What did the sarcophagus of Symmachus look like?: Late antique pagan sarcophagi 9788771841565, 8771841563

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Colophon
Contents
Introduction
The revival of mythological sculpture
The question of pagan sarcophagi in Late Antiquity
The City of Rome
Luxury crafts
The Getty sarcophagus in the context of Late Antique mythological sculpture
Mythological marble sculpture of Late Antiquity – an overview
Muse sarcophagi
Dionysian/Season sarcophagi
Sarcophagi with Nereids and sea centaurs
Sarcophagi with mythological themes
Hunting sarcophagi
Chronology – the end of production
Postscript
Bibliography
Credit of photographs

Citation preview

WHAT DID THE SARCOPHAGUS OF SYMMACHUS LOOK LIKE?

LATE ANTIQUE PAGAN SARCOPHAGI Niels Hannestad

What did the sarcophagus ofSymmachus look like? © Author and Aarhus University Press 2019 Cover: Jorgen Sparre Cover illustration: The AciliaSarcophagus, Palazzo Massimo aile Terme, Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome. Photo by the author. Layout and typesetting: Ryevad Grafisk This book is typeset in ITC Legacy SerifStd E-book production by Narayana Press, Denmark

ISBN 978 87 7184 156 5 Aarhus University Press Finlandsgade 29 DK-S200 Aarhus N Denmark www.unipress.dk

Published with the financial support of: Aarhus University Research Foundation Ny Carlsbergfondet

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PEER REVIEWED lin accordance with requirements of the Danish Ministry of Higher Education and Science, the certification means that a PhD level peer has made a written as!iessmentjustifying this book's scientific quality.

CONTENTS

Page 7

Introduction

Page 11

The revival of mythological sculpture

Page 15

The question of pagan sarcophagi in Late Antiquity

Page 18

The City of Rome

Page 21

Luxury crafts

Page 34

The Getty sarcophagus in the context of Late Antique mythological sculpture

Page 43

Mythological marble sculpture of Late Antiquity - an overview

Muse sarcophagi Dionysian/Season sarcophagi Sarcophagi with Nereids and sea centaurs Sarcophagi with mythological themes Hunting sarcophagi Page 79

Chronology - the end of production

Page 88

Postscript

Page 89

Bibliography

Page 97

Credit of photographs

INTRODUCTION

What did the sarcophagus of Symmachus look like? To my knowledge this hypothetical question has never been asked and by all likelihood it will never be answered. However) we can reasonably expect such a sarcophagus to have existed, and it may be possible to imagine the ap­ pearance. Surely it must have been magnificent. One of the most prominent figures in the pagan resistance against rising Christianity was the city prefect, politician and rhetor Q. Aurelius Symmachus (c. 345-402), descendent of an old aristocratic family that continued to be influential. The last Symmachus we really know about, Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus, was consul in 485. The circle around him were high ranking members of society, many of whom are well known through literary sources! . They were immensely rich but mentally in opposition to Constantinople and the emperor - which, however, did not influence their career. Not until the beginning of the 5th century did the imperial house and an aggressive church cause the disappearance of this pagan aristocracy. 'Pagans' formed a very varied group of cults and attitudes, contrary to the members of the church. In fact, it was the Christians that condescendingly labelled the non-Christians as pagans. Despite dissimilarities of beliefbetween Christians and pagans, mem­ bers of the upper-class shared the same cultural heritage. The model of education and learning had changed little since the time of Cicero and would not do so for another two centuries. From the Moselle to the Levant, the upper classes read the same authors, discussed the clas­ sic masterpieces of sculpture (whether they had seen them or not) and

1

On the pagan aristocracy in Late Antique Rome, not in fact a homogenous group: Cameron 2011; Gwynn 2011. INTRODUCTION

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adorned their stately homes in the old way with sculptures and mosaics deemed appropriate for such settings. When it came to burials, only the Christians are supposed to have marked their graves while pagan burials supposedly were shrouded in darkness - which is hardly the case. A grandiose example of a huge and delicately carved Christian sarcophagus is that of the city prefect Junius Bassus, who died in 359. His son of the same name, also a Christian, built a basilica-like structure on the Esquiline decorated with a wall revetment in opus sectile featuring, among other themes, the myth of Hylas attacked by the nymphs, while rows of Egyptian gods spread over the floor2. To contemporary society, this presented no contradiction. To approach the question asked in the title, it is necessary to take a closer look at the chronology of the later phase of Roman monumental sarcophagi. Sarcophagi, many of which were decorated with reliefs, came into fashion in the late Trajanic period initiated by the 'Greek wave'. Not surprisingly, Rome was the centre of production with c. 6.000 specimens of all types registered. Sarcophagi with reliefs are categorized chrono­ logically in ten groups3 each favouring specific motifs. The traditional chronology marks a peak in production and quality in the late Antonine period (c. 170-200). In the early and middle Severan period (c. 200-220/230) as well as the late Severan period (c. 220/250) were introduced new ways of sculpting details, such as eyes, which were to be introduced later in sculpture in the round. The Gallienic period (c. 253-268) hold the same standard and the following ten years (c. 270-280) still produced high quality pieces but in limited numbers, while the Tetrarchic period (c. 280-3 1 1/313) was a period ofdecline producing few sarcophagi. Production of pagan sarcophagi ended in the final period (c. 3 1 1/3 1 2 - end of the 4th century) with only a few attested beyond the reign of Constantine. Pagan motifs were vanishing but some 'neu­ tral' sarcophagi were still produced depicting themes such as hunting in various versions. In this period new motifs were introduced-such as the good herdsman, a figure also carved in the round, which became

2 3 8

Ensoli - La Rocca 2000, cat. no. 177. Koch 1993, 92-94.

WHAT DID THE SARCOPHAGUS OF SYMMACHUS LOOK LIKE?

