeper with a very long, expressive bushy crest that often looks upswept. In most of our area (A) has yellowish buff head, neck, and crest (with red malar stripe in ); above otherwise blackish with bold yellowish buff scaling; rump also yellowish buff. Mainly black below. In E Bahia (B) rather different and much paler above, with yellowish buff of head extending down over upperparts, though this area is marked with profuse and bold blackish bands and chevrons. The latter birds have been considered a separate species, Ochre-backed Woodpecker (C. ochraceus), though intermediates perhaps are found in the intervening region. In E Bahia and N Espírito Santo, cf. Cream-colored Woodpecker (much more generally creamy yellow) and Ringed Woodpecker (with black chest, etc.). Forages at all levels, most often singly but occasionally in pairs or even small groups, feeding mainly on ants and termites though it also eats considerable fruit and sometimes visits feeding stations. Song an even repetition of 3-4 ringing “kree” notes, loud and far-carrying.

EN

Rare in humid and lower montane forest and borders in S São Paulo (notably at Intervales). To 800 m. Bill whitish to horn. Very long crest (depending on the bird’s attitude, can be pointed or rather bushy, almost fan-shaped). Head, crest, and malar area bright red with a patch on ear-coverts cinnamon-buff with very fine black barring; otherwise black above with white stripe down sides of neck (but extending no further) and creamy buff rump to upper tail-coverts. Lower throat and chest black; below buffy whitish barred black. differs only in having a larger area of buff on face and forecrown, no red in malar area. Should not be confused. Robust Woodpecker is considerably larger and has a solid red neck and lacks buff on face. Helmeted is a distinctive and scarce woodpecker that now is endangered by deforestation; it is not seen very often and always represents a prize for birders in SE Brazil. It forages singly and in pairs at all heights on trunks and larger branches, typically searching for beetle larvae under bark, in the process often flaking off quite large pieces. Generally quiet and inconspicuous, though not overly wary once located. Song distinctive, a series of 3-7 loud and well-enunciated “reeyp” notes. Also gives a loud drum.

215

RINGED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-DE-COLEIRA CREAM-COLORED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-AMARELO

BLOND-CRESTED WOODPECKER JOÃO-VELHO

A

HELMETED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-DE-CARA-CANELA

B

LINEATED WOODPECKER Dryocopus lineatus

34.5-37 cm|13.5-14.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in a variety of forested and wooded habitats including araucaria forest and urban parks (e.g., in São Paulo city) and partially cleared areas where a few big trees are left standing. To at least 1600 m. Northern birds (e.g., in Bahia) are smaller. Iris yellow to whitish; bill blackish to grayish. Large, with conspicuous pointed crest. black above with crown, crest, and malar streak bright red, gray face, and narrow white stripe from base of bill across lower face and down sides of neck; often a little yellow at base of bill. Also shows a pair of parallel white stripes down either side of back, but these stripes are sometimes absent in birds from the south, especially in São Paulo (the mantle is all black in those individuals). Throat and chest blackish, below whitish (sometimes tinged buff) with blackish barring. similar but with black forehead and malar streak (no red). Our most frequently seen large woodpecker; cf. Crimson-crested Woodpecker. Robust Woodpecker has head and neck almost entirely bright red. Found singly and in pairs, foraging mainly on trunks and larger limbs, both live and decaying; regularly ranges in the open and generally not in forest interior. Pries off pieces of bark and probes deeply into rotting wood with its very long tongue, searching for beetles and larvae; also takes ants and sometimes even eats fruit. Common calls include a “wik-wik-wik-wik-wik” (up to 15-20) that starts softly but quickly becomes very loud; also gives a “keép, g-reer.” Also gives a forceful drum of 6-8 notes, and single whacks. CAMPEPHILUS woodpeckers are spectacular large woodpeckers with long pointed crests found mainly in forest.

CRIMSON-CRESTED WOODPECKER Campephilus melanoleucos 36.5 cm|14.5”

Uncommon in semideciduous and gallery forest and woodland in N São Paulo and interior Minas Gerais; also in more humid forest and woodland in E Bahia. To 900 m. Iris yellow; bill horn to grayish. black above with bright red head relieved by buffy whitish patch at base of bill and a black-and-white spot on ear-coverts; white stripe extends down either side of neck before almost converging in a “V” on lower back. Throat and chest black, below whitish or buffy whitish barred blackish. differs in having forehead and front of crest black, and its white neck stripe extends forward as broad stripe across lower face. Lineated Woodpecker is broadly similar; its white back stripes don’t converge (though this can be hard to see clearly); further, neither sex of Lineated has a fully red head like the Crimson-crested, nor is their white facial stripe as wide as it is in Crimson-crested. Behavior generally as in Lineated though Crimson-crested is more a forest-based bird; it forages in pairs or small groups while hitching up trunks and larger branches. Sometimes lingers in the same snag or tree for long periods, whacking off pieces of bark and chiseling deeply into the wood. The loud, far-carrying drum consists of a very loud rap followed by several much weaker ones (at a distance just the first two can be heard). Calls include a slightly nasal “ski-zi-zik” or “skik-skikski-zi-zil” and a slurred “skee-uh.”

ROBUST WOODPECKER Campephilus robustus

36.5 cm|14.5”

Rare to locally uncommon in humid and montane forest and woodland, sometimes out into adjacent clearings with large trees. Mostly 400-1600 m, in São Paulo ranging down to coastal lowlands. Iris yellow; bill horn to grayish. Conspicuous crest sometimes looks slightly bushy. with bright red head and neck (relieved only by a small black-and-white spot on face); above mainly black but with midback to rump creamy buff (inconspicuous except in flight). Below barred buffy whitish and black. similar but has a narrow facial stripe buffy whitish edged black. In flight shows a large rufous patch in primaries. In S São Paulo cf. the smaller and rarer Helmeted Woodpecker. Crimson-crested Woodpecker (limited overlap) lacks red on neck, has whitish at base of bill, and a very different back pattern. Behavior as in Crimson-crested Woodpecker. Most common call a sharp “skee-uh,” similar to Crimson-crested’s, but its drum consists much more clearly of two distinct loud raps.

217

LINEATED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-DE-CABEÇA-VERMELHA

CRIMSON-CRESTED WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-DE-TOPETE-VERMELHO

ROBUST WOODPECKER PICA-PAU-REI

WOODCREEPERS (Dendrocolaptidae) comprise a uniform group of birds whose stiffened tails enable

them to hitch up tree trunks and branches. All species have rufous wings and tails; loud calls often distinctive.

PLAIN-WINGED WOODCREEPER Dendrocincla turdina

20.5 cm|8.25”

Locally fairly common in lower and middle growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo, smaller numbers into foothills to 1250 m. Essentially uniform brown with only faint buff streaking on crown; throat pale buff. Tail rufous-chestnut, but wings essentially uniform brown (flight feathers only slightly rufescent). Forages both singly and in pairs, either on its own or while accompanying mixed flocks but also often while attending swarms of army ants; here up to half a dozen can gather and they become bold, sallying for fleeing prey, even to the ground. Hitches up tree trunks and branches like other woodcreepers, but also perches vertically on horizontal branches. Song a monotonous series of “kik” or “keek” notes that can last for a minute or even longer, fading and strengthening almost at random.

WEDGE-BILLED WOODCREEPER Glyphorynchus spirurus

15 cm|6”

OLIVACEOUS WOODCREEPER Sittasomus griseicapillus

15 cm|6”

Locally fairly common in lower growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. Below 400 m. A small woodcreeper with distinctive short, wedge-shaped bill. Above rufescent brown with indistinct buff postocular stripe; rump and tail rufous, tail with very long protruding spines (these often visible in the field). Throat pale buff; below olivaceous brown, chest and sides of neck with fine buff streaking. Plain Xenops has a somewhat similar upturned bill but has an obvious white malar streak and very different behavior; moreover its tail lacks spines. Usually found singly, hitching up the trunks of larger trees, only infrequently continuing out onto lateral branches. Regularly found alone, but also sometimes accompanies understory flocks. Call a soft but abrupt “cheeyf.”

Common and widespread in a wide variety of forested and wooded habitats, also sometimes coming out to edge. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to 1800 m. A small, unstreaked woodcreeper with short slender bill. Head, neck, and underparts grayish olive with back especially olive; flight feathers and tail rufous. The combination of this woodcreeper’s small size and lack of streaking is distinctive. Rather versatile in foraging behavior, climbing up both trunks and out on larger branches at varying heights but often quite high. Easy to see and in many areas the most numerous woodcreeper, often accompanying mixed flocks. Song, usually given at rather long intervals, a brisk series of 8-15 sharply enunciated “wheep” notes that sometimes ends in a chatter. CAMPYLORHAMPHUS scythebills are unmistakable with unique, long, decurved bills.

BLACK-BILLED SCYTHEBILL Campylorhamphus falcularius 25.5 cm|10”; bill 6.5 cm|2.5”

Uncommon in lower and middle growth (including bamboo) of humid and montane forest (including araucaria) in lowlands and foothills from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1500 m, but most numerous at 500-1000 m; in Bahia and Espírito Santo above 500 m. Bill black. Olivaceous brown above, head blackish and streaked pale buff; wings and tail rufous-chestnut. Throat whitish, below pale olivaceous brown, breast sparsely streaked whitish. The only scythebill in most of range; in E Bahia and N Espírito Santo lowlands replaced by Red-billed Scythebill, readily distinguished by its reddish bill. Despite their spectacular bills, scythebills behave much like other woodcreepers, single birds or pairs hitching up trunks and branches and probing into bark crevices, moss, and epiphytes. They regularly accompany mixed flocks. Distinctive song a series of 6-12 raspy notes that descend slightly, e.g., “jreet, jreet, jreet, jreet, jreet, jreet.”

RED-BILLED SCYTHEBILL Campylorhamphus trochilirostris 24-26.5 cm|9.5-10.5”; bill 7-8 cm|2.75-3.25”

Uncommon in lower growth of gallery and semideciduous forest and woodland in W São Paulo, and rare in humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. W birds at 300-500 m; E birds only below 200 m. Bill reddish or reddish brown (can be quite bright), longer in W birds (which also are larger). Plumage and behavior much as in Black-billed Scythebill. Red-billed’s head is duskier, not as blackish; in any case normally they will be distinguished by range, and by their very different songs. Eastern birds range at lower elevations than Black-billed. Song a series of quite musical notes with variable phraseology but typically ascending, e.g., “to-wee, towee, twee-tweetwee- twee?” (W birds), or, rather different, a more liquid trill or chatter (E birds).

219 PLAIN-WINGED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-LISO

WEDGE-BILLED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-DE-BICO-DE-CUNHA

OLIVACEOUS WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-VERDE

BLACK-BILLED SCYTHEBILL ARAPAÇU-DE-BICO-TORTO

RED-BILLED SCYTHEBILL ARAPAÇU-BEIJA-FLOR

LEPIDOCOLAPTES woodcreepers are slim, rather small woodcreepers with distinctive slender and decurved bills. Most are forest birds, but one (Narrow-billed) inhabits much more open country.

NARROW-BILLED WOODCREEPER Lepidocolaptes angustirostris 20.5 cm|8”

Fairly common and widespread in semideciduous forest, lighter woodland, cerrado, and agricultural regions with scattered trees (sometimes even in towns and small cities) in São Paulo and S Minas Gerais, smaller numbers into the more deforested parts of Rio de Janeiro; rare or absent further north in our part of E Brazil. To 1200 m. Long, narrow, decurved bill pale. Crown and earcoverts blackish with narrow pale streaking, with a bold whitish superciliary; above otherwise bright rufous brown. Below whitish. The long bill, striking head pattern, and essentially white underparts should preclude confusion; besides, this handsome woodcreeper inhabits more open regions than all the others. Southern Lesser Woodcreeper is much more a forest/woodland bird, and is much more streaked. Ranges singly or in pairs, hitching up trunks and along larger limbs, sometimes even feeding on fence posts, probing into nooks and crannies and flaking off pieces of bark. Generally quite conspicuous, in large part due to the open nature of its preferred habitats. Song a series of 4-8 clear whistled notes with a laughing quality that usually accelerate and descend, e.g., “peer, peer, peer, peeur, peeur-peeur-peeur.”

SCALED WOODCREEPER Lepidocolaptes squamatus

19 cm|7.5”

SCALLOPED WOODCREEPER Lepidocolaptes falcinellus

19 cm|7.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in foothill and lower montane forest and woodland from E Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to E São Paulo. Mostly 600-1700 m, a few a little lower. Slender decurved bill pinkish. Bright rufous brown above with buff crown spotting and a broken whitish superciliary; wings and tail rufous. Throat white, below brown with crisp black-edged whitish streaks. Cf. the very similar Scalloped Woodcreeper, which replaces this species southward. Southern Lesser Woodcreeper is buffier and more blurrily streaked below, and has streaking on back; it also is slightly smaller. Ranges singly or in pairs, hitching up trunks and larger branches at all levels, often accompanying mixed flocks. Typical song a series of 4-6 descending “wheeyr” notes, often preceded by an abrupt “peédeedir,” but rather variable. Locally fairly common in foothill and montane forest and woodland in SE São Paulo and adjacent S Minas Gerais. Mostly 800-1600 m, a few higher. Resembles Scaled Woodcreeper, and until recently considered conspecific, but has a duskier crown with prominent buff spotting and buffier-tinged underparts. The two species occur together locally in S Minas Gerais, but Scalloped mainly ranges S and W of Rio Paraíba do Sul. Southern Lesser Woodcreeper is smaller, has a buffier throat and less crisp streaking below; its back is lightly streaked buff. Behavior much as in Scaled Woodcreeper. Song a rattled descending “pree-ee-ee-u,” but as in Scaled Woodcreeper rather variable.

SOUTHERN LESSER WOODCREEPER Xiphorhynchus fuscus 17-18 cm|6.75-7”

Fairly common and widespread in lower growth of humid and montane forest and woodland, smaller numbers out into borders and trees in adjacent clearings. Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1500 m. Bill slender and somewhat decurved (but less markedly so than in Lepidocolaptes). Brown above, crown and nape duskier with buffyish spotting and a broken postocular stripe, back with some buff streaking. Throat buffy whitish, below olive brown with rather blurry buff streaking. Scaled and Scalloped both can occur with Southern Lesser; they are larger and white-throated, and their streaking below is bolder and crisper. Narrow-billed has a much more prominent superciliary and also is larger; it favors more open terrain. Single birds and pairs often accompany mixed flocks, generally foraging quite low. Song variable, typically starts with a series of stuttered notes, moves into a faster trill, and ends with more stuttered notes. Until recently called simply Lesser Woodcreeper, this when it and the Northern Lesser Woodcreeper of NE Brazil were considered conspecific.

221

NARROW-BILLED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-DO-CERRADO

SCALED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-ESCAMADO

SCALLOPED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-ESCAMADO-DO-SUL

SOUTHERN LESSER WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-RAJADO

STRAIGHT-BILLED WOODCREEPER Dendroplex picus

20.5 cm|8”

Uncommon in lower growth of humid forest borders, secondary woodland, and trees in clearings and gardens in lowlands from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro; also in restinga forest in Espírito Santo. Below 300 m. Bill straight and dagger-shaped, whitish to dull pinkish. Head and nape dusky with fine whitish streaking and a broken whitish superciliary; back rufous brown, wings and tail rufous-chestnut. Throat whitish, chest with large black-edged squamate whitish spots; below brown. Though in plumage a typical-looking woodcreeper, its distinctive chisel-like bill should make its recognition relatively straightforward; note too that it is rarely or never found in actual forest. Found singly or in pairs, most often foraging apart from mixed flocks though occasionally with them; usually remains around eye-level so relatively conspicuous (more so than other woodcreepers). Song a fast series of whistled notes that descend except for a final upturn at the end. Like so many woodcreepers, it starts singing very early and can continue well past dusk. Formerly placed in the genus Xiphorhynchus.

BUFF-THROATED WOODCREEPER Xiphorhynchus guttatus

26.5 cm|10.5”

Fairly common in humid forest and woodland, occasionally out to borders, in lowlands of E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro (where rare). Below 300 m. Bill rather long, usually dark, dusky to grayish horn. Above brown, crown and nape duskier with fine buff streaking extending to back; wings and tail rufous. Throat unstreaked pale buff, below dull brown with buff streaking but belly plain or essentially so. Note this species’ large size and fairly long bill. Planalto Woodcreeper’s throat is whitish with some streaking (Buff-throated’s is plain), and it shows dusky barring on lower underparts. A rather conspicuous woodcreeper, foraging higher than most others, not only hitching up trunks and along limbs more or less in the open but also rummaging in dead leaves and on palm fronds. Often accompanies mixed flocks. Very vocal, singing not only at dawn and dusk but also at times through the day. Most frequent song a loud series of musical whistled notes, so fast as to almost be trilled but then slowing toward end. Common call a fast “kweeo-whit, kwew,” and a “kwew.”

PLANALTO WOODCREEPER Dendrocolaptes platyrostris

25.5 cm|10.25”

Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in lower growth of humid and montane forest and woodland, also araucaria forest. Mostly below 1400 m, to 1800 m on Itatiaia. Bill black. Olive brown above, head blackish with fine buff streaking; wings and tail rufous. Throat whitish with some dusky streaking; below olive brown, breast with buff streaking, belly with blackish barring (variable in extent, but usually quite apparent). Cf. Buff-throated Woodcreeper (only E lowlands). White-throated is larger and has a notably longer and heavier bill, and its throat is white and unmarked. This woodcreeper regularly forages on its own or in pairs, but it also accompanies mixed flocks and follows swarms of army ants when these are active. Song a fairly long series of rather shrill “whik” or “wheek” notes, fading toward the end, typically lasting 5 seconds or so.

WHITE-THROATED WOODCREEPER Xiphocolaptes albicollis

28 cm|11”

Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in humid, semideciduous, and montane forest and woodland, also araucaria forest, with a few out to edge and adjacent clearings from E Bahia to S São Paulo; less numerous northward. To 1800 m (in Bahia only above 500 m). Impressively long and stout bill black. Above olive brown, head blacker with buff streaking and a prominent whitish superciliary and supramalar stripe; wings and tail rufouschestnut. Throat pure white bordered by blackish malar stripe; below pale brown, breast streaked whitish, belly variably barred blackish. The somewhat smaller Planalto Woodcreeper differs in its shorter and less massive bill, shows streaking on its whitish throat, has no obvious malar stripe. Most often found singly, sometimes in pairs, but usually not with mixed flocks; frequently forages close to the ground, mainly on trunks but also on buttresses and sometimes even on fallen logs. Often stolid and tame. Very distinctive song, given especially at dawn and dusk (even in near-darkness), a leisurely series of far-carrying piercing notes, each slightly lower-pitched than its antecedent and preceded by a soft hiccupping, e.g., “mc-wheer, mc-wheer, mc-wheer, mc-wheer, mc-wheer,” often starting with a snarl or whine, or these may be interspersed in the song.

STRAIGHT-BILLED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-DE-BICO-BRANCO

BUFF-THROATED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-DE-GARGANTA-AMARELA

PLANALTO WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-GRANDE

WHITE-THROATED WOODCREEPER ARAPAÇU-LUZIA

223

OVENBIRDS (Furnariidae) comprise a large and very diverse group of insectivorous birds clad in

brown, rufous, and gray found throughout the Neotropics. Many are skulking birds though their vocalizations can be loud and distinctive.

CIPO CINCLODES Cinclodes espinhacensis

21.5 cm|8.5”

BAND-TAILED HORNERO Furnarius figulus

16.5 cm|6.5”

PALE-LEGGED HORNERO Furnarius leucopus

17 cm|6.75”

Uncommon and very local on rocky hillsides with scrubby vegetation (campo EN rupestre) on higher ridges of S Espinhaço Range in cen. Minas Gerais, mainly in Serra do Cipó NP. 1400-1600 m, occasionally to 1100 m. Only recently discovered. Large. Dark sooty brown above with a bold buffy whitish superciliary; wing-coverts and flight feathers edged and tipped buff; outer tail feathers tipped buff. Throat white, breast grayish brown scaled whitish, belly buffy brownish. Note extremely limited range, where should be distinctive; cf. Chalk-browed Mockingbird. Found in isolated pairs, favoring rocky outcrops on ridges though feeding in nearby bogs; sometimes near isolated houses. Call a nasal complaining “teeuw.” Has been called Espinhaço Cinclodes. It has recently been suggested that this may be only a subspecies of Long-tailed Cinclodes (C. pabsti), from S Brazil. Threatened by habitat degradation. FURNARIUS horneros are chunky, short-tailed, mainly rufous birds with long legs that range widely in open areas. They are best known from their oven-shaped mud nests. Fairly common and now widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, especially near water, south into E São Paulo; has spread south in recent years. Locally to at least 1050 m. Legs grayish. Cinnamon-rufous above with bold white superciliary and duskier cheeks; tail feathers variably tipped black (often inconspicuous). Throat white, below drab pale buffyish. Pale-legged Hornero (only in N of our area) has paler pinkish legs and is brighter rufous above and richer cinnamon-buff below; it lacks black in tail. Walks on ground, often in pairs and regularly in the open, nodding head back and forth. Feeds by picking at the ground, most often where moist. Nest an open cup made of plant fibers and twigs, very different from the mud “ovens” of other horneros. Song a series of well-enunciated “chik” or “chek” notes that gradually descend and usually slow toward end. Sometimes called Wing-banded Hornero. Uncommon in gallery and semideciduous woodland and borders, mostly near water, in Bahia and NE Minas Gerais; does not seem to be spreading. To about 800 m. Legs pinkish; bill pale. Bright orange-rufous above with duskier crown and a bold white superciliary. Throat white, below pale cinnamon-buff. The commoner Band-tailed Hornero is similar but has grayish, darker legs and is less bright above and not so cinnamon below. Behavior as in Band-tailed, but Pale-legged tends to be less conspicuous and is much less apt to parade around in the open. Song a fast series of well-enunciated notes that descends and slows toward end.

RUFOUS HORNERO Furnarius rufus

18 cm|7”

CAATINGA CACHOLOTE Pseudoseisura cristata

23 cm|9”

Common and widespread, especially southward, in open and semiopen areas, frequent even in urban areas and around houses. Mostly below 1300 m, locally to 1900 m (Serra do Caparaó). Very plain and uniform. Above rufous brown, slightly duskier on crown. Below paler buffy brown, throat and midbelly whiter. Easily distinguished from our other two horneros by its lack of a white superciliary. Very conspicuous, one of the most frequently seen birds in much of our region. Struts about boldly on the ground and roads, perching freely on fences and in trees. Uses its conspicuous mud nests only once; afterward birds such as Saffron Finches and Brown-chested Martins take them over. Song a very loud and abrupt series of harsh notes that first rise and then subside; pairs often duet, especially around their nests.

Local and uncommon in semiopen and recently deforested areas in N Minas Gerais and SE Bahia; apparently spreading southward. To 600 m. Unmistakable. Iris yellow. Expressive bushy crest. Uniform bright cinnamon rufous. Mainly arboreal though sometimes dropping to the ground when feeding, then hopping or walking about with an unsteady, almost lurching gait. Pairs are regularly seen around their very large conspicuous stick nests. Their very loud and unmistakable vocalizations are given frequently, usually as a duet and often while a pair lingers near their nest. The presumed gives a descending series of “chup” notes that accelerates into a churring, while the presumed gives a fast series of sharp “che” notes. It can continue for up to a minute before winding down to a stuttered stop.

225

CIPO CINCLODES PEDREIRO-DO-ESPINHAÇO BAND-TAILED HORNERO MARIA-DE-BARRO-DE-PÉ-PRETO

PALE-LEGGED HORNERO MARIA-DE-BARRO-DE-PÉ-BRANCO

RUFOUS HORNERO JOÃO-DE-BARRO

CAATINGA CACHOLOTE CASACA-DE-COURO

SYNALLAXIS spinetails are obscure small, slender, long-tailed suboscine birds that skulk in forest and woodland undergrowth as well as in semiopen terrain. Fortunately they vocalize a lot, and songs are distinctive. SPIX’S SPINETAIL Synallaxis spixi

16 cm|6.25”

SOOTY-FRONTED SPINETAIL Synallaxis frontalis

16.5 cm|6.5”

PALE-BREASTED SPINETAIL Synallaxis albescens

16.5 cm|6.5”

Fairly common to common and widespread in undergrowth of woodland borders and shrubby clearings. To 2100 m (Teresópolis). Olive brown with all-rufous crown (no dark frontlet) and extensive rufous in wings; long tail grayish brown. Mostly gray below, throat flecked black and midbelly whiter. Rufous-capped Spinetail has a yellow streak below its rufous crown and a shorter rufous tail. Pale-breasted favors more open habitats; much paler below, it also has a dark frontlet. Cf. also the rarer Cinereous-breasted Spinetail. Voices of all these differ. Found in pairs that creep about in dense vegetation (even bracken ferns), generally not associating with flocks. Most likely to emerge when singing, with distinctive song a reiterated “whít, de-de-dit.” Fairly common in undergrowth of semideciduous woodland and in scrubby cerrado, smaller numbers into agricultural areas (but not as adaptable as the Spix’s and the Pale-breasted). Locally to 1300 m. Olive brown above with sooty frontlet and rufous crown; wings and rather long tail also rufous. Throat white flecked black, below grayish, midbelly paler. Pale-breasted and Cinereous-breasted Spinetails both have brownish tails; they and the Sootyfronted all have very different voices, Sooty-fronted’s being a sharp “ka-kweé.” Fairly common and widespread in pastures and agricultural areas with tall grass and shrubs, also cerrado and locally in marshes; spreads readily into disturbed areas. Locally to 1300 m. Olive brown above with dusky frontlet and rufous crown; wing-coverts rufous, remainder of wing and rather long tail brownish. Below dingy whitish with dusky flecking on throat. Sooty-fronted Spinetail’s tail is even longer and rufous. Cf. scarce Cinereous-breasted Spinetail. Like other Synallaxis, inconspicuous and heard much more than seen. Readily identified by voice, with song a nasal “hwee-beyrr,” often incessantly repeated.

CINEREOUS-BREASTED SPINETAIL Synallaxis hypospodia

15.5 cm|6”

Uncommon and local in low shrubby and grassy areas and woodland borders, especially near water; recorded mainly from N São Paulo and E Bahia. Mostly below 300 m in Bahia; in São Paulo 350-800 m. Olive brown above with sooty frontlet and rufous crown; extensive area on wing-coverts rufous, tail dull dark brown. Throat whitish flecked black, breast pale gray, midbelly whitish. This is the scarcest of our four “open-county” Synallaxis. Sooty-fronted has a notably longer rufous tail; Pale-breasted is markedly paler below. Almost always identified by voice, rather than by plumage. Song consists of an initial separated and emphasized note, then continues and accelerates into a fast series of nasal “che” or “chew” notes.

RUFOUS-CAPPED SPINETAIL Synallaxis ruficapilla

16 cm|6.25”

BAHIA SPINETAIL Synallaxis whitneyi

16 cm|6.25”

Common and widespread in undergrowth and borders of humid lowland and montane forest and woodland from E Minas Gerais and S Espírito Santo south to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to 1800 m. Crown bright rufous, bordered below by a buffy yellowish streak and then dusky cheeks. Above otherwise brown, most of wings and rather short tail rufous-chestnut. Throat silvery grayish, breast pale grayish, belly pale ochraceous. Colorful (for a spinetail!) and not likely confused. Cf. Spix’s Spinetail (really quite different, and with very different song), and at N edge of range Bahia Spinetail (it and Rufouscapped nearly overlap in Minas Gerais). Rufous-capped is more forest-based than most Synallaxis, and is the only one occurring in montane forest, where it favors bamboo. It accompanies mixed flocks more than the others. Often-heard song a fast and somewhat nasal “di-di-di-reét” that can be repeated interminably.

Fairly common but very local (threatened by deforestation) in undergrowth and borders of foothill and lower montane forest and woodland in E Bahia and extreme NE Minas Gerais; here this species, only recently described, replaces the better known Rufous-capped Spinetail. 700-1200 m. Closely resembles Rufous-capped, differing in its dark gray underparts. Behavior much the same, though the Bahia seems much less tied to bamboo. Song quite different, an often rapidly repeated pair of nasal notes, sometimes more jumbled (e.g., when excited), lacking Rufous-capped’s clear pattern.

227 SPIX’S SPINETAIL JOÃO-TENENÉM

SOOTY-FRONTED SPINETAIL PETRIM

PALE-BREASTED SPINETAIL UIPÍ

CINEREOUS-BREASTED SPINETAIL JOÃO-GRILO

RUFOUS-CAPPED SPINETAIL PICHORORÉ

BAHIA SPINETAIL JOÃO-BAIANO

OCHRE-CHEEKED SPINETAIL Synallaxis scutata

15.5 cm|6”

GRAY-BELLIED SPINETAIL Synallaxis cinerascens

14 cm|5.5”

PALLID SPINETAIL Cranioleuca pallida

14 cm|5.5”

OLIVE SPINETAIL Cranioleuca obsoleta

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon and local in undergrowth and borders of semideciduous woodland in São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 300-800 m. Crown and upper back grayish brown with whitish superciliary; otherwise uniform and quite bright rufous above (including wings and tail). Chin white, prominent black patch on lower throat; below mainly ochraceous buff. More solidly rufous and buff than our other spinetails. Usually identified from its characteristic song and semiterrestrial behavior. Found in pairs that typically hop on or near the ground and do not accompany mixed flocks. Sings frequently, a repeated bisyllabic and quite shrill “tweeyt, weét?” given at a leisurely pace.

Uncommon in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from E Minas Gerais and S Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1300 m but locally to over 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Olive brown above, grayer on face, with wing-coverts and tail rufous. Chin white, lower throat black; below nearly uniform gray. Spix’s Spinetail – also mainly gray below – inhabits more open, shrubbier habitats and has a rufous crown and a longer, grayish brown tail; its voice differs dramatically. Forages singly or in pairs, hopping close to ground and inconspicuous unless vocalizing. Distinctive song a thin, piercing “wheeeyt, bu-beeyt,” slowly repeated over and over. CRANIOLEUCA spinetails are small furnariids with plain plumage and rather short tails, mainly ranging in forest and woodland; most are arboreal and reasonably conspicuous (more so than Synallaxis). Fairly common in canopy and borders of montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from E Bahia, where local, to S São Paulo. Mostly 700-2150 m. Crown rufous and with bold white superciliary; above olive brown, wings and tail rufous. Throat whitish, below pale buffy brownish. Olive Spinetail replaces this species southward, with no known overlap; it lacks rufous on crown. An arboreal bird that ranges singly or in pairs, usually while foraging with mixed canopy flocks; hitches along branches, probing into crevices and investigating epiphytes and tangles, only occasionally gleaning in foliage. Song a spirited series of high-pitched and shrill notes, sometimes long-continued and with little pattern but with a frequent “bzeet-bzeet, bzee-tee-tee-tee” phrase.

Fairly common in canopy and borders of lower montane forest and woodland in S São Paulo. 600-800 m. Replaces Pallid Spinetail southward; drabber. Brownish olive above with whitish superciliary; wing-coverts (only) and tail rufous. Pale olivaceous buff below. Pallid Spinetail has obvious rufous crown and entirely rufous wings. Arboreal behavior and voice as in Pallid Spinetail.

RUSTY-BACKED SPINETAIL Cranioleuca vulpina

14.5 cm|5.75”

YELLOW-CHINNED SPINETAIL Certhiaxis cinnamomeus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Fairly common in shrubby thickets and lower growth of gallery woodland, usually near water, across N São Paulo into SW Minas Gerais. Mostly 350950 m. Uniform rufous above with cheeks and dull superciliary grayish. Below uniform dull grayish. Yellow-chinned Spinetail is much whiter below. Forages in pairs in dense lower growth where usually rather hard to see. Song a fast series of descending nasal chortling notes, with call – frequently heard – a nasal “kwee,” often repeated rapidly. Common and widespread in marshes and adjacent grassy and shrubby areas, and around lake and pond margins. Mostly below 900 m, but in appropriate habitat locally to 1500 m (Poços de Caldas). Above bright reddish brown, more rufous on wings and tail, with indistinct pale grayish superciliary and dusky lores and postocular line. Below uniform snowy white, with tiny chin spot yellow (hard to see). Clean-cut and attractive, easy to recognize; Rustybacked Spinetail is much dingier below. Conspicuous for a marsh bird, pairs often feeding in the open on floating vegetation or in shrubbery or grass near water’s edge. Notably vocal, calling at intervals through the day, with most frequent song a harsh churring rattle that recalls a Laterallus crake. Wren-like Rushbird (Phleocryptes melanops) is a casual winter visitant to coastal marshes of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Small and short-tailed, with bold brow, streaked back, and conspicuous rufous in wing.

229 OCHRE-CHEEKED SPINETAIL ESTRELINHA-PRETA

GRAY-BELLIED SPINETAIL PIPUÍ

PALLID SPINETAIL ARREDIO-PÁLIDO

OLIVE SPINETAIL ARREDIO-DO-SUL

RUSTY-BACKED SPINETAIL ARREDIO-DO-RIO

YELLOW-CHINNED SPINETAIL CURUTIÉ

PINK-LEGGED GRAVETEIRO Acrobatornis fonsecai VU

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon and local in cacao plantations and canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and extreme NE Minas Gerais. Mostly below 500 m, sparingly to 800 m. Very distinctive, only recently discovered and threatened by ongoing reduction in cacao cultivation. Legs bright pink; lower mandible pinkish. Gray, slightly darker above with crown blackish, back slightly mottled; wings and tail blackish, tail graduated with “spiky” feathers. Juvenile very different: tawny with duskier crown, wings, and tail. The gray plumage is unique among the furnariids in our area. Graveteiro’s arboreal behavior is Cranioleuca-like, ranging in pairs and often accompanying small mixed flocks. Forages mainly by hitching, sometimes hanging upside-down, along smaller branches and on twigs. Song a long series of chippered notes that accelerates into an extended reeling trill that can last about 10 seconds.

ARAUCARIA TIT-SPINETAIL Leptasthenura setaria

17 cm|6.75”

Locally fairly common, but restricted to groves of araucaria trees, in montane areas from S Rio de Janeiro and adjacent Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. 7502000 m. The only member of its distinctive genus in our area, so straightforward to identify. Prominently crested. Crown black with fine white streaking and narrow white superciliary; above bright rufous-chestnut, wings more blackish; tail very long, mostly rufous-chestnut. Throat and chest whitish with fine blackish streaking; below ochraceous. Seems hardly ever to leave araucarias, and now occurs where araucarias have been planted. Most often in pairs, typically foraging quite high; as a result, this handsome bird can be hard to see well. Usually not with flocks. Song a high-pitched but somewhat musical trill, a bit disorganized but usually descending in pitch; it can continue for 15-20 seconds.

ITATIAIA SPINETAIL Oreophylax moreirae

18.5 cm|7.25”

Locally fairly common but restricted to high-elevation grasslands with scattered shrubs (“campos de altitude”) mainly on serras of S Rio de Janeiro, S Minas Gerais, and NE São Paulo. Generally 1800-2800 m but also recently discovered at Caraça in Minas Gerais (1200 m). Olivaceous brown above with faint paler superciliary; more rufescent tail very long and strongly graduated, feathers pointed and somewhat frayed. Small chin patch orange-rufous (can be hard to see), below pale buffyish. Not likely confused, but cf. other spinetails (Spix’s can be with it). Cipó Canastero (very local in S Minas Gerais; no known overlap) is a grayer bird with a more normal tail that shows much rufous laterally. Feeds in shrubby and grassy growth, sometimes hopping on ground with tail cocked; except when singing, not easy to see. Song a series of highpitched somewhat wheezy notes that starts slowly but then accelerates into a chippered trill. Sometimes placed in genus Asthenes.

CHOTOY SPINETAIL Schoeniophylax phryganophilus

19-21.5 cm|7.5-8.5”

Rare and local in semiopen areas with scattered trees and bushes and in gardens around houses in Minas Gerais and W São Paulo. 400-800 m. A fancy spinetail with tail extremely long, graduated, and “spiky.” Crown and lesser wingcoverts chestnut, superciliary whitish; sandy brown above, back boldly streaked blackish. Chin patch yellow, lower throat black, malar area white; band across chest cinnamon, below buffy whitish. Much longer-tailed and more arboreal than Synallaxis spinetails (none streaked). Pairs and small groups clamber in leafy cover, revealing themselves through their calls but not perching in the open for long. Large stick nests are conspicuous. Named for its distinctive voice, a lowpitched gurgling or chortling, e.g., “cho-cho-cho-cho-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-chr.”

FIREWOOD-GATHERER Anumbius annumbi

19.5 cm|7.75”

Fairly common in scattered trees and shrubs in agricultural areas, around farm buildings, and in pastures from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro southward; spreading into many regions after deforestation. 400-1300 m, locally to 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Above sandy to rufescent brown, crown and especially back streaked blackish and with rufous forehead and whitish superciliary; wings edged rufescent; tail long and graduated, feathers pointed and broadly tipped white. Throat white, often outlined with black streaks or spots; below pale buffyish. Recalls a thornbird or Chotoy Spinetail, though neither has white in tail or the contrasting white throat. Found in pairs, often isolated, that forage on or near ground and in tall grass; inconspicuous except around their nests, where they linger. Their enormous nests are constructed from twigs, often thorny and surprisingly long. Song, given especially while on or near the nest, a fast gravelly “chit, chit, chr-r-r-r-r.”

231 PINK-LEGGED GRAVETEIRO ACROBATA

ARAUCARIA TIT-SPINETAIL GRIMPEIRO

ITATIAIA SPINETAIL GARRINCHA-CHORONA

CHOTOY SPINETAIL BICHOITA

FIREWOOD-GATHERER COCHICHO

CIPO CANASTERO Asthenes luizae

17 cm|6.75”

RUFOUS-FRONTED THORNBIRD Phacellodomus rufifrons

16.5 cm|6.5”

Uncommon and very local on rocky slopes with scattered bushes and ground bromeliads in Minas Gerais on Serra do Cipó and nearby. At least 10001300 m. Above grayish brown with narrow whitish superciliary; wings more rufescent, tail dusky brown with outer feathers contrastingly rufous-chestnut. Throat whitish with fine black streaks; below grayish. Cf. Itatiaia Spinetail (no known overlap). Occurs singly and in pairs and mainly terrestrial, hopping and running with cocked tail amidst the boulders where surprisingly adept at disappearing from sight, then popping up where you least expect it. Song a simple but quite musical trill on one pitch lasting about 3 seconds. Call a repeated descending “kyeeu” note. PHACELLODOMUS thornbirds are plain, unstreaked furnariids found in shrubby and edge situations, all species with rufous on forecrown. Though quite vocal, they are best known from their huge stick nests. Fairly common to common and widespread in shrubs and trees in agricultural areas, pastures, and lightly wooded areas, but seems absent from S São Paulo; spreading with deforestation. To 1200 m. Drab, but with obvious rufous forecrown. Dull brown above with weak buffyish superciliary and some rufous in wings. Whitish below with buff on flanks. Best recognized by its very plainness, but cf. various emberizid “finches” and even House Sparrow. Usually in pairs, hopping in bushes and low trees or descending to ground; often seen around or on their very large stick nests, generally placed toward the tip of a branch. Vocal, with song a loud series of “cheh” or “chit” notes that starts slowly but quickly accelerates before slowing at end; pairs vocalize together. Sometimes called Common Thornbird.

GREATER THORNBIRD Phacellodomus ruber

20.5 cm|8”

Fairly common in shrubby areas and woodland borders usually near water in N and W São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 400-1100 m. Our largest thornbird, easily known from its piercing yellow eye. Brown above, more rufous on crown, wings, and tail. Mainly whitish below, foreneck faintly scaled dusky. Rufous-fronted Thornbird is smaller and dark-eyed, shows less rufous on crown and essentially none on wings and tail. Found in pairs that skulk in heavy vegetation close to the ground, sometimes mounting up into bushes and low trees, especially when singing. Song a loud series of 15-20 “chee” or “chew” notes that start explosively but then become less forceful; pairs often duet.

ORANGE-BREASTED THORNBIRD Phacellodomus ferrugineigula 17 cm|6.75”

Uncommon and local in dense shrubby growth in and around marshes and undergrowth of swampy woodland from S Minas Gerais and extreme S Espírito Santo to E São Paulo. Mostly 500-1250 m, but locally to sea level. Iris dark red. Brown above with bright rufous crown; tail dusky, outer feathers rufous. Throat and breast orange-rufous, flanks olive brown, midbelly whitish. Orange-eyed Thornbird has an orange eye, rufous only on forehead and throat, and mainly rufous tail; it mainly ranges further north and at higher elevations, but with some overlap. An inveterate skulker that hops singly or in pairs in low vegetation, rarely emerging even when singing. Song a series of 8-12 loud ringing “ke-weé” notes preceded by one or several softer ones. Formerly known as Red-eyed Thornbird.

ORANGE-EYED THORNBIRD Phacellodomus erythrophthalmus

17 cm|6.75”

Locally fairly common in dense lower growth and borders of foothill and montane forest and woodland from E Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to NE São Paulo. To 1900 m. Iris bright orange. Like Orange-breasted Thornbird, differing in eye color, rufous on crown restricted to forehead and below only on throat (not breast); tail entirely rufous (middle feathers not olive brown). Behavior as in Orange-breasted though less a skulker. Song much as in Orangebreasted, but individual notes less doubled, “ku-ku-ku, kwee, kweé, kwee, kwee.”

CANEBRAKE GROUNDCREEPER Clibanornis dendrocolaptoides 21.5 cm|8.5”

Rare and local in lower growth of foothill and lower montane forest and woodland in extreme S São Paulo. 700-1000 m. Black bill. Above rufous brown, crown and tail brighter, with obvious gray postocular stripe. Throat white scaled black on its sides; below pale grayish. Larger than any thornbird and with bolder head pattern. Hops about in pairs, usually not associating with mixed flocks, and remaining in thick growth where hard to observe and seeming to be shy. Strongly tied to bamboo. Song a series of loud staccato notes, at first well enunciated but ending in a chatter.

233 CIPO CANASTERO LENHEIRO-DO-CIPÓ

RUFOUS-FRONTED THORNBIRD JOÃO-DE-PAU

GREATER THORNBIRD GRAVETEIRO

ORANGE-BREASTED THORNBIRD JOÃO-BOTINA-DO-BREJO

CANEBRAKE GROUNDCREEPER CISQUEIRO

ORANGE-EYED THORNBIRD JOÃO-BOTINA-DA-MATA

XENOPS are small, widespread furnariids that are arboreal in woodland and forest. Both species have strongly upturned and laterally compressed bills (lower mandible pale).

PLAIN XENOPS Xenops minutus

12 cm|4.75”

STREAKED XENOPS Xenops rutilans

12 cm|4.75”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in lower and middle levels of humid forest and woodland (in Espírito Santo also restinga) from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1000 m. Olive brown above with narrow buff superciliary and silvery malar streak; wings rufous and brown with buff band showing especially in flight; tail rufous, outer feathers with black edges (often hidden). Throat whitish; below pale brown with sparse whitish chest streaking. Streaked Xenops is more profusely streaked, especially below. Cf. also Sharp-billed Treehunter and Wedge-billed Woodcreeper. Found singly and in pairs, often with mixed flocks, and (unlike Streaked) regularly inside forest. Hitches along smaller branches and on twigs, often upside-down, swivelling from side to side and pecking at wood or flaking off bark, not using tail for support. Song a fast series of notes on an even pitch, e.g., “swee-swee-swee-swee-swee.” Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of a variety of forested and wooded habitats, occurring virtually throughout up to 1600 m. Rufescent brown above with pale buff superciliary and silvery malar streak, also some buff streaking on crown, nape, and upper back; wings rufous and brown with a buff band as in Plain Xenops; tail rufous, inner web of inner tail feathers with a little black. Throat whitish, below pale brown with prominent whitish streaking. Plain Xenops is much less streaked; cf. also Sharp-billed Treehunter (bolder yellowish brow, normal bill, no silvery malar streak). General behavior as in Plain Xenops, though Streaked usually forages higher and rarely is inside forest. Song a fast series of 4-7 shrill notes that weaken and fall in pitch.

SHARP-BILLED TREEHUNTER Heliobletus contaminatus

13.5 cm|5.25”

Locally fairly common in canopy and borders of montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest) from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro to S São Paulo, most numerous southward. 500-1800 m. Olive brown above, crown dusky narrowly streaked buff, with a prominent long yellowish buff superciliary, dusky postocular stripe, and yellowish buff nuchal collar; tail rufous. Throat yellowish buff; below streaked olive brown and whitish. São Paulo birds have buff streaking on upper back and more on breast. Streaked Xenops has an upturned bill, silvery malar streak, rufous in wing. White-browed Foliage-gleaner is larger and has whiter superciliary and throat, less streaking below. Found singly and in pairs, often accompanying mixed flocks, hitching on branches and climbing in viny tangles; often hangs upside-down, xenops-like, not using tail for support. Rather quiet, with song a short, accelerating leaftosser-like chipper or trill. A still undescribed species found on higher ridges of S Bahia (500-1000 m) is similar.

WHITE-BROWED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Anabacerthia amaurotis

16 cm|6.25”

Uncommon in lower and middle growth of foothill and montane forest, mainly in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo (a few Espírito Santo records). 600-1700 m. Rufescent brown above, darker on crown and especially ear-coverts, with broad whitish superciliary; tail bright rufous. Throat white, below olive brownish with obscure whitish breast streaking. Buff-browed Foliage-gleaner has an obviously buff superciliary, is more olivaceous brown above. Sharp-billed Treehunter is smaller with bright buff superciliary; its arboreal behavior is quite different. Pale-browed Treehunter is much larger, shows streaking above and stronger streaking below. Forages singly and in pairs, often with mixed flocks, generally conspicuous; gleans along horizontal limbs and on terminal branches. Song a stuttering chatter followed by several shrieks, e.g., “t-t-t-t-t-t-t-t-t-jreék-jreék.”

BUFF-BROWED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Syndactyla rufosuperciliata

18 cm|7”

Fairly common in lower growth of foothill and montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from S Minas Gerais and S Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. 600-2000 m. Plain brownish olive above with narrow but prominent ochraceous buff superciliary; wings more rufescent, tail rufous. Throat buffy whitish, below olive brownish with obvious yellowish buff streaking. Whitebrowed Foliage-gleaner is more rufescent above with a whitish superciliary and contrasting dusky postocular stripe. Forages singly and in pairs, usually with mixed understory flocks and, though active with nervous mannerisms, not too hard to observe. Song a fast series of harsh notes that typically accelerate, becoming run-together and ending in a stutter.

235 PLAIN XENOPS BICO-VIRADO-MIÚDO

STREAKED XENOPS BICO-VIRADO-CARIJÓ

SHARP-BILLED TREEHUNTER TREPADORZINHO

WHITE-BROWED FOLIAGE-GLEANER LIMPA-FOLHA-MIÚDO

BUFF-BROWED FOLIAGE-GLEANER TREPADOR-QUIETE

STRIATED SOFTTAIL Thripophaga macroura VU

18 cm|7”

Rare and local in lower and middle growth of humid and foothill forest and borders from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro. To 1000 m. Above rufescent brown with a narrow buff superciliary and prominent buff streaking on head and back; wings rufous-chestnut, rump and tail bright cinnamon. Chin patch orange-rufous; below brown streaked pale buffyish. Pale-browed Treehunter has similar plumage but is larger with a heavier bill; its superciliary is wider and its streaking below coarser. Cf. also Buff-browed Foliage-gleaner. Inconspicuous birds that skulk in undergrowth, softtails forage in pairs or small family groups and favor viny tangles; they sometimes are with mixed flocks. Song an accelerating chatter, often given by a pair in a duet, “tch, tch, tch-ch-chch-chchchchchchchcchchch.” Threatened by deforestation.

PALE-BROWED TREEHUNTER Cichlocolaptes leucophrus 20.5-22.5 cm|8-8.75”

Uncommon in foothill and lower montane forest from S Bahia to E São Paulo, northward only in highlands, southward (mainly in São Paulo) also in humid lowland forest. To 1500 m. Long straight bill. In N part of range (S to Rio de Janeiro; A) rufous brown above with superciliary and streaking on crown and back pale buff; wings more rufescent, tail bright pale cinnamon. Throat whitish; below brown boldly streaked pale buff. In S part of range (São Paulo; B) markedly smaller and with darker, more rufous tail; back browner, superciliary more prominent. Occurs locally with Striated Softtail in N part of range; the softtail is notably smaller with a slenderer bill, finer streaking below. Cf. also Buff-browed and White-browed Foliage-gleaners. Forages singly and in pairs from understory up into (more often) midlevels and subcanopy, clambering on larger limbs and inspecting bromeliads and other epiphytes. Sometimes with mixed flocks. Song a loud arresting “wreeyp! wreeyp! wreeyp-wreeypwreeyp-wreeyp,” the number of notes varying and sometimes interspersed with long-continued chatters; song and calls higher-pitched in S birds.

WHITE-EYED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Automolus leucophthalmus

19.5 cm|7.75”

HENNA-CAPPED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Hylocryptus rectirostris

21 cm|8.25”

Fairly common and widespread in lower growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills. To 1000 m. Iris white; bill grayish. Above nearly uniform rufescent brown, brightest on rump and tail. Throat white (often puffed out and conspicuous); remaining underparts dull ochraceous. A hefty foliage-gleaner, this is our only Automolus so it should be easy to identify; it is more apt to be in forest undergrowth than the others. The much more boldly patterned White-collared Foliage-gleaner has a white superciliary and nape in addition to its contrasting white throat. Greater Thornbird is superficially similar (and also is pale-eyed) but it occurs in an entirely different semiopen habitat and (inland) range. Ranges singly and in pairs, often accompanying mixed understory flocks and somewhat skulking but not too difficult to see; searches dense tangles, viny areas, and epiphytes for its arthropod food. Rather vocal, with distinctive song a loud and fast “ki-dee, kidee-kidee-kidee.” Call an equally loud “skwík kwi-kwik.”

Rare and local on or near ground in gallery and semideciduous woodland in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 400-1000 m. Iris yellow; bill rather long and arched, dark grayish. Head and nape orange-rufous with back contrastingly golden brown; wings and tail also orange-rufous. Below rich pale ochraceous, palest on throat. Nearly unmistakable in its limited range and habitat; Planalto Foliage-gleaner is dark-eyed, more richly colored below, etc., and is much less terrestrial. Henna-capped is mostly terrestrial when foraging, hopping on the ground and rummaging in leaf litter, often flicking leaves around and sometimes making quite a bit of noise. It occurs singly and in pairs, and usually is not with flocks. Distinctive song a loud and rather nasal chattering, stuttering at times, e.g., “kuk, kuk, kuk, ki-duk, kuk, kuk,” sometimes sounding uncannily like the clucking of a domestic chicken. By some called Chestnut-capped Foliage-gleaner. Sometimes placed in the genus Clibanornis.

237

STRIATED SOFTTAIL RABO-AMARELO

A PALE-BROWED TREEHUNTER TREPADOR-SOBRANCELHA

B

WHITE-EYED FOLIAGE-GLEANER BARRANQUEIRO-DE-OLHO-BRANCO

HENNA-CAPPED FOLIAGE-GLEANER FURA-BARREIRA

WHITE-COLLARED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Anabazenops fuscus

19.5 cm|7.75” Fairly common in lower and middle growth of foothill and lower montane forest from S Bahia to S São Paulo, always favoring extensive stands of bamboo. Mostly 500-1200 m, a few up to 1600-1800 m. A striking foliage-gleaner, for once relatively easy to recognize. Heavy bill pale bluish horn. Brown above with a contrasting white superciliary, broad nuchal collar, and throat; tail rufous. Below pale buffyish. The similarly patterned White-bearded Antshrike has a stouter, slightly hooked (less pointed) bill and obviously rufous crown and wings. Found singly and in pairs, often accompanying mixed flocks. Especially for a bamboo bird, not particularly hard to see, foraging in tangles and hitching up branches, sometimes well above ground. Its most frequent call is a harsh repeated “jrrk-jrrk-jrrk-jrrk-jrrk…“ (up to 30-40 notes, each note sometimes with a doubled effect); also gives a fast squealing “skeea-skeea-skeea-skeeaskeea” that somewhat recalls the even louder Pale-browed Treehunter. PHILYDOR foliage-gleaners are fairly large, rather long-tailed furnariids found in forest; they are essentially unstreaked, and all species sport an obvious superciliary.

BLACK-CAPPED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Philydor atricapillus

17 cm|6.75”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Locally to 1300 m (Teresópolis). Virtually unmistakable, an unusually handsome foliage-gleaner with bold pattern and bright colors. Head striping black, contrasting strongly with buff postocular stripe and ear-coverts and orange-rufous nape. Above rufescent brown, wings duskier, with rump and tail bright cinnamon-rufous. Below bright ochraceous. Unlike other Philydor foliage-gleaners, Black-capped is a bird of the forest understory that ranges singly and in pairs and often accompanies mixed flocks. It forages by probing into crevices and clumps of dead leaves, often adopting a variety of contorted positions while doing so. Generally not too hard to observe. Song a fast trill, quite musical in tone, that descends markedly in pitch; it can recall Long-billed Gnatwren’s song. Calls include a rather strident “wheeyp, wheeyp” and a sharp fast chatter.

BUFF-FRONTED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Philydor rufum

19 cm|7.5”

Fairly common and widespread in subcanopy and borders of foothill and lower montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest); less numerous northward. Mostly 500-1500 m. Broad area on forehead and superciliary buff, contrasting with gray crown and narrow postocular stripe; above olive brown, wings and tail rufous. Below uniform buff. An attractive arboreal foliage-gleaner, likely only confused with the smaller Ochre-breasted, though that lacks buff on its forehead (its crown being entirely gray). Cf. also similarly patterned and colored Brown Tanager (sometimes in the same flock); the tanager has a markedly heavier bill. Forages singly or in pairs, often accompanying canopy flocks; easy to see as it tends to hop and twist along horizontal limbs in the open, also regularly in outer foliage. Song a fast accelerating series of highpitched notes, e.g. “whi-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-keh,” recalling a Veniliornis woodpecker.

OCHRE-BREASTED FOLIAGE-GLEANER Philydor lichtensteini

18 cm|7”

PLANALTO FOLIAGE-GLEANER Syndactyla dimidiata

18 cm|7”

Fairly common in subcanopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1200 m (Itatiaia). Crown and nape gray with slight scaly effect, contrasting with buff superciliary and dusky postocular stripe; above brown, wings and tail rufous. Below uniform ochraceous. Buff-fronted Foliage-gleaner, which often occurs with Ochre-breasted, is larger and has a prominent buff forehead. Behavior much as in Buff-fronted, though Ochre-breasted tends to inspect viny tangles and dead leaves more, so is less apt to be in the open. Song also similar, though the individual notes accelerate less and are more enunciated. Sometimes placed in the genus Anabacerthia. Rare and local in lower and middle levels of gallery and semideciduous forest and woodland in N São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 500-1000 m. Above uniform rufescent brown with grayer crown, long superciliary and face rich ochraceous; tail brighter rufous. Below uniform rich ochraceous. Brightly colored and not likely confused but cf. Henna-hooded Foliage-gleaner. Ranges singly or in pairs, sometimes accompanying flocks, nervous and usually remaining in thick cover. Heard much more often, with song a series of strongly emphasized metallic and staccato notes. Formerly placed in genus Philydor, and sometimes called Russet-mantled Foliage-gleaner.

239 WHITE-COLLARED FOLIAGE-GLEANER TREPADOR-COLEIRA

BLACK-CAPPED FOLIAGE-GLEANER LIMPA-FOLHA-COROADO

BUFF-FRONTED FOLIAGE-GLEANER LIMPA-FOLHA-DE-TESTA-BAIA

OCHRE-BREASTED FOLIAGE-GLEANER LIMPA-FOLHA-OCRÁCEO

PLANALTO FOLIAGE-GLEANER LIMPA-FOLHA-DO-BREJO

SHARP-TAILED STREAMCREEPER Lochmias nematura

15 cm|6”

Uncommon and somewhat local along rocky streams and rivers bordered by forest, rarely straying very far from them, from S Bahia to São Paulo. Mostly 600-1500 m, but locally to over 2000 m. Long, slightly decurved bill; legs grayish pink. Dark brown above, mantle more chestnut, with narrow but bold white superciliary; tail black. Below dark brown profusely spotted white. Shaped like a leaftosser, but smaller, and can instantly be known from its bold white spotting below. Hops on or very close to the ground, most often where dank and wet, sometimes in the open on rocks in the middle of a stream. Probes into damp soil, and often flicks leaves with bill. Song a series of dry unmusical notes that starts slowly, sometimes preceded by a single sharp note, and then accelerates into a chipper, occasionally continuing for 30 or more seconds. LEAFTOSSERS & MINERS (Scleruridae) are two genera of dissimilar birds united by their habit of nesting at the end of long tunnels burrowed into the ground. SCLERURUS leaftossers are furtive, predominantly dark brown birds with short legs and short black tails that shuffle on the ground inside humid forest, feeding by flicking leaves aside with their bills. Sometimes you can actually see the leaves flying! Though inconspicuous, once located they can be notably unwary.

RUFOUS-BREASTED LEAFTOSSER Sclerurus scansor

18-18.5 cm|7-7.25”

Uncommon on or near ground inside humid and foothill and lower montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from E Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Locally to 1600 m. Above dark brown with rufous-chestnut rump and a contrasting black tail. Throat whitish scaled dusky, contrasting with rufous chest; below dark grayish brown. Though not all that often encountered, Rufous-breasted is easily the most often seen leaftosser in our area. Cf. our other two leaftossers, both of them scarcer and strictly birds of the lowlands; Black-tailed is larger and darker (and shows no rufous), while Tawny-throated has foreneck entirely tawny-rufous. Song a variable but often long-continued series of semimusical trills and chippers, often repeating the same phrase over and over. Call a sharp and inflected “skeeyk” that can be repeated numerous times.

BLACK-TAILED LEAFTOSSER Sclerurus caudacutus

18.5 cm|7.25”

Rare and local on or near ground inside humid forest in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. Below 300 m. Bill straight. Very dark brown above, rump slightly more chestnut and with black tail. Throat white faintly scaled darker, below dark brown. Easily the darkest and most uniform-looking leaftosser, identifiable on that basis alone. Cf. Tawny-throated Leaftosser; the Rufousbreasted mainly ranges at higher elevations, in foothill and montane areas. Quite distinctive song a long-continued series of loud and ringing notes that steadily drop in pitch, sometimes extended at the end as if it doesn’t want to stop. Also gives a sharp “skeeyk” similar to Rufous-breasted’s. The population of E Brazil is threatened by deforestation.

TAWNY-THROATED LEAFTOSSER Sclerurus mexicanus

16.5 cm|6.5”

Rare and local on or near ground inside humid forest in lowlands from E Bahia to extreme NE São Paulo. To 500 m. Bill slightly drooped at tip. Dark chestnut brown above with extensive area on rump rufous-chestnut and black tail. Throat and chest rich tawny-rufous, below dark brown. Both Rufous-breasted and Black-tailed Leaftossers have white (not rufous) on throat and are somewhat larger birds. Song a series of 4-5 loud and high-pitched notes that descend markedly and usually end in a churring. Call much as in Rufous-breasted. Sometimes called S. macconnelli. The population of E Brazil is threatened by deforestation.

CAMPO MINER Geositta poeciloptera EN

12.5 cm|5”

Uncommon, nomadic, and now local in campos and cerrado in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais; has declined in São Paulo due to habitat destruction. 800-1400 m. Bill slender and slightly decurved, short-tailed. Brown above with a narrow buffy whitish superciliary; wings mostly dusky with a rufous wingband conspicuous in flight; tail rufous with a black subterminal band. Throat white, below buff with dusky flammulation on breast. Only possible confusion, almost implausible, is with much commoner Rufous Hornero (substantially larger, more uniformly plain rufous, etc.). This classic cerrado bird occurs in widely separated pairs, favoring recently burned areas; it avoids agricultural land. Terrestrial and generally inconspicuous, tending to hug the ground and crouch when approached, then flushing abruptly and often flying a long way off. Quiet except when s are giving their hovering display flight, then delivering a “chree-o” phrase repeated very rapidly for half a minute or even more.

241

SHARP-TAILED STREAMCREEPER JOÃO-PORCA

RUFOUS-BREASTED LEAFTOSSER VIRA-FOLHA

BLACK-TAILED LEAFTOSSER VIRA-FOLHA-PARDO

TAWNY-THROATED LEAFTOSSER VIRA-FOLHA-DE-PEITO-VERMELHO

CAMPO MINER ANDARILHO

SPOT-BACKED ANTSHRIKE Hypoedaleus guttatus

20.5 cm|8”

LARGE-TAILED ANTSHRIKE Mackenziaena leachii

26.5 cm|10.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in subcanopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 900 m. Stout hooked bill. black above profusely spotted with white, crown a little more streaked and face scalier; flight feathers and tail banded white. Below white, sides of chest with black streaking or mottling, flanks and crissum ochraceous. has spotting above buffier, and all of underparts tinged ochraceous. Bahia and Espírito Santo birds tend to be whiter below, with less buff and ochre. This boldly patterned arboreal antshrike is unlikely to be confused; the other large antshrikes inhabit lower growth. Spot-backeds forage singly or in pairs, tending to be inconspicuous and infrequently seen except when singing. They sometimes accompany mixed flocks, then occasionally coming to edge. Distinctive song a penetrating musical trill that builds in strength and lasts about 5 seconds. Calls include a piercing “pyeeeeeeeeuw” and an abrupt “chrrrt.” MACKENZIAENA antshrikes are very special, large and long-tailed antshrikes. There are only two species, both endemic to the SE Brazil region. Uncommon in dense undergrowth of humid and montane forest, woodland, and borders (also araucaria forest) from S Minas Gerais and S Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-2100 m. A spectacular, large antshrike that really does have a “large” and long tail. black with profuse small white spots on head, neck, mantle, and sides. mostly rufescent and buff, with head and neck black thickly spotted rufous; upperparts black with buff spots, many of them chevron-shaped. Below black thickly spotted buff. Both sexes’ spotting is unique. Spot-backed Antshrike is also spotted above but is basically white below and thus very different. Like the Tufted Antshrike, with which Large-tailed is sometimes found, pairs of Large-taileds sneak through dense undergrowth where despite their large size they remain hard to see. Though regularly found in bamboo, Large-taileds seem less tied to it than are Tufteds. Heard much more often than seen, with song a fast series of piercing whistled notes that rise in pitch before falling toward the end; Tufted’s song is shorter and slower. The nasal “squeeeyahh” call is much the same.

TUFTED ANTSHRIKE Mackenziaena severa

24 cm|9.5”

Locally fairly common in dense undergrowth of humid and montane forest, woodland, and borders from S Bahia to S São Paulo, favoring dense bamboo thickets. To 1500 m, occasionally to 1850 m (Itatiaia); in Bahia and Espírito Santo only above 500 m. Iris rufous. Prominently crested. uniform dark sooty gray, blacker on head and throat. very different, blackish above boldly banded rufous-buff, with rufous crown; tail sooty blackish. Below blackish uniformly barred buff. This species’ large size combined with its crest, which always seems to be raised, renders confusion unlikely. Large-tailed Antshrike has a spotted pattern (not barred), lacks crest. Tufted is a very skulking and shy bird, occurring in pairs that almost never emerge from bamboo; rarely with mixed flocks. Heard much more often than seen, with far-carrying song a series of piercing notes, “pseeuw, pseeuw-pseeuw-pseeuw-pseeuw-pseeuw.” Call a drawn-out nasal “squeeeyahh.”

