Wearables : Smart Textiles and Smart Clothes 9780081027646, 0081027648, 9781785482939

Table of contents :
Content: Front Cover
Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel
Copyright Page
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Preface
Why this book?
How this book is constructed
Who this book concerns
The technical level
Pedagogy
Note to Readers
Preamble
PART 1 Introduction to the World of Wearables
Introduction to Part 1
1. Definitions and Position
1.1. A few definitions
1.2. The position of this book
2. Non-textile and Textile Wearables
2.1. Non-textile Wearables or "accessories"
2.2. "Textile" Wearables
2.3. Smart textiles
2.4. Materials
2.5. Smart textile systems and their typologies 3. The Market --
the Applications3.1. The world of the Internet of Things
3.2. The world of Wearables
3.3. A view of the market from the consumer side
PART 2 Constraints of a Wearable Project
Introduction to Part 2
4. Aspects to Take into Consideration for Wearables, Smart Textiles and Smart Apparel
4.1. Financial and marketing aspects
4.2. Ergonomic aspects
4.3. Technical aspects
4.4. Energy aspects
4.5. Industrial aspects
4.6. Regulatory aspects and recommendations
4.7. Normative aspects
4.8. Applicative aspects
4.9. Security aspects
4.10. Cost aspects PART 3 Examples of Non-textile Wearables and Smart Textiles and ApparelIntroduction to Part 3
5. Examples of Non-textile Wearables
5.1. General public (consumer) type
5.2. The Luxury Style type
5.3. The sports type
5.4. The automobile type
5.5. The medical types
5.6. The security type --
PPE
6. Examples of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles
6.1. A few words of introduction
6.2. Fibers
6.3. Textile/fabric/cloth
6.4. A few words on technologies
7. The Future of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles
7.1. Wellbeing
7.2. Smart fibers
8. Examples of Smart Apparel
8.1. Fashion PART 4 The Technologies Behind WearablesIntroduction to Part 4
9. Components
9.1. Sensors
9.2. CPU and power consumption
9.3. Actuators
9.4. Printed circuit boards, connectors and electrodes
PART 5 Wearables: Smart Apparel, RF Connectivity and Big Data
Introduction to Part 5
10. RF Connectivity in Wearables
10.1. RF connectivity in Wearables
10.2. From Wearables to a whole connected world
11. Global Architecture of Wearables:Connected Textiles
11.1. Communication models in the IoT and Wearables
11.2. Architectures of Wearable solutions
11.3. The very numerous protocols in use PART 6 Description of the Wearables and Connected Textiles Chain12. Chain for a Connected Wearable
12.1. From the gateway to the server
12.2. The server
12.3. The broker
12.4. Return from Cloud server to end users
12.5. "Cloud"
12.6. Big data
PART 7 Concrete Realization of a Wearables/Smart Textiles Solution: Examples and Costs
Introduction to Part 7
13. Examples of Concrete Realization of Wearables: Smart Connected Apparel
13.1. General electronic architecture of a Wearable
13.2. Physical architecture of a communicating Wearable
14. Cost Aspects
14.1. CAPEX and OPEX

Citation preview

Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

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Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

Dominique Paret Pierre Crégo

First published 2019 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: ISTE Press Ltd 27–37 St George’s Road London SW19 4EU UK

Elsevier Ltd The Boulevard, Langford Lane Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB UK

www.iste.co.uk

www.elsevier.com

Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. For information on all our publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/ © ISTE Press Ltd 2019 The rights of Dominique Paret and Pierre Crégo to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 978-1-78548-293-9 Printed and bound in the UK and US

Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xiii

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xvii

Note to Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xxi

Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xxiii

Part 1. Introduction to the World of Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

Introduction to Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

Chapter 1. Definitions and Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

1.1. A few definitions . . . . 1.1.1. Wearables . . . . . . 1.1.2. Objects . . . . . . . . 1.1.3. Connected . . . . . . 1.1.4. IoT . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5. Secured . . . . . . . 1.1.6. Smart Wearables . . 1.2. The position of this book

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Chapter 2. Non-textile and Textile Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.1. Non-textile Wearables or “accessories” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. “Textile” Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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vi

Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

2.3. Smart textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1. Textile material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2. Functional textile material . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3. Smart textile material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5. Smart textile systems and their typologies . . . . . 2.5.1. Textile system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2. Smart textile system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3. Textile system typologies . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.4. Level of integration of electronics in textiles . 2.5.5. Textiles with active functions . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 3. The Market – the Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.1. The world of the Internet of Things . . . . . . 3.2. The world of Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. The global market of Wearables and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2. The market of “accessory” Wearables . . 3.2.3. The smart Textiles market . . . . . . . . . 3.3. A view of the market from the consumer side. 3.3.1. Purchase levers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2. The brakes to purchasing Wearables . . . 3.3.3. The solutions that generate trust . . . . . . 3.3.4. The innovation “hype” curve . . . . . . .

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Part 2. Constraints of a Wearable Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

Introduction to Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

Chapter 4. Aspects to Take into Consideration for Wearables, Smart Textiles and Smart Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.1. Financial and marketing aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1. “Sellable” versus “buyable” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Ergonomic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1. Mechanical shape and design versus ergonomy . . . 4.2.2. User operating flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Technical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1. Lifecycle of a new product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2. Technical-economic feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4. Industrialization, manufacturing process and quality

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4.4. Energy aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1. Energy supply of a Wearable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5. Industrial aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6. Regulatory aspects and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1. Radio frequency regulations (RF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2. Health recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.3. Regulations concerning “health” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.4. Regulations for individual and societal freedom . . . . . . . 4.6.5. The different data to protect in Wearables . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.6. Wearables, smart textiles, smart apparel and personal data . 4.6.7. Regulation of PPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.8. Environmental regulations and recycling . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7. Normative aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1. Why talk about normative aspects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2. The ISO, CEN, IEC and CENELEC agencies . . . . . . . . 4.7.3. CEN – Comité Européen de Normalisation (European Standardization Committee) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.4. IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission . . . . . . 4.7.5. ISO/AFNOR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.6. IEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.7. ETSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.8. Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8. Applicative aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.1. Why speak of applicative aspects? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.2. Pre-sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.3. Midway between pre-sale and sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.4. Sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.5. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.6. Post-sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8.7. Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9. Security aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1. The weak links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.2. Potential remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3. Security target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.4. Levels of security applicable in Wearables . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.5. Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.6. Security and Wearables for the Consumer Market . . . . . . 4.9.7. Vulnerabilities and attacks of the Wearable chain . . . . . . 4.10. Cost aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contents

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viii

Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

Part 3. Examples of Non-textile Wearables and Smart Textiles and Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

Introduction to Part 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

101

Chapter 5. Examples of Non-textile Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103

5.1. General public (consumer) type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1. Earpieces, headsets and earphones . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2. Bracelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3. Connected watches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4. Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5. Shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.6. Trackers – environmental tracking . . . . . . . . . 5.1.7. For pets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. The Luxury Style type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1. Example: Louis Vuitton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2. Example: Louboutin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3. Example: jewelry – connected ring – Icare . . . . . 5.3. The sports type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1. Example: tennis racket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4. The automobile type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1. Presence detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2. Detection and warning of drowsiness at the wheel. 5.5. The medical types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1. Example: heart failure – CardioRenal . . . . . . . . 5.5.2. Example: diabetes treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3. Example: Dermatology – Feeligreen . . . . . . . . 5.6. The security type – PPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1. Example: firefighters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2. Example: smart helmets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 6. Examples of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.1. A few words of introduction 6.2. Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1. Natural fibers . . . . . . 6.2.2. Artificial fibers . . . . . 6.3. Textile/fabric/cloth . . . . . 6.3.1. Textile . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2. Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3. Texture . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4. Ennoblement . . . . . .

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Contents

6.4. A few words on technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1. Weaving with applied or integrated electronics 6.4.2. On wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3. Optical fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 7. The Future of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153

7.1. Wellbeing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1. Silver economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2. Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.3. Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.4. PPE – personal protective equipment . . . . . . 7.1.5. Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2. Smart fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1. Integration of high-tech in the textile substrate . 7.2.2. Examples of a few R&D projects . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 9. Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction to Part 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Part 4. The Technologies Behind Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.1. Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1. Sensors and physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.2. Signal processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.3. Sensors frequently used in Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.4. Analog front-end – AFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2. CPU and power consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1. For applications in fitness, health and the medical domain 9.2.2. Quantifying energy level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3. Energy harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 8. Examples of Smart Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.3. Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1. General points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2. Display and display units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.3. Peculiarities of displays for luminous textile applications. 9.3.4. Optical fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.5. Liquid crystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.6. Electronic paper (e-paper) and flexible screens . . . . . . 9.3.7. Electrochromic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4. Printed circuit boards, connectors and electrodes . . . . . . . . 9.4.1. Printed circuit boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2. Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.3. Measuring electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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244 244 245 248 251 254 254 256 257 257 257 259

Part 5. Wearables: Smart Apparel, RF Connectivity and Big Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction to Part 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

263

Chapter 10. RF Connectivity in Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.1. RF connectivity in Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.1. Brief rundown of the basics of radio frequency (RF). 10.1.2. Regulations and constraints in the field of RF communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2. From Wearables to a whole connected world . . . . . . . 10.2.1. RF connectivity in proximity to or distant from the Wearables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2. Short range (SR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.3. Medium range (MR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.4. Medium-range wide band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.5. Long range (LR) – far field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.6. Long range (tens of kilometers) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.7. Long range (LR: LTN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 11. Global Architecture of Wearables: Connected Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.1. Communication models in the IoT and Wearables 11.1.1. OSI model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2. TCP/IP model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.3. A kind of conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2. Architectures of Wearable solutions . . . . . . . . 11.2.1. Technological description of the whole chain. 11.3. The very numerous protocols in use . . . . . . . .

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Contents

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Part 6. Description of the Wearables and Connected Textiles Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

305

Chapter 12. Chain for a Connected Wearable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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12.1. From the gateway to the server . . . . . 12.1.1. Network access layer: IP . . . . . . 12.1.2. 6LoWPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2. The server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3. The broker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4. Return from Cloud server to end users . 12.5. “Cloud” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1. Cloud and Fog computing . . . . . 12.5.2. Types of Cloud computing . . . . . 12.6. Big data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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307 307 308 308 310 310 311 311 312 313

Part 7. Concrete Realization of a Wearables/Smart Textiles Solution: Examples and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

315

Introduction to Part 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 13. Examples of Concrete Realization of Wearables: Smart Connected Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.1. General electronic architecture of a Wearable . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.1. Division of the electronic technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2. Physical architecture of a communicating Wearable . . . . . . . . 13.2.1. The BASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2. Wearable/smart apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.3. Compulsory steps in the concrete realization of the Wearable

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Chapter 14. Cost Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix: Reputable Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Foreword

First of all, I would like to congratulate Dominique Paret and Pierre Crégo for their excellent initiative in completing this book describing, in detail, the many regulatory, normative, applicative, technical, technological and economic aspects of the world of Wearables, for Smart Textiles and Apparel in particular. There is very little technical literature on these subjects despite the apparent daily arrival of new applications in health, sport, protection and security services, for example. Moreover, France has positioned itself very well in these emerging markets and the 2030 horizon is an opportunity that cannot be missed! SMEs, textile ETIs and their applicative market clients are preparing themselves, as can be seen through many recent initiatives (BPI, Techtera, Up-Tex, etc.). This comprehensive book is addressed to new readers aiming to discern the complexity of Wearables of today and tomorrow (for all sorts of applications) and their connected – or not – utilization, as well as to those who design them. This book has several qualities: it repositions the fundamental roles that are simultaneously functional, hardware and software, and the technological building blocks for describing the possible architectures; it captures the different radiofrequency communication protocols used to ensure connectivity; it informs designers on regulations and standardizations, on the handling of sensitive data and, finally, it addresses the crucial subject of security at all stages, all from an excellent technical base. Other aspects are emphasized through numerous examples that help to make “Wearables” much more concrete for the reader and aid in understanding the overall design for the chain of connected, also referred to as secured, Wearables and their techno-economic development.

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Furthermore, Dominique and Pierre have, for many years, been technical experts from the EESTEL association recognized in many RFID, contactless smart card, NFC, IoT and software development technologies, allowing them to bring a high level of technicality compared with news publications. I sincerely thank them for investing their expertise into this growing field of smart textiles and apparel to which the Textile Industry Union dedicated a white paper in March 2017, and I also thank them for offering such a comprehensive guided tour of this emerging industry to all readers – an industry that will accelerate the blending of textiles and electronics to respond to societal needs. Happy reading! Emmanuelle BUTAUD-STUBBS Delegate General UIT (Textile Industries Union)

Acknowledgements

As usual, there are many people to thank for their kindness, their attention, their constructive observations and comments. So, to all those who will easily recognize themselves: a huge and gracious Thank You! And now some gratitude for more specific friends: In textiles: – Mrs Emmanuelle Butaud-Stubbs, Delegate General of the Union des Industries Textiles (Textile Industry Union) (UIT), for her gracious cooperation and authorization to use many passages from the “White Paper” on smart textiles (www.textile.fr) and the unfailing friendship she brought to a “little newbie” of the textile world; – Mrs Florence Bost, Director of the Sable Chaud society, for her valuable advice, comments, notes and support with knowledge of the wide world of textiles; – Mr Laurent Houillon, from IFTH – Institut Français du textile et de l’habillement (French Textile and Clothing Institute) – and secretary of the BNITH – Bureau de Normalisation des Industries du textile et de l'Habillement (Textile and Clothing Industries Standardization Bureau), for his availability. In the industrial world: – Olivier Levy, Director General of Parrot Shmates, for the years of technical steps taken together through ups and downs… For this book: We would also like to thank two members from the RGPD – Associates group of experts co-founded by the co-writers for their constant help:

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– Gaëlle Kermorgant, Lawyer at the Court of Paris, for her valuable help and her involvement in the field of Personal Data, GDPR and its scope; – Mr Jean-Paul Huon, director of the Z#bre company, old friend and my co-writer of the book “Secure Connected Objects” (published in French and in English by ISTE) from which we borrowed some extracts to build and ensure coherence in this one. …As well as many friends who, each at their own level, gave me some wonderful moments… and shared good humor with me. Dominique PARET Meudon October 2018

Preface

Why this book? Following the completion of a general technical book detailing the subject of secure connected objects, we tried to find an easily accessible, clear, simple and precise summary at an appropriate level that addressed both the totality of Wearables in their broad sense and, more particularly, textile Wearables and smart apparel, their properties and so on – and we were left wanting more! We found books that were either very simplistic or highly specialized, or postgraduate theses with a focus on a specific detail within this domain. With the exception of certain books and white papers quoted in bibliographies, it is a desert! Moreover, after much circulation of the field, we realized that there was a lack of knowledge surrounding the potential of the real world of electronics and the things that closely affect their radiofrequency connectivity based on their application in the world of textiles, materials, smart apparel, etc.; which is completely understandable, to each their own role! However, this intellectual status did not satisfy us, and after many discussions with a few professional colleagues and friends, we once again gathered up our courage in both hands to search this field and, hoping that it would cover a modest part of this emptiness, we opted to write this essentially technical book designed around the specific IoT plan of “Wearables – smart materials and apparel” whose arrival to the general public is now imminent. How this book is constructed Like Penelope, after having reviewed the entirety of this book on the trade (weaving of course!) a good dozen times, and to ensure its coherent, agreeable and easy-to-follow readability, we opted for a design divided into three big parts: 1) To begin with, a first part including:

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– a general introduction to the vast world of Wearables and smart apparel including definitions of terms, the market and future trends (Chapters 1, 2 and 3); – a detailed description of the many normative and regulatory constraints, aspects and problems to which these Wearables and smart apparel are subject and which, at first glance, often appear as ancillary, but which must be taken into account regardless of the Wearables and smart apparel project (Chapter 4). 2) Next, a second part that we have broken down into three large sub-sections illustrated with many application examples: – non-textile Wearables, the majority of which are considered in a non-pejorative way as “accessories” (Chapter 5); – textile and cloth materials used in the manufacture of Wearables and clothes with technical, optical, electrical, electronic, thermal features, etc. (Chapters 6 and 7); – fashion, sport, professional, EPI security, medical devices, smart apparel, etc. (Chapter 8). 3) Finally, to complete and finish this book, a third more technical and technological part concerning (Chapters 9 to 12): – the components encountered (sensors, displays, etc.); – the tricky problem of Wearables’ radiofrequency connection (NFC, RFID, BLE, SigFox, Lora, UHF, etc.); – a detailed technical description of the different design elements in a chain of connected Wearables/clothes: - from the outside world to the Wearable; - from the Wearable to the Cloud; - from the Cloud to the host; - return from the host to the outside world; – and finally, the economic/cost aspects of the concretization of a Wearable solution (Chapter 13 to the end). Who this book concerns This book is addressed to people who are curious about this (nearly) new field, which covers broad and varied physical, technological, technical, industrial,

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marketing aspects, etc., and, of course, to students and the many professionals of this branch who are more often than not in textiles rather than electronics or the opposite! This book voluntarily carries out a relatively deep “mix” of these last two things, allowing members from each clan to overcome the chasm between them! The technical level There is no specific technical level. Everyone is welcome but, throughout the book, the spirit of satisfying the reader’s curiosity and a relatively quick raising of the reader’s level of understanding will be found. Pedagogy Having also, on top of my long purely professional and industrial activities, simultaneously exercised teaching (in Engineering School level Bac+5) and expert training activities for many long years, on the one hand, the language and the tone are intended to be current and pleasant, but beware, still very precise, and to picture the whole thing, many examples of industrial application are presented. On the other hand, there is also a constant educational intent in this book since, for us at least, writing for ourselves does not really accomplish much. In addition, for the curious and/or the brave, we have prepared many summary tables, small secrets and anecdotes throughout the text. In one word, this book is for you, for the pleasure of understanding, of learning, to treat you and to remain “Wearably” and “Textilely” yours! IMPORTANT NOTE.– Of course, in this book there will be, and it cannot be avoided, many common, identical, similar points to those described in the IoT connectivity of one of our previous books, since Wearables and Smart Apparel are in fact a sub-group of “Secure Connected Objects”. In this context, some repetition is obligatory in this book, but alas, that is the price to pay if we want this book to represent a body of this new field. We therefore ask our loyal and diligent readers to indulge us and not to hold it against us too much!

Dominique PARET Pierre CRÉGO October 2018

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Note to Readers

Throughout this book, several worlds cross each other, clash with each other and collide with each other, mainly in the wide world of textiles and their derivatives, and the world of electronics. Both have their own specific vocabulary, their ways of being, of reacting and of interacting, their design, marketing and advertising methods, etc., that are generally very different! And, once again, this is normal! Often, the way of thinking in electronics is considered as linear, Cartesian, where things work step by step, whereas the textile and clothing world is much more tangled since everything reacts with everything and it is often necessary to consider the whole thing as achieving what the end client wants!

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Preamble

As a preamble to this book, let us begin immediately by showing our hand. First of all, this book does not attempt to be, is not and will not be an encyclopedia of Wearables – Textiles – smart and connected apparel. There are hundreds of more or less well-made articles on this subject on the Net, making grand theoretical claims of the future and of giant markets to come of all varieties, of outrageous and fabulous commercial figures, etc. From our side, since we are not amateurs of unproductive redundancies, we concentrated solely on subjects, for which we found fewer articles by far, which is to say the grounded side, the daily side of this domain, to concretely and technically process the broad field of Applications and Designs of all sorts, in order to provide you with a guide, and to not forget anything such as to avoid the false turns, which can occur during the design and realization of Wearables and Textiles – smart and secured and connected apparel because this is the aim and the hidden core of this book. Talking, making pretty speeches, fancy conferences and great demonstrations are all fine (how many times have we seen and heard that), but concretely, physically completing a Wearable or connected clothing with a commercial objective, and managing to sell it in bulk at a reasoned and reasonable price is even better, otherwise, we might as well do nothing, with no inconsiderate fuss! As such, at the end of this book we will describe the steps to follow and respect for your project in order to avoid the usual pitfalls and to ease the passage from the virtual world to the real, blatantly concrete world, and we suggest a reasonable path of wisdom, based on a realistic awareness of the world of technical, economic, ergonomic norms, etc., and not “free trims tomorrow”! So there is the admitted aim of this book, and it is largely sufficient as it is!

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PART 1

Introduction to the World of Wearables

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Introduction to Part 1

This first part of the book is divided into several chapters, all directly linked with Wearables and, underlying these, connected Wearables. As a general introduction and to ensure that we understand each other, Chapter 1 gives a brief reminder of the vocabulary in order to avoid too many of the confusions that often exist in the field, and to avoid mixing up terms that are often used under the designation of Wearables and smart textiles. As for Chapter 2, it covers that vast world of Wearables, the prevailing catch-all, the media echoes of the more or less specialized general press, etc., and the concrete reality that consists of defining, designing, making, achieving and manufacturing a product and, most of all, successfully selling it!

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1 Definitions and Position

1.1. A few definitions In order to launch directly into the core of the subject and to give context to our words, let us begin by carrying out a little reminder of the vocabulary with a series of definitions around the terms “Wearables” and C°. 1.1.1. Wearables The barbaric word “Wearables” comes from the English verb to wear = to carry or have on the body. “Wearables” is therefore a generic word encompassing a multitude of elements that can be worn, the very varied elements that we wear, or that we can wear on ourselves or in ourselves (for example, clothes, accessories, watches, shoes, pair of glasses, medical devices (heart, prostheses, implants, etc.), elements that have a role in the wellbeing of an individual, etc.). “Wearables” – in the broad sense of the term – are an enormous sub-group of “Objects” that can be connected (or not), endowed with an intelligence (or not), communicating (or not) through associated (or not) radio connections to networks (the Internet, for example). We do not write in this repetitive way above with a series of “or not” for comic effects, but because, by conflation, many people make too many shortcuts, as we will see throughout this book. “Connected Wearables” are in fact a specific sub-group of connected Objects that can be linked to the Internet (or not). Since each word requires several explanations, let us look at each of these terms.

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Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

1.1.2. Objects In this book, under the term “Objects” with a capital “O”, we will include all that we find in the daily literature under the terms “devices”, “elements”, “nodes”, “end devices, “endpoints”, “terminals”, etc., in short, all “things”, big or small, that act as starting points for information that we should or would like to exploit. Here, in this book, the Object will itself be “Wearable”! 1.1.3. Connected Yes, certainly, but connected to what, how, why and so on, at what price. These days, uni/bi-directional, “Wireless” or so-called “contactless” connections are in style. This being said, we should remain simple and keep our eyes open. It has been several (dozen) years since people began building radiofrequency identification systems (RFID), contactless smart cards, NFC, Zigbee, BT & BLE Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc., and, just like Mr Jourdain speaking prose all his life without knowing it, made “connected Objects”, even secured – sometimes very secured – “Wireless”! A General Public “automobile”-type example: For 15 years, an electronic valve has been a connected Object (in UHF) in car electronics and it is not an IoT! So, this current trend really is not a scoop except for a certain crowd and its “followers” or “geeks” who are hungry for new words, even if they express the same thing as the old ones! Moreover, if they simply connect with each other through any type of simple link and they become simple “Connected Objects” or via a specific Internet link (which very much complicates matters), then we refer to “IoT” or “IoE”, but this is not an end in itself. 1.1.4. IoT IoT – Internet of Things, so an Internet network connection must be available to use this term! IoT is often defined as a network of Objects generally incorporating an “embedded” (integrated, onboard) type of technology of sensors, electronics, software and connectivity in order to detect, to communicate or to interact with their internal states and/or the external environment and to exchange data with a manufacturer, a maker, a service provider or other connected elements.