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favoured by Christians. The change of motifs paved the road for the Christian sarcophagi that would be the future. Portraits of the deceased had a long tradition in Roman funerary art. When Greek style sarcophagi entered Rome mythological themes be­ came favoured 4 In the early period, the coffin was decorated with reliefs depicting various Greek myths without any portraits. Later the reliefs could be reinterpreted in the way that the head of the main figure(s) was transformed into a portrait) making the deceased part of the story. Among the many types is the kline sarcophagus featuring the married couple laying on the lid while the mythological scene is placed on the coffin. For unknown reasons) however much discussed) many portraits on sarcophagi are unfinished. By contrast, the reliefs on hunting sarcoph­ agi usually have finished portrai ts. When the portrai ts are missing or unfinished, we have to rely on typology and style alone. The 3rd century is regarded as the culmination of Roman sarcophagi, representing a great variety of motifs. In this period were produced several large and high quality pieces, the so-called 'Prunksarkophage' - a group, however, vaguely defined. The basic work concerning these sarcophagi is a short article, published in 1977 by Bernard Andreae and Helmut Jung, in which they schematically present 250 Prunksarkophage from the 3rd centurys In the following article in the same volume by Jung alone6 he notes that the sarcophagi of the Gallienic period differ so much from sarcophagi of the previous periods that they cannot be attributed to specific workshops. This observation about the diversity of sarcophagi produced in this period (and later) creates a link to mythological sculp­ ture of Late Antiquity. The traditional chronology faces us with two serious problems: The supposed peak, during the reign ofGallienus, correlates with the military anarchy, when the Empire was falling apart. Sarcophagi were, indeed, still produced in Rome in this period-some ofvery high quality, such as the

4 5 6

Koch 1993, 5 1-53. Andreae Jung 1977, 432-436. Jung 1977, 436-444. -

INTRODUCTION

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9

so-called Plotinus sarcophagus? In contrast to the 3rd century, the 4th was a wealthy period reviving the grandeur of the Empire as it had been before the military anarchy. Considering the historical evidence, we may expect that members of the pagan nobility were buried in coffins that continued the grand tradition. The idea that pagan sarcophagi vanished with the reign of Constan­ tine may be based on the profound changes in the mental climate that took place in this period. The edict of tolerance was issued in Milan; and as a ruler, Constantine staunchly based his policy on a religion that in all probability would be victorious. However, the empire did not become Christianized overnight, and paganism was not banished until much later.

7

10

Wegner 1966, cat. no. 116; for a most comprehensive review of Wegner, see Fit­ tschen in Gnomon 44, pp. 486-504; Ewald 1999, no. D3 with references; on the sarcophagus trade, see Russell 2013, chap. 7.

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THE REVIVAL OF MYTHOLOGICAL SCULPTURE

The presumed disappearance of mythological sarcophagi following the reign of Constantine has a parallel in the idea that mythological sculp­ ture - or 'IdealskulptueJ a more apt term - disappeared at the same time. The chaos created by the military anarchy of the mid and later 3rd century left a physical and mental vacuum in aristocratic life. But the reign of Constantine inaugurated a time of peace and prosperity) which also initiated a flurry of upper-class building activity, termed the 'villa boom'. It peaked from about 320 to the end of the century; in most of the empire) upper-class mansions) domus in the cities) suburban villas and countryside villas were restored) and new were built. The floors were covered with marble slabs or mosaics, often presenting mythological motifs matching the sculpture and silver on view in the same rooms. As an innovative architectural concept) these wealthy mansions were embellished with niches suitable for displaying sculpture. Much sculpture, in particular small-scale pieces, has indeed been found in these houses. An explosive growth of such material has been recovered since the Second World War by excavation activity - some sci­ entific) other more random due to construction work) not to mention clandestine digs to satisfy a booming art market. The ever-rising number of well-preserved marble sculptures found in Late Antique upper-class houses makes it increasingly difficult to accept the conventional chronol­ ogy, which would also leave us with a very simple question: where were all these well-preserved sculptures stored during the troubled years of the third century? Additionally it should be noted that the limited number ofsculptures found in Late Antique contexts and unquestionably dated to the early and high empire are mostly worn and often heavily restored using techniques only attested in Late Antiquity. THE REVIVAL OF MYTHOLOGICAL SCULPTURE

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Fig. I. C,¥nru.gen, Ny Carl!l:erg Glyptruk: The Esquilin. Group

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as the hair at the temples. The eyes, with the paint partly preserved, are not sculpted. The muse inv. 68.AA. 2 1 [Fig. lOb] has the same coiffure as Poly­ hymnia but the hair bulges, making it strangely voluminous with hap­ hazardly drilled channels. The hairline rises oddly at the right side of her brow. Overall the work is rather crude, stressed by the awkward neck support. The drapery is sloppily carved and definitely un-naturalistic. The face has an unusual oval shape with deeply-drilled holes for pupils. The second figure in terms of quality is the muse inv. 68.AA.22 [Fig. lOe]. Traces of paint are preserved especially around the eyes, which have drill holes to indicate the pupils. Her hair is parted in the middle and swept up to the top of the head. Strangely, her gown appears to be fastened to her hair, which is best seen in profile view. The carving of the hair is soft, with no drilling, but the inorganic structure reveals the Late Antique manufacture. The muse inv. 71.AA.461 [Fig. lOd] has the same hairstyle as inv. 68.AA.22 [Fig. lOe] but is of a very inferior quality. The entire statue is out of proportion. In particular the shoulders are too narrow. The face is long and thin, the hair wry. The most striking feature is the shape of the lower part of the brow and the ridge of the nose, which forms an unbroken flat area with a sharp edge to the hollow of the eyes exactly like that of Terpsichore on the Getty sarcophagus [Fig. Sd]. This peculiar shape of the brow brings us to an essential piece of sculpture: the small seated Christ now in the Palazzo Massimo in Rome [Figs. l 1a-b], generally dated to about A.D. 36051 A comparison of the facial features shows similari ties in the areas around the eyes of Christ and Terpsichore in particular, but also the Cremna muse [Fig. lOd]. In fact, they may be attributed to the same group of workshops being active in more parts of the empire. Christ has long curly hair with the individual locks ending in an s-shape, which Marianne Bergmann has

51

Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo, inv. 61565: Ensoli La Rocca 2000, 650 f. cat. no. 262 (M. Sapelli, with bibliography). On the figure's possible identification as Christ, see Hannestad 1999, 174 f. For a short entry: R£pertorium 2, cat. no. 132. -

THE GETTY SARCOPHAGUS IN THE CONTEXT OF LATE ANTIQUE MYTHOLOGICAL SCULPTURE

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is far superior to that of the muse sarcophagus. Based on the evidence) we may assume that the muse sarcophagus was produced one or two generations later than the sarcophagus ofJunius Bassus, but surely also for a member of the elite. Less monumental than the sarcophagus in the Palazzo Massimo is a series of Late Antique sarcophagi with standing muses on the front. The composition can vary and so too the quality) but a certain standard) also in size) prevails. Some Late Antique sarcophagi of the same dimen­ sions combine the strigilated form with panels that can feature a limited number of muses61 as well as other subjects. A muse sarcophagus found in Porto Torres on Sardinia62 stands out in that it can be dated to Late Antiquity without any doubt [Figs. 13a-b]. Only the front of the coffin (2.14 m x 0.71 m) is sculpted. The quality of the carving is mediocre) but for once both portraits of a married couple are finished, providing a secure dating to c. A.D. 400. They are both seated, the lady to the left in a comfortable chair, her husband more formally on a stool. In the middle, holding a kithara, Apollo is resting on a rock. The wife is handed a kithara, presumably meant for Erato to play while her husband to the right opens a book scroll. His well-preserved head has a close resemblance to a head now mounted on an unrelated statue in the Museo Nazionale Romano. This head of a private person is dated by Jutta Meischner to the early 5th century63. A colossal head of an imperial prince in the Museo Capitolino dated to c. A.D. 400 also comes close64. For comparison with the Porto Torres sarcophagus) avo marble tondi may be relevant. Marianne Bergmann has pointed to a group of marble tondi which she convincingly dates to Late Antiquity. A tondo bust, for-