GIANT ANTSHRIKE Batara cinerea

35-35.5 cm|13.75-14”

Uncommon in lower growth and midlevels of humid and lower montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest) from Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-1500 m, locally to 2000 m. A spectacular antshrike, very large and very long-tailed with massive hooked bill. Crested. has black crown; above black boldly banded white, including wings and tail. Below smooth gray. has chestnut forecrown, black forecrown; above black boldly banded ochraceous. Below uniform grayish buff. So much larger than other antbirds that confusion is improbable. Despite their great size, Giant Antshrikes are hard to see as they sneak about in thick growth, only very rarely emerging from cover. They range in pairs, often well separated, and are infrequent with flocks. Prey consists of large insects as well as vertebrates such as lizards and frogs. Their resounding song carries far but is ventriloquial so hard to track to its source; it consists of a fast series of musical notes that starts with a trill, “tre-de-de-de-de-deh!-deh!-deh!-deh!-deh!-deh!-deh!-deh!-deh!-chew!” Call similar to Tufted and Large-tailed Antshrikes.

243

SPOT-BACKED ANTSHRIKE CHOCÃO-CARIJÓ

LARGE-TAILED ANTSHRIKE BORRALHARA-ASSOBIADORA

TUFTED ANTSHRIKE BORRALHARA-DE-TOPETE

GIANT ANTSHRIKE MATRACÃO

WHITE-BEARDED ANTSHRIKE Biatas nigropectus

18 cm|7”

Rare to locally uncommon in lower and midlevels of foothill and lower montane forest from Rio de Janeiro and S Minas Gerais to S São Paulo, everywhere favoring bamboo. 500-1500 m. Stout pale grayish bill; short shaggy crest often raised. Boldly patterned has black crown and creamy white nuchal collar connecting to white cheeks and chin; reddish brown above, wings and tail rufescent. Large shield on breast black, belly buffy brownish. has rufous crown and narrow white superciliary; above otherwise like , including distinctive nuchal collar. Buffy brownish below (no black). unmistakable, but can be confused with commoner White-collared Foliage-gleaner, buffier below and with brighter rufous tail and very different voice. Found singly or in pairs, sometimes with understory flocks but always shy and hard to see well. Song a series of 6-8 soft, querulous, and high-pitched notes, “kiu-kiu-kiu-kiukiu-kiu-kiu,” often accompanied by tail pumping. Calls include a more nasal “caw,” sometimes repeated, and a descending churring.

SILVERY-CHEEKED ANTSHRIKE Sakesphorus cristatus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Uncommon in lower growth of deciduous woodland and arid scrub in N Minas Gerais and S Bahia. 500-1150 m. Bushy crest often raised. Handsome has foreface, crown, and bib black contrasting with silvery to grayish white cheeks, hindneck, and sides; back rufescent brown; wings black, coverts with white markings, tail black barred white. Below whitish. rufescent brown above, brightest on crown and tail; wings duskier, white markings as in . Below buffy whitish. Rufous-winged Antshrike has plain rufous wings. Usually in pairs, skulking in undergrowth, generally found when vocalizing. Song a rather high-pitched, accelerating “cuh, cuh, cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh-craa.” Calls include a musical “too,” a “caw-caw-cawrr,” and a gravelly “drrrt.”

GREAT ANTSHRIKE Taraba major

20 cm|8”

Fairly common to common in shrubby thickets, woodland undergrowth, and thickets at forest borders, but largely absent from Rio de Janeiro and E and S São Paulo. Mostly below 1000 m. Heavy hooked bill; iris bright red. Slight shaggy crest. black above with obvious white edging on wing-coverts; tail with white banding. White below. has rufous replacing ’s black; lacks white in wings and tail. No other antbird is so obviously bicolored. Ranges in pairs that hop through undergrowth, usually hard to see, sometimes with mixed flocks but usually independent. Heard more than seen, with song an accelerating series of hooting notes with a bouncing-ball effect, trogon-like aside from its snarled “nyaah” ending (occasionally left off, or even doubled). Also gives various rattled calls and “cah” notes. THAMNOPHILUS antshrikes are midsized antbirds with hooked bills that range in lower growth, most in forest and woodland, a few in more open terrain; all are very vocal.

BARRED ANTSHRIKE Thamnophilus doliatus

16 cm|6.25”

CHESTNUT-BACKED ANTSHRIKE Thamnophilus palliatus

16.5 cm|6.5”

Common in thickets, scrub, and lower growth of semideciduous woodland and gardens (sometimes even in towns) in interior São Paulo and adjacent Minas Gerais. 300-1000 m. Iris yellow. Expressive loose crest. Unmistakable black above barred white, crown unbarred but with semiconcealed white; face and hindneck streaked. Below white barred black. cinnamon-rufous above, sides of head and hindneck streaked buffy whitish and black. Below ochraceous buff. Occurs in pairs that hop and peer in foliage searching for insects, generally not with mixed flocks. Song a fast, accelerating series of nasal notes, “kah-kah-ka-ka-kakakakakakaka-kánh,” with distinctive emphasized final note; the often follows with a higher-pitched version. Caatinga Antshrike (T. capistratus) replaces Barred Antshrike (from which it was only recently split, a split not universally accepted) in N Minas Gerais and Bahia, favoring similar habitats. Both sexes have iris red; less boldly barred below. Behavior and voice similar. Fairly common in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland (also restinga) in lowlands from E Bahia to S Rio de Janeiro. To 700 m. Iris pale grayish. has black crown, black-and-white streaked face and hindneck, and rufous-chestnut upperparts. Below coarsely barred black and white. ’s crown rufous-chestnut. Rufous-capped Antshrike is less brightly colored above, has less barring below, etc. Forages in pairs, favoring dense thickets but not too hard to see. Oft-heard song a fast, accelerating series of nasal notes with accented final note, ’s slightly higher-pitched.

245 WHITE-BEARDED ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-DA-TAQUARA

SILVERY-CHEEKED ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-DO-NORDESTE

GREAT ANTSHRIKE CHORÓ-BOI

BARRED ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-BARRADA

CHESTNUT-BACKED ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-LISTRADA

RUFOUS-CAPPED ANTSHRIKE Thamnophilus ruficapillus

16 cm|6.25”

RUFOUS-WINGED ANTSHRIKE Thamnophilus torquatus

14 cm|5.5”

Locally fairly common in scrub, regenerating clearings, and undergrowth at edge of semideciduous and gallery woodland from Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais southward. Mostly 500-2100 m, spreading in deforested areas down to near coast. Iris red. reddish brown above, bright rufous on crown (especially) and wings; tail dusky, outer feathers barred white. Below buffy whitish, grayer on flanks, with broad band of neat black-and-white barring across breast. brownish above with rufous crown, wings, and tail. Below buffy whitish. distinctive ( Rufous-winged Antshrike has black, not rufous, crown), but s of these two species are very similar aside from Rufous-winged’s smaller size; they are often best distinguished by accompanying s. Cf. also Chestnut-backed Antshrike. This antshrike is mostly noted when s are singing as otherwise they tend to remain in dense cover. Song a rather high-pitched and nasal “renh, renh, renh, reh-reh-reh-reh-reh-reh-rénh” that starts slowly, then accelerates before ending with an accented final note. Both sexes give raspy calls.

Uncommon and somewhat local in scrub, regenerating clearings (occasionally even in sun-coffee plantations), and cerrado in Bahia, Minas Gerais, and interior São Paulo. Locally to 1400 m. Iris red. Rather small. has black crown and gray face and neck, brownish back, and contrasting rufous-chestnut wings; tail black with white barring. Below whitish with black barring across breast. very similar in plumage to of more widespread Rufous-capped Antshrike though averaging buffier below; Rufous-capped is larger. Behavior, including vocalizations, similar.

SOORETAMA SLATY ANTSHRIKE Thamnophilus ambiguus

14.5 cm|5.75”

VARIABLE ANTSHRIKE Thamnophilus caerulescens

14.5 cm|5.75”

Fairly common to common and widespread in lower growth of humid forest and woodland, also restinga, in lowlands from E Bahia and E Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. Mostly below 200 m, locally to 450 m (Rio Doce, Minas Gerais). gray above with black crown, back mixed with black and white; wings black with bold white markings. Below slightly paler gray. rather pale brownish above, crown more rufescent; wings and tail marked as in , primaries with rufous edging. Below pale buffy brownish. Cf. Variable Antshrike, which mainly occurs at higher elevations; Variable does not habitually wag its tail. Usually occurs in pairs, often accompanying understory flocks and generally easy to observe, moving slowly and often perching in the open. Both sexes wag their tail almost continuously (not just when singing, like so many other antbirds do), helping to make them easy to recognize. Song a distinctive series of rather rapidly repeated, hollow notes that start slowly but quickly accelerate. Gives a variety of calls, most a variant of guttural and rapidly repeated “caw” notes, sometimes more syncopated. Planalto Slaty Antshrike (T. pelzelni) replaces Sooretama Slaty in lower growth of semideciduous woodland in interior São Paulo. Nearly identical to Sooretama Slaty in plumage, both sexes differing marginally in their more whitish belly. Planalto wags its tail nearly as incessantly. Song similar but faster-paced and slightly higher-pitched.

Common and widespread in lower growth of montane and foothill forest and woodland, borders, locally even in city parks (e.g., in São Paulo). 5002500 m. In most of range (A) gray above with blackish crown and nape, face gray and often looking somewhat scaly, back with some black mixed in; wings and tail black, wings with bold white bars, tail feathers broadly white-tipped. Below slightly paler gray. s in S São Paulo (B) have tawny on belly. All s olivaceous brown above, crown more rufescent; wings and tail blackish, wing-coverts edged white, tail feathers tipped white. Throat and chest grayish olive, lower underparts rather bright tawny. closely resembles Sooretama Slaty Antshrike, though for the most part they do not overlap (Variable at higher elevations); Sooretama Slaty wags its tail constantly. ’s tawny below is not equaled by any other antshrike. Numerous in most montane areas, this antshrike is bold and easily seen and will quickly become familiar. ’s simple song a fairly fast repetition of 5-7 “kaw” or “kuw” notes, the often chiming in with a higher-pitched version. Call a distinctive nasal “raaah.”

247

RUFOUS-CAPPED ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-DE-CHAPÉU-VERMELHO

RUFOUS-WINGED ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-DE-ASA-VERMELHA

SOORETAMA SLATY ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-DE-SOORETAMA

VARIABLE ANTSHRIKE CHOCA-DA-MATA

A

B

CINEREOUS ANTSHRIKE Thamnomanes caesius

14.5 cm|5.75”

Rare to locally uncommon in lower growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro, more numerous northward. Mostly below 300 m, a few to 800 m. uniform slaty gray. olivaceous brown above with dull ochraceous lores; wings and tail more rufescent. Throat dull whitish, chest grayish olive, lower underparts buff. Plumbeous Antvireo shows faint pale tipping on wing-coverts and its belly is a bit brighter. Ranges in pairs or small family groups around which flocks of understory birds frequently coalesce. Perches erectly on horizontal limbs, abruptly sallying out after insect prey, often something flushed by another bird. Song starts slowly with several shrill whistled notes, then accelerates before ending in a bubbling trill, e.g., “whee? whee? whee-whee-whee-wheep-wheep-whipwhipwhip-p-p-p-p-p-pprrrr.” Both sexes frequently give a distinctive staccato “wer-chicory” call. The population of E Brazil is threatened by deforestation. DYSITHAMNUS antvireos are fairly small, chunky, short-tailed antbirds with rather heavy bills ranging in lower growth of forest (mostly) or woodland.

PLAIN ANTVIREO Dysithamnus mentalis

12 cm|4.75”

Fairly common to common and widespread in lower growth of foothill and lower montane forest and woodland, locally into semideciduous forest as well; less numerous northward. Locally to 1600 m. has gray head and neck merging into olive upperparts, and with blackish auriculars; wing-coverts narrowly edged whitish. Throat whitish, chest pale gray, belly pale yellow. olive above with contrasting rufous crown and gray face with blackish auriculars; wings and tail with considerable rufous edging. Throat whitish, breast olive grayish, belly pale yellow. The dark auriculars are distinctive, as is ’s obvious rufous crown (but cf. Rufous-crowned and Gray-eyed Greenlets). Variable Antshrike shows no yellow below. Usually in pairs accompanying understory flocks, foraging lethargically but with frequent soft calling; sometimes peers around for protracted periods. Song a simple short series of semimusical “pu” notes that accelerates into a clipped roll. Calls include a nasal “weeur,” a soft “ert,” and a fast rising “wu-ri-ri-ri-ri?”

SPOT-BREASTED ANTVIREO Dysithamnus stictothorax

12.5 cm|5”

RUFOUS-BACKED ANTVIREO Dysithamnus xanthopterus

12.5 cm|5”

PLUMBEOUS ANTVIREO Dysithamnus plumbeus

12.5 cm|5”

Locally fairly common in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1250 m; in Bahia and Espírito Santo above 500 m. Iris reddish. dusky-olive above, head and neck much grayer with postocular stripe of white streaks arching around ear-coverts; wing-coverts edged white. Below apricot yellow with black spotting on breast. similar, including the breast spotting, but with rufous crown. Often occurs with Plain Antvireo, which is a bit smaller and lacks any spotting below or streaking on face. Behavior much like Plain Antvireo, foraging most often in viny tangles. Vigorous song an accelerating series of musical notes that first rise in pitch and drop at end. Call a burry “wurr,” often steadily repeated.

Uncommon in midlevels and subcanopy of montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest) in mountains of Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. 800-1700 m, a few to 1900 m. Striking has head, neck, and upper back gray; face dotted white imparting a grizzled effect; above otherwise bright rufous-chestnut. Pale grayish below. similar but with rufous crown and yellowish buff facial spotting and underparts. Rufous-backed occurs at higher elevations than other antvireos, and also moves further above ground than they do; it forages in pairs, often accompanying mixed flocks. Song a fast-paced series of 10-12 minor-keyed whistled notes, slightly descending or fading. Call a high-pitched note, usually doubled or in a short series, very different from other antvireos.

EN

Rare and local in undergrowth of humid forest and mature woodland in lowlands from SE Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro. Locally to 800 m. slaty gray, blacker on chest, and with semiconcealed white dorsal patch; wing-coverts with two narrow white bars and dotting. olive brown above, somewhat grayer on head, wing-coverts narrowly tipped whitish. Throat whitish, below dull brownish, belly more ochraceous. Both sexes of Cinereous Antshrike lack wing markings. Myrmotherula antwrens are smaller, etc. An inconspicuous bird that forages in pairs close to the ground, sometimes with understory flocks. Song a series of melancholy whistled notes that speed up slightly, the last note dropping. Threatened by deforestation.

249

CINEREOUS ANTSHRIKE IPECUÁ

PLAIN ANTVIREO CHOQUINHA-LISA

SPOT-BREASTED ANTVIREO CHOQUINHA-DE-PEITO-PINTADO

RUFOUS-BACKED ANTVIREO CHOQUINHA-DE-ASA-FERRUGEM

PLUMBEOUS ANTVIREO CHOQUINHA-CHUMBO

MYRMOTHERULA antwrens are small, short-tailed antbirds ranging in understory of humid lowland forest. SILVERY-FLANKED ANTWREN Myrmotherula luctuosa 10 cm|4” Fairly common in lower and middle growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland (in Espírito Santo also restinga forest) from E Bahia to NE São Paulo. To 800 m. gray above, wing-coverts blacker with two white bars and spotting, tail feathers narrowly tipped white. Below gray with extensive black bib and somewhat contrasting silvery gray flanks. brownish gray above, wings and tail browner, wings with two faint buff bars. Ochraceous below with whiter throat and grayer flanks. The most numerous and widespread Myrmotherula in our area, useful as a basis for comparison with the others. Distinctive song a fast, burry “dr-dr-dr-dree-dree-dree-drew” with variations, also several squealing scolds. By some called White-flanked Antwren (M. axillaris), this when E Brazil birds – widely disjunct and with completely different voice – are not split as a separate species.

BAND-TAILED ANTWREN Myrmotherula urosticta VU

SALVADORI’S ANTWREN Myrmotherula minor VU

CR

9.5 cm|3.75”

Uncommon and local in lower growth of humid forest in lowlands from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro. Below 200 m. rather pale gray with large black bib on throat and midchest; wing-coverts black with two bars and spotting, tail black with a quite wide white tip (obvious in the field, especially from below). rather pale gray above, wings with two whitish bars; tail as in . Throat whitish, below creamy buff. Band-tailed’s tail band is much wider than in other antwrens. Behavior as in the previous species. Distinctive song a series of 3-5 nasal “chuwee?” notes that ascend markedly, sometimes preceded by harsher scolds. Threatened by urbanization. 9 cm|3.5”

Rare to uncommon and local in lower and middle growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. To 800 m. rather pale gray with a small black bib and blackish subterminal tail band, white tip; wing-coverts black with two wing-bars and spots. has ashy gray crown and nape, blending into more olive brown back; wing-coverts duskier with two faint buff bars. Throat whitish, below dull buff, belly more ochraceous. Silvery-flanked Antwren is darker gray overall with a larger black bib and silvery gray flanks; Silvery-flanked shows contrasting paler flanks. Bandtailed Antwren shows an obvious white tail tip (both sexes). Cf. Unicolored Antwren. Behavior as in Unicolored Antwren, sometimes even with it in the same flock. Song a single “peeyt” note, repeated at intervals, sometimes with interspersed chatters. Threatened by deforestation. Rio de Janeiro Antwren (M. fluminensis) is known from only a single specimen taken below Serra dos Órgãos in Rio de Janeiro; likely not a valid species. Resembles Salvadori’s, but black bib reportedly larger.

UNICOLORED ANTWREN Myrmotherula unicolor

9.5 cm|3.75”

STAR-THROATED ANTWREN Rhopias gularis

9.5 cm|3.75”

Uncommon and local in lower growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo (where also locally in restinga). To 600 m (REGUA). uniform pale gray, sometimes showing black on throat. olive brown above, grayer on head and neck and more rufescent on flight feathers and tail. Throat whitish, below pale olivaceous buff. Young resembles but head and back more grayish. Our only Myrmotherula with plain, unspotted wing-coverts; note that wing-markings can be faint in Silvery-flankeds and Salvadori’s. Young s closely resemble Salvadori’s Antwren but tend to have more gray in wings (wings browner in Salvadori’s). Pairs of this scarce antwren forage with mixed flocks in forest understory, favoring viny tangles. Distinctive song a high-pitched “eeeeeeu,” often repeated or interspersed with scolds.

Locally fairly common on or near ground in humid and lower montane forest and woodland from SE Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1500 m; in Bahia and Espírito Santo above 500 m. rufescent brown above, forehead and face grizzled gray; wing-coverts black with two buffyish bars. Throat black spotted white; below gray. has larger throat spots. Our only antwren with throat spotting; more terrestrial than the others. Ranges in pairs, foraging independently of mixed flocks, favoring ravines and the vicinity of streams. Song a series of up to 10-12 descending, wheezy notes. Also gives a fast “jt-jt-jt” contact call and a raspy “dzew-dzew-dzew.” Formerly classified in the genus Myrmotherula.

251

SILVERY-FLANKED ANTWREN CHOQUINHA-DE-FLANCO-PRATEADO

BAND-TAILED ANTWREN CHOQUINHA-DE-RABO-CINTADO

SALVADORI’S ANTWREN CHOQUINHA-PEQUENA

UNICOLORED ANTWREN CHOQUINHA-CINZA

STAR-THROATED ANTWREN CHOQUINHA-DE-GARGANTA-PINTADA

FORMICIVORA antwrens are attractive small antbirds found in shrubby habitats, not the forest so typical of

many antbirds. s of most have a distinctive white “fringe” down sides. They hop through dense undergrowth, mostly in pairs, frequently wagging their partly spread tail.

SOUTHERN WHITE-FRINGED ANTWREN Formicivora grisea

12.5 cm|5”

Uncommon in dense undergrowth of shrubby woodland, regenerating clearings, and restinga in lowlands from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro (where rare). To 300 m. grayish brown above with white superciliary extending as stripe down neck to flanks; wings blackish with white bar and spotting on coverts; tail feathers broadly edged white. Below black. like above but white superciliary does not extend to underparts. Below cinnamon-buff, throat white. Black-bellied Antwren has less obvious white “fringe” on underparts. Song a steadily repeated series of sharp “cha” or “chup” notes, often repeated for 20-30 seconds or more. By some called simply White-fringed Antwren.

BLACK-BELLIED ANTWREN Formicivora melanogaster

CR

13 cm|5.25”

Uncommon in dense scrub and undergrowth at edge of semideciduous woodland, mainly in interior São Paulo. 400-700 m. grayish brown above with broad white superciliary extending down sides of neck; wings blackish with white bar and spotting on coverts; tail feathers broadly edged white, outermost edged white. Below all black, white on flanks usually hidden. browner above and with blackish cheeks. Below all whitish. S. White-fringed buff below. Cf. also Serra Antwren. Song an irregularly paced series of “cha” notes. São Paulo Marsh Antwren (F. paludicola) was recently (2013!) described from cattail marshes of NE São Paulo state. Slightly larger than Black-bellied. , very dark, lacks the long white brow and has white-spotted wing-coverts. Distinctive coarsely streaked black below.

SERRA ANTWREN Formicivora serrana

12.5 cm|5”

RESTINGA ANTWREN Formicivora littoralis

12.5 cm|5”

Locally fairly common in dense scrub and shrubby regenerating areas in E Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. To 1550 m. NE Minas and Espírito Santo s resemble Black-bellied Antwren but have crown and back richer and more rufescent and tertial edging rufescent (not white). In SE Minas and Rio much blacker overall with only a broken superciliary and no white at all below. s like Black-bellied Antwren, but slightly buffier below. Does not occur with Black-bellied Antwren; cf. Restinga Antwren. Song a fast series of up to 15-20 steadily repeated “cha” notes.

EN

Fairly common but very local in scrubby restinga woodland along N Rio de Janeiro coast. Resembles southern race of Serra Antwren and, despite its different habitat, probably should be regarded as conspecific. Endangered by coastal development, but the Costa del Sol Park includes considerable habitat. essentially black, lacking any trace of a white superciliary, but retaining a white wing-bar and some spotting on coverts and scapulars. very like Black-bellied and Serra Antwrens. Song as in Serra Antwren (Restingas respond strongly to Serra Antwren recordings).

RUSTY-BACKED ANTWREN Formicivora rufa

12.5 cm|5”

Locally fairly common in low scrubby areas and grassy areas with scattered shrubs in Minas Gerais and N São Paulo, also locally in scrubby restinga near coast from Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro. To 800 m. rusty brown above with white superciliary extending down neck and conspicuously onto sides; wings blackish with buffy whitish spots, tail feathers broadly tipped white. Below black, flanks buff. like above. Below white conspicuously streaked black on throat and breast, flanks buff. s are much more rufescent above than any congener. Song a very fast churring, “ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch,” lasting a few seconds, often breaking into a trebled “che-de-de” phrase.

BLACK-HOODED ANTWREN Formicivora erythronotos CR

11.5 cm|4.5”

Extremely local, known only from undergrowth and borders of swampy and humid woodland in S Rio de Janeiro (Angra dos Reis and Paraty; in the past recorded further N in Rio). Not uncommon where it still occurs. Below 100 m. has head, neck, and underparts black with contrasting rufous-chestnut back and silky white flank plumes (often hidden by wings); wing-coverts tipped white. patterned like , retaining rufous-chestnut back (though duller) and flank plumes, olive brownish replacing ’s black. Rufous on back renders this super-rare bird unmistakable. Forages in pairs in dense lower growth, independent of flocks, not hard to observe. Song a fast series of “tcho” notes. Threatened by habitat destruction.

253

SOUTHERN WHITE-FRINGED ANTWREN FORMIGUEIRO-PARDO

BLACK-BELLIED ANTWREN FORMIGUEIRO-DE-BARRIGA-PRETA

SERRA ANTWREN FORMIGUEIRO-DA-SERRA

RESTINGA ANTWREN FORMIGUEIRO-DO-LITORAL

RUSTY-BACKED ANTWREN FORMIGUEIRO-VERMELHO

BLACK-HOODED ANTWREN FORMIGUEIRO-DE-CABEÇA-PRETA

STREAK-CAPPED ANTWREN Terenura maculata

10 cm|4”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and foothill forest and woodland from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1100 m. has head and neck streaked black and white, contrasting with bright rufous back; wings and tail blackish, wings with two white bars. Below mainly white, some black streaking on sides, belly pale yellow. like but duller and paler, throat and streaking on head buffier, and streaking below sparser. This attractive, arboreal antwren is essentially unique in our area, but cf. Rufous-winged Antwren (with rufous in wings, not on its back). Generally seen in pairs that often accompany mixed flocks; these glean in foliage, showing a decided preference for viny tangles. Song a simple dry trill; more distinctive is its rhythmic, syncopated call, a series of “pichíchu” or “picheéya” phrases, sometimes added to song. HERPSILOCHMUS antwrens are small, active antbirds that are arboreal in forest-edge situations and woodland. They habitually shiver their fairly long tails when they sing.

RUFOUS-WINGED ANTWREN Herpsilochmus rufimarginatus

11.5 cm|4.5”

BLACK-CAPPED ANTWREN Herpsilochmus atricapillus

12 cm|4.75”

BAHIA ANTWREN Herpsilochmus pileatus

11.5 cm|4.5”

Fairly common and relatively widespread in canopy and especially borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland. To 1100 m. Both sexes have distinctive and conspicuous rufous edging on flight feathers. has black crown, long white superciliary, and black postocular line; back mixed gray and black; wings black with two white bars and the rufous; tail blackish, feathers broadly tipped white, outermost edged white. Below creamy yellow. like but crown rufous-chestnut, postocular line dusky, and back brownish olive. An arboreal bird that forages in pairs, frequently accompanying flocks and favoring viny tangles. Singing birds usually shiver their tail (often a good way to spot them), with song a fast descending and accelerating series of nasal notes, e.g., “chu, chu,chu-chu-ch-ch-chchch-rrr-chúp,” with distinctive accented final note, often followed by ’s higher-pitched version.

Locally fairly common in midlevels and subcanopy of semideciduous and gallery woodland and adjacent scrub in Minas Gerais and São Paulo. 3001100 m. has black crown and postocular line with a long white superciliary; back gray, wings and tail black, wings with bold white bars, tail feathers broadly tipped white, outermost edged white. Below pale grayish. has buff forehead, crown streaked black and white, whitish superciliary, and grayish olive back; wings and tail as in . Below whitish, breast tinged buff. Cf. the very similar Bahia Antwren (no overlap). Large-billed Antwren is larger; its has obvious spotting below, while the orange-rufous is very different. Forages in pairs, mainly in foliage, and easy to observe. ’s song a chippered trill often introduced by a hiccupping note, accelerating and then slowing into a sputter at end, the often echoing with a higher-pitched version.

VU

Uncommon and local in restinga woodland and humid forest borders in coastal lowlands of S Bahia. Below 100 m. Closely resembles Black-capped Antwren, from which Bahia was only recently separated as a species; there is no range overlap. Very similar in plumage, but with notably shorter tail. Behavior and voice also very similar. Threatened by development in its restricted habitat.

LARGE-BILLED ANTWREN Herpsilochmus longirostris

12.5 cm|5”

Locally fairly common in midlevels and subcanopy of gallery and semideciduous forest and woodland in N and W São Paulo. 300-1100 m. Bill rather long (but this not a field character). has black crown, long whitish superciliary, and black postocular line; back gray mottled with a little black and white. Wings and tail black, coverts with two white bars and spotting, tail feathers broadly tipped white, outermost edged white. Below white, throat and breast with gray “streaky” spots (these obvious in the field). Pretty has orange-rufous head and neck, brightest on crown, and contrasting with gray back; wings and tail as in . Below bright cinnamon-buff. Black-capped Antwren is smaller; has no spotting below while the Large-billed is unmistakable. Behavior much as in Black-capped Antwren, and generally even easier to observe as it favors lower-stature habitats. Song an even series of about 15 chippered notes that slow markedly toward end, e.g., “wh-chchchchchchchchchch-chu-chu.”

255

STREAK-CAPPED ANTWREN ZIDEDÊ

RUFOUS-WINGED ANTWREN CHOROZINHO-DE-ASA-VERMELHA

BLACK-CAPPED ANTWREN CHOROZINHO-DE-CHAPÉU-PRETO

BAHIA ANTWREN CHOROZINHO-DE-BONÉ

LARGE-BILLED ANTWREN CHOROZINHO-BICUDO

DRYMOPHILA are boldly patterned, streaky antbirds with long graduated tails and a white interscapular patch (exposed when bird is agitated). Though quite vocal, they are otherwise inconspicuous. FERRUGINOUS ANTBIRD Drymophila ferruginea

14 cm|5.5”

BERTONI’S ANTBIRD Drymophila rubricollis

14 cm|5.5”

Fairly common and widespread in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland. Mostly below 1200 m (above 500 m northward). has black crown and bold white superciliary; above rufescent brown with black and white in midback; wings and tail black, coverts with two white bars, tail feathers boldly tipped white. Below bright ferruginous. similar but paler and duller below, tail duskier, and crown streaked grayish. The paler and less intensely colored Bertoni’s Antbird occurs at higher elevations, with limited overlap. Usually in pairs, hopping through thick growth, and not especially tied to bamboo; sometimes with mixed flocks. Distinctive, frequently heard song a simple “jee, jeweé?” a few additional notes sometimes appended. Fairly common in undergrowth and borders of lower montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro southward. 900-1800 m. Resembles Ferruginous Antbird (separated as a distinct species only recently), but both sexes paler, especially on belly, and tail dusky (not black). also has a more rufescent forecrown. Generally identified by range and voice. Behavior as in Ferruginous, likewise not tied to bamboo. Song very different, a fast series of nasal notes that obviously descend, e.g., “jeep, ji-ji-jee-jee-jew.”

OCHRE-RUMPED ANTBIRD Drymophila ochropyga

13.5 cm|5.25”

Locally fairly common in bamboo-dominated undergrowth of foothill and lower montane forest and borders from SE Bahia (where local) to S São Paulo. 6001400 m. has black crown and white superciliary; above brownish gray with bright rufous lower back and rump; wings and tail black, wings with two white bars, tail feathers boldly tipped white. Underparts boldly streaked black and white, flanks and crissum contrastingly rufous. similar but crown streaked, back less gray, and underparts buffier. Dusky-tailed Antbird lacks rufous on rump and underparts, shows no superciliary. Rufous-tailed Antbird (found at lower elevations) has an obviously rufous tail and much rufous in wings. Pairs hop through thick bamboo where hard to see, especially when not singing. Song a nasal, snarling, drawn-out “júr, jeeeeeu,” with sometimes following with several descending notes.

RUFOUS-TAILED ANTBIRD Drymophila genei

14 cm|5.5”

DUSKY-TAILED ANTBIRD Drymophila malura

14.5 cm|5.75”

SCALED ANTBIRD Drymophila squamata

11.5 cm|4.75”

Fairly common in bamboo-dominated undergrowth of montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) in higher mountains from S Espírito Santo and adjacent Minas Gerais to NE São Paulo. 1200-2200 m. has black crown and white superciliary; brown above, back mixed with black, becoming rufous on rump and entire tail; also has conspicuous rufous in flight feathers. Below whitish, breast feathers scaled black, flanks buffier. has rufous rump, tail, and on wings as in , but browner and buffier overall. No other Drymophila shows obvious rufous in wing, or a rufous tail; Ochre-rumped mainly ranges at lower elevations. Accompanies mixed flocks more than other Drymophila. ’s distinctive song a snarling “pi-jzzz-jzzz-jzzz-jzzz-jzzz.”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in shrubby undergrowth at edge of humid forest and woodland from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro southward. Mostly 800-1700 m. generally streaked black and whitish. Back mostly grayish; wings and tail dusky, wing-coverts with two narrow bars; flanks more brownish. is more olivaceous brown above and buffier below. Cf. Scaled Antbird (less streaky, etc.). Song a fast series of accelerating notes that descend and end in a chipper, e.g., “chew, chew-chee-chee-chi-chi-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch.” Fairly common in undergrowth and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from Bahia to S São Paulo. Below 600 m. black above with white superciliary and bold white back spotting; wings black with two white bars, tail black with prominent white bands. Below white spotted black. like but browner above with buff superciliary, spotting, and wing and tail markings. Below whitish spotted dusky. Other Drymophila are more montane. Hops on or near ground, where often easier to see than its congeners. Distinctive song a slow, raspy “pseey-pseeu-pseeu-pseeupsew,” markedly descending.

257 FERRUGINOUS ANTBIRD TROVOADA

BERTONI’S ANTBIRD TROVOADA-DE-BERTONI

OCHRE-RUMPED ANTBIRD CHOQUINHA-DE-DORSO-RUIVO

RUFOUS-TAILED ANTBIRD CHOQUINHA-DA-SERRA

DUSKY-TAILED ANTBIRD CHOQUINHA-CARIJÓ

SCALED ANTBIRD PINTADINHO

RIO DE JANEIRO ANTBIRD Cercomacra brasiliana

15 cm|6”

WHITE-BIBBED ANTBIRD Myrmeciza loricata

15 cm|6”

SQUAMATE ANTBIRD Myrmeciza squamosa

15 cm|6”

SCALLOPED ANTBIRD Myrmeciza ruficauda

15 cm|6”

Rare and inexplicably local in tangled undergrowth at edge of humid forest and secondary woodland in SE Bahia, E Minas Gerais and adjacent Espírito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro. To 950 m, but mostly above 400 m. gray, slightly paler below, with usually hidden white interscapular patch; wings blackish, coverts with narrow white fringing; blackish tail somewhat graduated, feathers narrowly white-tipped. olive brown above, also with a white interscapular patch, and often showing a narrow whitish eye-ring; wings and tail blackish, narrow fringing on coverts and very narrow tail tipping ochraceous. Below quite bright ochraceous tawny. Really resembles no other antbird in our area. Found in well-separated pairs, not associating with other birds; skulking, and favors dense growth (sometimes bamboo), but often responds to recordings. Usually found by tracking down its distinctive voice, with ’s song a slowly repeated tinny and nasal “karnk” call interspersed with ’s higher-pitched “wrik” call. MYRMECIZA antbirds are attractive small antbirds found on or near ground in forest, our three species basically replacing each other. Legs are pinkish in all three. Uncommon on or near ground in foothill and montane forest and woodland from S Bahia to extreme NE São Paulo. 200-1350 m. brown above with long broad white superciliary surmounting black face and upper throat, and semiconcealed white dorsal patch; wing-coverts black with bold buff and white spots. Lower throat white with band of black, white-scaled feathers across chest; lower underparts mostly whitish. like above but wing spots all buff. Throat ochraceous-buff; below whitish, sides with blackish mottling. Squamate Antbird has an entirely black throat (no white), narrower white superciliary. ’s buff throat unique among our three Myrmeciza. Found singly or in pairs, hopping on the ground, periodically flicking leaves with bill; only rarely with flocks. Song a shrill series of fast doublets, “whee-see, whee-see, whee-see, whee-see, whee-see, whee-see,” gradually descending.

Uncommon on or near ground in humid forest and woodland in extreme S Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. To 1000 m. resembles White-bibbed Antbird above but long white superciliary narrower. Sides of head and throat all black, breast boldly scaled black and white, belly whitish and buff. like above, but throat and breast white with only faint blackish scaling. White-bibbed Antbird has white lower throat, a wider white brow; it occurs to N, with little or no overlap. Behavior as in White-bibbed Antbird. Song also similar but more forceful and even shriller.

EN

Rare and local on or near ground in humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to Espírito Santo. Below 500 m. olive brown above, back feathers fringed buff, rump and tail rufous; wing-coverts blackish with prominent buff bars. Throat, lower cheeks, and midbreast black, feathers on sides of neck and breast fringed white giving scaly look; belly ochraceous. like above but paler on head and neck. Throat white, breast whitish boldly scalloped and spotted black, belly ochraceous. White-bibbed Antbird has a bold white superciliary (both sexes), whiter underparts; Scalloped is more a lowland bird. Behavior as in White-bibbed and Squamate Antbirds, but song very different, more a trilled “tree-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee” lasting 2-3 seconds. Threatened by deforestation.

WHITE-SHOULDERED FIRE-EYE Pyriglena leucoptera

EN

18 cm|7”

Common and widespread in undergrowth of humid and montane forest and woodland, also araucaria forest. Mostly below 1250 m, locally to 1800 m. Iris bright red. glossy black with semiconcealed white dorsal patch and white bend of wing and tipping on wing-coverts forming two bars. plain rufescent brown above with blackish tail. Throat whitish, below dingy buffy brownish. Striking is so black that confusion unlikely, while ’s bright red eye stands out and should preclude confusion. Forages mostly in pairs, usually independent of flocks though sometimes several will gather at swarms of army ants. Often bold and easy to see. Frequently heard song a loud, penetrating “peer-peer-peer-peer-peer-peer-peer;” call a repeated “keeyp.” Fringe-backed Fire-eye (P. atra) replaces White-shouldered in remnant humid forest and woodland around Salvador. lacks any white in wing, and has very large, always visible white dorsal patch. similar. Behavior and voice as in White-shouldered. Threatened by habitat destruction, due to urbanization and agriculture.

259

RIO DE JANEIRO ANTBIRD CHORORÓ-CINZENTO

WHITE-BIBBED ANTBIRD FORMIGUEIRO-ASSOBIADOR

SQUAMATE ANTBIRD FORMIGUEIRO-DA-GROTA

SCALLOPED ANTBIRD FORMIGUEIRO-DE-RABO-RUIVO

WHITE-SHOULDERED FIRE-EYE PAPA-TAOCA-DO-SUL

ANTTHRUSHES (Formicariidae) are shy solitary birds that walk on the forest floor. RUFOUS-CAPPED ANTTHRUSH Formicarius colma 18 cm|7”

Uncommon and local on or near ground in humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Locally to 800 m. Olive brown above with a bright rufous crown and nape. Face, sides of neck, and foreneck black shading to grayish on belly. Juveniles often have throat white, usually speckled blackish. Essentially unmistakable in its lowland forest habitat. A beautiful bird that parades around on forest floor with its short blackish tail cocked at a jaunty angle, looking like a little rail or a bantam hen. Usually seen alone. Forages by searching for invertebrate prey by flicking and probing in leaf litter. Heard far more often than seen, with song a fast and rather short series of musical notes that at first falter and drop in pitch, then rise distinctively. Alarm call a sharp “kyew!” or “tchew!” CHAMAEZA antthrushes are plump “ground antbirds” with patterned underparts. They walk on ground inside forest, their tails partially cocked. Our three species look very similar, and are best distinguished by elevation and through their lovely songs.

SHORT-TAILED ANTTHRUSH Chamaeza campanisona

20 cm|8”

Rare to uncommon and local (especially northward) on or near ground in humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills; most numerous in S São Paulo. To 1000 m. Lower mandible pinkish, as are legs. Brown above with buffy whitish loral spot, white postocular streak, and whitish patch on sides of neck; tail with blackish subterminal band and whitish tip. Below buffy whitish boldly marked with blackish chevrons and streaks, throat whiter and variably speckled. Beautifully patterned but hard to see; heard far more often. Occurs at lower elevations than other Chamaeza. A shy bird found singly or in pairs walking slowly on forest floor, often pumping its partially cocked tail. Singing birds often take a somewhat elevated perch, but even then usually remain hidden, slipping away when approached. Beautiful song a fast series of hollow musical “cow” notes that starts slowly but then accelerates before abruptly shifting into a short terminal series of 4-6 much less musical and more guttural “wop” or “wuk” notes. Alarm call a liquid “cuu-it.”

RUFOUS-TAILED ANTTHRUSH Chamaeza ruficauda

19.5 cm|7.75”

Fairly common on or near ground in higher montane forest and woodland (including araucaria forest) from Espírito Santo to São Paulo. Mostly 10002200 m. Bill all blackish; legs pinkish. Rufescent brown above with whitish postocular streak and usually a whitish loral spot. Below buffy whitish coarsely streaked and speckled blackish. Short-tailed Antthrush has a larger bill with pale lower mandible, is less rufescent above, and has a less uniform tail; however it, Rufous-tailed, and Cryptic Antthrush are very similar and will usually be distinguished by voice. Also helpful is their elevation segregation – Rufoustailed ranging highest, Short-tailed lowest, Cryptic in between. Rufous-tailed’s song is a short, fast series of bubbling musical notes that rise in pitch, typically lasting only 2-3 seconds, sounding like a bottle being filled up. Call a very different short “prrrt,” often repeated. Cryptic Antthrush (C. meruloides) is essentially identical in plumage to Rufous-tailed Antthrush, but has a dramatically different song. It ranges in foothills and lower mountains (700-1200 m) from SE Bahia to S São Paulo, mostly below Rufous-tailed and above Short-tailed. Beautiful song is an exceptionally long series of hollow musical “co” or “cu” notes that gradually speed up and rise and can last 20-30 seconds. Call a liquid “wheey-up.” Also known as Such’s Antthrush. ANTPITTAS (Grallariidae) are round short-tailed birds that hop and run on the ground, only occasionally mounting into undergrowth. Despite their loud and distinctive vocalizations they are notoriously hard to see.

VARIEGATED ANTPITTA Grallaria varia

20.5 cm|8”

Rare to locally uncommon on or near ground in humid and lower montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest). Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1500-1800 m. Plump, short-tailed, and very long-legged. Olive brown above with lores, postocular spot, and a broad malar stripe contrastingly white to buffy white; scaled gray hindcrown and nape; mantle feathers edged black giving a scaly look and with pale shaft streaks. Below buff with wavy dusky barring, usually more rufescent on lower belly. Speckle-breasted Antpitta is much smaller and has very different song. Shy and retiring, encountered singly as it hops or runs on forest floor, in early morning occasionally out onto damp trails or roads. Song a series of deep, hollow notes, e.g., “whoo-doodoo-doo, whoo-whoo-whoo-whoo,” sometimes delivered from a low branch. The population of S Bahia and adjacencies is threatened by deforestation.

261

RUFOUS-CAPPED ANTTHRUSH GALINHA-DO-MATO

SHORT-TAILED ANTTHRUSH TOVACA-CAMPAINHA

RUFOUS-TAILED ANTTHRUSH TOVACA-DE-RABO-VERMELHO

VARIEGATED ANTPITTA TOVACUÇU

SPECKLE-BREASTED ANTPITTA Hylopezus nattereri

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon in undergrowth and borders of montane forest and woodland mainly from extreme W Rio de Janeiro (Itatiaia) to S São Paulo. 900-2200 m. Plump and almost tail-less, with very long legs. Brownish gray above with broken eye-ring buffy whitish and buff lores. Below buff, whiter on throat and midbreast and more rufous on sides and flanks, with variable but usually profuse black chevrons and spotting. Variegated Antpitta is much larger, mainly ranges at lower elevations, etc. Hops on or near ground, generally in dense cover (often bamboo) and very hard to see. Distinctive song a fast series of emphatic whistled notes that slides up scale, e.g., “tu-tu-tu-tu-tu-tu-tu-téw-téwtéw-téw!” Singing birds perch on a low branch and often rock from side to side. GNATEATERS (Conopophagidae) are plump, short-tailed, long-legged birds like small antpittas but sexually dimorphic and with silvery or gray postocular tufts.

RUFOUS GNATEATER Conopophaga lineata

12.5 cm|5”

Widespread and fairly common in undergrowth and borders of humid forest and woodland, often even where degraded or fragmented, locally also in araucaria and semideciduous forest. Mostly 500-2400 m, southward a few to near sea level. above rufous brown with gray superciliary merging into a silvery postocular tuft ( ’s tuft is gray). Underparts orange-rufous with midbelly white. Cf. Black-cheeked Gnateater. Found singly or in pairs, remaining low but infrequent actually on ground, often perching on vertical saplings. They sometimes move with understory flocks, but more often are alone. ’s song a series of 8-10 (sometimes more) high-pitched whistled notes, hesitant at first, then accelerating and sliding up. Both sexes give a sharp, sneezing “chiff” or “cheff” call. The population of S Bahia is threatened.

BLACK-CHEEKED GNATEATER Conopophaga melanops

11.5 cm|4.5”

Uncommon in undergrowth of humid and foothill forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1000 m. Handsome has bright orange-rufous crown and nape, black face and sides of neck, and white throat. Brown above, back feathers scaled black, often some rufous on lesser coverts, and wing-coverts dotted buff. Below mainly gray. rufescent brown with whitish superciliary and postocular tuft; faint back-scaling blackish and dots on wing-coverts whitish. of slightly larger Rufous Gnateater has lower mandible yellowish (bill all black in Black-cheeked) and lacks wing-covert dotting and back-scaling and is brighter overall; Rufous ranges mostly at higher elevations. Behavior much as in Rufous Gnateater. Song a high-pitched trill that can last 8-10 seconds; a sharp “bzheeyk!” call is often heard. CRESCENTCHESTS (Melanopareiidae) are handsome long-tailed birds of semiopen terrain.

COLLARED CRESCENTCHEST Melanopareia torquata

14.5 cm|5.75”

SPOTTED BAMBOOWREN Psilorhamphus guttatus

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon and local in grassy cerrado with scattered bushes in Minas Gerais and N São Paulo. 600-1200 m. Tail fairly long. Rufescent brown above with a long narrow white superciliary, black sides of head, and rufous nuchal collar; semiconcealed white dorsal patch. Throat buff, narrow pectoral band black; below tawny-buff. Unique in our area. Found singly or in pairs, creeping and hopping about on or near the ground in tall grass and shrubbery, almost always out of sight. Rarely noted unless singing, though even then usually remains hidden in a shrub or grass. Song is a distinctive and far-carrying series of sharp but metallic “tü” notes, continuing for up to 20-30 seconds. TAPACULOS (Rhinocryptidae) are small, unobtrusive birds that inhabit woodland and forest undergrowth. Uncommon and local in dense lower growth of humid forest, woodland, and borders in lowlands from Espírito Santo to São Paulo. Locally to 1500 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Iris pale gray; long slender bill, mostly yellowish below. above mostly gray with white dots. Wings rufescent, wing-coverts dotted white; long tail dusky, looking barred (like a wren’s) but actually “notched” along its sides with buff and tipped white. Below pale grayish with tiny black dots, flanks rufescent. retains ’s spots and dots, but is brown above and buffy below; tail brownish dusky, “notched” as in . Virtually unmistakable, but cf. Long-billed Gnatwren. Well-named, favoring bamboo though also in thick viny undergrowth. Skulking, and often maddeningly difficult to see! Found singly or in pairs, often partially cocking its tail. Usually not with mixed flocks. Unique song a fairly fast series, lasting 15 seconds or more, of hollow resonant notes that sound like a ringing bell, e.g., “to-to-to-to-to….”

263 SPECKLE-BREASTED ANTPITTA PINTO-DO-MATO

RUFOUS GNATEATER CHUPA-DENTE

BLACK-CHEEKED GNATEATER CUSPIDOR-MASCARADO

COLLARED CRESCENTCHEST MEIA-LUA-DO-CERRADO

SPOTTED BAMBOOWREN TAPACULO-PINTADO

ELEOSCYTALOPUS and SCYTALOPUS tapaculos comprise a difficult group of secretive, almost mouse-like little birds that hop on or near the ground, mostly inside forest. All are mostly gray (young birds browner), and are best identified by voice and range. Their taxonomy is problematic.

WHITE-BREASTED TAPACULO Eleoscytalopus indigoticus

11.5 cm|4.5”

BAHIA TAPACULO Eleoscytalopus psychopompus

11.5 cm|4.5”

Uncommon and somewhat local in undergrowth and borders of montane forest and woodland, mostly from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro southward. To 1500 m. Legs pinkish. Bluish slate above and broadly down sides, usually with a white spot behind eye. Throat and median underparts contrastingly white, flanks rufous barred blackish. Strikingly marked and should be easily recognized; no overlap with Bahia Tapaculo. Song a strange, frog-like, and guttural trill that slides upward toward end, e.g., “r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-ro.”

EN

Rare and local in undergrowth and borders of humid forest, mainly near streams or in seasonally flooded areas, in lowlands of E Bahia. Mostly below 100 m. Legs pinkish. Resembles White-breasted Tapaculo (no overlap), but with little or no blackish barring on flanks. Song very similar to White-breasted’s, but at least sometimes lacks upturn at the end.

MOUSE-COLORED TAPACULO Scytalopus speluncae

11.5 cm|4.5”

MARSH TAPACULO Scytalopus iraiensis

11.5 cm|4.5”

Fairly common in undergrowth and borders of montane forest and woodland, mainly from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro southward. 800-2500 m. Generally our most numerous and widespread tapaculo. Legs pinkish. Uniform dark gray, s and especially immatures browner, especially on flanks, with a variable amount of dusky scaling. Our other essentially gray tapaculos occur at most marginally with this species; all are best identified by voice. Oft-heard song a fast series of evenly paced “chit” or “chet” notes that may continue for up to several minutes. This species, or part of it, is now sometimes called S. notorius (Serra do Mar Tapaculo).

EN

Discovered only recently in marshes along rivers in lowlands of Paraná, then subsequently found in our area in marshes and wet grasslands of the Minas Gerais highlands. 750-1850 m. Legs pinkish. Uniform dark gray. Younger birds paler and browner, with barred flanks. Inhabits nearly impenetrable marshy vegetation, and has been called one of the hardest Brazilian birds to see. Song, similar to Mouse-colored’s, a long-continued series of “chup” or “chef” notes that starts slowly and then continues steadily. Threatened by the destruction of marsh habitat.

ROCK TAPACULO Scytalopus petrophilus

11.5 cm|4.5”

A newly described species, uncommon and local in rocky, shrubby areas and montane forest undergrowth on serras of Minas Gerais and NE São Paulo. 900-2100 m. Legs pale brownish. Mostly dark gray, but flanks rufescent with blackish barring and belly paler. Mouse-colored Tapaculo is more uniformly gray; cf. also Marsh Tapaculo. Song a very long series of “chef” notes, in constant rhythm.

SLATY BRISTLEFRONT Merulaxis ater

18.5 cm|7.25”

STRESEMANN’S BRISTLEFRONT Merulaxis stresemanni

19.5 cm|7.75”

Uncommon on or near ground in foothill and montane forest in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo, with a few records (all old?) north to S Bahia. Mostly 400-1500 m, but near sea level in São Paulo. Stiff conspicuous pointed plumes spring from forehead in both sexes. mostly bluish slate, long tail duskier, with rump and flanks rufous brown. brown above, with duskier tail. Below rather bright cinnamon-rufous. Besides the rare Stresemann’s Bristlefront, unmistakable; other tapaculos are much smaller, etc. Found singly or (more often) in pairs, walking and hopping on the ground, usually in thick vegetation or among rocks; no affinity for bamboo. Heard much more than seen, the bristlefront’s powerful song is a cascading series of rich musical notes that start slowly and tumble downward while becoming softer. Foraging birds give an odd metallic ”tink” call.

CR

Now very rare and local in undergrowth of humid forest; known from only one site in NE Minas Gerais (Reserva do Passarinho, in Bandeiras); formerly also coastal Bahia. To 700 m. Closely resembles Slaty Bristlefront (no overlap) but larger. Behavior evidently similar. One of the world’s rarest birds, with a population of only 12-15 individuals; a nest was discovered in 2012. Song like Slaty’s in pattern, but much lower-pitched, with quality of a Chamaeza antthrush. Threatened by deforestation.

265 WHITE-BREASTED TAPACULO MACUQUINHO

BAHIA TAPACULO MACUQUINHO-BAIANO

adult

MOUSE-COLORED TAPACULO TAPACULO-PRETO MARSH TAPACULO MACUQUINHO-DA-VÁRZEA

imm.

ROCK TAPACULO TAPACULO-SERRANO

SLATY BRISTLEFRONT ENTUFADO

STRESEMANN’S BRISTLEFRONT ENTUFADO-BAIANO

WHITE-LORED TYRANNULET Ornithion inerme

8.5 cm|3.5”

GRAY-CAPPED TYRANNULET Phyllomyias griseocapilla

11 cm|4.25”

PLANALTO TYRANNULET Phyllomyias fasciatus

11 cm|4.25”

GREENISH TYRANNULET Phyllomyias virescens

12 cm|4.75”

ROUGH-LEGGED TYRANNULET Phyllomyias burmeisteri

11.5 cm|4.5”

Rare to uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia south sparingly to Rio de Janeiro. Mostly below 500 m. Tiny. Olive above with a slaty crown and prominent white supraloral and eye-ring (together giving a spectacled look); wings blackish with two bold white bars. Throat whitish, breast clouded pale olive, belly clear yellow. Best recognized by small size in conjunction with the “spectacles,” as well as voice; in Amazonia its wing-bars look like a series of discrete white dots, but this effect seems less apparent in E Brazil birds. Found singly or in pairs, foraging at varying levels though most often quite high, coming lower at edge; regularly accompanies mixed flocks. Usually located and identified by voice, a persistently given, slightly wheezy and fast “pee, dee-dee-deet” or “pee, dee-deet,” sometimes accelerated into a trill. PHYLLOMYIAS are the quintessential small, drab tyrannulets, obscure and hard to identify except by voice. All have rather short bills (cf. the longer-billed Phylloscartes, which also are longer-tailed). They inhabit humid and montane forests, mainly the canopy. Locally fairly common in montane forest and woodland borders, sometimes also in adjacent clearings; most numerous in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Mostly 800-1800 m, a few down to sea level especially in São Paulo. For a tyrannulet, rather brightly marked and colored. Head gray contrasting with bright olive back, and a whitish supraloral and partial eye-ring; wings blackish with coverts and flight feathers sharply edged yellow. Whitish below with bright yellowish sides and flanks. Unlike so many of the others, this attractive tyrannulet shows only vague wing-bars (the edging being much more prominent). Found singly or in pairs, regularly foraging quite low, sometimes with mixed flocks. Often eats mistletoe berries. Rather quiet, but gives a soft whistled “wheeuw-wheeuw” (up to 4 “wheeuws”) or “wheeuw wheeuw whee whee.” Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest), smaller numbers into clearings. Our most numerous tyrannulet, though heard much more often than seen. To 1800 m. Brownish olive above with short superciliary and eye-ring whitish; wings dusky with two dull olive to whitish bars. Throat whitish, breast clouded olive, belly pale yellow. Undistinguished-looking and best known from its frequently given song. Cf. the very similar Greenish and Rough-legged Tyrannulets (both of them rarer). Arboreal, most often foraging in pairs, regularly with mixed flocks but also sometimes alone. Distinctive song a far-carrying, clear “pee, puu, puu-it?” Uncommon and somewhat local (and readily overlooked) in canopy and borders of montane forest and woodland in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, a few N to Espírito Santo. Mostly 500-1500 m. Olive above with short superciliary and eye-ring yellowish; wings blackish with two bold pale yellow bars and edging. Below clear yellow, throat whiter, and chest slightly more olive. Rough-legged Tyrannulet is duller above with much less contrasting wing-bars, clearly bicolored bill; voices differ dramatically. Cf. also Planalto and Mottle-cheeked Tyrannulets. Found singly or in pairs, gleaning in foliage and often accompanying mixed flocks. Song a series of staccato chattered notes, almost furnariid-like, e.g., “ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch,” often ending in several fast “chew” notes. Uncommon to locally fairly common (but easily overlooked) in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest (also araucaria forest) north to S Bahia and Espírito Santo, a few to S Bahia. To 1500 m. Lower mandible mostly yellow-orange (surprisingly conspicuous in the field). Olive above with short superciliary and eye-ring pale yellowish; wings dusky with two blurry yellowish bars and prominent edging. Throat and breast grayish olive, belly clear yellow. Planalto Tyrannulet has an all-black bill, grayer crown, white throat. Greenish Tyrannulet is brighter with bolder wing-bars and yellower underparts. All three have distinctive voices. Behavior as in Greenish Tyrannulet, but Rough-legged occasionally flicks a wing up over its back. Song, usually given at long intervals, a high-pitched and rather strident “psee-psee-pseepsee-psee-psee-psee-psee,” falling slightly at end; sometimes the “psee” is given individually. Sometimes placed in genus Tyranniscus.

267 WHITE-LORED TYRANNULET POIAEIRO-DE-SOBRANCELHA

GRAY-CAPPED TYRANNULET PIOLHINHO-SERRANO

PLANALTO TYRANNULET PIOLHINHO

GREENISH TYRANNULET PIOLHINHO-VERDE

ROUGH-LEGGED TYRANNULET PIOLHINHO-CHIADOR

CAMPO SUIRIRI Suiriri affinis

16 cm|6.25”

Uncommon in cerrado and campos with scattered shrubs and trees in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 500-1100 m. Olive above with grayer head and buffy yellowish rump and base of tail; wings and tail blackish with two yellowish bars and edging. Throat and chest pale grayish, breast and belly pale yellow. Elaenias have a pale lower mandible (bill all black in the suiriri) and none shows a pale rump. Southern Scrub Flycatcher is somewhat smaller and has an obviously stubby bill; it too lacks the pale rump. Usually in pairs, foraging low and often in the open, regularly dropping to the ground or into grass; often hovers, spreading tail and exposing its pale rump. Pairs give a jumbled series of notes as a duet (a common phrase is “pi-chu!”), also some chatters, sometimes vocalizing while drooping and fluttering wings. By some considered conspecific with Chaco Suiriri (S. suiriri) and then called Suiriri Flycatcher. ELAENIA elaenias are dull-plumaged, midsized flycatchers mainly found in semiopen and edge terrain. They are among the most difficult of all Neotropical birds to identify: many individuals cannot be named with certainty, especially when not singing; even distinguishing their songs requires practice. They all have pale lower mandibles; some are crested; and some have semiconcealed white in that crest. Elaenias perch upright, and though they usually do not accompany mixed flocks, they do regularly congregate with other birds at fruiting trees, sometimes several species together.

HIGHLAND ELAENIA Elaenia obscura

18 cm|7”

LARGE ELAENIA Elaenia spectabilis

18 cm|7”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in lower growth of montane and humid forest and woodland (also in araucaria forest), but much less numerous northward. To 2000 m, only a few below 500 m. A rather large, round-headed elaenia whose short bill imparts a snub-nosed effect. Dark olive above with a yellowish eye-ring but no crest or crown patch; wings duskier with two yellowish bars, tail rather long. Throat pale yellowish, breast and flanks dull olive, midbelly pale yellow. Large Elaenia is grayer overall, markedly so on foreneck; it generally shows at least some crest. More forest or woodland-based than most other elaenias, only infrequently perching in the open. Song a repeated “weé-rur” but also gives a fast “burr” or “burrreep” call. Uncommon summer breeding visitant to forest and woodland borders and shrubby clearings (mostly Sep-Mar). To at least 1000 m. Brownish olive above with a faint whitish eye-ring; wings duskier with two or three whitish bars. Throat and breast pale gray, belly pale yellow. Compared to Yellow-bellied Elaenia, Large is larger with less of a crest and purer gray foreneck (less olive); it is less conspicuous and less vocal, and is more often in woodland and less often in clearings. Cf. also Short-crested and Swainson’s Flycatchers. General behavior as in Yellow-bellied, but vocalizations are quite different (much less raucous), the most frequent being a soft clear “teeu” or “p-cheeu.”

YELLOW-BELLIED ELAENIA Elaenia flavogaster

16.5 cm|6.5”

Common and widespread in semiopen shrubby areas, clearings, and gardens, even in towns and cities, also restinga; our most numerous and frequently seen elaenia. Mostly below 1500 m. Usually shows a conspicuous upstanding bushy crest; however it is not particularly yellow-bellied. Brownish olive above with faint whitish eye-ring; wings duskier with two whitish bars. Throat whitish, breast grayish olive, belly pale yellowish (but often quite faded and whitish). Learn this elaenia well so as to compare it to the others; cf. especially Large and Lesser Elaenias. Vocal and bold in demeanor, Yellow-bellieds regularly perch in the open, attracting attention. Its vocalizations are exuberant and have a hoarse quality, with a “breeeyr” and a “wreek-kreeyuup” being most frequent; and can sing in duet.

LESSER ELAENIA Elaenia chiriquensis

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon in cerrado and adjacent shrubby areas and woodland, mainly in São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Mostly below 1100 m. Very drab, but usually shows a slight crest in which a little white sometimes, but not always, is exposed. In plumage very similar to the much more numerous Yellow-bellied Elaenia and best distinguished by crest shape, slightly smaller size, and (especially) voice. Plain-crested Elaenia’s crest is typically much more upstanding and it never reveals any white; again, voice often helps. This obscure elaenia is most often identified when singing, its burry bisyllabic “chíbur” or “jwebu” being distinctive.

269 CAMPO SUIRIRI SUIRIRI-CINZA

HIGHLAND ELAENIA TUCÃO

LARGE ELAENIA GUARACAVA-GRANDE

YELLOW-BELLIED ELAENIA MARIA-É-DIA

LESSER ELAENIA CHIBUM

OLIVACEOUS ELAENIA Elaenia mesoleuca

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon in montane forest and woodland (also in araucaria forest), most numerous southward and in north very local. Mostly 500-2000 m. Olive above with little or no white in crown but with a distinct round white eye-ring; wings duskier with two to three whitish bars. Throat pale grayish, breast grayish olive, midbelly whitish with flanks more greenish yellow. Small-billed Elaenia is very similar, though Olivaceous is drabber and more uniform; its white in crown is usually visible, and its breast is a purer gray with no olive. Cf. also Chilean Elaenia. These three elaenias are very similar, with Olivaceous being the most numerous, the only one to breed widely, and the most forest-based. Basically arboreal, Olivaceous Elaenias occur in pairs and usually are inconspicuous, though sometimes several gather in fruiting trees, then often together with other birds, especially thrushes. Distinctive song a fast, scratchy “whee-ik? whi-kee-ee-ur.” Commonest call a burry “churr.”

SMALL-BILLED ELAENIA Elaenia parvirostris

14.5 cm|5.75”

CHILEAN ELAENIA Elaenia chilensis

14.5 cm|5.75”

PLAIN-CRESTED ELAENIA Elaenia cristata

14.5 cm|5.75”

Uncommon transient and austral winter visitant to woodland, humid and montane forest borders, and clearings and gardens, mostly wintering further north; apparently breeds in S São Paulo (also northward?). To 1500 m, but mostly found lower. Olive above with usually visible white crown patch (often very narrow), looking round-headed and with a distinct round white eye-ring; wings duskier with two or three whitish bars. Throat and breast pale gray, belly pale yellowish, midbelly whiter. The bill is small, but not so much so as to be a field character. Chilean Elaenia is dingier on foreneck, has a less obvious eye-ring, and rarely or never shows the third wing-bar. Olivaceous Elaenia lacks the white crown stripe, has a more olive breast; Small-billed looks “neater” and more clean-cut. But let’s face it, oftentimes these three species [sometimes] cannot be distinguished with certainty. Overall behavior as in Olivaceous Elaenia, though Small-billed more frequently is out in clearings and gardens. Though it has a distinctive “weedable-wee” song, here what mostly is heard are its calls, a burry “chee-ur” or a simpler “chew.” Rare winter visitant and/or transient to shrubby areas and woodland and humid forest borders, breeding in the Fuegian region (breeding uncertain in our area). To at least 1400 m. Dingy, with less “character” than other elaenias. Dull grayish olive above with a white eye-ring and a usually visible white crown stripe; wings duskier with two or three whitish bars. Below pale grayish, looking faded and washed-out. Most resembles Olivaceous Elaenia, though that species does not show a crown stripe; Small-billed is more clean-cut. Behavior as with the previous two elaenias. Call an abrupt “peeur,” clearer and less burry than Olivaceous Elaenia’s call, but species usually is not vocal when here. Now usually considered to represent a species breeding in S South America, separate from White-crested Elaenia (E. albiceps) of W South America. Locally fairly common in cerrado with presence closely tied to that habitat, mainly where it is little-modified; occurs in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Locally to 1500 m. Almost always shows an upstanding crest that has no white. This is another very dull elaenia, resembling the previous three species but with belly slightly yellower and never showing a third wing-bar. It usually is identified by crest shape, habitat, and voice, the only other elaenia typically with it being the Yellow-bellied. Less vocal than other elaenias, with distinctive song a fast gravelly “jer-jer-je-je-jéh-jeh.” Also gives a repeated “wheeu,” and a faster series of “dzeeu” notes.