Definitions and Position

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It should be noted that the IoT functions under the auspices of the ITU – International Telecommunications Union – Global Standards Initiative (IoT‐GSI) via multiple communication protocols connecting them with each other such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, Long Range Wide Area Network, LoRa and SIGFOX. Often, and through the abuse of language, for many people, the Internet of Things covers all so-called connected products that are followed by mobile applications (watches, scales, bracelets, toothbrushes, fridges, etc.) that often do not need the Internet at all and only use other methods of communication such as NFC, BLE or Wi-Fi, for example! 1.1.5. Secured A well-designed connected Wearable must be secure and the security must be strictly established from the beginning to the end of the chain, Cloud included if applicable, otherwise it is not worth it! (Watch out, 35 years of bank transactions and high-level industry security support this statement!) This is not a luxury but an obligation, at the functional level of the whole and at private life level, now and in the future because the risk from piracy, hacking, phishing, etc., of the data provided to us is very high. 1.1.6. Smart Wearables To finish this first vocabulary list, the “Smart Wearables” or “smart Wearables” are Wearables equipped with “intelligence”. If the latter allows them to connect to other elements, then they are often “connected Objects”. NOTE.– A very official ISO notice based on existing technology and the market simply says that a “smart device is an element that possesses electronic connectivity and/or an embedded computational power”. 1.2. The position of this book After these few generic words about “Wearables” in the broad sense of the term, in the context of this book we have deliberately chosen to divide the totality of the “Wearables” mentioned above according to two large sub-groups:

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– the Wearables that are not purely textile and clothing, that we will generally refer to in this book in a non-pejorative way as “accessories”; examples: watches, bracelets, glasses, shoes, etc.; – the Wearables that are in the categories of textiles and clothing; examples: material, fibers, fabric clothes, etc., and their applicative features (comfort, EPI, sport, medical, etc.). With these introductory words invoking our near future, let us now begin to focus on this wide world by detailing it a little.

2 Non-textile and Textile Wearables

As we said, we will immediately distinguish between “non-textile Wearables”, “accessories” and “textile Wearables” that go into smart textiles and apparel. 2.1. Non-textile Wearables or “accessories” Among the very long list of non-textile Wearables, there are also different non-limiting categories: – those geared towards health applications (trackers, fitness, etc.); – those geared towards gadgets/geeks (Christmas hats, event bracelets, presents, etc.); – those dedicated to Fashion (watches, shoes, scarves, etc.). We will look at these in detail in Chapter 5. 2.2. “Textile” Wearables We will now move once more onto a few definitions, terms and vocabulary specific to the part on textile Wearables. Taking into account the developments and growth of the “textile” Wearables market, and the appetite of designers, start-ups, journalists, etc., the terms used to designate sophisticated textile products have multiplied willy-nilly: “smart textiles”, “intelligent textiles”, “e-textiles”, “fibertronics”, “electronic textiles” and so on. This profusion of terms contributes to maintaining and/or propagating numerous misunderstandings because some of them define textiles that integrate new technologies born out of technoscience, although this sector actually includes:

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– all textile products, which means those with more than 80% of their weight made up of textile fibers according to the 2008/121/CE directive, at the semi-finished stage or as completed articles (clothes, sheets, carpets); – textiles whose functions are very varied and not necessarily limited to communication functions, in the form of data storage and exchange; – the smart textiles sector, which does not only cover textile materials that include electric and electronic components. In this context, a normative working group of the CEN dedicated to smart textiles (that is to say, smart textiles that are able to interact with their environment) wrote a technical report in 2011 (under revision in 2018), which we will look at in detail in Chapter 6. Knowing that the vocabulary constantly evolves and that the most current terms are smart textiles or intelligent textiles, let us now attempt to define a few other terms and encourage their use. 2.3. Smart textiles After having carried out this mini-tour of the landscape of textiles in general, we will begin by characterizing what is implied in the level of intelligence of textiles. 2.3.1. Definitions According to the European Standard CEN/TR 16298 “Smart textiles are the textile materials or textile systems that possess supplementary intrinsic and functional properties that are not normally associated with traditional textiles”. Another definition According to Wikipedia (the international Bible, or nearly!) “smart textiles, also known as “e-textile” (for electronic textiles), are fabrics that are able to capture and analyze a signal in order to respond in an adapted manner. They can therefore be described as fabrics capable of reacting “by themselves” by adapting to their environment”. This is all well and good, but this last definition deserves a brief “explication de texte”!

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11

“Capture and analyze a signal” Everything can be captured and analyzed! For example, temperatures, humidity, pH acidity indices, ions, constraints, biometric values, attitudes, postures, movements, EM waves, electricity, etc. “Respond in an adapted manner” Here again, we can respond in different ways to a given stimulus: through the modification of forms, of power, of visuals, of audio, of temperature, of energy, etc., and in different ways: – in a “passive” manner: for example, phase change materials, shape memory alloys, photo- or electrochromic materials, piezoelectric, nanostructures, etc.; – in an “active manner”: for example, by establishing communication, carrying out calculations, programs, protocols, radio, etc. So, what is an “e-Textile”? Is it a fabric that contains electronics (not necessarily smart), the last stage before “Smart Textiles”? Is it the final result of a long migration of fabric towards electronics or vice versa? After this frenzy of vocabulary worthy of journalists, we will now move onto serious matters and more academic definitions. 2.4. Materials We can also define different types of textile materials. Careful, in these following definitions, every word counts!! 2.4.1. Textile material The “textile material” is composed of textile fibers and is destined for use alone or with other textile or non-textile articles for the production of textile articles. 2.4.2. Functional textile material “Functional textile material” is a material to which a specific function is added via the material, its composition, its construction and/or its finish.

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2.4.3. Smart textile material Smart textile material is a functional textile material that actively interacts with its environment, which means that it responds to or adapts to changes that occur in the environment. 2.5. Smart textile systems and their typologies 2.5.1. Textile system A textile system is a blend of textile and non-textile components integrated in the same product, which conserves its textile properties (clothing, carpets or mattresses). 2.5.2. Smart textile system A smart textile system is a textile system that gives a predicted and exploitable response in reaction either to changes in its environment or to an external signal. 2.5.3. Textile system typologies According to the European standards organization CEN, “materials” and “smart textile systems” that have the ability to interact with their environment are characterized by two functions, their energy function and their external communication function, from which the definition of the four categories of terms are derived and presented in the square matrix in Table 2.1. Energy function Communication function

Without

With

Without

NoENoCom

E-NoCom

With

NoE-Com

E-Com

Table 2.1. CEN definition of “smart textile systems”

This table thus clearly indicates that there can be smart textile systems with no energy or communication functions but with the capacity to interact with their environment through two main functions:

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– an external communication function through the intermediary of actuators, sensors and an information management mechanism. Example: clothing equipped with a shape memory material; – an energy function through optic fibers, conductor threads, thermal heating and fluorescent fabrics thanks to specific properties within the material, its composition, its construction or its finish. It should be noted that the majority of smart textile systems will allow at least one of these systems to be carried out, such as communication (breathing sensors) or energy (backpack or pocket with photovoltaic batteries), or even both: a thermal detector in firefighter jackets which will send out a light signal. 2.5.4. Level of integration of electronics in textiles The work of the CEN Working Group WG31 (see also Chapter 5) helps us to distinguish between four levels of integration of electronic components that add a functionality to textiles, and to understand the consequences in terms of the constraints on development and technological possibilities for each of them, with the additional objective of defining: – the different legislations that are applicable; – the effects on the human body that must be taken into consideration (risk evaluation); – the safety of the product. Let us quickly describe the four levels of integration. Level 1 integration The integrated electronic component can be removed from the smart textile without destroying the product. Fabric and electronics are side-by-side – the electronic part is attached to the fabric using external elements and remains rigid, for example: – jacket with loops designed to hold headphone cables for leisure use; – jacket with detachable screens in order to be able to clean, wash and iron it. The components can be treated as separate units; therefore, there is no need for standards dedicated to these products.

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Level 2 integration The electronic component is attached to the fabric such that it is impossible to remove it without destroying the product. This is the Hybrid solution – the electronic part is attached to the fabric with a more intimate linking and, on principle, becomes flexible and washable like the fabric, for example: – jacket with headphones integrated in the hood. In this case, the components cannot be considered separately. It is therefore necessary to treat the system as a whole. Level 3 integration One or more components are textile or of textile finish. They are combined with linked electronic components, in a permanent or semi-permanent manner, with a textile base. Integrated solution – the electronic part is integrated into the fabric and even in the threads, for example: – an electroluminescent diode connected to a woven conductor track. Depending on whether the components are removable or not, the consequences of integration levels 1 and/or 2 are to be considered. The possible limitations of electronic components with a textile base must also be taken into account. Level 4 integration All components of the electronic device are textile or of textile finish (entirely textile solution). Intrinsic Solution: the electronic part is made of fabric. The potential limitations of electronic components with a fabric base must therefore be taken into account. In the majority of cases, it will be necessary to develop standards dedicated to these types of systems or components. In summary Table 2.2 summarizes the standardized definitions of the four possible levels of integration of electronics in connected clothing.

Non-textile and Textile Wearables

So-called solutions

Side-by-side

Hybrid

Integrated

Intrinsic

CEN WG 31 naming

Level 1 integration

Level 2 integration

Level 3 integration

Level 4 integration

Electronics applied onto the fabric Removable

Definitions

Comments

Examples

Nonremovable

Electronics woven in directly Electronics integrated into the fabric

The fabric/thread does everything

The electronic component can be removed from the smart textile without destroying the product.

The electronic component is attached to the textile such that it is impossible to remove it without destroying the product.

One or more components are textile or of textile finish. They are combined with linked electronic components, permanently or semipermanently, with a textile base.

All the components of the electronic device are textile or of textile finish (entirely textile solution).

The electronic part is detachable in order to remove it for cleaning, washing and ironing of the clothing.

The electronic part is attached to the fabric with a more intimate link and, on this principle, becomes flexible, washable, like the textile.

The electronic part is integrated into the fabric and even in the threads.

The electronic part is within the constitution of the textile itself.

Parrot jacket. The screen is removable.

Google jacket, Bluetooth in the button.

Table 2.2. Levels of integration of electronics in connected clothing

15

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2.5.5. Textiles with active functions Classically, we define three categories of textiles with active functions. Eco-techno textiles This category assembles all the textiles that follow a responsible approach in their process of creation, fabrication and application. Generally, this is not done with a direct ecological aim. Active textile These fabrics have the particularity of emitting or diffusing molecules, light and heat, and have the ability to go from one state to another. Their functionalities are linked to the field of cosmetics, paramedics and security. The associated technologies are, among others: micro-encapsulation, luminescence, shape memory polymers, thermo-chromics and so on. E-textile These fabrics have the particularity of requiring an electric current to function. These currents mostly serve to feed an electronic device, but can also serve, for example, to heat directly, as is the case for resistance wires. With these brief words concerning inventory, vocabulary and introduction invoking our near future, let us now focus on the style and markets of this vast world.

3 The Market – the Applications1

This chapter serves as an introduction to the concrete applications described in the technical parts of this book2. 3.1. The world of the Internet of Things According to many consultant agencies, the number of connected Objects in the world should experience “rampant” progress. In 2020, according to the firm Gartner, the market should have approximately 21 billion connected objects (watches, thermostats, scales, bracelets, glasses, clothes, etc.); according to Etisalat, there will be 28; according to Cisco, approximately 50! From one amount to its double, according to the optical quality of the crystal balls used. In short, many! At the end of 2016, the European Commission launched a consultation on “Smart Wearables” (bracelets, clothes, watches, telephones, etc.) that estimated the value of the world market of wearables to be approximately 34 billion euros that year. In parallel, the direct consequences of this growth could be the exponential development in the quantity of data collected and shared (mainly via mobile phones and the Cloud) with an accelerated production of new data per connected individual. It is true that the rise of connected Objects/Wearables and the generalized use of all things digital generate the production of a great deal of data and create new opportunities for the improvement of their operational efficacy, in order to reinvent the client experience and create new services. Owing to this, all big fields of activity are announcing plans with attractive slogans and great fanfare. 1 The authors would like to graciously thank Emmanuelle Butaud-Stubbs, Delegate General of UIT, for allowing us to quote and repeat throughout this book several passages from the “white paper” on smart textiles designed under her responsibility. Thanks again. 2 The market figures in this chapter are from: Beechman Research, eMarketer, DGE (Direction générale des Entreprises), UIT white paper, Gardner, BioSerenity, IFTH.

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3.2. The world of Wearables As mentioned above, Wearables – in the broad sense of the term (smart accessories, textiles and apparel) – represent a vast sub-group of “IoT devices”, and since 2010/2013, the press has been lapping up everyone’s announcements in big successive tsunami gulps! The everything and anything of Wearables has begun, a true bric-a-brac! What does this represent and where will we place this book and its contents within this mess? This is what you will discover in the following paragraphs. 3.2.1. The global market of Wearables and their applications The growth dynamic of the global market of “Wearables” (bracelets, watches, clothes, etc.) compared with fixed connected objects (such as those used in houses, like thermostats or alarms) follows several basic trends: – the development of personal and professional mobility; – the miniaturization and new availability of electronic components; – the strong penetration of “smartphones” and their utilization; – the extended autonomy of “smartphones” thanks to increasingly small and powerful batteries. According to the Beechman Research agency, the seven main applicative markets/sectors (non-hierarchized) of “Wearables” are based around the seven following fields of application: – style/fashion; – communication; – lifestyle; – sport/fitness; – wellbeing; – medicine; – security. Figure 3.1, which has been repeatedly taken up by media, gives a good view of their main applications sector by sector, the functions they generally carry out and the families of products that can be found on the market, which we will detail throughout this book.

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Figure 3.1. Fields of Wearables application (taken from Beechman Research). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

As highlighted by this figure, there are “accessory” Wearables and “textile and clothing” Wearables. 3.2.2. The market of “accessory” Wearables In the specific family of “accessory” Wearables, in 2017, Gartner suggests at least seven types of Wearables, such as: – sports watches; – patient identification labels; – personal trackers; – smart watches; – portable translators; – impact monitors.

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At the moment, in terms of users, the sector experiencing the strongest growth is that of “wellbeing/health”, which began with physical exercise “trackers” to control and/or improve physical performance, and is now moving towards applications that monitor stress levels, sleeping conditions, etc. In France, the DGE report on the Key Technologies of 2020 (Technologies clés 2020) indicated that “the global market of connected objects for health and wellbeing should experience huge growth to reach nearly 117 billion USD”. In the USA, the eMarketer agency published a study at the end of 2017 on the use of “Wearables – accessories”, in which they highlighted the following observations and predictions: Throughout 2017 – despite the marketing of several big-brand connected watches and smart bracelets, the growth remains weak. Over the course of 2018 – the uptake rates continue to rise; – the number of connected watches users reaches 22 million; – fewer than 20% of Americans use a wearable; – the number of users of age 18 or more increases by 12%; – this represents 19.6% of the American population in 2018 compared to 17.7% in 2017. Between 2016 and 2018 – more than 11 million Americans become new users. From 2019 – growth will stagnate; – 50 million Americans will use a wearable for at least a month compared to 45 million in 2017. In 2021 – 60 million Americans will use Wearables; – this represents 10 million fewer new users in three years. These market phenomena can be explained by the fact that consumers have not yet found good reasons to buy “accessory” Wearables, although some of them are as

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expensive as a mobile phone! According to this analysis, the growth will mainly come from new male users who are more inclined to wear connected watches. Nevertheless, the Wearables market will remain under the dominion of health and fitness tracker devices (women prefer fitness bracelets). The real brake to this growth is the absence of a proper “must-have” on the market (the product that we must have!). If a business or application manages to convince the public of the indispensability of a product, it could change the current state, but that is a pessimistic viewpoint. 3.2.2.1. Distinction between “wellbeing” and “health” and “medicine” Often, on the “accessory” Wearables market (as well as that of smart textiles and apparel), we find alleged “wellbeing” and/or “health” products (watches, bracelets, trackers, jackets, etc.) that sometimes/often generate confusion with those that truly belong to the market of professional “medical” Wearables. Later, we will look at these points in more detail and depth (Chapter 8), but for now we will carry out a small clarification because sometimes / often / too often these three markets are confused by consumers / the general public due to a sort of continuum between a healthy lifestyle (food, exercise and sleep) and medical health prescriptions (even regular exercise is sometimes prescribed by doctors), yet, in terms of regulations, wellbeing, health and medicine have very different managements. “Medical” Wearables Textile or non-textile (connected or not) health Wearables with medical claims (for example, blood glucose meters, insulin treatment for diabetes, jacket and hat allowing the medical follow-up of epilepsy or sleeping problems, etc.) are subject to regulations, such as those in France which relate to, for example, the “Code de la santé publique” (Public health code – CSP) and the “Dispositifs médicaux” (Medical devices – MD). According to the Agence nationale de sécurité du médicament et des produits de santé (National medicines and health products safety agency – ANSM) is considered as a medical device – MD – an instrument, device, tool or even software, material or other article, used alone or in association, including software, destined by the manufacturer to be used specifically by man to ends that are notably diagnostic and/or therapeutic, and necessary for their good functioning (Directive 93/42/CEE relative to medical devices). The medical device – MD – is therefore destined by the manufacturer to be used by man to the ends of: – diagnostics, prevention, control, treatment or attenuation of an illness or compensation for an injury or a handicap;

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– study or replacement or modification of the anatomy or of a physiological process; – mastering the design; and whose main action desired in or on the human body is not obtained by pharmacological or immunological means, nor through metabolism, but whose function can be assisted by such means (European Directive 93/42/CEE). NOTE 1.– For more details, carefully read the 175 pages of the European Parliament and Council’s (EU) Regulation 2017/745 from April 5th, 2017 pertaining to medical devices will come into effect on May 26th, 2020 at the latest (see Chapter 4). NOTE 2.– The manufacturer is the physical or moral person who makes or refurbishes a device, or designs, produces or renovates a device and markets this device under their name or brand. Moreover, obtaining the “Medical Device” acronym (MD and the affixed CE acronym) is long and costly and the conditions are draconian. Owing to this, few products and companies can/are able to boast about selling “medical Wearables” (whether smart accessories or apparel). Only a few companies/SMEs/start-ups working and/or supported and/or bought by big pharmaceutical, medical instrumentation groups, etc., should appear in this market. Let us return to the market data. In France, for all analysts of “textile Wearables”, the medical devices and in vitro diagnostic devices market is estimated at 19 billion euros, with a growth rate of approximately 5% per year, notably due to the aging of the population. This market is one of the most promising as it is regulated, is solvent and responds to obvious societal challenges such as supporting elderly people at home for as long as possible, reducing hospital costs, improving the prevention of chronic conditions, increasing the reliability of medical data, etc. NOTE.– It should be noted that textiles are strongly represented on the market of wound treatment (compresses, dressings, bandages, etc.) and form 24% of the total and 9% of the competition (belts, socks and stockings). “Wellbeing” and “Health” Wearables Other connected Objects that are supposedly simply for “wellbeing” or “health” without any medical claims such as bracelets and belts, or other simple connected equipment from the standard market are regulated by consumer rights and measures pertaining to the general safety of products, as well as sectorial regulations if need be (for example, in the case of toys).

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We must be wary, therefore, of the erroneous and inappropriate use of the terms “health” and “medical” in brochures, publicity, etc. on Wearables.

3.2.3. The smart Textiles market In order to situate the technical context of this book, we will start by introducing a few general reflections concerning the industrial branch of textiles, its economy, its market and its politics. 3.2.3.1. The economy and politics of Textile As the UIT White Paper (Livre blanc sur les textiles intelligents, www.textile.fr/en) correctly and justly underlines how, for several years at the global level, the textile industry has engaged in great innovation, reinvention and paradigm shifts. This is all the more noticeable in industrialized countries (European Union, USA, Japan, Korea) which, penalized by the high production costs (salaries, energy, environment, etc.), had to invest in products and processes with a high added value in order to conquer new markets in which their competitors from developing nations (China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc.) were either absent or barely present. This first wave of actions briefly described below led to a redeployment of the industry, allowing for the development and galvanization of textile markets with technical uses (cars, aeronautics, health, construction, sports, leisure, etc.) whose rapid development is one of the characteristics of the French textile industry thanks to the design and manufacture of new textile fibers and materials with the functional properties of lightness, resistance, absorption, adherence, functionalization, etc. Today, the market for these textile threads, supports and products that are used more for functional than esthetic ends (even if the two can coexist in certain applications) represents more than 40% of the turnover of the French textile industry. Over the same time, from the early 2000s, a new gap appeared – that of “smart textiles” – into which not only did all the conventional textile players throw themselves, but also new actors from outside this profession, coming from the Internet (Google, Amazon, Microsoft) and electronics (LG, Philips, Samsung, etc.), which stimulated the creativity of designers worldwide and opened new perspectives and opportunities.

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Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

This second wave was led by textiles whose primary characteristic included interacting with their environments and reacting to modifications in temperature, light, humidity, etc., by catching and analyzing a physical signal in order to respond by transmitting, for example, information via stored data, or by producing energy that is able to light an “LED”, for example, or charge a mobile phone. The third wave will be that of the next decade, from 2020 to 2030, when France, with its strong textile past, its culture and its creative energy (with a very good balance between the engineering culture and the fashion or luxury culture), will not be able to miss such a revolution. The Profession, public powers, poles of competition (UP-Tex and TECHTERA, for example), innovative enterprises, micro-enterprises, SMEs, ETI and groups work jointly to promote market opportunities, stimulate actors with key competencies, create many projects and raise the necessary funding. This allows the creation and accompaniment of projects with high added value, explicitly from fields of “smart textiles” such as medicine, health, security or protection, via professional protective clothing or even tracking/anti-theft and, following these projects, sport, fashion, home décor and creative hobbies. Tomorrow morning, in the next wave to come: across all these domains, smart textiles in the form of intermediate or finished products will constitute technical markets that are not easily quantifiable because any textile support or finished product can become the object of a functionalization, which allows it to react to its environment. Of course, all this sensitizes the public, the investors, the electronics multinationals, the luxury groups and researchers in textile laboratories worldwide. In addition, daily economy studies maintain this craze around “smart textiles” and “Fashion Tech”, and motivate fashion and advanced technology players (stylists, luxury brands and ready-made clothes, designers, etc.) to discuss the opportunities and challenges (smart textile materials, fashion accessories, connected accessories, etc.). 3.2.3.2. The market of future Smart Textiles We have just underlined, a few paragraphs above, that by the end of 2016 and the end of 2017, studies confirmed that health/medicine, sports/wellbeing and professional individual protective equipment appear as the three market leaders of the future. This is then followed by Smart Fashion. In view of the previous sentence, two comments must immediately be made: – Although these three markets may be leaders, today in France they only occupy a small part of the whole market of Wearables and textiles with a capital “T” (a value of approximately 3%), so why and to whom should we write this book?