61

62 63 64

e. g. Wegner 1966) cat. no. 35; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek no. 779 (inv. 853); We­ gner cconsiders it to be a fake) but rather it is simply very late; Wegner's sug­ gestion has been turned down: see Stubbe 0stergaard 1996) cat. no. 43 with references. Wegner 1966) cat. no. 80. Meischner 2001) no. 333. Fittschen - Zanker 1985) no. 127. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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curls in the Aphrodisian manner with small drill holes. This tondo bust seems to be a refined version of the Port Said bust. Marianne Bergmann relates the tondo to a small statue ofHelios found in the suburban villa at Silahtaraga dated to c. A.D. 400,67 concluding that both heads can be attributed to the school of Aphrodisias. The front of a sarcophagus in the Palazzo Rospigliosi in Rome6S [Figs. 14a-cl is built into the wall of the Casino, for which reason no measurements exist. The relief is carved very deep to make the figures almost freestanding. In the middle of the scene, the deceased is rendered as the figure of Calliope. Thus she is characterized as a learned person, emphasized by a container for book scrolls placed at her left foot. Apollo is not present but replaced by the god of wisdom, Athena, to stress the female aspect. Athena is standing to the left of the deceased, with her left foot rather oddly resting on the head of an owl. On the other side of the deceased stands Terpsichore with the tortoise-shell lyre. As the only muse, she rests her left leg on a book container in almost the same pose as Athena. The deceased female has the same coiffure as the female on the large strigilated sarcophagus depicting a learned couple in the Palazzo Nuovo [Figs. 2-3]. The figures have all the traits of Late Antiquity: they are dispropor­ tionate, the drapery stiff and non-plastic. The drapery below the belts of three of the muses is a crude version of the drapery of Euterpe on the Getty sarcophagus, marked by long linear grooves. The figures are rather uneven, presumably carved by different sculptors. The two muses to the left, Polyhymnia and Euterpe [Figs. 14a-cl, have rather uniform faces with the characteristic shape of the lower part of the brow and the ridge of the nose. Similarly, this area forms an unbroken flat area with a sharp sculpted edge serving as eyebrows. The drilling of the hair of these two muses is very crude, which also goes for several others of the figures. An example of a high-quality sarcophagus of the muse type is a piece found in Castellamare di Stabia, the front measuring 2.10 m x 0.76 m69

67 68 69

Chaisemartin - brgen 1984, cat. no. 1 pIs. 4-6 (suggesting Apollo). Wegner 1966, no. 170. Wegner 1966, no. 24. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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[Figs. 15a-b]. The main figure, Apollo, turns his head back towards Terpsichore. Together they mark the centre line. The left part of the frieze depicts five muses in a well-composed position, while the figure of Apollo almost sprawls - giving very little space to the remaining figures on the other half, which are oddly squeezed together. Only the head of Athena is visible behind Apollo. Although the figures look very uniform, an overall design was not applied when work began. For this reason the master carver miscalculated the space available?O Such an inconsistency is often seen in Late Antique sculpture, in sarcophagi as well as sculpture in the round. Presumably the sculptors also worked with sculpture in the round: a totally unnecessary strut connects the upper right arm of Apollo with the lyre of Terpsich­ ore. Further, the strut is twisted - stressing that it is purely ornamental. Late Antique sculpture has more struts than found in earlier periods of marble sculpture. Basically the reason was to strengthen the sculpture so that it would not be harmed during transport; but often struts became a mannerist trait without any function71. The satyr of the Esquiline group dancing forwards, overexcited, with the Dionysos child on his left shoulder, is supported on his right side by a heavy trunk reaching the right hip. Quite unnecessary therefore are the small struts on this leg: one below the heel and another between the leg and the trunk. The left heel too has such a strut72. Sometimes struts can be very ornamental compared to earlier periods. A very refined example is the twisted strut on a sandal-tying Venus in Alexandria, found in a maritime suburban villa73 Consequently the strut on the Castellamare sarcophagus leaves little doubt about a Late Antique dating. As evidenced by the detailed figures, several Late Antique traits stand out: the abstract and rather crude drilling of the hair, the pupils marked as large drill-holes, the stiff composition of the frieze and the feet turned outwards with the garment slightly lifted above the feet.

70 71 72 73

For the layout of sarcophagus reliefs in earlier periods, see Birk 2012, 21-25. On the aesthetics of struts, particularly in Roman sculpture, see Hollinshead 2000. For brilliant illustrations: Moltesen 2000; Hollinshead 2000, pI. 70-72. Hannestad 1994, figs. 80-82. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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D IONYSIAN/SEASON SARCOPHAGI Both Dionysian themes and seasons are common motifs, and often they are mixed (resulting in double publication of some)?" Sarcophagi featur­ ing seasons in different variations make up one of the largest groups of Late Antique sarcophagi. The reason may be that the motifwas neutral and the cycles of the year were important to everybody. The Dionysiac thiasos is rarely represented in late sarcophagi; and if so, the scene will often be broken up - for example, so that two an­ tithetical figures, often centaurs) hold a tondo with portraits or an in­ scribed shield. A very popular type is the strigilated sarcophagus with three panels. In the middle, Dionysos stands effeminately, supported by a small satyr, and sometimes accompanied by muses. At each of the corner panels a figure moves forwards in direction of the central scene. The way the thiasos is cut up in sections or has antithetical figures in the centre, such as the centaurs holding a shield, tells us that the idea of a Dionysiac thiasos is gone. Late Antiquity offers several examples of traditional scenes split up to become pure decoration, telling no story. Among the many presumably Late Antique sarcophagi, a sarcophagus formerly in Berlin-Dahlem may be taken into account. The striglilated sarcophagus has been reused in modern times for a grave monument [Figs. 16a-bps It was found in Rome at the via Nomentana in 1 9 10, but we do not have any further information. Only the coffin is preserved, measuring 2.35 m x 0.60 m. It is well carved and conventionally dated to the early Severan period. In the central panel Dionysos is standing in an arch supported by a tiny satyr holding a syrinx in his hand. A panther is sitting between his legs. To the right side of Apollo, a dancing maenad turns her head away while a female to the other side is moving forward cartying a basket with

74 75

56

Matz 1975 and Kranz 1984. Matz 1975, cat. no. 286. The Sintenis sarcophagus was transferred to the Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung in 1975 (inv. 1975.1) (information by A Schwarzmaier).