SOUTHERN SCRUB FLYCATCHER Sublegatus modestus

14 cm|5.5”

Rare to uncommon in scrub, lighter woodland, and cerrado in N São Paulo and Minas Gerais. To 1000 m. Short bill. Olive brown above with a narrow whitish supraloral, wings duskier with two whitish bars. Throat and breast pale gray contrasting with pale yellow belly. Elaenia elaenias have longer bills with a pale lower mandible (almost always easily seen); they show less contrast below and have no supraloral. Cf. also Campo Suiriri (with longer bill, obviously pale rump), Southern Beardless Tyrannulet (much smaller, with perky crest, etc.), and Mouse-colored Tyrannulet (duller overall and with heavier bill). A quiet unobtrusive flycatcher that perches upright and only infrequently is in the open. Simple song a weak “pseeu,” sometimes followed by jumbled notes.

271

OLIVACEOUS ELAENIA TUQUE

SMALL-BILLED ELAENIA GUARACAVA-DE-BICO-CURTO

CHILEAN ELAENIA GUARACAVA-DE-CRISTA-BRANCA

PLAIN-CRESTED ELAENIA GUARACAVA-DE-PENACHO

SOUTHERN SCRUB FLYCATCHER SERTANEJO

GREENISH ELAENIA Myiopagis viridicata

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon in lower growth and midlevels of semideciduous woodland and humid forest borders. To 1100 m. Above olive with grayish crown, orange-yellow crown stripe (often hidden), and short superciliary and narrow eye-ring white; wings duskier, feathers edged yellowish (but no wing-bars). Throat pale grayish, breast grayish olive, belly pale yellow. Very plain; most tyrannids with it show wing-bars. Pale-bellied Tyrant-Manakin is similar but has a plain facial area and no wing-edging; voices very different. A quiet unobtrusive bird, often overlooked except when vocalizing. Usually found singly, perching quite upright. Most frequent call a strident, burry “chree-yee.” Forest Elaenia (M. gaimardii) occurs locally in canopy of semideciduous woodland in W and N São Paulo. Dullplumaged, with white crown stripe, blurry olive breast streaking, two wing-bars. Note its frequent “ch-veét” call.

GRAY ELAENIA Myiopagis caniceps

12.5 cm|5”

Uncommon and somewhat local in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland. To 1100 m. Iris whitish. gray above with white crown stripe (often hidden); wings black with two bold white bars and conspicuous edging. Throat and breast pale gray, belly whitish. bright olive above, head grayer with often hidden pale yellowish crown stripe; wings black with two bold pale yellow bars and edging. Below pale greenish yellow, brightest on belly. Some young s have back olive. Among the many olive tyrannids, s of this gray species stand out. s are more difficult, and are small enough to be confused with various tyrannulets; it usually occurs in pairs so a is there to help. Mainly forages with canopy flocks, gleaning in foliage with a cocked tail. Song a fast shrill chipper that, after a couple hesitant initial notes, descends distinctively.

MOUSE-COLORED TYRANNULET Phaeomyias murina

12 cm|4.75”

Fairly common in scrub, cerrado, and lighter woodland in mainly open terrain. Mostly below 1000 m. Fairly heavy bill with pale at base. Olivaceous brown above with a weak whitish superciliary; wings duskier with two buffyish bars. Throat whitish, breast dull olive grayish, belly pale yellow. Drab and inconspicuous, most often identified by voice. Perkier-looking Southern Beardless Tyrannulet is smaller and has an expressive crest, usually cocked tail, no superciliary. Single birds and pairs glean in foliage, rarely in the open for long. Song a fast gravelly “je-je-je-je-jé-jew,” accelerating distinctively.

SOUTHERN BEARDLESS TYRANNULET Camptostoma obsoletum 9.5 cm|3.75”

Very common and widespread in many semiopen and edge habitats, even city parks and gardens. To 1900 m. Jaunty, bushy crest. Bill short, lower mandible pale at least at base. Olive grayish above, crown grayer; wings duskier with two dull ochraceous bars. Throat and breast grayish, belly yellowish white. Perky mannerisms, crest, and usually cocked tail should permit recognition of this familiar tyrannulet. Forages in foliage at all levels but most often not too high, sometimes accompanying flocks but more often not. Very vocal, with most frequent call a slightly husky “freee?” or “weeeé?” Also gives a more musical descending “klee-klee-klee-klee-klu.”

WHITE-CRESTED TYRANNULET Serpophaga subcristata

11 cm|4.25”

SOOTY TYRANNULET Serpophaga nigricans

12 cm|4.75”

Fairly common and widespread, especially southward, in humid and montane forest borders and canopy, also in clearings, gardens, and even restinga. To 2000 m. Grayish olive above, grayer on head and neck with a short white superciliary and long blackish crown feathers usually parted to reveal a white crown patch; wings and tail blackish, wings with two whitish bars. Throat whitish, breast pale gray, belly clear pale yellow. A numerous tyrannulet at higher elevations: learn it well as the basis of comparison with the others. The crest’s black and white is normally apparent (sometimes it’s conspicuous), and is usually the best clue. Cf. Southern Beardless Tyrannulet. Forages actively at varying heights, often in the open. Vocalizations consist of various soft trills and chippers, e.g., a fast “tz-tz-z-z-z-zt” and a rising “”psee? psee-psee-ee-ee-ee-ee.” Uncommon but widespread in shrubby and semiopen areas near water north to Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to 2000 m (Itatiaia). An unmistakably dark tyrannulet. Brownish gray above, purer and somewhat paler gray below, with tail black. Found in pairs that hop at water’s edge and often perch on rocks or on branches just above the water. The tail is often spread, or jerked upward. Generally quiet, but sometimes gives an antbird-like “chit-chit-ch-ch-t-t-t-t-t-t.”

273 GREENISH ELAENIA MARIA-DE-CRISTA-DOURADA

GRAY ELAENIA MARIA-DA-COPA

MOUSE-COLORED TYRANNULET BAGAGEIRO

SOUTHERN BEARDLESS TYRANNULET RISADINHA

WHITE-CRESTED TYRANNULET ALEGRINHO

SOOTY TYRANNULET JOÃO-POBRE

SHARP-TAILED GRASS TYRANT Culicivora caudacuta

11 cm|4.25”

RUFOUS-SIDED PYGMY TYRANT Euscarthmus rufomarginatus

11 cm|4.25”

TAWNY-CROWNED PYGMY TYRANT Euscarthmus meloryphus

10 cm|4”

Uncommon and very local in tall grass in less-disturbed campos and grassy cerrado in Minas Gerais and São Paulo. To 1100 m. Tail very long and graduated, with very narrow feathers pointed and often looking frayed. Buffy brown above broadly streaked blackish, with a long and conspicuous white superciliary. White below, sides and flanks rich cinnamon-buff. Strikingly marked and virtually unmistakable, though a flying bird can recall a Synallaxis spinetail. Found singly and in pairs, moving through stands of tall grass; inconspicuous but once located often quite tame. Perhaps overlooked to some extent, but requires extensive tracts of high-quality grassland, some of it not burned for several years. Not terribly vocal, but gives a series of scratchy chattered notes, e.g., a repeated “wreeé-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch.” Sometimes called just Sharp-tailed Tyrant. Threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation. EUSCARTHMUS pygmy tyrants are small brownish tyrannids found locally in shrubby areas and cerrado, one of them (Rufous-sided) very rare. Very rare and local in less-disturbed shrubby cerrado in N São Paulo and Minas Gerais; few records and perhaps extirpated in our area. To 800 m. Dull brown above with a short buffy whitish supraloral and an inconspicuous rufous crown patch; wings and long slender tail duskier, wings with two ochraceous bars and edging. Throat white, below pale yellow, sides and flanks broadly ochraceous. The similar Bearded Tachuri is shorter-tailed and lacks such a contrasting white throat. This obscure small tyrannid is very inconspicuous and probably often overlooked. Song, often given with its white throat puffed out, a rapidly repeated chattered “cht-cht-cht-chiririreét, cht-cht-cht-chiririreét….”

Fairly common and widespread in scrub, shrubby clearings, and undergrowth of woodland borders, including restinga; unlike the Rufous-sided, Tawny-crowned is rather a habitat generalist. To 800 m. Brown above with an inconspicuous rufous crown patch and some rufous on face; wings with two faint rufescent bars. Whitish below, belly yellower. Though dull and without obvious markings, this unobtrusive tyrannid can usually be recognized by its small size, overall brown coloration, and distinctive vocalizations. It often occurs in disturbed situations and can be quite numerous, though it never is very conspicuous. Most often seen singly, less often in pairs, always reluctant to leave the dense cover it favors. Most often located by voice (and it vocalizes a lot) with the most frequent vocalization being a sharp and staccato “ple-te-re-tik,” often repeated multiple times. POLYSTICTUS tachuris are two dissimilar small tyrannids, both rare and local in our few remaining grasslands.

GRAY-BACKED TACHURI Polystictus superciliaris

9.5 cm|3.75”

Rare and very local in shrubby grasslands on a few rocky serras and mountains in Minas Gerais, extreme S Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and NE São Paulo. Mostly above 1000 m, and has recently been found up to about 2000 m on Itatiaia. Brownish gray above, grayer on head with a short white superciliary and semiconcealed white crown patch; wings with two faint whitish bars and edging. Below pinkish buff, midbelly whiter. A distinctive and often tame little tyrannid that clings to grass stems and also perches in low shrubs, Gray-backed Tachuris are found singly or in isolated pairs, infrequently with other birds. Characteristic call a throaty “tchudi” repeated at several-second intervals, with apparent song a strange, reeling, buzzy trill “tzzzzzzzzzzzzzz,” lasting some 5 seconds.

BEARDED TACHURI Polystictus pectoralis

10 cm|4”

Rare to uncommon and very local in less-disturbed grasslands and cerrado, now occurring only in N São Paulo and SE Minas Gerais but perhaps formerly more widespread. To 800 m. brown above, face and upper throat blackish with fine white streaking and a short white superciliary and partial eyering; crown with semiconcealed white crown patch; wings duskier with two cinnamon-buff bars and edging. Below whitish with a cinnamon wash on breast and sides. duller and less patterned, lacking the black on face. distinctive, but resembles Rufous-sided Pygmy-Tyrant; the latter is even rarer, and has a longer and narrower tail and a more contrasting white throat. Found singly, less often in pairs, feeding in tall grass and clinging to their stems, flying only weakly. Generally quiet, but displaying s give a plaintive “wheee? whi-di-di-drrr,” sometimes in flight. Threatened by conversion of its habitat to agriculture, pesticides and urban expansion.

275

SHARP-TAILED GRASS TYRANT PAPA-MOSCA-DO-CAMPO

RUFOUS-SIDED PYGMY TYRANT MARIA-CORRUÍRA

TAWNY-CROWNED PYGMY TYRANT BARULHENTO

GRAY-BACKED TACHURI TRICOLINO-DE-DORSO-CINZA

BEARDED TACHURI TRICOLINO-CANELA

SOUTHERN BRISTLE TYRANT Pogonotriccus eximius

11 cm|4.25”

SERRA DO MAR TYRANNULET Phylloscartes difficilis

11.5 cm|4.5”

Uncommon and local in lower and middle growth of humid forest and borders, now mainly in S Minas Gerais and SE São Paulo. To 1000 m. Crown gray with broad white superciliary grizzled with gray, lower face yellow with conspicuous black crescent on ear-coverts. Above olive, wings duskier with olive edging. Throat whitish, breast yellowish olive, belly yellow. The fancy head pattern is essentially unique, but cf. the smaller Eared Pygmy-Tyrant. Found singly or in pairs, perching vertically and remaining motionless, then sallying out; sometimes with mixed flocks but usually not. Call a distinctive dry trill that accelerates and rises, then ends abruptly. By some placed in Phylloscartes, the (rather different) genus Pogonotriccus not being recognized. Uncommon in lower growth and borders of montane forest from S Espírito Santo to NE São Paulo; also found in araucaria forest. 800-2100 m. Bright olive above with prominent white eye-ring and supraloral and grayish cheeks; wings with olive edging (but no wing-bars). Grayish below, throat and midbelly whiter. Eye-ringed Tody-Tyrant is much yellower below and has broad tertial edging; its behavior and voice differ markedly. Favors shrubby growth at forest edge where it moves about in pairs, usually not with flocks. The long tail is frequently cocked, and its wings are drooped and frequently shivered. Often gives a fast chipper, also sometimes a snapping noise that apparently is produced by bill.

SAO PAULO TYRANNULET Phylloscartes paulista

10.5 cm|4”

OUSTALET’S TYRANNULET Phylloscartes oustaleti

13 cm|5”

BAY-RINGED TYRANNULET Phylloscartes sylviolus

11 cm|4.25”

BAHIA TYRANNULET Phylloscartes beckeri

12 cm|4.75”

Uncommon in lower growth of humid forest and borders in lowlands of S Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. To 600 m. Olive above with yellowish superciliary that wraps around a large black auricular patch; wings duskier with olive edging and sometimes two dull bars. Yellowish below, breast clouded olive. Oustalet’s Tyrannulet is larger and tends to perch more horizontally; it constantly quivers its usually cocked tail. Yellow Tyrannulet lacks the prominent auricular patch, etc. São Paulo perches more vertically than most Phylloscartes, and makes quick sallies to leaves while gleaning relatively little. Usually ranges in pairs, often with mixed flocks. Call a soft “swhee-eet” or “swhee-ee-eet.”

Locally fairly common in midlevels and subcanopy of humid foothill forest, less often out to borders. 200-900 m. Easily recognized from its constantly quivering tail. Olive above with conspicuous yellow eye-ring and a large blackish auricular patch outlined by bright yellow in front and behind; wings duskier with yellowish edging and often two bars. Yellow below, breast clouded olive. São Paulo Tyrannulet is generally similar in plumage but is smaller and has markedly different behavior. This otherwise quite obscure tyrannulet will often be recognized from its shivered tail before any plumage characters are noted. Usually forages in pairs, often with mixed flocks; its long tail is almost always cocked, at times acutely. Call a soft, fast “kwedut” or “kwededit.” Rare to locally uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest in lowlands from S Bahia to S São Paulo; much more numerous southward. To 700 m. Iris whitish. Plain bright olive above with lores and eye-ring rufous; wings duskier with yellowish edging (but no wing-bars). Throat buffy yellowish (as is the crissum), underparts otherwise whitish. A small and slender Phylloscartes whose tail is notably long and whose rufous on face is unique (though it can be hard to see). Found singly or in pairs, often while accompanying mixed flocks and foraging very actively. Song a spritely “swit, swi-swi-swi-swi-sweéseéseéseéseé-swi-swi.”

EN

Rare and local in canopy and borders of lower montane forest in SE Bahia. Recently discovered and known from only a few sites; at risk from deforestation. 700-1200 m. Bright olive above, crown slightly darker, with a yellowish ochre eye-ring and vague superciliary; wings blackish with two pale yellow bars and edging. Below yellowish, breast clouded olive. Mottle-cheeked Tyrannulet (no known overlap, occurring to the south) has whitish around its eye (not yellowish ochre). Cf. also Planalto Tyrannulet (with stubbier bill, etc.). Behavior much as in other forest-based Phylloscartes, with horizontal posture accentuated by long cocked tail. Frequent call a sharp “tik” note, at times recalling a Forpus parrotlet.

277 SOUTHERN BRISTLE TYRANT BARBUDINHO

SERRA DO MAR TYRANNULET ESTALINHO

SAO PAULO TYRANNULET NÃO-PODE-PARAR

OUSTALET’S TYRANNULET PAPA-MOSCA-DE-OLHEIRA

BAY-RINGED TYRANNULET MARIA-PEQUENA

BAHIA TYRANNULET BORBOLETINHA-BAIANA

MOTTLE-CHEEKED TYRANNULET Phylloscartes ventralis

12 cm|4.75”

RESTINGA TYRANNULET Phylloscartes kronei

12 cm|4.75”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and (mostly) montane forest from Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-1600 m. Olive above with whitish supraloral and partial eye-ring, dusky line through eye, and dusky mottling on ear-coverts; wings duskier with two pale yellowish bars and edging. Pale yellow below, throat whiter and chest washed olive. Note this species’ relatively long slender bill, horizontal posture, and long cocked tail; cf. especially Rough-legged and Greenish Tyrannulets (as with so many smaller flycatchers, these three species are often best identified by voice). Ranges singly or in pairs, foraging actively at varying levels and often accompanying mixed flocks. Commonest call a fast, semimusical chippering, e.g., “chee, dee-dee-dee-dee-dee.”

VU

Uncommon and local in restinga woodland and scrub along coast of S São Paulo. A recently described species that closely resembles Mottle-cheeked but supraloral yellower, as are its cheeks aside from the dusky mottling. Most likely identified by range. Behavior as in Mottle-cheeked, but voice quite different, with commonest call a high-pitched “plee-ee” or “skee-ee.”

YELLOW TYRANNULET Capsiempis flaveola

11.5 cm|4.5”

WARBLING DORADITO Pseudocolopteryx flaviventris

11.5 cm|4.5”

CRESTED DORADITO Pseudocolopteryx sclateri

11 cm|4.25”

MANY-COLORED RUSH TYRANT Tachuris rubrigastra

11 cm|4.25”

Fairly common and widespread in lower and middle growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, most often where there is some bamboo; also in araucaria forest. To 1200 m (Itatiaia). Slender and long-tailed. Appropriately named, giving a very yellow overall impression; no other tyrannulet looks so yellow. Yellowish olive above with a bright yellow superciliary; wings and tail duskier, wings with two yellow bars. Bright yellow below. Ranges mainly in pairs, gleaning actively and generally not with flocks. Usually perches horizontally with its tail partially cocked, though resting birds can be more upright. Rather vocal, giving a variety of soft calls including a short dry trill, “tr-r-r-r-r.” Song much more rollicking, and often given as a duet by members of a pair, a pleasant series of rapidly repeated phrases that lacks much pattern as it starts slowly but quickly speeds up. PSEUDOCOLOPTERYX doraditos are scarce, inconspicuous, marsh-inhabiting tyrannids that have bright yellow underparts. Casual vagrant to freshwater marshes, with very few records (Jun, Sep) from NE São Paulo but could just be overlooked; mainly found further south. Plain brownish olive above, more rufescent on crown and with dusky cheeks; wings and tail duskier. Below bright yellow. This little tyrannid should be distinctive here in SE Brazil, but cf. Southern Yellowthroat (differing in its bicolored bill, yellowish legs, more olive upperparts, and indistinct supraloral). Found singly in extensive marshes, less often in pairs; sometimes moves into fringing shrubbery. Likely silent here, but might on occasion give its series of sharp but soft, almost hiccupping notes. Uncommon and very local in freshwater marshes, mostly near coast, from Espírito Santo to São Paulo. Generally below 400 m; in interior São Paulo 500-750 m. Olive above, back slightly mottled, with face and crest feathers blackish, the latter usually raised and parted enough to reveal a pale yellow crown stripe. Wings dusky with two whitish bars and edging. Below bright yellow. With its fancy crest and bright yellow, this doradito should be easily recognized. Early in the morning, before the breeze gets up, can perch for extended periods in the open on reeds or in bushes. Song, often accompanied by a short jump in the air, a short series of soft and high-pitched “tsit” notes. Casual vagrant to freshwater marshes near coast in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; mainly found further south. Unmistakable and colorful, hardly to be confused. Head black, face glossier and blue, with golden yellow superciliary and partially concealed red crown stripe; back bright green, wings and tail black, wings with a conspicuous longitudinal white stripe, outer tail feathers also white. Below bright yellow with a wide but partial black breast band and red crissum. slightly duller, but still a very pretty bird. Especially for a marsh inhabitant not too hard to see, hopping about in reeds and out onto floating vegetation; it can be quite tame.

279

MOTTLE-CHEEKED TYRANNULET BORBOLETINHA-DO-MATO

RESTINGA TYRANNULET MARIA-DA-RESTINGA

YELLOW TYRANNULET MARIA-AMARELINHA

WARBLING DORADITO AMARELINHO-DO-JUNCO

CRESTED DORADITO TRICOLINO

MANY-COLORED RUSH TYRANT PAPA-PIRI

SEPIA-CAPPED FLYCATCHER Leptopogon amaurocephalus

14 cm|5”

Fairly common and widespread in lower growth of humid forest and woodland. Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1500 m. Slender bill. Crown sepia brown, facial area buffy whitish with a conspicuous blackish patch on auriculars; olive above, tail browner, wings duskier with two buff bars and yellowish edging. Throat and chest pale grayish, breast dull olive, belly pale yellow. Perches vertically, with frequent wing-lifting, one at a time up over back. Found singly or in pairs, and a frequent member of understory flocks. Not terribly hard to see as it tends to perch on open branches, periodically sallying out after insects. Often heard call an abrupt, almost explosive “skeúw-de-de-de-de-de-de-de-deu.” MIONECTES are plain little flycatchers with slender bills found inside lowland and montane forests. Notably frugivorous, they hover while plucking small fruits, and characteristically lift their wings over back, one at a time.

GRAY-HOODED FLYCATCHER Mionectes rufiventris

13.5 cm|5.25”

Locally fairly common in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest) from Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo to São Paulo. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to 1800 m; northward only in montane areas. Bill with pinkish at base. Bluish gray hood; otherwise olive above with essentially plain wings. Chest brownish olive, lower underparts contrastingly rich ochraceous. Ochre-bellied Flycatcher (only in N lowlands) is more uniform, with no gray on head and less bright rufous on belly; it shows some rufous edging on wings. An unobtrusive, quiet bird that tends to remain inside forest, coming to edge mainly when attracted to fruiting trees. Sometimes joins mixed flocks, but just as often alone, always frequently flashing a wing up over back. Displaying ’s song a series of rough nasal notes that starts slowly but then accelerates before abruptly stopping.

OCHRE-BELLIED FLYCATCHER Mionectes oleagineus

13 cm|5”

Uncommon in lower growth and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro; in Espírito Santo also in restinga. Mostly below 800 m. Bill pinkish at base. Plain olive above, wings dusky with two indistinct ochraceous bars and edging. Throat olive grayish, blending into grayish olive breast and dull ochraceous belly. Gray-hooded Flycatcher shows much more contrast, with a brighter belly, and much grayer hood; in area of overlap it occurs at higher elevations. Behavior much as in Grayhooded, though more likely to occur outside of the shady interior of forest and woodland. Usually quiet, but displaying s repeat a loud and twangy “cheeu” note, sometimes while alone but at times within earshot of other s.

BROWN-BREASTED BAMBOO TYRANT Hemitriccus obsoletus

11 cm|4.25”

DRAB-BREASTED BAMBOO TYRANT Hemitriccus diops

11 cm|4.25”

BUFF-BREASTED TODY-TYRANT Hemitriccus mirandae

11 cm|4.25”

Rare to uncommon in undergrowth of montane forest from Rio de Janeiro to S São Paulo, generally associated with bamboo; also in araucaria forest. Mostly 1000-2300 m, mainly ranging higher than Drab-breasted Bamboo Tyrant. Plain brownish olive above with pale buffyish supraloral spot and vague eye-ring. Throat and breast dingy buffyish, more whitish on belly. Drab-breasted Bamboo Tyrant has a more whitish supraloral and eye-ring, and more grayish underparts. An unobtrusive little bird, seeming very sedentary in dense lower growth and not often found until you key in on its voice. Ranges singly and in pairs, only rarely with mixed flocks. Call a short fast series of sharp notes, sometimes syncopated, e.g., “tic-tic-tic-tic, tic-tic, tic,” less trilled than Drab-breasted’s and often rising in pitch. This and the next species are sometimes called pygmy tyrants. Relatively widespread but generally uncommon in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, usually in extensive bamboo. 500-1300 m, locally to 1500 m. Plain brownish olive above with whitish supraloral spot and vague eye-ring. Throat and breast mauve grayish, belly more whitish. Cf. the very similar Brown-breasted Bamboo Tyrant. No tody-tyrant is so dark and dull; most show pale tertial edging (lacking in this species). Behavior as in Brown-breasted Bamboo Tyrant; equally hard to see. Call a short dry trill, often doubled, e.g., “tr-r-r-r-r, tr-r-r-r-r.”

VU

Rare and very local in lower and middle growth of semihumid woodland in E Bahia (thus far only Boa Nova). 700 m. Olive above with plain wings aside from broad creamy edging on tertials. Face and underparts pale creamy buff. Unique in its small range. Found singly or in pairs, not with flocks. Song slowly delivered in an enunciated series of notes, e.g., “pic-pic-pic-pic-píc-pu-pic.”

281 SEPIA-CAPPED FLYCATCHER CABEÇUDO

GRAY-HOODED FLYCATCHER ABRE-ASA-DE-CABEÇA-CINZA

OCHRE-BELLIED FLYCATCHER ABRE-ASA

BROWN-BREASTED BAMBOO TYRANT CATRACA DRAB-BREASTED BAMBOO-TYRANT OLHO-FALSO

BUFF-BREASTED TODY-TYRANT MARIA-DO-NORDESTE

EARED PYGMY TYRANT Myiornis auricularis

7.5 cm|3”

Uncommon to fairly common in lower and midlevels of humid and lower montane forest and woodland; in Espírito Santo also in restinga forest. To 1300 m. Iris reddish. Head and neck pale gray, browner on forecrown, with obvious blackish crescent on auriculars and black spot below eye; bright olive above, wings and short tail duskier, wings with two yellowish olive bars and edging. Throat and upper chest whitish with black streaking; below bright yellow. This cute bird’s fancy facial pattern and very small size should preclude confusion. Found singly or in pairs, with a preference for viny tangles; unlike many such birds, Eared regularly perches in the open so often is easy to see. Most frequent call a distinctive trill often preceded by several “pic” notes, thus “pic, pic, pic, preeee-ee-ee,” also sometimes just a long series of “pic” notes or only the trills. HEMITRICCUS tody-tyrants are inconspicuous small tyrannids of woodland and forest lower growth. They perch upright and make upward strikes to the underside of leaves.

EYE-RINGED TODY-TYRANT Hemitriccus orbitatus

11.5 cm|4.5”

HANGNEST TODY-TYRANT Hemitriccus nidipendulus

9.5 cm|3.75”

FORK-TAILED TODY-TYRANT Hemitriccus furcatus

11 cm|4.25”

Uncommon in lower and midlevels of humid forest and woodland in lowlands and foothills from Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais to São Paulo (where now rare in west). Mostly below 800 m. Above olive with prominent white eye-ring and black and white in loral area; wings duskier with broad white tertial edging. Pale yellowish below, throat whiter, chest more olive. Serra do Mar Tyrannulet has similar head pattern but lacks tertial edging and is grayer below; horizontal posture is very different. Found singly or in pairs, usually not with mixed flocks and generally not at edge. Most frequent call a snappy and fast “tr-r-r-r-r-r-r” or “te-te-te-tk,” sometimes several phrases in sequence; Hangnest’s calls are higher-pitched. Locally fairly common at edge of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, also in restinga. Mostly below 1400 m, locally to 1600 m. Iris whitish. Uniform bright olive green above with pale supraloral spot, wing duskier with yellowish olive edging. Plain whitish below, throat with fine dusky streaking. Small and relatively unpatterned. Eye-ringed Tody-Tyrant has a dark iris, more complex facial pattern, and yellower underparts. Behavior as in Eye-ringed, though Hangnest tends to be a more conspicuous bird, more often at edge and perching in the open. Call consists of several high-pitched, semimusical notes, e.g., “ti-dik, ti-di-du.”

VU

Rare and very local in thick lower growth at edge of humid forest and woodland, favoring areas with bamboo understory; recorded mainly from S Rio de Janeiro and NE São Paulo; also locally in SE Bahia. To 1200 m. Head and sides of throat cocoa brown with lores and ocular area buff. Otherwise olive above, wings and tail duskier with secondaries edged chestnut and pale tertial edging, tail long and notched with black subterminal band and white tip. White below, breast grayer. Given its distinctive head and tail pattern this fancy tody-tyrant is essentially unmistakable. Usually found in pairs; seemingly sedentary, not accompanying mixed flocks. Most frequent call a fast, almost squeaky, and staccato “chi-di-dee-duk.”

PEARLY-VENTED TODY-TYRANT Hemitriccus margaritaceiventer

10 cm|4”

Fairly common in lower growth of semideciduous woodland and scrub in interior São Paulo, much of Minas Gerais, and E Bahia. To 1000 m. Iris pale yellow. Olive above with grayer crown, whitish lores, and vague eye-ring; wings duskier with two yellowish bars and edging, bend of wing yellow. Whitish below, throat and foreneck with dusky streaking. Except for Stripe-necked, more streaked below than other tody-tyrants; Stripe-necked is found only in E Bahia and has plain wings, yellow underparts. Rusty-fronted Tody-Flycatcher has buff on face, ochraceous wing-bars, no streaking on foreneck. A drab but engaging little tyrannid that ranges singly and in pairs, sometimes with flocks but usually apart. Distinctive song a few “tic” notes followed by a descending trill, “tk, tk, tr-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee-r.”

STRIPE-NECKED TODY-TYRANT Hemitriccus striaticollis

11 cm|4.25”

Uncommon in low woodland, humid forest borders, and shrubby clearings of E Bahia. To 400 m. Olive above, crown more grayish brown, with white lores and eye-ring; wings plain. Throat white sharply streaked blackish; below yellow, breast clouded olive. Pearly-vented Tody-Tyrant has wing-bars, whitish underparts. Aside from its frequent calling, this arboreal tody-tyrant is inconspicuous. Song a fast “pit-pit-pit-pit, whi-di-dit.”

283

EARED PYGMY TYRANT MIUDINHO

EYE-RINGED TODY-TYRANT TIRIRIZINHO-DO-MATO

HANGNEST TODY-TYRANT TACHURI-CAMPAINHA

FORK-TAILED TODY-TYRANT PAPA-MOSCA-ESTRELA

PEARLY-VENTED TODY-TYRANT OLHO-DE-OURO

STRIPE-NECKED TODY-TYRANT SEBINHO-RAJADO

TODIROSTRUM tody-flycatchers are cute, small, arboreal flycatchers with notably spatulate bills found in edge habitats where they are comparatively easy to see.

COMMON TODY-FLYCATCHER Todirostrum cinereum

9.5 cm|3.75”

Widespread and common in trees in many secondary and semiopen habitats including gardens and mangroves, even in many towns and cities. To at least 1500 m. Iris pale yellow. Forecrown and face black, shading to gray on nape and olive gray on back, and often with a little yellow on lores. Wings blackish with yellow edging; fairly long, graduated tail black, outer feathers edged whitish. Below bright yellow. Yellow-lored Tody-Flycatcher has conspicuous yellow lores, more purely olive back, and a plain tail. For a small flycatcher easy to see, often foraging in the open and with animated behavior, cocking or wagging its tail. Generally not with mixed flocks. Frequently gives cricket-like trills and various sharp “tik” notes.

YELLOW-LORED TODY-FLYCATCHER Todirostrum poliocephalum 9.5 cm|3.75”

Locally fairly common in borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, and in adjacent gardens; favors less open areas than Common Tody-Flycatcher. Mostly below 1300 m; in Bahia mainly above 500 m. Iris orange-yellow. Resembles Common Tody-Flycatcher, sometimes occurring with it, but differs in its conspicuous yellow loral spot, pure olive back (no gray), and plain olive tail (no whitish edging). Remember that some Commons show a few yellow feathers on their lores. Behavior of the two species is similar, though Yellow-lored occurs more often in actual forest and woodland. Their vocalizations are also similar, though Yellow-lored’s are less trilled with individual notes more separated. POECILOTRICCUS tody-flycatchers also have spatulate bills but they range in woodland undergrowth. Usually they are harder to see than Todirostrum, though their frequent calling helps to locate them.

OCHRE-FACED TODY-FLYCATCHER Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps 9.5 cm|3.75”

Fairly common in undergrowth and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland and overgrown clearings, also in araucaria forest; northward scarcer and more montane. 300-1800 m. Crown gray surmounting cinnamon-buff sides of head, dusky auriculars; olive above, wings duskier with two ochraceous bars. Throat buff, underparts whitish. This engaging little flycatcher’s contrasting and bright face should preclude confusion. Found singly or in pairs, usually not with mixed flocks and generally not too hard to observe; forages by making upward strikes to leaf undersides. Frequent call a rattled “trrrrr,” often repeated a couple times or preceded by “tic” notes (which can also be given alone).

RUSTY-FRONTED TODY-FLYCATCHER Poecilotriccus latirostris

9.5 cm|3.75”

Uncommon in dense undergrowth of shrubby regenerating clearings and in semideciduous woodland in N São Paulo. 300-800 m. Crown and neck gray with prominent buff lores and facial area; olive above, wings duskier with two ochraceous bars and olive edging. Below grayish white. Pearly-vented Tody-Tyrant has white lores and spectacles, shows streaking on foreneck. Behavior much as in Ochre-faced Tody-Flycatcher, though Rusty-fronted seems harder to observe, perhaps simply due to its very dense habitat. Voice much as in Ochre-faced.

SMOKY-FRONTED TODY-FLYCATCHER Poecilotriccus fumifrons 9.5 cm|3.75”

Rare and local in dense undergrowth of shrubby regenerating clearings and woodland in E Bahia. To 500 m. Lores buff; otherwise olive above with grayer crown, wings duskier with two yellowish buff bars and olive edging. Throat whitish, underparts pale yellowish. This drab little flycatcher replaces the Rusty- fronted in NE Brazil. Behavior and voice of the two are very similar.

SOUTHERN ANTPIPIT Corythopis delalandi

14 cm|5.5”

Fairly common on or near ground inside humid forest and woodland from Minas Gerais and W Espírito Santo southward. To 1000 m. A unique and unmistakable flycatcher with pipit-like shape that actually walks on the ground. Brownish olive above, some whitish around eye. Throat creamy white, breast with bold black streaks that sometimes almost coalesce into a solid black band; belly whitish. Antpipits walk with a mincing gait, nodding their head and pumping the tail. They regularly perch on fallen logs and sometimes are first noticed from their bill snapping. Generally solitary, less often in pairs. Feeding birds sally up from ground, snapping insects from underside of leaves. Distinctive whistled song a shrill “peee peee? peeur-peépit” (with the mnemonic of “three cheers for the pipit”).

285

COMMON TODY-FLYCATCHER RELÓGIO

YELLOW-LORED TODY-FLYCATCHER TEQUE-TEQUE

OCHRE-FACED TODY-FLYCATCHER TORORÓ

RUSTY-FRONTED TODY-FLYCATCHER FERREIRINHO-DE-CARA-PARDA

SMOKY-FRONTED TODY-FLYCATCHER FERREIRINHO-DE-TESTA-PARDA

SOUTHERN ANTPIPIT ESTALADOR

PLATYRINCHUS spadebills are small, stub-tailed flycatchers with very wide flat bills that range inside forest and woodland.

WHITE-THROATED SPADEBILL Platyrinchus mystaceus

10 cm|4”

RUSSET-WINGED SPADEBILL Platyrinchus leucoryphus

12.5 cm|5”

YELLOW-RUMPED MYIOBIUS Myiobius mastacalis

12.5 cm|5”

BLACK-TAILED MYIOBIUS Myiobius atricaudus

12.5 cm|5”

Widespread and fairly common but inconspicuous in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, smaller numbers into more deciduous growth; also in araucaria forest; more numerous southward. To at least 1500 m. Lower mandible of wide flat bill pale. Olive brown above with yellow crown patch (usually concealed) and a complex buffy yellowish and black facial pattern. Throat white, buffyish below, midbelly more yellow. Cf. the larger and much rarer Russet-winged Spadebill; otherwise should be easily recognized, with unique bill. Perches quietly in understory, usually alone and only infrequently joining mixed flocks, favoring areas with dense growth; its abrupt, quick movements make it hard to follow. Most frequently heard is its call, a sharp “squeeyp!” or “squik!” sometimes repeated. The distinctive song is given less often, a fairly musical trill that first descends, then rises before ending with a “whik.”

Rare and seemingly very local in undergrowth of humid and lower montane forest from Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. To 900 m. Compared to Whitethroated Spadebill, large and relatively long-tailed. Lower mandible of very wide bill bright yellow. Above olive brown with white crown patch (usually concealed) and a complex buffy yellowish and blackish facial pattern (the eye-ring often very bold); wing-coverts and flight feathers broadly edged rufous. Throat white, breast olive brown, belly whitish. White-throated Spadebill (a much commoner bird) is much smaller and lacks rufous on wings. Solitary inconspicuous behavior, including vocalizations, much as in White-throated. MYIOBIUS are acrobatic, small flycatchers of forests and woodlands sporting characteristic yellow rumps. They have especially long rictal bristles. Uncommon in lower growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia and Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. To 900 m. Above olive, with a usually concealed yellow crown patch, conspicuous yellow rump, and rather rounded black tail. Throat whitish, breast pale tawny, belly yellow. The similar Black-tailed Flycatcher is uniform yellowish buff below, lacking this species’ tawny. Usually seen singly, sometimes in pairs, often while accompanying understory flocks inside forest. Foraging behavior is particularly active, with frequent pirouetting, fanning tail and drooping wings. Quiet, but occasionally gives a sharp “psee” or “psik.” Often called Whiskered Flycatcher (M. barbatus), and though usually mastacalis is not considered a separate species, to be consistent with other taxa we believe it should be. Uncommon in lower growth of secondary woodland and forest borders, especially near water, from S Bahia and E Minas Gerais south through S São Paulo. Mostly 400-1200 m. Closely resembles Yellow-rumped Myiobius, differing in its nearly uniform buffy yellowish underparts. Yellow-rumped has a tawny breast that usually contrasts. Behavior similar to Yellow-rumped Myiobius, though Blacktailed typically is less active and acrobatic; it favors second-growth, and unlike Yellow-rumped usually is lacking in taller forest. It is equally quiet.

ATLANTIC ROYAL FLYCATCHER Onychorhynchus swainsoni

16.5 cm|6.5”

Rare to locally uncommon in lower growth of foothill and lower montane forest from Rio de Janeiro and adjacent Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. Mostly 4001000 m, occasionally higher. An extraordinary bird, famous for its unique crest consisting of a large, semicircular fan of shiny scarlet feathers (orangey in ) with a few black spots and broad blue tips, when expanded held perpendicular to axis of body in a spectacular display that unfortunately is not often seen. When closed the crest protrudes to the rear, imparting a hammerhead-effect. Long flat bill; legs yellowish. Brown above with minute whitish spots on wingcoverts, rump and tail cinnamon. Ochraceous-buff below. Even with the crest down (which is most of the time), this distinctive flycatcher should be easy to recognize. Forages quietly in undergrowth, most often alone, sallying to foliage for insects. Preening birds can open the crest briefly, as do birds when near their large pendant nest, which is usually suspended over a stream. Not especially vocal, but does give a semiwhistled “preeé-o” or “keee-you,” sometimes in series, its quality recalling a Galbula jacamar.

287

WHITE-THROATED SPADEBILL PATINHO

RUSSET-WINGED SPADEBILL PATINHO-GIGANTE

YELLOW-RUMPED MYIOBIUS ASSANHADINHO

BLACK-TAILED MYIOBIUS ASSANHADINHO-DE-RABO-PRETO

ATLANTIC ROYAL FLYCATCHER MARIA-LEQUE-DO-SUDESTE

TOLMOMYIAS flatbills are obscure olive and yellow flycatchers with notably wide and flat bills, hence our group name-change from the decidedly uninformative “flycatcher.” Their distinctive purse-shaped nests are often suspended over trails.

YELLOW-BREASTED FLATBILL Tolmomyias flaviventris

12 cm|4.75”

GRAY-CROWNED FLATBILL Tolmomyias poliocephalus

12 cm|4.75”

Fairly common in lighter woodland, clearings, restinga forest, and mangroves from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 900 m. Lower mandible pale. Yellowish olive above, lores often somewhat ochraceous; wings blackish with two prominent yellow bars and edging. Quite bright yellow below. This flycatcher gives a very yellow impression overall, much more so than any of the other flatbills (all of which are more olive). Usually inconspicuous, tending to remain in leafy trees and not emerging into the open very often; usually occurs in pairs, not with flocks. Song a loud, shrill “se-reép,” often repeated numerous times.

Uncommon in midlevels and subcanopy of humid forest and borders in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 600 m. Iris pale brownish; bill mainly black. Olive above with distinct gray crown and whitish supraloral; wings blackish with two yellow bars and edging. Throat whitish, breast washed olive, belly pale yellow. A confusing bird, most likely to be recognized on the basis of its wide and flat bill, as well as voice; smaller than other Tolmomyias, and but for the bill it actually resembles certain tyrannulets more. A frequent member of canopy flocks, rarely dropping to near the ground and thus hard to see well. Has a rather horizontal posture, and often cocks tail. Song an inflected and somewhat wheezy “fee, fwee, fwee, fi-wee.”

YELLOW-OLIVE FLATBILL Tolmomyias sulphurescens

13.5 cm|5.25”

Common and widespread in lower growth and borders of humid, semideciduous, and lower montane forest and woodland (also in araucaria forest). To 1700 m. Lower mandible pale. Olive above with gray crown and nape, whitish supraloral, and blackish patch on ear-coverts; wings dusky with two yellow bars and edging. Throat pale grayish white, breast and flanks pale olive, midbelly pale yellow. The ear-patch in conjunction with the wide flat bill makes identification of this common bird straightforward; learn it well as there are lots of other scarcer flycatchers that differ only subtly; voice also helps. Found singly or in pairs, often accompanying mixed flocks in understory; habitually perches quite upright, but also can adopt a more horizontal posture with partially cocked tail. Unlike the Gray-crowned, usually easy to observe. Song an easily recognized upward-inflected “dzeeyp,” often given in a short series.

OLIVACEOUS FLATBILL Rhynchocyclus olivaceus

15 cm|6”

LARGE-HEADED FLATBILL Ramphotrigon megacephalum

13 cm|5”

Uncommon and local in lower growth of humid forest in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. Below 600 m. A stolid, heavy-bodied flycatcher with an exceptionally wide, flat bill (lower mandible pale). Dark olive above with a whitish eye-ring, giving the bird a wide-eyed, staring look. Wings duskier with two dull bars and edging yellowish to ochraceous olive. Throat whitish, breast and flanks flammulated grayish olive, belly pale yellow. So much larger than Tolmomyias that confusion with that genus is improbable. Thrushlike Schiffornis is much browner and has a normally shaped bill; Greenish Schiffornis occurs at higher elevations. Forages singly or in pairs, often with understory flocks; perches upright, looking around with what looks like a dazed expression, abruptly sallying after an insect. Being inactive, inconspicuous, and quiet, not often seen. Foraging birds occasionally give a harsh and abrupt “tshreet,” and a descending chatter is also known.

Uncommon and local in bamboo-dominated undergrowth of humid and montane forest and woodland in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. Mostly below 1400 m, locally to 1900 m (Serra do Caparaó). Bill fairly wide and flat. Dull dark olive above with prominent yellowish white supraloral contrasting with dusky lores; wings duskier with two prominent ochraceous bars. Yellowish below, more ochraceous olive across breast, throat whitish. Not likely confused in its limited range and habitat; the distinctive voice also really helps. A retiring bird that perches upright inside dense cover, typically in bamboo thickets, and usually located by tracking down its vocalizations. Characteristic call, typically given at long intervals, an abrupt “wee-urt.” Though called a flatbill, and indeed having a broad wide bill, this species is not closely related to the other flatbills, being more allied to Myiarchus and, like them, nesting in cavities.

289 YELLOW-BREASTED FLATBILL BICO-CHATO-AMARELO

GRAY-CROWNED FLATBILL BICO-CHATO-DE-CABEÇA-CINZA

YELLOW-OLIVE FLATBILL BICO-CHATO-DE-ORELHA-PRETA

OLIVACEOUS FLATBILL BICO-CHATO-GRANDE

LARGE-HEADED FLATBILL MARIA-CABEÇUDA

OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER Contopus cooperi

18 cm|7”

Vagrant (Oct-Mar) to edge of humid forest and woodland, also clearings with tall trees; few records. To 1400 m (Itatiaia). Looks bull-headed and short-tailed. Mostly dark grayish olive above; below whitish with olive grayish sides and flanks almost extending as a band across breast. A tuft of white sometimes protrudes from behind wing onto sides of rump. Tropical Pewee is markedly smaller with a proportionately longer tail; it never has the “vested” look, or the white tuft. Typically rests alone on a high snag, flying out after insects, sometimes going far but often returning to the same perch over and over. Most frequent call a “pip-pip-pip,” louder than Tropical’s. Breeds in North America.

TROPICAL PEWEE Contopus cinereus

14 cm|5.5”

Locally fairly common to common and widespread in forest borders, secondary woodland, and clearings. To 1800 m (Itatiaia). A drab, slightly crested flycatcher. Lower mandible yellowish. Looks uniformly gray, somewhat darker above, and with a more whitish belly; lores can be contrastingly whitish, but whitish wingbars usually weak or even lacking. In our area most likely confused with Euler’s Flycatcher, and often with it. Euler’s is more olive brown, shows stronger wingbars, and is more an understory bird. Usually seen singly while perching upright on an open branch at middle heights, from there sallying out after passing insects, often returning to the same branch or nearby and quivering its tail upon alighting. Most frequent call a “pip-pip-pip,” often given repeatedly.

EULER’S FLYCATCHER Lathrotriccus euleri

13.5 cm|5.25”

FUSCOUS FLYCATCHER Cnemotriccus fuscatus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Widespread and locally common, but generally inconspicuous, in undergrowth of humid and montane forest, woodland, and borders. To 1800 m. Lower mandible yellowish. Olive brown above with an obscure whitish supraloral and eye-ring; wings dusky with two buff bars and edging. Throat grayish white, becoming brownish olive on breast and whitish on belly. Fuscous Flycatcher has an all-black bill and well-marked whitish superciliary. Bran-colored Flycatcher is more rufescent above and shows some streaking below. Normally staying within cover, Euler’s can be a hard bird to see well; single birds or pairs perch upright and periodically sally to foliage. Usually not with mixed flocks. Commonest call a simple, burry “zhwee-buu” or just “zhweeu.” Widespread and fairly common in undergrowth of semideciduous and gallery woodland and humid forest borders, also restinga. To 1000 m. Bill blackish. Brown above with a quite prominent whitish superciliary; wings dusky with two broad buff bars and edging. Throat whitish, breast washed brownish, belly pale yellowish. Euler’s Flycatcher is smaller and lacks the superciliary. Mouse-colored Tyrannulet behaves entirely differently. A drab, inconspicuous flycatcher that favors shady, often swampy undergrowth and avoids open places. Usually occurs in pairs, and generally independent of mixed flocks. Gives a variety of vocalizations, among them a fast “jeu-jeu-jeu-jeu-jeu-jeujeu-jéw” and a sharp “jeu-jêw.” Song, given early and late, a rising “suuwee?”

BRAN-COLORED FLYCATCHER Myiophobus fasciatus

12.5 cm|5”

Fairly common and widespread in shrubby clearings, pastures, early-succession woodland, and borders. Mostly below 1600 m, locally to 1900 m (Serra do Caparaó). Reddish brown above with a weak whitish supraloral and semiconcealed yellow crown patch; wings dusky with two broad buff bars and edging. Whitish below, breast and sides with obvious brown streaking; belly pale yellowish. Combination of reddish upperparts and streaked underparts distinctive. A retiring bird, but more often in the open than either the Fuscous or Euler’s Flycatchers. Found singly or in pairs, making short sallies into the air and to foliage. Commonest call a fast “bree, bee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee-ee.” Song, given mostly early in day, a “weeb, bee-wit,” often repeated several times.

VERMILION FLYCATCHER Pyrocephalus rubinus

14.5-15 cm|5.75-6”

Common winter visitant to open and semiopen areas southward (mostly Apr-Oct), becoming progressively less numerous as you move north (rare in Bahia, and uncommon even in Rio de Janeiro). Mainly below 1000 m, a few up to 1800 m. dazzling, and obviously unmistakable: crown and underparts brilliant scarlet with upperparts and narrow mask sooty blackish. ashy brown above, paler on forehead and brow, wings and tail sootier. Below whitish with extensive blackish streaking. Bran-colored Flycatcher is smaller, has wingbars, and is much more rufescent above. Generally solitary here, perching in the open and sallying into air and to ground for insects.

291

OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER PIUÍ-BOREAL

TROPICAL PEWEE PIUÍ-CINZA

EULER’S FLYCATCHER ENFERRUJADO

FUSCOUS FLYCATCHER GUARACAVUÇU

BRAN-COLORED FLYCATCHER FILIPE

VERMILION FLYCATCHER PRÍNCIPE

XOLMIS monjitas are attractive and conspicuous flycatchers of semiopen terrain. Rather large and boldly patterned, identification is straightforward.

WHITE MONJITA Xolmis irupero

17 cm|6.75”

Fairly common and always very conspicuous in open and semiopen terrain with scattered bushes and trees. Originally absent or marginal in our region, in recent decades the White Monjita has spread south from NE Brazil into SE Bahia, N Minas Gerais, and Espírito Santo. To 1000 m or more. Ethereally white plumage is relieved only by black primaries, primary coverts, and tip of tail. ’s back tinged gray. This unmistakable and lovely bird usually perches fully in the open and thus can be seen from tremendous distances; from time to time it drops to the ground after its insect prey, sometimes having hovered briefly. Usually quiet, but breeding s give a soft “preeeyp… tooit… preeyp… tooit….”

WHITE-RUMPED MONJITA Xolmis velatus

19.5 cm|7.75”

Fairly common and widespread in semiopen areas with scattered bushes and trees, having spread into many deforested areas in SE Brazil during recent decades but still scarce in Bahia. Locally up to 1800-2000 m. Head white with pale pearly gray hindneck; back gray with white rump and basal half of tail (very obvious in flight, when it contrasts with black terminal half of tail); wings blackish with white edging and a white stripe along inner flight feathers (also obvious in flight). Below white. Gray Monjita is larger and darker gray overall with no white on rump or basal tail. Usually in pairs that perch in the open and generally quite approachable; often drops to the ground after insects. Quiet, but has a martin-like “jeeu” call.

GRAY MONJITA Xolmis cinereus

23 cm|9”

Fairly common and widespread in semiopen areas with scattered shrubs and short trees; originally a bird of the cerrado, now has adapted to airports and open agricultural areas, and like the White-rumped Monjita has spread into many formerly forested regions. Locally up to 2000 m (Itatiaia). Iris red. Ashy gray above with a white supraloral; wings black with white patch at base of primaries (forming an obvious square “block” in flight), tail black with white tip. Throat white with black malar streak, breast pale gray, belly white. Not likely confused, though vaguely kingbird-like, and cf. Chalk-browed Mockingbird. Like the other monjitas, a conspicuous bird that remains active through the heat of the day. Perches atop bushes or on fences and wires, capturing insects both by dropping to the ground and sallying into the air in fast, direct, and graceful flight. Quiet, but breeding gives a soft “peee, preeu.”

STREAMER-TAILED TYRANT Gubernetes yetapa

38-40 cm|15-16”

Uncommon and somewhat local, but conspicuous, in damp shrubby grassy areas and marshy terrain in S part of our area, essentially north to Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. To 1100 m. One of Brazil’s finest birds, the Streamertailed, like certain other species of the interior, has taken advantage of recent deforestation to colonize some areas closer to the coast. Heavy blackish bill. Unmistakable, with tail very long, graduated, and deeply forked. Above pale gray, crown somewhat streaked and superciliary white; wings blackish with rufous slash at base of primaries (showing as a conspicuous stripe in flight). Throat white sharply outlined by chestnut pectoral collar; below pale gray. slightly smaller and shorter-tailed. Fork-tailed Flycatcher, though also long-tailed, is really very different. Found in sedentary pairs that perch in the open and sally out after insects, their long tails whipping around gracefully. Loud vocalizations attract attention even from far off, the most notable being a boisterous “whee-irt!” or “wirt!” Displaying pairs flare and flap their wings exuberantly while vocalizing in tandem.

SHEAR-TAILED GRAY TYRANT Muscipipra vetula

22.5 cm|8.75”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest) north locally to S Bahia, but mainly from S Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo south. To 2200 m. Uniform gray with dusky auriculars and white throat; wings contrastingly black, as is its long and rather deeply forked tail. Essentially unmistakable, but cf. Crowned Slaty Flycatcher. Usually perches in the open, sometimes on high snags, sallying into the air sometimes for long distances. Generally found in pairs, occasionally small groups when not breeding. Rather quiet, but gives a “pi-prup” or pewee-like “pup-pup-pup.”

293 WHITE MONJITA NOIVINHA

WHITE-RUMPED MONJITA NOIVINHA-BRANCA

GRAY MONJITA MARIA-BRANCA

STREAMER-TAILED TYRANT TESOURA-DO-BREJO

SHEAR-TAILED GRAY TYRANT TESOURA-CINZA

SPECTACLED TYRANT Hymenops perspicillatus

15.5 cm|6”

Rare austral migrant (Mar-Oct) to open marshy or beach areas in coastal São Paulo. To 500 m. Both sexes have a very prominent yellow wattle around the eye (the “spectacles”) and yellow iris, but wattle reduced or lacking in nonbreeding birds. ’s bill yellow, ’s duskier. Unmistakable black with mainly white primaries (very conspicuous when flying, visible when perched). streaked brown and dusky above with indistinct pale superciliary; wings blackish with two buff bars and mainly rufous primaries (obvious in flight, visible when perched). Below buffy whitish, chest streaked dusky. Rufous in wings of -plumaged birds (some young s) should preclude confusion, even if the wattle is lacking; most (all?) found here have been in this plumage. Solitary, perching low and in the open, dropping to the ground in pursuit of its insect prey and sometimes running rapidly.

COCK-TAILED TYRANT Alectrurus tricolor 12 cm|4.25”; long-tailed breeding up to 18 cm|7”

Rare and now very local in remaining campos and open grassy cerrado in N São Paulo (Itirapina) and central Minas Gerais; declining due to massive habitat destruction. 600-1200 m. Bill pinkish. Unmistakable black above with gray on rump, white shoulders, and secondary edging. Face and underparts white with black patch on sides of chest. Bizarre tail black and usually cocked, with inner pairs of feathers lengthened, very broad, and held perpendicular to the body. mottled brown above, buffier on superciliary, shoulders, and scapulars; the very short tail is shaped normally. Whitish below with brown smudge on sides of chest. unique, while the plump, large-headed, and very cute should be distinctive enough as to be easily recognized in its special habitat. Cock-tailed Tyrants perch in tall grass – where unburned for several years – there gleaning and sallying for insects; nonbreeders can occur in groups, and occasionally accompany seedeater flocks. Displaying launches into the air on fluttery wingbeats with the tail held so far forward over its back that it almost touches its head, surely the cerrado’s signature avian sight, and today a sight that is sadly vanishing. FLUVICOLA water tyrants are attractive, black-and-white tyrannids that are conspicuous near water. Usually in pairs, they forage on or near marshy ground and on floating vegetation.

VU

BLACK-BACKED WATER TYRANT Fluvicola albiventer

14.5 cm|5.75”

MASKED WATER TYRANT Fluvicola nengeta

14.5 cm|5.75”

Widespread but generally uncommon in marshes and surrounding shrubby vegetation, sometimes out onto drier open terrain, mainly in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. To 1000 m. Head and underparts snowy white contrasting with black rearcrown, back, wings, and tail; rump band and wingbars (variable in extent, sometimes none) also white. White-headed Marsh Tyrant is ashy brown above (not black); its behavior is quite different. Not very vocal, occasionally giving a nasal “zree-zri-zri-zri” and a sharper “treeu.” Now common and widespread around marshes, ponds, and in nearby semiopen areas, having spread rapidly through eastern Brazil over the past several decades, now occurring even in urban areas and colonizing city parks; also locally in mangroves. To 1700 m (Gonçalves). Mostly white with black stripe through eye and pale gray back; wings and tail black, the latter broadly tipped white. Black-backed Water Tyrant is mainly black above, has a white face with no eyestripe. Attractive and often charmingly tame, this well-known bird regularly occurs around houses, basically anywhere there is a little water. It usually holds its tail slightly cocked. Distinctive call a sharp “kirt,” sometimes doubled and often given in flight; pairs will chatter together.

WHITE-HEADED MARSH TYRANT Arundinicola leucocephala

13 cm|5”

Locally fairly common in marshy areas and damp shrubby grasslands and pastures. To at least 1000 m. Lower mandible yellow basally. Slightly bushycrested. Unmistakable black with contrasting white head and throat. a little trickier, ashy grayish brown above with white forecrown; tail blackish. Whitish below, chest and sides washed grayish. Black-backed Water Tyrant differs from in being sharply black and white. White-headeds are conspicuous birds, often in pairs; they perch upright on grass stems, shrubs, or small trees and sally for insects. Unlike the water tyrants, rarely on the ground. Very quiet. Austral Negrito (Lessonia rufa) is a vagrant in winter to the São Paulo coast at Ubatuba. A small flycatcher favoring open areas near water and often on ground, is black with a rufous back while shows enough rufous there as to be recognizable.

295

SPECTACLED TYRANT VIUVINHA-DE-ÓCULOS

COCK-TAILED TYRANT GALITO

BLACK-BACKED WATER TYRANT LAVADEIRA-DE-CARA-BRANCA

MASKED WATER TYRANT LAVADEIRA-MASCARADA

WHITE-HEADED MARSH TYRANT FREIRINHA

LONG-TAILED TYRANT Colonia colonus

23-25 cm|9-10” 18-20 cm|7-8”

Locally fairly common at edge of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, also araucaria forest, often out into nearby clearings and most often seen while perching conspicuously on snags and branches in the open. To 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Unmistakable, with central pair of tail feathers greatly elongated (shorter in s, though still obvious). Bill notably stubby. Black with white forecrown and superciliary, silvery crown and nape; rump patch also white. paler and grayer on belly. Immatures can lack the lengthened tail feathers (or they may be very short), and even their crown can be dark, creating possible confusion with Knipolegus black tyrants; but cf. their very short bill. Usually found in pairs (sometimes family groups) and highly sedentary, not joining mixed flocks. Perched birds often flick their long tail feathers and sally into the air after insects, sometimes ascending a long way but generally returning to their original perch or close nearby. Most frequent call a rising “suwee?” and a “suee, su-te-te-tu.” Altogether a charming bird: tame, attractive, and easy to observe. KNIPOLEGUS black tyrants are midsized flycatchers found in the semiopen or at forest edge, notable for their black plumage (in one species the is dark and heavily streaked); most species have a conspicuous white wing stripe.

CRESTED BLACK TYRANT Knipolegus lophotes

21 cm|8.25” 20.5 cm|8”

VELVETY BLACK TYRANT Knipolegus nigerrimus

18 cm|7”

BLUE-BILLED BLACK TYRANT Knipolegus cyanirostris

15 cm|6”

Fairly common in open grassy and shrubby areas, even having colonized some lowland regions from the interior over the last few decades (though still not present in E Bahia and N Espírito Santo). Mostly 400-1600 m, locally to 2000 m (Itatiaia). Unmistakable, with prominent crest. Bill black. Entirely glossy blue-black with a white band along base of primaries that flashes out in flight but on perched birds normally is hidden. A conspicuous bird, most often found in pairs that perch in the open atop a shrub or low tree, sometimes even on wires. Sallies into the air in pursuit of insects, and also eats some fruit. Notably quiet.

Local and generally uncommon in semiopen and shrubby areas and woodland borders (including araucaria) at higher elevations, favoring rocky terrain. Mostly 700-2400 m; locally occurs lower on higher peaks in the city of Rio de Janeiro (e.g., Corcovado). Bill bluish gray; iris dark red. Sometimes shows a slight bushy crest. glossy blue-black with a white band along base of primaries (conspicuous in flight, but hidden at rest). similar, and equally glossy, but throat dark chestnut with a few black streaks. Blue-billed Black Tyrant is smaller, has a brighter red eye, and shows no white in wing; very different. Crested Black Tyrant is larger and obviously crested. Usually found in pairs and though not as conspicuous as the Crested Black Tyrant, normally not difficult to observe. Like the other black tyrants it generally remains close to the ground. Very quiet. Fairly common in lower growth and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, including araucaria forest; easily our most numerous black tyrant. Mostly 500-2200 m. has pale blue bill, bright red iris; ’s bill duskier, iris more orange. uniform glossy black with no white in wing evident in the field (a little shows in the hand). rufescent brown above, brightest rufous on crown and especially on rump; wings blackish with two obvious buff bars, tail feathers edged cinnamon-rufous. Whitish below prominently streaked with dark olive brown, crissum cinnamon. is the only black tyrant in our area lacking white in wing. The heavily streaked can be confusing, but her combination of that streaking and the rufous on rump should preclude anything else; cf. Bran-colored Flycatcher (much less a woodland bird, etc.). Less conspicuous than our other black tyrants, tending to remain fairly close to the ground and remaining in shady cover; there it can be confiding, usually as pairs. Breeding s have a display in which they mount some 5-10 m into the air, then drop like a stone back into cover, seeming not to make a sound (possibly giving a quick nearly inaudible note).

297 LONG-TAILED TYRANT VIUVINHA

CRESTED BLACK TYRANT MARIA-PRETA-DE-TOPETE

VELVETY BLACK TYRANT MARIA-PRETA-DE-GARGANTA-VERMELHA

BLUE-BILLED BLACK TYRANT MARIA-PRETA-DE-BICO-AZUL

MYIARCHUS flycatchers are fairly large flycatchers mainly found in wooded or forested habitats. Our four species are confusingly similar in plumage, and thus are usually best identified through their often distinctive voices. Nests are placed in tree cavities.

BROWN-CRESTED FLYCATCHER Myiarchus tyrannulus

19.5 cm|7.75”

Widespread and locally fairly common in a variety of semiopen habitats including forest and woodland edge, also restinga. To 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). A little pinkish at base of bill. Crown dull brown, otherwise dull grayish brown above; wings with rufous primary edging (usually evident); tail feathers broadly edged rufous (especially evident from below). Throat and breast pale gray, belly pale yellow. No other Myiarchus shows as much rufous in wings and tail (but beware juveniles that can show some). A brash and noisy flycatcher that often perches in the open, peering about and vigorously nodding its head. Most frequent calls a sharp “peert” and a sometimes repeated “hurrip.”

SWAINSON’S FLYCATCHER Myiarchus swainsoni

19 cm|7.25”

SHORT-CRESTED FLYCATCHER Myiarchus ferox

18.5 cm|7.25”

Widespread and generally fairly common in forest and woodland borders, to some extent also in adjacent clearings; southward perhaps present mainly during austral summer. To 1650 m (Gonçalves). Lower mandible pinkish at least at base. Grayish olive above, somewhat browner on crown; tail blackish with white outer web. Throat and breast pale gray, belly pale yellow. Shortcrested Flycatcher has an all-dark bill, while Brown-crested Flycatcher has usually obvious rufous in wings and tail. All three have similar behavior and are often best identified by voice. Swainson’s most frequent call is a soft “whoo,” but it also gives other more complex phrases, one paraphrased as “put-it-here.” Generally common and widespread at borders of humid forest and woodland and in adjacent clearings, especially near water. Locally up to 1800 m (Nova Friburgo). Bill all black. In form and plumage very similar to the previous two flycatchers, especially Swainson’s, and usually best identified by voice. Browncrested differs in its rufous in wings and tail, Swainson’s in having some pink at base of mandible (often hard to see). Short-crested’s yellow on belly is often brighter. Short-crested’s distinctive call is a frequently heard soft rolling “prrrt.”