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– The reason is simple: the five-year industrial and commercial trend for this branch is there! The future will be there! It is therefore the right time to hop onto the bandwagon, and this book sweeps up all the aspects to be taken into account so that no one is left behind. Let us look at these four points one by one. Health and medicine The connected health and medical markets are on the rise, and the challenge of the aging population helps to lower the costs of proposed solutions, allowing users/patients to remain at home in good conditions. Sport and wellbeing The sports and wellbeing market is also very dynamic thanks to the rise in popularity of maintenance sports (running, aquabiking, fitness, yoga – especially among women) and the craze for the “quantified self”, which leads to the improvement of one’s own performances. The most marked progress concerns sports clothes and accessories, with a consumption that is concentrated mainly in the USA and Western Europe (for example, with brands such as Hexoskin, Ralph Lauren, Nike, Under Armour, Adidas and AIQ Smart Clothing). Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) The industrial/professional Personal Protective Equipment – PPE – market is under regular growth worldwide and generates a strong demand for light, resistant and interactive materials, on the civilian and military markets. Fashion Predictions suggest that the global Smart Fashion market will reach 2.9 billion USD between now and 2022, based on the wide scope of fashion clothing (dresses, tunics, etc.) and accessories (watches, jewelry, bags, shoes, etc.). Worldwide Consultant crystal balls have proclaimed that global sales of smart apparel should increase by 25% each year over the next few years, reaching approximately 160 million units in 2020 since the trend for portable technologies increases as clothing and device creators seek to offer new products that integrate flexible electronic screens in mobile phones, for example, or “e-paper” (see Chapter 9). In summary, by taking into account these growth indicators, the global market for smart textiles alone should reach 1.5 billion euros in 2021 with a dominant portion of the market dedicated to health.

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3.2.3.3. In France – extract from the UIT White Paper3 In France, under the auspices of its Delegate General – Mrs Emmanuelle Butaud-Stubbs – and thanks to the assistance from a work group composed of industrials and experts, the Union des Industries des Textiles (Textile Industries Union) – UIT – collectively published (mid-2017) a white paper (that we recommend you download, ref: http//www.textile.fr/en) widely diffused in France, Europe and internationally, which we have picked up again here and detailed many points from throughout the course of this book. This white paper draws up a situational analysis of the branch and was written in order to: – determine the key factors to success and the conditions for the development of a French smart textiles industry to meet the needs of society and industry while respecting the values that permeate our rights; – provide predictions for the different players and formulate recommendations on “smart Wearables” for public powers and the European Commission; – measure the market potential for French textile enterprises, taking into account their profile, size, know-how and R&D capacity; – analyze the feedback from French pioneers on the most mature markets: health, sports, personal protective equipment, etc.; – identify the regulatory constraints of the field in France and the EU, notably for data protection; – analyze the strategic questions, notably in the domain of intellectual property, that an enterprise should ask if desirous of investing themselves into these new growing markets; – understand and fight against the existing brakes at European consumer level, which is less adapted to new technologies, with fewer “early adopters” than the Japanese, Chinese and Koreans. This white paper is of course destined to be enriched over the evolutions of the market and the regulatory environment and it is destined to feed the reflections of regulation and standardization authorities in France and in the European Union. Among the main contributors: UIT – Fédération de la Maille et de la Lingerie – IFTH – Up-Tex – Techtera – Bioserenity – Juriste d’entreprise and so on.

3 www.textile.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/livre_blanc_UIT_2017_web.pdf.

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27

3.3. A view of the market from the consumer side Let us continue now by examining the points of view expressed by the final consumers with regard to connected accessory and textile Wearables, through four important aspects: – What are the levers that can generally trigger the purchase of Wearables in the broad sense? – What are the elements that most often constitute the brakes to purchasing an item of connected smart apparel? – Which solutions generate trust? – What are the pertinent mechanisms for facilitating the act of buying an item of connected smart apparel? 3.3.1. Purchase levers We will quickly spell out, by decreasing order of importance, which levers can trigger the purchase of connected objects in general, from which Wearables do not escape: – the product performance; – the innovative aspect of the product; – its individual character; – its attractive price. 3.3.2. The brakes to purchasing Wearables Here is a key point for Wearable accessories and connected smart apparel on which it is important to stop. We will start with the “raw” state by providing, below and in decreasing order, the main brakes that exist and/or are seen/mentioned by consumers and the general public with regard to the purchase of Wearables: – the price; – data exchange and security; – the fear of malfunction;

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– the absence of post-sales services; – the complexity of use; – the lack of convenient options; – the lack of apparent use; – the general risks to health; – allergies to electromagnetic waves; – the effects of waves on the brain or on reproductive organs. It is immediately necessarily to make a few comments on this list: – The lack of apparent use, the lack of convenience, the price, the complexity of use and the absence of post-sales services are part of a choice, a strategic responsibility of the industrial firm who manufactures them based on their product lines the market, the choice of marketing strategies for attacking the market, the choice of short, medium- and long-term pricing policies, the establishment of a postsale service policy and strategy (see Chapter 4), etc. It is certain that if we want to kill a product, even if very well designed, from its creation there is nothing more to do than to do everything backwards and not seek to sell technology alone! – We will now move onto data security and the fear of breakdown. - Data security – we refer you to the lengthy Chapter 4 to the social subject of mandatory protection of personal and security data. In brief, it is easy to secure data and all good Wearables system designers should know what needs to be done in this department. It is no longer just a question for commercial company management and marketing to take into account. It is true that, for many years, this point was not specifically highlighted and it is because of the need to satisfy the GDPR/RGPD (see Chapter 4) that it became such, and it is not especially difficult to solve. So, this (fake) brake. - Fear of malfunctions – as for all systems with access for the general public (and/or professionals of course), the array of utilization conditions that must be satisfied is very large. This being said, the reasonable design and development of a product that has properly taken its areas of application in the field into account, with the addition of good, well done and clear documenting which explains its concrete applications, can help to mostly avoid the fears of malfunction that then become utilization faults on the consumer’s part, the latter having been previously well informed.

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– Finally, the risks to health, allergies to electromagnetic waves and the effects on the brain or on reproductive organs: - in this regulatory and health domain, the mainstream press, the “I was told”, etc., daily pass on information that is often biased and misinformed and leads to a certain disincentive in buying Wearables and connected textiles, as well as in many other domains. Chapter 10, dedicated to RF and health pollution regulations, for the readers concerned, will help make the situation clearer. This being said, all good professionals of the branch in question – Wearable accessories and/or smart apparel – should know the law and be informed. Moreover, they must conform to the technical (ETSI, etc.) and health (ANES, ICNIRP, WHO, etc. – see Chapter 4) regulations in effect and carry out measures pertaining to the effects on health. These can be done by independent authorities such as the French LNE, Laboratoire national de métrologie et d'essais (National laboratory for metrology and trials), in order to measure the effects of use or prolonged exposure on the human body, in order to reassure consumers. In addition, the electrical or electronic components must not be irritants, allergens or dangers for the user (risk of outage, burning, fire, electrocution or explosion). 3.3.3. The solutions that generate trust – Which solutions generate trust? – What is the most pertinent mechanism for facilitating the act of purchasing a connected textile? For information and actions, here (without a single comment from the authors) are the impact/numerical results (rounded %) in decreasing order from a survey carried out in early 2017. % A study of the impact on the individual

22

Product quality label

19

Direct consumer feedback

15

A simple mode user manual

13

Positive opinions on the Internet

10

Favorable opinions in the press

8

Effective customer service

4

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3.3.4. The innovation “hype” curve Is this Wearables and smart (connected or not) apparel market an inslulated bubble like those seen a few years ago? Is it sustainable? What do our predictions say? On this subject, we must provide a reminder of the concept of the well-known hype curve which, without evading the question, is not always very accurate but is not always too wrong either! So, each summer, the Gartner group, consisting of consultant specialists in the prospective of emerging technology, propose their “hype cycle curve” (trademark registered by Gartner) of technologically fashionable products for the years to come. This allows everyone to form their ideas and to position their products, catches a glimpse of their evolution in time and allows enterprises to estimate the types of marketing efforts required to accompany the development and attempt to plan deployment. Let us look at all this again. Each technological innovation/product should follow a hype cycle made up of five big key phases in terms of visibility and maturity (see Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2. Hype cycle (from Gartner). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Phase 1: appearance of the idea: “Technology Trigger” At the very beginning of a line of activity, there are many innovative ideas, some good, some less so, some unrealistic ones that are not especially constructive, etc. This generally triggers and creates a “buzz” and interest in the media. This is the time when some try to create their future “start-ups” in their garage. Usually, at this

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stage, there are only models/prototypes (POC – proof of concept) and the commercial viability of products is not yet proven. Phase 2: “Peak of Inflated Expectations” The publicity received at the launch of an idea generates many emulations. There are many newcomers and many start-ups, micro-enterprises and SMEs are created, and it is a time for a few “success stories” that begin to flourish, but there is also a “bad buzz” from some others. It is the time to act concretely and move onto real production in order to make the product available since the expectations of the general public will be important. Phase 3: “Trough of Disillusionment” After this phase of high hopes for the market, there is almost always a phase of depression linked to the fact that new products either remain unavailable or do not reach the heights of the hopes placed in them, or else there are too many disparate offers and solutions, the price is a bit too high and, due to a lack of market norms, there are too many protocols and standards and/or proprietary standards, and finally, few or no interoperability, etc. In short, due to this, public interest wanes and companies must decide whether they want to/can invest to really make the product evolve based on the demand of the “early-adopters” of the market. It is often during this phase that many start-ups fail due to a lack of funds, financing, fundraising, subsidies and solid financial bases. There are, therefore, societal “troughs” and some fatalities. Phase 4: “Slope of Enlightenment” The project reaches its final development phase. The remaining companies begin to develop an increased understanding of the real markets available to them. This is the time for regrouping complementary interests in joint ventures, for the repurchase of the best start-ups by more significant companies/groups, to develop and grow these SMEs, to catch up on their own delays/patents in the field or even to better smother them in the long term (this may seem cruel, but it happens and is very effective). This is when the second or third generation of product arrives. Phase 5: “Plateau of Productivity” Finally, the real market appears, and the use of technology begins to develop itself and is eventually adopted by an “early majority”. The criteria for viability become clearer, the pertinence of the innovation is more convincing and the financial profit arrives.

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These five phases have different durations and magnitudes depending on the technology and the markets in which they appear. Certain products can reach a plateau of productivity in two years, some in 10 years and some can become obsolete before even reaching it. With experience, Gartner was able to define a hundred reference curves per technological sector: e-commerce, telemedicine, transport, software, etc., and of course Wearables and smart apparel. Example in 2015 It is always good to look back, and as a reminder, the example in Figure 3.3 gives the results of the Gartner prediction for 2015, suggesting that the expectations of Wearable devices (accessories) would decrease towards a more realistic level when people realized that “smart watches” would be used more as watches than as replacements for smartphones, which was true.

Figure 3.3. Hype cycle in mid-2015. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

The interest should pick up again when Wearables technology reaches maturity (in 5–10 years, so in 2020/2025) and when it reaches the “plateau of productivity”, at which time people’s interest will be revived.

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Example in 2017 The hype cycle curve from the Gartner 2017 report (not presented in this book) gives a little more detail on the numerous applications of Wearables (see summary in Table 3.1).

June 2017

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Phase 4

On the rise

At their peak

Sliding towards a slump

Rising up the slope again

Smart Contact Lenses Perspiration Analysis Patch Skin Bio Patch 3D Printed Wearables Epidermal Electronics Galvanic Skin Response Devices Exoskeleton Smart Footwear Head-Mounted EEG Mobile ECG Devices Electromyography Wearables Noninvasive Glucose Monitors Wearable Blood Pressure Monitors Smart Badges Smart Rings Gait Analysis Pet Monitors Wearable Translator

Smart apparels Consumer-Grade – Wearables for Digital Care Delivery Wearable UV Monitors Gesture Control Devices Impact Monitor Wearable Speech-Based Controller

Biometric Earbuds HeadMounted Displays Smartwatches mPERS Wristbands Connected Personal Hearing Devices

Personal Tracker Positive Patient Identification Sports Watches

Table 3.1. Details of the hype cycle from the 2017 Gartner report

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As announced in the general introduction, what follows in this book will describe the generic procedures to follow and respect for a Wearables project to avoid the pitfall of the troughs of disillusionment (parts 2 and 3 of the hype curve), so that this area might be diminished and one can pass directly to the phase of reflection on innovation (part 1) and the path of enlightenment (part 4), which is the path of innovation towards the healthy production stage, or the passage from the virtual world to the real world, which with a steady base, might be facilitated! For that, over the course of the following chapters, we will put forward a path of reasonable wisdom, built by realistically taking into account the constraints from the regulatory, normative, technical, economic, ergonomic, etc. worlds. This road may seem long, perhaps a little off-putting, but without surprises! In short, the well-known normal daily industry and economy that overlap with the hype curve.

PART 2

Constraints of a Wearable Project

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Introduction to Part 2

Before embarking on a project, no matter what it is, it is always good to know where to place our feet before experiencing grim disillusions. The authors will now present, before the real technical part on Wearables, a chapter which has the vocation of describing the main issues and questions to sort out before starting up the smallest little piece of hardware or software in the field of Wearables and smart apparel. It is a matter of knowing and solving the many constraints that can be financial, commercial, technical, industrial, regulatory and normative, related to security, cost, etc. Until all of these domains are properly clear in our eyes, we must beware of the respective industrial viability of our projects! This is the context of this strictly necessary and vital part.

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4 Aspects to Take into Consideration for Wearables, Smart Textiles and Smart Apparel

In order to proceed to the production stage of Wearables and connected smart apparel, we will first list the many aspects that are closely or distantly related to the industrial realization of Wearables and communicative connected smart apparel that are linked, or not, to the Internet. We can reduce these to a number of entities that are absolutely necessary for all projects and that also serve as an introduction to this part of the book, and which will be developed, at length, in the sections of this chapter. These are: – financial aspects and marketing aspects; – technical aspects and industrial aspects; – regulatory and normative aspects; – security aspects; – cost aspects. In addition, each of these aspects often sub-divides into many sub-aspects. There it is, the proclaimed menu of this chapter with the (“mandatory” as we say) obligation to satisfy the “cheese and dessert plus coffee and nightcap” choice without any other form of sub-option!! Again, you find yourselves warned. Let us now take some time to describe its contents.

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4.1. Financial and marketing aspects Under the heading “financial and marketing aspects”, lurk the following: – commercial/cost aspects; – economic (user wallet depth, etc.) aspects; – marketing aspects, trying to find its real use and not some fabulous appetizers, etc.; – ergonomic aspects, defining the needs and wishes of the user, etc. If these main lines are not clear from the very beginning of the project, it is not worth starting! These are, of course, very important aspects since they must be thoroughly studied before doing anything technical, knowing that if a product is developed, it is sooner or later in terms of making money! By doing what and selling to who? 4.1.1. “Sellable” versus “buyable” Making a product to sell is great but people have to buy it. This phrase may seem trivial but, alas, many people forget it! Here lies the big difference between a “sellable” and a “buyable” product. In this book, we will only talk about products that are “buyable”!! 4.1.1.1. Several points to examine What is required for a product to be buyable, for a person to put their hand decisively into their pocket and pull out their wallet, their checkbook and their debit card? To know that, it is necessary to clearly define which fields of application and which potential markets the product is designed for. The application already exists – Is its function to substantially replace something that already exists? Then the price must be less high! – Is its function to replace something that exists and to add something more? Well the price still needs to be reasonable! In both cases, the key words are: “Replacement Value” and its weighting when entering the playground and earning money, otherwise “no way”!

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The application is innovative and/or from a technological breakthrough – Is its function to replace and heavily improve the application? – Is its function completely new because it does not exist? - Is it a trend? - Is it long-lasting? The price is to be found through negotiation between the seller and the buyer. In both cases, the key phrase is: how much are people ready to spend to have it? Buyable As stupid as it may seem, sooner or later the product (the Wearable or the smart apparel) must be “buyable” for a specific crowd, at a reasonable price (for example, sale of a product in supermarkets) and it must be interoperable with others and not (outright proprietary) in its own world. In parallel, do we think that this product represents a small portion of the market “pie” or a tiny little piece of the micro-pie of sales? ROI – Return on Investment Another pressure point on Wearables and smart apparel. How to industrially estimate its return on investment – ROI – and over what time period? What is the estimated lifespan of the product on such a shifting market? More than anything, it is the alignment between the “use value” perceived by the user and the “product value proposition” (or the solution proposed by the manufacturer) which is important. Since often, thinking of the best solution to adopt and to be sure of reaching it, it is necessary to go back to front, to start at the end and work back from there. Generally, the ROI calculation is only based on the Wearable product itself. In order to improve the margins and/or reduce the sales price and decrease the timeframe in which the ROI occurs, the classic solution is to compress (if possible!) the cost price. The problem is that with such an approach, new functionality and innovation possibilities are drastically reduced. Another way of proceeding consists of starting from one end of the chain and researching how to increase the “use value” for the consumer (the perceived value, the value that clients are prepared to give to acquire it). This is often the best way to proceed, by starting at the end, from the consumer, and clearly identifying, creating, its expectations without being limited by the infamous “cost cutting” (reduction of costs).

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As we have just shown, what is quickest does not necessarily mean the path of the cheapest product, and we can see that the ROI will be tightly linked to the use value perceived by the consumer. Unfortunately, even until now, many Wearables and smart apparel products are still impulsed by technology. They are technically brilliant but, unfortunately, only interest a few people because their proposed “use value” is not high enough to meet a sufficient number of consumers. IN CONCLUSION.– It is always good to remember that, for a solution to interest everyone in the chain, everybody must win a little money, othewise no way! 4.2. Ergonomic aspects Another point that should not be forgotten: “the bad ergonomy of a product can kill a very good product!” 4.2.1. Mechanical shape and design versus ergonomy The shape, design, material, comfort and functional ergonomy1 of a Wearable must be studied in detail. All this involves, for example, the choice of shapes, esthetics, cost, manufacturing time, quantity of items, etc. Moreover, in Wearables and connected and communicative smart apparel, as shown later in this book, practically all system designs require the presence of antennas but no normally constituted client wants to see an antenna on the outside, which is sometimes completely contradictory to the technical, mechanical and ergonomic requirements! So be careful! 4.2.2. User operating flexibility Beyond the design, the real operating ergonomy must be highly meticulous (presence or not of control buttons on the Wearable, required presence or not of instructions for use, etc.), and of course, from the beginning, elderly and disabled people or those with reduced mobility must be taken into account so that they may also interact with the Wearable.

1 From the Greek: ergon (“work”) and νόμος/nόmos (“law, study”). Ergonomy is not, therefore, for design or making something pretty but to be good, comfortable when working with it!

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4.3. Technical aspects Seen with a purely technical eye (not so much textile, but more electronic), here is a short list of the essential technical and industrial aspects to carefully examine during the set-up of a Wearable and/or smart apparel project with an industrial objective: – technical aspects, specifications, terms of service, etc.; – energy consumption aspects, battery life, etc.; – industrial aspects, prototype, start of a series, full production, their costs, etc. All of these make a huge difference with the well-known POC (Proof of Concept), which is but a minute step towards industrialization, but always bear in mind that: Reference design 1 + Reference design 2 + … = (maybe) 1 POC but 1 POC cannot be, is not, will never be an industrial product!!

This has been clearly stated, yet how many unfortunate beings have we seen along the way who thought that the equation above was enough to launch a product on the market!! Peace be on their souls! In short, after these short moments of compassion, let us now pass onto serious matters. 4.3.1. Lifecycle of a new product It is necessary to define the lifecycle of a project in which the Innovation, and defined Client needs, etc., are included. 4.3.2. Technical-economic feasibility During the technical-economic feasibility phase, it is necessary to rely on the technical-functional terms of service, from which the overall synoptic, the methodology and the feasibility tools are set up, and within which the POC can be part. Similarly, it is necessary to simultaneously look into on the one hand, sourcing, qualifications and choice of provider/partner problems and, on the other hand, budget calculations for R&D, industrialization, tools and final product cost price in order to sign the “GO or NO GO” for the project launch.

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4.3.3. Design Next comes the active phase of developments that are both “hardware” and “software”, of choices, of normative constraint management, of “Design to Cost” relationship evaluation, of models and their technical evaluations and their certifications. 4.3.4. Industrialization, manufacturing process and quality This phase includes: – on the one hand, design validation, the construction of a mechanical/plastic Industrialization process, electronic sub-groups, assembly and tests, the production of prototypes, qualifications/certifications and, finally, the launch of industrial pre-series and the production of a series; – on the other hand, all the stages of validation by the provider of prototypes, and of the process in pre-series production. 4.4. Energy aspects Among the technical aspects of the Wearable or the connected smart apparel, we cannot forget their energy supply and, consequently, their intrinsic energy consumption and all aspects linked to their autonomy! It is often one of the key and fundamental points of the world of Wearables. In this context, in summary, depending on the technical and technological design of Wearables and their applicative vocation, the energy supply and feed can be considered from different angles. 4.4.1. Energy supply of a Wearable In Wearables, the problem with the system’s energy supply is not easily solved but this is hardly a scoop. In short, to each era its own woes. 4.4.1.1. Directly through the 220 V sector For Wearables worn on the body and as such fundamentally mobile, this solution cannot be considered and must be completely forgotten! However, it can be considered, for example, for supplying illuminated wall hangings.

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4.4.1.2. Presence of a rechargeable battery: accumulator This generally applies to accessory Wearables and light smart apparel, “battery-assisted” mobile items that work using batteries (rod, button) whose amount of energy, generally numbered in (m)Ah (actually in coulombs, for more details see Chapter 9), is known, leading to a known life or autonomy dependent on the peak and average energy consumption of the Wearable in question and its application. Examples: watches, bracelets, Wearables, illuminated clothing, etc. 4.4.1.3. Energy harvesting or scavenging Among the energy harvesting systems present in the environment, we can list solar energy, wind energy, vibration energy, thermal energy, sound energy, kinetic energy, chemical energy, dynamo electrics, radiated electromagnetic fields (RFID, NFC, etc.), etc. (for more details see Chapter 9). These collector/recuperation systems tend to provide very small quantities of energy and (very) low electric consumption currents to electronic circuits. These are therefore systems that can be “batteryless” in which the energy collection or recuperation processes required for use are taken from external sources in infinitesimal quantities and then stored to serve as the autonomous function of devices. Example: we charge “super capacities”, C – so-called “gold” capacities – with a tension, V, which gives Coulombs: Q = C V, which transforms to Q = i t (current, Ampere, for a certain time, in seconds). This principle can be used in clothing electronics and wireless sensors. 4.4.1.4. Autonomy – Lifespan During the design and the deed of sale of a Wearable, the autonomy and lifespan of the function are among the first issues to discuss with the person representing the target final user (Wearable buyer, reseller, etc.). It is fundamental to immediately agree on or inform the latter of the functional lifespan of the Wearable before changing batteries, especially and if possible by avoiding the big commercial and marketing lies! It is trivial but these discussions can last a long time and their absence can cost the company’s image clearly. To help you broach these discussions, in the following you will find a non-exhaustive list of example “stupid” questions to answer in this domain.