WHAT DID THE SARCOPHAGUS OF SYMMACHUS LOOK LIKE?

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Figs. 16 a-b.

Formerly Berlin-Dahlem, Friedhof, Grabstatte Sintenis (now: Staat­

liche Museen, Antikensammlung, inv. 1975.1): Dionysian/Seasons sarcophagus. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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fruit. Typical Late Antique the figures are not related to each other and the branch of wine curving above simply fills in the space available. On the left panel, a maenad is dancing forwards, blowing a flute. To stress movement, her garment is flowing in the wind. In front of her, partly hidden by her left leg, a panther is sitting looking up at her. On the right panel a satyr is tiptoeing forwards, much like the satyr of the Esquiline group. He too has a panther sitting by his the foot. He is car­ rying a wine sack on his right shoulder and the Dionysos child on his left. Taking a closer look at the composition as well as details of this sarcophagus, a Late Antique dating seems most likely. The entire com­ position is odd. Thus the maenad and the satyr are placed on plinths, while the figures of the central panel are standing on the ground dwarfed by the vine. Other details also point to a late dating. The satyr has a resemblance to his mate in the Esquiline group. The legs in particular are mannered, as stressed by the strange, indeed impossible, twist of the left foot; but more conclusive are the eyes and the drilling of the hair of the maenad and satyr. The shape of the head but also the hair of the flute-playing maenad has a close resemblance to the muses on the short sides of the huge sarcophagus in the Palazzo Massimo discussed above. On a detailed picture of Apollo in the publication by Matz, one notes an unusual rendering of the eye [Fig. 16b]. The carving of the eyes of the god, but also the right eye of the female passing by, includes deep­ ly-carved semi-circular depressions that point to a date in the late 4th century76 The left side of Apollo's face is very different, almost blurred, contrary to the more exposed right side. It looks as if hair and eyebrow are joined. The hair is very crudely carved, only sketchily, and coarse drilling separates the forearm and hand resting on his head?? Puzzling is a sarcophagus in Palazzo Massimo.78 [Fig. 17a-b]. Both coffin and lid are preserved. Quite unusually, we have both a tabula with

76 77 78

58

Compare with the head of a muse found in Chania: Hannestad 2012, 88 f. figs. 8 a-b. Well illustrated on Matz 1975, pI. 286. R£pertorium 1, 1967, cat. no. 771; Ewald 2004, 263 f. ll. 39 with references [not located in the Vatican].

WHAT DID THE SARCOPHAGUS OF SYMMACHUS LOOK LIKE?

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Fig. 17 a-b.

Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo, inv. 455: sarcopha­

gus with the scene "The miracles of Christ". MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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an inscription and a well-finished portrait of the deceased, Marcus Clau­ dianus. He died at the age of 43, and the sarcophagus was bought by his friend Lucius. Both are called clarissimus. The portrait bust of Marcus Claudianus illustrates him as a learned person holding a book roll in his left hand. The characteristic haircut with bands of short curls has parallels to portraits around A.D. 400. A head in the Museo Capitolino dated by Zanker and Cain79 to the end of the 4th century has very similar facial features. On the sarcophagus, coffin as well as lid, are depicted scenes from the old and New Testament in no particular order: such as the miracles of Christ and more gloomy the arrest of Peter by two soldiers. The mood is different from the portrait on the lid, but the explana­ tion is quite simple: the portrait and the tabula are re-carved. Among more details, the neck of Claudianus is markedly too slim contrary to the enormous hands. If the portrait bust were not finished it would have been tempting to usurp the sarcophagus. Whether the tabula had been blank and later re-carved is difficult to say. One of the most discussed pieces in the entire corpus of sarcophagi is now to be found in Dumbarton Oaks CollegeSO [Figs.18a-d]. Only the coffin is preserved, the front measuring 1.09 m x 2.24 m. In the middle a married couple, unfortunately with unfinished portraits, is depicted in a zodiac held by two winged seasons. The other two seasons are standing at the corners) turning toward the centre. Below, tiny fig­ ures are busy wi th agricultural work. The carving is elaborate and of a very high quality. Koch dates it to the late Constantinian period while others have suggested somewhat later; and one scholar (D. Strong) has suggested the period ofValens. The seasons have a schematic version of the Aphrodisian locks, not curling as seen on those of the seated Christ and the facial features are more mask-like. The naked bodies of the sea­ sons are unnaturally abstract and thin. This is particularly evident for the two pairs of seasons carrying the Zodiac. The colour photograph

79 80

Fittschen - Zanker 2010, 183-185 cat.no.181 pI. 225, 1-4. Kranz 1984, no. 34 known to have been in the Palazzo Barberini since 1693. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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used by Bjorn Ewald81 shows the sarcophagus in strong artificial light, which illustrates the odd shape of the figures. Strong's suggestion may be valid. A crucial, but somewhat overlooked piece is a sarcophagus now in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg82 [Figs. 19a-b]. Only the front, measuring 0.87 m x 2.16 m, is preserved. The central part presents a very elaborately carved female portrait in a tondo carried by two seasons. Two more sea­ sons at the corners finish the scene. The relief is supposed to have been heavily restored, the portrait even reworked in a later period. The relief is, however, not much restored, as can be confirmed by close observation. The portrait of the woman in the tondo shows no signs of reworking: the face is not reduced in size nor distorted in the manner of reused portraits83. All over the front, except for the tondo, the surface is dotted with scattered drill holes. The carving is rather poor, which also goes for the bust in the tondo. Of particular interest is the head of the female figure. She wears a very complicated coiffure. The hair is parted in the middle by a sloppy dividing line. The hair running to the ears has some superficially scratched lines to indicate the structure of hair. Behind the ears, bunches of curly locks reach down to the shoulders. On the top of her head she wears a stephane, indicating a close relation to the imperial house. Over a row of semi-precious stones is fixed a metal band, presumably of gold, inlaid with various gems. Behind her head unfurls a floral ornament in very low relief In the catalogue of the sarcophagi in the Ermitage, I. Saverkina states that such a hairstyle with curly locks is not attested in the second half of the the 3rd century or the 4th century84 Two female portraits in the Museo Capitolini, securely dated to the Gallienic period and the late

81 82

83 84 62

Zanker - Ewald 2012, 166 fig. 228 with references. Saverkina 1979, no. 28; Kranz 1984, no. 38 (using the same photographs). Sav­ edina goes into a detailed discussion, while Kranz is very laconic concerning this sarcophagus. In particular evidenced by the too-large eyes: Prusac 2011. Saverkina 1979, 55.