DUSKY-CAPPED FLYCATCHER Myiarchus tuberculifer

16.5 cm|6.5”

A relatively small Myiarchus, found locally in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland south to Rio de Janeiro; less numerous in our area than elsewhere across its wide Neotropical range. Mostly below 600 m, a few to 1250 m (Itatiaia). Crown blackish brown (somewhat contrasting) and back dark olive; tail dusky. Throat and breast pale gray, belly pale yellow. Usually can be recognized on the basis of its small size and distinctive voice. Duskycapped is more a forest-based bird than other Myiarchus, and at least at times will join mixed flocks, which the others do only rarely. Frequently heard call a clear whistled “wheeeur,” rather unlike other Myiarchus, more even and less plaintive than in Andean birds.

EASTERN SIRYSTES Sirystes sibilator

18.5 cm|7.25”

Locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid, lower montane, and semideciduous forest and woodland across much of our area. To 1000 m. Crown black shading to slaty on sides of head, with mottled gray back; wings and tail blackish, coverts and inner flight feathers edged pale grayish. Throat and breast pale gray, belly white. Myiarchus-like in aspect and comportment, but with totally different gray, black, and white plumage. Found singly or in pairs, frequently seeming to lead mixed flocks. Often leans forward while nodding its head and ruffling crown feathers. Very vocal, with calls including a loud “wheeer-péw,” sometimes extended into an excited series, e.g., “wheeer-pepe-pew-pew-pew.” Sometimes called simply Sirystes (this when all forms are considered conspecific; their voices differ substantially).

GRAYISH MOURNER Rhytipterna simplex

20.5 cm|8”

Uncommon in midlevels and subcanopy of humid and foothill forest from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1000 m (REGUA). Iris buff to orangey. A drab bird, uniform plain gray, somewhat paler below with a slight yellowish cast. Screaming Piha is larger, purer gray (especially below), and its head shape is more rounded. Voices differ markedly; also, the piha only rarely accompanies flocks. Found singly or in pairs, perching upright and peering around in search of insect prey; also eats some fruit. Frequently with mixed flocks. Most distinctive call a fast “r-t-t-t-t-t-tchéw!” (like a sneeze), sometimes preceded by rising notes; also gives a fast “wh-wh-wh-wh-wheeu-wheeu.”

299 BROWN-CRESTED FLYCATCHER MARIA-TOLA

SWAINSON’S FLYCATCHER IRRÉ

SHORT-CRESTED FLYCATCHER MARIA-CAVALEIRA

DUSKY-CAPPED FLYCATCHER MARIA-CAVALEIRA-PEQUENA

EASTERN SIRYSTES GRITADOR

GRAYISH MOURNER VISSIÁ

CLIFF FLYCATCHER Hirundinea ferruginea

18.5 cm|7.25”

Locally fairly common around buildings, cliffs, and rocky outcrops, often even in towns and cities. To 1600 m (Gonçalves). Besides its unique habitat, this attractive flycatcher is distinctive in having rufous flight feathers and cinnamon-rufous rump and basal half of tail, these colors conspicuous in flight and usually visible even at rest. Otherwise brown above. Not likely confused, though birds not in typical habitat (infrequent, but does happen) look relatively dull until they fly. Found in sedentary pairs or small family groups that perch on or very close to buildings or rockfaces, in cities such as Rio and São Paulo seeming oblivious to the noise and commotion of traffic; everywhere often quite tame. They can be inconspicuous until they fly, but once in the air they are anything but! Often keeps up a chatter of easily recognized calls, e.g., “wheeuw-d’d’d’d’dr!” or “whee-dee-dee-ee-ee-ee,” sometimes just a repeated “wha-deép… wha-deép….”

RUFOUS CASIORNIS Casiornis rufus

18 cm|7”

RUFOUS-TAILED ATTILA Attila phoenicurus

18 cm|7”

Uncommon in semideciduous and gallery woodland in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 300-1000 m. Bill basally pinkish. Uniform rufous above. Throat and breast cinnamon, belly pale buffy yellow. This simply patterned but attractive tyrannid is by far the most uniformly rufous found in our area; it is more slender and longer-tailed than any becard (cf. especially Chestnutcrowned Becard, found in an entirely different habitat). The casiornis is an arboreal bird that usually ranges in pairs and often accompanies loose mixed flocks; it perches erectly, and often ruffles crown feathers while nodding head, recalling a Myiarchus. Generally quiet, but breeders give a weak “pseee,” sometimes in a quick series. ATTILAS are rather retiring large flycatchers with heavy hooked bills found in humid forests. Uncommon summer breeding visitant (Oct-Mar) to canopy and subcanopy of humid lower montane forest in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo; also a few records from Espírito Santo, and elsewhere en route to its Amazonian wintering grounds. To 1500 m. Head and nape gray contrasting with deep rufous upperparts; flight feathers blackish. Below orange-ochraceous. Gray-hooded Attila is larger and has a streaked throat. Crested Becard is less bright overall and has gray on crown only (not extending down onto nape). Found singly or in pairs, usually not with flocks, and notably hard to see except when singing; fortunately it sings a lot here, drawing attention to itself. Far-carrying song a fast “whee whee whee-bit,” repeated over and over. Also gives a softer “peeur.”

GRAY-HOODED ATTILA Attila rufus

21 cm|8.25”

Fairly common and widespread in subcanopy and midlevels of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, sometimes out into adjacent clearings, from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 1500 m, but mostly lower, below 1100 m. A large and handsome attila with bill basally pinkish. Head and throat gray, the latter with whitish streaking, contrasting with rufous upperparts and orange-ochraceous breast and flanks, midbelly paler. The smaller Rufoustailed Attila is entirely rufous below (including throat). Rufous-morph Brightrumped Attilas (rare) have wing-bars, show breast streaking and a whitish belly. Ranges singly or in pairs, and for an attila relatively conspicuous, quite often at forest edge. Nonetheless during the breeding season much more often heard than seen, with song a series of 6-9 slowly delivered “whee” notes that rise in pitch and gain in strength before fading on the last note. Also gives a softer “wee, tee-tee-pu.”

BRIGHT-RUMPED ATTILA Attila spadiceus

19 cm|7.5”

Rare to uncommon in subcanopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. Below 300 m. Iris reddish brown, rarely whitish. Polymorphic, but by far the most frequent in our area is the olive morph: above olive with vague pale brow and a contrasting yellow rump; wings duskier with indistinct pale grayish to rusty bars. Throat and breast olive streaked yellowish, belly whiter and unstreaked. There also are rufous and gray morphs, but all of these have the yellow rump and show wing-bars as well as streaking below. An inconspicuous bird, heard far more often than seen. More often with flocks than other attilas. Far-carrying song a series of spirited whistled notes, most doubled, e.g.,“wheédip, wheédip, wheédip, wheédip, wheeyr.” Also gives a fast “weer-weer-weer-weer-weer-weerpo.” The population of E Brazil is threatened due to deforestation.

301

CLIFF FLYCATCHER GIBÃO-DE-COURO

RUFOUS CASIORNIS CANELEIRO

RUFOUS-TAILED ATTILA CAPITÃO-CASTANHO

GRAY-HOODED ATTILA CAPITÃO-DE-SAÍRA

BRIGHT-RUMPED ATTILA CAPITÃO-DE-SAÍRA-AMARELO

BOAT-BILLED FLYCATCHER Megarynchus pitangua

23 cm|9”

Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of forest and woodland and in clearings with scattered trees, sometimes even city parks. Locally to 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Bill very heavy and broad with obvious arch on culmen. Crown and face black with long white superciliary and semiconcealed yellow crown patch; above brownish olive, wings and tail showing little or no rufous. Throat white, below bright yellow. Great Kiskadee has a narrower bill with straight culmen and is browner above with much more rufous wing and tail edging. Though a noisy bird, the arboreal Boat-billed Flycatcher is less conspicuous than the kiskadee, less apt to perch low or in the open. Pairs sometimes range with flocks, but often are alone. Eats mainly large insects, also fruit. Most frequent call a strident, nasal “kryeeeh-nyeh-nyeh.”

GREAT KISKADEE Pitangus sulphuratus

23-23.5 cm|9-9.25”

Very common and widespread in a wide variety of open and semiopen areas including around habitations and in city parks; generally most numerous near water, but by no means restricted to such situations. Mostly below 1600 m, occasionally a few up to 2300 m (Itatiaia). Bill heavy and straight. Crown and face black with long white superciliary and semiconcealed yellow crown patch; olive brown above, wing feathers and tail margined rufous. Throat white, below bright yellow. Boat-billed Flycatcher has a more massive bill, more olive upperparts with no rufous. The less robust and slender-billed Lesser Kiskadee is closely tied to water’s edge and is much less numerous. Great Kiskadees often perch low and in the open, and in many areas are tame; not with flocks. They take a wide variety of food including fish, lizards, and snakes, even sometimes robbing bird nests, and give many calls, the best known and most frequent being a boisterous “kis-ka-dee!” which can be varied to a “geép geép ga-reér” or a shrill raptor-like “keeeyr.”

LESSER KISKADEE Philohydor lictor

17 cm|6.75”

RUSTY-MARGINED FLYCATCHER Myiozetetes cayanensis

17 cm|6.75”

SOCIAL FLYCATCHER Myiozetetes similis

17 cm|6.75”

Uncommon and rather local at margins of lakes, streams, and rivers; recorded mainly in N of our area and in interior N São Paulo. Mostly below 500 m. Bill long and slender. Resembles much more numerous and widespread Great Kiskadee, differing in its smaller size, more pointed bill, and notably different vocalizations. Rusty-margined Flycatcher (also sometimes with it) has a much stubbier bill and generally more rufescent upperparts; their calls differ markedly. Usually found in pairs that perch in shrubbery near water, sallying to foliage and water’s surface; not nearly as bold and conspicuous as Great Kiskadee. Its calls are distinctive, but subdued, a nasal raspy “dzreeéy, dzwee-dzweedzwee” being most frequent. MYIOZETETES flycatchers resemble the two kiskadees but their bills are notably stubbier. Uncommon but widespread in shrubby clearings and forest and woodland borders, favoring areas near water. Mostly below 1000 m, a few higher. Crown and face black with long white superciliary and semiconcealed yellow crown patch; above olive brown, wing feathers edged rufous. Throat white, below bright yellow. Resembles Social Flycatcher and the two are often best separated by voice. Social has an orange-red crown patch, duskier (less black) crown and sides of head, pale wing-covert edging, and (except when immature) it lacks rufous primary edging. Cf. also the longer-billed Lesser Kiskadee. Perches, sometimes with tail partially cocked, anywhere from the ground to atop tall trees, but usually stays low. Generally in pairs, sometimes small groups, and only rarely with flocks. Like the Social, eats both insects and fruit. Frequently heard call a distinctive whining, plaintive “freeeea” or “wheeeea,” recalling Duskycapped Flycatcher. Also gives faster, excited-sounding calls that recall Social. Fairly common and widespread in shrubby clearings and forest and woodland borders, also locally in urban areas. Locally up to 1800 m (Teresópolis). Crown dark gray with semiconcealed orange-red crown patch, long white superciliary, and blackish face; olive above, wing-coverts edged pale grayish or whitish. Throat white, below bright yellow. Rusty-margined Flycatcher has a yellow crown patch (usually hard to see), blacker crown and sides of head, and rufous flight feather edging (though beware, this can be replicated in juvenile Socials). Behavior much as in Rusty-margined Flycatcher; the two are sometimes together. Commonest call in our area (different from elsewhere) a sharp “skweeu” or “skwee,” also a “pseee, pree-dee-dee-dee,” sometimes followed by other calls.

303 BOAT-BILLED FLYCATCHER NEINEI

GREAT KISKADEE BENTEVI

LESSER KISKADEE BENTEVIZINHO-DO-BREJO

RUSTY-MARGINED FLYCATCHER BENTEVIZINHO-DE-ASA-RUIVA

SOCIAL FLYCATCHER BENTEVIZINHO

THREE-STRIPED FLYCATCHER Conopias trivirgatus

14.5 cm|5.75”

PIRATIC FLYCATCHER Legatus leucophaius

14.5 cm|5.75”

VARIEGATED FLYCATCHER Empidonomus varius

18.5 cm|7.25”

Rare to uncommon and local in canopy and borders of humid forest in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 500 m, a few to 1000 m (Guainumbi). Fairly long bill. Head blackish with long white superciliary (but no crown patch); above rather pale olive, wings and tail contrastingly darker. Below bright yellow (no white throat), breast slightly clouded olive. The more numerous Social Flycatcher has a stubbier bill, white throat, and pale edging on wing-coverts; cf. also Rustymargined Flycatcher. Both these latter species favor shrubby clearings and gardens, only infrequently ranging up into forest canopy where Three-stripeds take over. Pairs and small groups seem sedentary, only occasionally accompanying mixed flocks. Most often located and identified from its distinctive call, a harsh grating “jew” or “jeeuw,” often repeated rapidly, e.g., “jew-jee-jee-jee-jee-jew.” Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of forest and woodland, also sometimes in taller trees in clearings, in lowlands. Southward present primarily during spring and summer (Sep-Mar), but at other times does not vocalize so easily overlooked. Mostly below 1200 m. Stubby black bill. Dark olive brown above with long whitish superciliary, semiconcealed yellow crown patch, blackish face, and whitish malar area and throat crossed by dusky submalar streak. Pale yellowish below, breast obscurely streaked dusky. The larger and longer-billed Variegated Flycatcher has a more mottled back, rufous on uppertailcoverts and tail. Persistently vocal when breeding: learn the voice! Otherwise inconspicuous, remaining high in trees where frequently unnoticed. Eats mostly small fruits. Pairs usurp the pendant nests of various other birds, especially those of oropendolas and caciques. ’s distinctive song a whining querulous “wheé-yee,” tirelessly repeated and sometimes followed by a rising “pi-ri-ri-ri.” Uncommon to locally fairly common and widespread in secondary and gallery woodland, borders, and clearings; in São Paulo apparently present only in summer (Sep-Mar). To 1800 m. Head blackish with semiconcealed yellow crown patch, long whitish superciliary, whitish malar area, and dusky submalar streak; back olive brown mottled dusky. Wing feathers edged whitish; rump and tail feathers broadly edged rufous. Throat whitish, below pale yellowish, breast with dusky-brown streaking. Piratic Flycatcher is smaller with a stubbier bill, plain back, and no rufous in tail. Streaked Flycatcher is larger with a heavier bill, coarser blackish streaking below. Perches in the open and easy to see; also joins frugivorous birds in fruiting trees but in our area mainly sallies for insects. Quiet on the whole, but breeding birds give a high-pitched, thin “pseee.”

CROWNED SLATY FLYCATCHER Griseotyrannus aurantioatrocristatus 18 cm|7”

Uncommon summer breeding visitant to open and semiopen areas and woodland borders in inland São Paulo and S Minas Gerais; a few records of transients or vagrants elsewhere. Winters in Amazonia. Mostly below 800 m, a few records (migrants?) higher. Brownish gray above with black crown and semiconcealed yellow crown patch and gray superciliary. Mostly smoky gray below. Looks essentially gray, and often appears flat-crowned. No Knipolegus is so uniformly grayish; Variegated Flycatcher looks more streaked and has a bolder face pattern. Seen singly or in scattered pairs, taking prominent perches (sometimes quite high) and sallying into the air after insects; also eats fruit. Notably quiet, breeders sometimes giving a weak, ascending “pseee?”

STREAKED FLYCATCHER Myiodynastes maculatus

20 cm|8”

Fairly common and widespread summer breeding visitant (mostly Sep-Mar) to a variety of habitats including forest and woodland borders, second-growth, and clearings and gardens with scattered trees. Winters in Amazonia. To 1650 m (Gonçalves). Large and conspicuously streaked. Dark brown above broadly streaked blackish, with semiconcealed yellow crown patch, whitish superciliary, blackish mask, whitish lower cheeks, and dusky malar streak. Wings with whitish edging, rump mainly rufous and outer tail feathers edged rufous. Throat whitish, underparts whitish to pale yellowish boldly streaked blackish. Variegated Flycatcher is smaller with a markedly shorter bill; it is much less prominently streaked, has a blackish crown. Found singly or in pairs; often noisy and conspicuous, sometimes even aggressive toward other birds. Consumes both insects and fruit. Has many loud harsh calls, including a repeated “kip!” and a “chup” or “eechup.” Dawn song, often given before first light, a repeated fast rhythmic “wheeé-cheederee,” sometimes with a final “wheé” added.

305

THREE-STRIPED FLYCATCHER BENTEVI-PEQUENO

PIRATIC FLYCATCHER BENTEVI-PIRATA

VARIEGATED FLYCATCHER PEITICA

CROWNED SLATY FLYCATCHER BENTEVI-DE-CHAPÉU

STREAKED FLYCATCHER BENTEVI-RAJADO

YELLOW-BROWED TYRANT Satrapa icterophrys

16.5 cm|6.50”

CATTLE TYRANT Machetornis rixosa

19.5 cm|7.75”

Widespread but never very numerous in semiopen areas with scattered trees and gallery woodland. To at least 1500 m. Olive above, grayer on crown, with a prominent bright yellow superciliary and blackish cheeks; wings blackish with two grayish bars, outermost tail feathers whitish. Below bright yellow. slightly duller, sides of chest with an olive wash or mottling. The superficially similar Social and Rusty-margined Flycatchers have their brow obviously white instead of yellow. Seen singly or in pairs, perching erectly, and often in the open in trees and bushes. Usually easy to see; generally not with flocks. Mainly feeds by sallying to foliage. A quiet bird, though breeders sometimes give a few soft chatters.

Common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, also on open ground around buildings and in city parks. To at least 1600 m (Gonçalves). Red iris. Plain olive brown above, grayer on head with a usually concealed orange crown patch (the latter can, however, be raised or flared when the bird is excited); tail tipped whitish. Throat whitish, below bright yellow. Superficially kingbird-like, but kingbirds are only rarely on the ground. A conspicuous, tame, primarily terrestrial flycatcher that also perches on rooftops and in trees; runs about with an erect stance and often attends grazing domestic animals, even hitching rides on their backs, dropping off to pursue disturbed insect prey. Calls include a series of high-pitched squeaky notes, often rising and reminiscent of Tropical Kingbird. TYRANNUS kingbirds and flycatchers are fairly large, conspicuous tyrannids that range in open areas.

TROPICAL KINGBIRD Tyrannus melancholicus

21.5 cm|8.5”

WHITE-THROATED KINGBIRD Tyrannus albogularis

21 cm|8.25”

Very common and conspicuous in virtually any open area; one of our more numerous and frequently seen birds though in São Paulo apparently only a summer resident (breeding); some birds present during winter may be migrants from further south. Mostly below 1800 m, a few to 2000 m (Itatiaia). Head gray, usually showing a darker mask. Above grayish olive, wings and notched tail more brownish. Throat whitish or pale grayish, chest grayish olive, lower underparts bright yellow. So numerous that it quickly becomes familiar; use this kingbird to compare with other, scarcer tyrannids. Normally seen singly or in pairs (though migrants from the south can occur in flocks), perching in the open, frequently on phone wires; unlike many birds, it remains active through the day, even when hot and sunny. Mainly eats insects, captured in the air after sometimes long pursuits, but also consumes some fruit. Has a variety of high-pitched, twittering calls, e.g., “pee, ee-ee-ee-ee?” sometimes accompanied by wing quivering. One of the first birds to greet the dawn, giving a short series of “pip” or “pee” notes followed by a rising twitter. Uncommon summer breeding visitant (mainly Aug-Mar) to shrubby areas and gallery woodland, most often near water, in interior Minas Gerais and São Paulo, a few (migrants?) have occurred in Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. Winters in Amazonia. Locally to 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Resembles much more numerous Tropical Kingbird, White-throated differing in its paler gray head that contrasts more with its blackish mask, paler and brighter olive back, and pure white throat contrasting with bright yellow underparts (with chest showing at most a tinge of olive). In strong mid-day light Tropicals can look pale-headed and white-throated, but they never show as strong a mask as the White-throated. Behavior and voice – though it seems less vocal – similar to Tropical Kingbird.

FORK-TAILED FLYCATCHER Tyrannus savana

38-40 cm|15-16” 28-30 cm|11-12”

Fairly common to common and widespread summer breeding visitant (mostly Aug-Feb) to campos and pastures with scattered trees, locally even in city parks; transients occasionally pause in more wooded country. Winters in Amazonia. Mostly breeds below 1000 m, a few up to 2000 m. Virtually unmistakable, with a very long deeply forked tail (exceptionally long in breeding s, shorter but still long in s, immatures, and molting birds), with outer web of outer tail feathers white basally. Head black, back pearly gray, wings dusky. Below snowy white. Juvenile has a browner head, duller gray back. Forktailed Flycatchers often perch low on shrubs or fences, making long graceful sallies after insects, the long tail whipping around. Pairs separate out when breeding, but migrating birds can be gregarious. Rather quiet, but breeding birds (especially s) sometimes give weak rattled “tic” notes. Eastern Kingbird (T. tyrannus) is a vagrant to Rio de Janeiro from North America. Slaty above, blackest on head; tail with white tip. Whitish below. Many individuals here look faded and show little or no white on tail tip.

YELLOW-BROWED TYRANT SIRIRI-AMARELO

CATTLE TYRANT SIRIRI-CAVALEIRO

TROPICAL KINGBIRD SIRIRI

WHITE-THROATED KINGBIRD SIRIRI-DE-GARGANTA-BRANCA

FORK-TAILED FLYCATCHER TESOURINHA

307

TITYRA tityras are nearly unmistakable chunky, short-tailed birds that are conspicuous at forest edge. Both our species are predominantly white, with black on wings, tail, and (usually) head. They eat mostly fruit, also some larger insects, and have a strong, direct flight; they rarely accompany flocks.

FBLACK-CROWNED TITYRA Tityra inquisitor

19 cm|7.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, more numerous southward. To 1200 m. Bill blackish, showing no reddish. has crown and face black, back pale pearly gray, wings and tail mostly black. Below white. has black crown, rufous-chestnut face, and buff frontlet; back duller gray, often lightly streaked dusky. Below white. of larger Black-tailed Tityra has purplish red orbital area and base of bill, while s lack black on crown and rufous on face, and show profuse black streaking. Usually seen in pairs, often perching for extended periods on high exposed branches. Often aggressive toward other birds, especially when around their nests, which are situated inside cavities in snags. Call a nasal croak, often doubled, e.g., “zik-zik” or “chet-chet.”.

BLACK-TAILED TITYRA Tityra cayana

21.5 cm|8.5”

Locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, also regularly out into adjacent clearings. To 1200 m (Itatiaia). Purplish red orbital area and base of bill. mostly a stunning snowy white with head, most of wings, and tail black. pale grayish above with blackish streaking, wings and tail mainly black. Below whitish streaked blackish. The purplish red on the face and, in the , all the streaking should make this species easy to identify. Cf. Black-crowned Tityra, sometimes with this species but which usually is less numerous. Behavior similar, though Black-tailed can be even more aggressive toward other birds. Unusual call, frequently given in flight, a nasal croak or grunt, “urt,” often doubled or even given in a short series.. PACHYRAMPHUS becards are chunky, large-headed, rather short-tailed birds; most are sexually dimorphic. Becards are arboreal in a variety of wooded and forested environments. None is especially conspicuous, though some species are quite vocal and have attractive songs. Nests are large globular structures constructed mainly of twigs and leaves and with an entrance on the side or below.

CRESTED BECARD Pachyramphus validus

18.5 cm|7.25”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest, seemingly most numerous from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro south; southward seems to favor stands of araucaria. To at least 1500 m. Heavy bill. uniform black above and dark olivaceous gray below. Often looks all dark. rufous above with contrasting sooty blackish crown. Below cinnamon-buff. Many birds seen are in some variation of the “ ”-type plumage, some of these doubtless being younger s; they retain the rufous on wings and tail the longest. Larger than the other becards and, despite its name, not particularly “crested.” The smaller Chestnut-crowned Becard lacks sooty on crown but has a gray band that encircles nape. Cf. also Rufous-tailed Attila. Forages singly or in pairs, regularly accompanying mixed flocks. Crested is less vocal than many of the becards, but it does give various squeaky or twittery notes, e.g., “tsee-ee-eéyk,” or a series of up to 6 clearer notes, e.g., “suit-sui-sui….”

309

BLACK-CROWNED TITYRA ANAMBÉ-DE-BOINA

BLACK-TAILED TITYRA ANAMBÉ-DE-RABO-PRETO

CRESTED BECARD CANELEIRO-DE-BONÉ

GREEN-BACKED BECARD Pachyramphus viridis

14.5 cm|5.75”

WHITE-WINGED BECARD Pachyramphus polychopterus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Widespread but never especially common in secondary and gallery woodland and adjacent clearings; also in araucaria forest. To 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Handsome has a glossy black crown contrasting with white lores and pale gray sides of head and nuchal collar; above bright olive, outer flight feathers blacker. Whitish below with bright yellow breast band. also rather attractive: similar overall but with olive crown and contrasting rufous lesser wing-coverts. This is the only olive-backed becard, and should be easy to recognize; it could be confused with the Rufous-browed Peppershrike. Forages in pairs, moving deliberately through foliage at varying heights but usually not too high, searching for insects. Occasionally accompanies mixed flocks, but seems more often to move about alone. Pretty song an oft-heard series of musical notes with a slight crescendo, usually rising, e.g., “treedidideédeédeédeé?” Fairly common and widespread in secondary woodland, humid forest borders, clearings, gardens, and restinga forest. Locally to 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). blackish above, crown glossier and sometimes showing a bluish sheen, with gray nuchal collar and rump; wings with two bold white bars and scapular edging; outer tail feathers white-tipped. Below gray (a few individuals can be more blackish). olive brown above, crown browner, with supraloral and partial eye-ring whitish; wings dusky with cinnamon-buff scapulars, two bars, and edging; outer tail feathers tipped cinnamon-buff. Below dull yellowish, breast clouded olive. Black-capped Becard occurs only in lowlands and is more confined to the forest canopy; has gray lores and mixed black-and-gray back, a rufous-chestnut crown. General behavior as in Green-backed Becard, though more likely to be with mixed flocks. Attractive song a simple series of melodic notes, “teu teu teu teu, tu-tu-tu-tu-tú,” starting with slower-paced notes.

BLACK-CAPPED BECARD Pachyramphus marginatus

14 cm|5.5”

CHESTNUT-CROWNED BECARD Pachyramphus castaneus

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo, locally also in restinga forest. To 600 m (Serra dos Órgãos). has crown glossy black with pale gray lores, back mixed black and gray, rump pure gray. Wings black with white scapulars, two bold bars, and edging; outer tail feathers broadly white-tipped. Below pale gray. like White-winged Becard but crown rufous-chestnut. White-winged Becard differs in lacking the gray lores and in having a solid blackish back. Black-capped is more an arboreal forest bird than the more familiar White-winged Becard (which is more apt to be in second growth and clearings). It likewise usually occurs in pairs and is frequently with mixed flocks. ’s attractive song is a short series of clear melodic notes, e.g., “teeudo-weé,” or “teeu, teeu-do-weé,” the phrase often repeated several times in quick succession and readily transcribed as “fleur-de-lis.” Fairly common and widespread in borders and canopy of humid and montane forest and woodland, also araucaria forest, and sometimes out into adjacent clearings and gardens. To 1800 m (Teresópolis). Cinnamon-rufous above, darker on crown, with dusky lores, buffy supraloral, and a distinctive gray band that encircles nape; blackish greater primary coverts and inner webs to primaries. Below pale cinnamon-buff, throat and midbelly whiter. This species’ mainly rufous plumage is very different from any other becard’s. It actually more resembles certain Philydor foliage-gleaners (though its behavior is very different); also cf. Brown Tanager (with very different bill, etc.). Rufous Casiornis is entirely rufous and buff, lacking the gray nape band; it ranges in drier woodland. Usually in pairs that are often not with flocks. Soft musical song a slow melancholy “teeuw, teeu-teeu-teeu,” usually slower-paced than with the other becards though it sometimes adds some twitters.

311 GREEN-BACKED BECARD CANELEIRO-VERDE

WHITE-WINGED BECARD CANELEIRO-PRETO

BLACK-CAPPED BECARD CANELEIRO-BORDADO

CHESTNUT-CROWNED BECARD CANELEIRO-CASTANHO

SCHIFFORNIS are obscure, retiring, plain brownish manakin relatives found in forest undergrowth that are most often recorded from their loud and whistled vocalizations. This and the following several genera form a group of uncertain affinities. THRUSH-LIKE SCHIFFORNIS Schiffornis turdina

16.5 cm|6.5”

GREENISH SCHIFFORNIS Schiffornis virescens

16.5 cm|6.5”

Rare and local in undergrowth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 400 m (REGUA). Dull-plumaged, with a rounded head, prominent large dark eyes, and a vague eye-ring. Olive brownish above and olive grayish below, palest on belly. Not often seen, and confusing when it is. Looks vaguely thrush-like (though the shape is wrong). Most likely confused with Greenish Schiffornis, though the two species overlap little if at all, Greenish being more montane. s of the larger manakins (e.g., Blue-backed) are more olive. Almost always encountered singly as it moves quietly though undergrowth, often clinging to vertical stems and peering about, almost looking dazed. Forages both for insects and small fruits; rarely with flocks. Heard much more often than seen, though songs are often given at long intervals and thus they can be hard to track down. Song a clear, whistled “teeu, te-wheeé-tu, te-whee?”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in undergrowth of montane forest and woodland, also in araucaria forest; most numerous in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. To 1500 m; northward only above 500 m. Like the Thrush-like, has rounded head, prominent large eyes, and a pale eye-ring (the latter often conspicuous). Mostly olivaceous with prominent rufous edging on wings and tail. Compare to Thrush-like Schiffornis, which replaces this species in our N lowlands. Otherwise most likely taken for a Blue Manakin though that is greener, lacks rufous in wings, and has reddish legs and central pair of tail feathers elongated. Behavior as in Thrush-like Schiffornis, and even the song is similar in its clear, whistled quality though the pattern differs: “teeeuw, to-weeé tee?” NEOPELMA tyrant-manakins are very plain flycatcher-like manakins that range in forest and woodland undergrowth. They are most likely to be encountered when s are displaying and vocalizing.

PALE-BELLIED TYRANT-MANAKIN Neopelma pallescens

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon and local in lower and midlevels of semideciduous and gallery woodland in Minas Gerais and N São Paulo. 500-900 m. Iris grayish mauve. Plain olive above with narrow yellow crown patch (visible mainly during display). Below olivaceous gray, belly creamy whitish. The other (very similar) tyrant-manakins are found in more humid habitats, not overlapping with Palebellied. Greenish Elaenia has a yellower belly and whitish facial markings; its vocalizations are very different. Occasionally seen at fruiting trees, but otherwise normally noted from displaying s when they give a soft nasal “wraah, wra-wra,” sometimes jumping off perch to land facing the other way.

SERRA DO MAR TYRANT-MANAKIN Neopelma chrysolophum

EN

13 cm|5”

Uncommon in lower and middle growth of montane forest and woodland from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro to S São Paulo. 800-1750 m. Iris mauve, bill mostly pinkish. Plain olive above with narrow orange-yellow crown patch (visible mainly during display). Throat whitish, breast clouded grayish, belly clear pale yellow. The only tyrant-manakin found high in the SE Brazil mountains. Except when s are displaying and singing, a very inconspicuous, solitary bird that favors shady, damp places. ’s song in display a fast and spritely “chip, chip, dree-zee-zee-zéw” or “chip, chip, dree-dree-dreuw,” with many variations. Wied’s Tyrant-Manakin (N. aurifrons) ranges in forest undergrowth of E Bahia and Espírito Santo, occurring at lower elevations than the Serra do Mar (locally to 1000 m). Virtually identical to Serra do Mar, but crown patch smaller and yellower. Mostly to be distinguished by range, and also voice: Wied’s gives a very different and harsher “zhree, zhrew-zhrew” or “choy-choy-cheeró.”

WING-BARRED PIPRITES Piprites chloris

13 cm|5”

Rare to uncommon and local in midlevels and subcanopy of humid and lower montane forest from Espírito Santo and adjacent Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-1100 m. A plump bird with large round head and short tail. Mostly bright olive with gray face and sides of neck; wings with two bold whitish bars and tertial tipping, tail tipped whitish. Below greenish yellow. Vaguely becard-like, though differing from any in plumage details. Ranges singly or in pairs, gleaning for insects, and often with mixed flocks. Heard much more often than seen, the song with a distinctive hesitant cadence, “whip-whip, peh-deh-dip-dip, dip, dip.”

313 THRUSH-LIKE SCHIFFORNIS FLAUTIM-MARROM

GREENISH SCHIFFORNIS FLAUTIM

PALE-BELLIED TYRANT-MANAKIN FRUXU-DO-CERRADÃO

SERRA DO MAR TYRANT-MANAKIN FRUXU

WING-BARRED PIPRITES PAPINHO-AMARELO

BLACK-CAPPED PIPRITES Piprites pileata

12 cm|4.75”

Rare to locally uncommon in midlevels and subcanopy of montane forest and woodland (also araucaria forest) in S Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and NE São Paulo, where recorded mainly at Campos do Jordão. Mostly 900-1800 m. Bill orange-yellow; legs orange. has black crown and cinnamon-buff face and underparts. Back, rump, and wing-coverts rich chestnut; wings with pale greenish edging and a speculum; tail mainly rufous. differs in its olive back and dull whitish wing-bars. This bird’s unique plumage pattern makes confusion unlikely. Found singly and in pairs, gleaning for insects and eating small fruits; regular with mixed flocks. Most frequent call a quick “cheu” but more distinctive is its fast rollicking song, variable but always with a chortling quality, e.g., “chik, chik, cheeút-cheeút, chee-unh.”

PIN-TAILED MANAKIN Ilicura militaris

12.5 cm|5” with elongated central tail feathers 11 cm|4.25” with shorter and more wedge-shaped tail

Locally fairly common in lower and midlevels of humid and montane forest, but less numerous northward (e.g., in Bahia). To 1500 m, northward absent from lowlands. Iris orange. Unmistakable black above with forehead patch and lower back and rump both red; flight feathers mostly olive. Sides of neck and throat soft gray, underparts whitish. bright olive above with sides of head and throat gray; pale grayish below. ’s wedge-shaped tail is unique; note also her conspicuous orange iris, as well as the gray on face. Usually seen singly while accompanying a mixed flock or feeding at a fruiting tree. Distinctive and frequently heard call a descending series of 4-5 high-pitched notes, hummingbird-like in quality. Displaying s give a longer version of this call, often while ruffling their rump feathers.

EASTERN STRIPED MANAKIN Machaeropterus regulus

9.5 cm|3.75”

Rare to uncommon and local in lower growth of humid forest borders and secondary woodland (also restinga forest) in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro; most numerous in Bahia. Mostly below 200 m, locally to 600 m (REGUA). Iris bright red ( ) or brownish ( ). Unmistakable olive above with bright red crown and nape. Below white with profuse reddish streaking. olive above, whitish below with dull reddish streaking. Our only manakin with streaking, bold and obvious in , duller and less distinct in but still perfectly visible. Like so many manakins this is an inconspicuous bird, seen most often at fruiting trees or when s are calling. ’s song is very simple, just a nasal and abrupt “eeeuw,” repeated at 5-8 second intervals. Sometimes called Striped Manakin.

RED-HEADED MANAKIN Pipra rubrocapilla

10 cm|4”

BAND-TAILED MANAKIN Pipra fasciicauda

11 cm|4.25”

Locally fairly common to common in lower and middle growth of humid forest and woodland (also restinga forest) in lowlands from E Bahia to N Rio de Janeiro; most numerous in Bahia. Mostly below 300 m. Unmistakable black with scarlet head; thighs red and white (sometimes obvious on displaying birds). olive above, paler and more grayish olive below, belly dull yellowish. Band-tailed Manakin is brighter olive with a yellower belly and a bold whitish iris; in any case, these two species don’t co-occur. An unobtrusive, rather quiet manakin that perches motionless, hunched, inside forest, then often abruptly darts away. Most apt to be seen at fruiting trees or when leks are active. Groups of up to 10 s gather at leks where they fly back and forth between favored perches 4-8 m above the ground, sidling along branches and reversing orientation. s’ calls there include a sharp “dzeek, dzeeuw” and a “drree-dit, dree-dee-dew.” Sometimes placed in the genus Ceratopipra or in Dixiphia. Uncommon and local in undergrowth of gallery forest and woodland in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. Mostly below 600 m, locally to 900 m (Uberaba). Iris white. Beautiful has crown and nape bright red; otherwise black above with basal tail yellowish white; white on inner wing obvious in flight. Bright yellow below, breast variably stained scarlet. olive, paler and more yellowish below, yellowest on belly. is best known by her staring white eye. Even more inconspicuous than other manakins, tending to remain close to the ground in dense growth where hard to see. Look for it especially at the small leks where s frequently give their distinctive nasal, descending “eeeuw” call.

315

BLACK-CAPPED PIPRITES CANELEIRINHO-DE-CHAPÉU PIN-TAILED MANAKIN TANGARAZINHO

EASTERN STRIPED MANAKIN TANGARÁ-RAJADO

RED-HEADED MANAKIN CABEÇA-ENCARNADA

BAND-TAILED MANAKIN UIRAPURU-LARANJA

WHITE-CROWNED MANAKIN Dixiphia pipra

10 cm|4”

Rare to uncommon and local in lower growth of humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. Below 300 m. Iris orange-red (both sexes). Unmistakable black with a snowy white crown and nape. has head mainly gray; otherwise olive above. Below pale grayish, flanks more olive. Immature s have grayish white crown, gray underparts. Pin-tailed Manakin has a usually obvious wedge-shaped tail. Inconspicuous and retiring away from its leks; most often seen at fruiting trees. At their dispersed leks s make stereotyped slow flights between branches with white crown feathers spread. There they give a buzzy “jeeeeeuw-jt” call. Away from leks both sexes emit another call, “dreeee?” Formerly placed in genus Pipra.

WHITE-BEARDED MANAKIN Manacus manacus

11 cm|4.25”

Widespread and locally fairly common in dense undergrowth of secondary woodland and forest borders, also in restinga forest (Espírito Santo). Locally to 1200 m (Itatiaia). Legs orange. Unmistakable black above with a gray rump. Wide nuchal collar and throat white, displaying birds puffing the latter out into a “beard.” Underparts grayish. olive above, paler and more grayish olive below with a more yellowish belly. Most other small manakins have dark legs. of larger and longer-tailed Blue-backed Manakin has yellower legs. Inconspicuous away from their leks, then typically encountered alone, often while coming to fruiting trees. Up to 8-10 s gather at leks. Each has a small “court” cleared of leaves, and he displays on certain low branches, flying to and fro while flaring throat feathers, giving a variety of sounds including whistled “peeur” calls and a very loud firecracker-like snap produced by the wings. Both sexes give a “chee-pu” call.

BLUE-BACKED MANAKIN Chiroxiphia pareola

12.5 cm|5”

Rare to locally fairly common in lower growth inside humid forest and woodland in lowlands from E Bahia to Espírito Santo (formerly Rio de Janeiro), most numerous in Bahia. Below 300 m. Legs yellow-orange. Beautiful black with bright red crown patch and a pale azure blue mantle. olive above with an indistinct paler eye-ring. Paler olive below, belly yellower. Immature s are -plumaged but get the red crown first. White-bearded Manakin is smaller and shorter-tailed with brighter orange legs; it tends to occur in younger, more secondary woodland. Shy and unobtrusive, seen either as individuals feeding at fruiting trees or around their leks where s (usually two of them) perform together, cartwheeling around each other when a arrives. Most frequent call a throaty “chewurrr” or “te-turrr.” Displaying s give a more nasal “wr-r-r-aang,” often repeated; both sexes also have a clear “too-eee,” sometimes doubled.

BLUE MANAKIN Chiroxiphia caudata

15 cm|6”, including elongated central tail feathers 14.5 cm|5.75”, with shorter tail feathers

Common and widespread in lower growth of humid and montane forest, woodland, and borders, less numerous northward and there not in lowlands. Locally to 1800 m (Teresópolis). Legs reddish. Beautiful is by far the bluest manakin: mostly rich cerulean blue with scarlet crown; black head and throat, wings, and tail, with central tail feathers elongated. olive, slightly paler below; central tail feathers less elongated (but still obvious). Immature s olive, acquiring the red crown first. Greenish Schiffornis differs from Blue in its dark legs, “normal” tail, and rufescent wings. Blue is larger than other sympatric manakins. Cf. also Blue-backed Manakin. Blues emerge more often to forest edge than other manakins. Its cartwheeling display resembles Bluebacked’s, but up to 5 (more often 3) s display together. Throaty “qua-a-a-a” calls are given during display; both sexes often emit a “chorreeo, cho-cho-cho.” Sometimes called Swallow-tailed Manakin.

HELMETED MANAKIN Antilophia galeata

14.5 cm|5.75”

Locally fairly common in lower and middle growth of gallery forest and woodland, in our area mainly in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Mostly 500-1000 m. Gorgeous black with red frontal crest, crown, nape, and midback. dull olive with miniature frontal crest. Helmeteds range higher above ground than most manakins, hence are easier to see; not that shy. ’s rollicking song a fast, musical “whip-dip, whih-dehdeh-dédidi,” sometimes given as s chase each other. Also gives a throaty “wree” or “wreee? pur.”

317

WHITE-CROWNED MANAKIN CABEÇA-BRANCA

WHITE-BEARDED MANAKIN RENDEIRA

BLUE-BACKED MANAKIN TANGARÁ-FALSO

BLUE MANAKIN TANGARÁ

HELMETED MANAKIN SOLDADINHO

SHARPBILL Oxyruncus cristatus

17 cm|6.75”

BUFF-THROATED PURPLETUFT Iodopleura pipra

9.5 cm|3.75”

Locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest. Mostly below 1500 m, locally to 1800 m (Teresópolis). Pointed bill; iris reddish to orange. Mainly olive above with black crown concealing an orange-red crest (often hidden), face and neck whitish with blackish scaling. Throat white scaled blackish; underparts pale yellowish scaled and spotted blackish. The overall scaled and spotted plumage together and pointed bill should be conclusive. Aside from its voice, quite inconspicuous. Sharpbills glean along branches and among leaves, sometimes hanging upside-down as they probe into curled-up dead leaves and epiphytes. Single birds or pairs accompany mixed flocks, and are most easily seen then; otherwise they can perch quietly for long periods. ’s unmistakable, far-carrying song a shrill, buzzy trill that drops in pitch and seems to fade away, “zheeeeeeeu-u-u-u-u-ur,” lasting about 5 seconds and sounding uncannily like a falling bomb. COTINGAS (Cotigindae) include some of the most beautiful and bizarre birds in the Neotropics. A variable group, most are found in humid forest, especially the canopy, and some have complex breeding systems.

EN

Rare and local in canopy and borders of humid and foothill forest, woodland, and adjacent plantations, mainly in E Bahia and E São Paulo (most numerous around Ubatuba). Locally to 900 m. Very small. Ashy gray above, somewhat darker crown feathers at times raised into a short crest. Throat and chest (only) has pale purple flank buff, underparts white barred with dusky; tufts, usually hidden beneath wings. This unique, tiny bird is hard to confuse. Singletons and pairs perch on branches at times high above ground, often in the open but like as not unnoticed due to their size and usually remaining motionless. They make long sallies into the air after insects, and also eat small fruits (e.g., mistletoe). Occasionally gives a shrill, high-pitched call, “swee-see.”

KINGLET CALYPTURA Calyptura cristata CR

8 cm|3.25”

Exceedingly rare and local in canopy and borders of humid and foothill forest in Rio de Janeiro and possibly adjacent São Paulo. Now the holy grail of Brazilian birds, the calyptura went unrecorded for 150 years until a pair was found for several days near Garrafão, Rio de Janeiro, in Oct 1996 (R. Parrini et al.). They have not been seen here since. Two sightings above Ubatuba, São Paulo, seem plausible. The Garrafão site is at 545 m, the Ubatuba site at 300 m. In earlier times the calyptura seems not to have been rare and its decline remains unexplained. Tiny. Bright olive above with orange-red crest bordered by a wide black stripe; wings and short tail mainly black, with bold white bars and tertial tipping. Mostly bright yellow below. Unmistakable. The recently seen birds perched on open branches in certain trees. With so much mountain forest yet remaining, we still hold out the hope that this charismatic bird will be relocated. Threatened by deforestation.

BRAZILIAN LANIISOMA Laniisoma elegans

17.5 cm|6.75”

Rare and local in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest from SE Bahia to São Paulo (where in recent years only in the east). To 1200 m, breeding in montane areas and descending in winter. has black crown with narrow eye-ring gray or yellowish. Olive green above; bright yellow below with black scaling across breast and down flanks. has crown olive and much more scaling below. Immature like but with rufous spots on wing-coverts. Sharpbill has very different bill, more spotted underparts, scaly face. Generally seen singly, inside forest; not very active and usually not with flocks. ’s song a series of 8-10 piercing, high-pitched “psee-yeé” notes given from a low branch, often near a stream. Often called Shrike-like Cotinga (though it looks nothing like a shrike), or Elegant Mourner.

CINEREOUS MOURNER Laniocera hypopyrra

20 cm|8”

Rare and local in lower and midlevels of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. Below 300 m. Ashy gray, somewhat paler below, with a narrow eye-ring. Wings duskier with two rows of large cinnamon-rufous spots and tertial tipping; pectoral tuft, often hidden under wing, either orange-rufous or pale yellow. Immatures have some rufous on breast, scattered black spotting below. Grayish Mourner lacks wing-spots, and has no pectoral tuft or eye-ring. Cf. also Screaming Piha. A solitary, inconspicuous bird that occasionally accompanies understory flocks. Mainly recorded from its song, a plaintive ringing “teeyr, teeoweeét, teeoweeét…“ (up to 10 “teeoweeéts”), sometimes repeated tirelessly.

319

SHARPBILL ARAPONGA-DO-HORTO

BUFF-THROATED PURPLETUFT ANAMBEZINHO

KINGLET CALYPTURA TIETÊ-DE-COROA

imm. BRAZILIAN LANIISOMA CHIBANTE

CINEREOUS MOURNER CHORONA-CINZA

SWALLOW-TAILED COTINGA Phibalura flavirostris

21.5-22 cm|8.5-8.75”

Rare to uncommon and decidedly local in forest and woodland borders, and perhaps especially in adjacent clearings and gardens, in much of our area though most numerous in parts of Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. Mostly 400-1800 m. Unmistakable, with a unique long, slender, deeply forked tail. Bill yellow. has mostly black crown and yellowish olive upperparts coarsely barred black; wings and tail mostly bluish black. Throat bright yellow, with partial nuchal collar white connecting to a white breast that has considerable black barring; belly pale yellow with sparse black streaking. similar but with grayer crown, more olive wings and tail, and duller yellow underparts with extensive black barring. An elegant and slim cotinga that in flight holds its tail closed in a point, then somewhat resembling a Pyrrhura parakeet. Usually in pairs, often perching in the open (sometimes quite high) in clearings and at forest edge; not a true forest bird. Apparently feeds mainly on mistletoe berries. Not only is this bird relatively conspicuous, so too are its nests, which are usually placed on a lichen-encrusted branch in the semiopen, often quite low. In the nonbreeding season sometimes gathers in small flocks. Notably quiet. CARPORNIS berryeaters are two essentially unmistakable and very special cotingas found only in the forests of E Brazil, with the two species replacing each other altitudinally. Though they are not conspicuous birds, both have arresting and easily recognized songs that will draw the observer’s attention. Berryeaters eat both fruit (including berries!) and larger insects, but [unlike so many tanagers, unfortunately] they do not seem to be attracted to bird feeders.

HOODED BERRYEATER Carpornis cucullata

23 cm|9”

Locally fairly common in midlevels and subcanopy of foothill and montane forest from Espírito Santo and adjacent Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-1500 m, in São Paulo locally down to around sea level. Iris dark. has head, neck, and breast black contrasting with yellow nuchal collar and underparts. Back rich chestnut brown, rump olive; wings and tail blackish, wings with two yellow bars. similar but duller, with a more olive head and foreneck, less chestnut on back, and some faint scaling below. A handsome and striking bird, not likely confused. Seen singly or in pairs, and more apt to accompany mixed flocks than is the Black-headed Berryeater. Hooded is also much more vocal than that species, and heard far more often than seen, with its powerful, far-carrying voice being a characteristic sound of SE Brazil’s wetter montane forests, especially on the Serra do Mar. That call, highly distinctive, is an abrupt, whistled “weeok, wee-kow!” given at what can be frustratingly long intervals (often several minutes or more).

BLACK-HEADED BERRYEATER Carpornis melanocephala VU

21 cm|8.25”

Rare to uncommon and local in midlevels and subcanopy of humid forest (also in restinga) in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo, and again in S São Paulo; gravely threatened by deforestation. To 500 m. Iris bright red. has head and throat black contrasting with olive green upperparts and yellowish underparts, the latter faintly scaled blackish. similar, but with some olive on head. Cf. Hooded Berryeater, found almost entirely at higher elevations. Seen singly or sometimes in pairs, usually perching quietly and motionless, rather erect, inside the forest, in shape somewhat recalling a trogon or a thrush. Generally does not accompany mixed flocks. Its loud whistled song, “twooooh,” is given at long intervals, typically at least 15-20 seconds, but sometimes you have to wait for several minutes so often hard to track down.

321

SWALLOW-TAILED COTINGA TESOURINHA-DA-MATA

HOODED BERRYEATER COROCOXÓ

BLACK-HEADED BERRYEATER SABIÁ-PIMENTA

BANDED COTINGA Cotinga maculata CR

20 cm|7.75”

Very rare and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland; now restricted to a few sites in lowlands of NE Minas Gerais (Mata do Passarinho Reserve, Bandeira) and E Bahia (notably near Porto Seguro, also at Serra Bonita). Formerly also in N Rio de Janeiro and perhaps still occurs in Espírito Santo (Sooretama). To 450 m. Stunning , obviously unmistakable, mostly bright cobalt blue above, black feather bases showing through irregularly; flight feathers and tail black. Below mostly bright deep purple with flanks and a band across breast the same cobalt blue. dusky brown above, feathers edged whitish imparting a scaly look; eye-ring whitish. Grayish buff below, feathers dark-centered giving a bold spotted effect. White-winged Cotinga is grayer and much less scaled and spotted; shows bold white edging on wings. is one of our most beautiful birds, but now sadly it is rarely seen and is highly endangered by deforestation. Found singly or in pairs – formerly there may have been small groups – most often at fruiting trees or when perching on high exposed branches in the early morning, on rare (and memorable!) occasions together with the White-winged Cotinga. Like the other members of its genus, the Banded Cotinga is nearly silent, though s give a fast rattling in flight, presumably made by the wings.

WHITE-WINGED COTINGA Xipholena atropurpurea

19 cm|7.5”

Uncommon and local in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland VU in lowlands of E Bahia and N Espírito Santo; formerly as far south as N Rio de Janeiro. Mostly below 300 m. Iris straw yellow. Striking and unmistakable mostly shining blackish purple, tail the most purple, with scapular feathers lanceolate and somewhat elongated; wings contrastingly white. mostly ashy gray, darker above and whiter on belly; wing-coverts and inner flight feathers prominently edged white. Banded Cotinga is browner and lacks this species’ obvious white edging on wings; its iris is dark. Though its overall numbers have been much reduced by deforestation, this cotinga can still be found at a few special localities such as Sooretama and near Porto Seguro. There it is seen singly or in pairs, with s much more likely to be noticed, especially in flight when their snowy white wings flash out at tremendous distances. Often takes to high dead branches in the early morning; regularly visits fruiting trees. Though mainly silent, s do emit a sharp and abrupt “erp,” and a wing rattle is sometimes heard as part of their display flight. Threatened by destruction and fragmentation of its habitat. LIPAUGUS cotingas are notably plain, but very vocal, and somewhat thrush-like. They range inside forest.

SCREAMING PIHA Lipaugus vociferans

25 cm|9.75”

Locally fairly common in lower and midlevels of humid forest and woodland in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. To 400 m. Famous for its resounding voice, otherwise this piha is drab and surprisingly inconspicuous. Plain gray, somewhat paler on belly and duskier on wings and tail. Most apt to be confused with Grayish Mourner, a flycatcher, though the mourner is smaller, has a paler and more brownish eye, and a yellowish cast to belly; their voices differ dramatically. The larger Cinnamon-vented Piha has a more montane distribution and is buffier on its lower underparts. Most often seen singly as it perches upright and motionless. s at their dispersed leks give vent (often at long intervals, sometimes several minutes or more) to their powerful voice, the most frequent being a ringing “weee, weee-ah” (sometimes with more initial “weee” notes), often warming up with other more guttural notes. Also gives querulous “kweeeah” calls.

CINNAMON-VENTED PIHA Lipaugus lanioides

28 cm|11”

Uncommon and local in midlevels and subcanopy of foothill and montane forest and woodland, also regularly venturing out to edge. To 1400 m, smaller numbers lower at least seasonally. Notably drab, this piha is mostly dull brownish gray, grayest on head and brownest on wings and tail; a little paler below with vague throat streaking, lower belly and crissum buffier. Vaguely thrush-like in overall form, though larger than any thrush; behavior quite different. Cf. Screaming Piha of lowlands (no overlap). Usually seen singly, sometimes accompanying mixed flocks, or gathering with other frugivores at fruiting trees. Though often quiet, periodically s explode with a strident and explosive “skee-skeeo, skeeo-skeeo, skeeo-skeet!”

323

BANDED COTINGA CREJOÁ

WHITE-WINGED COTINGA ANAMBÉ-DE-ASA-BRANCA

SCREAMING PIHA CRICRIÓ

CINNAMON-VENTED PIHA TROPEIRO-DA-SERRA

BLACK-AND-GOLD COTINGA Tijuca atra

28 cm|11” 27 cm|10.5”

Fairly common but only in a limited area (Rio de Janeiro, SE São Paulo, and adjacent Minas Gerais), inhabiting midlevels and subcanopy of montane forest. 1100-1900 m, occasionally (seasonally?) down to 300 m (REGUA). ’s bill orange, ’s a duller orange-brown. Spectacular , one of Brazil’s finest endemics, black except for a large patch of golden yellow in flight feathers (visible even when perched, and flashing conspicuously in flight). mainly olive, brighter and yellower on belly and as edging on flight feathers. hardly to be confused, though over-eager observers have taken Golden-winged Cacique or even a Yellow-legged Thrush for it. Even the dull is hard to confuse in its very small range: Olive-green Tanager is smaller and occurs at lower elevations, while Bare-throated Bellbird (limited overlap) shows streaking below, etc. Cf. also the even more range-restricted Gray-winged Piha. Despite its fairly large size, Black-and-golds can be hard to see, and they often seem notably shy; even singing s – seen far more often than s – are hard to locate as they favor hidden perches when vocalizing. Their strange, memorable song is one of the great sounds of our mountains (and seems to be given year-round): an eerie, high-pitched, and ringing “eeeeeeeeee-yeeeé” that lasts for several seconds and carries amazingly far, almost seeming to float on the air, especially when foggy. It has been likened to hearing-aid feedback!

GRAY-WINGED COTINGA Tijuca condita VU

24 cm|9.5”

Rare and very local in elfin forest at high elevations in mountains of Rio de Janeiro, mainly on Serra dos Órgãos (most readily seen at Pico da Caledônia, Nova Friburgo) and Serra do Tinguá. 1350-2000 m. An only recently (1980) described species, with an amazingly restricted range. Unlike the larger Blackand-gold Cotinga (which can occur with it, though Gray-winged usually ranges higher), sexes are alike. Gray-winged resembles Black-and-gold Cotinga but is smaller with yellower underparts and a yellowish wash on rump; its wings and tail are obviously gray. Behavior generally similar to Black-and-gold, but seems warier and even less apt to perch in the open. ’s song more explosive, much shorter, and given at longer intervals than Black-and-gold’s, a piercing, higher-pitched “pseee-eee.”

RED-RUFFED FRUITCROW Pyroderus scutatus

40.5-42 cm|15.75-16.5” 37-38 cm|14.5- 15”

Uncommon and local in midlevels and subcanopy of humid and foothill forest (also araucaria forest); most numerous in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo. Mostly below 1500 m. A large, heavy-bodied cotinga. Bill pale bluish gray. Mostly black with conspicuous, somewhat shiny flame-red bib on throat and chest with a crinkled effect. Aside from the size difference, sexes are alike. In our area, nearly impossible to confuse. A solitary, stolid, and inconspicuous bird that most often stays inside forest, perching on large open branches, but sometimes comes to edge. At times can almost seem curious, or at least fearless. Though not often witnessed, s gather in small leks where they display on branches near the ground, leaning forward and extending their foreneck feathers so that they hang away from the body like a ruff, at infrequent intervals emitting a very low-pitched booming, usually doubled, “ooom-ooom.”

BARE-THROATED BELLBIRD Procnias nudicollis

28 cm|11” 26.5 cm|10.5”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest, sometimes in trees in nearby clearings; young birds may appear even at city parks. To 1500 m (Campos do Jordão), occasionally higher. Engages in altitudinal movements, breeding higher and wintering lower. Unmistakable white with ocular area and bare throat patch bright greenish blue. olive above with dusky-olive crown and sides of head. Throat blackish with fine pale streaking; below more coarsely streaked olive and pale yellow. s require several years to attain full adult plumage, and until then they [can] resemble s but for already having blue on the throat. Despite their white plumage, even s are usually inconspicuous. Singing s can be especially frustrating to locate, for their ventriloquial calls may be reverberating all around while the birds themselves remain hidden. Some singing occurs year-round. Has two main vocalizations, the very loud “bock” or “bonk” call, given with the gape wide open, and a series of 6-8 less loud metallic “clink” or “tonk” calls, these given with bill closed though the throat may pulsate. Scarce in the interior or the region due to deforestation and illegal trapping.

325 BLACK-AND-GOLD COTINGA SAUDADE

GRAY-WINGED COTINGA SAUDADE-DE-ASA-CINZA

RED-RUFFED FRUITCROW PAVÓ

BARE-THROATED BELLBIRD ARAPONGA

JAYS (Corvidae) are fairly large, highly social (and intelligent) birds that are noisy and conspicuous and

thus hard to miss where they occur. They are omnivorous, and occur in small flocks that typically are composed, at least partly, of related individuals.

CURL-CRESTED JAY Cyanocorax cristatellus

34.5-35 cm|13.5-13.75”

WHITE-NAPED JAY Cyanocorax cyanopogon

34.5-35 cm|13.5-13.75”

PLUSH-CRESTED JAY Cyanocorax chrysops

34.5-35 cm|13.5-13.75”

Fairly common in cerrado, gallery woodland, and agricultural areas with scattered trees (even where these are sparse), having spread eastward from central Brazil following deforestation and now found locally even at sea level. To at least 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Iris dark. Always shows a conspicuous upstanding frontal crest (never laid flat). Head and foreneck sooty black; otherwise dull blue above. Tail rather short for a jay, its terminal half white. Lower underparts white. Both Plush-crested and White-naped Jays can occur with the Curl-crested, though each favors woodland and is much less likely to range out into the open as the Curl-crested so often does. Besides that, they are yellow-eyed, lack the frontal crest, and have pale facial markings, etc. Curl-cresteds range in small groups and are often seen in straggling, slow flight across semiopen country; occasionally they even fly quite high, something other jays never do. Their most frequent vocalization is a loud and harsh “kyaar,” often repeated several times. Uncommon in deciduous woodland and gallery forest in interior Bahia and Minas Gerais, more typically a bird of NE Brazil and the caatinga, and relatively marginal in our area. To 1100 m. Iris yellow. Head and bib black with stiff forecrown feathers; facial markings and a short moustache blue. Broad area on hindneck white, with mantle brownish; tail broadly tipped white. Lower underparts white. The similar Plush-crested Jay differs in having blue on hindneck, a much bluer mantle and creamier underparts, and an obvious “bulge” on rearcrown. Occurs in flocks of up to a dozen birds, though more typically these are smaller, 4-6 birds. These move through all tree levels, sometimes also dropping to the ground, but generally do not range much into the open. A wide variety of vocalizations is given, including some imitations of other bird species, with the most frequent being a loud ringing “cho-cho-cho.” Fairly common in semideciduous woodland, gallery forest, and adjacent clearings in interior São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. 300-2000 m. Iris yellow. A beautiful and nearly unmistakable jay, with crown feathers stiff and plush-like, imparting a flat-topped look and a somewhat crested effect on rear crown. Head and bib black with spots around eye and short moustache blue, and a milky bluish white hindneck. Otherwise violet-blue above, tail broadly tipped white. Lower underparts creamy whitish to yellowish. White-naped Jay has obviously white hindneck, browner upperparts, and lacks the “bulge” on rearcrown. The two species have similar habits and they replace each other geographically, apparently without meeting (but beware the occasional escaped cagebird, which could be most anywhere). White-naped occurs further north. Plush-cresteds sometimes imitate other birds; they seem more apt to become tame.

AZURE JAY Cyanocorax caeruleus

38-40 cm|15-15.75”

Locally fairly common in humid forest and woodland, including restinga, in lowlands of S São Paulo. To 500 m. Iris dark. Mostly bright purplish blue, with contrasting black head, neck, and bib; a short frontal crest is usually evident. A scarce morph is more greenish blue. A conspicuous and often bold and noisy jay, trooping about in groups of up to 6-8 birds (occasionally even more, especially in winter), perching at all levels in trees and sometimes dropping to the ground. Voice an unpleasant loud “craah” or “creeyr,” often repeated over and over tirelessly. Purplish Jay (C. cyanomelas) is known from a single record in N São Paulo. It resembles Azure Jay but is very much drabber, with dull purplish mauve replacing the Azure’s bright purplish blue. Possibly this was an escaped captive bird, though Purplish Jay is not a numerous bird in captivity.

327

CURL-CRESTED JAY GRALHA-DO-CAMPO

WHITE-NAPED JAY GRALHA-CANCÃ

PLUSH-CRESTED JAY GRALHA-DO-MATO

AZURE JAY GRALHA-AZUL

SWALLOWS & MARTINS (Hirundinidae) are aerial birds with long pointed wings that often perch on wires.

PROGNE martins are large, broad-winged swallows with forked or notched tails. PURPLE MARTIN Progne subis 18.5 cm|7.25” Locally common boreal migrant (Sep-Mar) to semiopen areas, especially in W São Paulo; little more than vagrant elsewhere, though also occurs as migrant along coast in S Bahia and Espírito Santo. Mostly occurs a little further west. To at least 1000 m. Tail forked. all glossy blue-black, but molting birds often show brownish scaling. brown above with blue gloss (often faint); forecrown and hindneck whitish or pale grayish. Below pale grayish brown, palest on belly (often dusky-streaked). s unmistakable; s resemble much more numerous Gray-breasted Martin, which lacks Purple’s pale forecrown and nuchal collar (often obscure in Purple). Purple tends to be more streaked on belly. Purples often occur in flocks, and then the presence of s will simplify identification. Roosting aggregations can be immense, but in recent years numbers seem reduced. Breeds in North America.