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Short review of “stupid” questions to answer – Is the Wearable disposable? – Are the batteries single use? – Is battery changing preventative? – Can the batteries be easily changed and accessed? – Is the installation simple? – Who changes the batteries, the individual or a maintenance service? – Is the person who carries out the intervention qualified or is it someone else? – How much will the intervention cost? – Which battery manufacturer signs a covenant for the lifetime of these batteries? – Who signs a policy for the lifetime of the batteries in the application? – Are the batteries set up directly at the end of the production line? – Have measures been taken with regard to the potentially long storage time of batteries in a warehouse? – Do we not only activate the batteries at first use after an uncertain storage time? – Who puts them into action at this point? – What is the cost? And so on. 4.5. Industrial aspects As we said before, the aim of this book is to provide as complete a synopsis as possible leading up to the realization of a Wearable or smart apparel accessory with commercial objectives, so enough time spent on “manipulations”, down with the student “tweaking” and other school projects, enough with the “Reference designs”, “POCs” (proofs of concept) that everyone asks for or proposes, fake functional “protos” from Start-Ups made using small business models, etc. that all walk the walk but that are, alas, far from being industrial products! One of the very first questions to ask yourself is the following: “am I technically and financially capable of leading an industrial project to completion alone or do I

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need full or partial technical outsourcing and an industrial sub-contract, a partner with me, and if so, for which parts of my project?”. The answers to this question have (very) heavy consequences in terms of time, cost and financial support, and the final feasibility of the project. In order to help the reader, at the end of the book (in Chapter 13), a detailed example will provide an outline which aims to lead the project the right way. This outline will, for example, take into account the quantities, the levels of production, the hardware and software outsourcing, the mechanics (molds, etc.), SE security, Cloud computing, etc. 4.6. Regulatory aspects and recommendations Why speak of radio frequency (RF) and societal regulation in this book on Wearables and smart textile apparel? This is the “smart” side with its RF connection and the fact that a lot of information will come directly from the “individual” with all the desired and hoped for protection. In this context, the following sections aim to detail the regulatory (and therefore mandatory), recommended and normative (therefore not mandatory but highly recommended) aspects, whether national, European or worldwide, often wrongly considered as brakes but which, if followed, are not. It is true that when thinking of Wearables, we should imagine a product at the worldwide scale otherwise it is a bit of a bleak landscape! This already has a chilling effect because there are a whole host of global regulations and norms to satisfy that vary according to the place of sale and production, many certifications and different nuances of depth of these certifications, latent protectionisms that sometimes/often force production to the country of sale! In short, a “regulation” consists of a series of official documents/rules produced by an organism attached to a “State” or a “community of States” (for example, the European Union) whose respect is made mandatory through requirements, rules and regulations, laws, by-laws and/or decrees, and other legal texts that regulate a social activity. To this day, the regulatory constraints to which Wearables and smart apparel and their associated worlds are subject usually follow five fundamental levels into which we will go into lengthy detail: – respect of radiation and radio frequency pollutions; – respect of human exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic fields; – respect of “Medical Device” regulations, the “Code de la Santé Publique” (Public Health Code) and the “Code du Travail” (Work Code); – respect of private life and notions of privacy; – respect of waste management.

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4.6.1. Radio frequency regulations (RF) Here is a point relating to the many questions asked by the general public and consumer associations, or other media, to which in fact it is not that tricky to respond. It has been many years (40) since we began working in the field of RF emissions and we are confronted almost daily either by problems of pollution or health. It should, however, be pointed out that these are well framed and regulated through very reputable national and international organisms and that the emission constraints, if respected, do not constitute an obstacle to the different and numerous Wearable and connected smart apparel applications! Technically, to be appropriately enlightened, it is simply a case of being informed, mainly through documents produced by: – in France, the AnFr, ARCEP and ANSES with its Health-Work branch; – in Europe, in terms of emissions, the ERC 7003 documents produced by the ERO group and those from ESTI pertaining to electromagnetic pollution measures; – globally, with regard to the exposure of humans to non-ionizing radiation, the ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection). Let us look at this list in detail, attempting to keep it simple and comprehensive for the new arrivals in these fields! 4.6.1.1. Constraints due to radiation and pollution All connected Wearable systems that include an RF connection (see Chapter 10) eventually have antennas that emit RF waves. Many regulatory texts (ERC, FCC, etc.) indicate, across values for permitted/authorized emitted frequencies, the bandwidth (WB – Wide Band or NB – Narrow Band), authorized radiation power levels, specific masks/templates and duty cycles, the constraints and restrictions (radiation, pollution, susceptibility, etc.) (see Chapter 10) to which the equipment dedicated, broadly speaking, to Wireless capabilities (RFID, NFC, IoT, geolocalization, etc., and of course, Wearables) are subject. In Wearable applications for the general public (watches, bracelets, jackets, athletics, etc.) or professionals (PPE, medical, etc.), one of the fundamental constraints consists of reading, studying and respecting the national/international regulatory levels for RF radiation and pollution. Despite the fact that for RF, it is possible to use several frequencies, nearly the whole world more or less works around the same frequencies or bandwidths (13.56 MHz, 800 to 900 MHz and 2.4 GHz). At these frequencies, the RF regulations and global pollution norms are practically harmonized with a few minor exceptions/variants depending on the

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regions of the world and/or country. Several global, American, European and French organisms regulate and preside over the elaboration of parameters that directly affect Wearable RF systems – SRD type smart/communicative apparel (SRD stands for “Short Range Devices” and LRD for “Long Range Devices”). At the global level: ITU – International Telecommunication Union. In the USA/Canada: The FCC – U.S. Federal Communications Commission – which, under the auspices of the ANSI (American National Standards Institute) established the reference document “US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)” Title 47, Chapter I, Part 15: “Radio Frequency Devices”, the local Bible of the regulations that concern us. In Europe: The ECC - ERC - REC 70 03 recommendation “Relating to the use of Short Range Devices (SRD)” from the CEPT/ERO (European Regulation Organization). Moreover, the ETSI “Electromagnetic compatibility and Radio spectrum Matters (ERM); - EN 300 - xxx - frequencies from 9 kHz to × GHz” measurement and test methods follow the ERO recommendations. In France: Two organisms regulate the assignment and distribution of frequencies usable for IoT applications, therefore in Wearables, and their usage. These are: – ANFR – Agence Nationale des Fréquences (National Agency for Frequencies); – ARCEP – Autorité de Régulation des Communications Electroniques et des Postes (Authority for the Regulation of Electronic Communications and Positions). These two organisms that refer to European recommendations produce documents that serve as bases for the elaboration of French norms and regulations that concern “Short Range Devices – SRD”, of the “Non Specific” category to which Wearable applications connect. In Japan: The ARIB STD-T96 “950 MHz-Band Telemeter, Telecontrol and Data Transmission Radio Equipment for Specified Low Power Radio Station” specifications apply.

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4.6.2. Health recommendations Certain entities, associations, etc. have no power to directly impose new regulations on States but, in contrast, possess a real competency allowing them to recommend certain values and criteria in their field of preference to the latter. Then, it is up to the State to accept, recommend, adopt, impose, etc. these values through laws or decrees. The following examples will elucidate all this. 4.6.2.1. Exposure of the human body to electromagnetic fields For several years, the sources of RF electromagnetic fields have been multiplied in our environment and constitute a health issue as well as an environmental one. These technologies susceptible to increasing the exposure of users or the general population (via new equipment or by creating new habits) come with many questions (biological and clinical effects, epidemiology, regulation, utilization, metrology, etc.), as well as various worries, notably concerning their possible health impact. This subject is the object of permanent relevance from a scientific point of view as well as in politics and the media since on the one hand, these new products are adopted by the population and on the other hand, they generate mistrust, notably due to the fact that electromagnetic waves are necessary for them to function. It is necessary to satisfy the health consequences concerning the exposure of the human body to electromagnetic fields, or take human exposures to electromagnetic fields into account. It is therefore in this context that the “International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection” (ICNIRP) in charge of these problems works, represented in France by the Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l’alimentation, de l’environnement et du travail (ANSES) (National health protection agency for food, environment and work). Moreover, note that all these sparkly worlds regularly find themselves at the World Health Organization. 4.6.2.2. ICNIRP The ICNIRP specifies “recommendations” that should not be exceeded (such as exposure for 6 minutes, for the head and torso) and notably a “Specific Absorption Rate” (SAR) of 2 W/kg per 10 g of human tissue for signals of up to 300 GHz. In the USA, the ANSI and IEEE documents specify 1.6 W/kg per 1 g. 4.6.2.3. ANSES The ANSES provides the information needed for decision-making by competent state authorities regarding the prevention of risks in the general public or for professionals in terms of health at work, and to support the main public policies on the matter. The agency contributes to the knowledge of emerging professional risks

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(electromagnetic fields, electromagnetic waves, communication technology and wireless technology that use static electromagnetic fields (0 Hz), low frequency fields (from 0 to around 10 kHz) and radio frequencies (of around 10 kHz to 300 GHz); examples: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, RFID, mobile phones, etc.), but via its risk evaluation actions it also brings scientific knowledge into the development of national and European regulations, and elaborates reference values to protect workers and users, with the additional mission of research programming and support. 4.6.3. Regulations concerning “health” Many Wearables and smart apparel parameters and qualities commercially refer willy-nilly to the term “health” by often mixing “athletic performance, comfort and/or well-being features” with “medical device”. In order to avoid certain applicative blunders, the following sections will attempt to give these notions an overhaul in order to move on from solid bases and to clarify a certain prevailing confusion. In this specific domain, in France, there is: – the Code de la santé publique – CSP (Public Health Code); – the regulation pertaining to “Medical Devices”. 4.6.3.1. Code de la santé publique – CSP (Public Health Code) The Code de la santé publique (Public Health Code) – CSP – also includes the Code de Déontologie Médicale (Medical Ethics Code) that health professionals must respect during the administration of health treatments. For example, in the field of data use and protection, we find, for example, in Part 1 of this code, Protection générale de la santé (General protection of health), Book 1: Protection of people on matters of health, Title 1: The rights of sick people and health system users, Preliminary chapter: Rights of the person, Chapter 1: Information for users of the health system and expression of their will: Section 4: Conditions of recognition of the probative force of documents bearing health data of a personal nature created or reproduced digitally and of the destruction of documents kept under a form other than digital (Articles LIIII-25 to LIIII-35). These articles, created by Statute no. 2017-29 in January 2017, apply to documents on health data of a personal nature, received or kept, during activities of prevention, diagnostics, treatment, handicap compensation, prevention of loss of autonomy, or social and medico-social monitoring that are achieved, notably by a health professional, or a health establishment or service. The signature on a document signifies, depending on the case, that the person who has been taken charge of has taken the contents of the document into account and, if so, consents

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with it, and that the named professional validates the content of the document. When the document on which the signature is made is created on a digital support, the signing process respects the conditions of the relevant civil code article. At the request of people who are directly interested in these documents, the previously mentioned professionals, services, establishments and organisms can generate a document comprising health data of a personal nature, based on one or several existing digital documents, without modifying the meaning and the content, all while respecting medical secrecy and the confidentiality of the data collected and analyzed. The document created in this way is considered to be reliable until proven otherwise, once a production process has been used to allow the insertion of the metadata required to guarantee the identification of the emitter and the integrity of data this generated. The document created can be embodied as a hard copy. When this document becomes subject to a legal obligation requiring a signature, this is satisfied if the document respects the conditions mentioned above and if it comes from one or more documents that have electronic signatures conforming to the measure in the document. This description and this documentation are conserved for as long as the documents that they concern. End of example (see Chapter 4)! 4.6.3.2. Data hosting for health data of a personal nature Similarly, keeping a medical record is a legal obligation, as much for the clinical establishments as for the practice doctors. Effectively, all hospital facilities must keep a hospital record up to date for each patient seen. Article R 4127-45 obliges practicing doctors to keep a medical record for each patient followed-up within their practice. These medical dossiers represent a set of information that often requires, due to its volume, computer processing and hosting by a specialized provider. The sensitive nature of these data, which originate from private life, entails their increased protection, not only because of their intimate nature but also because of the computer processing that they undergo and, as a reminder, make them subject to article 2 of the French data protection and freedom of information law (loi Informatique et Libertés) which defines computer processing as that which “constitutes the processing of data of a personal nature, any operation or set of operations on such data, regardless of the process used, and notably the collection, recording, organization, conservation, adaptation or modification, extraction, consultation, utilization, communication by transmission, diffusion, and all other forms of provision, the reconciliation or interconnection, as well as the locking, erasing or, destruction”. It is for all these reasons that the Code de la Santé Publique (Public Health Code) imposes, when the professional or the health establishment wish to entrust health data hosting to a third party, that the latter must be a certified host. The certification procedure for hosts for health data of a personal nature (called the

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“Kouchner law” (2002)) aims to ensure the security, confidentiality and availability of health data of a personal nature when their hosting is externalized to hosts who have been certified for 3 years by a certification organism, who are themselves in turn accredited by an accreditation organism for 5 years (in France, the COFRAC). Application to Wearables and smart apparel From these lines above, you should have clearly understood that Wearable and smart apparel “health” and/or “medical” applications relaying data of this kind that are centralized who knows where and on what Cloud must fulfill these regulations and constraints!

4.6.3.3. Regulations regarding “Medical Devices” Medical Devices (MDs) (the real ones, not the “well-being” devices) are today very well regulated. In addition, the enforcement of the European Regulation (document L117/xx of 175 pages published in April 2017), called the MDR – Medical Devices Regulation (see Figure 4.1) – is accompanied by a probation period of three years and will become fully effective on May 25, 2020. After this date, it will be goodbye to the pompous terms for health devices/Wearables that more or less handle ECG, cardiac arrhythmias, etc. and no more excuses. The use of specific words and expressions with commercial tendencies around the term “medical devices” could be heavily sanctioned!

Figure 4.1. Medical Devices Regulation (MDR)

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This regulation very clearly spells out the scope of obligations from economic operators, notified bodies, transparency and traceability, market vigilance and surveillance, sector governance, clinical evaluation with panels of European experts, consultation procedures for certification, essential requirements (CMR/PE, etc.) and classification. Moreover, the MDR precisely defines the different operators and their prerogatives as shown below. Manufacturer

All physical or moral persons who make or refurbish a device or design, make or refurbish a device, and market this device under that name or brand.

Agent

All physical or moral persons established within the Union who receive and accept a written mandate from a manufacturer, who is outside of the Union, to act on behalf of the manufacturer for the purposes of accomplishing determined tasks linked to the obligations burdened on the latter by virtue of this present regulation.

Importer

All physical or moral persons established within the Union who put a device from a non-member country on the Union market.

Distributor

All physical or moral persons who are part of the supply chain, other than the manufacturer or importer, who make a device available on the market, up to the stage of putting the device into service.

Attention! The status is defined by the product: within the same enterprise you can be manufacturer, agent, importer and/or distributor. Application to Wearables and smart apparel That's it, it has the merit of being very clear and very explicit, and many people and Wearables or smart apparel companies should be affected by the application of this text!

To conclude this subject, the ISO 13 485 norm – Quality System Manufacturers Medical devices – Quality Management Systems – Requirements for regulatory purposes details the requirements of the quality management system (QMS) for the industry of these medical devices. 4.6.4. Regulations for individual and societal freedom2 4.6.4.1. Why talk about regulations on individual freedom? – The first answer is trivial: because it is the Law whether we like it or not, and it must be taken into account and respected!

2 The authors would like to thank Mrs. Gaëlle Kermorgant, lawyer at the Paris bar and co-founder with the authors of the “GDPR Associates” working group, for her cooperation in tailoring the text concerning individual and civil freedom regulations in this chapter.

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– The second is more concrete, and it is that the world of Wearables and clothing transfers a lot of personal information/data from the individuals (biometrics, behavior, etc.) who carry these products, so it is good to treat these “data of a personal nature” with all the precautions they require. – Finally, the following section may seem a little “highbrow” to certain people (since they are more on the artistic than industrial side) but it is really at the core of the subject of the smart textiles and apparel profession and cannot be ignored! You have been warned, sorry! 4.6.4.2. A little history and general knowledge We can briefly summarize the history of individual and data freedom and “Privacy” as follows by carrying out a step back in time of nearly 30 years. So once upon a time… In France, January 1978: Publication of the French data protection and freedom of information law. Creation of the CNIL – Commission nationale de l’informatique et des libertés (National Commission of computer technology and freedom). Creation of the VISA payment card. From 1995 to 2008: Regardless of their operating frequency, we have witnessed: – animal identification before 1990 – automobile immobilizers 1992 – contactless chip cards 1997–2000 – Supply Mng, Item Mng, non-dense, dense “RFID” systems 1998–2000 – Passports, ID cards, securities, documents, etc. 2001 – “NFC” and C 2002 – “Wireless/communicative” objects 2003 – RFID mobile systems 2005 2006 – Form factors, hostile environments, loading effect, etc. and all Smartphones – The IoT 2008 – Wearables and smart apparel now In fact, all of these were and still remain “RFID” systems!!!

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It should be noted that as of 1998/99, in the USA, the “CASPIAN” organization – Consumers Against Supermarket Privacy Invasion and Numbering – a national consumer organization created to sensitize consumer-citizens to RFID-buyer surveillance, managed to scupper projects piloted by heavyweights such as Gilette in the USA and Benetton in Italy (already in textiles). December 2008 The European commission published “Mandate 436” derived from the CEN, ETSI and CENELEC who proposed (phase 1) the analysis of the gap between RFI standards/norms, data protection and “Privacy” protection. May 2011 The phase 1 report underlines that there is no existing standard linked to a PIA (privacy impact assessment) mechanism and to public information. January 2012 The phase 2 Kick-off Meeting is held with the aim of publishing a norm with a maximum delay of two years. July 2014 Publication of two landmark norms: EN 16 570 – signage and public awareness. EN 16 571 – PIA process for RFID applications. January 2015 Publication of “Mandate 530” which is a request for standardization from European normalization bodies on the subject of private life and the management of personal data protection in support of Directive 94/76/CE of the European Parliament and Council, in support of the Union’s industrial security policy. Let us look at all of this in more detail. 4.6.4.3. The French law of data protection and freedom of information (Loi Informatique et Libertés) Since January 6, 1978, the First Article of Law no. 78-17 (and then its successive modifications) relative to computer technology, documents and freedom indicates that “computer technology must be at the service of each citizen. Its development must operate within the frame of international cooperation. It must not violate human identity, nor human rights, nor private life, nor individual and public

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freedoms”. It has all been said, now apply it! In France, the Commission nationale de l’informatique et des libertés (National commission of computer technology and protection) – CNIL – was created at the same time, with the aim of accompanying professionals to ensure compliance, and to help individuals get to grips with their personal data and exercise their rights. The CNIL also analyzes the impact of technological innovations and emerging uses on private life and freedom, and works in tight collaboration with European and international counterparts to develop a harmonized regulation. 4.6.4.4. Mandate 436 From the very beginning of industrial RFID applications, in 2008, the European Commission emitted “Mandate 486” (see Figure 4.2) addressing all the details of the issues raised by privacy problems, individual freedom and social RFID aspects, including the NFC and IoT objects – of which Wearables are but derivatives and particular branches.

Figure 4.2. The famous “Mandate 486”

For information (and for action of course), we deliver a few extracts of its “scope” for you: “… the 12th of May 2009, the European Commission issued a recommendation (mandate M436) on the implementation of the principles for the respect of privacy and data protection in applications that rely on radio frequency identification. Pursuant to this recommendation, an evaluation framework of the impact of RFID applications on data of a personal nature and private life, developed by enterprises, must be submitted for approval to the ‘article 29’ working group [author’s note: since baptized by all as G29] on data protection. This evaluation is currently called

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‘privacy impact evaluation’ (PIA). The PIA evaluation framework for the impact of applications on privacy constitutes a response to this requirement and is within the context of other assurance standards for information, data management and exploitation that promote good governance on matters of data…”. IMPORTANT NOTE.– The PIA framework is general enough to cover all applications (RFID, NFC, IoT, Wearables, smart textiles and apparel, etc.), all while allowing particulars and specificities to be processed at the sector or application level.

End of story! Sorry for the length of this extract but by 2009, everything had already been said! 4.6.4.5. Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) The PIA process is founded on a risk management approach to matters of respect for privacy and data protection. It is designed in a manner that helps the operators to detect the risks to privacy associated with an application, to evaluate their probability and to document the measures taken to address them. Such impacts (if there are any) can vary significantly depending on whether the application processes data of a personal nature or not. The PIA framework provides guidance to operators concerning methods for risk evaluation; it notably proposes appropriate measures to efficiently, concretely and proportionally limit all probable impacts on privacy and data protection. Although the European Commission mandate only applies to member states of the European Union, the EN 16571 norm has been taken up and improved by 37 national standardization organisms. Applications to Wearables and smart apparel Sooner or later, it will therefore be necessary for you to quantify in detail all the risks linked to the distribution of impacts of your Wearable or smart textile/apparel on privacy and you will have to generate this famous PIA report in line with the CEN EN 16 571 European standard (Information technology – RFID privacy impact assessment process) which describes in detail the procedure and modus operandi to satisfy it and to meticulously keep copies to be able to show them in case of questions!

4.6.4.6. Conclusion Since these distant times, all types of data involved and in the continuation of works that have already been carried out have been examined in even more detail, and the G29 has established a “GDPR” – General Data Protection Regulation. However, before presenting their main points, we will carry out a small tour of the different data involved.

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4.6.5. The different data to protect in Wearables 4.6.5.1. Sensitive industrial data “Sensitive” data of the industrial or production kind and from industrial processes are usually protected by specific security systems (cryptology, etc.) that we will not talk about in this book. 4.6.5.2. Data of a personal nature What hides behind the phrase “data of a personal nature” and what legal framework is applicable in France and in Europe? The regulatory arsenal of the following laws provides an answer to this question: – the French data protection and freedom of information law (protection of data of a personal nature) with, in France, the CNIL, since 1978; – Mandate 436 and the PIA for RFID, IoT and therefore Wearable applications; – the General Data Protection Regulation – GDPR; – and, finally, “Privacy by Design” and “Privacy by Default”. Definition of personal data All information relative to a physical person who is identified or who can be identified, directly or indirectly, through reference to an identification number or one or more elements specific to the person (Article 2 of the French law of data protection and freedom of information) constitutes personal data. Notably, this establishes the principle of information disclosure and obtaining consent from consumers by data users. What are the personal data involved? The main families of sensitive, at risk, personal data that are collected as of now or whose collection is envisaged, especially in Wearables and smart textiles and apparel projects, cover the domains mentioned here below. 4.6.5.3. Biometric data Biometric data are those that belong purely to organics (the living) and are metric (measurable), for example: outline or shape of the hand, of fingers, digital fingerprints, veins, their temperature, facial shape, image of the iris, heartbeat, its rhythm, etc.

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Application to Wearables and smart apparel In applications relative to well-being, sport, fitness, PPE, health, etc., “medical data obtained or produced by professionals working within the health system during the case management of a person, which may include prevention, diagnostics, treatment or social and medico-social follow-up activities” resulting from blood tests, heart rates, blood pressure, perspiration, muscular contractions, brainwaves, etc. are included.