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Figs. 19 a-b.

St. Petersburg, Eremitage, inv. A 1126: Sarcophagus with seasons car­

rying a tondo bust.

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Gallienic period have variations of this coiffure8s That we can find the same hairstyle in a much later period should be no surprise, considering the interest in Late Antiquity for picking up motifs and elements from earlier periods. The lady is no doubt a member of the nobility and could be close to the imperial house. The discrepancy between her head and the enormous, crudely-carved hands (the left holding a book scroll) indicates that the head was carved by a skilled sculptor, presumably trained in carving portraits. The portrait points to the final period of female portraiture. Some related portraits of members of the imperial house (as testified by the stephane) can be taken into account for establishing an approximate dating86 Fairly close is a head labelled Galla Placidia (A.D. 392-450), married to Constantius III. The head is now in Viterbo, but supposed to come from Rome8? The lady wears a diadem inlaid with precious stones, but the headgear is not as elaborate as that of the lady on the sarcophagus. Marianne Bergmann suggests a date in the mid-5th cen­ tury, while Schade suggests the first half of the 5th century. Fairly close, too, is a statuette in the Cabinet des Medailles, Paris, from Cyprus, often identified as Pulcheria (399-453)88, married to Marcian. Also close to the woman on the Eremi tage sarcophagus is a head carved for insertion in a statue now in the Museo Archeologico Paolo Giovio in Como. In all likelihood it comes from Milan. The head, which is dated by both Marianne Bergmann and Kathrin Schade) as "valentinianisch)J 89) is crowned by a stephane very much resembling that of the woman on the sarcophagus. The arrangement of the hair above the brow is also similar. Female portraits wearing a stephane are not numerous. Despite

85 86

87 88 89 64

Fittschen - Zanker 1983, cat. nos. 171 f. For a thorough discussion of Late-Antique female portraits, see Schade 2003 (not keen on identifYing every portrait discussed as a member of the imperial house). Bergmann 2000, cat. no. 262; Schade 2003, cat. no.! 55 ("eine Frau mit Stephane"). Schade 2003, cat. no. I 46. Bergmann 1983, cat. no. 54; Schade 2003, cat. no. I 27.

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the similarities, the dating ranges from the late 4th century to the mid5 th century. Based on the portraits discussed above - and more heads could be included - a dating of the Hermitage sarcophagus to the earlier part of the 5th century may be proposed. The inconsistent combination of a finely executed head on an otherwise poorly-carved relief is simply due to the fact that it is Late Antique.

SARCOPHAGI WITH NEREIDS AND SEA CENTAURS More than 400 preserved sarcophagi feature inhabitants of the sea90 . A high-quality example is located in the Museo Nazionale Romano91 [Figs. 20a-c] . The well-preserved coffin measures L 2.32 m, H 0.96 m, W 1.08 m. The figures are almost floating above the rolling sea. The two sea horses in the middle, one young and the other old (following the established Roman tradition), are playing music. They are each carrying a Nereid on their back. Two other Nereids are sitting on the back of each cen­ taur, here too one young and one old. The figures are framed by waving drapery, above which small putti are flying. In the water a dolphin and a fish surface. The drilling of the hair and eyes points to Late Antiqui ty but even more significant are the unnaturally long and thin legs of the Nereids. The legs are indistinctly shaped, and in their lack of naturalism they almost look like Barbie dolls. Similarly thin, elongated legs can be found on strigilated sarcophagi featuring Graces in the central panel. In the ASR XII 2 Sichtermann92 lists several catalogue numbers illustrated in the usual high quality with fine details93, all with features pointing to a Late Antique date. To focus

90 91 92 93

Ewald 2004, "Pleasure by the sea": 112-122; "Sea-Creatures": 396-401. Rumpf 1939, cat. no. 144; Giuliano 1985, 57-60 cat. no. II 3; Ewald 2004, 114 f. with references 120-121 (notes 4. 7 on p. 272). Sichtermann 1992. Sichtermann 1992, cat. nos. 152-170. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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65

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on one particular piece now in Penrice Castle94) it may be noted that the hairs tyle of the well-preserved head of the left Grace has the same parallel rows of oblong drilled holes making rigid bands as seen on the head of a nymph (or perhaps a Grace) found in Antioch9S. The two heads sharing this peculiar and uncommon hairstyle are so close that they must have been carved at the same time) perhaps even the same place - which gives an insight into the mobility of Late Antique workshops. The three Graces may not be an obvious motif for reliefs on sar­ cophagi, but apparently, they were very popular in Late Antiquity. Sev­ eral small-scale sculptures in the round featuring this theme have been found in Late Antique houses. Some sarcophagi too depict the Graces standing as statues on a plinth. The basic composition of three females bound together by the middle one turning the opposite direction of her two companions makes it easy to 'flatten' the sculptures into relief on sarcophagi

SARCOPHAGI WITH MYTHOLOGICAL THEMES A monumental sarcophagus represen ting the Caledonian boar hun t was found in a tomb in 1871, some distance from Tivoli96 [Figs. 21a-g]. Protected in the tomb, it is very well preserved. Unfortunately, the heads of the couple resting on the lid are unfinished. The coffin, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, measures L 2.56 m, H 1.25 m, W 1.37 m, with the height oflid 0.79 m. In the middle of the scene, Meleager is attacking the boar with his spear, his limbs unnaturally elongated. The head of

94

95

96

Sichtermann 1992) cat. no. 162 pI. 125) 4 and 127) 8 Oowest to the right) this photograph is interchanged with that ofBrocklesby Park) cat. no. 161 pI. 124) 4 and pI. 127) 7 Oowest in the middle). Brinkerhoff 1970) 39-40; Ridgeway 1994) no. 27 with excellent plates: frontal and two profiles. \Vhat Ridgeway discretely notes as ''high polish) perhaps caused by chemical cleaning" is a surface totally destroyed by acid. The head (inv. y.1992-49) was on show in 1992) when I visited the museum) but absent in the 2001 Princeton catalogue (Najberg); Hannestad 2014) 245 f. Koch 1975) cat. no. 67. For a well illustrated overview Sichtermann and Koch 1973. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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67

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Fig. 22.

Schloss Sigmaringen: Statuette of Diana.