GRAY-BREASTED MARTIN Progne chalybea

18 cm|7”

BROWN-CHESTED MARTIN Progne tapera

18 cm|7”

Fairly common to locally common in open areas, especially around habitations, even in urban situations. To 1500 m. Tail forked. Steely blue above ( s glossier); throat and breast pale grayish brown, belly whitish sometimes with some dusky streaking. Cf. Purple Martin (much scarcer); Brown-chested Martin is brown-backed, shows a chest band. Other swallows are markedly smaller, have slenderer wings, etc. Often around houses, nesting under eaves, and perching on wires. Gives lovely gurgling calls during breeding season, at nest sites and while flying. Has a leisurely, languid flight style; regularly feeds high above the ground. Some austral migrants occur, and most birds may leave southernmost areas in winter.

Fairly common and widespread in open areas, mainly in agricultural regions. To 1500 m. The only brown-backed martin. Breeders (A) dull grayish brown above, white below with a brownish band across chest. Austral migrants (B) also occur, mainly as transients en route to wintering in Amazonia; these have brown spots extending down median breast. Sand Martin has similar coloration but is smaller with a different flight style. Immature Gray-breasted, which can be quite brown above, always shows at least some blue feathers. Brown-chested tends to fly closer to ground than Gray-breasted, swooping gracefully, often with bowed wings and exposing silky white on sides of tail. Gregarious, though less so than Gray-breasted and Purple Martins. Pairs typically nest in old hornero nests.

SAND MARTIN Riparia riparia

12 cm|4.75”

Rare boreal migrant (Oct-Mar) to open areas, mainly occurring further west in South America. A small swallow, brown above and white below with a distinct brown chest band, usually extending down in the middle. Brown-chested Martin is larger with much less “fluttery” flight style. In our area usually seen with larger numbers of Barn and American Cliff Swallows. Often gives a “chirt” call in flight. Also known as Bank Swallow. Breeds in North America (also Old World).

BARN SWALLOW Hirundo rustica

14-16.5 cm|5.5-6.5”

Fairly common and widespread boreal migrant (Sep-Apr) to open and agricultural areas. Tail long and deeply forked (tail streamers shorter in juveniles and molting adults); tail has white spots on inner webs. Steely blue above, chestnut forehead. Throat chestnut to deep buff, cinnamon-buff to buffy whitish below, deepest in breeding plumage s. Juveniles and worn-plumaged adults duller above, paler below. Feeding birds swoop rapidly and gracefully low over water or nearby; large numbers often roost in sugarcane fields and cattail marshes. Sometimes gives a rising “vreeet?” call in flight. Breeds in North America (also Old World).

AMERICAN CLIFF SWALLOW Petrochelidon pyrrhonota

13.5 cm|5.25”

Rare boreal migrant (Sep-Apr) to open areas, most numerous in São Paulo. Mostly steely blue-black above with prominent buffy whitish forehead (chestnut in at least one race), grayish nape, and cinnamon-rufous rump. Sides of head and throat chestnut, below grayish white. None of our other swallows shows a contrasting rump. Often associates with larger numbers of Barn Swallows. Gives a rough “drrt” call, especially in flight. Breeds in North America.

329

PURPLE MARTIN ANDORINHA-AZUL

GRAY-BREASTED MARTIN ANDORINHA-GRANDE

BROWN-CHESTED MARTIN ANDORINHA-DO-CAMPO A B

SAND MARTIN ANDORINHA-DO-BARRANCO

BARN SWALLOW ANDORINHA-DE-BANDO

nonbreeding

AMERICAN CLIFF SWALLOW ANDORINHA-DE-DORSO-CANELA

breeding

WHITE-WINGED SWALLOW Tachycineta albiventer

13.5 cm|5.25”

WHITE-RUMPED SWALLOW Tachycineta leucorrhoa

13.5 cm|5.25”

Fairly common and widespread in open areas near water. Mostly below 1000 m. Unique among our swallows, White-winged has a large, usually conspicuous white patch on inner flight feathers and upperwing-coverts (in worn plumage it can be abraded and not so obvious). Otherwise glossy bluish green above (greener in fresh plumage), with rump white. Pure white below. Young birds are browner above. Conspicuous and confiding. Often perches on snags or rocks just above water, flying out to skim the surface. Rarely strays far from water; not particularly gregarious. Common call a rising, raspy “tree-eet?”; song longer and more gurgling. Fairly common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, also woodland borders; not especially tied to vicinity of water. To at least 1000 m. Austral migrants occur. Dark glossy blue above (greener in fresh plumage) with white rump and narrow but distinct white supraloral streak. Pure white below. Immatures browner-backed. Never shows White-winged’s extensive white in wings. In pairs when breeding but at other seasons more gregarious, then associating with other swallows. Nests are usually placed in holes in trees. Song a series of warbled gurgling notes. Chilean Swallow (T. leucopyga) is a very rare austral migrant (Jun-Sep) to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Very similar to White-rumped, but lacks that species’ white supraloral streak. Sometimes called T. meyeni.

BLUE-AND-WHITE SWALLOW Pygochelidon cyanoleuca

12-12.5 cm|4.75-5”

Common and widespread in semiopen areas, often around buildings; not tied to vicinity of water. To over 2000 m, breeding even along the coast. A small swallow. Glossy steel blue above, white below with black crissum (often surprisingly easy to see). Young birds are browner above. Austral migrants are regular; slightly larger, they have black on crissum restricted to its sides. Whiterumped is larger, with an obvious white rump. Blue-and-white is gregarious and frequently nests in built-up areas, even in cities, under eaves, etc. Flocks often rest on phone wires, sometimes with other swallows (especially migrants). Frequent call a thin, rising “tree-ee-ee-lee?” Also gives various more gravelly notes, when perched and flying. Formerly placed in genus Notiochelidon. Black-collared Swallow (Atticora melanoleuca) is known from one old record (Belmonte, E Bahia). It has a long, deeply forked tail and blue-black breast band crossing white underparts. Favors river rapids. By some classified in genus Pygochelidon.

WHITE-THIGHED SWALLOW Neochelidon tibialis

11.5 cm|4.5”

TAWNY-HEADED SWALLOW Alopochelidon fucata

12 cm|4.75”

Uncommon and local in humid forest borders and adjacent clearings, lowlands and foothills from Espírito Santo to E São Paulo. To 900 m. A small, dark brown swallow with a vaguely paler rump; underparts also somewhat paler. S. Rough-winged Swallow is larger and markedly paler below, with cinnamon throat. Generally seen in small groups, not associating with other swallows; always forest-based. Perches mostly on snags, often quite high, less often on wires; this and the next two swallows nest in holes in banks. Call a soft “tzee-ee-eet.” Sometimes placed in genus Atticora. Uncommon and local in savannas and semiopen areas mainly in interior from Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro southward; not especially tied to water. Locally to 1200 m. Cinnamon superciliary, face, and nuchal collar blend into buff throat and chest. Otherwise grayish brown above, duskier on wings, whitish below. Likely confused only with S. Rough-winged Swallow, which is larger, with cinnamon only on throat. Tawny-headed’s rufous is usually easiest to see when the bird is flying at you. Usually in pairs or small flocks, not with other swallows, flying low over grassy areas. Rather quiet; when breeding gives a few gurgling notes.

SOUTHERN ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW Stelgidopteryx ruficollis 13 cm|5”

Common and widespread in semiopen areas and forest and woodland borders, especially near water. Some austral migrants may occur. Locally to 1500 m. Grayish brown above, forecrown darker, rump paler. Throat cinnamon-buff; below pale grayish brown, midbelly creamy yellowish. Cf. Brown-chested Martin. Usually in small groups that rest on dead branches or wires, especially near water. Most frequent call a rough “djreeet,” sometimes upslurred.

331

WHITE-WINGED SWALLOW ANDORINHA-DO-RIO

WHITE-RUMPED SWALLOW ANDORINHA-DE-DORSO-BRANCO

imm. adult BLUE-AND-WHITE SWALLOW ANDORINHA-PEQUENA

WHITE-THIGHED SWALLOW CALCINHA-BRANCA

TAWNY-HEADED SWALLOW ANDORINHA-MORENA

SOUTHERN ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW ANDORINHA-SERRADORA

MOCKINGBIRDS (Mimidae) are slender, long-tailed, thrush-sized birds conspicuous in open country. TROPICAL MOCKINGBIRD Mimus gilvus

24 cm|9.5”

Rare to locally fairly common near coast from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro; most numerous in saline areas in and near restinga, also in mangroves. Pale gray above and white below, with an obvious white superciliary. Wings blackish with whitish edging and two bars; tail blackish, outer feathers broadly tipped white (seen especially in flight). In worn plumage can be browner above and buffier below, with more faded wing markings. Chalk-browed Mockingbird is less elegant, more mottled and browner above (less a smooth gray); for the most part the two species don’t overlap, but the more aggressive Chalk-browed appears to be outcompeting the Tropical, gradually replacing it in many areas. Perches atop shrubs and cacti; hops on the ground with tail raised, wings often lifted and spread. Attractive song given at a leisurely pace, a variable medley of mainly musical phrases, some repeated, with clucking or wheezing notes interspersed; certain individuals imitate songs of other birds or even other sounds. Has disappeared or became scarce in many places due to trapping and habitat destruction.

CHALK-BROWED MOCKINGBIRD Mimus saturninus

26 cm|10.25”

WHITE-BANDED MOCKINGBIRD Mimus triurus

23.5 cm|9.25”

Common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, regular around houses and in urban parks, virtually throughout. One of our most numerous and familiar birds, faring equally well in both natural and modified habitats. Mostly below 1200 m. Grayish brown above with dusky mottling, broad “chalky” white superciliary, and blackish postocular stripe. Long graduated tail has broad white corners, visible especially in flight. Whitish to buffy whitish below. Dust-bathing can make birds look brownish or reddish, depending on color of soil. Tropical Mockingbird is strictly confined to the coast. Cf. also Whitebanded Mockingbird. Active even during the heat of the day, Chalk-broweds walk and hop on the ground, often in the open, usually with tail raised. They can be amazingly tame. The song varies in form and content but can be pleasant and attractive and typically involves little mimicry; when alarmed, gives a harsh “chick” or an urgent “ew!” Rare winter migrant (mostly May-Oct) to shrubby restinga and nearby semiopen areas, generally on or near coast in São Paulo. Mostly below 100 m, but recorded at 600 m (Ribeirão Preto). Above grayish brown with a long white superciliary and rufescent rump. Wings blackish with extensive white on coverts and secondaries (the latter showing as a conspicuous block in flight); tail black with outer feathers entirely white. Whitish below. Chalk-browed Mockingbird shows much less white in wings and tail. Behavior as in Chalkbrowed. Unfortunately the White-banded’s song is not likely to be heard here.

BLACK-CAPPED DONACOBIUS Donacobius atricapilla

22 cm|8.5”

THRUSH-LIKE WREN Campylorhynchus turdinus

20.5 cm|8”

Locally fairly common in marshes with scattered shrubs, lake margins, and damp pastures with luxuriant grass. Locally to 1200 m. Unmistakable. Iris golden yellow. Above chocolate brown, rump more rufescent, head black. Wings with small white patch; long graduated tail blackish, feathers broadly white-tipped (obvious in flight). Below rich buff. Usually conspicuous, occurring in pairs and small groups; moves about in marsh grass and shrubbery, usually foraging close to the water. A noisy bird, much given to erupting with a variety of loud whistled calls and churring notes, the most frequent being a liquid “whoit, whoit, whoit....” Pairs often duet, perching next to each other and bobbing their heads while swivelling their fanned tails; an orange pouch on the neck may be inflated. Now classified in its own family. WRENS (Troglodytidae) are small, usually skulking birds, brownish and often with dark wing and tail barring. Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, and in plantations in lowlands of E Bahia and Espírito Santo. To 900 m. By far our largest wren, easily identified on that basis alone though not at all “thrushlike.” Brownish above with dark scaling and whitish superciliary. Below whitish boldly spotted grayish brown. Found in presumed family groups of up to 6-8 birds that clamber on larger limbs and in epiphytes, also in palms; behavior can recall a furnariid. Generally not with flocks. Heard far more often than seen, with an explosive but semimusical song often given as a rhythmic duet mixed with chatters; common phrases include a “chookadadoh, choh, choh” or “chooka-chook-chook.”

333

TROPICAL MOCKINGBIRD SABIÁ-DA-PRAIA

CHALK-BROWED MOCKINGBIRD SABIÁ-DO-CAMPO

WHITE-BANDED MOCKINGBIRD CALHANDRA-DE-TRÊS-RABOS

BLACK-CAPPED DONACOBIUS JAPACANIM

THRUSH-LIKE WREN CATATAU

GRASS WREN Cistothorus platensis

10 cm|4”

Uncommon and very local in less-disturbed campos and grassy cerrado, to date known from a few localities in Minas Gerais and interior São Paulo. Mostly 600-1300 m. A small, buffy brown wren with a streaked back and black-barred wings and tail. Crown blackish with fine pale streaking, and superciliary buffy whitish (usually faint). Underparts buffy whitish. Southern House Wren, a far more numerous bird, is much plainer overall, lacking any streaking. Inconspicuous unless singing or calling, Grass Wrens creep around in dense grassy cover, rarely exposing themselves. On calm mornings, and when s are singing, they perch more in the open (though even then you usually have to look for them), with the pleasant song basically a series of musical gurgles and trills. Call a somewhat harsher “jer-jer-jer.” Sometimes called Sedge Wren (the North American name for a similar-appearing but very different-sounding species, C. stellaris).

SOUTHERN HOUSE WREN Troglodytes musculus

11.5 cm|4.5”

Common, widespread, and conspicuous in a wide variety of non-forest, semiopen habitats including suburban and even some urban areas, avoiding only continuous forest. Frequent around houses. To at least 2000 m. Nearly uniform brown and buffyish, somewhat paler below, more rufescent on rump; wings and tail with blackish barring (sometimes indistinct). Tame and confiding. Found in pairs that can forage most anywhere, though mostly fairly close to the ground. ’s gurgling, warbled song, often ending with an accented note, delivered from a prominent perch, sometimes seems to be given all day long. Also gives a nasal “jeeyah” and other scolds. Formerly called House Wren (T. aedon). CANTORCHILUS wrens are midsized members of their family, skulking and hard to see though they have powerful songs. Both species were formerly classified in genus Thryothorus. The last species on this page, now classified in a different genus, is similar though more boldly marked.

BUFF-BREASTED WREN Cantorchilus leucotis

14.5 cm|5.75”

LONG-BILLED WREN Cantorchilus longirostris

15 cm|6”

MOUSTACHED WREN Pheugopedius genibarbis

15 cm|6”

Fairly common in thickets and undergrowth of semideciduous woodland, mostly near water, in central Minas Gerais and interior São Paulo , where it replaces Long-billed Wren. To 1000 m. Resembles Long-billed Wren closely in plumage, but Long-billed’s bill is markedly longer. Normally this is quite evident, but a few birds that appear to be intermediates are known. Its rather skulking behavior is much the same, as are its loud rollicking song and calls. Uncommon to locally fairly common (southward) in thickets and tangles at edge of humid forest and secondary woodland, also restinga and mangroves. Mostly below 600 m. Bill markedly long. Above rufescent brown with white superciliary and black-streaked cheeks; wings and tail barred black. Throat white, below buff deepening to rufous on belly. Replaced inland by Buffbreasted Wren, a similar bird but with a noticeably shorter bill. Found in pairs that hop in thickets, often but not always near water, rummaging in tangles and dead vegetation, occasionally dropping to the ground. Usually remains hidden; even singing birds are often hard to see well or for very long. Loud vigorous song often antiphonal, with loud phrases (some with notes slow and distinct, others much faster and more run together) usually rapidly repeated several times before continuing on to the next. Also gives numerous scolding notes. Fairly common in dense lower growth in humid forest borders, secondary woodland, and plantations S to Rio de Janeiro. To 800 m. Crown grayish brown with gray band across nape, bold black-and-white streaking on sides of head, and a well-defined black moustachial streak; above bright rufous brown, tail boldly barred black. Pale grayish below, whiter on throat, buffier on flanks. More of a woodland bird than Long-billed Wren, which is longerbilled and much buffier below, with no gray on head and no moustachial streak. Skulking; often found in pairs, infrequently emerging from the dense tangles it favors. Song an antiphonal series of fast rollicking phrases, rich and loud, sometimes ending with a distinctive “cho-cho-cho.” “Jeeyr” calls are sometimes interspersed.

335 GRASS WREN CORRUÍRA-DO-CAMPO

SOUTHERN HOUSE WREN CORRUÍRA

BUFF-BREASTED WREN GARRINCHÃO-DE-BARRIGA-VERMELHA

LONG-BILLED WREN GARRINCHÃO-BICUDO

MOUSTACHED WREN GARRINCHÃO-PAI-AVÔ

GNATCATCHERS & GNATWRENS (Polioptilidae) are very small, slender, mainly gray or brown birds whose narrow tails are often held cocked.

MASKED GNATCATCHER Polioptila dumicola

12.5 cm|5”

TROPICAL GNATCATCHER Polioptila plumbea

11 cm|4.25”

LONG-BILLED GNATWREN Ramphocaenus melanurus

12 cm|4.75”

Fairly common in semideciduous woodland, scrub, and cerrado in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. 300-1200 m. Above gray, with narrow black mask, inner flight feathers and outer tail feathers white. Below white, tinged pale gray on chest and sides. similar but with white supraloral streak; black mask reduced to streak behind eye. No overlap with Tropical Gnatcatcher. Behavior much as in Tropical, but Masked tends to forage closer to ground. Sweet musical song is a mix of lilting phrases and repeated notes, variable with little pattern. Fairly common in scrub and semideciduous woodland in far-northern part of our area. 300-1200 m. Pale gray above, with glossy black crown, with black streak on ear-coverts; wings and tail black, edging on inner flight feathers and outer tail feathers white. Below white. Cf. Masked Gnatcatcher (little overlap). Forages actively, usually in pairs, often with small mixed flocks. Song a variable but always fast series of musical whistled notes, e.g., “tree, tititititi, tree-tree-tree.” Call a nasal “nyeeah.” Creamy-bellied Gnatcatcher (P. lactea) is known from a few old Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo records. Present status unknown, with recent records from further south; elsewhere in humid forest canopy. Resembles Tropical Gnatcatcher, but both sexes distinctly creamy yellowish below.

Uncommon in dense lower growth of woodland and humid forest borders in lowlands, favoring arboreal viny tangles. To 900 m. Very long slender bill; long graduated tail. Brown above, face more rufescent; tail black, feathers broadly tipped white (visible mainly from below). Whitish to pale buffyish below. Superficially wren-like, but no wren has such a long bill or a white-tipped tail. Inconspicuous unless vocalizing. Hops through undergrowth, flipping and wriggling often-cocked tail; sometimes joins understory flocks. Heard more often than seen, distinctive song a clear musical trill often preceded by a few “cht” notes. PIPITS (Motacillidae) are streaky, brownish, terrestrial birds with white outer tail feathers (seen mainly in flight), thin bills, and rather long legs. Found in open grassy habitats, they are inconspicuous except when s are singing.

YELLOWISH PIPIT Anthus lutescens

13 cm|5”

Locally fairly common on campos and larger pastures, favoring areas with fairly short grass. To 1500 m. Above brown, streaked buff and blackish. Buffy yellowish below (whiter in worn plumage) with some dark streaking on chest (sometimes faint). Cf. our other pipits (both scarcer); otherwise distinctive (note slender, non-conical bill, etc.). Walks on ground and in grass, often crouching when discovered, then flushing. Often in pairs, not associating with other birds. Distinctive song, usually given in flight, a couple “tzit” or “tizit” notes, then a drawn-out and slurred “dzeeeeeeeeeeeeu” while gliding back to earth.

OCHRE-BREASTED PIPIT Anthus nattereri VU

14.5 cm|5.75”

Rare and local in less-disturbed campos and grassier cerrado, mainly in S Minas Gerais and N São Paulo, usually where grass is mostly long and tussocky. Mostly 500-1500 m. Above boldly streaked blackish and golden ochre. Throat whitish, breast rich golden ochre with heavy black streaking, belly whitish. The smaller, commoner Yellowish Pipit is much less richly colored; its song differs markedly. Ochre-breasted occurs in well-separated pairs and is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Musical, phrased song, given as mounts 20-25 m into the air, ends with a slurred “eeeeeeeeur” emitted while dropping to ground. Threatened by loss and fragmentation of its habitat.

HELLMAYR’S PIPIT Anthus hellmayri

14.5 cm|5.75”

Local and uncommon in grassland at higher elevations, mainly in Minas Gerais, adjacent Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo; most frequent around rocky outcrops. Mostly 800-2300 m. Much less buffy than Ochre-breasted or Yellowish Pipit (the latter is smaller) with a band of fine (though often sparse) black streaking across breast and usually down sides. Behavior as in other pipits. Song variable, usually a quick musical phrase delivered in a hovering display flight or from a perch such as a post or boulder.

337

MASKED GNATCATCHER BALANÇA-RABO-MASCARADO

TROPICAL GNATCATCHER BALANÇA-RABO-DE-CHAPÉU

YELLOWISH PIPIT CAMINHEIRO-ZUMBIDOR

LONG-BILLED GNATWREN BALANÇA-RABO-BICUDO OCHRE-BREASTED PIPIT CAMINHEIRO-GRANDE

HELLMAYR’S PIPIT CAMINHEIRO-FOGUETINHO

THRUSHES (Turdidae) are well-known but rather dull-plumaged songbirds found widely in semiopen as well as wooded and forested habitats; some are familiar, hopping on the ground in the open, while others are much more reclusive. RUFOUS-BROWN SOLITAIRE Cichlopsis leucogenys

20.5 cm|8”

Rare and very local in lower and middle growth inside lower montane forest and mature woodland in E Bahia and Espírito Santo. 300-900 m. Lower mandible contrastingly orange-yellow (quite conspicuous); narrow eye-ring yellow. Mainly rufous brown with inconspicuous ochraceous tawny stripe on midthroat; lower breast and belly grayer. Several Turdus thrushes are also partially or mostly rufescent, but all are more robust birds and none has a bicolored bill. This solitaire is an inconspicuous bird and likely has been overlooked to some extent. Most likely to be found when singing. Song is a long-continued series of notably variable, mostly musical phrases interspersed with chattering or squealing notes, usually given as the bird perches in the forest midstory, often simultaneously fluttering its wings. Threatened by habitat loss. TURDUS thrushes include the most familiar and most terrestrial members of the family, many with notably melodic songs, Many also fall victim to trapping.

EN

YELLOW-LEGGED THRUSH Turdus flavipes

22 cm|8.75”

EASTERN SLATY THRUSH Turdus subalaris

21.5 cm|8.5”

WHITE-NECKED THRUSH Turdus albicollis

23 cm|9”

Fairly common but inconspicuous in canopy and borders of montane forest and woodland and adjacent plantations and gardens from E Bahia to S São Paulo; less numerous and more local northward. To 1800 m. ’s bill, eye-ring, and legs bright yellow; ’s bill mainly dusky, eye-ring narrower, unmistakable, with a boldly legs duller (but still obviously yellow). pied pattern: black with gray back, rump, and belly. rufescent brown with some dusky throat streaking and a paler belly. Cocoa Thrush has different habitat and behavior; its legs are blackish (not yellowish). Unlike so many Turdus, this thrush is essentially arboreal, only rarely descending to the ground. Seems shy, often hard to see well for very long, though it comes to feeding stations. Song, usually given from a hidden perch in midlevels or canopy, a series of short phrases (some musical, others squeaky or even shrill) that can include some mimicry of other birds. Uncommon winter visitant (Apr-Sep) to semideciduous woodland, gallery forest, and adjacent gardens mainly in São Paulo but a few reaching Rio de Janeiro and S Minas Gerais. Mainly breeds in S Brazil, but some may breed in S São Paulo or even further N. To 1600 m. has bill, narrow eye-ring, and legs yellow; ’s bill browner, eye-ring narrower, legs duller. gray above, sometimes tinged olivaceous and with slatier head. Throat white sharply streaked blackish bordered below by a pure white crescent; underparts pale gray. brown (above) or grayish buff (below) where is gray. No other thrush in our area is as gray as Eastern Slaty. can be trickier. White-necked Thrush has similar white crescent on foreneck, but its flanks are obviously rufous. A mainly arboreal thrush, usually quite shy; even when singing often inconspicuous and hard to see. s sing from the canopy, motionless and hidden in dense foliage; their song, very different from our other thrushes, is a series of brief bursts of high-pitched notes, some ringing, others almost squeaky. They sometimes sing on their wintering grounds. Uncommon to fairly common in undergrowth of humid and montane forest and woodland, mainly from E Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo southward (a few Bahia records); unlike many other thrushes, only rarely emerges into clearings and gardens. Mostly below 1500 m. Bill mainly dull orange-yellow; narrow eye-ring also orange-yellow. Above deep rufescent brown, head slatier. Profuse throat streaking black, bordered below by bold white crescent; sides and flanks extensively rufous, median underparts whiter. No other thrush has contrasting rufous on its sides, and except for the Eastern Slaty (q.v.) none has such a prominent white foreneck patch (obvious even in the shady forest it prefers). This strikingly plumaged thrush is rather shy and reclusive, usually remaining inside forest or woodland where it hops on the ground, favoring damp areas. Occasionally visits gardens, then feeding on cultivated fruits such as oranges. Song a long-continued series of rich musical phrases, given in a distinctively unhurried manner with marked pauses between most phrases.

339

RUFOUS-BROWN SOLITAIRE SABIÁ-CASTANHO

YELLOW-LEGGED THRUSH SABIAÚNA

EASTERN SLATY THRUSH SABIÁ-FERREIRO

WHITE-NECKED THRUSH SABIÁ-COLEIRA

CREAMY-BELLIED THRUSH Turdus amaurochalinus

23 cm|9”

PALE-BREASTED THRUSH Turdus leucomelas

23 cm|9”

COCOA THRUSH Turdus fumigatus

23 cm|9”

Fairly common to common and widespread in woodland, clearings, and gardens, but apparently only a winter visitant to the northern part of our area, and less numerous there. To 2500 m. ’s bill bright yellow, duller and duskier in . Olive brown with contrastingly blackish lores. Sharp blackish streaking on throat bordered below by a white crescent; below pale brownish gray, midbelly whiter. No similar thrush has such black lores or such dark streaking on throat. Pale-breasted Thrush also differs in its distinctly grayer head. This and several other thrushes (e.g., Pale-breasted, Rufous-bellied) are fairly conspicuous birds often seen hopping on ground in semiopen areas, usually not too far from cover. Several often will congregate at a fruiting tree. Alighting birds regularly shiver their tail. Song a series of short, fairly musical phrases with brief intervals that can be given more or less continuously for long periods, even before first light; as with other thrushes the song is most often given from a hidden perch so sometimes the singer’s identity is best confirmed by sight. Calls include a “shreeo” and an abrupt “pok.” Fairly common to common and widespread in woodland, clearings, and gardens (habitats much as in Creamy-bellied Thrush, the two often being together). Mostly below 1500 m. A rather dull thrush with bill olive yellowish or grayish. Head and neck grayish contrasting with rufescent brown upperparts. Throat streaking dusky; mostly pale grayish buff below. Lacks the Creamybellied Thrush’s dark lores and bold throat streaking, and bill never bright yellow. The gray head and neck are usually quite apparent. Behavior similar to Creamy-bellied Thrush though there is no evidence that the Pale-breasted migrates; it does not seem to shiver its tail as much. Song a series of rich and musical phrases, usually given at a slower tempo than the Creamy-bellied. Frequent call a fast “wert-wert-wert,” sometimes heard before first light. Rare and decidedly local in humid and swampy forest and woodland (also in restinga); records scattered and distribution not well understood. To 900 m. Bill blackish. Uniform warm rufescent brown with lower belly and crissum paler and buffier; some dusky throat streaking and often some grayish around eyes. The most uniform thrush in our area, Cocoa is shy and retiring, less familiar than its congeners. It hops on the ground like the others, often in places where quite muddy. Song a long-continued, musical caroling comprised of numerous slurred phrases, usually delivered from a hidden perch, sometimes well above the ground.

RUFOUS-BELLIED THRUSH Turdus rufiventris

24.5 cm|9.75”

Common and widespread in semiopen terrain, lighter woodland, and gardens; our most numerous thrush, frequent around habitations. Locally to 2500 m. Bill dusky to olive yellowish; narrow eye-ring yellow. Uniform grayish to olive brown above. Throat lightly streaked dusky; breast pale brown with belly and crissum contrastingly rufous. The only thrush showing such extensive rufous below. Often seen hopping on the ground, regularly on lawns though usually not too far from cover; also mounts into trees, especially when feeding on fruit. Can be quite tame, and comes to feeders. The attractive song is a long-continued series of complex musical phrases, usually subdued and given from a hidden perch, especially around dawn. One of the most intensively trapped bird in Brazil, due to its voice.

SWAINSON’S THRUSH Catharus ustulatus

18 cm|7”

Casual boreal migrant (Nov-Feb) to secondary woodland and forest borders; recorded from Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Above olivaceous brown with buffyish cheeks; buff lores and eye-ring impart a spectacled look. Below whitish, spotted blackish on buffyish breast. Looks nothing like our resident thrushes (and also is smaller), but beware juveniles of various species, which are generally spotted below. Inconspicuous, most likely seen at fruiting trees. Most frequently heard call in South America is a liquid “whit.” Breeds in North America. Veery (C. fuscescens), another boreal migrant, is known from several records (Nov-Mar) from interior São Paulo and two in Rio de Janeiro, it seems to favor semideciduous woodland and gallery forest. It resembles Swainson’s Thrush but is a warmer rufescent brown above with much less of an eye-ring; there also is much less breast spotting.

341

CREAMY-BELLIED THRUSH SABIÁ-POCA

PALE-BREASTED THRUSH SABIÁ-BARRANCO

COCOA THRUSH SABIÁ-DA-MATA

RUFOUS-BELLIED THRUSH SABIÁ-LARANJEIRA

SWAINSON’S THRUSH SABIÁ-DE-ÓCULOS

RUFOUS-BROWED PEPPERSHRIKE Cyclarhis gujanensis

15 cm|6”

Fairly common to common and widespread in canopy and borders of forest, woodland, and clearings with larger trees, locally in towns and gardens. Mostly below 1500 m. Heavy hooked bill mostly pale horn to pinkish; iris orange. Olive above; mostly gray head and neck, crown variably mixed with brown, short but usually obvious rufous brow. Whitish below with broad olive-yellow chest band. Red-eyed Vireo is less robust, shows head striping, lacks yellow chest band. Cf. also Green-backed Becard. This hefty bird is heard far more often than seen; tends to remain in dense foliage, gleaning sluggishly, sometimes accompanying a mixed flock but often alone. Eats mainly insects, occasionally other items (even small lizards and nestlings). Song, given even at mid-day, a series of brief, melodious phrases, each repeated many times before switching to a new one. A distinctive slurred call, a progressively lower-pitched “dreeu” repeated 3-7 times, is also frequent.

RED-EYED VIREO Vireo olivaceus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Generally common and widespread in wooded and forested regions, smaller numbers in gardens and clearings with larger trees; only a summer resident (ca. Sep-Apr) in southern part of our area. To 1500 m. Iris reddish; fairly heavy bill. Crown gray with prominent white superciliary bordered above and below by blackish lines; olive above. Below whitish, with some greenish yellow on flanks and crissum. The facial pattern is not shared by any similar bird. All the greenlets are smaller. The vireo is arboreal, foraging for insects at varying levels, gleaning from foliage and twigs; also eats some fruit. Occurs in pairs when breeding, but at other times often in small groups, regularly with mixed flocks. Song a leisurely series of short, clipped, somewhat musical phrases with intervening pauses given during the breeding season; in many areas one of the most frequently heard bird songs. By some the local breeding form, chivi (Chivi Vireo), is considered to be a separate species from boreal migrant olivaceus (Red-eyed Vireo); the latter winters in Amazonia, with no known records from our area (but they would be very hard to distinguish from local birds). Songs on their breeding grounds do differ; olivaceus does not sing in Brazil. GREENLETS are small vireos with pointed bills that forage busily in foliage. As with the other vireos, they are comparatively dull-plumaged and very vocal.

LEMON-CHESTED GREENLET Hylophilus thoracicus

12 cm|4.75”

RUFOUS-CROWNED GREENLET Hylophilus poicilotis

12.5 cm|5”

GRAY-EYED GREENLET Hylophilus amaurocephalus

12.5 cm|5”

Uncommon to fairly common in humid forest and woodland borders, also restinga, in lowlands from E Bahia to NE São Paulo. Locally to 1000 m; most numerous near coast. Conspicuous whitish iris; bill dusky pinkish. Olive above; gray face and hindcrown; yellowish forecrown. Below grayish white with broad olive-yellow chest band. In its limited range hard to confuse: it is the only greenlet here with a pale eye and yellow across chest. Found in pairs, gleaning actively in foliage and clinging upside-down to leaves; often with mixed flocks. Simple musical song a fast series of 6-8 “twee” or “peedit” notes. Ashy-headed Greenlet (H. pectoralis) is known from a few recent records from semideciduous woodland in NW São Paulo. It resembles Lemon-chested but is dark-eyed and has entire head and nape gray.

Fairly common in lower and middle growth of humid and montane forest (also araucaria forest) and woodland from Espírito Santo to São Paulo. To 1800 m. Crown bright rufous with mottled blackish patch on ear-coverts; bright olive above. Below buffy yellowish. Cf. Gray-eyed Greenlet, mainly further inland, in drier habitat (though there is local overlap). Plain Antvireo is chunkier and shorter-tailed with a more hooked bill. Forages actively in foliage, often with tail held partially cocked, pairs regularly accompanying mixed flocks. Song, often heard, a loud and emphatic “sewee-sewee-sewee-sewee-sewee.” Uncommon in semideciduous woodland and scrubby clearings in interior regions from Bahia to São Paulo; limited overlap with Rufous-crowned Greenlet. Mostly 500-1200 m. Very similar to Rufous-crowned, but with less distinct blackish patch on ear-coverts, buffier belly, and gray iris (Rufous-crowned’s iris is dark brown, as is juvenile Gray-eyed’s). Behavior much as in Rufous-crowned, though Gray-eyed tends to forage at lower levels, more in the open. Song also similar, but more complex and variable, often a series of 3-5 “chwee-erter” or “chee-awee” phrases interspersed with scolds and chatters.

343

RUFOUS-BROWED PEPPERSHRIKE PITIGUARI

RED-EYED VIREO JURUVIARA

LEMON-CHESTED GREENLET VITE-VITE

RUFOUS-CROWNED GREENLET VERDINHO-COROADO

GRAY-EYED GREENLET VERDINHO-DE-OLHO-CINZA

BANANAQUIT Coereba flaveola

11 cm|4.25”

TROPICAL PARULA Setophaga pitiayumi

11 cm|4.25”

Common and widespread in semiopen areas (both natural and disturbed), especially in gardens, forest and woodland borders, and plantations, wherever flowers are abundant, it being a nectar specialist; less numerous in continuous forest, there only in canopy. To 1500 m. Bill thin, short, and distinctly decurved, often with pink at base. Dark gray above with long white superciliary and yellow rump. Throat gray, contrasting with yellow underparts. Nearly unmistakable. Active and nervous, Bananaquits are conspicuous birds that congregate at flowering trees where they probe for nectar, sometimes clinging upside-down. In some areas they have learned how to reach sugar water in hummingbird feeders. They also consume small fruits. Singing is frequent, with the highpitched song a rather variable series of fast and often buzzy notes and phrases. Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of humid and lower montane forest and woodland, to a lesser extent in adjacent clearings and gardens. Locally to 1500 m. Grayish blue above with small black mask, olive patch on midback, and two white wing-bars. Below bright yellow, throat and breast variably washed with ochraceous orange. slightly duller. Hard to confuse. An arboreal bird that usually forages in pairs and often accompanies mixed flocks; insectivorous, gleaning actively in foliage. Frequently given distinctive song an accelerating and rising series of buzzy notes, often ending with an accented note. Formerly classified in genus Parula.

BLACKPOLL WARBLER Setophaga striata

13 cm|5”

Rare boreal migrant (Oct-Apr) to canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland and trees in clearings and gardens; also found in urban parks, where individuals have been known to remain for extended periods. Sharply pointed bill; legs pale yellowish. Nonbreeding birds olive above, back streaked blackish; wings and tail dusky, wings with two white bars. Whitish to pale yellowish with dusky streaking on breast and flanks. Breeding plumage, gradually assumed in Feb-Mar, very different. unmistakable, with black crown and white cheeks, black malar streak continuing as streaks down sides. much like nonbreeders but grayer above, whiter below. Nonbreeders are drab, but here there is nothing else much like it. Arboreal, insectivorous; forages singly in foliage. Breeds in North America. Formerly classified in genus Dendroica Several other North American warblers have occurred here as extreme vagrants, among them the Blackburnian Warbler (S. fusca) and the Cerulean Warbler ( S. cerulea), both somewhat similar to the Blackpoll. Consult North American books for identification criteria.

SOUTHERN YELLOWTHROAT Geothlypis velata

14 cm|5.5”

Fairly common and widespread in shrubby areas and tall grass in clearings, most often near water. To at least 1100 m. Base of mandible and legs pinkish. has black mask surmounted by gray crown and hindneck; otherwise olive above. Below bright yellow. lacks the black, is olive above and yellow below with a vague yellow supraloral and eye-ring (sometimes broken), crown and ear-coverts tinged gray. distinctive but can be confusing if seen alone; cf. Flavescent Warbler. Yellowthroats skulk in thickets and rank grass and are found most often when s are singing, sometimes from an open perch, often with a nearby. Song a sweet warbling recalling a seedeater, e.g., “swee-sweesweu-sweu-cheeri-cheeri-cheu.” Call a surprisingly distinctive chatter that drops in pitch and strength. Often called Masked Yellowthroat (G. aequinoctialis).

FLAVESCENT WARBLER Myiothlypis flaveolus

14.5 cm|5.75”

Locally fairly common on or near ground in semideciduous and gallery woodland, in our area mainly in interior São Paulo. To 1100 m. Legs orangeyellow. Bright olive above, bright yellow below; short superciliary and partial eye-ring also yellow. Distinctive from its behavior and bright yellow and olive plumage; most resembles Southern Yellowthroat though that is much less terrestrial, lacks the browed effect, etc. Ranges in pairs that walk and hop on ground, often swivelling their fanned tail. Though not particularly shy, Flavescents are heard much more often than seen, with song a loud, ringing series of musical notes that ends with a distinctive fast “chu-chu-chu-chu.” Formerly classified in genus Basileuterus.

345 BANANAQUIT CAMBACICA

TROPICAL PARULA MARIQUITA

BLACKPOLL WARBLER MARIQUITA-DE-PERNA-CLARA

nonbreeding

SOUTHERN YELLOWTHROAT PIA-COBRA

FLAVESCENT WARBLER CANÁRIO-DO-MATO

BASILEUTERUS & MYIOTHLYPIS warblers are relatively dull-plumaged, with olive predominating, and

distinctive, quite bold head patterns. They range in forest and woodland undergrowth, most skulking but others (Golden-crowned and White-bellied) easier to see. All are quite vocal. An additional Basileuterus appears on the previous page. Some species, formerly in Basileuterus, are now classified in genus Myiothlypis.

GOLDEN-CROWNED WARBLER Basileuterus culicivorus

12.5 cm|5”

WHITE-BELLIED WARBLER Basileuterus hypoleucus

12.5 cm|5”

WHITE-STRIPED WARBLER Myiothlypis leucophrys

14.5 cm|5.75”

WHITE-RIMMED WARBLER Myiothlypis leucoblepharus

14.5 cm|5.75”

RIVERBANK WARBLER Basileuterus rivularis

13.5 cm|5.25”

Common and widespread in lower growth of humid and lower montane forest and woodland; though somewhat less numerous northward and in the interior, this is one of the most frequently seen forest birds in the Rio/São Paulo region. Mostly below 1500 m. Crown streak orange-rufous bordered with black, superciliary whitish to pale gray. Otherwise olive above, yellow below. The similar White-bellied Warbler ranges further inland and in more deciduous habitats, with very limited overlap; it differs in having whitish underparts. Golden-crowneds forage actively, moving quickly, flicking their wings, and jerking the often partially cocked tail. A frequent member of understory flocks, it is usually tame and easy to observe. Song a spritely, high-pitched series of 6-8 semimusical “swee” notes” with the next to last usually higher and accented. Locally fairly common in lower growth of semideciduous woodland and gallery forest in Minas Gerais and interior São Paulo. Mostly 500-1400 m. Crown streak orange-rufous bordered with black, superciliary whitish. Otherwise olive above, whitish below. This warbler replaces the more familiar Golden-crowned Warbler, occurring with it at a few sites; they differ in belly color though there are some intermediates and even mixed pairs. Behavior and voice are so similar that some have considered the two to be conspecific. Cf. also the much scarcer White-striped Warbler.

Uncommon and local on or near ground inside swampy gallery forest and woodland in interior São Paulo and very locally in Minas Gerais. Mostly 600-1200 m. Crown slaty with striking broad white superciliary and black line through eye. Otherwise bronzy olive above, white below, breast mottled gray. White-bellied Warbler occurs in the same habitat; it is smaller with a less stout bill, has an orange-rufous crown stripe. White-rimmed Warbler is more similar but occurs in more forested habitats; its brow is pale grayish and its eye-ring, though only partial, is a much more conspicuous pure white. Occurs in pairs that move through dense low undergrowth and usually hard to see; not with flocks. The tail is frequently raised and swiveled sideways. Beautiful song a loud, ringing cascade of pure melodic notes; shorter versions, e.g., “t-r-r-r-r, ti-i-i-i, t-r-r-r,” can be repeated several times. Formerly classified in genus Basileuterus. Fairly common and widespread in undergrowth of humid and montane forest (also in araucaria forest) and woodland in southern part of our region. To 1700 m. Head mainly gray with whitish supraloral area and conspicuous partial white eye-ring. Otherwise olive above, whitish below, breast with extensive grayish mottling. Cf. much rarer White-striped Warbler (with very bold white brow, etc.). Usually occurs in pairs that walk and hop through thick undergrowth with tail often fanned, sometimes wagged or swiveled sideways. Rather shy and hard to see though its enchanting song is often heard, a series of tinkling musical notes, at first high-pitched but gradually descending. Also called White-browed Warbler (though its brow isn’t white). Formerly classified in genus Basileuterus. Uncommon on or near ground along forested streams and rivers and in swampy areas, mainly in coastal lowlands (seemingly most frequent in São Paulo) but recorded up to 800 m. Crown gray bordered blackish; whitish superciliary and partial eye-ring. Otherwise mainly olive above, buffy whitish below. Distinctive but rather plain; hops near the water’s edge, most often on ground or rocks, frequently sweeping its often fanned tail sideways. Often in pairs; does not accompany mixed flocks. Song a vigorous series of loud musical notes that gradually accelerate into a crescendo, sometimes introduced by warbling notes. Sometimes classified in genus Phaeothlypis, and has been called Neotropical River Warbler.

347 GOLDEN-CROWNED WARBLER PULA-PULA-COROADO

WHITE-BELLIED WARBLER PULA-PULA-DE-BARRIGA-BRANCA

WHITE-STRIPED WARBLER PULA-PULA-DE-SOBRANCELHA

WHITE-RIMMED WARBLER PULA-PULA-ASSOBIADOR

RIVERBANK WARBLER PULA-PULA-DO-RIO

ORANGE-HEADED TANAGER Thlypopsis sordida

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in forest borders, secondary woodland, shrubby clearings, and locally in suburban areas. To 1200 m. Crown, sides of head, and neck orange-rufous, yellower on face and throat. Above gray. Below pale buffyish. duller, with face and foreneck yellowish. The orange and gray above is unique in our area. Ranges mainly in pairs. Gleans actively in foliage, usually not too high, sometimes with mixed flocks; mainly insectivorous. Not very vocal, but song a fairly musical series of notes, e.g., “tseet-tseet-tseet-tsee-tsee-tsee-tsu.”

RUFOUS-HEADED TANAGER Hemithraupis ruficapilla

13 cm|5”

GUIRA TANAGER Hemithraupis guira

13 cm|5”

YELLOW-BACKED TANAGER Hemithraupis flavicollis

13 cm|5”

HOODED TANAGER Nemosia pileata

13 cm|5”

Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, shrubby clearings and gardens. Mostly below 1200 m. Bill mostly yellowish. has deep rufous head, large yellow patch on sides of neck, orange-rufous throat and chest. Bright olive above with orange-rufous rump; below pale olive grayish. lacks orange and rufous: olive above with yellower rump, mostly pale grayish below with yellowish olive throat and chest; pale yellow crissum. Cf. Guira Tanager (minimal overlap). Usually in pairs, less often small groups. Gleans actively in foliage, often with mixed flocks; eats relatively little fruit. Not very vocal, with song a simple fast series of chippered notes.

Uncommon in semideciduous forest and woodland, in our area mainly in São Paulo, and locally to coast. To 1200 m. Bill mostly yellowish. has black face and throat outlined by yellow and bordered below by orange-rufous breast. Above olive, lower back orange-rufous, rump yellow. Belly grayish. resembles Rufous-headed Tanager (but there is minimal overlap), but shows vague yellowish superciliary and eye-ring; yellower on throat and chest. Behavior is much the same.

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland (also in restinga) in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 800 m. Unmistakable black above with bright yellow lower back, rump, throat, and crissum, underparts otherwise whitish. relatively dark olive above, wings and tail dusky with strong yellow edging; below entirely yellow. Rufous-headed Tanager is much grayer below, not uniform yellow. Ranges singly and in pairs, sometimes with flocks, often quite high in the canopy. Though generally less conspicuous than the Rufous-headed, the Yellowbacked is also mainly insectivorous, eating little fruit. Fairly common and widespread in trees in semiopen areas, forest borders, lighter woodland, and cerrado. To at least 1300 m. Iris and legs yellow. grayish blue above with contrasting black head and sides of neck, and an obvious white supraorbital spot. White below. similar but lacking the black; tinged buff below. somewhat resembles Bicolored Conebill but that species is strictly confined to mangroves and is smaller with a slenderer bill; it lacks the supraorbital spot. Found in small groups or pairs, generally not with flocks; they linger on larger horizontal branches, inspecting bark in search of insects. They eat little fruit but sometimes visit flowering trees. Infrequently heard song a short series of “ti-chéw” phrases.

CHERRY-THROATED TANAGER Nemosia rourei CR

14 cm|5.5”

Extremely rare and local in canopy of remnant patches of montane forest in central and S Espírito Santo. One of the world’s most endangered birds, gravely threatened by habitat loss and known from very few sites (Castelo, Vargem Alta, Santa Teresa). Until its rediscovery (1998) considered perhaps extinct, this tanager once ranged into adjacent Minas Gerais and perhaps also Rio de Janeiro. 850-1250 m. Iris orange-yellow; legs yellow. Unmistakable, with bright cherry red throat and chest ending in a point. Above mainly bluish gray, wings and tail blacker. Lower underparts white. Unlike Hooded Tanager, sexes alike. Occurs in wide-ranging pairs and small family groups; sometimes joins canopy flocks led by Eastern Sirystes. Gleans in foliage and, like Hooded Tanager, hops along larger branches, peering from side to side. Distinctive call a sharp, piercing “peéyr” or “peéyr-peéyr,” sometimes “peéyr-pit-pit.”

349 ORANGE-HEADED TANAGER SAÍRA-CANÁRIO

RUFOUS-HEADED TANAGER SAÍRA-FERRUGEM

GUIRA TANAGER SAÍRA-DE-PAPO-PRETO

YELLOW-BACKED TANAGER SAÍRA-GALEGA

HOODED TANAGER SAÍRA-DE-CHAPÉU-PRETO

CHERRY-THROATED TANAGER SAÍRA-APUNHALADA

BICOLORED CONEBILL Conirostrum bicolor

11.5 cm|4.5”

CHESTNUT-VENTED CONEBILL Conirostrum speciosum

11 cm|4.25”

BLACK-LEGGED DACNIS Dacnis nigripes

11 cm|4.25”

BLUE DACNIS Dacnis cayana

12 cm|4.75”

RED-LEGGED HONEYCREEPER Cyanerpes cyaneus

12 cm|4.75”

Locally fairly common to common in mangroves along coast, inland along tidal rivers. The characteristic mangrove passerine in SE Brazil. Iris orangey; legs dusky-pink. Above pale grayish blue; below dingy grayish buff. duller, immature sometimes tinged yellow below. Ranges in pairs or small groups. Forages actively, often quite low, sometimes amidst mangrove roots. Song variable, a high-pitched, squeaky series of notes, e.g., “tzwt, tzee-twit-twittwee-zee,” recalling Bananaquit.

Uncommon to fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of woodland and forest, in clearings and gardens; generally more numerous inland than along coastal plain. Locally to 1200 m. uniform grayish blue above with small white wing speculum. Pale gray below, with conspicuous chestnut crissum (diagnostic). has crown, nape bluish gray; upperparts otherwise bright olive. Below grayish white, often tinged buff, especially on throat. ’s blue-gray to olive contrast on upperparts is obvious (cf. certain small flycatchers, all with very different shape and behavior). An arboreal bird that forages energetically, often while hanging upside-down; regularly with mixed flocks, often attracted to flowering trees. Weak song a high-pitched and long-continued “tseetí, tseetí, tseetí, tseetí….”

Locally uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, less often in clearings, from Espírito Santo to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1100 m, occasionally to 1400 m. Legs blackish. turquoise blue; small throat patch, back, wings, and tail black, feathers edged blue. brownish olive above with strong blue tinge to head; wings blackish, coverts edged greenish blue. Below uniform pale buffyish. Can occur with Blue Dacnis. Blue is larger with pinkish legs, longer tail; s are especially similar (leg color is the best distinguishing character). s differ more (Blue Dacnis being predominantly green). Their behavior is similar. Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, sometimes into gardens and partially cleared areas. To at least 1500 m. Legs and base of bill pinkish. mostly turquoise blue. Throat patch, back, wings, and tail black, feathers edged blue. bright green, paler below, with bluish head. not likely confused, but cf. Black-legged Dacnis. Green Honeycreeper lacks blue on head, and heavier bill shows yellow, etc. Pairs or small groups regularly forage with mixed flocks. Consumes insects and fruit, coming to feeding stations and flowering trees. Quiet, giving a few “tsit” notes. Locally fairly common in woodland borders and clearings, especially near coast (often in restinga). To 600 m. Bill long and decurved; ’s legs bright red, ’s duller. mostly bright purplish blue; back, wings, and tail black; crown pale turquoise. Nonbreeding like but with black wings, tail; retains bright legs. olive green above with vague whitish superciliary; dull yellowish below, breast with blurry olive streaking. Nothing much like it in our area. Most often in pairs or small groups, sometimes foraging alone but regularly with flocks. Routinely comes to feeders. Most distinctive call an ascending, drawn-out “zhreee.”

GREEN HONEYCREEPER Chlorophanes spiza

14 cm|5.5”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, and into adjacent clearings, in lowlands from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 900 m. Bill mostly yellow, duller in . glistening green with contrasting black on head. bright green, paler and yellower below. unmistakable, best known from her heavy bill and overall greenish coloration. Cf. Blue Dacnis. Pairs and small groups, often with mixed flocks, forage actively for fruit, often coming to feeders. Gives “tsit” call notes, but has no real song.

351

BICOLORED CONEBILL FIGUINHA-DO-MANGUE

CHESTNUT-VENTED CONEBILL FIGUINHA-DE-RABO-CASTANHO

BLACK-LEGGED DACNIS SAÍ-DE-PERNA-PRETA

BLUE DACNIS SAÍ-AZUL

RED-LEGGED HONEYCREEPER SAÍ-BEIJA-FLOR

GREEN HONEYCREEPER SAÍ-VERDE

SWALLOW TANAGER Tersina viridis

14.5-15 cm|5.75-6”

Fairly common to common and widespread in forest and woodland borders and adjacent semiopen areas. Mostly below 1200 m, a few to 1800 m. Bill unusual for a tanager, broad and flat; wings rather long and somewhat swallow-like. Unmistakable mostly bright turquoise blue with contrasting black face and throat; midbelly white, black barring on flanks. mostly bright green with pale yellow median breast and belly. Dusky-olive barring on flanks helps to distinguish her from other greenish tanagers. A nomadic and somewhat gregarious bird, disappearing at certain seasons; at times even occurs in parks in urban areas. Often conspicuous, perching on high bare branches, sometimes even wires; regularly sallies into the air after insects. Also consumes considerable fruit. Unique among the tanagers, Swallow Tanagers nest in holes they dig into banks. Their call, a sharp and unmusical “tzeep,” is surprisingly distinctive and often given in flight; a high-pitched squeaky song is less often heard. TANGARA are “classic” tanagers, well known for their bright colors and patterns; the sexes typically are alike, s sometimes duller. Most range in humid forest, and many now come to feeders with fruit near forests. They are not especially vocal.

GREEN-HEADED TANAGER Tangara seledon

13 cm|5”

RED-NECKED TANAGER Tangara cyanocephala

13 cm|5”

BRASSY-BREASTED TANAGER Tangara desmaresti

13 cm|5”

GILT-EDGED TANAGER Tangara cyanoventris

13 cm|5”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, also regularly out into adjacent clearings and gardens, from E Bahia to S São Paulo. Mostly below 1100 m. Head turquoise, nape and upper back shining yellowish green; back black and rump bright yellow-orange; wing-coverts blue, flight feather edging bright green. Breast and midbelly turquoise blue. duller. This stunning tanager presents us with a veritable kaleidoscope of colors, and can hardly be confused. Behavior much as in other Tangara though Green-headed occurs more often in larger groups, sometimes with mixed flocks but also on its own. Eats mainly fruit, coming regularly to feeding stations near forests, but also searches for insects, mainly on limbs and branches.

Uncommon to fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, also in nearby clearings and gardens, in lowlands and foothills from E Bahia to S São Paulo; more numerous southward and especially in the Serra do Mar, and in Espírito Santo only at mid-elevations. To 1000 m. Crown and throat intense violet-blue, cheeks and broad nuchal collar vivid scarlet; back black, contrasting with bright green rump. Underparts bright green. duller. A stunning tanager, impossible to confuse. It usually occurs well above ground, often accompanying mixed flocks, but descends lower at edge where there are fruiting trees; comes regularly to feeding stations near forests. Locally common in canopy and borders of montane forest and woodland from Espírito Santo to S São Paulo, occurring higher than the other Tangara in our area. Mostly 500-1800 m, in winter a few down to coastal lowlands in São Paulo. Above bright emerald green and yellow copiously streaked black except on face and rump; forecrown and prominent ocular area bright turquoise blue. Shield on lower throat and chest brassy ochre, lower underparts green. Can only be confused with Gilt-edged Tanager though that is a bird of lower elevations (some overlap, especially in winter). Behavior as with other Tangara, but seems more apt to occur in large monospecific flocks. Uncommon to locally fairly common in montane and humid forest and woodland from Bahia to E São Paulo, ranging out in smaller numbers into partially cleared areas and gardens. Mostly 400-1200 m. Above mostly golden yellow, brightest on head, boldly streaked black on back; wings and tail edged bright green. Throat black, underparts bright turquoise blue. So brightly colored that confusion is improbable. Brassy-breasted Tanager, mainly found at higher elevations, has blue and green (not yellow) face. Behavior as in other Tangara.

353

SWALLOW TANAGER SAÍ-ANDORINHA

GREEN-HEADED TANAGER SAÍRA-SETE-CORES

RED-NECKED TANAGER SAÍRA-DE-LENÇO

BRASSY-BREASTED TANAGER SAÍRA-LAGARTA

GILT-EDGED TANAGER SAÍRA-DOURADINHA

BURNISHED-BUFF TANAGER Tangara cayana

13.5 cm|5.25”

CHESTNUT-BACKED TANAGER Tangara preciosa

14.5 cm|5.75”

BLACK-BACKED TANAGER Tangara peruviana

14.5 cm|5.75”

Common and widespread in a variety of semiopen, wooded, and forest edge habitats, regularly in gardens and city parks. Locally to 2000 m. very striking, mostly shiny ochraceous buff above, with wings and tail mainly bluish. Broad area on face and median underparts black to blackish; ochraceous sides and flanks. much duller, lacking black on underparts but retaining a dusky mask; crown ochraceous, back greenish, wings and tail much greener than . Below dull ochraceous, throat and breast more whitish. unmistakable, but resembles Chestnut-backed and Black-backed Tanagers though those lack the masked effect. This non-forest tanager has taken advantage of the deforestation throughout much of SE Brazil and now is likely the most numerous Tangara here. It occurs in pairs or small groups, sometimes in mixed flocks but also often alone; comes frequently to feeding stations. Uncommon in canopy and borders of montane forest and woodland mostly in S São Paulo, but may be expanding to E São Paulo and S Minas Gerais, with one recent (anomalous) record from SE Minas. Especially numerous where araucaria trees predominate. Mostly 600-1300 m; in winter sometimes down to sea level. stunning, with head, neck, and back shiny coppery rufous, wing-coverts and rump shining ochraceous yellow; flight feathers edged bright blue. Below shining bluish green. much duller, with coppery rufous confined to head and nape; back greenish, wing feathers (including coverts) edged bright green. Two other tanagers have similar s: Burnished-buff has entire mask blackish, not just the loral area (but beware a few Chestnut-backeds in which blackish can extend to ear-coverts), while Black-backed has crown and nape brighter rufous. For the most part this and the Black-backed separate by elevation, with Black-backed mainly occurring in coastal lowlands. Occurs in pairs and small groups, sometimes accompanying mixed flocks; usually conspicuous, often perching in the open. Comes readily to feeding stations near forests.

VU

Uncommon and local in canopy and borders of forest and woodland in lowlands of São Paulo, primarily near coast, most often in restinga; small numbers occur N to Espírito Santo during winter. Mostly below 200 m, at least when breeding (perhaps higher during winter). is as beautiful as the similar Chestnut-backed Tanager, differing solely in its black saddle on back. s are very similar, but Black-backed’s crown and nape are brighter coppery rufous (often almost shiny, like ’s). Behavior much as in Chestnut-backed. These two species are much more forest/woodland birds than the Burnished-buff, which is more a bird of open and semiopen areas.

WHITE-BELLIED TANAGER Tangara brasiliensis

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland, adjacent clearings, and restinga in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 500 m. Mostly black above with silvery blue face, breast, lesser wing-coverts, and rump, with black feather bases showing through irregularly; median underparts white. A distinctive tanager, not found with very many other Tangara. Cf. Silverbreasted Tanager, regularly found with it in N part of White-bellied’s range. Silver-breasted has a much brighter blue face, opalescent on forecrown, rufous on lower underparts, etc. Occurs mostly in pairs or family groups, mainly restricted to forest/woodland but sometimes in clearings. By some considered conspecific with Turquoise Tanager (T. mexicana) of Amazonia.

SILVER-BREASTED TANAGER Tangara cyanomelaena

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland and adjacent clearings in lowlands from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro, but now found mainly from Espírito Santo N. Mostly below 500 m. Mainly black above with forecrown band and a big area on lower back and rump opalescent; face and sides of neck bright blue. Breast and sides silvery grayish blue, with rufous midbelly and crissum. White-bellied Tanager lacks bright blue on face and opalescent rump; its median underparts are mainly white (with no rufous). Behavior much as in White-bellied. By some considered conspecific with Opal-rumped Tanager (T. velia) of Amazonia.

355

BURNISHED-BUFF TANAGER SAÍRA-AMARELA

CHESTNUT-BACKED TANAGER SAÍRA-PRECIOSA

BLACK-BACKED TANAGER SAÍRA-SAPUCAIA

WHITE-BELLIED TANAGER CAMBADA-DE-CHAVES

SILVER-BREASTED TANAGER SAÍRA-PÉROLA

FAWN-BREASTED TANAGER Pipraeidea melanonota

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of montane, humid, and semideciduous forest and adjacent clearings and gardens; widespread, but less numerous and more local northward. Mostly 600-2000 m, in winter occasionally down to near sea level in São Paulo. has crown and nape bright blue contrasting with a broad black mask. Otherwise dusky-blue above, but rump paler and brighter. Below buff. similarly patterned but notably duller. Goldenrumped Euphonia also has bright blue crown, but otherwise is very different. Ranges in pairs that forage quietly at varying levels though most often high; not especially apt to accompany mixed flocks. Habitually hops along larger horizontal branches, searching bark and epiphytes for insects; also eats fruit, sometimes coming to feeders near forests. Rather quiet, with song a fast simple series of high-pitched “see” notes that lasts a few seconds. THRAUPIS tanagers are a rather diverse lot, presenting more taxonomic uncertainty. Most are rather plain birds, either blue or olive, but one (the Blue-and-yellow) is very different, with only the being colorful.

SAYACA TANAGER Thraupis sayaca

17 cm|6.75”

Common and widespread in a variety of semiopen and edge habitats; one of our more numerous birds, being regular even in parks and urban areas. In small numbers to 2000 m but mainly below 1500 m. Mostly dull grayish blue; wing feathers edged greenish turquoise blue. Cf. similar Azure-shouldered Tanager (a much scarcer, more local bird), and also Palm Tanager (drabber and much more olive, but in some lights the Sayaca can also look surprisingly greenish). The Sayaca is a conspicuous and well-known bird almost everywhere – lacking only in heavy forest, and even there sometimes occurring in the canopy. It forages in all sorts of situations at almost any height, regularly with mixed flocks; in open areas and gardens it even comes regularly to the ground. Like so many tanagers it consumes mostly fruit, and comes readily to feeding stations. Energetic but quite jumbled and unpatterned song a mixture of fairly high-pitched squeaky notes, some drawn-out, that are interspersed with a few others that can be clearer; however variable, it should quickly become familiar. This and the next species are sometimes classified in genus Tangara.

AZURE-SHOULDERED TANAGER Thraupis cyanoptera

18 cm|7”

BLUE-AND-YELLOW TANAGER Thraupis bonariensis

18 cm|7”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, only occasionally out into adjacent clearings (unlike other Thraupis, basically a forest bird), occurring primarily on the slopes of the Serra do Mar; rare in Bahia. To 1800 m (down to near sea level mainly in São Paulo, during winter). Resembles the more numerous Sayaca Tanager but somewhat larger with a notably heavier bill. Generally bluer above (less gray), with dark area on lores (Sayaca looks plain-faced); shoulders bright deep cobalt blue (sometimes obscured) with wing edging bluer (not so greenish). The two species are similar; Azure-shouldered is easiest to confirm from its heavy bill (always obvious) and dark lores (almost always obvious). Behavior much as in Sayaca, though Azure-shouldered is a less familiar, far more forest-based bird. It can be seen at close range at some feeding stations near forest edge. Song rather different, usually a repetition (often 4-6) of the same clear phrase, e.g., “tee, ti-ti-tee-tr-tee-rur,” usually starting softly but building in strength. Uncommon in secondary woodland, shrubby areas, and gardens in S São Paulo; apparently only a recent immigrant here, having spread from S Brazil. To 800 m. has rich blue head and neck contrasting with black back that contrasts in turn with bright orange-yellow rump; underparts also orangeyellow. much duller, mostly grayish olive above, dingy buff below, head and shoulders usually with a bluish tinge. unmistakable, but confusing if alone (fortunately, pairs are usually together. Generally easy to observe, foraging actively and usually in the semiopen. Often comes to feeders. Usual song a rather rhythmic series of sweet notes, often paired, “tseé-tsur, tseétsur, tseé-tsur, tseé,” but sometimes squeakier and less patterned. By some classified in genus Pipraeidea.