4.6.5.4. Behavioral data There are very, very many behavioral data. Application to Wearables and smart apparel Lifestyle, walking or running rhythm, stride length, position and posture of a passenger seated with a car seat and so on.

4.6.5.5. Geo-localization and mobility data The same goes for geo-localization and mobility data of a personal nature. Application to Wearables and smart apparel Following a path, tracking the movements of the user in the context of various activities (tracker in a mobile application, etc.) or of employees in the context of their work (PPE clothing via GPS/GSM data).

4.6.5.6. Personal data collected in the context of an enterprise Same problem… This specific case will often be managed in sample PPE use in an enterprise context. Application to Wearables and smart apparel Absenteeism of employees, exposure to professional risks, detection of harshness factors (PPE applications, etc.), travel and so on.

4.6.6. Wearables, smart textiles, smart apparel and personal data Smart textiles and/or smart apparel equipped for whatever reason with a system of identification, varied data capture and a capacity to process this information are part of the collection of connected objects. Moreover, since the accessory type Wearables and/or smart apparel mentioned above are worn on the body, closest to the body, perhaps even as a “second skin”, and are the most in sync with that person and their biometric and behavioral properties, data are often captured, measured and

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exploited as “personal data”. Due to this, Wearables and smart textiles enterprises accumulate/will accumulate huge amounts of this kind of data (giga-, terabytes) concerning the physical wearers of these kinds of objects. The major challenge is to then reassure consumers and build their trust in the market of smart textiles and apparel, sometimes considered as spy objects that track their movements, their travel, save their biometric, behavioral, private, etc. information. In short, their sensitive health or well-being data, and perhaps transmit them to anyone anywhere. It is therefore necessary to anticipate and ensure the conformity of smart textiles and apparel with respect to different aspects related to the protection of “data of a personal nature”. In addition, the majority of Wearables and smart apparel are based on principles of RF communication that are more or less directly derived from RFID or similar techniques (NFC, BLE, Wi-Fi, LoRa, SigFox, etc.) and use HF or UHF communications and naturally fall under the scope of the PIA! Following these appetizers, we will now move onto the content of the GDPR. 4.6.6.1. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) The European regulation text “General Data Protection Regulation – GDPR” (with the integration of data of a personal nature and “Privacy by Design”) was published on May 4, 2016, in the OJ (Official Journal of the European Union – see Figure 4.3) and came into effect on May 25, 2018, to replace the old Data Protection Directive from 20 years ago.

Figure 4.3. Facsimile of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) text

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The GDPR document (~150 pages) is free to access, and we very highly recommend that you download it from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN /TXT/?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2016%3A119%3ATOC and most of all read/go through it attentively!! The GDPR ensures a level of protection in the processing of data relative to people of the member states of the European Union and establishes new rights for people with respect to the protection of their personal data. It does not require specific norms because it defines, on the one hand, the requirements that must be satisfied to correctly manage data and on the other hand, the rules when data are mismanaged, including, at a very high level, the fines incurred. The GDPR is therefore applicable without legal obligation at the national level, and it is the common law of data protection that has been imposed on all member states of the European Union since May 2018.

The GDPR and its application in industry The GDPR expressly states the right to withdraw data (Article 17) and specifies that violations of personal data must be notified to the CNIL (Article 33 of the regulation) and to the owner of the data. The text also provides a warning of the sum of financial sanctions that can be incurred in case of breach of any of this: 20 million euros or 4% of the organization’s total annual turnover. For example, for GAFA – Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon – among which certain companies manufacture or sell Wearables/clothes, jackets, and other non-textile Wearables, watches and/or bracelets with sports “tracking”, and that manipulate huge amounts of data of a personal nature, this would represent millions of dollars! Standard example of non-textile Wearables (but that could very well be!) A company sells a watch (a jacket) which measures, among many other things (athletic comfort for well-being) your heart rate through an ECG – biometric and behavioral data duly characterized as personal data – which is sent by the application to your mobile phone, which in turn benefits from an application that can relay these data to a Cloud (which one?) located precisely we do not know where, to do who knows what with (for example, selling them to an insurer and, to add a cheery note to this, selling some to a funeral service body – yes, yes, it is been done!) to then come back to you on your mobile phone, through who knows what path, etc. Basically, there is a nice chain to examine!!

If all this text seems like gibberish, let us speak concretely about Wearables.

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Establishment of GDPR in enterprises In the industry of Wearables and smart textiles, like in many other domains, to correctly implement the GDPR it is necessary to follow the Regulation, which means: – To have or dispose of a Data Protection Officer (DPO) who, in addition to their own legal competences, must have proven knowledge in computing. The DPO can be a member of staff from the entity in which he/she is appointed or an external provider (for example, a DPO shared by several SMEs). The DPO’s function is to ensure the conformity of the body to which they belong with the regulation framing the protection of personal data. The aim of the DPO is to be a primary interlocutor within the company on matters of personal data protection, as much for the RTD data processing manager or the sub-contractor(s) as for the relation with the CNIL. This then favored the transformation of existing “Data protection and Freedom Correspondents” at the CNIL (when they existed) who became DPOs within the enterprise. – Designating a “data processing manager” within a Wearable and/or smart apparel enterprise (designer, manufacturer, stylists, etc.) who must keep regulations up to date and carry out impact analyses, and jointly manages the people responsible for ensuring data protection regulations are respected. On principle, the data processing manager is the person, the public authority, the service or organism who determines the aims and the means. The data processing manager can request a sub-contract to carry out the processing on his behalf. Outsourced processing is regulated through a sub-contract containing the mandatory provisions (objective, duration, nature and aims of the processing, etc.). As soon as enterprises begin to carry out large-scale processing (in PPE, medicine), regular and systematic follow-up of people, or processing of sensitive data as required by their main activity, they must then compulsorily designate a DPO as much for the data processing manager as for the sub-contract. – Obligatory formalities for enterprises processing Personal Data: the Regulation falls within a logic of phasing out formalities from the declarative system prior to carrying out data processing of a personal nature, except for certain cases (sensitive data, high risk data), which means that enterprises must now carry out a solid internal documentation of data processing in order to prove and produce, in case of an inspection (therefore a posteriori) by authorities whose power to penalize has been reinforced, their conformity and the respect of regulation. Due to this, a data processing manager must establish a register of processing activities, which is usually an enormous document!

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In addition, data protection concepts stated in the Regulation very clearly indicate that privacy by design and privacy by default force enterprises to implement technical measures and a level of organization adapted to the stakes and rights of the people concerned, and this as soon as the technical configuration of the products is done, which should already have been done a long time ago!! Finally, in new technologies such as Wearables and connected smart apparel, all processing that could generate a risk for the rights and privacy of the people concerned should undergo a PIA just like in the times of RFID! 4.6.6.2. PIA – Impact studies on privacy The risk of an impact on privacy is a scenario that describes an event dreaded by the enterprises or people involved in data processing. Depending on the level of sensitivity of the data and the risk of repercussions from the processing on the privacy of persons, the data processing manager must carry out: – a complete Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA); – a PIA report in order to understand the lifecycle of data based on their nature and their format, on the aims and contributions of the data processing to the enterprise or the people involved. And then: – classify these dreaded events in order of gravity. Examples of risks with a high level of gravity: - Illegitimate access to data by a third party, - Unwanted modification of data collected, - Loss or deletion of data collected. – classify these dreaded events by real probability of their occurrence; – based on the risks that have been objectively identified, all the threats that could lead to this event must be anticipated by the data processing manager and the DPO (often the ex CIL). The impact study carried out then provides information on whether the protective measures set up by the enterprise are deemed to be sufficient in terms of the identified risks and whether the residual risks are acceptable. The data processing manager can then validate the PIA. Finally, the impact analysis report

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must be made accessible to investigation authorities and its publication or diffusion by the enterprise itself may be a bonus to gain the trust of consumers. Note: The CNIL provides very detailed guides to enterprises for them to carry out these impact analyses and establish risk protection measures. Of course, we assume that all manufacturers (small or large) of well-being, sport, health, PPE, medical, etc. Wearables and connected or not-connected smart apparel are able to put all of these documents on the table as of tomorrow morning. VERY IMPORTANT.– Warning! Do not take all these texts above lightly because, whether you are Creators, Designers, Start-Ups, SMEs, etc. with shared DPOs, or large companies with your own DPO and data processing manager, you must pass these GDPR hurdles, it is the Law!

Privacy by Design and by Default The concepts of data protection are broken down by the following two paradigms: – at design stage through “Privacy by Design”; – and “Privacy by Default”. These force enterprises to implement technical and organizational measures adapted to the challenges and rights of the people in question, from the technical configuration stage of products. Of course, ultimately, the aim is not to wait until the end of a project’s analysis to think of the PIA but from the very beginning, through the “Privacy by Default” principle and throughout its development, which is known as “Privacy by Design”. The privacy security chain must then be examined, verified, verifiable and guaranteed from beginning to end while showing how using the PIA process can gradually lead to improved privacy. Example of “Privacy by Design” in Wearables and smart apparel Often, the design of a Wearable/smart apparel (professional PPE/medical or applications for the general public) solution is based on a design that follows several successive stages, going from the Wearable/smart apparel all the way to the Cloud and then, often, in the end, returning to the different users. If security and data protection from beginning to end are determining criteria, these are coded locally in the Wearable and then relayed to a central system. Until today, this architecture represents the crushing majority of accessory Wearables with a strong IoT chain trend. This approach goes from the postulate that the coding keys used are correctly protected both locally and at the central system level. Unfortunately, as soon as we want to access these data, it is necessary to decode them, and for this, the keys must be accessible.

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Let us take the example of PPE or medical apparel which usually collects data measures of a personal nature. The first technical solution to protect the data is: – To generate the cryptographic keys in the Cloud; – To securely inject one part of the data in the measuring device; – To use them to protect information: - locally; - during their relaying to the Cloud; - during their storage in the Cloud. The inconvenience of this approach is that technically, the coded data and the decoding keys are present in the central system, and are therefore theoretically attackable, especially if the keys are not correctly protected. In the alternative “Privacy by Design” approach, the measurement/capture device will generate its own keys and protect the data. A consultation can be done locally, but even if a data safeguard is set up and the central system is “hacked”, it will be impossible to decode the data. This approach leads to a solid protection, to the detriment of functional ease of use, since consultations can only be done locally. Across this example, we see the necessity of an early analysis:

– of the data to protect; – of their respective levels of security; – of their access needs (local, central, long distance, etc.). The objective will be to define the best compromise, the ideal solution replying to a set of contradictory criteria that are rarely met.

4.6.6.3. In conclusion To conclude this part of the chapter, the section below is focused, on the one hand, on textile enterprises and, on the other hand, on current and future designers, stylists, manufacturers, etc. of products intended for this new market, in order to provide a daily reminder of the main points that they must keep in mind: – Enterprises must: - determine the aims of data processing and sub-objectives; - distinguish the kind of data of a personal data collected; - identify the processing manager and, depending on the case, the joint manager and sub-contractor;

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- identify the recipient of the data processing; - characterize the declarative scheme and proceed to the steps with the CNIL. – Current and future designers, stylists, manufacturers, etc. of products must: - respect the legal conditions (an act permitted by law) for processing; - anticipate the conformity of their products to the regulations on the protection of personal data; - pay attention to, for the sake of respecting the anonymization of data: - the principle of proportionality and the minimization of data collection with regard to each specific aim of the processing; - the fairness of the collection; - the rights of the people concerned; - the prohibited principle of the “sensitive” data collection. - bear responsibility for informing the people concerned in order to obtain informed consent; - adopt a strategy for intellectual property management.

4.6.7. Regulation of PPE In this book on connected smart apparel, it would be inconceivable not to talk at length about the big branch of personal protective equipment – PPE – whose aim is to protect the individual from a given risk based on the activity that this person exercises and to raise the regulations related to them. Generally speaking, the whole body (head, hands, feet, etc.) can and must be protected, professionally. This usually means Wearables, professional work apparel (vests, jackets, pants, etc.) or professional accessories (helmets, glasses, shoes, gloves, etc.). Note: Military type “PPE” (“soldier 2020, 2030”) do not fall within the scope of this book, nor does specific equipment designed for the Police, the Gendarmerie, etc. which touch on sovereign power, and that have very interesting but very specific technical features!

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4.6.7.1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Before we get ahead of ourselves, we will look at a few definitions. The European directive 89/686/CEE defines personal protective equipment as “any device or appliance designed to be worn or held by an individual for protection against one or more health and safety hazards within the workplace, as well as any complement or accessory intended for this objective”. This definition contains all the ingredients of a Wearable – smart and/or connected apparel! Note 1: the notion of personal protective equipment extends in contrast to collective protective equipment (CPE). Example: A pair of earplugs is PPE against noise. A soundproof lid on a machine is CPE. Note 2: beware, the expression PPE is often misinterpreted as “individual protective equipment”, whereas the legal definition and terminology “personal protective equipment” are not ambiguous. It is clearly the “protection” which is individual and not the “equipment”. Example: We could just make a single common “anti-spray goggle” type PPE available to all the users around a grinding post, rather than supplying as many pairs of goggles as there are potential users of the tool in the workshop. This category of Wearable PPE and smart apparel often has very particular constraints, notably with regard to resistance to wear and tear, temperature, chemical attacks, etc. They often concern high risk jobs such as civil protection, firefighters, maintenance staff in the electronics industry, etc. Moreover, designed on principle to resist everything, they obviously pose some serious worries in terms of recyclability (see Chapter 4). The addition to a PPE (Wearable/apparel) of an Internet connection (IoT) and a link to a database (Big Data) in the Cloud for a more in-depth analysis of the data captured allow the development and provision of new services such as geo-localization, resource optimization, analysis of working conditions, potential risk alerts, etc. (see examples in Chapter 4) and also enforce rigorous respect in terms of personal data management and the GDPR.

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4.6.7.2. PPE typology According to the French Labor Law, PPE can be classified into a dozen families, notably based on which part of the body is protected, hence the potential for entire families of Wearables and apparel! This classification is, in fact, often followed by the providers of these products. There also exists PPE for sport and hobbies that are codified in the French Sport’s Code. 4.6.7.3. Categorization of PPE To conclude this subject, be aware that there are three categories of PPE defined based on the gravity of the risks incurred. – Category I protects against superficial assault (mechanical, physical or chemical), small shocks or vibrations that do not affect the body’s vital parts and that are unlikely to provoke irreversible lesions, and protection against sunrays. Example: shoes with a specific part to ensure protection, protective gloves, etc. – Category II protects against severe assault (mechanical, physical or chemical) and shocks affecting the body’s vital parts and likely to cause irreversible lesions. Example: masks and visors to protect the face, helmets, etc. – Category III protects against fatal hazards. Example: anti-fall systems (harnesses, snap hooks, etc.). In addition, to be efficient, a PPE must be worn and well-tolerated by the user, and it must not hinder the realization of a task (review the ergonomics part of Chapter 4). For any kind of activity, the employer has the duty to ensure the safety and protection of the employee under his/her authority. In France, the law forces the employer to create and use the document unique d’évaluation des risques (DUER – French risk evaluation unique document). In the context of work, similarly to the previously mentioned PIA, the legislator forces the employer to create and use this DUER whose aim is to inventory all the risks that exist for each employee’s activity. Once known, the employer has the obligation to either eliminate or reduce them. PPE are one of the methods to do so. Moreover, the Labor Law insists on the fact that whenever possible, collective protection is preferable to personal protection, but it also insists on the minimization of constraints for the worker: PPE must only be enforced when it is truly necessary.

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Nine general prevention principles are established for the design of Wearables and smart apparel and their electronics: 1) Avoid risks. 2) Evaluate the risks that cannot be avoided. 3) Combat the risks at the source. 4) Adapt the work to people and not people to work. 5) Take into account the evolving state of the skill. 6) Replace what is dangerous with what is not, or which is less dangerous. 7) Plan prevention by coherently integrating: the skill, the work organization, the work conditions, the social relations and the influence of environmental factors, notably risks linked to moral harassment. 8) Take collective protection measures by giving them priority over individual protection measures. 9) Give appropriate instructions to workers. Application to Wearables and smart apparel Today, there are already many standard PPE, a certain number of fitted PPE and several examples of communicator PPE of which we will present several representative examples in Chapter 8.

4.6.8. Environmental regulations and recycling Every time we talk about Wearables, smart textiles and smart apparel (of which the majority of those marketed partially use electronics), environmental and recycling questions of their smart parts (often electronic) at the end of their lifespan eventually come up relentlessly and people often present this as a blockage to their use, and so it is necessary to raise this important and complicated problem to solve as well as the regulations in effect! In the meantime, here are some elements for consideration. Beyond the fact that the presence of electronics complicates things, whether it is possible to remove the purely electronic parts or not, notably batteries, sensors and microprocessors to retrieve brass, silicon of the integrated circuit, antennas and rare metals, these problems remain difficult to solve because composite textiles gather several different fibers, whether natural or artificial. In contrast, once the wire is integrated it is harder to retrieve, and manufacturers will not unravel a textile in

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order to find a few conductor wires that will not have much weight or value. To develop recyclability, it is better to aim for eco-design, which, unfortunately, is still an underdeveloped area in the start-ups that market products today. New and future technologies will not necessarily simplify the problem because the materials used will become more and more complex when sensors and different components are printed directly onto textiles or integrated into fibers, and become integral parts of the textile. It will then be impossible to separate them and to therefore recycle them, and in the long term, they will become an increasingly worrying source of waste! Here now are several official elements to light your way. 4.6.8.1. Processing of electronic waste Electric and electronic equipment (EEE) often contains substances or components that are dangerous for the environment and present a strong recycling potential for the materials they are made up of (ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rare metals, plastics, etc.). In France, the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy is responsible for regulating waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE). These environmental challenges justify the establishment of a management chain (collection and recycling) specific to these WEEE, founded on a principle of increased responsibility of the producers for such equipment. The directives related to WEEE and the dangerous substances contained within such equipment define the conditions for marketing EEE as well as the WEEE management framework. Broadly, they institute the following main principles: – distinction between household and professional equipment; – banned use of six dangerous substances in EEE; – selective collection of WEEE; – selective and systematic processing of the dangerous substances and components in EEE; – achievement of re-use/recycling objectives and valorization of WEEE; – increased responsibility of producers for the management of WEEE from the equipment that they put on the market. Moreover, the European Norm EN 50419 specifies a labeling of electric and electronic equipment that is applicable to electric and electronic equipment (therefore Wearables and smart apparel), as long as the equipment considered does not fall under a different type of equipment. It provides an indicative list of products that are within categories that clearly identify the equipment manufacturer.

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4.6.8.2. The case of textiles containing electronic components Currently, the specific case of recycling and revaluing smart apparel has not yet been taken into account in the annual ECO-TLC (Eco Organisme du Textile du Linge et des Chaussures – Clothing and Shoe Textile Eco-Body) contribution which gathers those who put clothing and household cloth textile articles on the market. A reflection is ongoing in order to organize, in the future: – the recycling, in appropriate branches, of electronic components (batteries, sensors, etc.) when they are detachable (see Chapter 4); – the recycling and revaluing following adapted methods in the case of components integrated in the thread or fabric (see Chapter 4). This recycling challenge of complex products has, in fact, been well identified in several branches of which that of medical devices containing electric and electronic components as well as portable batteries, and in early 2017, the managers of the Eco-bodies concerned, ECO-TLC and Ecosystèmes, performed an in-depth survey: – no specific sorting instructions are currently given to official sorting centers or to the general public via websites and existing communication tools; – the current volume of clothes, household linens or clothing textiles containing electronic components collected is very low (sneakers with LEDs, connected swim caps, connected T-Shirts, heated outdoor jackets, flashing Christmas hats, etc.); – the REO reference branch for these smart textiles will be that of ECO-TLC which must, in consequence, invest in research and development in order to integrate specific instructions in specifications intended for official operators benefiting from a sorting support, for revaluing and recycling. Two specific cases have already arisen: – in the first, the electric and electronic elements are integrated within the fabric and are undetectable to the naked eye: the usual procedures are applied; – if the elements that provide functionality are removable (box, battery, etc.) or easily removed, in this case, the ECO-TLC sorters must collect them separately and have them processed as small devices by operators specializing in electric and electronic waste (Ecosystèmes), or those specializing in battery recycling. EEE, as defined by the previously mentioned 2012/19/EU1 directive, that are designed and set up to be integrated within non-EEE equipment are excluded from the Eco-Systèmes field, but the question of recycling textiles is at the heart of the

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RETEX project whose objective is to broadly structure the textile sector in the textile industry’s circular economy, the management of end of life textile products and the demands of the market in terms of products containing a recycled material. 4.7. Normative aspects 4.7.1. Why talk about normative aspects? Should we now work to develop norms that structure the Wearables and smart apparel market or should we leave the ecosystem to develop itself? To facilitate the emergence of Wearables, smart fabrics and smart apparel, two approaches can be considered for establishing norms: – on the one hand, saying that innovation must be encouraged while leaving the playing field free for the proliferation of initiatives; – on the other hand, knowing that the absence of standardization can lead to a fragmentation of the ecosystem. From a normative point of view, this leads to: – either acting in advance, early, in order to guide the market; – or, a posteriori, once the market has been established, doing some cleaning between the (too many) proprietary systems that are then present. It should be noted that the Wearables and smart apparel applications market falls on the border between the two hypotheses above, because the true industrial market is only just beginning to take off and there is still time to structure these applications with conformities to norms. Before getting stuck into this subject, let us have a few words on the standardization bodies addressing Wearable textiles and smart textiles. 4.7.2. The ISO, CEN, IEC and CENELEC agencies In order to better understand the following sections, it is necessary to be aware that the CEN (Comité européen de normalisation – European Standardization Committee) arranged agreements with the ISO (International Organization for Standardization), and that the CENELEC (Comité européen de normalisation en électronique et en électrotechnique – European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) did the same with the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), all four emphasizing the advantages of international norms in the

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standardization of international trade and markets. To finish off these structural preliminaries, within the CEN, France is represented by the national AFNOR standardization agency which, by way of delegation, is represented by the BNITH – Bureau de Normalisation des Industries du Textiles et de l’Habillement (Bureau for the standardization of Textile and Clothing Industries). Let us now quickly and concretely examine where we are in early 2018. 4.7.3. CEN – Comité Européen Standardization Committee)

de

Normalisation

(European

4.7.3.1. TC 248/WG 31 of the CEN Within the CEN, the “Smart Textiles” working group WG31 of the “Textiles and textile products” technical committee TC 248 adopted and published, in October 2011, the (large and complete) technical report CEN/TR 16298 – “Textiles and textile products – smart Textiles – Definitions, categorization, applications and standardization needs” – formulating the main definitions and characteristics concerning Smart Textiles. This norm is currently under revision (release set in 2018) to characterize these smart textile materials and systems. Where textiles come in as a component in complex multi-material systems, the French textile trade and its Standardization Bureau (BNITH) also determine the standardization state carried out in other technical committees of the CEN and standardization agencies such as CENELEC and ETSI, the objective being to then exchange product norms and testing standards. Moreover, at the request of the UIT, the FIEEC (Fédération des Industries Electriques, Electroniques et de Communication – Federation of Electric, Electronic and Communication Industries) generated a map of its technologies and listed the technical committees pre-established in the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) that have the potential to bring elements of standardization into the textile Wearables and smart apparel sector, and as we will see, there are many (see next paragraph)!! 4.7.4. IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission Since, globally, more than several thousand enterprises (including all the big electronic multinationals) develop technologies, applications and electronic devices for this sector of activities whose most promising markets are basic info-entertainment (not connected to the Web or diagnostics), medical, health and physical conditioning applications and devices followed by industrial, commercial

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and military applications, during its plenary meeting in October 2016, the Standardization Management Board of the IEC supported the constitution of a specific technical committee (TC 124) “Wearable Electronic Devices and Technologies” and gave it the following objective: “development of standards in the field of electronic devices and technologies under the form of ‘patches’, of implantable materials and devices, of textile materials and devices”. Reflection on the subject of “Wearable Smart Devices – WSD” was led within the strategic group IEC SG10, with the three following objectives: – clarifying the terminology and reach a consensus on the definition of WSD; – collecting “use cases” for health, wellbeing and automobiles; – confirming the principle that each portable electronic device contains procedures for identification, respect of privacy and authentication. At the time of writing this book (mid-2018), since such work is heavily carried by southeast Asian professionals, the TC 124 secretariat was given to South Korea. In France, coordination between the BNITH and standardization managers of the FIEEC was established in order to bring one or more smart textiles use cases to the TC 124 of the IEC, and the French working group recommended temporarily leaning on the norm definitions already proposed in the previously mentioned TR 16 298 technical report of the CEN in 2011 and currently under revision to characterize these smart textile materials and systems. Moreover, the French Textile Industries Union – UIT (Union des Industries Textiles) – mandated that the BNITH represent the French textile industry in the relevant CEN, ISO and IEC standardization committees, and aim to mobilize member companies active in these markets in order to sit in the more pertinent committees and stimulate the debates on the most successful “use cases” (notably those concerning health). 4.7.4.1. The IEC’s TC 124 The first meeting of the “Wearable Electronic Devices and Technologies” Technical Committee TC 124 of the IEC was held in September 2017 in Seoul (South Korea) with a huge number of local participants, many Japanese and a few French, German and UK Europeans and US Americans, clearly indicating where the next industrial issues will be!! We remain alert! Cooperation/liaisons of the TC 124 with other standardization groups Over the course of this meeting, a decision was taken to establish “liaisons” with other Technical Committees (TC) of the IEC, ISO, etc. notably those working on the flexibility, stretchiness of fibers and clothes, and the safety of electrical and electronic devices in direct contact with the human body. Beware! The list is long but very interesting.