Meleager has bending lines for eyebrows. The transition between skin and hair is blurred and the drilling goes into the skin. The corners of the eyes are deeply drilled holes, the lips separated by crude drilling and the mouth wry. The right hand holding the spear is hardly shaped; and between the fingers are three drilled holes, stressing the mannerist way of sculpting. The hair is no longer cut short like that of the Greek hero, but long and curly - recalling the hairstyle ofDionysos and putti as rep­ resented on Late Antique sarcophagi. The accompanying Atalante wears a chiton that is flowing and abstract at the same time. The difference in the sculpting ofthe drapery compared to earlier times can be illustrated by a comparison with an Artemis in the same pose depicted on the lid of a MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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sarcophagus in Providence dated to the late 3rd century9? The difference indicates that a long time has elapsed between the productions of the two sarcophagi. The Atalante on the Meleager sarcophagus is very close to a tiny statuette of Diana (35 cm high) [Fig. 22] found in a sanctuary in Bertrich, close to the Mosel River. The sanctuary was still in function about A.D. 40098 The statuette is flat with an interconnected composi­ tion looking very much like a relief The chiton is flowing, stressing her speed. The drapery is abstract in the same way as that of Atalante, and on both figures the lower edge is sharply cut with no regard for the folds99. The face ofAtalante shows a similar drilling of the eyes and mouth as that of Meleager. The other figures have faces dotted with haphazardly scattered drill holes. The figures of the relief frieze on the coffin are in general rather disproportionate and their heads have differen t sizes. The males wear chi tons that, due to the composition, are more visible than that of Atalante. The sharply cut lower edge forms almost a straight line. The figures on the front of the sarcophagus mostly appear as individuals, not incorporated in a coherent frieze as in earlier times. The couple resting on the lid wears garments that appear almost to float. From behind, the woman's doughy left hand a part of the drapery spreads towards the edge of the kline [Fig. 2ie].'oo The garment of the husband is rather dull, very different from that of his wife. Such a shape of drapery is not common on sarcophagi but appears fairly often in Late Antique sculpture in the round, reliefs as well as also ivory diptychs. Being a Hellenistic motif, it came into fashion in the later part of Antiquity to become steadily more abstract and mannered.

97 98 99

100

70

Sichtermann 1992, cat. no. 3. Hannestad 2009. The Diana from Bertrich has little in common with other sculptures from Gaul, except from ArIes, that had a vast production of Christian sarcophagi in this period. The Diana may be a subsidiary production from a workshop in Arles: Hannestad 2009, 443 f. Matz 1975, cat. no. 249. A similar shape of drapery (but more elegantly carved) is seen on the lid of a sarcophagus found in Turmuzaya and now in Jerusalem.

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Fig. 23.

Toulouse, Musee

Saint-Raymond, inv. 30381: Hercules fighting an amazon from the villa of Chiragan.

To carve such flowing drapery is demanding and appears to be an Aphrodisian specialty! 01. Quite a number of fine examples are found in the vast villa at Chiragan, southeast of Toulouse. The villa was refur­ bished in the late 4th century with the largest known sculptural ensemble from a private collection in the Roman Empire. Aphrodisian sculptors working in different genres carried out the commission. An exquisite piece illustrating this demanding carving is a relief depicting Hercules fighting an Amazon 102 [Fig. 23]. Only the feet of Hercules are preserved,

101 102

Stressed by Bergmann 1999 with several examples. Bergmann 1999, pIs. 5, 1 and 71, 2. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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71

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of her face, highly polished but very crudely carved, has coarse drilling that leaves no doubt about a very late date. In the middle, Hippolytus, with long curly hair, is standing in a frontal pose as if addressing the spectator [Fig. 24b]. He holds a diptychon that has been handed over by the wet-nurse. She is touching the elbow of Hippolytos, stretching her arm over a miniature horse. The head of the horse is visible between Hippolytos and the messenger hurrying to the right. In his left hand he holds a spear. Koch discusses this sarcophagus together with other pieces, including the Meleager sarcophagus in the Capitoline. They share the common feature that the figures on the front hardly relate to each other. The way Hippolytos is depicted goes one step further: we are now approaching the Christian realm) when direct contact between the sculpted figure and the viewer is often seen.

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This fact indicates a rather late date. For comparison a small-scale statuette in Milan, presumably a Meleager, may be relevant [Fig. 24cj. ! 08 The freestanding sculpture is about the same size as the Meleager on the sarcophagus. The frontal pose is the same, but laterally reversed. The hip of the Meleager of the sarcophagus juts out to the left, that of the stat­ uette to the right. The folds of drapery on the Meleager statuette come from behind his waist to flow over his bended arm, very like that of the seated Phaedra. The Meleager in Milan is dated to the end of the 4th century, and the same date can be applied to the sarcophagus. Stressing a late date is the donkey lying below the hoof of the horse [Fig. 24d]. It looks rather medieval. The discovery of the Meleager sarcophagus needs a further note: It was found in 1859 in the basilica of Manastirine together with with a monumental Christian sarcophagus featuring the good shepherd! 0 9. This context indicates that the crypt was the burial place for members of the same family, thus illusttating the transition from paganism to Christianity. Both chests were broken into through the right short end. An extraordinary head of Odysseus is now in Aachen [Figs. 25a-e]. It has no secure provenance, or rather it is stated that the head has been found in Nettersheim/Eifel. which is most unlikely unless the piece ended up there in more recent time. It was correctly published as a "spatromis­ cher mannlicher Marmorkopf"!l0 Until recently the head has not attract­ ed much attention, but two recent exhibition catalogues have changed this: "Odysseus, Mythos und Erinnerung" (1999, ed. B Andreae) and "Europas Spiegel" (2005, ed. D. Boschung). The head is 29.9 cm. high, which means full scale. Andreae! ! ! considers the head to come from a sarcophagus produced in Asia Minor and dates it to c. 250 A.D. In the recent catalogue of the

108

109 110 111 76

Milano Capitale 1990, 5 a. 1 f; Bergmann 1999, 49 pL 42, 4 (only head); a tiny but delicately carved head in Aphrodisias seems more abstract and presumably carved somewhat later: Bergmann 1999, 15. 49. 5 1 pI. 21, 4. Cambi 1977, 453-457 figs. 135-137; Cambi 2005, 29 figs. 29 f. Oellers 1985, 14 f. fig. 8. Andreae 1999, 78 f.