357 FAWN-BREASTED TANAGER SAÍRA-VIÚVA

SAYACA TANAGER SANHAÇO-CINZA

AZURE-SHOULDERED TANAGER SANHAÇO-DE-ENCONTRO-AZUL

BLUE-AND-YELLOW TANAGER SANHAÇO-PAPA-LARANJA

GOLDEN-CHEVRONED TANAGER Thraupis ornata

18 cm|7”

PALM TANAGER Thraupis palmarum

18 cm|7”

Fairly common to common in humid and montane forest and woodland, especially at borders and in adjacent clearings from E Bahia to S São Paulo; scarcer northward, and there absent from lowlands. To 1800 m, but during winter mainly below 1000 m. has head and underparts shiny dark violetblue, back blacker. Shoulders bright yellow (the “chevron”), with green wing edging. duller and grayer, but retains the ’s shoulder patch (though this can be smaller and less conspicuous). Palm Tanager is mainly olive (lacking all blue) with a differently patterned, bicolored wing. A conspicuous and active bird, regularly occurring in groups except when breeding. Forages at all levels, mainly for fruit; frequently attracted to feeders near forests. Song a series of high-pitched squeaky notes, not terribly pleasing or attractive; also often gives a “tseep” call. Some classify this and the next species in genus Tangara.

Fairly common to common and widespread in humid forest and woodland borders, also clearings and gardens, even in urban areas (e.g. Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo). To at least 1200 m. Grayish olive with a glossy sheen on back and underparts, forecrown paler and more yellowish. Flight feathers mainly black contrasting with olive wing-coverts (the wings look bicolored). Relatively featureless; in poor light often most easily recognized by its wing pattern. Never shows the yellow on wing of Golden-chevroned Tanager (which is much bluer); cf. also Sayaca Tanager. Behavior similar to Golden-chevroned, often occurring with it though Palm is more a lowland bird and much more frequent in built-up areas (Golden-chevroned favors mountain slopes and valleys). True to its name, it shows an affinity for palms (as does Golden-chevroned), often hanging upside-down from fronds as it forages; much attracted to feeders. Voice much as in Golden-chevroned though tempo often faster. RAMPHOCELUS tanagers are predominantly red and are found in secondary habitats, especially near water. s have conspicuous silvery on bill.

BRAZILIAN TANAGER Ramphocelus bresilius

18.5 cm|7.25”

A non-forest tanager, locally fairly common in shrubby restinga and clearings, secondary woodland, humid forest borders, and gardens, most often near water; less numerous in Espírito Santo and Bahia, apparently due to persecution by bird trappers. To 1000 m. has conspicuous (“swollen”) silvery at base of mandible, duller and much less obvious in . mostly intense scarlet with wings and tail contrastingly black. much plainer, with grayish brown upperparts and throat, dull brownish red on underparts and rump. Not likely confused, but at any distance inland cf. Silver-beaked Tanager. almost glistens when seen in good light, and surely is one of our most beautiful birds. An active bird that moves rapidly through its favored habitat, usually in pairs but also sometimes in small presumed family groups (generally such groups contain only one full adult ). They eat both fruit and insects, and regularly come to feeders. Foraging birds frequently give a loud “chyip” call note, sometimes repeated many times. Song, a simple melodic phrase, is often repeated multiple times.

SILVER-BEAKED TANAGER Ramphocelus carbo

18 cm|7”

Widespread and common across much of South America, in our area the Silver-beaked is confined to the interior, especially in São Paulo and Minas Gerais, where it replaces the Brazilian Tanager. Apparently the two species do not occur together. Its favored shrubby habitats are comparable to the Brazilian’s. The E Bahia records could refer to escaped captives. Mostly 5001200 m. has conspicuous silvery at base of mandible but is mostly blackish tinged maroon with a velvety sheen; throat and chest dark crimson. like Brazilian Tanager but more brownish above and on throat (not so grayish). Cf. to s of Red-crowned Ant Tanager and White-lined Tanager. Behavior much as in Brazilian Tanager, though in its main range seems to be more numerous and more likely to troop around in small flocks (not just pairs). Frequently heard call note is a loud “chink,” though its rather monotonous song – a series of short simple phrases – is given mainly soon after dawn.

GOLDEN-CHEVRONED TANAGER SANHAÇO-DE-ENCONTRO-AMARELO

PALM TANAGER SANHAÇO-DO-COQUEIRO

BRAZILIAN TANAGER TIÊ-SANGUE

SILVER-BEAKED TANAGER PIPIRA-VERMELHA

359

TACHYPHONUS tanagers are a variable lot, and likely do not all belong in the same genus. s are mainly black, s browner or rufescent. They all have at least some bluish at base of bill.

FLAME-CRESTED TANAGER Tachyphonus cristatus

16 cm|6.25”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland and adjacent clearings and gardens, from E Bahia to S São Paulo. To 800 m. A little bluish gray at base of bill. black with broad flat crest flame scarlet (usually protrudes to rear), a golden buff rump, and an ochraceous buff midthroat; underwing-coverts white, and shows some white at bend of wing. Rather plain rufescent brown above, rich ochraceous below. nearly unmistakable (no similar tanager shows the obvious crest), but can be confused with White-lined and Ruby-crowned Tanagers, both of which are much more birds of lower growth and not the canopy (though all can be seen together at feeding stations). Forages in pairs and small family groups, generally remaining in the canopy though coming lower at edge and in clearings. Often accompanies mixed flocks, and seems restless, rarely remaining in one area for long. Not especially vocal, though “tseeyt” or “tsip” contact calls are given regularly while foraging. By some classified in genus Lanio.

RUBY-CROWNED TANAGER Tachyphonus coronatus

18 cm|7”

WHITE-LINED TANAGER Tachyphonus rufus

18 cm|7”

Fairly common to common (more numerous southward) and widespread in lower growth of humid forest and woodland and adjacent clearings. To 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Bill bluish gray. lustrous blue-black with a narrow scarlet streak in crown (often hidden, but diagnostic when visible); underwingcoverts white (flashing in flight), with some white on scapulars that is usually hidden. rufescent brown above with head more grayish. Ochraceous below with some blurry dusky flammulation across breast. Both sexes resemble White-lined Tanager, but note that there is only minimal overlap between the two (White-lined only in the north). Also compare to Shiny Cowbird, and to Red-crowned Ant Tanager (which lacks breast flammulation). Forages actively in pairs in foliage, typically not much above the ground; generally not with flocks, but does come readily to feeding stations that offer fruit. Though most numerous in and around forest, seems quite tolerant of habitat disturbance. Rather monotonous song a steadily repeated “chwee, che-wu, chwee, che-wu, chwee, che-wu…” Uncommon and somewhat local in shrubby clearings, gardens, and borders in N of our area (e.g., NW São Paulo, Minas Gerais, E Bahia). Mostly below 900 m. Bill bluish gray. entirely black with white underwing-coverts that flash in flight and as the bird flicks its wings; also sometimes shows some white at bend of wing and a bit on scapulars (usually hidden). nearly uniform rufous (though it is slightly paler below). Ruby-crowned Tanager is glossier and (in good light) more blue-black; the red in its crown is diagnostic if it can be seen. Ruby-crowned is also basically a rufescent bird (though not so bright or uniform), but it has a grayer head and breast flammulation lacking in White-lined. Behavior similar to Ruby-crowned, but less of a forest bird, instead foraging in dense lower growth and usually inconspicuous. Not especially vocal but does have a monotonous song similar to the Ruby-crowned’s but usually given at a faster pace.

SCARLET-THROATED TANAGER Compsothraupis loricata

21.5 cm|8.5”

Uncommon in gallery woodland and clearings with at least some trees in Minas Gerais, perhaps now spreading southward. Mostly below 1000 m. All glossy blue-black, with scarlet throat and midchest and some bare black skin around and behind eye. s are obviously unmistakable, but they tend to be a minority of birds seen and the red sometimes is surprisingly hard to see. s and young birds – which lack the red – resemble certain blackbirds, notably the Chopi, and sometimes the tanager and various blackbirds (e.g., Chestnut-capped, and Shiny Cowbird) even range in the same flock; note, however, the tanager’s heavier and less conical bill. Behavior of this strange tanager is strikingly icterid-like, ranging in small flocks of up to 6-8 birds that sometimes perch on exposed branches for extended periods. Arresting call a loud, blackbird-like “chirt” or “kyuh,” often repeated and frequent in flight.

361

FLAME-CRESTED TANAGER TIÊ-GALO

RUBY-CROWNED TANAGER TIÊ-PRETO

WHITE-LINED TANAGER PIPIRA-PRETA

SCARLET-THROATED TANAGER TIÊ-CABURÉ

DIADEMED TANAGER Stephanophorus diadematus

19 cm|7.5”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of montane forest (including araucaria forest) and adjacent shrubby and garden areas in highlands north to Espírito Santo. Mostly above 800 m (up to 2500 m at Itatiaia). Bill stubby. Mostly shining dark purplish blue with a black foreface and a snowy white midcrown (the “diadem”) with small red patch in front. Immature duller and duskier with little or no crown pattern. One of our finest tanagers, truly stunning when the lighting on it is good (but note that in marginal light Diademeds can look quite blackish aside from their white in the crown). Nothing else looks much like it. Forages at all heights from shrubbery up to high in trees, and often perching in the open; consumes mainly fruit. Occurs in pairs or small groups, and regularly accompanies mixed flocks. Attractive song a rich warbled phrase recalling an Ultramarine Grosbeak.

OLIVE-GREEN TANAGER Orthogonys chloricterus

20 cm|7.75”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and foothill forest and adjacent clearings north to Espírito Santo. Mostly in lowlands, but small numbers up to 1100 m. Rather long and slender bill blackish; legs fleshy pink. Uniform olive above; yellow below, shaded olive on sides and flanks, yellowest on throat. Liable only to be confused with Lowland Hepatic Tanager, which has a stouter bill and more yellow on forecrown (head not plain olive); the behavior of the two species differs markedly. Troops about in noisy groups that can contain up to 10-15 individuals and generally remain independent of other birds. Though basically a forest inhabitant, in many areas this formerly rather elusive species now is coming to bird feeders where fruit is provided. The tail is frequently raised, then quickly lowered. Rather noisy, with loud chattering calls often heralding the approach of a flock, the most frequent being a “wheeyk!” and a “cht-tzeeee.”

BROWN TANAGER Orchesticus abeillei

18 cm|7”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of montane and foothill forest in mountains from Espírito Santo and E Minas Gerais to S São Paulo; rare and local in S Bahia. Mostly 800-1600 m. Bill very stout, bluish gray below. Brown above, more rufescent on wings and tail and duskier on crown; forehead, broad superciliary, and face cinnamon with a thin blackish line through eye. Below dull cinnamon-buff. This species’ resemblance to the Buff-fronted Foliagegleaner is uncanny, and sometimes the two even forage together in the same flock, allowing a close comparison (and causing some confusion!). The foliagegleaner’s bill is markedly longer and more slender and it has an obvious hook at its tip; its tail is notched, whereas the tanager’s is rounded. Chestnut-crowned Becard is also superficially similar, and likewise can forage in the same flock; the becard has a distinctive gray nape, rather different foraging behavior. Brown Tanagers forage in pairs and small groups that frequently accompany mixed flocks; they forage mostly by clambering along larger branches. Resting birds often perch quite upright. Quiet, with infrequently heard song a rather weak and high-pitched “tseh-ts-ts-tseee,” with an upward inflection.

BLACK-GOGGLED TANAGER Trichothraupis melanopis

16.5 cm|7.5”

Uncommon (northward) to fairly common and widespread in lower growth of humid and montane forest and woodland. Seems to tolerate forest fragmentation and degradation relatively well. To 1500 m. has forehead and ocular area black (the “goggles”) and a golden yellow coronal patch (often hidden); dusky olive above with contrasting black wings and tail. Below pale buff. In flight flashes a white stripe along base of primaries, with a little often protruding in front of wing. much duller, lacking the black on face and yellow in crown; wings and tail duskier. The is easy to recognize, while the is best known from its contrastingly dark wings and buffyish underparts. Forages in pairs or small groups that are often with mixed understory flocks and usually are bold and easy to observe. Regularly attends swarms of army ants. Frequently heard call a sharp “chet;” song, a variable series of sweet and sharper notes often repeated several times, heard less often. By some classified in genus Lanio.

363

DIADEMED TANAGER SANHAÇO-FRADE

OLIVE-GREEN TANAGER CATIRUMBAVA

BROWN TANAGER SANHAÇO-PARDO

BLACK-GOGGLED TANAGER TIÊ-DE-TOPETE

CHESTNUT-HEADED TANAGER Pyrrhocoma ruficeps

14 cm|5.5”

Uncommon to rare and inconspicuous in undergrowth and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, mainly in São Paulo and strictly montane (and less numerous) northward. 500-1800 m. mostly dark gray with contrasting chestnut hood; foreface black. much duller: brownish olive above with dull cinnamon-rufous head, buffyish lores and throat. Dull yellowish buff below. Uniquely plumaged should be easily recognized, and is seen more often than ; generally pairs are together. Tends to skulk in dense undergrowth on or near ground, usually remaining hidden; favors bamboo thickets. Generally not with flocks. Its presence can be revealed by ’s sibilant song, recalling an Arremon sparrow, typically 3-4 very high-pitched notes followed by a couple that are slightly lower-pitched, e.g., “tsii-tsii-tsii, tsu-tsu.” SCHISTOCHLAMYS tanagers are attractive, simply plumaged, and stout-billed, and are found in shrubby, semiopen terrain.

CINNAMON TANAGER Schistochlamys ruficapillus

18.5 cm|7.25”

BLACK-FACED TANAGER Schistochlamys melanopis

18.5 cm|7.25”

Uncommon to locally fairly common in semiopen areas, patches of secondary woodland, even where scrubby (the species adapts well to deforestation), and clearings; seems less numerous to N (e.g., Bahia). Mostly 5002100 m. Bill bluish gray tipped blackish. Distinctive, with cinnamon-buff head, throat, and breast and contrasting black foreface. Above otherwise mostly bluish gray; belly gray with crissum cinnamon-buff. Immature duller, with dusky lores and paler foreneck. Found singly or in pairs, most often perching in the open, usually not associating with other birds. Though heard only infrequently, its short musical song can be repeated over and over, e.g., “wheet, wh-wh-wheet-wheet.” Uncommon in shrubby clearings, cerrado, and lighter woodland (often secondary), mainly in São Paulo (mostly 500-1100 m) but also locally in E Bahia and Espírito Santo, where it ranges into lowlands. Bill bluish gray tipped blackish. Distinctive, mostly gray, somewhat paler below, with forehead, face, throat, and midchest contrasting black to brownish black. Immature entirely different (looks like separate species): olive above with partial yellow eye-ring; yellowish olive below. Subadult begins to develop black face and bib when still mainly olive. Adult essentially unmistakable, but olive younger birds can be confused with Lowland Hepatic Tanager, though that lacks the eye-ring. Behavior much as in Cinnamon Tanager (sometimes they occur together). Black-faced’s song is also similar but seems even prettier and more melodic.

SHRIKE-LIKE TANAGER Neothraupis fasciata

16 cm|6.25”

WHITE-RUMPED TANAGER Cypsnagra hirundinacea

16.5 cm|6.5”

Uncommon and local in cerrado in interior São Paulo (now mainly at Itirapina) and Minas Gerais. 500-1200 m. Above gray with prominent black mask extending from lores over ear-coverts; wing-coverts black with white band. Below pale gray, throat whiter. Immature browner with less well-defined mask and yellowish tinge below. Hardly to be confused, this tanager bears an uncanny resemblance to certain shrikes (Lanius spp.). One of the classic “cerrado specialists” and numerous in central Brazil, Shrike-like Tanagers forage mainly in small groups. Though basically arboreal, they sometimes drop to ground in pursuit of food, primarily insects. A simple chipping “tzip” call note is regularly heard, but much less frequent is the song, a loud complex whistled phrase, sometimes given as a duet by a pair. Also known as White-banded Tanager. Uncommon and local in cerrado in interior São Paulo (now mainly around Itirapina) and Minas Gerais. 500-1200 m. Unmistakable. Mostly black above with conspicuous white rump and white in wing. Rufous throat fades to buff on chest and creamy whitish lower down. Immature browner (less black) above, more uniform creamy buff below. Usually found in groups of 4-6 birds, foraging for insects in foliage and along gnarled branches. Periodically (most often soon after dawn) pairs burst into a loud, rollicking duet with giving a continued low churring and repeating a vigorous, melodic phrase, e.g., “cheedoocheechoo, cheedeereeyou-chee-choo.”

365

CHESTNUT-HEADED TANAGER CABECINHA-CASTANHA

CINNAMON TANAGER BICO-DE-VELUDO

BLACK-FACED TANAGER SANHAÇO-DE-COLEIRA

SHRIKE-LIKE TANAGER CIGARRA-DO-CAMPO

WHITE-RUMPED TANAGER BANDOLETA

MAGPIE TANAGER Cissopis leverianus

28.5-29 cm|11-11.25”

Conspicuous and locally fairly common in borders of humid forest and adjacent clearings where large trees are left standing in lowlands and foothills from E Bahia to E São Paulo. To at least 1200 m. Large, with very long tail. Piercing golden yellow eye. Glossy blue-black above and on foreneck, the latter extending to a point on breast; white below and on rump. Strongly graduated tail mostly black but broadly tipped white (very obvious in flight). Unmistakable. Overall behavior jay-like, ranging in pairs or small groups but usually not with flocks. Often perches in the open and so easy to observe. Gives a variety of metallic calls, the most frequent being a metallic “tchek” or “tchenk,” often repeated; its soft, disjointed song is heard much less often. PAROARIA cardinals are conspicuous, beautiful “finches” that in fact have turned out to be more closely allied to the tanagers. They are united by having bright red on the head.

YELLOW-BILLED CARDINAL Paroaria capitata

16.5 cm|6.5”

RED-COWLED CARDINAL Paroaria dominicana

18.5 cm|7.25”

Uncommon (but always very conspicuous) around marshes and on the shores of reservoirs and rivers in interior São Paulo; apparently only a recent immigrant to this area, and continuing to increase. Mostly 300-800 m. Bill bright pinkish yellow. A lovely bird, with head bright red and a black bib; above black with a partial white nuchal collar; below white. Young birds have head brown, buff bib, and duskier upperparts. To be confused only with Red-cowled Cardinal (which in our area usually does not occur with this species, instead being an escapee from captivity and mainly occurring in settled areas, not especially associated with water); Red-cowled is larger with gray-mottled upperparts, has a red throat, etc. Red-crested Cardinal is even more different, being larger with an obvious crest and gray upperparts. A rather gregarious bird, though here typically occurring in smaller groups than the flocks so characteristic of the Pantanal. Most often forages right around water, sometimes venturing out onto floating vegetation. Its musical song, given mainly in early morning, is a simple repeated “tsit-whit-tu-cheu,” with some variation. Though originally restricted to NE Brazil, in recent years this cardinal has been spreading through the SE as well, apparently the result of frequent cagebird escapes. It now is well established and fairly common virtually throughout, mostly in settled areas and even in urban parks. To 1200 m. Lower mandible whitish. Head and pointed bib bright scarlet; gray above with considerable black on nape and back, giving a mottled effect; wing-coverts extensively black. Below white. Red-crested Cardinal, which also is spreading as a result of cagebird escapes (and so sometimes they can be together), differs most obviously in its prominent crest and pure gray upperparts. Found in pairs or small groups, most often feeding on the ground on seeds and insects, sometimes together with other species. Often quite tame. Song a leisurely series of clear melodic notes, e.g., “weerit, churit, weer, churit.” Much persecuted by birds trappers in NE Brazil.

RED-CRESTED CARDINAL Paroaria coronata

19 cm|7.5”

Rare to uncommon in semiopen and urban areas mainly in São Paulo; most or all records in our area are recent and relate to escaped cagebirds, and the species is perhaps not fully established here (it is much more numerous in the far south). Locally to 1700 m (Campos do Jordão). Bill mostly whitish. Head, long crest, and pointed bib bright scarlet. Above mostly gray, with nuchal collar and underparts white. Juvenile has a brown head and bib, duskier upperparts. A beautiful bird, essentially unmistakable but cf. Red-cowled Cardinal (which lacks crest, etc.), also an escaped cagebird in our area. Behavior much as in Red-cowled Cardinal, as is its song.

367

MAGPIE TANAGER TIETINGA

YELLOW-BILLED CARDINAL CAVALARIA

imm.

RED-COWLED CARDINAL GALO-DE-CAMPINA

RED-CRESTED CARDINAL CARDEAL

GRAY-HEADED TANAGER Eucometis penicillata

18 cm|7”

Uncommon and somewhat local in lower growth of gallery and semideciduous forest and woodland in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Mostly 300-1200 m. Bill pinkish. Head pale grayish with a fairly prominent bushy crest (usually showing white at its base); otherwise olive above. Throat whitish, underparts bright yellow. Black-goggled Tanager differs in its blackish or dusky wings and buffy underparts, etc.; these two species have similar overall behavior and could conceivably be together. Gray-headed is a distinctive tanager of the undergrowth, rarely in the open and not too often seen. It is an active and excitable bird that has an expressive crest that’s raised when nervous or agitated (which seems to be a lot of the time). It moves in pairs, and sometimes accompanies mixed flocks; it also is attracted to swarms of army ants. Sharp chattered calls are frequently given, but its song, a jumbled series of sputtered notes, is heard much less often. Sometimes classified in genus Lanio.

RED-CROWNED ANT TANAGER Habia rubica

19 cm|7.5”

LOWLAND HEPATIC TANAGER Piranga flava

19 cm|7.5”

Fairly common in lower growth in humid and foothill forest and woodland. Mostly below 800 m, locally up to 1200 m. mostly dark carmine red, paler and redder below especially on breast and sometimes throat, with extensively grayish flanks; crown patch red bordered by a thin black line. quite uniform and brownish, dark olive brown above with a tawny crown patch, dull ochraceous below. Brazilian Tanager has a pale lower mandible, and its lower underparts are redder; it lacks the crown patch (actually not all that obvious in the ant tanager). Ruby-crowned Tanager is more rufescent above and deeper ochraceous below, has a mottled breast (usually obvious). Found in pairs or small groups that accompany mixed understory flocks but usually quite shy and hard to see well or for long. A scolding call, a repeated “chirt” or “chak,” is frequently heard. The song seems to be given mainly just after dawn, a series of clear notes and short phrases, e.g., “tee-pur, chee-rew, chee-re, tee-pur…“ with varying phraseology. Uncommon to fairly common (more numerous in more montane areas) in forest borders (often where araucaria is present), semideciduous woodland, shrubby clearings, cerrado (inland), and gardens virtually throughout, but absent from the coastal strip of E Bahia and N Espírito Santo. To about 1700 m. Bill mainly dusky. all red, paler and brighter on crown and underparts, wings and tail dusky brownish. has bright yellow crown and underparts, upperparts more yellowish olive (but still gives a very yellow overall impression). Brazilian Tanager, also mainly red, has a bright silvery lower mandible, blackish wings and tail. superficially resembles Olive-green Tanager but latter is much more olive on head and underparts; these two overlap only marginally. Usually found in pairs, Hepatics forage deliberately in foliage at varying levels and usually are easy to see; they regularly accompany mixed flocks. Song, a fast series of rich and melodic phrases, is actually not heard all that often; much more frequent are its calls, given by both sexes, a “chef,” sometimes doubled into a “chedef” that can recall a House Sparrow.

YELLOW-GREEN GROSBEAK Caryothraustes canadensis

18.5 cm|7.25”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and foothill forest and woodland from E Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. To 900 m. Heavy bill with pale bluish at base. Nearly unmistakable: olive above and bright yellow below, forecrown also yellow, with contrasting black foreface and upper throat. This grosbeak troops about in noisy groups of up to 10-15 individuals, sometimes moving independently but at other times appearing to form the nucleus of mixed canopy flocks. Frequently heard, distinctive call a loud, somewhat buzzy ”dzree-dzree-dzree,” sometimes given individually but most often trebled; also gives a “chew-chew-chew-chew.” These calls often announce the presence of an approaching flock.

369

GRAY-HEADED TANAGER PIPIRA-DA-TAOCA

RED-CROWNED ANT TANAGER TIÊ-DO-MATO-GROSSO

LOWLAND HEPATIC TANAGER SANHAÇO-DE-FOGO

YELLOW-GREEN GROSBEAK FURRIEL

SALTATOR saltators are large, arboreal cardinalid finches with heavy “swollen” bills, sometimes brightly colored, that are widespread in wooded and forested environments, one species in cerrado. Most have attractive if repetitious songs.

BUFF-THROATED SALTATOR Saltator maximus

20.5-21 cm|8-8.25”

GREEN-WINGED SALTATOR Saltator similis

20.5-21 cm|8-8.25”

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland and nearby clearings and gardens in lowlands from E Bahia to E Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro (also old records from W São Paulo). To 900 m. Bright olive above with gray sides of head and a short white superciliary. Lower throat buff (not terribly conspicuous) bordered by a black malar stripe; grayish below with cinnamon-buff crissum. Green-winged Saltator (minimal overlap) lacks any buff on throat, has a longer white superciliary, and its back is grayer (such that the olive green on its wings contrasts more). An arboreal bird that forages at varying levels but rarely is near the ground inside forest; it does regularly come low in clearings and at edge. Like most of the other saltators it feeds mainly on various fruits and flowers and regularly accompanies mixed flocks comprised of tanagers and various other birds. Oft-heard song a series of short sweet, warbled phrases, the individual phrases often repeated several times; it is sometimes given quite softly, almost a “whisper song.” Fairly common and widespread in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland and adjacent clearings and gardens in much of our area, though absent from coastal strip of SE Bahia and N Espírito Santo. Our most numerous saltator, but has declined markedly because of trapping for the cagebird market, especially in Rio de Janeiro. Mostly 500-2000 m. Mostly gray above with a long and bold white superciliary; back tinged olive and much of wings rather bright and contrasting olive. Throat white bordered by a black malar stripe; below dingy buffy grayish, buffiest on midbelly and crissum. In our area most likely confused with the less numerous Thick-billed Saltator, which see; cf. also Buff-throated Saltator. Behavior much as in Buff-throated Saltator. Green-winged’s distinctive song is loud and far-carrying, a short series of clear whistled notes, e.g., “cho, cho, cheer, cho” or “chew, chew, cho, chewee.”

THICK-BILLED SALTATOR Saltator maxillosus

21 cm|8.25”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland in S Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and NE São Paulo. Here found almost entirely in montane areas, mostly at 500-2500 m, tending to range lower in winter. Bill heavy and relatively short (“swollen”), with at least some yellow or orange at its base (sometimes this color is extensive). gray above with a long white superciliary. Throat buff bordered by a black malar stripe; below buffy grayish. is more olive above. Green-winged Saltator occurs regularly with this species; it differs in its white throat, and its bill is less heavy and always just black. Buff-throated Saltator (little or no overlap) has a less heavy bill, much shorter and less conspicuous superciliary, etc. Thick-billed is surprisingly non-vocal, mostly just giving occasional high-pitched ‘tseet” notes though a simple 4-noted song has been heard.

BLACK-THROATED SALTATOR Saltator atricollis

20.5 cm|8”

Uncommon in cerrado and shrubby campos of interior Minas Gerais and São Paulo; the only saltator in this open habitat. Mostly below 1300 m but also locally above treeline in mountains to 2000 m. Bill mostly reddish orange, some dusky on culmen. Mainly brown above with obvious black foreface and throat and gray sides of head and neck. Buffyish below. Immature’s foreface and throat ashy brown; its bill is dark. Unique in appearance and easy to identify, in part because it is so confined to its cerrado habitat. A conspicuous bird that often perches atop low trees and shrubs, but regularly drops to the ground when feeding. Song differs notably from that of other saltators, a fast and musical jumbled warbling that usually ends with a single longer emphasized note, sometimes given by several birds more or less at once. Call a sharply inflected “wheék” that may be repeated several times. By some placed in genus Saltatricula.

371 BUFF-THROATED SALTATOR TEMPERA-VIOLA

GREEN-WINGED SALTATOR TRINCA-FERRO

THICK-BILLED SALTATOR BICO-GROSSO

BLACK-THROATED SALTATOR BATUQUEIRO

BLACK-THROATED GROSBEAK Saltator fuliginosus

22 cm|8.5”

ULTRAMARINE GROSBEAK Cyanocompsa brissonii

15-15.5 cm|6-6.25”

Uncommon in canopy and midlevels of humid and montane forest and woodland. To 1200 m (in Bahia only above 500 m). Heavy bill coral red. dark bluish slate with blackish throat and chest. similar but throat and chest dusky. Looks uniform and dark with contrasting, brightly colored bill; should be easily identified. Generally ranges in pairs that sometimes accompany mixed flocks, most often well above ground; unless vocalizing, rather inconspicuous and not that often encountered. Rich melodic song is variably phrased but always consists of a repeated short phrase, e.g., “chreép, chreu-cherup-chreu... chreup, chreeo, chreeo?”

Uncommon in undergrowth of lighter woodland, scrub, and borders of more humid forest virtually throughout; less numerous in more arid regions (has declined because of trapping). To at least 1000 m. Very heavy blackish bill. dark blue overall with forehead, brow, malar area, and shoulders a paler, brighter blue. cocoa brown above, paler and brighter fulvous brown below. Glaucous-blue Grosbeak is smaller with stubbier and more rounded bill. Great-billed Seedfinch (very rare) is more olivaceous brown overall, its bill even more massive. This grosbeak generally remains within cover. Unless vocalizing not often seen; singing birds can be out in the open. Song a fairly loud musical phrase that typically starts slowly, ending in a warble. Call a rather high-pitched “chrip.” By some placed in Cyanoloxia.

GLAUCOUS-BLUE GROSBEAK Cyanoloxia glaucocaerulea

14 cm|5.5”

CHESTNUT-BELLIED SEEDFINCH Sporophila angolensis

12.5 cm|5”

Rare austral migrant (May-Oct) to lower growth of woodland and forest borders and shrubby second-growth. Recorded to at least 1600 m in S Brazil, but probably not above ca. 1100 m in our area. Bill shorter and stubbier than in Ultramarine Grosbeak, with curved culmen more Sporophila-like. uniform glaucous blue, slightly paler on brow. Breeding birds are apparently brighter, more cobalt blue (the glaucous suffusion wears off). very like Ultramarine Grosbeak, but paler. Ultramarine is similar, aside from its larger size and more massive bill; notably darker blue overall. Behavior much as in Ultramarine, but even shyer and harder to see, especially on its wintering grounds. Song, likely not often heard here, a fast, jumbled warbling, higher-pitched than Ultramarine’s and with steadier tempo (lacking Ultramarine’s slow start). Declining due to trapping. Our two Sporophila seedfinches are rather large emberizid finches that used to be placed in their own genus, Oryzoborus. Now local and rare in shrubby clearings, woodland borders, and small pastures; formerly much more numerous, but has declined due to excessive trapping. To 1000 m. Very heavy, squared-off black bill. glossy black with chestnut breast and belly; small wing speculum and underwing coverts white. brown above, fulvous brown below; underwing-coverts white, but no speculum. Cf. the now nearly extirpated Great-billed Seedfinch. The seedeaters all have stubbier, more rounded bills. Found singly or in pairs, sometimes associating with seedeaters, but less tied to open grassy areas and much less prone to gather in groups. Song a prolonged series of musical whistled notes that gradually becomes more jumbled and twittery; this song causes it to be much coveted by cagebird fanciers. Formerly often called Lesser Seedfinch, this when trans-Andean populations were considered conspecific.

GREAT-BILLED SEEDFINCH Sporophila maximiliani CR

16 cm|6.25”

Now extremely rare and local in wet shrubby clearings and marshy areas with luxuriant grass and shrubbery. There may be no recent records from our area, as this seedfinch is under such great pressure from trappers. Anyone who finds it probably shouldn’t reveal its location; instead, contact an ornithologist. Bill enormously thick, chalky whitish in , blackish in . all glossy black with conspicuous wing-speculum and underwing-coverts white. brown above, fulvous brown below; underwing-coverts white. When found, this seedfinch occurs in pairs. Its canary-like song is variable but always complex and highly melodic, an attractive series of notes, trills, and rattles. How sad that something so lovely could be the cause of its demise.

373

BLACK-THROATED GROSBEAK PIMENTÃO

ULTRAMARINE GROSBEAK AZULÃO

GLAUCOUS-BLUE GROSBEAK AZULINHO

CHESTNUT-BELLIED SEEDFINCH CURIÓ, AVINHADO

GREAT-BILLED SEEDFINCH BICUDO

BLUE FINCH Porphyrospiza caerulescens

12.5 cm|5”

BLACKISH-BLUE SEEDEATER Amaurospiza moesta

12.5 cm|5”

UNIFORM FINCH Haplospiza unicolor

12.5 cm|5”

Rare to uncommon and local in grassy cerrado with scattered bushes and low trees, especially campo rupestre, in Minas Gerais. 600-1200 m. ’s slender bill bright yellow, ’s with blackish culmen; legs reddish. Unmistakable bright cobalt blue. rufous brown above, buffy whitish below with dusky streaking. The obscure can be known from her bill color and shape, also leg color. Feeds mainly on ground in or near grassy cover, in pairs or small groups; rarely associates with other birds. Inconspicuous except when s are singing. Song, a short series of high-pitched, well-enunciated “swee-sweeuu” or “swit-swit-sweeu” phrases, is generally given from atop a shrub or rock. Rare to uncommon and very local in undergrowth of humid and (mostly) montane forest and woodland, especially where there is bamboo understory. Mostly 500-1600 m. uniform dark slaty blue, more blackish on face, throat, and breast. rather bright tawny-brown, paler below. Both sexes have white underwing-coverts. Blue-black Grassquit (much commoner, not a forest bird) is glossier with a more slender pointed bill. resembles Chestnutbellied Seedfinch, whose markedly heavier bill is squared off. Glaucous-blue Grosbeak is larger, not so rich a tawny. Found singly or in pairs; feeds primarily on or near ground, usually in thick cover; rarely emerges into the open. ’s song a bright warbling, e.g., “swee-swee-swi-swee-siseesu.” By some placed in genus Cyanoloxia.

Uncommon to locally or temporarily fairly common to common in lower growth of humid and montane forest and woodland; especially numerous when bamboo is in seed. Mostly below 2000 m, occasionally higher when bamboo is seeding. Bill conical and sharply pointed. uniform gray. olivaceous brown above, wing feathers often edged rufescent. Below creamy whitish with blurry dusky streaking. is the only uniform gray finch in its range (cf. blacker Sooty Grassquit, Blackish-blue Seedeater). Drab can be confusing. Cf. Blue-black Grassquit, normally in open country but occasional in woodland; grassquits lack throat streaking. Generally inconspicuous, feeding on ground in dispersed pairs or small groups when bamboo is not in seed. Song a very highpitched “zhwee-ee-ee-ee-ee,” sometimes with other notes at beginning or end. CORYPHOSPINGUS pileated finches are small finches found in semiopen terrain. s have distinctive flat, red, black-bordered crests. They are sometimes placed, inexplicably, in genus Lanio.

GRAY PILEATED FINCH Coryphospingus pileatus

13.5 cm|5.25”

RED PILEATED FINCH Coryphospingus cucullatus

13.5 cm|5.25”

Uncommon and local in scrub, low woodland, and agricultural areas, also shrubby restinga; more numerous to N, particularly in arid regions. Locally to 1300 m. has black crown and scarlet crown stripe (often hidden; expands when bird is excited). Pale gray above with narrow white eye-ring; mostly whitish below. lacks red and black in crown; usually shows vague grayish streaking below. seedeaters are browner generally (though immature Gray Pileateds can be more brownish) and have thicker bills. Cf. Red Pileated Finch. When not breeding, often in small groups, sometimes with other birds; usually forages on ground. Simple song a fairly melodic phrase repeated several times, e.g., “sweet-cheeo, sweet-cheeo, sweet-cheeo, sweet-cheeo.” Sometimes called simply Pileated Finch.

Replaces Gray Pileated Finch to S, ranging across São Paulo and adjacent Minas Gerais. To 1200 m. crown and crest as in Gray Pileated Finch. Otherwise dark vinous red above with narrow white eye-ring; below dull crimson. lacks red and black in crown, but retains eye-ring (which helps in identification). Below mostly rosy pink. The most uniformly reddish of our finches. Behavior as in Gray Pileated Finch; hybrids between these two closely related species are known from NW Minas Gerais and around Brasília. Song also similar, a simple repeated phrase, e.g., “chewit, weet-chewit, weet-chewit, weet-chewit.” Sometimes called Red-crested Finch.

375

BLUE FINCH CAMPAINHA-AZUL

BLACKISH-BLUE SEEDEATER CIGARRINHA-DA-TAQUARA

UNIFORM FINCH CIGARRA-BAMBU

GRAY PILEATED FINCH CRAVINA

RED PILEATED FINCH TICO-TICO-REI

BLUE-BLACK GRASSQUIT Volatinia jacarina

10 cm|4”

Common and widespread in grassy areas in open and settled regions; one of the most numerous birds in agricultural areas. To 1500 m. Bill slender and pointed. uniform glossy blue-black with white axillars (often hidden). Immature and molting s (frequently seen) are mottled blackish and brown. dull grayish brown above; pale buff below, breast and flanks streaked dusky. Often accompanies seedeaters, especially Double-collareds (all seedeaters have thicker, stubbier bills). Cf. also Sooty Grassquit and Uniform Finch. Feeds mainly on seeds; regularly in flocks when not breeding. Breeding s give an explosive “dzee-u” from low perches, usually accompanied by a short flutter and a jump, sometimes almost a somersault.

SOOTY GRASSQUIT Tiaris fuliginosus

11.5 cm|4.5”

YELLOW-BELLIED SEEDEATER Sporophila nigricollis

11 cm|4.25”

RUSTY-COLLARED SEEDEATER Sporophila collaris

12 cm|4.75”

Uncommon and somewhat local (overlooked?) in shrubby clearings, grassy scrub, and woodland borders; not in forest or extensively open terrain. To at least 1200 m. Conical bill blackish with inconspicuous pinkish ( ) or yellowish ( ) gape. nearly uniform sooty black. olive brown above, dull buff below, midbelly whiter. A bit tricky to identify; not often seen. lacks blue overtones of Blue-black Grassquit and Blackish-blue Seedeater. Very dull lacks streaking below of Blue-black Grassquit and Uniform Finch. Occurs in pairs or very small groups, foraging on or near ground, sometimes with seedeaters. High-pitched song a ringing but unmusical “screez-screedelelee.” SPOROPHILA SEEDEATERS are small “finches” with stubby bills that range in grassy areas. There are many species, some rare or migratory, and they feed mainly by gleaning seeds from tall grass stems. Many s are attractive, but s are nondescript and hard to identify. Unless otherwise noted they are blackish-billed and basically olive brown above, yellowish buff below. Focus on the s! Many species are trapped for the cagebird market and therefore are declining. Fairly common and widespread in grassy and agricultural areas, most numerous in Minas Gerais. To at least 1200 m. ’s bill pale bluish gray; crown, face, throat, and chest black; above plain olive; belly pale yellow. is only seedeater with yellow on belly, though in many individuals it is faded and pale. ’s song short and musical, usually ending in 1-2 buzzy notes. Dubois’s Seedeater (S. ardesiaca) is a controversial species, often considered just a geographically localized race or morph of the Yellow-bellied Seedeater; it ranges almost throughout our area, but nowhere else. closely resembles Yellow-bellied Seedeater but has white belly (beware the many Yellow-bellieds whose bellies are a very pale yellow) and a grayer back. s indistinguishable. Behavior identical, as is song. The two “species” sometimes occur together. LINED SEEDEATER Sporophila lineola 11 cm|4.25” Locally fairly common summer breeding visitor (Nov-Apr) and migrant to grassy and shrubby areas in much of our area, but thought to be declining due to trapping pressure. To at least 1200 m. ’s bill mostly dull yellowish. glossy black above with narrow white crown stripe and prominent malar stripe, wing speculum and rump also white. Throat black, white below. The sharply patterned is easy to identify; can sometimes be known by her pale bill. Variable but musical song a series of trills. Locally uncommon to fairly common in tall grass and shrubbery in much of our area but mostly near marshes or at least where wet; most numerous in São Paulo, nearly absent from Bahia. To 1200 m. Blackish bill rather heavy. Boldly patterned unmistakable, mostly black above with prominent white patches above and below eye and a pale nuchal collar (varies from buff to white; white more to N), and buff rump. Throat white, pectoral band black, underparts cinnamon-buff (the color intensity varies). somewhat echoes ’s pattern, with two tawny-buff wing-bars, at least a trace of the nuchal collar, and two-toned underparts with white throat and buffyish below. This striking and quite large seedeater is distinctive (even s). It usually is in pairs or small groups, and unlike its congeners often is not with other seedeaters. Attractive song a rather long but usually patternless jumble of musical notes.

377 BLUE-BLACK GRASSQUIT TIZIU

SOOTY GRASSQUIT CIGARRA-DO-COQUEIRO

YELLOW-BELLIED SEEDEATER COLEIRO-BAIANO

LINED SEEDEATER BIGODINHO

RUSTY-COLLARED SEEDEATER COLEIRO-DO-BREJO

DOUBLE-COLLARED SEEDEATER Sporophila caerulescens

11 cm|4.25”

WHITE-THROATED SEEDEATER Sporophila albogularis

11 cm|4.25”

WHITE-BELLIED SEEDEATER Sporophila leucoptera

12 cm|4.75”

TEMMINCK’S SEEDEATER Sporophila falcirostris

11 cm|4.25”

Common and widespread in taller grass in semiopen and shrubby habitats and agricultural areas virtually throughout our region; less numerous in Bahia. To at least 1500 m. ’s bill greenish yellow, ’s dusky with yellowish on mandible. gray above, tinged brownish on mantle. Chin black sharply outlined by white malar stripe and lower throat; pectoral collar also black (completing the “double collar”), below whitish. Face pattern distinctive, but cf. Whitethroated Seedeater. Compared to many Sporophila this is an unspecialized species that only rarely occurs in extensive grasslands and prefers (or at least tolerates) disturbed areas, there often occurring with Blue-black Grassquit. Variable song a fast jumble of musical notes. Like other seedeaters a popular cagebird, but its numbers in many areas seem to be holding up relatively well. In agricultural areas may be declining due to pesticides. Locally fairly common in shrubby and grassy areas in Bahia, with a few recent records from further south (many may represent escaped cagebirds). To 1200 m. ’s bill yellow-orange, ’s dusky. gray above, more blackish on head, wings, and tail. Throat white extending up sides of neck to form a partial nuchal collar. Below white. grayer above than many seedeaters, not so buffy. A sharply patterned seedeater likely confused only with Double-collared, which has a black chin, yellower bill, etc. Attractive song an often long-continued warbling interspersed with musical notes, sometimes recalling a siskin. Uncommon and rather local in grassy areas with scattered shrubs and secondary growth; usually near water, especially favoring marshy areas. Locally to 1200 m. ’s bill pinkish yellow, ’s duller. For a seedeater, fairly large. gray above with obvious white wing-speculum. Uniform white below. ’s large size and pale bill are often enough to identify her. s are plain, but their obviously bicolored coloration is unique among the seedeaters. Found singly or in pairs, only rarely in flocks and generally not associating with other seedeaters. Distinctive song a repetition of a single clear ringing note, “cleeu, cleeu, cleeu, cleeu, cleeu.”

VU

Rare to occasionally uncommon in lower growth and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo, with smaller numbers further N; seemingly nomadic, with presence strongly tied to seeding bamboo. Mostly below 1200 m, sometimes higher when bamboo is in seed. ’s bill rich yellow, ’s dusky. mostly gray, somewhat paler below; wings with a small white speculum. A few individuals show a little white around eye and on throat or have a larger speculum. Essentially arboreal, much more forest-based than other seedeaters except for Buffy-fronted. Song a fast, high-pitched trill, “ts-ts-ts-ts-ts-ts-ts-ts,” sometimes with a “tsí” note at end. Threatened by deforestation and trapping.

BUFFY-FRONTED SEEDEATER Sporophila frontalis VU

13 cm|5”

Generally rare and local, but nomadic and can be temporarily more numerous, in humid and montane forest and woodland, especially in Rio de Janeiro and S São Paulo; favors edge, especially where there is dense bamboo understory. Mostly below 1500 m, occasionally to 2100 m or higher when bamboo is in seed. The largest seedeater. Thick bill yellowish horn. , dull for a seedeater, olivaceous brown above (some birds grayer on head) with broad frontal band and narrow postocular streak buffy whitish (the frontal band lacking in many, presumably younger, birds); wings with two buffyish bars and a speculum. Throat and sometimes a malar streak buffy whitish, below mostly olive brownish. lacks facial markings, but does show buffyish wing-bars. With its large size and preference for wooded habitats, not likely confused with other seedeaters; cf. Temminck’s, which can occur with it. Notably arboreal, with presence seemingly tied to periodic bamboo seeding. Younger birds with dull (or no) facial markings predominate, but these apparently can breed (and certainly can sing). Often surprisingly hard to see, but under the right conditions song can reverberate from all around -- a far-carrying, harsh, and explosive “je-jejét!” or “cheh-cheh-chéw!” Despite its unmelodic song, numbers have been much depleted by cagebird trapping.

379 DOUBLE-COLLARED SEEDEATER COLEIRINHA, COLEIRINHO

WHITE-THROATED SEEDEATER BREJAL, GOLINHO

WHITE-BELLIED SEEDEATER CHORÃO

TEMMINCK’S SEEDEATER CIGARRA-VERDADEIRA

BUFFY-FRONTED SEEDEATER PIXOXÓ

PLUMBEOUS SEEDEATER Sporophila plumbea

VU

11 cm|4.25”

Uncommon and local in grassy cerrado and campos, sometimes also in larger pastures, in interior São Paulo and Minas Gerais. To about 1200 m. Bill black. mostly plumbeous gray, paler below, some with a whitish throat; wings and tail blackish, wings with white speculum. dull brownish and not as buffy as many seedeaters. Aside from the recently described Tropeiro Seedeater, Plumbeous is the only gray seedeater found in open habitats; the Tropeiro has a yellow bill. Temminck’s Seedeater (also yellow-billed) is a bamboo-loving woodland bird. Song a series of loud clear whistles, each repeated several times, with imitations of other species sometimes incorporated. A popular cagebird, with overall numbers in the wild now considerably reduced. Tropeiro Seedeater (S. beltoni) is a recently described, rare austral migrant to grassy cerrado and campos in interior São Paulo and SW Minas Gerais. Bill bright yellow (dusky in young s). Aside from the bill color difference, closely resembles slightly smaller Plumbeous Seedeater; Tropeiro is a more bluish (less plumbeous) gray.

PEARLY-BELLIED SEEDEATER Sporophila pileata

10 cm|4”

COPPERY SEEDEATER Sporophila bouvreuil

10 cm|4”

TAWNY-BELLIED SEEDEATER Sporophila hypoxantha

10 cm|4”

Locally fairly common in grasslands of cerrado, campos, and lightly grazed pastures in interior São Paulo, S Minas Gerais, and adjacent Rio de Janeiro. To 1200 m. has black crown contrasting with grayish upperparts; wings and tail blackish, wings with a white speculum and gray edging. Below white to whitish. Coppery Seedeater has similar pattern but is more richly colored, cinnamon- to rufous-buff. Non-breeders occur with other seedeaters in large swirling flocks that move about looking for tall seeding grass stems. Variable and pretty song an often long-continued series of melodic phrases and whistled notes, not appreciably different from numerous others. This and the Coppery Seedeater were until recently considered conspecific and called the Capped Seedeater; their distributions still are not perfectly understood. Rare to uncommon but local in grasslands and lightly grazed pastures virtually throughout. Below 600 m. In pattern resembles Pearly-bellied Seedeater but in most of range cinnamon-buff instead of white. In Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo more richly colored, more a cinnamon-rufous. Unlike the Pearlybellied, Coppery rarely occurs in large mixed flocks though it sometimes is with Double-collareds and Blue-black Grassquits. As with Pearly-bellied, s and immature-plumaged birds predominate. Voice similar.

VU

Uncommon and local in campos, grassy cerrado, and lightly grazed pastures, mainly in interior São Paulo. To 1200 m. Pretty gray above, sometimes tinged brownish; wings and tail blackish, wings with white speculum and gray edging. Rump and underparts tawny-rufous, cheeks and foreneck often paler. What are presumed to be younger s are paler below, more a cinnamon-tawny. Chestnut Seedeater is more deeply colored below with chestnut (not gray) back. Behavior much as in Pearly-bellied Seedeater. ’s song a simple clear whistled “cheeu, cheeu, cheweé, chu” with variations.

CHESTNUT SEEDEATER Sporophila cinnamomea

10 cm|4”

BLACK-BELLIED SEEDEATER Sporophila melanogaster

10 cm|4”

Rare and local austral migrant (mostly May-Oct) to campos, grassy cerrado, and lightly grazed pastures, in our area recorded only from interior São Paulo. To 800 m. mostly chestnut with a contrasting gray crown; wings and tail blackish, wings with white speculum and gray edging. Many molting or young s are seen, these with scattered grayish or pale feathers in the chestnut. Behavior much as in Pearly-bellied Seedeater, and to be watched for in mixed seedeater flocks.

VU

Rare and local austral migrant (mostly May-Oct) to campos, grassy cerrado, and lightly grazed pastures, in our area recorded only from São Paulo and S Minas Gerais. To 800 m. gray with black throat and median underparts (only a little gray on sides); wings and tail blackish, wings with white speculum and gray edging. Especially when not breeding many (even most) s show some gray feathers in the black, the pattern often quite blotchy. Behavior as in Pearly-bellied Seedeater, and like the Chestnut Seedeater to be watched for (and hoped for!) in mixed seedeater flocks.

381 PLUMBEOUS SEEDEATER PATATIVA

PEARLY-BELLIED SEEDEATER CABOCLINHO-BRANCO

COPPERY SEEDEATER CABOCLINHO

TAWNY-BELLIED SEEDEATER CABOCLINHO-DE-BARRIGA-VERMELHA

CHESTNUT SEEDEATER CABOCLINHO-DE-CHAPÉU-CINZA

BLACK-BELLIED SEEDEATER CABOCLINHO-DE-BARRIGA-PRETA

POOSPIZA warbling finches are attractive small birds with gray, rufous, and white predominating. They are more arboreal than many emberizid finches. None really warbles!

BAY-CHESTED WARBLING FINCH Poospiza thoracica

13.5 cm|5.25”

Fairly common in forest and woodland borders of mountains from S Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro to NE São Paulo, notably at Itatiaia and Campos do Jordão. 900-2400 m. Gray above with obvious white crescent below eye and some primary edging. White below; contrasting chestnut pectoral band and flanks. Buff-throated Warbling Finch has prominent white superciliary, obvious rufous rump, and white in tail; it is more uniform below. Mainly arboreal, gleaning actively in foliage; occurs in pairs or small groups, often with mixed flocks. Notably quiet, especially for a warbling finch, mainly just giving various “chup” or “tsip” call notes.

BUFF-THROATED WARBLING FINCH Poospiza lateralis

15 cm|6”

GRAY-THROATED WARBLING FINCH Poospiza cabanisi

15 cm|6”

CINEREOUS WARBLING FINCH Poospiza cinerea

13 cm|5”

Fairly common in shrubbery at forest and woodland borders in mountains from S Espírito Santo to NE São Paulo, notably at Campos do Jordão and Itatiaia. 1000-2400 m. Gray above with long narrow whitish superciliary; contrasting bright rufous rump; wings with whitish edging, outer tail feathers white. Throat and chest yellowish buff, sides and flanks broadly rufous. Baychested Warbling Finch has chestnut band across chest, no eyestripe, no rufous on rump; these two species are often together. Essentially arboreal; gleans actively in foliage, frequently accompanying mixed flocks. Song a measured series of phrases, e.g., “tzip, tzeeu, tzip, tzeeu, tzip, tzeeu.” Formerly considered conspecific with Gray-throated Warbling Finch, then being called Red-rumped Warbling Finch, P. lateralis. Fairly common in forest edge, riparian woodland, and second-growth, in our area only in SE São Paulo. To 750 m. Head gray with long narrow whitish superciliary and malar streak, back olive brown, contrasting bright rufous rump; wings with whitish edging, outer tail feathers white. Throat and breast grayish, sides and flanks rufous. Does not occur with Buff-throated Warbling Finch (found to N), with which Gray-throated was long considered conspecific. Behavior similar to Buff-throated, but song less monotonous and more variable, usually faster-paced, though with a similar quality. Uncommon and local in open cerrado woodland, scrub including campo rupestre, and adjacent pastures, mainly in S Minas Gerais and N São Paulo. 600-1400 m. Iris reddish. For a warbling finch, dull and simply patterned. Gray above, white below; ear-coverts blacker, throat often tinged buff; some gray on flanks; outer tail feathers white, flashing conspicuously in flight. Not likely confused, but cf. vaguely similar Shrike-like Tanager. Occurs as scattered pairs; despite inhabiting semiopen habitats, usually not very conspicuous. Song an unpatterned burst of twittery and squeaky notes, sounding jumbled.

BLACK-MASKED FINCH Coryphaspiza melanotis EN

13.5 cm|5.25”

Less disturbed grassy cerrado and campos in S Minas Gerais; in a few places fairly common, but now very local. Mostly 700-1200 m. Lower mandible yellow. Head black with long white superciliary; back brown with chestnut streaking; shoulders golden yellow, wing-edging yellow-olive. Tail long and graduated, outer feathers broadly tipped white (obvious in flight). Below white with black patch on sides of breast. dingier, with grayish head, more prominent wing-edging, less white in tail. This scarce cerrado specialist is unlikely to be confused. Usually in pairs; feeds mainly on ground. Normally inconspicuous; can occur in small groups when not breeding. In the early morning and when singing can be more obvious as it then often perches in the open. Song a weak and very high-pitched “tsee-tslee,” sometimes extended and more jumbled but easy to pass over as an insect. Coal-crested Finch (Charitospiza eucosma) is known very locally from cerrado in central São Paulo at Itirapina. A small finch. with black crown and crest, white face, and black bib with lower underparts cinnamon-buff; much drabber but like with white at base of tail (obvious in flight).

383

BAY-CHESTED WARBLING FINCH PEITO-PINHÃO

BUFF-THROATED WARBLING FINCH QUETE

GRAY-THROATED WARBLING FINCH TICO-TICO-DA-TAQUARA

CINEREOUS WARBLING FINCH CAPACETINHO-CINZA

BLACK-MASKED FINCH TICO-TICO-MASCARADO

LONG-TAILED REEDFINCH Donacospiza albifrons

15 cm|6”

Uncommon and very local in marshy grasslands and adjacent shrubbery. Locally up to over 2000 m at Itatiaia (where all records appear to be old); now mostly below 1500 m. Rather long slender tail. grayish brown above with prominent superciliary and crescent under eye white, dark gray cheeks; back streaked dusky, shoulders bluish gray. Below buff. more streaked above, paler below. The two grassfinches have proportionately longer tails, more and bolder streaking above, and their bills show yellow or orange. Usually found in pairs. Though often inconspicuous, when conditions are good they can perch tamely atop a bush or clump of grass. Fast spritely song a series of paired notes repeated in an almost random fashion, recalling certain warbling finches. EMBERIZOIDES grassfinches are fairly large emberizid finches with notably long and pointed tails that are found in grasslands. One species is numerous, the other rare.

WEDGE-TAILED GRASSFINCH Emberizoides herbicola

19-20 cm|7.5-8”

Fairly common and widespread in grasslands, marshy areas, and pastures, often with a few scattered bushes, but always requiring tall grass. To at least 1500 m. Tail very long, graduated, and pointed. Bill mostly yellow. Above brownish olive, back with prominent blackish streaking; lores and obvious eye-ring white; yellow on bend of wing and yellow-olive edging on flight feathers often prominent. Below pale grayish, sometimes tinged buff. Cf. much scarcer and more local Lesser Grassfinch. Great Pampa Finch has shorter and less “spiky” tail, darker and grayer face, etc. Usually in pairs. Generally inconspicuous, but on calm early mornings will perch in the open on fences, grass stems, and shrubs. Song a rather short musical phrase, e.g.,“je-lep, jleéeu” or “jew-lee, jew-lu.”

LESSER GRASSFINCH Emberizoides ypiranganus

17-18 cm|6.75 - 7”

Rare and very local in marshes and moist grasslands, in our area known only from a few locales in Minas Gerais and interior São Paulo. To at least 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Resembles the much commoner Wedge-tailed Grassfinch, but smaller and slimmer. Likewise has a mainly yellow bill. More “contrasty” above, with heavier, blacker streaking on a paler ground color; cheeks and especially loral area darker and grayer, whiter throat; lower flanks and crissum darker and blackish-streaked. Inconspicuous behavior much as in Wedge-tailed. Song very different and much less musical, a fast chattering, “ch, ch, ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch-ch,” that almost recalls a Grass Wren. EMBERNAGRA finches are large, mainly olive finches found either in grasslands or in scrub atop serras. One species is numerous, the other rare.

GREAT PAMPA FINCH Embernagra platensis

21 cm|8.25”

PALE-THROATED SERRA FINCH Embernagra longicauda

21.5 cm|8.5”

A large, heavily built finch, uncommon to fairly common but local in damp areas with tall grassland and adjacent shrubbery, mainly on certain serras. Mostly 500-2500 m, but also locally in coastal Espírito Santo. Bill mostly yellowish orange. Head olive gray, more blackish on face; olive above with back streaked blackish; prominent yellowish olive wing-edging. Mostly pale grayish below. Cf. much rarer, more local Pale-throated Serra Finch. Wedgetailed Grassfinch has longer and more pointed tail, is less blackish on face and not so gray below. More conspicuous than many grassland birds, regularly perching in the open atop shrub or grass clump; found in pairs or, less often, small (family?) groups. Flight weak and jerky, the feet often dangled. Song a simple musical phrase, often repeated over and over, e.g., “g-lee, g-lo, g-leét,” sometimes ending in a sputter. Uncommon and local in grassy scrub and campo rupestre with low palms and ground bromeliads atop serras of Minas Gerais. 700-1400 m. Lower mandible yellowish orange. Head gray with white supraloral and lower eyelid; olive above, flight feathers and long graduated tail edged bright yellowish olive. Throat white sharply outlined by gray lower cheeks; below pale grayish. In its limited range and habitat, not likely confused. Unless singing, when they can be out in the open, serra finches are rather shy, tending to stay within cover, almost always occurring in pairs. Loud penetrating song a steadily repeated “tsi, tsoweeé” or “tsi, ts-leu.”

385 LONG-TAILED REEDFINCH TICO-TICO-DO-BANHADO

WEDGE-TAILED GRASSFINCH CANÁRIO-DO-CAMPO

LESSER GRASSFINCH CANÁRIO-DO-BREJO

GREAT PAMPA FINCH SABIÁ-DO-BANHADO

PALE-THROATED SERRA FINCH RABO-MOLE

GRASSLAND SPARROW Ammodramus humeralis

12.5 cm|5”

Locally common in less-disturbed grasslands and pastures throughout, though less numerous in coastal lowlands. To at least 1200 m. Brownish gray above, grayest on face and neck, with blackish and chestnut streaking; yellow lores (sometimes prominent) and bend of wing, with rufous edging on flight feathers. Grayish white below, sometimes stained buffy by contact with soil, but unstreaked. Other “streaky” sparrows and finches are larger; Grass Wren differently shaped, etc. Fairly secretive except when breeding, creeping on the ground usually in heavy cover, flushing a short distance and like as not disappearing. Does not occur in flocks. Early and late in day, especially if not windy, will sometimes perch atop a shrub or on a fence, and singing birds almost always do so. That song is a high-pitched and musical phrase, e.g., “eee telee, tleeee,” with variations but always a pretty tinkling quality. SICALIS yellowfinches are chunky, predominantly yellow “finches” (recent evidence suggests that they may in fact be tanagers) that range in open to semiopen terrain where they are conspicuous and usually numerous.

SAFFRON FINCH Sicalis flaveola

13.5-14 cm|5.25-5.5”

Common and widespread in semiopen areas, agricultural regions, and where not heavily trapped around houses and in many towns and cities. To at least 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). olive yellow above, yellowest on face and with more orange forecrown; some dusky back streaking. Yellow below, often an olive wash on breast. much duller, olive brownish above with dusky streaking; whitish below with fine dusky streaking, sometimes some yellow on breast. Grassland Yellowfinch is more olive generally, especially above, and it shows a yellow eye-ring and ocular area; it is most prevalent in open grassy fields. Forages mostly on the ground, often gathering in flocks (which can be large) and joining other birds; regular at bird feeders. This is one of the most popular cagebirds in Brazil, and in some areas it is therefore reduced in numbers. Its vigorous and musical song is often heard, a series of lively, well-enunciated notes and phrases, e.g., “tsip, tsee-it, tsee, tseeti, tsee, tseeti” but with much variation.

GRASSLAND YELLOWFINCH Sicalis luteola

12-12.5 cm|4.75-5”

Fairly common and widespread in grasslands, agricultural areas, and marsh edges. To at least 1500 m. olive brownish above with dusky streaking on crown and back, lores and eye-ring bright yellow; wings and tail brownish. Below yellow, breast extensively washed grayish olive. similar but browner above and buffier below. Saffron Finch is much brighter and yellow, while the streaky essentially lacks yellow. Cf. much scarcer Stripe-tailed Yellowfinch. A gregarious bird that can be numerous in some areas and then largely absent from others that appear similar. During winter numbers are to some extent augmented by migrants from the south, and these can occur in flocks (sometimes large). They feed mainly on the ground, but perch freely in shrubbery and on fences. Song of breeding birds an often long-continued series of buzzy and more musical trilled notes, regularly given in a hovering flight. Call a repeated “tzi-tzit” or “tsip-tseep,” often given in flight. STRIPE-TAILED YELLOWFINCH Sicalis citrina 12 cm|4.75” Uncommon and local in grassland, cerrado, and campo rupestre, most often where rocky and especially atop serras, mainly in Minas Gerais and interior São Paulo. 1000-2500 m. olive-yellow above, forecrown and rump especially bright and back streaked dusky; outer tail feathers with distinctive large white spots (but these often hard to see in the field). Bright yellow below, breast clouded olive. considerably less yellow overall: brownish above extensively streaked dusky; pale yellow below extensively streaked dusky; tail much as in . The more numerous Grassland Yellowfinch differs in having yellow on face but none on crown (which is streaked); it lacks white in tail. Saffron Finch has a similar streaky pattern below but shows little or no yellow there. Behavior much as in Grassland Yellowfinch, but Stripe-tailed is a much scarcer and more local bird, rarely or never gathering in the flocks for which Grassland is notable. Variable song a repetition of a musical phrase, e.g., “switchity, switch-you, switch-you,” usually with long pauses; generally delivered from a perch but sometimes in a display flight.

387

GRASSLAND SPARROW TICO-TICO-DO-CAMPO

SAFFRON FINCH CANÁRIO-DA-TERRA

GRASSLAND YELLOWFINCH CANÁRIO-TIPIU

STRIPE-TAILED YELLOWFINCH CANÁRIO-RASTEIRO

ARREMON sparrows are boldly patterned, mainly ground-dwelling emberizid finches that inhabit forest and woodland, with basically only a single species in any one area. HALF-COLLARED SPARROW Arremon semitorquatus

15 cm|6”

PECTORAL SPARROW Arremon taciturnus

15 cm|6”

Uncommon and inconspicuous in undergrowth of humid forest, woodland, and borders from Espírito Santo and E Minas Gerais to S São Paulo. Mostly 500-1200 m. Lower mandible lemon yellow. mostly olive above with black head, long white superciliary, and gray coronal streak. White below with an interrupted black pectoral collar, gray on sides. similar but duller and buffier below, especially on throat. Pectoral Sparrow has an all-black bill, complete black pectoral band in . Saffron-billed Sparrow has an orangeyellow bill in both sexes. Hops on or near the ground, usually remaining within cover and hard to see; often in pairs, but usually not with mixed flocks. Song a thin and very high-pitched “tsi, tsi, tseeu,” given from a low perch or sometimes the ground. Uncommon and inconspicuous in undergrowth of humid forest, woodland, and borders in lowlands in N part of our area (Bahia to Espírito Santo and NE Minas Gerais). Overlaps only marginally with Half-collared Sparrow, which mainly occurs south of Pectoral’s range. Below 1000 m. Resembles Half-collared Sparrow, differing in its all-black bill, more prominent yellow on shoulders, and having a complete black pectoral band in . Aside from bill, similar but duller overall, and buffier below. Unobtrusive behavior much as in Half-collared Sparrow. Song a thin and very high-pitched “tzi-tzi-tzi-tzi.”