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Committee

Committee name

Field of activities

IEC TC 21

Secondary cells and batteries

IEC TC 29

Electro-acoustics

IEC TC 47

Semiconductor devices

IEC TC 62

Electrical equipment in medical Electrical equipment in medical practice practice Live working Solar and voltaic energy systems

IEC TC 82 IEC TC 100

Audio, video and multimedia systems and equipment

Audio, video and multimedia systems and equipment Evaluation methods for electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields in relation to human exposure

IEC TC 106

IEC TC 108

Safety of electronic equipment within the field of audio/video, information technology and communication technology

IEC TC 110

Electronic display devices

Safety of electronic equipment within the field of audio/video, information technology and communication technology Environmental standardization for electric and electronic products and systems

IEC TC 111

IEC TC 119

Printed Electronics

ISO JTC 1/SC 41

Internet of Things and related technologies

ISO TC 38

Textile

ISO TC 94

Personal Safety

ISO TC 150

Implants for surgery

CENELEC TC 206

Biological clinical evaluation of medical devices

CENELEC TC 248/WG 31

Smart textiles

Sys AAL

Active and Assisted Living

ETSI

Semiconductor devices

Electromagnetic compatibility

IEC TC 77 IEC TC 78

Secondary cells and batteries

Printed Electronics

Aspects to Take into Consideration

CISPR

Comité international spécial des perturbations radioélectriques – Special international committee for radio disturbance

ACSEC

Advisory Committee on Information Security and Data Privacy

77

This clearly shows the magnitude and extent of the work that the TC 124 and Wearables and connected or not-connected smart apparel will have to fill and monitor!! Working Groups (WG) of TC 124 TC 124 approved the following restricted provisional list of working groups (WG): WG1 (Terminology)

Produce terminological definitions for portable electronic devices and technologies.

WG2 (E-textiles)

Develop measuring and evaluation methods for textile materials, devices and systems with electro-technical functionality.

WG3 (Mat)

– Define specific terms and determine the evaluations, requirements and specifications for the material of portable electronic devices and packages excluding E-textiles. – Analyze the efficacy of existing methods specific to the materials of portable electronic devices and packages excluding E-textiles. – Develop measurement and evaluation methods for materials used in portable electronic devices and packaging excluding E-textiles.

4.7.5. ISO/AFNOR Beyond monitoring by the AFNOR mirror committee of the work described above, in the ISO, within the JTC 1, the WG10 Working Group is dedicated to the Internet of Things, very similar to certain connected smart apparel (medical, PPE). Until now, the main activities of this working group were concentrated on general themes of architecture and generic, theoretical and academic aspects of safety and privacy that are part of the basis of the system. The first documents are available, and they are the ISO 30141 norm – Internet of Things architecture reference. In terms of the concrete reality of IoT applications, only a single TR (Technical Report) is currently being developed on “use cases” and parallel to all this, the

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ISO/IEC JTC1/SC 27 that deals with “Security techniques for information technologies” examines the security problems of the IoT. 4.7.6. IEEE In relation to the ISO WG10, the IEEE P2413 working group developed an “Architectural Framework for the Internet of Things (IoT)”, including descriptions of the many IoT domains, definitions of the abstraction of IoT domains, and then proceeding to the identification of common points between the different IoT domains. Today, these are available. Informative references: IEEE 802.15.4-2011: “IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks – Part 15.4: Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs)”. 4.7.7. ETSI As of 2012, ETSI – European Telecommunications Standards Institute – decided to develop norms in the domain of IoT connectivity usable in Wearables and smart textiles/apparel by focusing on Long Range “Low Throughput Networks – LTN”, and generalizing two principles used in NB broadcast solutions (based on SigFox) and the DSSS spread spectrum (based on LoRA – Semtech) (see Chapters 10 and 11). This includes parts of the GS LTN document game: GS LTN 001 Use Cases for Low Throughput Networks GS LTN 002 Functional Architecture GS LTN 003 Protocols and Interfaces There are also other normative type references to take into account, for example: – GB/T 15629.15-2010: “Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems local and metropolitan area networks – Specific requirements – Part 15.4: Wireless medium access control and physical layer (PHY) specification for low rate wireless personal area networks”. 4.7.8. Summary Up until now, there is nothing truly concrete at the standardization level apart from the CEN document and its ongoing update, and it will be difficult to design truly operable systems within a few years, but we will get there slowly!

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4.8. Applicative aspects 4.8.1. Why speak of applicative aspects? In the smart textiles and smart apparel trade, applicative aspects hold a predominant place because many problems are linked and arise from application and usage difficulties. We will raise the following points because the smart fabric, the smart textile, must be pretty, supple, hang well, soft (does not itch), silky (for more lengthy and important details and ennoblement, see Chapter 6), etc. and the whole textile-electronics assemblage must be functional, washable, ironable, reliable, etc. Let us now move onto the non-exhaustive description of the different applicative aspects and constraints that Wearables and smart connected apparel have to support and that we often enter and summarize using the terms “purchase obstacles”, and that, if well managed, should not be!! 4.8.2. Pre-sale In order to remove the fake purchase obstacles highlighted below, it is necessary to carry out preventive actions in order to explain, train, educate, etc. the potential future clients so that they are only provided with favorable sales leverage. 4.8.3. Midway between pre-sale and sale In order to justify its sale and the possibility of a purchase, it is often important to justify an “added value dimension” of Wearables and/or smart apparel products to future consumers by showing their applicative merits, that the Wearables considered are truly designed to serve a purpose, and that the gadget stage has been passed. This is, for example, the case for medicalized assistance (see a characteristic medical example in Chapters 5 and 6). 4.8.4. Sale In the field, salesmen and sales teams should be trained not to “sell a price” as is often the case, but to sell a product instead, its use and its qualities! 4.8.5. Maintenance Two questions quickly crop up in conversation when talking about connected textiles. Since they are full of electronics, how can the connected textile be washed and recycled? For this, these points must be explicitly detailed in clear instruction

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manuals/maintenance instructions, or something legible (no micro-minuscule letters) and understandable for common mortals without requiring an engineering school Bac+5, nor a PhD or some other higher education certificate! 4.8.5.1. Maintenance and maintenance solutions When the electronics are integrated directly in the thread or fabric and not based in/with a removable battery of appropriate dimensions, the question of maintenance (washing, ironing, drying…) is essential because it will condition the lifespan of the article (number of washes 20/30/50 and so on, for example) and in consequence, its usage, its price and its replacement value. It must also adapt to existing practices that are different in terms of clothing and household linen maintenance for individuals (“domestic” washing and ironing, storage, folding, etc.) and for “professionals” (enterprises, laundries, hospitality, catering, etc.). For this to avoid becoming a brake in the marketing of products, the manufacturer must provide unambiguous information on the warranty, durability, material properties or smart textile systems used to its professional providers and its clients, information on the operational modes and storage conditions (folded, not folded, flat, on a hanger, etc.), on its utilization, on the maximum number of cleaning operations, the material and fiber intermixing quality, drying (drying mode, drying time, etc.), ironing (maximum temperature, etc.), maintenance, servicing and disinfection. In short, a complete plethora of information! In its White Paper, the UIT indicated that an investigation carried out with the Centre Technique de la Teinture et du Nettoyage (Technical Center for Dying and Cleaning) collected valuable information that we have used and detailed below, point by point. 4.8.5.2. Washing When we talk about smart electronic textiles, one aspect that is regularly repeated is that of maintenance. “Will it withstand washing? If yes, how many times? Do certain parts have to be removed for washing?” etc. These are, of course, legitimate questions. In general, smart apparel and smart textiles are/must be washable – apart from those that are disposable – but that could quickly become expensive, and having an item of clothing but not being able to wash it is a bit more problematic. Wearables and smart apparel manufacturers have therefore developed several solutions to isolate the electronic parts so that they can go into the washing machine (protection of sensors, cables, connectors, etc. with resins, the most supple and waterproof lacquers). For the case of textiles using conductor wires, the wires are isolated from the outside using a sheath, often polyamide stitching (plastic material) which allows the central conductor wire to be isolated. However, one of

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the biggest problems lies in the “base” mechanical interconnection between all the electronic pieces and the wires, regardless of their form (wires, layers, etc.). Here again, waterproofing is usually ensured by a resin overcoat (hence an extra thickness) or another type of isolator which allows certain washes without issue, as long as the battery has been removed (see connections in Chapter 9)!! In terms of industrial washing, this is regulated by the European standard EN 15 797. Generally, this is carried out in dedicated tunnels in which the laundry follows a treatment cycle that differs according to its position along the many sections of the tunnel: disinfection, pre-wash, rinse, softening, washing, etc. The most voluminous or specific items (notably parkas) are maintained in independent washing machines.

Figure 4.4. Logo showing conformity with the European standard EN 15 797. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

On top of all these generic considerations, knowing that washing programs are selected based on the degree of soiling and type of clothing to treat, in the domain of maintenance, here are the four main variables that must be taken into account. Water or steam temperature Domestic temperatures: So-called “domestic” temperatures are usually around 30° to 40°/60°C for underwear, luxury undergarments (for example, fine lingerie with integrated tags, under clothes (for example, Eminence, Petits Bateaux, Décathlon, etc.)). Industrial temperatures: For the industrial laundry of certain clothes (blouses, PPE work, industrial cloths and hand drying towels (ELIS, etc.), bed sheets, luxury sheets in big hotels, etc.), temperatures averaging 85°C are often used (for example, with INVENGO tags, etc.) and which the components involved must withstand without giving up the ghost!

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Observation: usually, the temperature range for electronic components used by the general public is limited to 55°C, while the industrial ranges go to 105°C or 125°C for automobiles, but rarely 150°C. Steam temperature: There could be maintenance processes that are either carried out with household “steam” irons or in professional laundry services and dry cleaning, etc. Duration of the operation The duration of the cleaning operation has a chemical impact on textiles, materials and electronic components depending on the products used and the mechanics, especially due to the laundry’s simultaneous scrubbing time phenomenon. Chemical products used Same comment as above, the type of chemical product used also has its importance (detergent, stripper, descaling agent). Mechanical effects Constraints due to mechanical effects of the washing action described below are often more important than the act of putting Wearables in water or liquid, even if soapy! Scrubbing the laundry: To carry out a washing operation, we usually proceed by scrubbing clothes, either by hand, or with a brush or a broomstick, or mechanically, as with rotating drums with alternated movements, etc. Of course, this leads to important mechanical constraints (rubbing, folding, tearing, etc.), and the weight of the clothing could also deform its shoulders on a conveyer hanger from which the fabric and its “electronic” components must support it. It is therefore necessary to be careful in avoiding mechanical breakage in certain electronic elements that are generally and mainly of the two following types. Breakage at the element soldering level: Breakage can occur through tearing, at the (micro) soldering level by thermo-compression of electric wires connected to connection pads in the integrated circuit (for information, these are usually gold wires of 10 µm in diameter and the pad is around 30 × 30 µm²).

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Breakage at the connection wire level: Breakage can also occur through the rupture of the connection wire, which in itself is very thin and supple (often a brass connection to the antenna to maintain the flexibility of the fabric), during scrubbing due to the mechanical forces applied to the tension of the wire by the masses of wet laundry in movement. Obviously, more robust wires could be used (in stainless steel, for example) that are a lot less supple and that are strongly banned in the field of medicine since they are awkward in magnetic fields of 2 or 3 Teslas during an MRI! 4.8.5.3. Spinning Industrial spinning is most often done in a press at around 17 bars (except for items with zipper closures and plastic buttons). 4.8.5.4. Drying Industrial clothes are dried and smoothed in a tunnel finisher with the spray of high temperature steam (around 150°C), which gives clothes their final touch. 4.8.5.5. Ironing Washing is good, ironing is even better! Here again, it is necessary to immediately distinguish between conventional domestic ironing, with a classic iron, and professional roller ironing (mangle, see Figure 4.5) such as for industrial sheets.

Figure 4.5. Example of an ironing mangle

For textiles containing electronic components, the aspects to take into account are the following: – the risk of rupturing connections linked to the rigidity and thickness of components (problems with presses and ironing mangles, for example). These

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problems are known and have long been solved through the use of chips for traceability in the professional domain; – the risk of chemical alteration and oxidation of these components if they contain metals; – the risk of corrosion due to high temperatures (as a reminder: the temperature of an iron’s soleplate varies between 130 and 240°C). 4.8.5.6. Prudent and conservative approach Of course, for maintenance solutions, we can remain prudent by preaching good old parental advice: – protect the sensors and electronics using resins, lacquers, polymers, etc.; – in specific cases, avoid temperatures above 40° for “domestic washing”; – choose the least aggressive chemical products (detergents, solvents, etc.); – opt for adapted cleaning, drying and ironing operation durations. This also strongly limits the field of applications and utilizations (even professional sometimes) of Wearables, smart textiles and smart apparel! 4.8.6. Post-sale The subject of Wearables and smart apparel “post-sale management” is always a tricky subject which infuriates and which draws parallels with the post-sale policy of the time of mobile phones. Broadly, there are two generic cases: – the first, the one in which the product is expensive and is designed to last a long time (PPE, for example) and requires: - either software updates (remotely or not) on the smart part throughout the lifetime of the smart apparel; - or conventional maintenance and functional servicing; – the second, of course, eases our lives, and falls back on cheaper Wearable products (which is rare in this market), of the single use kind, disposable (for example, event bracelets, Father Christmas illuminating hats, etc.), and also avoiding the mysteries of repairs, replacement, shop network, etc.! Let us begin with the first case.

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4.8.6.1. Software/applicative updates From the onset, the problem begins with “how do we do software updates for Wearables, who does them, etc.”, and also, “how much does it cost!?” All the solutions are, of course, conceivable, depending on the more or less practical, more or less expensive underlying application (expensive product with a short or medium lifespan, products that should last a long time – PPE, military equipment, decorative wall hangings and furnishings, etc.). This occurs: – through a mini cable with micro-USB type connections and chips; – “on the air” via Bluetooth LE, a mobile phone on GSM; – with the help of a “service man”. 4.8.6.2. No taking back, no exchange! At least it is clear and it is simple! This is often the case for inexpensive “accessory” Wearables with short lifespans or subject to trends. To give two examples: – Pairs of shoes for children that flash when they walk. They work, they are good. A short while later, they stop working. A repair would be too expensive or impossible. It does not matter, the fashion has changed and the child’s feet have grown, and so the shoes are left in the corner. – Similarly for a fitness bracelet which is largely overtaken by the one that came out last month, and it goes in the same corner! 4.8.6.3. Repair Due to the technologies used (woven electrical wires or optic fibers implementing directly in the material, the fabric, etc.), repairs are often difficult/impossible, delicate and/or very onerous which makes this solution difficult, as well as technically and economically delicate to implement. 4.8.6.4. Replacement Another solution consists of purely and simply replacing a Wearable product by carrying out the famous “commercial gesture”. The problem lies in knowing whether the latter is done “under warranty” or “out of warranty”, and how to know it. Example: – You guarantee your product for 30 domestic washes at 30°C.

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– How can we know if, by chance, the product that is returned underwent 32 washes of which one was at 60°C? Must we doubt the word and/or the false good faith of the client? – It is “one word against another”, and commercially this is not easy to settle! The current post-sales hypothesis for pure and hard replacement must be done following long static economic preliminary and commercial risk calculations. 4.8.6.5. Service stores Must we do the same as for mobile phones when they came out and create small service and repair stores for Wearables and connected smart apparel? Would this be profitable? How many years would they last? To answer this fourth round of exam questions, you are authorized to consult your crystal balls! 4.8.7. Recycling The large majority of smart textiles commercialized today use a lot of electronics. Their recycling poses an important problem that is complicated to solve. We refer back to the question discussed in Chapter 4 of the regulatory aspects in which the point “how to recycle a connected textile at the end of its life?” is covered. 4.9. Security aspects To end this very long chapter, let us look at the security aspects that cannot go ignored and that are necessary to implement when Wearables or smart apparel are connected between each other or to networks such as the Internet. First of all, among the many others, we will choose one of the “official” definitions of security, for example, the one given by ETSI: – “Security is the ability to prevent fraud as well as the availability, the possibility of information protection, integrity and confidentiality”. – Be careful also not to confuse “security” with “ensured functioning”!! In addition, the debate on security which we will now raise is broad and represents one of the largest fears in the IoT world and its sub-group of Wearables and smart apparel. Effectively, following the principle of applicative proximity, Wearables (worn on you!!) and smart apparel are tightly connected to data “of a personal nature” belonging to individuals, whether they are biometric, behavioral, geo-localization, etc. and therefore must be manipulated with care (see section 4.6.6.1 on GDPR) and strong security from “beginning to end” of its application.

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As a reminder, following a survey carried out in 2016, Figure 4.6 displays the fears of application developers and their worries on the manner in which they build their projects.

Figure 4.6. The fear of application developers (survey carried out in partnership with the IEEE, Agile-Io and Eclipse IoT). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

“Beginning to end” security comes into play at the very top of their concerns, followed closely by problems linked to interoperability, since the abundance of IoT/Wearable initiatives is so great. To this day, alas, there is still a major security problem which will remain at the forefront of the scene over the course of the next decade and which will remain difficult to resolve, and undoubtedly requires new initiatives from the side of the industrial world. 4.9.1. The weak links Following our extensive experience in the field of security (35 years in contact and “contactless” chip cards), for a solid 15 years since we have been convinced on the one hand that the security of Objects must become a major topic, and, on the other hand, that in the complete IoT chain, connected Objects, thus Wearables, were and will certainly be less secure in terms of connection pathways and tools present in the Cloud. To this very day, the security of Wearables is very often not or poorly taken into account. How many Wearables are really secured to avoid, or at least to limit, this new arena for potential piracy? Everywhere, this subject is on the agenda, not because of an increased awareness within the industry, but mainly due to a fear of the media repercussions that manufacturers would experience following any problems, and their loss in terms of reputation and cost (for example, in a sports bracelet where one part of the “cardio” data is hacked before being sent to an insurer

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and, separately, the parts on stress levels are sent to the employer (this has already been seen). Let us quickly share a (short) list of the classic weak links and the “holes in the [security] racket” that are present in the connected Wearables’ chain of elements, and which leave hackers with a large leeway for attack (this may help you think directly of sports, PPE and medical equipment). The bases of “insecurity” – There is no, or very little, security in the domain because nothing has been prepared from the beginning! – The question of security has never really been applied. – A philosophy of security has never been integrated and has not been considered for integration from the onset of production of Wearables. The hard points to regulate – There is no consensus on the implementation of security in Wearables. – There are connected Wearables on the market that are not especially “securable”. – Nothing or very few things are planned for downloading updates or carrying out security patch downloads (we cannot easily upgrade a pair of shoes or an illuminated necktie, if they need to be secured). The observation – Today, we have realized that we cannot go backwards and that it is very, very complicated to implement this security a posteriori. – Manufacturers of current consumer products (“Wearables”, watches, bracelets, toys, etc.) wishing to limit their production costs avoid/will avoid adding security. – Passwords exchanged during purchase (if there is one!) or created by the user are changed very infrequently. Existence of structural weaknesses in networks – Insecurity of Network Services. – Interface with Mobiles, Web and the Cloud are not very secure. – Insufficient authentication/authorization.

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– Lack of coding homogeneity in the transport of data. – Masses of questions to solve in terms of confidentiality. – Insufficient configuration of security. – Insecurity of all Software/Firmware that are “embedded” in the components. – Global lack of physical security. Final observations – Hackers are interested in the whole chain and seek to find the weak points/links that will allow them to earn money. – For a hacker, it is more pertinent to catch/capture the data of a connected Wearable which is stored in the Cloud rather than hacking the Wearable itself. It is therefore increasingly in these big data “data storage” locations that hackers will focus their interest. – To answer the question of data protection, it is necessary and fundamental to know where they transit, on the Internet, through which successive chains? Where are they stored in the Cloud? In which Cloud? In which country? Who put them there? And so on. Now that the observations have been made, we can look at several potential remedies!

4.9.2. Potential remedies To avoid the existence of these weak links, several basic remedies are available. For security: – It is necessary to know your adversary! This provides solutions, not problems, but of course, this generates a cost. – The security target must be defined. For this, you must: - know the needs. - evaluate the risks and consequences (designer and user). - know how to react in case of a problem. - know how and what to communicate to clients/users. - determine the price to pay.

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4.9.3. Security target First, it is necessary to establish what is called the “security target” that is aimed for. This denotes two important families of parameters which are: – the parameters that we wish to secure (the branches of the target); – the levels of security that we want to reach for each of them (the levels on the range of targets, which also allows the plotting of a spider graph to give the surface, are covered by the security target). Figure 4.7 gives a simplified pedagogical example of the security target and although it may seem simple, this already takes a long time to make!