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collection in Aachen Boschung112 compares the drilling of the hair with portraits of Commodus and suggests that the head was broken off a tondo. Considering the frequency of tondi representing portraits and mythological sculptures, particularly in Late Antiquity, this could have been a possibility - but the back of the head tells another story. Examining the back, it is obvious that a great amount of marble has been cut away with a pointed chisel, presumably to reduce the weight and thus make it more attractive for the art market [Fig. 25e]. Had the head been part of a tondo this would not have been necessary, because a tondo is much thinner than the side of a sarcophagus, and it should be added that tondi were, as far as we know, hollowed out to lighten the weightl13 Unfortunately this fact is rarely noted or photographed114 Boschung notes the awkward angle of the head ofOdysseus stretching out from the background and turned outwards [Fig. 25c]. Exactly the same position of the head is seen on Terpsichore on the Getty sarcopha­ gus [Figs. 8a-d]. The head of Odysseus is slightly asymmetrical, as seen from a frontal view. Crucial, however, is the fact that the right side of the head is badly finished, with only summarily drilled furrows [Fig. 25dj, while the left, exposed side is of a much higher quality. This indicates that the head was intended to be seen only in three-quarter profile, just as it was for Terpsichore. Apart from the rendering of the eyes, which is a sloppy version of those of the Jupiter from the Esquiline group [Fig. 25bj the piece has all the hallmarks of Late Antiquity: Highly polished skin with a blurred transition to the crudely drilled hair, which has a rough surface; at points the drilling goes into the skin. Based on these observations, the dating of the Odysseus head has to be raised to the later part of the 4th century. The sarcophagus from which this head of Odysseus comes must have been magnificent. It should be possible to find other parts of this sarcophagus, and Rome would be the place to search.

112 113 114

Sporn 2005, cat. no. 6 (D. Boschung). A rather similar head in Dresden, broken off a tondo, illustrates the difference: Vorster 2013, 449-451 fig. 41c. A rare exception is the photograph taken by Marianne Bergmann of one of a series of masks from the Villa at Chiragan: Cazes 1999, 33 f. fig. 14. MYTHOLOGICAL MARBLE SCULPTURE OF LATE ANTIQUITY - AN OVERVIEW

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77

HUNTING SARCOPHAGI

A highly favoured non-mythological theme is the hunt. Appearing first on Hadrianic coins, the theme became increasingly popular until the very end of Antiquity. From a realistic rendering of the main figure (in a very few pieces female) holding a spear in his right hand, the scene is trans­ formed to focus more on the main figure raising his hand in a gesture of power. As opposed to mythological sarcophagi, the head is normally finished - a great help concerning dating. In Bernard Andreae's ASR publication of hunt sarcophagi, a piece of the battle type in the Palazzo Conservatori is considered to be one of the latest produced 1 15. Andreae dates it to A.D. 370/380. Compared with portraits in the round, such as the abovementioned head in the Museo Nazionale Romano116, it may be suggested that the date should be raised with at least one generation. Looking through the corpus of hunt sarcophagi, it appears that more hunt sarcophagi should be dated to the same period due to the portrait types. That this type was favoured until very late is attested in various media, not least mosaics. Seuso1 17, on the great silver plate bearing his name, is represented as an eager huntsman.

115 116 117 78

Andreae 1980, cat. no.112. Meischner 2001, no.333. Leader-Newby 2004, esp. 7 f. 177-180 pI. 1 1.

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CHRONOLOGY - THE END OF PRODUCTION

According to the traditional chronology, hunt sarcophagi form the group of non-Christian sarcophagi that lasted longest, while sarcophagi fea­ turing mythological themes, with a few exceptions, vanished during the reign of Constantine. When Symmachus died in 402, pagan sarcophagi had supposedly not been produced for a long time, which raises the question put forward in this book 'What did the sarcophagus of Symmachus look like?' Also Christian sarcophagi are supposed to have vanish in this period. In Repertorium der christlich-antiken Sarkophage 1 covering Rome and Ostia are listed about 1200 Christian sarcophagi produced from the end of the 3rd century to c. A.D. 400, with only a few produced later"8 To this number were recently added 240 pieces in Repertorium 2, following the chronology of Repertorium 1 . Some of the sarcophagi were found in Rome, while most are only attributed to Roman workshops119. When Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus, consul in 485, died, Chris­ tian sarcophagi should not have been produced for nearly a hundred years. In Ravenna the production of sarcophagi continued beyond the Goth­ ic period, but in a very different stylel2 0 . Sarcophagi, many with high reliefs, are supposed to vanish about AD. 470 121 The Ravenna sarcophagi

118 119 120 121

R£pertorium 1, 1967. R£pertorium 2, 1998, cat. nos. 1-140. Kollwitz 1979, chapter D. Kollwitz Herdejurgen 1979, 128-132. -

CHRONOLOGY - THE END OF PRODUCTION

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79

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are strongly influenced by the tradition of the Eastern Mediterranean and may have been produced in Constantinople!". A crucial piece is the so-called Pignatta sarcophagus dated to the end of the 4th century123. On the front and the ends are figures in high relief but very battered: Christ on the front sitting on a throne and the annunciation of the Virgin Mary on the left end and two angels on the right end. The back of the coffin is very different, showing a stag and a hind drinking from a metal krater [Figs. 26a-b]. The animals and the krater are delicately carved in a softly-modelled, very low relief This type of low relief is often seen on Ravenna sarcophagi of the period, but none reaches the quality of the deer on the Pignatta sarcophagus. The back of the Pignatta sarcophagus is in many ways surprisingly close to a relief also in Ravenna depicting the Cerynean hind being sub­ dued by Hercules (the hind however turned into a stag) 124 [Figs. 27a-b]. Despite such a misunderstanding, the relief illustrates the still-vibrant tradition of Greco-Roman sculpture in distant Ravenna. The three deer share the same peculiar shape of the mouth, among other traits. The similarity is so close that we may assume that the sarcophagus and the relief were produced by the same workshop. The Hercules relief that is supposed to come from a not preserved Hercules basilica is dated to the early sixth century. In accordance wi th the Eastern Mediterranean touch reflected on Ravenna sarcophagi of the period, some characteristic traits of the Hercules relief point in the same direction. Notably, the strange rendering of the chest, resembling a cobbled pavement, seems to be a late version of those seen on mytho­ logical sculpture produced in Aphrodisias.

122

123 124

A sarcophagus in the Museo Nazionale di Ravenna depicts the 'Traditio legis' in a colour image revealing the bluish veins ofProconessos. The front was cut off in the modem p eriod and later reassembled. Martini 1998, no. 5 inv. 600. Kollwitz 1979, 105-114 (Pignatta-Sarkophag; bibliography: 54) pIs. 24, 1-26, 3; R£pertorium 2 cat. no. 376. Martini 1998, no. 7; Mauskopf Deliyannis 2010, 123 f. CHRONOLOGY - THE END OF PRODUCTION

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81

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Fig. 28.

Paris, Bibliotheque national de France, Cabinet des Medailles, inv. 2879

2885: Hercules subduing the Nemean lion.