SAFFRON-BILLED SPARROW Arremon flavirostris

15.5-16 cm|6-6.25”

Uncommon in undergrowth of semideciduous and gallery woodland and forest from Minas Gerais across much of interior São Paulo. Mostly 500-1000 m. Bill mostly orange-yellow. mostly olive above with black head and white postocular stripe (back from eye) and gray coronal streak, yellow on shoulders. White below with complete black pectoral band, gray on sides. similar but duller, and buffier below. Birds in W São Paulo have an all-gray back. No other Arremon has such a bright bill. Unobtrusive behavior much as in Half-collared Sparrow, though sometimes easier to see. Song a high-pitched and rather piercing “tsiu-tsiu-tsiu-tsiu,” somewhat variable.

RUFOUS-COLLARED SPARROW Zonotrichia capensis

14-14.5 cm|5.5-5.75”

Common, widespread, and familiar in semiopen and shrubby habitats as well as gardens and around houses in much of our area, even in many urban areas, but absent from E Bahia and N Espírito Santo lowlands. Widespread, occurring up to 2500 m (Itatiaia). Often looks somewhat bushy-crested. Head gray with black striping and with contrasting and obvious rufous hindneck. Above rufescent brown, back with blackish striping and wings with two whitish bars. Below mostly whitish with black and rufous patch on sides of breast. Juvenile much duller and streakier, but soon acquires at least a trace of the rufous on neck. Often tame, hopping on the ground where it does much of its feeding; usually in pairs or family groups but when not breeding can occur in flocks. Often nests around houses, even sometimes in flower pots on porches; this is the bird most often parasitized by the Shiny Cowbird. Song, often delivered from a perch in the open, variable but typically a sweet and melodic phrase, e.g., “teeo, tee-teeu-teeu-tee?” In some places trapped as a cagebird, and therefore becoming scarcer.

HOUSE SPARROW Passer domesticus

15 cm|6”

This introduced species, classified in the Passeridae family and native to Eurasia, has become widespread and common in virtually all urban areas, and also in many agricultural regions. To at least 2000 m. A true commensal of man, only rarely is it found away from human habitation; so well known as to hardly require description. actually quite dapper, with gray crown, chestnut nape, whitish cheeks and sides of neck, and black bib. Otherwise brown and rufous above with black streaking and a gray rump, pale grayish below. More nondescript has a mainly yellowish bill, and is grayish brown above with blackish streaking and a pale superciliary; dingy whitish below. Not likely confused, occurring in noisy chirping groups that feed mainly on the ground, usually on their own but sometimes with other birds such as icterids. Most common call a repeated “cheereep.”

389

HALF-COLLARED SPARROW TICO-TICO-DO-MATO

PECTORAL SPARROW TICO-TICO-DE-BICO-PRETO

SAFFRON-BILLED SPARROW TICO-TICO-DE-BICO-AMARELO

RUFOUS-COLLARED SPARROW TICO-TICO

HOUSE SPARROW PARDAL

EUPHONIA euphonias are distinctive small birds with stubby bills and short tails that range widely in forested

and semiopen environments. They mainly eat fruit, some species specializing in mistletoe. Long considered tanagers, euphonias are now believed to be fringillid finches.

VIOLACEOUS EUPHONIA Euphonia violacea

11.5 cm|4.5”

GREEN-CHINNED EUPHONIA Euphonia chalybea

11.5 cm|4.5”

Fairly common and widespread in forest and woodland canopy and borders, clearings, and gardens, most numerous from E Bahia to E São Paulo. To at least 1100 m. glossy steel blue-black above with small yellow patch on forecrown. Yellow below, with often strong ochraceous tinge on throat and breast. olive above, olivaceous yellow below. Immature s have -like plumage but already yellow forecrown and blackish face. Other euphonias (except Green-chinned) have dark throats, not all-yellow underparts. s have yellower underparts than our other euphonias, but most often are recognized by their companions. Ranges in pairs and small groups; forages at all levels, sometimes with mixed flocks. Song a long-continued series of short phrases, some musical, others harsher, interspersed with trills and imitations of other birds. Call a fast repetition of a single sharp note, e.g., “jt-jt-jt-jt-jt.” Uncommon and local in forest canopy and borders and adjacent clearings in lowlands from Rio de Janeiro to S. Mostly below 800 m, exceptionally to 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Notably heavy bill for a euphonia. steely greenish blue above, wrapping down to incorporate chin; small yellow forecrown patch. Below yellow. olive above, mostly gray below; chin, sides, and crissum olive yellowish. Violaceous Euphonia has more violet-blue upperparts; its more ochraceous underparts extend to chin. Violaceous has no gray below. Green-chinned Euphonia more resembles Chestnut-bellied though the latter has a usually obvious rufous crissum; its bill is less heavy. Green-chinned (never very numerous) is a forest-based euphonia and usually occurs in pairs. Song jumbled and gravelly, can be long-continued. A gravelly call recalls Chestnutbellied’s. Sometimes called Green-throated Euphonia.

PURPLE-THROATED EUPHONIA Euphonia chlorotica

10 cm|4”

Common and widespread in many forested and wooded habitats, including restinga, and also in cleared areas and gardens; our most frequently seen euphonia. To 1500 m. glossy blue-black above with yellow forecrown. Throat black, below bright yellow. olive above, grayish white below, yellowish on sides and crissum. Cf. this small euphonia with the others, Orange-bellied being the most similar; they are more forest-based. Found in pairs or small groups, most often apart from flocks, but sometimes with other fruit-eating species at especially good food sources. Distinctive call a clear “bee-beem” (sometimes trebled); jumbled song similar to other euphonias’.

ORANGE-BELLIED EUPHONIA Euphonia xanthogaster

11.5 cm|4.5”

CHESTNUT-BELLIED EUPHONIA Euphonia pectoralis

11.5 cm|4.5”

Uncommon and local in humid forest and borders in lowlands and foothills from SE Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. Mostly below 600 m, a few to 1000 m. glossy blue-black above, forecrown ochraceous yellow. Throat black, below ochraceous yellow. olive above, forehead tinged tawny, nape gray. Mostly buffy grayish below, buffiest on midbelly. ’s pattern resembles Purplethroated’s, but forecrown and underparts are more ochraceous. most resembles Chestnut-bellied but Orange-bellied’s nape is a purer gray and it lacks the rufous crissum. More apt to range in forest lower growth than other euphonias, but behavior otherwise similar. Call a simple “jeeu.” Song is a jumble, typical of other euphonias.

Fairly common in canopy and borders of humid and montane forest and woodland, less often into cleared areas. To 1500 m. entirely glossy steelblue above, on throat and chest, but lacks crown patch. Lower underparts chestnut with a golden patch at bend of wing (this can be hidden). olive above with nape gray-tinged. Gray below with sides olive-yellow and a rufous crissum. The richly colored is unlikely to be confused, but the dull can be difficult; note her rufous crissum and gray median underparts. Arboreal; usually in pairs, often joining flocks. Frequently heard distinctive call a harsh gravelly “drrt-drrt-drrt” (up to 5 notes).

391

VIOLACEOUS EUPHONIA GATURAMO-VERDADEIRO

GREEN-CHINNED EUPHONIA CAIS-CAIS

PURPLE-THROATED EUPHONIA FIM-FIM

ORANGE-BELLIED EUPHONIA GATURAMO-DOURADO

CHESTNUT-BELLIED EUPHONIA FERRO-VELHO

GOLDEN-RUMPED EUPHONIA Euphonia cyanocephala

11 cm|4.5”

Rarely a numerous or familiar bird, this euphonia ranges only locally in woodland borders and clearings and gardens with trees, mainly in highlands. To at least 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). exceptionally pretty with bright turquoise blue hindcrown and nape, glossy blue-black upperparts, black throat, and deep orange-yellow rump and underparts. mainly olive and yellowish, but sharing the s turquoise crown and nape. Hardly to be confused, even the more subdued , but cf. Fawn-breasted Tanager. Usually in small groups, and seems inordinately fond of mistletoe berries (even more so than other euphonias). Rather inconspicuous, tending to perch high and move relatively little; rarely with flocks. Generally quiet, but has a soft call, “eeu,” often repeated, while song consists of a fast stream of tinkling notes interspersed with “tueer” and “chuk” notes.

BLUE-NAPED CHLOROPHONIA Chlorophonia cyanea

12 cm|4.75”

HOODED SISKIN Sporagra magellanica

11.5 cm|4.5”

Uncommon in canopy and borders of montane forest (also araucaria forest) and adjacent clearings and gardens principally from Espírito Santo to E São Paulo, smaller numbers into more humid lowlands in winter. To 1800 m (Serra dos Órgãos). Gaudy has bright grass green head, throat, and chest contrasting with bright blue nape, back, and rump (also an eye-ring) and yellow underparts. not quite so flashy, with similar pattern but the green more subdued and with some green mottling below; still shows a blue nape and eye-ring. The green is so intense that it is almost impossible to confuse this lovely bird. Usually occurs in small groups (sometimes larger in winter) that occasionally accompany mixed flocks, but like most euphonias is especially fond of mistletoe berries. Comes to feeders in winter. Frequently heard, farcarrying call a characteristic clear and high-pitched “heeu.” Song less often heard and less distinctive, a jumbled series of warbles and whistles, some of them unexpectedly sharp.

VU

Uncommon and local in semiopen and cultivated areas with scattered trees; regular in gardens and around houses, even in towns and cities. Mostly 6002000 m, but during winter some occur down into São Paulo lowlands. Short conical bill. Attractive has black hood contrasting with yellow-olive back and yellow underparts. Wings black with conspicuous yellow markings; tail also shows yellow. much duller, lacking the black hood; best known from the yellow markings on wings and tail, the same as in . Siskins normally move around in small groups, aiding in their recognition. These groups can forage most anywhere, from the ground to quite high in trees; they feed on a variety of seeds and (less often) flowers, and can be quite tame. Flight distinctively undulating, not direct as in most other birds. Song a long-continued twittering, often pretty and sometimes given by several s at once. A “tseeu” call is often given in flight. Trapped as a cagebird. Formerly classified in genus Carduelis. Yellow-faced Siskin (S. yarrellii) is perhaps a rare resident in parts of E Bahia, but records are confused by the presence of escaped cagebirds; it mainly ranges in NE Brazil, where much reduced by excessive trapping. The very bright yellow recalls Hooded Siskin but only the crown is black. s are brighter yellow below.

COMMON WAXBILL Estrilda astrild

11.5 cm|4.5”

This introduced species, classified in the family Estrildidae and native to Africa, has become widespread and locally common in and around many towns and cities, especially from Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo, there foraging on lawns and in other open areas, also feeding where grass grows tall. Apparently still spreading and increasing. To at least 1500 m. Small and slender, with long tail and a vivid red bill. Sexes alike, brown above with blackish vermiculations and a bright red streak through the eye. Buffy whitish below with dusky vermiculations on breast and sides and some red on midbelly. Liable to be confused only with seedeaters, also mainly brown, though none of these is vermiculated or shows any red. Usually feeds in small groups, hugging the ground and generally flushing as a group; sometimes accompanies seedeaters. Gives rather indistinctive chattered calls, e.g., “cheeu” or “ch-ch-ch,” the song accelerated into a “ch-ch-cheeu.”

393 GOLDEN-RUMPED EUPHONIA GATURAMO-REI

BLUE-NAPED CHLOROPHONIA BANDEIRINHA

HOODED SISKIN PINTASSILGO

COMMON WAXBILL BICO-DE-LACRE

MOLOTHRUS cowbirds are fairly small (aside from one species), short-billed blackbirds found in open country, each species notable for being a brood parasite on different groups of birds.

SHINY COWBIRD Molothrus bonariensis

19-20.5 cm|7.5-8”

Common and widespread in semiopen and agricultural areas, around towns and in parks, even urban areas. Seems still to be increasing. To 2000 m. glossy purplish black, gloss strongest on head and foreneck. dark chocolate brown, velvety and at times looking almost black. Juvenile like but with dusky streaking, especially below. Cf. other all-dark blackbirds (many of which have more pointed bills). Most similar is Screaming Cowbird; cf. also Rubycrowned Tanager. An adaptable bird, Shiny Cowbird has taken advantage of deforestation and increased cattle-raising. Forages mainly on the ground, often in flocks (sometimes large), tail usually held partially cocked. Lays eggs in nests of a variety of smaller songbirds; it is uncertain whether this reduces the latter’s numbers here. Musical song a variable and rather unpatterned series of whistles and gurgles.

SCREAMING COWBIRD Molothrus rufoaxillaris

19 cm|7.5”

Rare to uncommon in semiopen and partially wooded country, mainly in interior; apparently increasing and spreading, especially to S. To 1000 m. Entirely lustrous black. Juvenile resembles Common Baywing (dull grayish with contrasting rufous wings), but quickly molts into adult plumage. Screaming most resembles Shiny Cowbird but its bill is shorter and stouter, imparting a “snub-nosed” effect; it never shows Shiny’s violet gloss. Usually in small flocks, sometimes accompanying Shiny Cowbirds or baywings, with similar foraging behavior. Screamings lay their eggs only in nests of baywings or Chopi Blackbirds. ’s distinctive song an explosive “zzhleeee!”

GIANT COWBIRD Molothrus oryzivorus

37 cm|4.5” 32 cm|12.5”

Widespread but rarely numerous in forest borders and clearings; favors more humid regions. Locally to 1200 m. Iris usually orange. glossy purplish black. Usually conspicuous ruff imparts small-headed appearance. smaller, with less evident ruff. Even the smaller is much larger than other cowbirds. Cf. also Chopi Blackbird (dark-eyed, no ruff, etc.). Giant Cowbirds can forage most anywhere but most often on the ground in small groups, sometimes with other blackbirds and other cowbirds. Flying birds have distinctive undulating flight with the small head often apparent. s linger around nesting colonies of caciques and oropendolas, which it parasitizes. Notably silent, rarely making a sound.

CHOPI BLACKBIRD Gnorimopsar chopi

23-24 cm|9-9.5”

A familiar often numerous blackbird of open and agricultural areas, especially in the interior but spreading coastward with deforestation. Locally to 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Bill has diagonal groove on lower mandible. Sexes alike, glossy black with feathers of crown and nape pointed, imparting a hackled effect. Shiny Cowbird is much glossier; Screaming Cowbird’s bill is shorter and stouter. Cf. also the very rare Forbes’s Blackbird. The Chopi is usually tame and conspicuous, parading on the ground and perching in trees around buildings. Unlike many blackbirds, rarely associates with cattle. Gives many loud musical calls, sometimes as a medley by a flock, even in the pre-dawn darkness. Calls include a repeated “peer” and a “pur-peer” (or “cho-pee”), often combined with a rich gurgled song. Trapped for cages, escapes occur.

FORBES’S BLACKBIRD Curaeus forbesi VU

24 cm|9.5” 21.5|8.5”

Very rare and local, now found only in a few Minas Gerais locales where it favors forest-fringed lakes and marshes and is gravely threatened by habitat loss. Locally to 1000 m (Alto Caparaó). Closely resembles Chopi Blackbird, and can occur with it; also shows the hackles. Long pointed bill lacks Chopi’s diagonal groove; overall aspect slenderer, and the black less glossy. Mouth lining reportedly red, this sometimes visible in singing birds. Forages mainly on ground, often in small groups. Vocalizations quite different from Chopi’s, including a staccato “whi-tip, whi-tip, whi-tip,” sometimes accelerating into a drawn-out chatter; displaying birds give a 1-2-second buzzy note as the bird throws its head and neck back and opens bill wide.

395

SHINY COWBIRD CHUPIM

SCREAMING COWBIRD CHUPIM-PICUMÃ

GIANT COWBIRD IRAÚNA-GRANDE

CHOPI BLACKBIRD PÁSSARO-PRETO, GRAÚNA

FORBES’S BLACKBIRD ANUMARÁ

WHITE-BROWED BLACKBIRD Sturnella superciliaris

18 cm|7”

Widespread and locally common in lusher grasslands and pastures. To about 1000 m. Breeding black above with prominent white postocular stripe. Throat and breast bright red, belly black. Bend of wing also red, most evident in flight. When not breeding, much less colorful, with feathers tipped brownish obscuring the red and black; the white postocular, though not so clear-cut, is normally still quite obvious. streaked brownish and buff above with a long buff superciliary and crown stripe. Buffy below with some dusky streaking, breast variably suffused pink. Favors tall grass, where except when breeding it can be inconspicuous; usually does not associate with other birds, but sometimes forages around cattle. Quite gregarious, even when breeding, then sometimes forming loose “colonies” though s defend a small territory. ’s song typically given in flight, a drawn-out buzzy note preceded or followed (or both) by several “chuk’s.”

PALE BAYWING Agelaioides fringillarius

18.5 cm|7.25”

COMMON BAYWING Agelaioides badius

18.5 cm|7.25”

Fairly common and perhaps spreading in semiopen and agricultural terrain in N Minas Gerais and cen. Bahia, favoring arid regions. Mostly below 800 m. Mostly pale grayish buff with blackish ocular area (can look like a mask) and cinnamon-rufous wings. Rather dull and almost sparrow-like, though its contrasting rufous wings should preclude confusion. Almost always in small flocks that feed mainly on the ground and sometimes are with “true” cowbirds such as the Shiny. Note that baywings were formerly thought to be cowbirds, but in fact they are not brood parasites on other birds, instead raising their own young though sometimes appropriating other birds’ nests. Song a series of chatters and whistled notes with little discernible pattern, often given by several members of the flock in concert; some calls and chatters recall a House Sparrow. Known from at least a couple of recent reports in São Paulo, where it could be spreading. Resembles Pale Baywing but is notably darker overall, more an ashy brownish gray with wings rufous. The two species were until recently considered conspecific (and still are by some). Behavior similar, though Common’s song seems more melodic. By some called Bay-winged Cowbird.

CHESTNUT-CAPPED BLACKBIRD Chrysomus ruficapillus 18.5 cm|7.25”

Locally fairly common in marshes, foraging in nearby fields and open country; more numerous southward. Locally to 1500-1800 m, but mostly below 1100 m. black with crown and throat chestnut (the color so dark that except in good light it just looks black). rather dull, dark olivaceous brown above with blackish streaking; foreneck buffy fawn, below dull olivaceous. Compare to Unicolored Blackbird, especially if light is poor; Unicolored is all black. Unicolored, with its yellowish below, is quite different. A gregarious bird, Chestnut-capped occurs in large flocks in S Brazil, where it is more numerous. Forages mainly on the ground, also in reedbeds and nearby shrubby areas. Song a distinctive 2 or 3-noted “chree-chree-chrrrrr,” the first high-pitched, the last drawn out; sometimes it’s given by many birds at once in a noisy chorus.

UNICOLORED BLACKBIRD Agelasticus cyanopus

19 cm|7.5”

Uncommon in marshes and the vegetation that fringes shallow ponds and lakes, usually in more or less wooded country. Locally to 1200 m. uniform glossy black. streaked blackish and brown above with yellowish superciliary and blackish cheeks. Below oily yellow with dusky streaking especially on sides. Chopi Blackbird, also black, is not associated with water. Usually in pairs – which facilitates identification – or at most small groups, walking and hopping on floating vegetation and amongst nearby shrubbery and grass. Generally does not associate with other blackbirds and never far from water. Loud ringing song a fast “chew-chew-chew-chew…“ continuing for at least several seconds, or a briefer but equally loud “teeu-teeu-teeu-teeu.” Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) occurs as a vagrant to open grassy country, with scattered records; breeds in North America. Tail feathers pointed. Most apt to be seen here in nonbreeding plumage, with bold buff and dusky head striping, mainly yellowish buff underparts. Breeding colorful with golden nape, white scapulars and rump, black underparts. A gregarious bird that sometimes occurs with seedeater flocks. Call a distinctive metallic “pink,” often given in flight.

397

WHITE-BROWED BLACKBIRD POLÍCIA-INGLESA-DO-SUL

PALE BAYWING ASA-DE-TELHA-PÁLIDO COMMON BAYWING ASA-DE-TELHA

CHESTNUT-CAPPED BLACKBIRD GARIBALDI

UNICOLORED BLACKBIRD CARRETÃO-DO-BREJO

SCARLET-HEADED BLACKBIRD Amblyramphus holosericeus

24 cm|9.5”

Uncommon and local in marshes in N and W São Paulo, apparently spreading; a recent arrival here. To about 500 m. Spectacular and unmistakable. Bill long, slender, and sharply pointed (almost appearing upswept). Black with brilliant scarlet head, neck, and breast; thighs also scarlet. Juvenile all black, but it soon acquires red on throat and breast, this gradually spreading onto the head. Strictly confined to reedbeds, the more extensive the better; despite its bright red head, can be surprisingly inconspicuous, with pairs usually holding very large territories. For an icterid, not very gregarious, though when not breeding sometimes gathers in small groups, occasionally with other blackbirds. Breeding s are often more obvious as they then regularly perch in the open, even in fringing shrubbery, there giving their loud ringing song, a clear “cleer-cleer-clur, clululu.”

YELLOW-RUMPED MARSHBIRD Pseudoleistes guirahuro

23.5 cm|9.25”

CAMPO TROUPIAL Icterus jamacaii

23.5 cm|9.25”

ORANGE-BACKED TROUPIAL Icterus croconotus

23.5 cm|9.25”

Fairly common in grasslands and fields, especially near water, in the interior, avoiding coastal lowlands. Mostly 400-1300 m, locally up to 2000 m in Minas Gerais. Fairly long pointed bill. Sooty brown above with yellow rump and on lesser wing-coverts (both especially obvious in flight). Throat and chest dark brown, remaining underparts bright yellow. A gregarious blackbird, almost always in flocks that sometimes associate with blackbirds such as Chopis, even when breeding. Nests in marshes. Especially conspicuous in flight; when feeding on the ground in heavy grassy cover can be hard to see. Rather noisy, with loud, rich gurgling song and calls, often given in flight. ICTERUS troupials and orioles are relatively slender, long-tailed icterids, the two predominantly orange troupials occurring in scrub, while our sole oriole is mainly black and favors forest. Fairly common in scrub, semideciduous woodland, and adjacent semiopen areas S mainly to Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo (a few in adjacent Rio de Janeiro). Though this troupial seems to be spreading south, records from even further south seem likely to relate to escaped cagebirds. To at least 700 m. Bill sharply pointed, mandible base pale bluish. A spectacular black and bright orange bird, with a piercing yellow eye and large white wing patch. Cf. Orange-backed Troupial (no known overlap, but beware of escapees: both species are popular cagebirds). Otherwise this troupial is the only bird of its size with such coloration. Found singly or in pairs, sometimes with flocks but often moving around independently. Conspicuous, often in the open. Often pirates the nests of various other species such as furnariids and Great Kiskadees. Song a variable series of loud whistled notes and repeated phrases, often long-continued. Uncommon in scrub, semideciduous woodland, and semiopen areas in W and N São Paulo; perhaps spreading. To ca. 500 m. Resembles Campo Troupial: equally bright orange and black, but in Orange-backed the orange extends over hindcrown, nape, and back; it also shows bare blue ocular areas that Campo Troupial lacks. Both troupials are gorgeous, unlikely to be confused. Behavior and voice similar to Campo Troupial.

VARIABLE ORIOLE Icterus pyrrhopterus

21 cm|8.25”

Fairly common in woodland, forest borders, and adjacent clearings and plantations mainly in São Paulo and W Minas Gerais, less numerous N into Bahia; largely or entirely absent from coastal lowlands. Locally to 1800 m in São Paulo. Long slender blackish bill. In most of range (A) black with contrasting tawny-yellow shoulders. Northward (B; E Minas Gerais and Bahia, perhaps south to Rio de Janeiro) similar but with bright yellow shoulders and also yellow thighs. Intermediates between the two forms occur, the epaulet color in São Paulo and Minas Gerais being variable (in some individuals yellower, in others tawnier). Generally less conspicuous than the troupials, and more arboreal. Forages in the canopy with a fondness for flowering trees; frequently twitches its rather long tail. Song an often long-continued mix of quite musical phrases and notes, often with little discernible pattern; imitations of other birds (e.g., various raptors) are also given, or are mixed in with its own calls. Formerly called Epaulet Oriole (I. cayanensis).

399 SCARLET-HEADED BLACKBIRD CARDEAL-DO-BANHADO

YELLOW-RUMPED MARSHBIRD CHUPIM-DO-BREJO

CAMPO TROUPIAL CORRUPIÃO

ORANGE-BACKED TROUPIAL JOÃO-PINTO

B

VARIABLE ORIOLE ENCONTRO

A

CACICUS caciques are fairly large, mostly black icterids, all of our species with some yellow or red in their plumage. They are forest-based, mainly frugivorous birds, and most are noisy and conspicuous; some are colonial nesters. s are notably larger than s.

GOLDEN-WINGED CACIQUE Cacicus chrysopterus

20.5 cm|8” 18 cm|7”

Locally fairly common in montane and foothill forest (also araucaria forest) and woodland N to Rio de Janeiro. Mostly 600-2000 m. Iris whitish to yellowish to bluish; bill pale bluish. Black with conspicuous bright yellow wing-coverts and rump. Often looks shaggy-crested. No overlap with Yellow-rumped Cacique (though beware escaped Yellow-rumpeds around São Paulo). Ranges in pairs and small groups in forest canopy and edge; unlike other caciques, often not very conspicuous. Solitary pairs build a long, pendulous nest. Loud and ringing song variable, a mixture of phrased gurgles and whistles, each often repeated several times, e.g., “gloo-gloo-gleéyu-gleéyu,” and sometimes given as a duet by members of a pair. Call a more nasal “wreyur.”

YELLOW-RUMPED CACIQUE Cacicus cela

28 cm|11” 24.5 cm|9.5”

Locally fairly common in canopy and borders of humid forest and woodland and in plantations (e.g., cacao) in E Bahia. Below 600 m (except for small populations of escaped cagebirds around São Paulo and in Minas Gerais). Iris bright blue; bill ivory to yellowish. Glossy black with bright yellow patch on wing-coverts; big area on rump, crissum, and basal tail also bright yellow. and young birds sootier, and can be dark-eyed. No overlap with Golden-winged Cacique, which is montane in most of our region. A flamboyant bird that attracts attention and often flies in the open; nesting colonies are placed in a tree out in a clearing or at edge. Noisy both in flight or while perched, with a wide repertoire of loud calls, some harsh and slashing, others more melodic; s are especially vocal at nesting colonies, and sometimes imitate other birds.

RED-RUMPED CACIQUE Cacicus haemorrhous

28 cm|11” 23 cm|9”

CRESTED OROPENDOLA Psarocolius decumanus

46-46.5 cm|18-18.25” 37 cm|14.5”

Locally common in canopy and borders of forest and in adjacent clearings, plantations, and gardens, occurring virtually throughout. To 1000 m. Iris pale blue; bill ivory to yellowish. Mostly black with orange-red lower back and rump (though large, this is often hidden until the bird flies). smaller, and sootier. Noisy, conspicuous, and gregarious where it occurs, though does seem somewhat local; often forages in forest or woodland canopy, mainly on fruit (often palms), but nesting colonies – which can be large – are almost always placed in an isolated tree out in a clearing or at edge. Gives a variety of harsh or guttural calls that can be mixed in with more pleasant and melodic notes including a drawn-out “zhweeeeeo.” Foraging and flying birds, especially when just flushed, often give a sharp “zhap zhap zhap.”

Locally fairly common and widespread in forest and woodland canopy and borders, also regularly ranging out into clearings and agricultural areas where some tall trees are left standing; somewhat local in São Paulo and Bahia. Mostly below 1100 m, locally to 1500 m (Campos do Jordão). Large. Iris pale blue; bill ivory to pale greenish yellow. Glossy black with dark chestnut rump and crissum (usually not too conspicuous); tail bright yellow with central feathers dark. Some individuals have white or yellow feathers scattered in the black. The “crest” is hardly noticeable, just a few hair-like feathers springing from the crown. Though they are larger, perched oropendolas can be taken for Red-rumped Cacique as often no color other than the black will show; they are so active that soon they will hop or fly, exposing either the red in rump or the yellow in tail. Like so many birds they can be inconspicuous when foraging in the forest canopy, their presence sometimes revealed by a loud “chak” call. Oropendolas sometimes fly for considerable distances out over semiopen terrain, then looking “stretched out” with distinctive deep rowing wingbeats. s sing and display primarily around their nesting colony, leaning forward with fluttering wings and raised tail while uttering a loud, complex, gurgling song. Both sexes give a loud “chak” call.

401 GOLDEN-WINGED CACIQUE SOLDADO

YELLOW-RUMPED CACIQUE XEXÉU

RED-RUMPED CACIQUE GUAXE

CRESTED OROPENDOLA JAPU

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Grantsau, Rolf. Guia completo para identificação das aves do Brasil, 2 vol., 2010. São Carlos: Vento Verde. Gwynne, John A., Robert S. Ridgely, Guy Tudor and Martha Argel. Birds of Brazil: The Pantanal & Cerrado of Central Brazil, 2010. New York: Cornell University Press. Höfling, Elizabeth and Helio Camargo. Aves no Campus. São Paulo: Edusp. Honkala, Juha and Seppo Niiranen. A Birdwatching Guide to SouthEast Brazil, 2010. Penedo: Portal do Bosque. Hugues, B. et al. Action Plan for the Conservation of the Brazilian Merganser (Mergus octosetaceus), 2006. Brasília: IBAMA. [Threatened Species Series, 3] Ministry of Environment. Plano de ação para a conservação do mutum-do-sudeste (Crax blumenbachii), 2004. Brasília: IBAMA. [Threatened Species Series, 1] Neves, T. et al. National Plan of Action for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, 2006. Brasília: IBAMA. [Threatened Species Series, 2] Ridgely, Robert S. and Guy Tudor. The Birds of South America, vol. 1, 1989. Austin: University of Texas Press. Ridgely, Robert S. and Guy Tudor. The Birds of South America, vol. 2, 1994. Austin: University of Texas Press. Ridgely, Robert S. and Guy Tudor. The Songbirds of South America, 2009. Austin: University of Texas Press. Schunk, F. et al. Plano de ação nacional para a conservação dos papagaios da Mata Atlântica, 2011. Brasília: ICMBio. [Threatened Species Series, 20]

Sick, Helmut. Birds in Brazil, 1993. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Sick, Helmut. Ornitologia brasileira, 1997. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira. Sigrist, Tomas. Aves do Brasil: uma visão artística, 2006. São Paulo: Avis Brasilis. Sigrist, Tomas. Guia de Campo Avis Brasilis – Avifauna Brasileira, 2014. São Paulo, Avis Brasilis. Sousa, Deodato. Todas as Aves do Brasil, 1998. Feira de Santana: Editora Dall. Tonhasca Jr., Athayde. Ecologia e história natural da Mata Atlântica, 2005. Rio de Janeiro: Interciência. van Perlo, Ber. A Field Guide to the Birds of Brazil, 2009. New York: Oxford University Press. Virtude – Birdwatching e Natureza. http://virtude-ag.com/ [website in Portuguese, with tips for birders – places, guides, etc.] Wheatley, Nigel. Where to Watch Birds in South America, 1995. Princeton: Princeton University Press. WikiAves. The Encyclopedia of Brazilian Birds. www.wikiaves.com.br [bilingual website] Willis, E. O. The composition of avian communities in remanescent woodlots in Southern Brazil. Pap. av. Zool., 33: 1-15. 1979. WWF Brasil. Guia de Aves Mata Atlântica Paulista [Guide to the Birds of São Paulo’s Atlantic Forest, bilingual edition], 2010. São Paulo.

Index of English Names Illustrated species appear in boldface type. Species accounts are opposite illustrations. Albatross Atlantic Yellow-nosed, 57 Black-browed, 57 Amazon Mealy, 149 Orange-winged, 147 Red-browed, 149 Red-tailed, 149 Turquoise-fronted, 147 Vinaceous-breasted, 149 Anhinga, 55 Ani Greater, 155 Smooth-billed, 155 Antbird Bertoni’s, 257 Dusky-tailed, 257 Ferruginous, 257 Ochre-rumped, 257 Rio de Janeiro, 259 Rufous-tailed, 257 Scaled, 257 Scalloped, 259 Squamate, 259 White-bibbed, 259 Antpipit, Southern, 285 Antpitta Speckle-breasted, 263 Variegated, 261 Antshrike Barred, 245 Caatinga, 244 Chestnut-backed, 245 Cinereous, 249 Giant, 243 Great, 245 Large-tailed, 243 Planalto Slaty, 246 Rufous-capped, 247 Rufous-winged, 247 Silvery-cheeked, 245 Sooretama Slaty, 247 Spot-backed, 243 Tufted, 243 Variable, 247 White-bearded, 245 Antthrush Cryptic, 260 Rufous-capped, 261 Rufous-tailed, 261 Short-tailed, 261 Antvireo Plain, 249 Plumbeous, 249 Rufous-backed, 249 Spot-breasted, 249 Antwren Bahia, 255 Band-tailed, 251 Black-bellied, 253 Black-capped, 255 Black-hooded, 253 Large-billed, 255 Restinga, 253 Rio de Janeiro, 250 Rufous-winged, 255 Rusty-backed, 253 Salvadori’s, 251 São Paulo Marsh, 252

Serra, 253 Silvery-flanked, 251 Southern White-fringed, 253 Star-throated, 251 Streak-capped, 255 Unicolored, 251 Araçari Black-necked, 203 Chestnut-eared, 203 Attila Bright-rumped, 301 Gray-hooded, 301 Rufous-tailed, 301

Chachalaca East Brazilian, 41 Scaled, 41 Chlorophonia, Blue-naped, 393 Cinclodes, Cipó, 225 Conebill Bicolored, 351 Chestnut-vented, 351 Coot Red-fronted, 112 Red-gartered, 113 White-winged, 112 Coquette Festive, 191 Bamboowren, Spotted, 263 Frilled, 191 Bananaquit, 345 Racket-tailed, 191 Baywing Cormorant, Neotropic, 55 Common, 397 Cotinga Pale, 397 Banded, 323 Becard Black-and-gold, 325 Black-capped, 311 Gray-winged, 325 Chestnut-crowned, 311 Swallow-tailed, 321 Crested, 309 White-winged, 323 Green-backed, 311 Cowbird White-winged, 311 Giant, 395 Bellbird, Bare-throated, 325 Screaming, 395 Berryeater Shiny, 395 Black-headed, 321 Crake Hooded, 321 Ash-throated, 107 Bittern Gray-breasted, 107 Least, 63 Ocellated, 105 Pinnated, 63 Paint-billed, 107 Stripe-backed, 63 Red-and-white, 105 Blackbird Rufous-faced, 105 Chestnut-capped, 397 Rufous-sided, 105 Chopi, 395 Russet-crowned, 105 Forbes’s, 395 Uniform, 111 Scarlet-headed, 399 Yellow-breasted, 105 Unicolored, 397 Crescentchest, Collared, 263 White-browed, 397 Cuckoo Bobolink, 396 Ash-colored, 151 Booby Dark-billed, 151 Brown, 57 Guira, 153 Masked, 57 Little, 155 Red-footed, 56 Pavonine, 153 Bristlefront Pearly-breasted, 151 Slaty, 265 Pheasant, 153 Stresemann’s, 265 Rufous-vented Ground, Buzzard-Eagle, 155 Black-chested, 93 Squirrel, 155 Striped, 153 Cacholote, Caatinga, 225 Yellow-billed, 151 Cacique Curassow Golden-winged, 401 Bare-faced, 43 Red-rumped, 401 Red-billed, 43 Yellow-rumped, 401 Calyptura, Kinglet, 319 Dacnis Campo, Flicker, 213 Black-legged, 351 Canastero, Cipó, 233 Blue, 351 Caracara Donacobius, Black-capped, Chimango, 99 333 Red-throated, 99 Doradito Southern Crested, 99 Crested, 279 Yellow-headed, 99 Warbling, 279 Cardinal Dotterel Red-cowled, 367 Rufous-chested, 116 Red-crested, 367 Tawny-throated, 116 Yellow-billed, 367 Dove Casiornis, Rufous, 301 Blue Ground, 137

Eared, 139 Gray-fronted, 139 Picui Ground, 137 Plain-breasted Ground, 137 Purple-winged Ground, 137 Ruddy Ground, 137 Scaled, 137 White-tipped, 139 Duck Black-bellied Whistling, 47 Comb, 45 Fulvous Whistling, 47 Masked, 53 Muscovy, 45 White-faced Whistling, 47 Eagle Crested, 97 Crowned Solitary, 93 Harpy, 97 Egret Cattle, 67 Great, 67 Snowy, 67 Elaenia Chilean, 271 Forest, 272 Gray, 273 Greenish, 273 Highland, 269 Large, 269 Lesser, 269 Olivaceous, 271 Plain-crested, 271 Small-billed, 271 Yellow-bellied, 269 Emerald Glittering-bellied, 185 Glittering-throated, 187 Plain-bellied, 187 Sapphire-spangled, 187 Versicolored, 187 Euphonia Chestnut-bellied, 391 Golden-rumped, 393 Green-chinned, 391 Orange-bellied, 391 Purple-throated, 391 Violaceous, 391 Fairy, Black-eared, 189 Falcon Aplomado, 103 Barred Forest, 101 Bat, 103 Collared Forest, 101 Cryptic Forest, 101 Laughing, 101 Orange-breasted, 103 Peregrine, 103 Finch Bay-chested Warbling, 383 Black-masked, 383 Blue, 375 Buff-throated Warbling, 383 Cinereous Warbling, 383

403

Coal-crested, 382 Gray Pileated, 375 Gray-throated Warbling, 383 Great Pampa, 385 Pale-throated Serra, 385 Red Pileated, 375 Saffron, 387 Uniform, 375 Fire-eye Fringe-backed, 258 White-shouldered, 259 Firewood-gatherer, 231 Flamingo, Chilean, 73 Flatbill Gray-crowned, 289 Large-headed, 289 Olivaceous, 289 Yellow-breasted, 289 Yellow-olive, 289 Flycatcher Atlantic Royal, 287 Boat-billed, 303 Bran-colored, 291 Brown-crested, 299 Cliff, 301 Crowned Slaty, 305 Dusky-capped, 299 Euler’s, 291 Fork-tailed, 307 Fuscous, 291 Gray-hooded, 281 Ochre-bellied, 281 Olive-sided, 291 Piratic, 305 Rusty-margined, 303 Sepia-capped, 281 Short-crested, 299 Social, 303 Southern Scrub, 271 Streaked, 305 Swainson’s, 299 Three-striped, 305 Variegated, 305 Vermilion, 291 Foliage-gleaner Black-capped, 239 Buff-browed, 235 Buff-fronted, 239 Henna-capped, 237 Ochre-breasted, 239 Planalto, 239 White-browed, 235 White-collared, 239 White-eyed, 237 Frigatebird Great, 54 Lesser, 54 Magnificent, 55 Fruitcrow, Red-ruffed, 325 Fulmar, Southern, 59 Gallinule Azure, 113 Common, 113 Purple, 113 Spot-flanked, 107 Gnatcatcher Creamy-bellied, 336 Masked, 337 Tropical, 337 Gnateater Black-cheeked, 263 Rufous, 263 Gnatwren, Long-billed, 337 Godwit, Hudsonian, 121

404

Goldenthroat, White-tailed, 185 Grassfinch Lesser, 385 Wedge-tailed, 385 Grassquit Blue-black, 377 Sooty, 377 Graveteiro, Pink-legged, 231 Grebe Great, 53 Least, 53 Pied-billed, 53 Silvery, 52 Greenlet Ashy-headed, 342 Gray-eyed, 343 Lemon-chested, 343 Rufous-crowned, 343 Grosbeak Black-throated, 373 Glaucous-blue, 373 Ultramarine, 373 Yellow-green, 369 Groundcreeper, Canebrake, 233 Guan Black-fronted Piping, 43 Dusky-legged, 41 Rusty-margined, 41 Gull Brown-hooded, 127 Franklin’s, 127 Gray-hooded, 127 Laughing, 126 Kelp, 127 Harrier, Long-winged, 81 Hawk Bicolored, 83 Black-collared, 91 Broad-winged, 88 Crane, 85 Gray-bellied, 83 Gray-lined, 87 Great Black, 93 Harris’s, 89 Mantled, 85 Roadside, 87 Rufous Crab, 91 Rufous-thighed, 83 Savanna, 91 Short-tailed, 87 Swainson’s, 89 Tiny, 83 White-necked, 85 White-rumped, 87 White-tailed, 89 Zone-tailed, 89 Hawk-Eagle Black, 95 Black-and-white, 95 Ornate, 95 Hermit Dusky-throated, 177 Hook-billed, 179 Margaretta’s, 177 Minute, 179 Planalto, 177 Reddish, 179 Rufous-breasted, 179 Saw-billed, 177 Scale-throated, 177 Heron Black-crowned Night, 65 Boat-billed, 65

Capped, 69 Cocoi, 69 Fasciated Tiger, 63 Little Blue, 67 Rufescent Tiger, 63 Striated, 65 Whistling, 69 Yellow-crowned Night, 65 Honeycreeper Green, 351 Red-legged, 351 Hornero Band-tailed, 225 Pale-legged, 225 Rufous, 225 Hummingbird Sombre, 179 Swallow-tailed, 181 White-throated, 187 Ibis Bare-faced, 71 Buff-necked, 69 Green, 71 Scarlet, 71 White-faced, 71 Jabiru, 73 Jacamar Brown, 201 Rufous-tailed, 201 Three-toed, 201 Jacana, Wattled, 119 Jacobin, Black, 181 Jaeger Long-tailed, 132 Parasitic, 133 Pomarine, 133 Jay Azure, 327 Curl-crested, 327 Plush-crested, 327 Purplish, 326 White-naped, 327 Kestrel, American, 103 Kingbird Eastern, 306 Tropical, 307 White-throated, 307 Kingfisher Amazon, 195 American Pygmy, 195 Green, 195 Green-and-rufous, 195 Ringed, 195 Kiskadee Great, 303 Lesser, 303 Kite Double-toothed, 79 Gray-headed, 85 Hook-billed, 81 Mississippi, 79 Pearl, 77 Plumbeous, 79 Rufous-thighed, 79 Snail, 81 Swallow-tailed, 77 White-tailed, 77 Knot, Red, 121 Laniisoma, Brazilian, 319 Lapwing, Southern, 115 Leaftosser Black-tailed, 241

Rufous-breasted, 241 Tawny-throated, 241 Limpkin, 71 Macaw Blue-and-yellow, 141 Blue-winged, 141 Red-and-green, 140 Red-bellied, 141 Red-shouldered, 141 Manakin Band-tailed, 315 Blue, 317 Blue-backed, 317 Eastern Striped, 315 Helmeted, 317 Pin-tailed, 315 Red-headed, 315 White-bearded, 317 White-crowned, 317 Mango, Black-throated, 183 Marshbird, Yellow-rumped, 399 Martin Brown-chested, 329 Gray-breasted, 329 Purple, 329 Sand, 329 Merganser, Brazilian, 51 Miner, Campo, 241 Mockingbird Chalk-browed, 333 Tropical, 333 White-banded, 333 Monjita Gray, 293 White, 293 White-rumped, 293 Motmot Amazonian, 197 Rufous-capped, 197 Mourner, Cinereous, 319 Mourner, Grayish, 299 Myiobius Black-tailed, 287 Yellow-rumped, 287 Negrito, Austral, 294 Nighthawk Common, 165 Least, 165 Lesser, 165 Nacunda, 165 Short-tailed, 167 Nightjar Band-winged, 171 Little, 171 Long-trained, 169 Pygmy, 171 Rufous, 167 Scissor-tailed, 169 Sickle-winged, 171 Silky-tailed, 167 Spot-tailed, 169 White-winged, 171 Noddy, Brown, 133 Nothura Lesser, 35 Spotted, 35 White-bellied, 35 Nunbird Black-fronted, 197 White-fronted, 197 Nunlet, Rusty-breasted, 199

Oriole, Variable, 399 Oropendola, Crested, 401 Osprey, 77 Owl Barn, 157 Black-banded, 161 Black-capped Screech, 159 Buff-fronted, 159 Burrowing, 159 Ferruginous Pygmy, 159 Great Horned, 157 Least Pygmy, 159 Mottled, 161 Rusty-barred, 161 Short-eared, 157 Spectacled, 161 Striped, 157 Stygian, 157 Tawny-browed, 161 Tropical Screech, 159 Oystercatcher, American, 115

Pipit Hellmayr’s, 337 Ochre-breasted, 337 Yellowish, 337 Piprites Black-capped, 315 Wing-barred, 313 Plover American Golden, 117 Black-bellied, 117 Collared, 117 Pied, 115 Semipalmated, 117 Two-banded, 116 Wilson’s, 116 Plovercrest Green-crowned, 189 Violet-crowned, 189 Pochard Rosy-billed, 51 Southern, 51 Poorwill, Ocellated, 167 Potoo Common, 163 Great, 163 Long-tailed, 163 White-winged, 163 Prion Antarctic, 58 Slender-billed, 59 Puffbird Buff-bellied, 199 Crescent-chested, 199 Spot-backed, 199 Swallow-winged, 201 White-eared, 199 Purpletuft, Buff-throated, 319

Sapphire Blue-chinned, 185 Gilded, 185 Rufous-throated, 185 White-chinned, 185 Schiffornis Greenish, 313 Thrush-like, 313 Screamer Horned, 45 Southern, 44 Scythebill Black-billed, 219 Red-billed, 219 Seedeater Black-bellied, 381 Blackish-blue, 375 Buffy-fronted, 379 Chestnut, 381 Coppery, 381 Double-collared, 379 Dubois’s, 376 Lined, 377 Parakeet Pearly-bellied, 381 Golden-capped, 143 Plumbeous, 381 Maroon-bellied, 143 Rusty-collared, 377 Maroon-faced, 143 Tawny-bellied, 381 Ochre-marked, 143 Temminck’s, 379 Peach-fronted, 143 Tropeiro, 380 Plain, 145 White-bellied, 379 White-eyed, 141 White-throated, 379 Yellow-chevroned, 145 Yellow-bellied, 377 Parrot Seedfinch Blue-bellied, 149 Chestnut-bellied, 373 Pileated, 147 Great-billed, 373 Reichenow’s, 147 Seedsnipe, Least, 118 Scaly-headed, 147 Seriema, Red-legged, 33 Parrotlet Sharpbill, 319 Blue-winged, 145 Quail, Spot-winged Wood, 39 Shearwater Brown-backed, 145 Quail-Dove Audubon’s, 61 Golden-tailed, 145 Ruddy, 139 Cape Verde, 60 Parula, Tropical, 345 Violaceous, 139 Cory’s, 60 Pauraque, 169 Great, 61 Penguin, Magellanic, 61 Rail Manx, 61 Peppershrike, Rufous-browed, Blackish, 109 Sooty, 60 343 Gray-necked Wood, 111 Shoveler, Red, 49 Petrel Little Wood, 111 Sirystes, Eastern, 299 Atlantic, 58 Mangrove, 109 Siskin Blue, 58 Plumbeous, 109 Hooded, 393 Cape, 59 Slaty-breasted Wood, 111 Yellow-faced, 392 Leach’s Storm, 60 Speckled, 107 Skimmer, Black, 131 Southern Giant, 58 Spotted, 109 Skua Spectacled, 59 Reedfinch, Long-tailed, 385 Chilean, 132 Trindade, 59 Rhea, Greater, 33 South Polar, 132 White-bellied Storm, 61 Ruby, Brazilian, 181 Snipe White-chinned, 59 Ruff, 122 Giant, 119 Wilson’s Storm, 61 Rushbird, Wren-like, 228 South American, 119 Pewee, Tropical, 291 South American Painted, Phalarope, Wilson’s, 122 Sabrewing, Gray-breasted, 178 119 Piculet Saltator Softtail, Striated, 237 Golden-spangled, 207 Black-throated, 371 Solitaire, Rufous-brown, 339 Ochre-collared, 207 Buff-throated, 371 Spadebill Spotted, 207 Green-winged, 371 Russet-winged, 287 White-barred, 207 Thick-billed, 371 White-throated, 287 White-wedged, 207 Sanderling, 125 Sparrow Pigeon Sandpiper Grassland, 387 Pale-vented, 135 Buff-breasted, 120 Half-collared, 389 Picazuro, 135 Least, 125 House, 389 Plumbeous, 135 Pectoral, 125 Pectoral, 389 Scaled, 135 Semipalmated, 125 Rufous-collared, 389 Piha Solitary, 123 Saffron-billed, 389 Cinnamon-vented, 323 Spotted, 123 Spinetail Screaming, 323 Stilt, 123 Pale-breasted, 227 Pintail Terek, 120 Sooty-fronted, 227 White-cheeked, 49 Upland, 121 Spix’s, 227 Yellow-billed, 49 White-rumped, 125 Cinereous-breasted, 227

Bahia, 227 Chotoy, 231 Gray-bellied, 229 Itatiaia, 231 Ochre-cheeked, 229 Olive, 229 Pallid, 229 Rufous-capped, 227 Rusty-backed, 229 Yellow-chinned, 229 Spoonbill, Roseate, 73 Starthroat Blue-tufted, 180 Stripe-breasted, 181 Stilt Black-necked, 114 White-backed, 115 Stork Maguari, 73 Wood, 73 Streamcreeper, Sharp-tailed, 241 Suiriri, Campo, 269 Sungem, Horned, 189 Sungrebe, 113 Swallow American Cliff, 329 Barn, 329 Black-collared, 330 Blue-and-white, 331 Chilean, 330 Southern Rough-winged, 331 Tawny-headed, 331 White-rumped, 331 White-thighed, 331 White-winged, 331 Swan, Black-necked, 45 Swift Biscutate, 173 Gray-rumped, 175 Great Dusky, 173 Lesser Swallow-tailed, 175 Neotropical Palm, 175 Sick’s, 175 Sooty, 173, 175 White-collared, 173 Tachuri Bearded, 275 Gray-backed, 275 Tanager Azure-shouldered, 357 Black-backed, 355 Black-faced, 365 Black-goggled, 363 Blue-and-yellow, 357 Brassy-breasted, 353 Brazilian, 359 Brown, 363 Burnished-buff, 355 Cherry-throated, 349 Chestnut-backed, 355 Chestnut-headed, 365 Cinnamon, 365 Diademed, 363 Fawn-breasted, 357 Flame-crested, 361 Gilt-edged, 353 Golden-chevroned, 359 Gray-headed, 369 Green-headed, 353 Guira, 349 Hooded, 349 Lowland Hepatic, 369 Magpie, 367

405

Olive-green, 363 Orange-headed, 349 Palm, 359 Red-crowned Ant, 369 Red-necked, 353 Ruby-crowned, 361 Rufous-headed, 349 Sayaca, 357 Scarlet-throated, 361 Shrike-like, 365 Silver-beaked, 359 Silver-breasted, 355 Swallow, 353 White-bellied, 355 White-lined, 361 White-rumped, 365 Yellow-backed, 349 Tapaculo Bahia, 265 Marsh, 265 Mouse-colored, 265 Rock, 265 White-breasted, 265 Teal Blue-winged, 49 Brazilian, 47 Ringed, 51 Silver, 51 Yellow-billed, 49 Tern Arctic, 128 Black, 128 Cabot’s, 131 Common, 129 Gull-billed, 129 Large-billed, 131 Least, 128 Royal, 131 Snowy-crowned, 129 Sooty, 133 South American, 129

Yellow-billed, 129 White, 132 Thornbird Greater, 233 Orange-breasted, 233 Orange-eyed, 233 Rufous-fronted, 233 Thorntail, Black-bellied, 191 Thrush Cocoa, 341 Creamy-bellied, 341 Eastern Slaty, 339 Pale-breasted, 341 Rufous-bellied, 341 Swainson’s, 341 White-necked, 339 Yellow-legged, 339 Tinamou Brown, 39 Dwarf, 35 Little, 39 Red-winged, 35 Small-billed, 39 Solitary, 37 Tataupa, 39 Undulated, 37 Variegated, 37 Yellow-legged, 37 Tit-Spinetail, Araucaria, 231 Tityra Black-crowned, 309 Black-tailed, 309 Tody-flycatcher Common, 285 Ochre-faced, 285 Rusty-fronted, 285 Smoky-fronted, 285 Yellow-lored, 285 Tody-tyrant Buff-breasted, 281

Eye-ringed, 283 Fork-tailed, 283 Hangnest, 283 Pearly-vented, 283 Stripe-necked, 283 Topaz, Ruby, 183 Toucan Channel-billed, 205 Green-billed, 205 Toco, 205 Toucanet Saffron, 203 Spot-billed, 203 Treehunter Pale-browed, 237 Sharp-billed, 235 Trogon Black-throated, 193 Blue-crowned, 193 Collared, 193 Green-backed, 193 Surucua, 193 Tropicbird Red-billed, 55 Red-tailed, 54 White-tailed, 54 Troupial Campo, 399 Orange-backed, 399 Turnstone, Ruddy, 117 Tyrannulet Bahia, 277 Bay-ringed, 277 Gray-capped, 267 Greenish, 267 Mottle-cheeked, 279 Oustalet’s, 277 Planalto, 267 Restinga, 279 Rough-legged, 267 São Paulo, 277 Serra do Mar, 277 White-lored, 267 Yellow, 279 Tyrant Black-backed Water, 295 Blue-billed Black, 297 Brown-breasted Bamboo, 281 Cattle, 307 Cock-tailed, 295 Crested Black, 297 Drab-breasted Bamboo, 281 Eared Pygmy, 283 Long-tailed, 297 Many-colored Rush, 279 Masked Water, 295 Rufous-sided Pygmy, 275 Sharp-tailed Grass, 275 Shear-tailed Gray, 293 Southern Bristle, 277 Spectacled, 295 Streamer-tailed, 293 Tawny-crowned Pygmy, 275 Velvety Black, 297 White-headed Marsh, 295 Yellow-browed, 307 Tyrant-manakin Pale-bellied, 313 Serra do Mar, 313 Wied’s, 310

Vireo, Red-eyed, 343 Visorbearer, Hyacinth, 189 Vulture Black, 75 King, 75 Lesser Yellow-headed, 75 Turkey, 75 Warbler Blackburnian, 344 Blackpoll, 345 Cerulean, 344 Flavescent, 345 Golden-crowned, 347 Riverbank, 347 White-bellied, 347 White-rimmed, 347 White-striped, 347 Waxbill, Common, 393 Whimbrel, 121 Willet, 121 Woodcreeper Buff-throated, 223 Narrow-billed, 221 Olivaceous, 219 Plain-winged, 219 Planalto, 223 Scaled, 221 Scalloped, 221 Southern Lesser, 221 Straight-billed, 223 Wedge-billed, 219 White-throated, 223 Woodnymph Fork-tailed, 183 Violet-capped, 183 Woodpecker Blond-crested, 215 Checkered, 213 Cream-colored, 215 Crimson-crested, 217 Golden-green, 211 Green-barred, 213 Helmeted, 215 Lineated, 217 Little, 209 Red-stained, 209 Ringed, 215 Robust, 217 White, 213 White-spotted, 209 Yellow-browed, 211 Yellow-eared, 209 Yellow-fronted, 211 Yellow-throated, 211 Woodstar, Amethyst, 191 Wren Buff-breasted, 335 Grass, 335 Long-billed, 335 Moustached, 335 Southern House, 335 Thrush-like, 333 Xenops Plain, 235 Streaked, 235

Yellowfinch Grassland, 387 Stripe-tailed, 387 Yellowlegs Greater, 123 Lesser, 123 Veery, 338 Violetear, White-vented, 183 Yellowthroat, Southern, 345

406

Index of Portuguese Names abre-asa, 281 abre-asa-de-cabeça-cinza, 281 acauã, 101 acrobata, 231 águia-chilena, 93 águia-cinzenta, 93 águia-pescadora, 77 albatroz-de-nariz-amarelo, 57 albatroz-de-sobrancelha, 57 alegrinho, 273 alma-de-gato, 155 alma-de-mestre, 61 amarelinho-do-junco, 279 anambé-de-asa-branca, 323 anambé-de-boina, 309 anambé-de-rabo-preto, 309 anambezinho, 319 ananaí, 47 andarilho, 241 andorinha-azul, 329 andorinha-de-bando, 329 andorinha-de-dorso-branco, 331 andorinha-de-dorso-canela, 329 andorinha-do-barranco, 329 andorinha-do-campo, 329 andorinha-do-rio, 331 andorinha-grande, 329 andorinha-morena, 331 andorinha-pequena, 331 andorinha-serradora, 331 andorinhão-cinza, 175 andorinhão-de-coleira, 173 andorinhão-de-coleira-falha, 173 andorinhão-do-buriti, 175 andorinhão-do-temporal, 175 andorinhão-estofador, 175 anhuma, 45 anu-branco, 153 anu-coroca, 155 anumará, 395 anu-preto, 155 apuim-de-costas-pretas, 145 apuim-de-rabo-amarelo, 145 araçari-banana, 203 araçari-castanho, 203 araçari-de-bico-branco, 203 araçaripoca, 203 aracuã-de-barriga-branca, 41 aracuã-escamado, 41 arapaçu-beija-flor, 219 arapaçu-de-bico-branco, 223 arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha, 219 arapaçu-de-bico-torto, 219 arapaçu-de-gargantaamarela, 223 arapaçu-do-cerrado, 221 arapaçu-escamado, 221 arapaçu-escamado-do-sul, 221 arapaçu-grande, 223 arapaçu-liso, 219 arapaçu-luzia, 223

arapaçu-rajado, 221 arapaçu-verde, 219 arapapá, 65 araponga, 325 araponga-do-horto, 319 arara-canindé, 141 ariramba-preta, 201 arredio-do-rio, 229 arredio-do-sul, 229 arredio-pálido, 229 asa-branca, 135 asa-de-telha, 397 asa-de-telha-pálido, 397 assanhadinho, 287 assanhadinho-de-rabo-preto, 287 atobá, 57 atobá-grande, 57 avinhado, 373 avoante, 139 azulão, 373 azulinho, 373

beija-flor-de-papo-branco, 187 beija-flor-de-testa-roxa, 183 beija-flor-de-topete-roxo, 189 beija-flor-de-topete-verde, 189 beija-flor-de-ventre-roxo, 183 beija-flor-de-veste-preta, 183 beija-flor-dourado, 185 beija-flor-estrelinha, 191 beija-flor-fada, 189 beija-flor-preto, 181 beija-flor-rajado, 177 beija-flor-roxo, 185 beija-flor-rubi, 181 beija-flor-safira, 185 beija-flor-tesoura, 181 beija-flor-variado, 187 benedito, 211 bentevi, 303 bentevi-de-chapéu, 305 bacurau, 169 bentevi-pequeno, 305 bacurau-chintã, 171 bentevi-pirata, 305 bacurau-da-telha, 171 bentevi-rajado, 305 bacurau-de-asa-branca, 171 bentevizinho, 303 bacurau-de-asa-fina, 165 bentevizinho-de-asa-ruiva, bacurau-de-rabo-manchado, 303 169 bentevizinho-do-brejo, 303 bacurau-norte-americano, besourinho-de-bico165 vermelho, 185 bacurau-ocelado, 167 bichoita, 231 bacurau-rabo-de-seda, 167 bico-chato-amarelo, 289 bacurau-tesoura, 169 bico-chato-de-cabeça-cinza, bacurauzinho, 165 289 bacurauzinho-da-caatinga, bico-chato-de-orelha-preta, 171 289 bagageiro, 273 bico-chato-grande, 289 balança-rabo-bicudo, 337 bico-de-agulha, 201 balança-rabo-canela, 179 bico-de-brasa, 197 balança-rabo-de-bico-torto, bico-de-lacre, 393 179 bico-de-veludo, 365 balança-rabo-de-chapéu, bico-grosso, 371 337 bico-reto-verde, 181 balança-rabo-mascarado, bico-virado-carijó, 235 337 bico-virado-miúdo, 235 bandeirinha, 393 bicudo, 373 bandoleta, 365 bigodinho, 377 barbudinho, 277 biguá, 55 barranqueiro-de-olhobiguatinga, 55 branco, 237 birro, 213 barulhento, 275 borboletinha-baiana, 277 batuíra-de-bando, 117 borboletinha-do-mato, 279 batuíra-de-coleira, 117 borralhara-assobiadora, 243 batuiruçu, 117 borralhara-de-topete, 243 batuiruçu-cinza, 117 brejal, 379 batuqueiro, 371 beija-flor-bandeirinha, 191 cabeça-branca, 317 beija-flor-cinza, 179 cabeça-encarnada, 315 beija-flor-de-barriga-branca, cabeça-seca, 73 187 cabecinha-castanha, 365 beija-flor-de-bico-curvo, 185 cabeçudo, 281 beija-flor-de-canto, 183 caboclinho, 381 beija-flor-de-garganta-azul, caboclinho-branco, 381 185 caboclinho-de-barriga-preta, beija-flor-de-garganta-verde, 381 187 caboclinho-de-barrigabeija-flor-de-gravata-verde, vermelha, 381 189 caboclinho-de-chapéu-cinza, beija-flor-de-papo-azul, 187 381

caburé, 159 caburé-canela, 159 caburé-miudinho, 159 cais-cais, 391 calcinha-branca, 331 calhandra-de-três-rabos, 333 cambacica, 345 cambada-de-chaves, 355 caminheiro-foguetinho, 337 caminheiro-grande, 337 caminheiro-zumbidor, 337 campainha-azul, 375 canário-da-terra, 387 canário-do-brejo, 385 canário-do-campo, 385 canário-do-mato, 345 canário-rasteiro, 387 canário-tipiu, 387 caneleirinho-de-chapéu, 315 caneleiro, 301 caneleiro-bordado, 311 caneleiro-castanho, 311 caneleiro-de-boné, 309 caneleiro-preto, 311 caneleiro-verde, 311 capacetinho-cinza, 383 capitão-castanho, 301 capitão-de-saíra, 301 capitão-de-saíra-amarelo, 301 caracoleiro, 81 carão, 71 caraúna, 71 carcará, 99 cardeal, 367 cardeal-do-banhado, 399 carqueja-de-bico-manchado, 113 carrapateiro, 99 carretão-do-brejo, 397 casaca-de-couro, 225 catatau, 333 catirumbava, 363 catraca, 281 cauré, 103 cavalaria, 367 chauá, 149 chibante, 319 chibum, 269 chifre-de-ouro, 189 chimango, 99 chincoã-pequeno, 155 choca-barrada, 245 choca-da-mata, 247 choca-da-taquara, 245 choca-de-asa-vermelha, 247 choca-de-chapéu-vermelho, 247 choca-de-sooretama, 247 choca-do-nordeste, 245 choca-listrada, 245 chocão-carijó, 243 choquinha-carijó, 257 choquinha-chumbo, 249 choquinha-cinza, 251 choquinha-da-serra, 257 choquinha-de-asa-ferrugem, 249 choquinha-de-dorso-ruivo, 257