Figure 4.7. Simplified pedagogical example of the security target. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Next, in a second stage, it is necessary to know if and how this is achievable and at what cost, while constantly bearing in mind the following few simple and very pragmatic phrases: – Is it worth it? – Does the whole chain ensure security from beginning to end? – Does a weak link remain in the chain and if so, where is it?

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4.9.4. Levels of security applicable in Wearables When the word security is used in Wearables, the notion of levels of security quickly comes up. We will give some initial indications of these levels. 4.9.4.1. Without security It is true that many simple or “low cost” Wearable applications do not really require security since the transmission of the information transported does not contain sensitive elements and, in a worst-case scenario, could be altered without generating insurmountable catastrophes. 4.9.4.2. With security To secure messages transmitted by Wearables, it is often a case of using encrypted data. But beware, with the same mathematical principles and theories as coding (for example, AES, RSA, ECC, etc.), the levels of security can go from all to nothing. Let us explain ourselves. “Paper house” version This is the version with a very powerful super lock on the door of a traditional Japanese house whose walls are made of paper (see Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8. “Paper house” version of security

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Regardless of the lock, to get in, everyone will go through the walls!! This is, unfortunately, what many Wearable companies still do when implementing cryptography unit programs in their software for applicative codes, thinking that is enough! It would take experts but a single breath to break the codes using very simple instruments/tools. Hence, a simple, inexpensive version – forget about it! “Sand castle” version This version includes a microcontroller that integrates a “soft” cryptographic calculation unit which is somewhat hardened and secured on the hardware side. Of course, this is better than the previous option, which was not worth a thing, but cannot, to any extent, cover the overall extent of attacks. They discourage the chancers but certainly not the real hackers! This version is therefore a “castle… yes, but made of sand” (see Figure 4.9)!

Figure 4.9. “Sand castle” version of security. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

“Fortified castle” version with a real “Secure Element” This is a “really good” version. We fall back on the good old methods and techniques of the Middle Ages, that of Fortified Castles, and build a veritable fortress around our cryptographic calculation unit, located at the heart of the layers of buried hardware, with many drawbridges, moats, puzzle mazes, cells, dungeons, (nearly) impenetrable keeps, etc., in short, all that are needed to really discourage the most daredevil and the most courageous! This applies to the anti-attack, the defense, etc. up until the final self-destruction and the policy of ending on scorched

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earth with the last words: no, you will not have me even if I perish, and I certainly will not disclose my secrets (Figure 4.10)!

Figure 4.10. “Fortified castle” version of security

After this medieval lyrical waxing, we return to technical matters. This construction is a veritable “Secure Element” which is the only solution if you want a truly secure solution. It should be noted that the circuits used for bank cards with chips are built using this type of base. For reasons of ignorance and often of cost, to our knowledge, few Wearables or smart apparel solutions have today reached this level of security which, in the near future, will rapidly become a necessity based on the quality of the data transported which will be increasingly sensitive, personal, biometric, behavioral, fragile and critical. Now that you have been warned to design and solidify the security of everything, it falls on you to choose your camp and to no longer count on us with complaints in the future3! 3 See the book Paret, D. and Huon, J.-P. (2017). Secure Connected Objects. ISTE Ltd, London and Wiley, New York.

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4.9.5. Cryptography Cryptography is one of the major foundations for security and is implemented using material and software technologies. In the context of Wearables and connected smart apparel, the main aim of using cryptography is to be able to offer a guarantee, mainly pertaining to security, on the five following classical levels: – identification allows a first triage among the unknowns, but which is not enough! – authentication ensures that only authorized Wearables are connected to the network. – integrity ensures that the message is not modified between when it is sent and received, and that it is not altered by unauthorized people. – confidentiality prevents unauthorized users or devices from obtaining sensitive information while ensuring that these are well received by the user. – non-repudiation during the sending of messages between the links in the chain sooner or later raises the notion of transaction and contract between two actors. Note: in cryptography, many types of algorithms can be used, for example “symmetrical” cryptosystems (for example, AES), “asymmetrical” algorithms (for example, RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman), EC (Elliptical Curves), homomorphic functions), and the highly fashionable Blockchain technique. 4.9.6. Security and Wearables for the Consumer Market Why, therefore, present this section concerning the Wearables on the consumer market? Well, because the “Consumer Market” is a specific world that is crazily attractive in terms of the volumes in play, and also because the security requirements of the Consumer Market are highly specific, and it is a shifting terrain on which one must adventure with infinite precautions! Following its ordinary meaning, the term “Consumer Market” includes Wearables, notably health treatments, “health care” products, and accessories: Wearables, watches, bracelets, belts, etc. and their range of respective prices! 4.9.6.1. Conditions of adoption of Wearables by the Consumer Market The conditions of adoption of Wearables by the Consumer Market include: – the desired functions and applications, whether they are replacements or completely new;

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– an advertised sales price of the products must be a price that is easily affordable! – interoperability, if possible, with other brands; – ensured security at all levels (from beginning to end); – ensured respect for all that concerns privacy; – and, of course, that health, ethical, standardization, regulation aspects as well as societal and environmental issues are satisfied! For this, the following are required: – ensured security at the level of the Wearable itself (even if small and cheap) with an adapted cryptographic unit and, if possible, a real SE; – “tamper resistant”, impregnable, unfalsifiable Wearable – network – processing – Cloud chain, from beginning to end; – all privacy management problems and other problems linked to data of a personal nature and related to the regulatory domain of privacy should be sorted (otherwise, yours will be the glowing articles in reviews and consumer associations); – by preference, Privacy should be done by design; – ensured functionality with a potential fallback position for carrying out and guaranteeing a minimum functional certainty (otherwise, watch out for the backlash against your branding image in the press or from word-of-mouth); – everything skillfully and technically “tossed” together with long-distance communication, low throughput and low consumption problems; – and, of course, also “not expensive” so that the product is buyable by the Consumer Market! This leads us directly to discussing the price of the component, the main integrated circuit and, technically, its silicon! In order not to be expensive, the size of the silicon crystal must be small, so its security part (the physical part of the cryptographic element) must be microscopic and take up no more space than the main function of the Wearable itself!! Often, for dismal reasons of cost (notably the unit price) and acceptance of market sales prices, the overall architecture of a Wearable is/must be simplified and the security of the Consumer Market Wearable becomes/is the weak link of the whole chain and, due to this, beginning-to-end security is broken.

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In conclusion, in view of the adoption of Secure Connected Wearables by the General Public, we can summarize: – that the silicon surface area of the cryptography unit must be very small; – that the cryptography unit must not be expensive (for example, homomorphic style); – that the real presence of a Secure Element would be a bonus; – that the security homogeneity of the chain must be ensured; – that the Security/Assured Use/respect for privacy parameters must be ensured from beginning to end.

4.9.7. Vulnerabilities and attacks of the Wearable chain To finish, we will carry out a rapid tour of the threats that exist at all levels in the architecture of connected Wearables, and of the potential vulnerabilities that are everywhere and can be exploited by a certain number of people to malicious ends (weak passwords, malware such as viruses, Trojan horses, etc.). To ensure the appropriate level of security in Wearables and their infrastructures (networks), it is necessary to carry out a risk analysis and implement the appropriate protection measures. It is evident that the levels of guarantee set up must correspond to the levels of risk tolerated and their probability of occurring. Applications to Wearables and smart apparel To dot a few i’s, Wearables and connected smart apparel in applications for well-being (regulation of sleep, etc.), sports (heart rate and variations, etc.), fitness (measurement of effort, etc.), PPE (clothes for workers, firefighters, the military, etc.), medicine (detection of epilepsy, etc.), in which data are often strongly of a “personal nature” in the regulatory sense of the word (biometric, heart rate, stress, localization, etc.) and look solely and with confidentiality and security at that the individual considered, the levels of security guaranteed are/should generally be defined in all the software present along the chain, through the design of different electronics boards, through the choice and application of integrated chip-circuits and, finally, depend largely on the potential access used by an attacker to target the different elements that we have just mentioned.

To conclude on this subject, the vulnerable and attack points of Wearables, in related hardware and/or software, are broadly summarized according to the two dimensions in Table 4.1.

Aspects to Take into Consideration

Software

Level

Card

97

Integrated circuit

Attacks Protocols Weak crypto implementation Weak password Malware viruses Trojan horses

Software

Cost

Low

Accessibility

Easy

Hardware

Cost Accessibility

Easy

Software

Software

Medium

Complex

Non-invasive debug port

Physical invasive: laser, FIB reverse engineering

Medium

High

Medium

Complex

Table 4.1. Vulnerable and attack points of IoT in hardware and/or in software

4.10. Cost aspects We will meet you at the end of the book in Chapters 13 and 14 in which, based on a real project, we will number in detail: – the material costs; – the CAPEX development costs and the OPEX costs; – and, finally, the sigma of costs leading to a total cost and the knowledge of the industrial unit price of the Wearable considered itself and the industrial margin with the establishment of a sale price. ****** Phhheww, here ends the second part of this book covering a large synopsis of the very many aspects to bear in mind and to take into account when taking the step between idea and the realization of a project. The end of your regulatory, normative, etc. tortures has therefore arrived. It was a necessary evil for your greater good!

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We will now continue into the third part of this book and go into the heart of the subject of the many applicative meanderings of Wearables and/or connected smart textiles and smart apparel.

PART 3

Examples of Non-textile Wearables and Smart Textiles and Apparel

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Introduction to Part 3

Non-textile Wearables and smart Textile Wearables and apparel are two big branches of wonderful and broad technical, scientific, technological, industrial, etc. and of course artistic professions! This is especially true in France, for example, as it is one of the historical engines driving the textile trade with its manufacturers, research laboratories, engineering schools and fashion designers who are always on the lookout for new technologies, either in terms of material, shape, ennoblement or technicity. In order to make this all the more concrete, over the course of this next part, we will present – with no marketing aim – many examples present on the market which, in our eyes, illustrate the different categories and classes of non-textile Wearable applications on the one hand, and smart textiles and apparel on the other. To explain why we used these examples and not others, the answer is simple and as follows: we had to choose representative applicative examples because this book is not and cannot be an encyclopedia, nor a monthly review, nor a blog.

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5 Examples of Non-textile Wearables

This chapter aims to present numerous examples illustrating the different applications of Wearables that are non-textile, also known as “accessories”. Given the fragmentation of this market, there are hundreds of disparate products released from large companies, SMEs, micro-enterprises and start-ups who have a current interest in this nearly mature market. This being said, we have tried to classify all of these examples into sub-sectors of the market. 5.1. General public (consumer) type Wearable applications – “accessories” – for the general public – consumers – vary widely. Let us look at a few examples. 5.1.1. Earpieces, headsets and earphones Audio headsets, earphones and earpieces are amongst the ancestors of non-textile accessory Wearables, or just Wearables overalls. Following that distant era of audio earphones connected by a cable, many of them have now become “wireless”, using radiofrequency connections, generally carried out with Bluetooth Low Energy – BLE – type communication at 2.45 GHz, often as hands-free telephone/radio-type headphones/earpieces, frequently used by athletic (and the less athletic) people. A standard example of this device is shown in Figure 5.1.

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Figure 5.1. Examples of audio headsets and earpieces. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

5.1.2. Bracelet Often, the various bracelet-type Wearables are intended for (pseudo) sports/fitness or wellbeing/health, or even “event” applications. Generally, these bracelets relay their information to the user’s mobile phone for subsequent processing, through radiofrequency connections in communication with BLE operating at 2.45 GHz. 5.1.2.1. Sport, wellbeing Often, these bracelets have/include (of course, this depends on the price) the following functions, with relatively good accuracy: – the distance covered; – the number of steps taken; – the number of stairs climbed. Some, equipped with the so-called “cardio” sensor (see Chapter 9), can provide more or less precise indications on the following parameters (but beware, they are not Medical Materials and Devices. See also applications for animals, such as horses, in Chapter 9): – continuous indications of heart rate; – indications of the user’s heart rate zone; – measurement of the minutes of intensive activity;

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– potential to control the heart rate by doing different kinds of physical exercises and by adding, for example on the screen of the bracelet, respiration on a small circle which will grow bigger or smaller; – indications of calories burned; – indications of sleep time or even quality. Without trying to advertise – because a great many manufacturers offer products that are incredibly similar – we will give three well-known examples: – the Fitbit Charge 2 is a connected sports bracelet with a non-tactile rectangular screen (1.8 × 3.2 cm, Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2. Example of a Fitbit bracelet

This bracelet functions with a dedicated application (under Android or iOS), and then some simple tapping on the screen allows the passage from one function to another. It has integrated GPS which works in connection with a mobile phone. Its autonomy lasts for around five days, including everyday use. This model is not completely waterproof, even though it can withstand small projections of water. Ergonomically, a tactile screen would have been more useful than the screen it has, as it is necessary to constantly use the single command button on the left.

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– The Garmin Vívosmart HR+ is a connected sports bracelet known for its accuracy and the multitude of measurements it takes (Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3. Example of a Garmin bracelet

With a tactile screen (1.23 × 2.53 mm), it stands out with its waterproofness down to 50 meters, making it a model adapted to swimming. It is also adapted for other disciplines such as cycling thanks to its Move IQ function which detects bike movements in order to record the user’s activity. The communication interface is compatible with iOS, Android or even Windows. Short of the many it is equipped with, its autonomy also lasts for around five days with a reduced backlight quality. – Doppel in turn proposes a bracelet that captures and checks stress levels. It allows the user to “re-program” their heart rate and many banking establishments have taken an interest in its technology in order to equip their senior executives who undergo huge amounts of pressure (stress) at work (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4. Example of a Doppel bracelet

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5.1.2.2. For events In order to visualize this simply, we will only give one basic example of connected Wearables. – The band Coldplay will play two concerts in Paris at the Stade de France. – Approximately 60,000 tickets are sold per concert. – At the entrance, all spectators are given (it is included in the price of the entry ticket) a small bracelet (a modest Wearable with a maximum price of 2 euros) equipped with many multicolored LEDs whose lighting is controlled by UHF over the entirety of the stadium through the live music played by the band. It is pretty, it is silly, it only works once and it is a souvenir, which, over the space of two nights, generates a CA of 60,000 × 2 × 2 = €240 k for its (Chinese!) providers! – Subsidiary question: how many concerts by Coldplay and other bands are played per year?

Figure 5.5. Example of an event bracelet. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

At this level, the main objective of these accessory Wearables is always to gather data in a predominantly unidirectional manner, and sometimes bidirectional. Now, however, there is also a growing trend to transform portable accessory Wearables into veritable fashion phenomena.

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5.1.3. Connected watches We will turn this up one technical notch and move on to “connected watches”! 5.1.3.1. Example 1: Apple Watch The following sections serve as a reminder of a few historical innovations of these kinds of Wearables. 2008 – As usual with Apple, the Apple Watch project, connected watches, begins with the greatest secrecy. 2014 – During the traditional annual press conference, the iPhone 6 Plus model is unveiled followed by the announcement of “one more thing” (a leitmotiv used by Steve Jobs in his press conferences). Apple’s CEO, Tom Cook, kept up the suspense by announcing an “entirely new” product, “the most personalized product ever created”, by confirming that it would constitute “the next chapter in Apple history”. 2015 – Three days after its release, the Apple Watch had sold over a million models. 2016 – Apple launches the Apple Watch – second series (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6. Example of an Apple Watch. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

This watch also features a series of sensors, a loudspeaker and a haptic (see note below) response motor which allows the user to follow up on their physical activity. The user interface is a tactile screen while a digital crown is used for zooming or swiping through the elements, and is also the home button. NOTE.– Haptic, from the Greek ἅπτομαι (haptomai) means “I touch” and refers to the science of touching, by analogy with acoustics or optics. Strictly speaking, haptics covers touch and kinesthetic phenomena, meaning the perception of the body in the environment.

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The data collected are visualized through a suite of applications available on the watch, to which a device (mobile phone or other) is coupled through Bluetooth. Apple Watch second series technical specifications Table 5.1 is a reminder of the technical specifications of this Wearable watch. Charging method

The watch battery is charged through an induction device from a base (not provided)

Connectivity

NFC (in card mode and Apple mode) Bluetooth 4.0 Wi-Fi 802.11b/g/n

Sensors

Accelerometer gyroscope heart rate monitor barometer

Compatibility

iOS 8.2 or later, functioning on iPhone 5 and later This watch can (only) be twinned with an iPhone

Functions

Contactless payment (Apple Pay) and Web access

Table 5.1. Technical specifications of the Apple Watch second series

2017 – The Apple Watch third series is given an important material update: connectivity compatible with 4G, to overcome the unique Apple Watch-to-iPhone connection. Apple Watch third series technical specifications Table 5.2 is a reminder of the technical specifications of this Wearable watch. Electronics

Faster dual core processor 16 GB capacity

Autonomy

Integrated rechargeable lithium-ion battery Up to 18 hours Magnetic charging device USB adapter

Sensors

Heart rate monitor Accelerometer, altimeter, barometer, gyroscope Ambient luminosity sensor Voice synthesis Waterproof down to 50 meters

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Connectivity Localization

LTE and UMTS Wi-Fi (802.11b/g/n 2.4 GHz) Bluetooth 4.2 NFC in Apple mode Integrated standard GPS and GloNASS (“Global Navigation Satellite System”, providing faster and more accurate indications in urban centers with a satellite view (GPS is obscured by buildings)

Table 5.2. Technical specifications of the Apple Watch third series

COMMENTS.– The Apple Watch third series is waterproof up to 50 meters and conforms to the ISO 22810 standard. It can be used for activities in shallow water such as swimming in a pool or outdoors. However, it cannot be used for scuba diving, water skiing or other activities that involve rapid currents or deep submersion. The Apple Watch third series allows the user to use their voice as well as data in 4G, thus allowing joggers and other sporty people to do their activities without having to “drag” their phones along. This is a major argument in favor of this watch within the Android community. 5.1.3.2. Example 2: Polar In order to avoid playing the same note over and over, to finish this list of connected Wearable watches here is another main standard of the market, watches made by the company Polar (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7. Example of a Polar watch. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Polar watch technical specifications Figure 10 is a reminder of the technical specifications of this Wearable watch. Compatibility

Android Wear™ Requires a mobile device equipped with Android 4.3 or iOS 9

Electronics

MediaTek MT2601, Dual-Core 1.2 GHz processor based on ARM Cortex-A7 4 GB of internal memory + 512 MB of RAM Transmissive TFT display 1.30”, 240 × 240 pixels, 260 ppi

Autonomy

Battery 500 mAh Two days/eight hours of use (with portable Android), one day/eight hours of use (with iPhone)

Sensors

Heart rate monitor, cadence, speed, power, stride Accelerometer, gyroscope, vibration motor Ambient luminosity sensor Microphone

Connectivity Localization

Bluetooth® 4.2 Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n Integrated standard GPS and GloNASS (see above)

Table 5.3. Technical specifications of the Polar watch

5.1.3.3. Example 3: Wearables/watches with NFC connection and RF booster Traditional chip card integrated circuit manufacturers now wish to expand their range to include Wearable products such as contactless watches, notably for making payments, purchasing tickets or access control, which are usually difficult due to dimension and cost. Example: ST and NXP

Figure 5.8. Example of a watch with NFC and a booster antenna (ST document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Integrated NFC circuits equipped with SE – secure element (see Chapter 4) – require a more significant silicon surface area and a complex design. In addition, the reduced format of these kinds of Wearable products limits the possibilities for small antenna dimensions, which tends to reduce the performance of RF communications. In a compact casing (~ 4 × 4 mm), this obstacle can be overcome by associating a “booster” RF amplifier with the NFC part, working in Active Load Modulation (ALM, of ISO standard 14 443-2) in order to increase the distance of transactions and the radio performance in emulation mode with the card, and finally, a microcontroller for secured applications then allows for transactions with ordinary contactless card readers (such as a mobile phone, for example). Moreover, in some cases, the metallic parts of the Wearableʼs casing can be used as an RF antenna. These integrated circuits conform to the set of norms and standards in effect within the chip card industry, among which we find ISO 14 443, EMVCo, the HCE “emulation card” mode, NFC ISO 18 092 and 21 481 norms, and the MIFARE specifications. In addition, these integrated circuits allow card manufacturers to launch other derivative Wearable products, such as fashion items or connected jewelry (rings) (see Figure 5.21) to control access, or single use products such as bracelets made for specific events. 5.1.4. Glasses Even at the time of RFID in HF at 13.56 MHz or in UHF in the 900 MHz range, chips were already incorporated into the arms of big-brand spectacles for use as antennas, for identification, tracking, warranty, etc. 5.1.4.1. In augmented/virtual reality Since then, we have moved on to smart glasses. As a reminder, we can cite the Google Glass concept which was a precursor of technological Wearables intended for the general public in 2012–2015 (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9. Example of the connected Google Glass glasses

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Unfortunately, since January 2015, due to the non-adherence of the general public to this kind of Wearable, production and sales of Google Glass have stopped. However, a more professional model aimed at enterprises and optimized for utilization in this context was launched in July 2017. To return to something concrete, this later pair of glasses is equipped with an integrated camera, a microphone, a touchpad on one of the arms, mini screens, Internet access via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, and a speaker plugged into one arm of the glasses through mini-USB (Figure 5.10).

Figure 5.10. Example of connected Google Glass V2 glasses

This pair of glasses allows direct access to most of the Google functions: Google Agenda, voice recognition, Google+, clock/alarm, weather, messages (SMS, MMS and e-mail), camera, GPS (Google Maps), Google Latitude, etc. Google also provides an API called Mirror which is intended for the development of augmented virtual reality applications in these glasses which, for the general public, consists of a new way of presenting a 360-degree virtual experience. 5.1.5. Shoes Let us continue the inventory of things we wear, the Wearables, and move from the head to feet and shoes. 5.1.5.1. Sports Most people will recognize those shoes (often for children) equipped with illuminating LEDs that flash, etc. when walking (see Chapter 9 on piezoelectric sensors), and whose battery, molded into the sole of the shoe, is charged either through the intermediary of a USB socket and/or through the motion of walking in order to ensure satisfactory and durable lighting which, as well as being attractive, contributes to the safety and increased protection of the child when walking down a street at night (see Figure 5.11 and also Chapter 9).

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Figure 5.11. Example of pairs of luminous shoes (connected or not). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

5.1.5.2. Security By limiting and warning of the risks of falls or clashes with engines, the French sector of public works and construction saw their claims decrease by 20% in the space of 10 years. Personal protective equipment – PPE – has also helped to limit the risks in a workplace thanks to connected smart devices and pushing PPE manufacturers to provide increased safety to their users. Example 1: detector of loss of verticality The start-up Izome (from the Eram group) have proposed a connected safety shoe coupled to a smartphone application capable of detecting immobility, a fall or a loss of verticality followed by an immobile position. The sole of the shoe incorporates an electronic device (of around 30 grams) linked to a gyroscope, an accelerometer and a pressure sensor. If an accident occurs, a geo-localized alert message indicating the position of the wearer is sent via low throughput networks (see Chapter 9) or GSM in order to summon assistance. Once this SOS is received and processed, a vibration is sent through the shoe of the wearer to reassure them of the coming assistance (Figure 5.12).