CHRONOLOGY - THE END OF PRODUCTION

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83

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In the autumn of A.D. 417 he returned from Rome to his homeland over sea and land, a journey he describes in the poem de redito SU013 0 . The destination was Arles. He describes the turmoil caused by invading Goths, but order was restored, and Rutilius may have been active in the reorganization of the affected areas. Apparently there was reason to return. The villa culture must still have been extant, and it is hard to believe that Rutilius would not have been buried in a pagan sarcophagus produced in Aries. However, paganism was fading among members of the nobility. To maintain their position they had to join the church - but still they read classical texts in their villas!31 as illustrated on the Monza diptych [Fig. 7]. Undoubtedly they were buried in pagan sarcophagi out of sight for non-family-members. Less important but still wealthy people could also have been among the customers for traditional sarcophagi. The light was not put out around A.D. 400, when the production of Christian sarcophagi was supposed to have come to an end. Rome was indeed more exposed to barbarian invaders than Ravenna. But life continued and the aqueducts of the city were not cut until the Gothic wars in the mid-6th century. The chronology of later Roman sarcophagi calls for a revision. The supposed peak under the reign of Gallien us. when the empire was falling apart, can only be described as a mirage. We need to rethink the prevailing chronology, and apparently the chronology of Christian sarcophagi as well. We could wish for a closer co-operation between scholars working with sarcophagi and those working with sculpture in the round or reliefs; but other art forms should also be taken into consideration. Technical aspects such as identifYing the origin of the marble used for coffins, informed by marble analyses, should play a greater role. Sometimes one has the feeling that scholars working with sarcophagi and those working with sculpture in the round, as well as reliefs, are drifting apart.

130 131

Rutilius, Doblhofer 1972. Cameron 2011, 13. CHRONOLOGY - THE END OF PRODUCTION

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87

POSTSCRlPT

The above study has some limitations. Essentially the work is based on sarcophagi published in the ASR, which inevitably has resulted in sev­ eral 'white spots'. In addition, only sarcophagi published with adequate illustrations (or those I have seen myself) have been taken into consider­ ation. Further, this study has been rather selective in the way that only a limited number of sarcophagi outside the main areas of well published sarcophagi has been taken into consideration.

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96

(Oxford 2012)

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CREDIT OF PHOTOGRAPHS:

Frontpage:

N. Hannestad

Fig. 1 :

N. Hannestad.

Figs. 2a-c:

Photos Hans R. Goette.

Fig. 3 :

After Age ofSpirituality, Metropolitan Museum ofArt (New York 1977) No. 164.

Fig. 4:

Ivory diptych Liverpool) courtesy Chrissy PartheniJ National Museums Liverpool (\Vorld Museum).

Fig. 5:

Photo: Hans R. Goette.

Fig. 6a:

Nichomacus leaf.

Fig. 6b:

Symmachus leaf.

Fig. 7:

Monza diptych.

Figs. 8a-d:

Malibu. The J. Poul Getty Museum.

Figs. 9a-d:

Malibu. The Poul Getty Museum.

Figs. lOa-d:

Photos: Hans R. Goette.

Figs. l l a-b:

D-DAI-ROM-73.1767 and 73.1763.

Figs. 12a-b and e+h:

Niels Hannestad;

Fig. 12c-d:

D-DAI-ROM-80.71 1 and D-DAI-ROM-6.554

Fig. 1 3a-b:

D-DAI-ROM-38.784 (right half) and D-DAI-ROM-38.784 (left half).

Figs. 14a-c:

D-DAI-ROM-38.784-786.

Figs. 15a-b:

M. Wegner) Die Musensarkophage. Berlin 1966 no 24. Rom Inst. Neg. 1963, 677 and Munster Sem. Neg.

Fig. 1 6a-b:

F. Matz 1975, ASR V 4 (Berlin 1973) no. 286.

Figs. 17a-b:

N. Hannestad.

Figs. 18a:

Dumbarton Oaks) colour plate: courtesy Bjorn Ewald Figs.

Figs. 18b-d:

D-DAI-ROM-35.293 - 35.294 - 35.325. CREDIT OF PHOTOGRAPHS

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97

Figs 19a-b:

after L L SaverkinaJ Rbmische Sarkophage in cler Ermitage (Berlin 1979). Fig. 20a: N. Hannestad.

Fig. 20b:

D-DAI-ROM-30.37S.

Fig. 2 1a:

D-DAI-ROM-62.789

Fig. 2 1b:

D-DAI-ROM-72.66S.

Fig. 2 lc:

D-DAI-ROM-72.663.

Fig. 2 1d:

D-DAI-ROM-72.668.

Fig. 2 1e:

N. Hannestad.

Fig. 22:

N. Hannestad.

Fig. 23:

N. Hannestad.

Fig. 24a-b:

Arachne Kaln (H. Oehler).

Fig. 24c:

MeleagerJ Museo Archeologico di Milano) copy right Giovanni DalPOrto.

Fig. 24d:

N. Hannestad.

Figs. 2Sa-e:

Arachne Kaln (Ph. Gro�).

Fig. 26a:

from Kollwitz-Herdejiirgen, ASR VII 2 Taf. 24,2.

Fig. 26b:

B. Baratella.

Fig. 27a:

Photo: Hans R. Goette.

Fig. 27b:

N. Hannestad.

Fig. 28:

Paris Biblioteque National de France. Cabinet des MedaillesJ courtesy Kenneth Lapatin.

Fig. 29:

D-DAI-ROM-70.1S.1S06.

Figs. 30a-d:

N. Hannestad.

For encouragement in presenting sarcophagi in this form) I wish to warmly thank Prof. Dr. Hans Rupprecht Goette DAI Berlin.

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WHAT D I D T H E SARC O P HAG U S O F SYMMAC H U S LO O K L I KE ? 1his book concerns the chronology oJ Roman mythological sarcophagi. The traditional chronology assumes a peak in production during the reign of Gallienus (AD 259-268) thatJades away in the reign of Constantine. This chronology has some obvious flaws. 1he supposed peak under the reign of Gallienus, when the empire wasfalling apart, can only be described as a mirage. Some veryfine sarcophagi were indeed produced in this period, but the number is very limited. With the reign of Constantine (AD 306-337) came wealth, and the so-called 'villa boom' that also revived sculpture in the round. At that time, it is believed that production oJpagan sarcophagi had ceased, to be replaced by Christian sarcophagi. However, this raises a very simple question: how were pagans buried? No doubt production ofpagan sarcophagi continued beyond the turn of the century and Symmachus, who died in AD 402, was buried in such a sarcophagus.

AARHUS UNIVERSITY PRESS