407

choquinha-de-flancoprateado, 251 choquinha-de-gargantapintada, 251 choquinha-de-peito-pintado, 249 choquinha-de-rabo-cintado, 251 choquinha-lisa, 249 choquinha-pequena, 251 chorão, 379 choró-boi, 245 chorona-cinza, 319 chororó-cinzento, 259 chorozinho-bicudo, 255 chorozinho-de-asa-vermelha, 255 chorozinho-de-boné, 255 chorozinho-de-chapéu-preto, 255 chupa-dente, 263 chupim, 395 chupim-do-brejo, 399 chupim-picumã, 395 cigarra-bambu, 375 cigarra-do-campo, 365 cigarra-do-coqueiro, 377 cigarra-verdadeira, 379 cigarrinha-da-taquara, 375 cisne-de-pescoço-preto, 45 cisqueiro, 233 cochicho, 231 codorna-comum, 35 codorna-do-nordeste, 35 codorna-mineira, 35 coleirinha, 379 coleirinho, 379 coleiro-baiano, 377 coleiro-do-brejo, 377 colhereiro, 73 corocoró, 71 corocoxó, 321 corruíra, 335 corruíra-do-campo, 335 corrupião, 399 corucão, 165 coruja-buraqueira, 159 coruja-do-mato, 161 coruja-listrada, 161 corujão-orelhudo, 157 coruja-orelhuda, 157 coruja-preta, 161 corujinha-do-mato, 159 corujinha-sapo, 159 cravina, 375 crejoá, 323 cricrió, 323 cuitelão, 201 cuiú-cuiú, 147 curiango, 169 curiango-do-banhado, 171 curiango-tesourão, 169 curica, 147 curicaca, 69 curió, 373 curutié, 229 cuspidor-mascarado, 263 ema, 33 encontro, 399 enferrujado, 291 entufado, 265 entufado-baiano, 265 estalador, 285 estalinho, 277 estrelinha-preta, 229

408

faigão-de-bico-fino, 59 falcão-críptico, 101 falcão-de-coleira, 103 falcão-de-peito-laranja, 103 falcão-peregrino, 103 ferreirinho-de-cara-parda, 285 ferreirinho-de-testa-parda, 285 ferro-velho, 391 figuinha-de-rabo-castanho, 351 figuinha-do-mangue, 351 filipe, 291 fim-fim, 391 flamingo-chileno, 73 flautim, 313 flautim-marrom, 313 fogo-apagou, 137 formigueiro-assobiador, 259 formigueiro-da-grota, 259 formigueiro-da-serra, 253 formigueiro-de-barriga-preta, 253 formigueiro-de-cabeça-preta, 253 formigueiro-de-rabo-ruivo, 259 formigueiro-do-litoral, 253 formigueiro-pardo, 253 formigueiro-vermelho, 253 fragata, 55 frango-d’água-azul, 113 frango-d’água-carijó, 107 frango-d’água-comum, 113 frango-d’água-pequeno, 113 freirinha, 295 fruxu, 313 fruxu-do-cerradão, 313 fura-barreira, 237 furriel, 369 gaivota-de-cabeça-cinza, 127 gaivota-de-franklin, 127 gaivota-maria-velha, 127 gaivotão, 127 galinha-do-mato, 261 galito, 295 galo-de-campina, 367 garça-azul, 67 garça-branca-grande, 67 garça-branca-pequena, 67 garça-moura, 69 garça-real, 69 garça-vaqueira, 67 garibaldi, 397 garrincha-chorona, 231 garrinchão-bicudo, 335 garrinchão-de-barrigavermelha, 335 garrinchão-pai-avô, 335 gaturamo-dourado, 391 gaturamo-rei, 393 gaturamo-verdadeiro, 391 gavião-asa-de-telha, 89 gavião-bombachinha, 79 gavião-bombachinha-grande, 83 gavião-caboclo, 91 gavião-caburé, 101 gavião-caramujeiro, 81 gavião-caranguejeiro, 91 gavião-carijó, 87 gavião-de-cabeça-cinza, 85

gavião-de-penacho, 95 gavião-de-rabo-branco, 89 gavião-de-rabo-curto, 87 gavião-de-sobre-branco, 87 gavião-do-banhado, 81 gavião-miudinho, 83 gavião-miúdo, 83 gavião-papa-gafanhoto, 89 gavião-pato, 95 gavião-pedrês, 87 gavião-pega-macaco, 95 gavião-peneira, 77 gavião-pernilongo, 85 gavião-pombo-grande, 85 gavião-pombo-pequeno, 85 gavião-preto, 93 gavião-relógio, 101 gavião-ripina, 79 gavião-tesoura, 77 gavião-urubu, 89 gavião-velho, 91 gaviãozinho, 77 gibão-de-couro, 301 golinho, 379 gralha-azul, 327 gralha-cancã, 327 gralha-do-campo, 327 gralha-do-mato, 327 gralhão, 99 graúna, 395 graveteiro, 233 grazina-de-trindade, 59 grimpeiro, 231 gritador, 299 guará, 71 guaracava-de-bico-curto, 271 guaracava-de-crista-branca, 271 guaracava-de-penacho, 271 guaracava-grande, 269 guaracavuçu, 291 guaxe, 401 harpia, 97 inhambu-anhangá, 37 inhambu-carapé, 35 inhambu-chintã, 39 inhambu-chororó, 39 inhambuguaçu, 39 ipecuá, 249 iraúna-grande, 395 irerê, 47 irré, 299 jaburu, 73 jaçanã, 119 jacu-estalo, 155 jacuguaçu, 41 jacupemba, 41 jacutinga, 43 jandaia-de-testa-vermelha, 143 jaó, 37 jaó-zabelê, 37 japacanim, 333 japu, 401 joão-baiano, 227 joão-barbudo, 199 joão-bobo, 199 joão-botina-da-mata, 233 joão-botina-do-brejo, 233 joão-corta-pau, 167 joão-de-barro, 225 joão-de-pau, 233

joão-grilo, 227 joão-pinto, 399 joão-pobre, 273 joão-porca, 241 joão-teneném, 227 joão-velho, 215 juriti-da-mata, 139 juriti-gemedeira, 139 juriti-pupu, 139 juruva, 197 juruviara, 343 lavadeira-de-cara-branca, 295 lavadeira-mascarada, 295 lenheiro-do-cipó, 233 limpa-folha-coroado, 239 limpa-folha-de-testa-baia, 239 limpa-folha-do-brejo, 239 limpa-folha-miúdo, 235 limpa-folha-ocráceo, 239 maçaricão, 121 maçarico-branco, 125 maçarico-de-asa-branca, 121 maçarico-de-bico-virado, 121 maçarico-de-colete, 125 maçarico-de-perna-amarela, 123 maçarico-de-sobre-branco, 125 maçarico-do-campo, 121 maçarico-pernilongo, 123 maçarico-pintado, 123 maçarico-rasteirinho, 125 maçarico-ruivo, 121 maçarico-solitário, 123 maçarico-tititiu, 123 maçariquinho, 125 macuco, 37 macuquinho, 265 macuquinho-baiano, 265 macuquinho-da-várzea, 265 macuru, 199 macuru-de-barriga-castanha, 199 maguari, 73 maitaca-de-barriga-azul, 147 maitaca-verde, 147 mandrião-parasítico, 133 mandrião-pomarino, 133 maracanã, 141 maracanã-do-buriti, 141 maracanã-pequena, 141 maria-amarelinha, 279 maria-branca, 293 maria-cabeçuda, 289 maria-cavaleira, 299 maria-cavaleira-pequena, 299 maria-corruíra, 275 maria-da-copa, 273 maria-da-restinga, 279 maria-de-barro-de-pébranco, 225 maria-de-barro-de-pé-preto, 225 maria-de-crista-dourada, 273 maria-do-nordeste, 281 maria-é-dia, 269 maria-faceira, 69 maria-leque-do-sudeste, 287

maria-pequena, 277 maria-preta-de-bico-azul, 297 maria-preta-de-gargantavermelha, 297 maria-preta-de-topete, 297 maria-tola, 299 mariquita, 345 mariquita-de-perna-clara, 345 marreca-cabocla, 47 marreca-caneleira, 47 marreca-colhereira, 49 marreca-cricri, 51 marreca-de-asa-azul, 49 marreca-de-bico-roxo, 53 marreca-de-coleira, 51 marrecão, 51 marreca-parda, 49 marreca-pardinha, 49 marreca-preta, 51 marreca-toicinho, 49 martim-pescador-da-mata, 195 martim-pescador-grande, 195 martim-pescador-miudinho, 195 martim-pescador-pequeno, 195 martim-pescador-verde, 195 matracão, 243 maxalalagá, 105 meia-lua-do-cerrado, 263 mergulhão, 53 mergulhão-grande, 53 mergulhão-pequeno, 53 mexeriqueira, 115 miudinho, 283 mocho-diabo, 157 mocho-do-banhado, 157 mosquitinho, 183 murucututu, 161 murucututu-pequeno, 161 mutum-de-penacho, 43 mutum-do-sudeste, 43 não-pode-parar, 277 narceja, 119 narceja-de-bico-torto, 119 narcejão, 119 neinei, 303 noivinha, 293 noivinha-branca, 293 olho-de-ouro, 283 olho-falso, 281 painho-de-barriga-branca, 61 papagaio-de-cara-roxa, 149 papagaio-de-peito-roxo, 149 papagaio-moleiro, 149 papagaio-verdadeiro, 147 papa-lagarta-canela, 151 papa-lagarta-cinzento, 151 papa-lagarta-de-asavermelha, 151 papa-lagarta-de-euler, 151 papa-mosca-de-olheira, 277 papa-mosca-do-campo, 275 papa-mosca-estrela, 283 papa-piri, 279 papa-taoca-do-sul, 259 papinho-amarelo, 313 pararu, 137

pardal, 389 pardela-de-asa-larga, 61 pardela-de-bico-preto, 61 pardela-de-óculos, 59 pardelão-prateado, 59 pardela-preta, 59 pardela-sombria, 61 pariri, 139 pássaro-preto, 395 patativa, 381 patinho, 287 patinho-gigante, 287 pato-de-crista, 45 pato-do-mato, 45 pato-mergulhão, 51 pavó, 325 pedreiro-do-espinhaço, 225 peitica, 305 peito-pinhão, 383 peixe-frito, 153 peixe-frito-pavão, 153 perdiz, 35 periquitão-maracanã, 141 periquito-de-asa-amarela, 145 periquito-rei, 143 periquito-verde, 145 pernilongo-de-costasbrancas, 115 petrim, 227 pia-cobra, 345 picaparra, 113 pica-pau-amarelo, 215 pica-pau-anão-barrado, 207 pica-pau-anão-de-coleira, 207 pica-pau-anão-de-pintasamarelas, 207 pica-pau-anão-escamado, 207 pica-pau-anão-pintado, 207 pica-pau-branco, 213 pica-pau-bufador, 211 pica-pau-carijó, 213 pica-pau-chorão, 213 pica-pau-de-cabeçavermelha, 217 pica-pau-de-cara-canela, 215 pica-pau-de-coleira, 215 pica-pau-de-topetevermelho, 217 pica-pau-do-campo, 213 pica-pau-dourado, 211 pica-pau-dourado-escuro, 211 pica-pau-pequeno, 209 pica-pau-rei, 217 pica-pauzinho-avermelhado, 209 pica-pauzinho-carijó, 209 pica-pauzinho-de-testapintada, 209 pichororé, 227 pimentão, 373 pinguim-de-magalhães, 61 pintadinho, 257 pintassilgo, 393 pinto-d’água-carijó, 107 pinto-do-mato, 263 piolhinho, 267 piolhinho-chiador, 267 piolhinho-serrano, 267 piolhinho-verde, 267 pipira-da-taoca, 369 pipira-preta, 361

saíra-galega, 349 saíra-lagarta, 353 saíra-pérola, 355 saíra-preciosa, 355 saíra-sapucaia, 355 saíra-sete-cores, 353 saíra-viúva, 357 saí-verde, 351 sanã-amarela, 105 sanã-carijó, 107 sanã-castanha, 105 sanã-de-cara-ruiva, 105 sanã-do-capim, 107 sanã-parda, 105 sanã-vermelha, 105 sanhaço-cinza, 357 sanhaço-de-coleira, 365 sanhaço-de-encontroamarelo, 359 sanhaço-de-encontro-azul, 357 sanhaço-de-fogo, 369 sanhaço-do-coqueiro, 359 sanhaço-frade, 363 sanhaço-papa-laranja, 357 sanhaço-pardo, 363 quero-quero, 115 saracura-carijó, 109 quete, 383 saracura-do-banhado, 109 quiriquiri, 103 saracura-do-mangue, 111 saracura-do-mato, 111 rabo-amarelo, 237 saracura-lisa, 111 rabo-branco-canela, 177 rabo-branco-de-barba, 177 saracura-matraca, 109 rabo-branco-de-margarette, saracura-sanã, 109 saudade, 325 177 saudade-de-asa-cinza, 325 rabo-branco-mirim, 179 sauveiro-do-norte, 79 rabo-branco-miúdo, 179 rabo-branco-pequeno, 179 sebinho-rajado, 283 seriema, 33 rabo-de-espinho, 191 sertanejo, 271 rabo-de-palha-de-bicosiriri, 307 vermelho, 55 siriri-amarelo, 307 rabo-mole, 385 rapazinho-dos-velhos, 199 siriri-cavaleiro, 307 siriri-de-garganta-branca, relógio, 285 307 rendeira, 317 socó-boi, 63 risadinha, 273 rolinha-caldo-de-feijão, 137 socó-boi-baio, 63 rolinha-de-asa-canela, 137 socó-boi-escuro, 63 socó-do-mangue, 65 rolinha-picuí, 137 socó-dorminhoco, 65 socoí-amarelo, 63 sabiá-barranco, 341 socoí-vermelho, 63 sabiá-castanho, 339 socozinho, 65 sabiá-cica, 149 soldadinho, 317 sabiá-coleira, 339 soldado, 401 sabiá-da-mata, 341 sovi, 79 sabiá-da-praia, 333 suindara, 157 sabiá-de-óculos, 341 suiriri-cinza, 269 sabiá-do-banhado, 385 surucuá-de-barriga-amarela, sabiá-do-campo, 333 193 sabiá-ferreiro, 339 surucuá-de-barriga-vermelha, sabiá-laranjeira, 341 193 sabiá-pimenta, 321 surucuá-de-coleira, 193 sabiá-poca, 341 surucuá-grande-de-barrigasabiaúna, 339 amarela, 193 saci, 153 surucuá-variado, 193 saí-andorinha, 353 saí-azul, 351 tachuri-campainha, 283 saí-beija-flor, 351 talha-mar, 131 saí-de-perna-preta, 351 tangará, 317 saíra-amarela, 355 tangará-falso, 317 saíra-apunhalada, 349 tangará-rajado, 315 saíra-canário, 349 saíra-de-chapéu-preto, 349 tangarazinho, 315 tangurupará-de-cara-branca, saíra-de-lenço, 353 197 saíra-de-papo-preto, 349 tapaculo-pintado, 263 saíra-douradinha, 353 saíra-ferrugem, 349 tapaculo-preto, 265 pipira-vermelha, 359 pipuí, 229 piru-piru, 115 pitiguari, 343 piuí-boreal, 291 piuí-cinza, 291 pixoxó, 379 poiaeiro-de-sobrancelha, 267 polícia-inglesa-do-sul, 397 pomba-amargosa, 135 pomba-de-bando, 139 pomba-de-espelho, 137 pomba-do-cabo, 59 pomba-galega, 135 pomba-trocal, 137 príncipe, 291 pula-pula-assobiador, 347 pula-pula-coroado, 347 pula-pula-de-barriga-branca, 347 pula-pula-de-sobrancelha, 347 pula-pula-do-rio, 347

409

tapaculo-serrano, 265 taperuçu-preto, 173,175 taperuçu-velho, 173 tapicuru, 71 tauató-pintado, 83 tempera-viola, 371 teque-teque, 285 tesoura-cinza, 293 tesoura-do-brejo, 293 tesourão, 55 tesourinha, 307 tesourinha-da-mata, 321 tico-tico, 389 tico-tico-da-taquara, 383 tico-tico-de-bico-amarelo, 389 tico-tico-de-bico-preto, 389 tico-tico-do-banhado, 385 tico-tico-do-campo, 387 tico-tico-do-mato, 389 tico-tico-mascarado, 383 tico-tico-rei, 375 tiê-caburé, 361 tiê-de-topete, 363 tiê-do-mato-grosso, 369 tiê-galo, 361 tiê-preto, 361

410

tiê-sangue, 359 tietê-de-coroa, 319 tietinga, 367 tiriba, 143 tiriba-de-orelha-branca, 143 tiriba-grande, 143 tiririzinho-do-mato, 283 tiziu, 377 topetinho-magnífico, 191 topetinho-verde, 191 tororó, 285 tovaca-campainha, 261 tovaca-de-rabo-vermelho, 261 tovacuçu, 261 trepador-coleira, 239 trepador-quiete, 235 trepador-sobrancelha, 237 trepadorzinho, 235 três-potes, 111 tricolino, 279 tricolino-canela, 275 tricolino-de-dorso-cinza, 275 trinca-ferro, 371 trinta-réis-anão, 129 trinta-réis-boreal, 129 trinta-réis-das-rocas, 133 trinta-réis-de-bando, 131

trinta-réis-de-bico-preto, 129 trinta-réis-de-bico-vermelho, 129 trinta-réis-de-coroa-branca, 129 trinta-réis-escuro, 133 trinta-réis-grande, 131 trinta-réis-real, 131 tropeiro-da-serra, 323 trovoada, 257 trovoada-de-bertoni, 257 tucano-de-bico-preto, 205 tucano-de-bico-verde, 205 tucanuçu, 205 tucão, 269 tuim, 145 tuiuiú, 73 tuju, 167 tuque, 271 tururim, 39 turu-turu, 107 udu-de-coroa-azul, 197 uipí, 227 uiraçu-falso, 97 uirapuru-laranja, 315 uru, 39

urubu-de-cabeça-amarela, 75 urubu-de-cabeça-vermelha, 75 urubu-preto, 75 urubu-rei, 75 urubuzinho, 201 urutau, 163 urutau-de-asa-branca, 163 urutau-grande, 163 urutau-pardo, 163 verdinho-coroado, 343 verdinho-de-olho-cinza, 343 vira-folha, 241 vira-folha-de-peito-vermelho, 241 vira-folha-pardo, 241 vira-pedras, 117 vissiá, 299 vite-vite, 343 viuvinha, 297 viuvinha-de-óculos, 295 xexéu, 401 zidedê, 255

Index of Scientific Names abeillei, Orchesticus, 362 Accipiter, 82 Acrobatornis, 230 Actitis, 122 acuflavidus, Thalasseus, 130 acutipennis, Chordeiles, 164 Aegolius, 158 aenea, Chloroceryle, 194 aequinoctialis, Buteogallus, 90 aequinoctialis, Procellaria, 58 aestiva, Amazona, 146 aethereus, Nyctibius, 162 aethereus, Phaeton, 54 affinis, Suiriri, 268 affinis, Veniliornis, 208 Agelaioides, 396 Agelasticus, 396 ajaja, Platalea, 72 alba, Ardea, 66 alba, Calidris, 124 alba, Gygis, 132 alba, Tyto, 156 albescens, Synallaxis, 226 albicaudatus, Geranoetus, 88 albicollis, Leucochloris, 186 albicollis, Nyctidromus, 168 albicollis, Porzana, 106 albicollis, Turdus, 338 albicollis, Xiphocolaptes, 222 albifrons, Donacospiza, 384 albiventer, Fluvicola, 294 albiventer, Tachycineta, 330 albogularis, Sporophila, 378 albogularis, Tyrannus, 306 albonotatus, Buteo, 88 albosquamatus, Picumnus, 206 Alectrurus, 294 Alopochelidon, 330 Amadonastur, 84 amaurocephalus, Hylophilus, 342 amaurocephalus, Leptopogon, 280 amaurochalinus, Turdus, 340 Amaurolimnas, 110 Amaurospiza, 374 amaurotis, Anabacerthia, 234 Amazilia, 186 Amazona, 146, 148 amazona, Chloroceryle, 194 Amazonetta, 46 amazonica, Amazona, 146 ambiguus, Thamnophilus, 246 Amblyramphus, 398 americana, Chloroceryle, 194 americana, Mycteria, 72 americana, Rhea, 32 americanus, Coccyzus, 150 americanus, Ibycter, 98 amethystina, Calliphlox, 190 Ammodramus, 386 Anabacerthia, 234 Anabazenops, 238 Anas, 48, 50 angolensis, Sporophila, 372 angustirostris, Lepidocolaptes, 220 Anhima, 44 Anhinga, 54 anhinga, Anhinga, 54 ani, Crotophaga, 154 annumbi, Anumbius, 230 anomalus, Eleothreptus, 170 Anous, 132 Anthracothorax, 182

Anthus, 336 antillarum, Sternula, 128 Antilophia, 316 Antrostomus, 166 Anumbius, 230 Aphantochroa, 178 Ara, 140 aracari, Pteroglossus, 202 Aramides, 110 Aramus, 70 ararauna, Ara, 140 Aratinga, 142 araucuan, Ortalis, 40 Ardea, 66, 68 ardesiaca, Sporophila, 376 Arenaria, 116 ariel, Fregata, 54 armillata, Fulica, 112 arminjoniana, Pterodroma, 58 Arremon, 388 Arundinicola, 294 Asio, 156 Asthenes, 232 astrild, Estrilda, 392 ater, Merulaxis, 264 Athene, 158 atra, Pyriglena, 258 atra, Tijuca, 324 atratus, Coragyps, 74 atricapilla, Megascops, 158 atricapillus, Donacobius, 332 atricapillus, Herpsilochmus, 254 atricapillus, Philydor, 238 atricaudus, Myiobius, 286 atricilla, Leucophaeus, 126 atricollis, Saltator, 370 atropurpurea, Xipholena, 322 Atticora, 330 Attila, 300 Augastes, 188 aura, Cathartes, 74 aurantioatrocristatus, Griseotyrannus, 304 aurea, Eupsittula, 142 auricapillus, Aratinga, 142 auricularis, Myiornis, 282 auriculata, Zenaida, 138 aurifrons, Neopelma, 312 auritus, Heliothryx, 188 aurulentus, Piculus, 210 Automolus, 236 autumnalis, Dendrocygna, 46

Brachygalba, 200 brachyurus, Buteo, 86 brasiliana, Cercomacra, 258 brasilianum, Glaucidium, 158 brasilianus, Phalacrocorax, 54 brasiliensis, Amazona, 148 brasiliensis, Amazonetta, 46 brasiliensis, Tangara, 354 bresilius, Ramphocelus, 358 brissonii, Cyanocompsa, 372 Brotogeris, 144 Bubo, 156 Bubulcus, 66 buffoni, Circus, 80 burmeisteri, Phyllomyias, 266 burrovianus, Cathartes, 74 Busarellus, 90 Buteo, 86, 88 Buteogallus, 90, 92 Butorides, 64

Catharus, 340 caudacuta, Culicivora, 274 caudacutus, Sclerurus, 240 caudata, Chiroxiphia, 316 caudatus, Theristicus, 68 cayana, Dacnis, 350 cayana, Piaya, 154 cayana, Tangara, 354 cayana, Tityra, 308 cayanensis, Leptodon, 84 cayanensis, Myiozetetes, 302 cayanus, Hoploxypterus, 114 cayennensis, Mesembrinibis, 70 cayennensis, Panyptila, 174 cayennensis, Patagioenas, 134 cela, Cacicus, 400 Celeus, 214 Cercomacra, 258 Certhiaxis, 228 cabanisi, Poospiza, 382 cerulea, Dendroica, 344 cachinnans, Herpetotheres, chacuru, Nystalus, 198 100 Chaetura, 174 Cacicus, 400 chalybea, Euphonia, 390 caerulea, Egretta, 66 chalybea, Progne, 328 caerulea, Halobaena, 58 chalybeus, Lophornis, 190 caerulescens, Geranospiza, Chamaeza, 260 84 Charadrius, 116 caerulescens, Porphyrospiza, Charitospiza, 382 374 Chauna, 44 caerulescens, Sporophila, Chelidoptera, 200 378 chihi, Plegadis, 70 caerulescens, Thamnophilus, chilensis, Elaenia, 270 246 chilensis, Phoenicopterus, 72 caeruleus, Cyanocorax, 326 chilensis, Stercorarius, 132 caesius, Thamnomanes, 248 chilensis, Vanellus, 114 Cairina, 44 chimachima, Milvago, 98 cajaneus, Aramides, 110 chimango, Milvago, 98 Calidris, 120, 122, 124 chiriquensis, Elaenia, 268 Calliphlox, 190 chiriri, Brotogeris, 144 Callonetta, 50 Chiroxiphia, 316 Calonectris, 60 Chlidonias, 128 Calyptura, 318 Chlorestes, 184 campanisona, Chamaeza, chloricterus, Orthogonys, 362 260 chloris, Piprites, 312 Campephilus, 216 Chloroceryle, 194 campestris, Colaptes, 212 Chlorophanes, 350 Camptostoma obsoletum, Chlorophonia, 392 272 chloropterus, Ara, 140 Campylopterus, 178 chlororhynchos, Thalassarche Campylorhamphus, 218 56 Campylorhynchus, 332 Chlorostilbon, 184 canadensis, Caryothraustes, chlorotica, Euphonia, 390 badius, Agelaioides, 396 368 choliba, Megascops, 158 bahamensis, Anas, 48 candicans, Eleothreptus, 170 Chondrohierax, 80 bailloni, Pteroglossus, 202 candidus, Leuconerpes, 212 chopi, Gnorimopsar, 394 Bartramia, 120 caniceps, Myiopagis, 272 Chordeiles, 164 Baryphthengus, 196 Cantorchilus, 334 Chroicocephalus, 126 Basileuterus, 344, 346 canutus, Calidris, 120 chrysochloros, Piculus, 210 Batara, 242 capense, Daption, 58 Chrysolampis, 182 beckeri, Phylloscartes, 276 capensis, Zonotrichia, 388 chrysolophum, Neopelma, belcheri, Pachyptila, 58 capistratus, Thamnophilus, 312 beltoni, Sporophila, 380 244 Chrysomus, 396 Biatas, 244 capitata, Paroaria, 366 chrysops, Cyanocorax, 326 bicolor, Accipiter, 82 Capsiempis, 278 chrysopterus, Cacicus, 400 bicolor, Conirostrum, 350 capueira, Odontophorus, 38 chrysura, Hylocharis, 184 bicolor, Dendrocygna, 46 Caracara, 98 Ciccaba, 160 bidentatus, Harpagus, 78 carbo, Ramphocelus, 358 Cichlocolaptes, 236 bilophus, Heliactin, 188 Cariama, 32 Cichlopsis, 338 biscutata, Streptoprocne, 172 Carpornis, 320 Ciconia, 72 blumenbachii, Crax, 42 Caryothraustes, 368 Cinclodes, 224 bonariensis, Molothrus, 394 Casiornis, 300 cinerascens, Synallaxis, 228 bonariensis, Thraupis, 356 castaneus, Pachyramphus, cinerea, Batara, 242 boraquira, Nothura, 38 310 cinerea, Coccycua, 150 Botaurus, 62 castanotis, Pteroglossus, 202 cinerea, Poospiza, 382 bouvreuil, Sporophila, 380 Cathartes, 74 cinereiventris, Chaetura, 174

411

cinereum, Todirostrum, 284 cinereus, Contopus, 290 cinereus, Xenus, 120 cinereus, Xolmis, 292 cinnamomea, Sporophila, 380 cinnamomeus, Certhiaxis, 228 Circus, 80 cirratus, Picumnus, 206 cirrocephalus, Chroicocephalus, 126 cirrochloris, Aphantochroa, 178 Cissopis, 366 Cistothorus, 334 citrina, Sicalis, 386 clamator, Asio, 156 Claravis, 136 Clibanornis, 232 Clytolaema, 180 Cnemotriccus, 290 Coccycua, 150 Coccyzus, 150 Cochlearius, 64 cochlearius, Cochlearius, 64 cocoi, Ardea, 68 Coereba, 344 Colaptes, 212 Colibri, 182 collaris, Charadrius, 116 collaris, Sporophila, 376 collaris, Trogon, 192 colma, Formicarius, 260 Colonia, 296 colonus, Colonia, 296 Columbina, 136 Compsothraupis, 360 concolor, Amaurolimnas, 110 condita, Tijuca, 324 Conirostrum, 350 Conopias, 304 Conopophaga, 262 conspicillata, Procellaria, 58 contaminatus, Heliobletus, 234 Contopus, 290 cooperi, Contopus, 290 Coragyps, 74 cornuta, Anhima, 44 coronata, Paroaria, 366 coronatus, Harpyhaliaetus, 92 coronatus, Tachyphonus, 360 Coryphaspiza, 382 Coryphospingus, 374 Corythopis, 284 Cotinga, 322 Coturnicops, 106 Cranioleuca, 228 Crax, 42 cristata, Calyptura, 318 cristata, Cariama, 32 cristata, Elaenia, 270 cristata, Pseudoseisura, 224 cristatellus, Cyanocorax, 326 cristatus, Oxyruncus, 318 cristatus, Sakesphorus, 244 cristatus, Tachyphonus, 360 croconotus, Icterus, 398 Crotophaga, 154 cruentata, Pyrrhura, 142 Crypturellus, 36, 38 cucullata, Carpornis, 320 cucullatus, Coryphospingus, 374 Culicivora, 274 culicivorus, Basileuterus, 346 cunicularia, Athene, 158 Curaeus, 394 curucui, Trogon, 192 cyanea, Chlorophonia, 392 Cyanerpes, 350

412

cyaneus, Cyanerpes, 350 cyanirostris, Knipolegus, 296 cyanocephala, Euphonia, 392 cyanocephala, Tangara, 352 Cyanocompsa, 372 Cyanocorax, 326 cyanoleuca, Pygochelidon, 330 Cyanoloxia, 372 cyanomelaena, Tangara, 354 cyanomelas, Cyanocorax, 326 cyanopogon, Cyanocorax, 326 cyanoptera, Thraupis, 356 cyanopus, Agelasticus, 396 cyanoventris, Tangara, 352 cyanus, Hylocharis, 184 Cyclarhis, 342 Cygnus, 44 Cypseloides, 172, 174 Cypsnagra, 364 Dacnis, 350 dactylatra, Sula, 56 Daption, 58 decumanus, Psarocolius, 400 deiroleucus, Falco, 102 delalandi, Corythopis, 284 Dendrocincla, 218 Dendrocolaptes, 222 dendrocolaptoides, Clibanornis, 232 Dendrocygna, 46 Dendroica, 344 Dendroplex, 222 desmaresti, Tangara, 352 desolata, Pachyptila, 58 diadematus, Stephanophorus, 362 dicolorus, Ramphastos, 204 difficilis, Phylloscartes, 276 dimidiata, Syndactyla, 238 diodon, Harpagus, 78 diomedea, Calonectris, 60 diops, Hemitriccus, 280 Diopsittaca, 140 discors, Anas, 48 Discosura, 190 Dixiphia, 316 dohrnii, Glaucis, 178 doliatus, Thamnophilus, 244 Dolichonyx, 396 domesticus, Passer, 388 dominica, Pluvialis, 116 dominicana, Paroaria, 366 dominicanus, Larus, 126 dominicus, Nomonyx, 52 dominicus, Tachybaptus, 52 Donacobius, 332 Donacospiza, 384 Dromococcyx, 152 Drymophila, 256 Dryocopus, 214 dumicola, Polioptila, 336 Dysithamnus, 248 edwardsii, Calonectris, 60 Egretta, 66 Elaenia, 268, 270 Elanoides, 76 Elanus, 76 elegans, Laniisoma, 318 Eleoscytalopus, 264 Eleothreptus, 170 Emberizoides, 384 Embernagra, 384 Empidonomus, 304 erythronemius, Accipiter, 82 erythronotos, Formicivora, 252 erythrophthalma, Netta, 50 erythrophthalmus, Phacellodomus, 232

erythrops, Neocrex, 106 espinhacensis, Cinclodes, 224 Estrilda, 392 Eucometis, 368 eucosma, Charitospiza, 382 Eudocimus, 70 euleri, Coccyzus, 150 euleri, Lathrotriccus, 290 Eupetomena, 180 Euphonia, 390, 392 Eupsittula, 142 eurynome, Phaethornis, 176 Euscarthmus, 274 exilis, Ixobrychus, 62 exilis, Laterallus, 106 exilis, Picumnus, 206 eximius, Pogonotriccus, 276 falcinellus, Lepidocolaptes, 220 falcirostris, Sporophila, 378 Falco, 102 falcularius, Campylorhamphus, 218 falklandicus, Charadrius, 116 farinosa, Amazona, 148 fasciata, Neothraupis, 364 fasciatum, Tigrisoma, 62 fasciatus, Myiophobus, 290 fasciatus, Phyllomyias, 266 fasciicauda, Pipra, 314 fasciolata, Crax, 42 femoralis, Falco, 102 ferox, Myiarchus, 298 ferruginea, Drymophila, 256 ferruginea, Hirundinea, 300 ferrugineigula, Phacellodomus, 232 figulus, Furnarius, 224 fimbriata, Amazilia, 186 flammeus, Asio, 156 flava, Piranga, 368 flaveola, Capsiempis, 278 flaveola, Coereba, 344 flaveola, Sicalis, 386 flaveolus, Basileuterus, 344 flavescens, Celeus, 214 flavicollis, Hemithraupis, 348 flavifrons, Melanerpes, 210 flavigula, Piculus, 210 flavipes, Tringa, 122 flavipes, Turdus, 338 flavirostris, Anas, 48 flavirostris, Arremon, 388 flavirostris, Phibalura, 320 flavirostris, Porphyrula, 112 flaviventer, Porzana, 104 flaviventris, Pseudocolopteryx, 278 flaviventris, Tolmomyias, 288 flavogaster, Elaenia, 268 flavus, Celeus, 214 Florisuga, 180 fluminensis, Myrmotherula, 250 Fluvicola, 194 fonsecai, Acrobatornis, 230 forbesi, Curaeus, 394 forcipata, Macropsalis, 168 forficatus, Elanoides, 76 Formicarius, 260 Formicivora, 252 Forpus, 144 Fregata, 54 Fregetta, 60 fringillarius, Agelaioides, 396 frontalis, Pyrrhura, 142 frontalis, Sporophila, 378 frontalis, Synallaxis, 226 fucata, Alopochelidon, 330

Fulica, 112 fulica, Heliornis, 112 fuliginosus, Saltator, 372 fuliginosus, Tiaris, 376 Fulmarus, 58 fumifrons, Poecilotriccus, 284 fumigatus, Cypseloides, 172, 174 fumigatus, Turdus, 340 furcata, Thalurania, 182 furcatus, Hemitriccus, 282 furcifer, Heliomaster, 180 Furnarius, 224 fusca, Dendroica, 344 fusca, Florisuga, 180 fuscatus, Cnemotriccus, 290 fuscatus, Onychoprion, 132 fuscescens, Catharus, 340 fuscicollis, Calidris, 124 fuscus, Anabazenops, 238 fuscus, Xiphorhynchus, 220 gaimardii, Myiopagis, 272 Galbula, 200 galeata, Antilophia, 316 galeata, Gallinula, 112 galeatus, Dryocopus, 214 Galinulla, 112 Gallinago, 118 Gampsonyx, 76 Gelochelidon, 128 genei, Drymophila, 256 genibarbis, Pheugopedius, 334 geoffroyi, Claravis, 136 geoffroyi, Neomorphus, 154 georgica, Anas, 48 Geositta, 240 Geothlypis, 344 Geotrygon, 138 Geranoaetus, 88, 92 Geranospiza, 84 giganteus, Macronectes, 58 gilvus, Mimus, 332 glacialoides, Fulmarus, 58 Glaucidium, 158 Glaucis, 178 glaucocaerulea, Cyanoloxia, 372 glaucopis, Thalurania, 182 Glyphorynchus, 218 Gnorimopsar, 394 Grallaria, 260 grallaria, Fregetta, 60 grandis, Nyctibius, 162 gravis, Puffinus, 60 grisea, Formicivora, 252 griseicapillus, Sittasomus, 218 griseocapilla, Phyllomyias, 266 Griseotyrannus, 304 griseus, Nyctibius, 162 griseus, Puffinus, 60 guainumbi, Polyptmus, 184 guarauna, Aramus, 70 Gubernetes, 292 guianensis, Morphnus, 96 Guira guira, 152 guira, Hemithraupis, 348 guirahuro, Pseudoleistes, 398 gujanensis, Cyclarhis, 342 gularis, Myrmotherula, 250 guttatus, Hypoedaleus, 242 guttatus, Psilorhamphus, 262 guttatus, Xiphorhynchus, 222 Gygis, 132 Habia, 368 haemastica, Limosa, 120 Haematopus, 114

haemorrhous, Cacicus, 400 haliaetus, Pandion, 76 Halobaena, 58 Haplospiza, 374 Harpagus, 78 Harpia, 96 Harpyhaliaetus, 92 harpyja, Harpia, 96 harrisii, Aegolius, 158 Heliactin, 188 Heliobletus, 234 Heliomaster, 180 Heliornis, 112 Heliothryx, 188 hellmayri, Anthus, 336 Hemithraupis, 348 Hemitriccus, 280, 282 herbicola, Emberizoides, 384 Herpetotheres, 100 Herpsilochmus, 254 Heterospizias, 90 Himantopus, 114 himantopus, Calidris, 122 hirsutus, Glaucis, 178 hirundinacea, Cypsnagra, 364 hirundinacea, Sterna, 128 hirundinaceus, Nyctipolus, 170 Hirundinea, 300 Hirundo, 328 hirundo, Sterna, 128 holosericeus, Amblyramphus, 398 Hoploxypterus, 114 huhula, Ciccaba, 160 humeralis, Ammodramus, 386 Hydropsalis, 168 Hylocharis, 184 Hylocryptus, 236 Hylopezus, 262 hylophila, Ciccaba, 160 Hylophilus, 342 Hymenops, 294 Hypoedaleus, 242 hypoleucus, Basileuterus, 346 hypopyrra, Laniocera, 318 hypospodia, Synallaxis, 226 hypoxantha, Sporophila, 380 ibis, Bubulcus, 66 Ibycter, 98 icterophrys, Satrapa, 306 Icterus, 398 Ictinia, 78 idaliae, Phaethornis, 178 Ilicura, 314 incerta, Pterodroma, 58 inda, Chloroceryle, 194 indigoticus, Eleoscytalopus, 264 inerme, Ornithion, 266 infuscatus, Phimosus, 70 inquisitor, Tityra, 308 interpres, Arenaria, 116 involucris, Ixobrychus, 62 Iodopleura, 318 iraiensis, Scytalopus, 264 irupero, Xolmis, 292 Ixobrychus, 62 Jabiru, 72 Jacamaralcyon, 200 Jacana, 118 jacana, Jacana, 118 jacarina, Volatinia, 376 jacutinga, Pipile, 42 jamacaii, Icterus, 398 Knipolegus, 296 koeniswaldiana, Pulsatrix, 160 kronei, Phylloscartes, 278

lacernulatus, Amadonastur, 84 lactea, Amazilia, 186 lactea, Polioptila, 336 lalandi, Stephanoxis, 188 langsdorffi, Discosura, 190 Laniisoma, 318 Laniocera, 318 lanioides, Lipaugus, 322 largipennis, Campylopterus, 178 Larus, 126 lateralis, Poospiza, 382 Laterallus, 104, 106 Lathrotriccus, 290 latirostris, Poecilotriccus, 284 leachii, Mackenziaena, 242 Legatus, 304 Lepidocolaptes, 220 Leptasthenura, 230 Leptodon, 84 Leptopogon, 280 Leptotila, 138 lepturus, Phaeton, 54 Lessonia, 294 leucoblepharus, Basileuterus, 346 leucocephala, Arundinicola, 294 Leucochloris, 186 leucogaster, Amazilia, 186 leucogaster, Sula, 56 leucogenys, Cichlopsis, 338 leucomelas, Turdus, 340 Leuconerpes, 212 Leucophaeus, 126 leucophaius, Legatus, 304 leucophrus, Cichlocolaptes, 236 leucophrys, Basileuterus, 346 leucophrys, Callonetta, 50 leucophthalmus, Automolus, 236 leucophthalmus, Psittacara, 140 leucoptera, Fulica, 112 leucoptera, Pyriglena, 258 leucoptera, Sporophila, 378 leucopterus, Nyctibius, 162 leucopus, Furnarius, 224 leucopyga, Tachycineta, 330 leucopyrrhus, Laterallus, 104 leucorhoa, Oceanodroma, 60 leucorrhoa, Tachycineta, 330 leucorrhous, Buteo, 86 leucoryphus, Platyrinchus, 286 leucotis, Cantorchilus, 334 leucotis, Pyrrhura, 142 leucurus, Elanus, 76 leverianus, Cissopis, 366 lherminieri, Puffinus, 60 lichtensteini, Philydor, 238 lictor, Philohydor, 302 Limosa, 120 lineata, Conopophaga, 262 lineatum, Tigrisoma, 62 lineatus, Dryocopus, 216 lineola, Sporophila, 376 Lipaugus, 322 littoralis, Formicivora, 252 Lochmias, 240 loddigesii, Stephanoxis, 188 longicauda, Bartramia, 120 longicauda, Embernagra, 384 longicaudus, Discosura, 190 longicaudus, Stercorarius, 132 longirostris, Cantorchilus, 334 longirostris, Herpsilochmus, 254

longirostris, Rallus, 108 longirostris, Systellura, 170 Lophornis, 190 lophotes, Knipolegus, 296 loricata, Compsothraupis, 360 loricata, Myrmeciza, 258 lucidus, Chlorostilbon, 184 luctuosa, Myrmotherula, 250 lugubris, Brachygalba, 200 luizae, Asthenes, 232 Lurocalis, 166 luteola, Sicalis, 386 lutescens, Anthus, 336 maccormicki, Stercorarius, 132 Machaeropterus, 314 Machetornis, 306 Mackenziaena, 242 Macronectes, 58 Macropsalis, 168 macroura, Eupetomena, 180 macroura, Tripophaga, 236 macularius, Actitis, 122 maculata, Cotinga, 322 maculata, Terenura, 254 maculatus, Myiodynastes, 304 maculatus, Nystalus, 198 maculatus, Pardirallus, 108 maculicauda, Hydropsalis, 168 maculifrons, Veniliornis, 208 maculipennis, Chroicocephalus, 126 maculirostris, Selenidera, 202 maculosa, Nothura, 34 magellanica, Sporagra, 392 magellanicus, Spheniscus, 60 magnificens, Fregata, 54 magnificus, Lophornis, 190 magnirostris, Rupornis, 86 maguari, Ciconia, 72 major, Crotophaga, 154 major, Podiceps, 52 major, Taraba, 244 malachitacea, Triclaria, 148 Malacoptila, 198 malura, Drymophila, 256 Manacus manacus, 316 mangle, Aramides, 110 manilatus, Orthopsittaca, 140 maracana, primolius, 140 margarettae, Phaethornis, 176 margaritaceiventer, Hemitriccus, 282 marginatus, Pachyramphus, 310 martinica, Porphyrula, 112 mastacalis, Myiobius, 286 maxillosus, Saltator, 370 maximiliani, Pionus, 146 maximiliani, Sporophila, 372 maximus, Saltator, 370 maximus, Thalasseus, 130 megacephalum, Ramphotrigon, 288 Megaceryle, 194 Megarynchus, 302 Megascops, 158 melacoryphus, Coccyzus, 150 melancholicus, Tyrannus, 306 melancoryphus, Cygnus, 44 Melanerpes, 210 melanocephala, Carpornis, 320 melanochloros, Colaptes, 212 melanogaster, Formicivora, 252

melanogaster, Sporophila, 380 melanoleuca, Atticora, 330 melanoleuca, Tringa, 122 melanoleucus, Campephilus, 216 melanoleucus, Geranoetus, 92 melanoleucus, Spizaetus, 94 melanonota, Pipraeidea, 356 melanonotus, Touit, 144 Melanopareia, 262 melanophaius, Laterallus, 104 melanophris, Thalassarche, 56 melanopis, Schistochlamys, 364 melanopis, Trichothraupis, 362 melanops, Conopophaga, 262 melanops, Phleocryptes, 228 melanops, Porphyriops, 106 melanotis, Coryphaspiza, 382 melanotos, Calidris, 124 melanotos, Sarkidiornis, 44 melanurus, Himantopus, 114 melanurus, Ramphocaenus, 336 meloryphus, Euscarthmus, 274 mentalis, Dysithamnus, 248 Mergus, 50 meridionalis, Chaetura, 174 meridionalis, Heterospizias, 90 Merulaxis, 264 meruloides, Chamaeza, 260 Mesembrinibis, 70 mesoleuca, Elaenia, 270 mexicanus, Himantopus, 114 mexicanus, Sclerurus, 240 Micrastur, 100 Micropygia, 104 militaris, Ilicura, 314 Milvago, 98 Mimus, 332 minor, Chordeiles, 164 minor, Fregata, 54 minor, Myrmotherula, 250 minor, Nothura, 34 mintoni, Micrastur, 100 minuta, Coccycua, 154 minuta, Columbina, 136 minutilla, Calidris, 124 minutissimum, Glaucidium, 158 minutus, Xenops, 234 Mionectes, 280 mirandae, Hemitriccus, 280 mirandollei, Micrastur, 100 mississippiensis, Ictinia, 78 mixtus, Veniliornis, 212 modestus, Charadrius, 116 modestus, Sublegatus, 270 moesta, Amaurospiza, 374 Molothrus, 394 Momotus momota, 196 Monasa, 196 montana, Geotrygon, 138 moreirae, Oreophylax, 230 Morphnus, 96 morphoeus, Monasa, 196 moschata, Cairina, 44 mosquitus, Chrysolampis, 182 murina, Phaeomyias, 272 Muscipipra, 292 musculus, Troglodytes, 334 Mycteria, 72 mycteria, Jabiru, 72 Myiarchus, 298 Myiobius, 286

413

pileata, Piprites, 314 pileata, Sporophila, 380 pileatus, Coryphospingus, 374 pileatus, Herpsilochmus, 254 pileatus, Pilherodius, 68 Pilherodius, 68 pinnatus, Botaurus, 62 Pionopsitta, 146 Pionus, 146 nacunda, Chordeiles, 164 Pipile, 42 naevia, Tapera, 152 pipixcan, Leucophaeus, 126 naevius, Ramphodon, 176 Pachyptila, 58 Pipra, 314 nanus, Taoniscus, 34 Pachyramphus, 308, 310 pipra, Dixiphia, 316 nattereri, Anthus, 336 pallescens, Neopelma, 312 nattereri, Hylopezus, 262 palliatus, Haematopus, 114 pipra, Iodopleura, 318 nematura, Lochmias, 240 palliatus, Thamnophilus, 244 Pipraeidea, 356 Piprites, 312, 314 Nemosia, 348 pallida, Cranioleuca, 228 Piranga, 368 nengeta, Fluvicola, 294 palmarum, Thraupis, 358 Neochelidon, 330 paludicola, Formicivora, 252 pitangua, Megarynchus, 302 Pitangus, 302 Neocrex, 106 Pandion, 76 pitiayumi, Parula, 344 Neomorphus, 154 Panyptila, 174 plancus, Caracara, 98 Neopelma, 312 papa, Sarcoramphus, 74 Platalea, 72 Neothraupis, 364 Parabuteo, 88 platalea, Anas, 48 Netta, 50 paradisaea, Sterna, 128 platensis, Cistothorus, 334 nidipendulus, Hemitriccus, paraguaiae, Gallinago, 118 282 parasiticus, Stercorarius, 132 platensis, Embernagra, 384 platypterus, Buteo, 88 niger, Chlidonias, 128 Pardirallus, 108 Platyrinchus, 286 niger, Rynchops, 130 pareola, Chiroxiphia, 316 platyrostris, Dendrocolaptes, nigerrimus, Knipolegus, 296 Paroaria, 366 222 nigricans, Pardirallus, 108 Parula, 344 nigricans, Serpophaga, 272 parvirostris, Crypturellus, 38 Plegadis, 70 plumbea, Ictinia, 78 nigricollis, Anthracothorax, parvirostris, Elaenia, 270 plumbea, Patagioenas, 134 182 parvulus, Setopagis, 170 plumbea, Polioptila, 336 nigricollis, Busarellus, 90 Passer 388 plumbea, Sporophila, 380 nigricollis, Sporophila, 376 passerinus, Veniliornis, 208 plumbeiceps, Poecilotriccus, nigrifrons, Monasa, 196 Patagioenas, 134 284 nigripes, Dacnis, 350 paulista, Phylloscartes, 276 nigropectus, Biatas, 244 pavoninus, Dromococcyx, 152 plumbeus, Dysithamnus, 248 Pluvialis, 116 nilotica, Gelochelidon, 128 pectoralis, Euphonia, 390 Podiceps, 52 nitidus, Buteo, 86 pectoralis, Hylophilus, 342 podiceps, Podilymbus, 52 nobilis, Diopsittaca, 140 pectoralis, Polystictus, 274 noctivagus, Crypturellus, 36 pelzelni, Thamnophilus, 246 Podilymbus, 52 poeciloptera, Geositta, 240 Nomonyx, 52 Penelope, 40 Poecilotriccus, 284 Nonnula, 198 penicillata, Eucometis, 368 Pogonotriccus, 276 notata, Chlorestes, 184 peposaca, Netta, 50 poicilotis, Hylophilus, 342 notatus, Coturnicops, 106 peregrinus, Falco, 102 poliocephalum, Todirostrum, Notharchus, 198 perspicillata, Pulsatrix, 160 284 Nothura, 34 perspicillatus, Hymenops, 294 poliocephalus, Tolmomyias, nudicollis, Procnias, 324 peruviana, Tangara, 354 288 Numenius, 120 Petrochelidon, 328 Nyctanassa, 64 petrophilus, Scytalopus, 264 poliogaster, Accipiter, 82 polionotus, Pseudastur, 84 Nyctibius, 162 Phacellodomus, 232 Polioptila, 336 Nycticorax nycticorax, 64 Phaeomyias, 272 polychopterus, Nycticryphes, 118 phaeopus, Numenius, 120 Pachyramphus, 310 Nyctidromus, 168 Phaethornis, 176, 178 Polystictus, 274 Nyctiphrynus, 166 Phaeton, 54 Polytmus, 184 Nyctipolus, 170 Phaetusa, 130 pomarinus, Stercorarius, 132 Nystalus, 198 Phalacrocorax, 54 Poospiza, 382 Phalaropus, 122 obscura, Elaenia, 268 phasianellus, Dromococcyx, Porphyriops, 106 Porphyrospiza, 374 obscura, Penelope, 40 152 Porphyrula, 112 obsoleta, Cranioleuca, 228 Pheugopedius, 334 Porzana, 106 obsoletus, Crypturellus, 38 Phibalura, 320 preciosa, Tangara, 354 obsoletus, Hemitriccus, 280 Philohydor, 302 pretiosa, Claravis, 136 occipitalis, Podiceps, 52 Philydor, 238 pretrei, Phaethornis, 176 oceanicus, Oceanites, 60 Phimosus, 70 Primolius, 140 Oceanites, 60 Phleocryptes, 228 Procellaria, 58 Oceanodroma, 60 Phoenicopterus, 72 Procnias, 324 ocellatus, Nyctiphrynus, 166 phoenicurus, Attila, 300 Progne, 328 ochropyga, Drymophila, 256 phryganophilus, Psarocolius, 400 octosetaceus, Mergus, 50 Schoeniophylax, 230 Pseudastur, 84 Odontophorus, 38 Phyllomyias, 266 Pseudocolopteryx, 278 oleagineus, Mionectes, 280 Phylloscartes, 276, 278 Pseudoleistes, 398 olivaceus, Rhynchocyclus, 288 Piaya, 154 Pseudoseisura, 224 olivaceus, Vireo, 342 picazuro, Patagioenas, 134 Psilorhamphus, 262 Onychoprion, 132 picui, Columbina, 136 Psittacara, 140 Onychorhynchus, 286 Piculus, 210 psychopompus, orbitatus, Hemitriccus, 282 Picumnus, 206 Eleoscytalopus, 264 Orchesticus, 362 picus, Dendroplex, 222 Pterodroma, 58 Oreopholus, 116 pileata, Nemosia, 348 Pteroglossus, 202 Oreophylax, 230 pileata, Pionopsitta, 146 Myiodynastes, 304 Myiopagis, 272 Myiophobus, 290 Myiornis, 282 Myiozetetes, 302 Myrmeciza, 258 Myrmotherula, 250 mystaceus, Platyrinchus, 286

414

ornata, Thraupis, 358 ornatus, Spizaetus, 94 Ornithion, 266 Ortalis, 40 Orthogonys, 362 Orthopsittaca, 140 oryzivorus, Dolichonyx, 396 oryzivorus, Molothrus, 394 oustaleti, Phylloscartes, 276 Oxyruncus, 318

Puffinus, 60 puffinus, Puffinus, 60 pugnax, Calidris, 122 Pulsatrix, 160 pusilla, Calidris, 124 pusillus, Chordeiles, 164 pygmaeus, Picumnus, 206 Pygochelidon, 330 Pyriglena, 258 Pyrocephalus, 290 Pyroderus, 324 Pyrrhocoma, 364 pyrrhonota, Petrochelidon, 328 pyrrhopterus, Icterus, 398 Pyrrhura, 142 Rallus, 108 Ramphastos, 204 Ramphocaenus, 336 Ramphocelus, 358 Ramphodon, 176 Ramphotrigon, 288 rectirostris, Hylocryptus, 236 regulus, Machaeropterus, 314 reichenowi, Pionus, 146 Rhea, 32 rhodocorytha, Amazona, 148 Rhynchocyclus, 288 Rhynchotus, 34 Rhytipterna, 298 Riparia, 328 riparia, Riparia, 328 rivularis, Basileuterus, 346 rixosa, Machetornis, 306 robustus, Campephilus, 216 Rostrhamus, 80 rourei, Nemosia, 348 rubecula, Nonnula, 198 ruber, Eudocimus, 70 ruber, Phacellodomus, 232 ruber, Phaethornis, 178 rubica, Habia, 368 rubinus, Pyrocephalus, 290 rubricauda, Clytolaema, 180 rubricauda, Phaeton, 54 rubricollis, Drymophila, 256 rubrigastra, Tachuris, 278 rubrocapilla, Pipra, 314 rufa, Formicivora, 252 rufa, Lessonia, 294 rufaxilla, Leptotila, 138 rufescens, Rhynchotus, 34 ruficapilla, Hemithraupis, 348 ruficapilla, Synallaxis, 226 ruficapillus, Baryphthengus, 196 ruficapillus, Chrysomus, 396 ruficapillus, Schistochlamys, 364 ruficapillus, Thamnophilus, 246 ruficauda, Chamaeza, 260 ruficauda, Galbula, 200 ruficauda, Myrmeciza, 258 ruficeps, Pyrrhocoma, 364 ruficollis, Micrastur, 100 ruficollis, Oreopholus, 116 ruficollis, Stelgidopteryx, 330 rufifrons, Fulica, 112 rufifrons, Phacellodomus, 232 rufigularis, Falco, 102 rufimarginatus, Herpsilochmus, 254 rufiventris, Mionectes, 280 rufiventris, Turdus, 340 rufoaxillaris, Molothrus, 394 rufomarginatus, Euscarthmus, 274 rufosuperciliata, Syndactyla, 234

rufum, Philydor, 238 rufus, Antrostomus, 166 rufus, Attila, 300 rufus, Casiornis, 300 rufus, Furnarius, 224 rufus, Tachyphonus, 360 rufus, Trogon, 192 rumicivorus, Thinocorus, 118 Rupornis, 86 rustica, Hirundo, 328 rutilans, Xenops, 234 Rynchops, 130 Sakesphorus, 244 Saltator, 370, 372 sanguinolentus, Pardirallus, 108 sapphirina, Hylocharis, 184 saracura, Aramides, 110 Sarcoramphus, 74 Sarkidiornis, 44 Satrapa, 306 saturninus, Mimus, 332 savana, Tyrannus, 306 sayaca, Thraupis, 356 scansor, Sclerurus, 240 Schiffornis, 312 Schistochlamys, 364 Schoeniophylax, 230 schomburgkii, Micropygia, 104 sclateri, Pseudocolopteryx, 278 Sclerurus, 240 scutata, Synallaxis, 228 scutatus, Augastes, 188 scutatus, Pyroderus, 324 Scytalopus, 264 seledon, Tangara, 352 Selenidera, 202 semicollaris, Nycticryphes, 118 semipalmata, Tringa, 120 semipalmatus, Charadrius, 116 semitorquatus, Arremon, 388 semitorquatus, Lurocalis, 166 semitorquatus, Micrastur, 100 senex, Cypseloides, 172 sericocaudatus, Antrostomus, 166 Serpophaga, 272 serrana, Formicivora, 252 serrirostris, Colibri, 182 setaria, Leptasthenura, 230 Setopagis, 170 severa, Mackenziaena, 242 sibilator, Sirystes, 298 sibilatrix, Syrigma, 68 Sicalis, 386 similis, Myiozetetes, 302 similis, Saltator, 370 simplex, Phaetusa, 130 simplex, Rhytipterna, 298 Sirystes, 298 Sittasomus, 218 sociabilis, Rostrhamus, 80 solitaria, Tringa, 122 solitarius, Tinamus, 36 sordida, Thlypopsis, 348 soui, Crypturellus, 38 spadiceus, Attila, 300 sparverius, Falco, 102 speciosa, Patagioenas, 134 speciosum, Conirostrum, 350 spectabilis, Elaenia, 268 speluncae, Scytalopus, 264 Spheniscus, 60 spilogaster, Veniliornis, 208 spirurus, Glyphorynchus, 218 spixi, Synallaxis, 226

spiza, Chlorophanes, 350 Spizaetus, 94 Sporagra, 392 Sporophila, 372, 376, 378, 380 squalidus, Phaethornis, 176 squamata, Drymophila, 256 squamata, Ortalis, 40 squamata, Tachornis, 174 squamatus, Lepidocolaptes, 220 squammata, Columbina, 136 squamosa, Myrmeciza, 258 squamosus, Heliomaster, 180 squatarola, Pluvialis, 116 Stelgidopteryx, 330 Stephanophorus, 362 Stephanoxis, 188 Stercorarius, 132 Sterna, 128 Sternula, 128 stictothorax, Dysithamnus, 248 stolidus, Anous, 132 Streptoprocne, 172 stresemanni, Merulaxis, 264 striata, Butorides, 64 striata, Dendroica, 344 striata, Malacoptila, 198 striaticollis, Hemitriccus, 282 Sturnella, 396 stygius, Asio, 156 subalaris, Turdus, 338 subcristata, Serpophaga, 272 subis, Progne, 328 Sublegatus, 270 subruficollis, Tryngites, 120 Suiriri, 268 Sula, 56 sula, Sula, 56 sulphuratus, Pitangus, 302 sulphurescens, Tolmomyias, 288 superciliaris, Penelope, 40 superciliaris, Polystictus, 274 superciliaris, Sternula, 128 superciliaris, Sturnella, 396 superciliosus, Accipiter, 82 surdus, Touit, 144 surrucura, Trogon, 192 swainsoni, Buteo, 88 swainsoni, Myiarchus, 298 swainsoni, Notharchus, 198 swainsoni, Onychorhynchus, 288 swainsonii, Gampsonyx, 76 sylviolus, Phylloscartes, 276 Synallaxis, 226, 228 Syndactyla, 234, 238 Syrigma, 68 Systellura, 170

Thalurania, 182 Thamnomanes, 248 Thamnophilus, 244, 246 Theristicus, 68 Thinocorus, 118 Thlypopsis, 348 thoracica, Poospiza, 382 thoracicus, Hylophilus, 342 Thraupis, 356 thula, Egretta, 66 Tiaris, 376 tibialis, Neochelidon, 330 Tigrisoma, 62 Tijuca, 324 Tinamus, 36 tirica, Brotogeris, 144 Tityra, 308 toco, Ramphastos, 204 Todirostrum, 284 Tolmomyias, 288 torquata, Chauna, 44 torquata, Hydropsalis, 168 torquata, Megaceryle, 194 torquata, Melanopareia, 262 torquatus, Celeus, 214 torquatus, Thamnophilus, 246 Touit, 144 Trichothraupis, 362 Triclaria, 148 tricolor, Alectrurus, 294 tricolor, Phalaropus, 122 tridactyla, Jacamaralcyon, 200 Tringa, 120, 122 Tripophaga, 236 triurus, Mimus, 332 trivirgatus, Conopias, 304 trochilirostris, Campylorhamphus, 218 Troglodytes, 334 Trogon, 192 trudeaui, Sterna, 128 Tryngites, 120 tuberculifer, Myiarchus, 298 turdina, Dendrocincla, 218 turdina, Schiffornis, 312 turdinus, Campylorhynchus, 332 Turdus, 338, 340 tyrannulus, Myiarchus, 298 Tyrannus, 306 tyrannus, Spizaetus, 94 tyrannus, Tyrannus, 306 Tyto, 156 uncinatus, Chondrohierax, 80 undulata, Gallinago, 118 undulatus, Crypturellus, 36 unicinctus, Parabuteo, 88 unicolor, Haplospiza, 374 unicolor, Myrmotherula, 250

urosticta, Myrmotherula, 250 urubitinga, Buteogallus, 92 ustulatus, Catharus, 340 validus, Pachyramphus, 308 Vanellus, 114 varia, Grallaria, 260 variegatus, Crypturellus, 36 varius, Empidonomus, 304 velata, Geothlypis, 344 velatus, Xolmis, 292 Veniliornis, 208, 214 ventralis, Phylloscartes, 278 verreauxi, Leptotila, 138 versicolor, Amazilia, 186 versicolor, Anas, 50 vetula, Muscipipra, 292 viduata, Dendrocygna, 46 vinacea, Amazona, 148 violacea, Euphonia, 390 violacea, Geotrygon, 138 violacea, Nyctanassa, 64 Vireo, 342 virescens, Phyllomyias, 266 virescens, Schiffornis, 312 virgata, Ciccaba, 160 virginianus, Bubo, 156 viridicata, Myiopagis, 272 viridis, Laterallus, 104 viridis, Pachyramphus, 310 viridis, Tersina, 352 viridis, Trogon, 192 vitellinus, Ramphastos, 204 vociferans, Lipaugus, 322 Volatinia, 376 vulpina, Cranioleuca, 228 whitneyi, Synallaxis, 226 wilsonia, Charadrius, 116 xanthogaster, Euphonia, 390 xanthopterus, Dysithamnus, 248 xanthopterygius, Forpus, 144 Xenops, 234 xenopterus, Laterallus, 104 Xenus, 120 Xiphocolaptes, 222 Xipholena, 322 Xiphorhynchus, 220, 222 Xolmis, 292 yarrellii, Sporagra, 392 yetapa, Gubernetes, 292 ypiranganus, Emberizoides, 384 Zenaida, 138 zonaris, Streptoprocne, 172 Zonotrichia, 388

Tachornis, 174 Tachuris, 278 Tachybaptus, 52 Tachycineta, 330 Tachyphonus, 360 taciturnus, Arremon, 388 talpacoti, Columbina, 136 Tangara, 352, 354 Taoniscus, 34 Tapera, 152 tapera, Progne, 328 Taraba, 244 tataupa, Crypturellus, 38 temmincki, Picumnus, 206 tenebrosa, Chelidoptera, 200 Terenura, 254 Tersina, 352 Thalassarche, 56 Thalasseus, 130

415

Notes