Figure 5.12. Example of connected smart safety shoes

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The applicative objective is to monitor isolated workers, such as maintenance workers, guards, farmers, etc. who, in France, number over 1.5 million. Example 2: “dead man” function Falling from a ladder or fully plummeting is listed among the main causes of work accidents in construction. In certain cases, following a lack of movement, it is critical to act fast. Therefore, the “dead man” function is generalized among connected PPE equipment in complement to or replacement of DATI (Dispositif alerte travailleur isolé – Lone worker monitoring). In some applications, the shoes give (via Bluetooth or SigFox/LoRa radiofrequency connections – see Chapters 10 and 11) indications of an accident or of a “dead man”. Example 3: avoiding dangerous areas (Geo-fencing) The device in the connected smart shoe produced by the company Parade has a “Geo-fencing” function which warns the operator when they reach a dangerous or forbidden area. The system works just as well indoors as it does outdoors with a respective accuracy of 1 m and 10 m. For the first case, the area is equipped with beacons which will detect the sensor and signal the forbidden entry by vibrating. In the second case, on an open site, the area is prospectively registered on the cloud and the employee/worker is then permanently geo-localized on this digital map. Example 4: fighting against drudgery and bad posture Anxious to improve the working conditions in the workplace, some companies have developed connected shoe soles capable of measuring drudgery at work and detecting bad postures that can generate fatigue or risk of falling (see also Chapter 7). 5.1.6. Trackers – environmental tracking Environmental “tracker” devices which serve to measure air quality and the pollution levels in an area are becoming more and more popular among the general public. NOTE.– As a reminder, (source: developpement-durable.gouv.fr), pollution is defined as the modification of the composition of air by pollutants that are harmful to health and to the environment. These pollutants are generated by human activities or nature.

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Figure 5.13 indicates the pollutants that are most frequently found in our daily environment.

Figure 5.13. Pollutants frequently found in our daily environment. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

5.1.6.1. Example 1: enviro-tracker The Canadian company TZOÄ market an “enviro-tracker” which is a small Wearable (actually in Object) that directly connects to clothing and uses six sensors to submit, via a Bluetooth/cell phone / Cloud connection, the measurements carried out in real time, including: – Indoor and outdoor temperatures. – Atmospheric pressure. – Relative air humidity in order to know its quality. – Ambient luminosity in order to act on sleep phases and trouble with sleeping. – Exposure to sun rays and the UV rays. – Particle count in order to carry out air quality monitoring of the ambient air and to know the pollution in the environment. The operating principle of the optic particle sensor used is similar to that of professional spectrometers and correlates with them at around 90%. It uses a laser in combination with photodiodes to detect the number of aerodynamic particles within the airflow whose size lies between 0.5 and 20 µm, their concentration rate in mg/m3 and the air quality. The data collected and saved by the device (around 210 kB of data storage per day on an embedded SD card) help the wearer to know the surrounding air quality in real time, and shows them, on a data map, the areas where there is atmospheric pollution.

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5.1.6.2. Example 2: WAIR Intended for people circulating in cities, on foot or by bike, the company WAIR has made what is on the one hand, a (chemo-electronic) mask for the passive filtering of air concealed behind a scarf, and on the other hand, in connection with a cell phone, an application called SUP'AIRMAN (see Figure 5.14).

Figure 5.14. Example of a passive air filter set. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

The technique Technically, directly inspired by professional mechanisms, it takes advantage of a three-layered micro particle filter (Figure 5.15) including a layer composed of active charcoal, a bactericidal layer and finally a layer for filtering particles, notably the notorious small PM2.5 and PM10 polluting particles (review Figure 5.13). This allows it to reach maximal filtering efficacy as well as optimal comfort without the wearer feeling suffocated. To finish, this filter is washable and must be replaced, depending on use, every two to four weeks.

Figure 5.15. Example of a micro particle filter with three layers. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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The associated WAIR software application provides the user with: – real-time information on the quality of the air around them; – alerts when entering a polluted zone in order to put the filtering scarf (mask) on; – a map of air quality, advice on pollution and even recommended itineraries that follow the least-polluted areas; – as well as many other functions for the wearer to live better with pollution. The design On the design side, to reconcile the useful with the pleasant, everything (except the mobile phone) is encapsulated and integrated into a pretty scarf which is not quite like any other – the first “anti-pollution” scarf, a real fashion accessory (Figure 19).

Figure 5.16. The founder of WAIR and her connected scarf

Moreover, the scarf itself can be washed in a washing machine. Each set of filters and scarves is delivered with two filters. 5.1.7. For pets There are also Wearables for pets proliferating on the market. For example, a cat can have a GPS collar; activity-tracking devices; gadgets that record their heart rate, respiration rate and other health markers trackers for their romantic relationships, and more (the GDPR does not yet exist for animals, but it will probably come

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along one day!). An example made by Garmin – Delta XC Bundle – is shown in Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.17. Example of a smart Wearable for animals by Garmin

5.2. The Luxury Style type The industry of Luxury Style “accessories” has, for many years, been on the alert for new technologies. Effectively, since the appearance of industrial RFID in the early 2000s, many big brands have sought and found applications for communication and connection between electronic chips and their “accessory” Wearable products, bags, suitcases, trunks, shoes, jewelry, etc. We will quickly give a few examples. 5.2.1. Example: Louis Vuitton This luxury leatherworks company – bags and fabrics, leatherwork, suitcases, etc. – was, for a long time, confronted with problems of a “gray” market, (as opposed to a black market). These are products that are manufactured on the very same site used for official production, but with clumsy workers, and materials are dropped and then resold and passed through illegal channels known as the “gray” market! These products are therefore strictly and physically authentic products and not duplicate, and nothing distinguishes it from others. Using wisely strategized management and RFID chips positioned in some parts of the Wearable fabric, appropriate RFID/base stations and adapted procedures, the problem has been resolved.

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Figure 5.18. Examples of luxury leatherwork – Louis Vuitton. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Some models are even equipped with an RF connection in order to follow them if stolen, and to find the network of criminals. In fact, the brand has associated itself with SigFox (see Chapters 10 and 11), to track high-quality luggage using an Wearable accessory tracker (of dimensions 10 × 2 × 1.5 cm) fastened onto a pouch inside the luggage. These allow the owners to follow their duly registered suitcases in more than 120 airports around the world. This tracker is equipped with an accelerometer and a pressure detector in order to detect the stages of take-off and landing so that radio communications are interrupted during airplane flights. They work all around the world by automatically adapting to local RF constraint regulations, and to usable frequencies and channels from country to country. 5.2.2. Example: Louboutin Following the bags, suitcases and trunks mentioned above, the same goes for other luxury articles such as certain high-end shoes (Figure 5.19). These products are small, not too cumbersome, easily taken apart and therefore easier to secure (against theft), especially in this case of products that are subject to duplicates. However, the protections must be invisible, cannot be ripped off (and are therefore integrated directly into the shoe), etc. and most importantly, must communicate in a bidirectional manner with a verification system. Here, we are largely moving ahead of the RFID stage and onto the secured accessory Wearable. The solution used includes integrated mono-chip HF (NFC) and simultaneously UHF (RFID) circuits, and is interesting at several levels: – In UHF (in RFID mode), by working long distance thanks to a stiffening steel rod necessary for the good performance of a high-heeled shoe (8, 10, 12 cm) and serving here as the UHF part of the chip as well, through antenna coupling (Figure 5.19), thus ensuring the functions of:

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- traceability/antitheft on the production chain; - traceability/antitheft throughout the delivery supply chain from the factory to the shop; - antitheft/inventory in the shop, etc.

Figure 5.19. Example of an antenna made with the shoe stiffener. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

– In HF (in NFC and connected Wearable mode) for short distances as shown in Figure 5.20 by directly examining the secured NFC part of the same chip: - either using a specific secured professional NFC reader, such as used by customs in order to verify, via the Internet, in an appropriate database, the origin of a product, to push back against duplicates and show/write the instructions of a passage through customs; - or for the end clients themselves, in order to verify the origin and ensure, using a simple NFC mobile phone and Internet connection, that the product is not a duplicate.

Figure 5.20. NFC communication with the smart shoe via a mobile phone

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It should be noted that these same techniques are also beginning to be used for wines and spirits of great name. 5.2.3. Example: jewelry – connected ring – Icare An increasingly common example is that of connected jewelry “accessory” Wearables. In the example shown in Figure 5.21, the application and communication are conducted in a secured NFC ring through NFC type communication and chip card standard ISO 14 443, which allows either controlled access or all sorts of payments. One of the major problems with this application is the miniaturization of the whole electronics complex within such a small volume, and environmental problems, since the ring can be banded with gold, silver or diamonds.

Figure 5.21. Example of a connected ring for controlling access. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

5.3. The sports type We will continue on with non-textile Wearables by citing “accessories”, which are, at times, held and carried by hand. 5.3.1. Example: tennis racket Let us look at the example of the big brand tennis racket shafts, Babolat and Wilson, in which many sensors (accelerometer, gyroscopes, impact strength measurer, etc.) are integrated, capable of determining straight shots, backhands, services, topspin or sidespin, power, etc. The shaft is

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also equipped with a radio frequency communication unit (often Bluetooth), the aim of which is to relay all the data collected to a mobile phone in order to analyze the moves made by the athletes (number of shots hit, what sort of hit, what effects and centering accuracy, etc.) and allows them to improve their game (Figure 5.22).

Figure 5.22. Example of a connected tennis racket. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

5.4. The automobile type Every day, technologies evolve and offer new possibilities, and the automobile world – manufacturers and outfitters – has its fair share of new “accessory” Wearables appearing on the market. 5.4.1. Presence detector 5.4.1.1. Example: presence control carpet Figure 5.23 shows a carpet equipped with a smart textile which allows it to detect presence and posture (thus, a behavioral analysis of the passenger GDPR may have to be taken into account).

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Figure 5.23. Example of a smart carpet

5.4.2. Detection and warning of drowsiness at the wheel One of the fashionable themes is now surveillance, detection and signaling of drowsiness at the wheel. Here are two examples on the subject, but there are many others. 5.4.2.1. Example: smart cap – Ford In order to make roads safer and to reduce the number of accidents due to drowsiness at the wheel, Ford, accompanied by experts from the sleep institute, invented, developed and made a connected and smart cap. Equipped with an accelerometer, a gyroscope and a processor, this connected cap detects signs of fatigue preceding drowsiness, by analyzing head movements before the driver even closes his/her eyes (for example, when the muscles of the neck begin to relax), all in order to anticipate drowsiness and prevent the driver from falling asleep at the wheel. Next, the system warns the driver to let him/her know that it is time to take a break. For this, the mechanism activates three signals: a light vibration, a warning sound and a flashing light. This innovation has piqued the interest of insurers on several levels, as it is seen as a factor mitigating the risk of accident. 5.4.2.2. Example: smart glasses – Ellcie Healthy – Valéo Based on the observation that four million French people own a driver’s license, that eight out of 10 of them wear glasses, and that drowsiness or falling asleep at the wheel is the cause behind one out of three fatal accidents on the motorway, the French start-up Ellcie Healthy (specialists in the field of motion sensors built into glasses) and the optician Optic 2000 co-developed a “smart” frame. In addition, in order to accelerate the development of new uses in cars, Valéo (already present in the field of anti-glare glasses connected to car headlights) and Ellcie Healthy combined their expertise of, on one side, connected vehicles, and on the other,

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connected glasses, in order to design connected glasses that could contribute to greater road security, prevent drivers from falling asleep at the wheel, improve driving comfort and even facilitate the man–machine interface. From the very first signs of sleepiness, these frames alert the vehicle driver or passengers, by flashing a red LED, sounding an audible buzzer integrated in the frame or, if the frames are linked to a smartphone, the phones of the passengers present will ring. For this, they have built-in sensors (accelerometer and gyroscope) that detect the precursory signs of sleep such as the blinking of eyelids, yawning and micro-nods of the head. If these signs of a decreased level of attention are detected, the alert is given. The frames function “autonomously” but can also be linked to a smartphone application, allowing the storage of the driver’s information on a “cloud” (notably, duration of break, geo-localization, length of time the frames were worn, etc. – again, GDPR may have implications here). Weighing 16 grams, they are autonomous for a day and also have a battery charger (Figure 5.24).

Figure 5.24. Example of smart glasses for automobile applications. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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To finish, wearing the glasses while driving gives a SAR (specific absorption rate – review Chapter 4) equivalent to less than five seconds of communication on a mobile phone. Moreover, these frames are compatible with correction glasses and can be cleaned using disinfectant wipes, or by moistening a cloth, but obviously not with buckets of water due to the incorporated electronics. NOTE.– In the context of medical utilization for the detection or even prevention of falls or for following the physical activities of older or disabled people, the system can send the information collected (physical, physiological or environmental) to a smartphone or gateway via Bluetooth, and then give information and predictions relative to the health and security of the wearers to themselves or to the beneficiary, the companion and the practicing doctor if need be. In this case, the frames are subject to stricter regulations in France (review Chapters 4 and 10), in Europe and in the rest of the world, and they then benefit from inclusion under medical insurance and health mutual. 5.5. The medical types 5.5.1. Example: heart failure – CardioRenal Heart failure is a widespread pathology throughout the world with a heavy societal impact. In addition, the re-hospitalization rate of patients is particularly high (in France, nearly 50% in the six months following the first hospitalization), and the mortality rate is high, often due to inappropriate treatment (rate higher than 44% for patients over the age of 75). With these figures in mind, the Servier and CardioRenal companies (enterprises dedicated to improving the quality of treatment for heart failure patients through the use of advanced technology combined with a strong medical expertise) have jointly developed a telemedicine tool for a connected ambulatory system which allows for the monitoring, at home, of patients who suffer from heart failure, thus reducing the long-term impact of this pathology on health expenses. The Wearable is constituted of a small casing that can detect the warning signs of a heart problem, through the analysis of droplets of blood and the measurement of three biomarkers (hemoglobin, potassium and creatinine). Using secured connectivity, the measurements and data collected are immediately analyzed by an expert system and transmitted in real time to a physician. While the personal data is kept in a connected electronic file (review Chapter 4), after validation of the results by the physician, an optimized treatment is suggested to the heart failure patients, allowing for a better follow-up of the progress of their pathology and for their

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treatment and prescriptions to be adapted, while ensuring the best follow-up and the most personalized treatment. This telemedicine instrument provides patients with much more regular follow-up and prevents traumatizing hospitalizations for the sick person, which are also costly for health systems. With such a tool, hospitalization rates are hoped to be reduced by 40%, which represents an average of 6,000 euros saved per patient per year. In addition, the regulatory development and clinical evidence for this device are carried out jointly by CardioRenal and WeHealth by Servier. The latter then ensures its marketing and promotion around the world. 5.5.2. Example: diabetes treatment The smart “accessory” Wearable that communicates in NFC has also found an application in the medical field and “healthcare” devices. Similar applications exist for patients with diabetes.

Figure 5.25. Example of “healthcare” devices. Applications for diabetics

Let us quickly look at three examples: – Austrian Research Centers carries out blood pressure and weight monitoring measurements (records, treatment, files and tracking/tracing) that are transferred through NFC to a mobile phone. – Cambridge Consultants carries out monitoring of diabetes in agreement with the World Health Organization (WHO). The NFC ensures the link between the blood glucose measuring device which recommends a dose of insulin and the insulin pump control (located, for example, under the clothes) by placing the NFC measuring device against the latter if the patient agrees (Figure 5.29).

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Figure 5.26. Example of diabetes applications – blood glucose measurement

– Nedap NV Healthcare’s “iO TouchPro” solution automates the process of enrollment and the transmission of patient services by caregivers in their own homes, using a mobile phone equipped with NFC technology and the appropriate software. As soon as a caregiver arrives at the patient’s home, he/she simply touches the phone to the patient’s chip card. His/her time of arrival is thus recorded and the patient’s file is received from the central iO. After the consultation, the home caregiver touches the phone to the patient’s card, and the medical activities are automatically recorded. By eliminating all the administrative chores and the recording of the file by a carer, this application saves time and money, brings greater precision, all while freeing up time for the treatment of the patient and avoiding transcription errors. 5.5.3. Example: dermatology – Feeligreen Encounters between the needs of the medical field and microelectronics, often quite impermeable, are sometimes surprising but rich with the potential for development. Proof of this is provided by the company Feeligreen who have placed themselves at the crossroads between the electronic, medical and cosmetic worlds and provides dermatology with a mastery of medical device technologies, notably through micro-currents efficiently diffusing active ingredients across skin in a secure manner. The target applications are both cosmetic and therapeutic. These mechanisms provide an alternative to using syringes and a 4 to 10-fold improvement factor in the effectiveness of active substances given through localized applications. They therefore improve the quality of care as well as the quality of life of patients who, for example, suffer from chronic pain such as that linked to knee osteoarthritis, by

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improving the efficacy of external treatments and decreasing the use of morphine, and thus its secondary effects (Figure 5.27).

Figure 5.27. Example of dermatological applications

5.6. The security type – PPE There is a strong demand from professional (construction workers, in airport areas, on highways, etc.) and higher risk trades (soldiers, police, firefighters, etc.) for the kind of PPE that gives indications of fatigue, stress, etc. which could help with making decisions about taking risks. We will look at several examples. 5.6.1. Example: firefighters For example, for firefighters, on a site where a strong increase in ambient temperature occurs (such as in fire training boxes or where there is a real blaze), there is an interest in measuring blood oxygen levels and pulse, heart rate and arrhythmia with a dose clamp working through infrared (Figure 5.28).

Figure 5.28. Example of dose clamp applications (Société Bodysens document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Other, more sophisticated PPE also include: – a GPS; – an accelerometer which can measure the firefighter’s activity; – an RF chip (BLE or Wi-Fi) which ensures connectivity; – a temperature sensor; – a gas detector (for example, those by Sté Tecknisolar); – a perspiration measurer (Figure 5.29 from CEA Leti) based on a sensor on flexible film, similar to blotting paper, measuring the calcium, potassium and sodium levels and concentration in sweat in order to have the most appropriate drinks for recovery.

Figure 5.29. Examples of applications for measuring perspiration (CEA document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

5.6.2. Example: smart helmets A new generation of protective helmets have arrived, with connectivity and augmented reality!

Figure 5.30. Connected protective helmets (Daqri document)

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The PPE, baptized Smart Helmet, designed by the American company Daqri (Figure 5.30), falls under the connected Wearables movement, with the objective of facilitating the work of the wearer. As shown in this figure, like Google Glass, this smart helmet has (Figure 5.31): – a visor on which information is displayed, overlaying the environment, following a “head up” display mode; – cameras ensuring a 360° view; – sensors that can detect overheating in a circuit, read a gauge or even simulate the replacement of a part.

Figure 5.31. Details of the protective connected helmet (Daqri document)

It is also possible to synchronize this PPE with a tablet, a mobile phone, or even a connected watch, because the system was developed under Android. Enterprises can therefore develop their own applications based on the trade and their usage (Figure 5.32).

Figure 5.32. Connected armband (Daqri document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Finally, to reconcile safety at work and to control access to the most dangerous sites, some companies (such as Ela Innovation) specializing in long-distance RFID identification technologies equip the helmets of their clients, construction companies, with active RFID sensors that read, from broadcasts, markers placed at the entrance of risk zones. Thanks to this procedure, the safety manager can know, at any moment, where his/her companions are and can also check that the people entering the site are authorized to do so, which also helps to prevent the too frequent theft of tools. We will now move onto fibers and Smart Textiles.

6 Examples of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles

6.1. A few words of introduction By way of introduction to this chapter detailing descriptions of the different technologies which can be used in the field of smart fibers, smart textiles and smart apparel, we will outline several “shock” comments and phrases (which may seem like evidence and good sense but that are sometimes forgotten) that have been spoken by manufacturers of this field during meetings, symposiums, seminars, etc. and that are worth bearing in mind when designing a textile-based product. Generally speaking: – The future client must be the core concern. – It is therefore necessary to consider the final product before technological innovation. – Therefore, always think of technological innovations based on innovative uses. – There is no point in having a high-end technological solution if the clothing turns out to be unpleasant or impractical. – Do not just become a seller of smart fabric or smart apparel, but integrate imbued intelligence in all kinds of fabrics. – Begin with some minor technological innovation, then major ones in terms of utilization since, first and foremost, it must have a logical use and remember that technological revolutions: - that come too early are not adapted to the market;

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- that come too late do not ensure the economic sustainability of the enterprise. – The competition is tough and worldwide. – France has two significant advantages in this field: its historical knowledge of textiles and its know-how in microelectronics. Concerning sports/fitness/health applications in particular: – Users have a passion for measuring their individual athletic performance and there is a strong “quantified self” trend. – There is a market appetite for behavioral data. – Today’s equipment is often impractical, and quite ridiculous. – Fabric is something other than simply “what we wear” and becomes an “active medium”. At the industrial level: – It takes around two years of research to perfect a product. – It is necessary to file a maximum of patents. – It is necessary to set up strong partnerships with research centers and universities and engineering schools. – The “ultimate aim” is to be able to place the sensor within the fiber itself. – It is necessary to be present in all parts of the value chain, not only for the collection of information (behavior, habits, medical, etc.) but also for their processing (data analysis platform). And so here summarized are several classical and important phrases that will guide us and underlie all that follows in this book. We can now move onto the technological aspect of smart fibers, smart textiles and smart apparel. For those who are new to this field, we will start by saying a few words on the different links in the “Textile” chain, which starts with “fibers”. 6.2. Fibers The fibers that will constitute the threads can have different origins: – natural: cotton, hemp, linen, silk, wool, etc. – synthetic: polyester, polyamide, aramid, acrylic, polyurethane, etc. – inorganic: carbon, metal and ceramic.

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6.2.1. Natural fibers 6.2.1.1. Plant Legend has it that the world’s first “clothing”, revealed on the catwalk of the time (with a single spectator!), was made from a plant fiber: the vine leaf! Aside from this joke, over the course of millennia, the use of major standards such as cotton, linen, hemp, bamboo, etc. appeared. 6.2.1.2. Animal Fibers are also often acquired from animal origins such as sheep, goat, camel, lama (alpaca), etc. and other small creatures such as silk worms (it takes six to 10 cocoons to make a single thread of silk), etc. without counting spiders and their magnificent weaving techniques. 6.2.2. Artificial fibers Since the advent of the era of the petroleum industry and its chemical derivatives, many new fibers have arrived (such as nylon) and many materials are yet to come. An artificial textile fiber is obtained through the chemical processing (usually dissolution, then precipitation) of natural materials. These chemical treatments have the objective of obtaining a spinnable product (able to pass through the small holes of a spinneret). Next, as they come out of the spinneret, the filaments obtained are either gathered to form continuous threads or cut into broken fibers, as seen with wool. EXAMPLES.– – Milk casein for lanital, the cellulose from various plants (pine bark, bamboo, soya, birch) for viscose. – Cellulose acetate (Rhodia). – Viscose (Fibranne when woven with fibers and Rayon when woven with filaments). Viscose, for example, is obtained by using cellulose from various plants (pine bark, bamboo, soya, etc.). 6.2.2.1. Synthetic fibers A synthetic textile fiber (from chemical reactions) is obtained, after passing through a spinneret, by the extrusion of crystalline polymer granules acquired from hydrocarbons or starch. We find different fibers such as acrylic, polyamide, polyester and elastane.

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6.2.2.2. Inorganic and mineral fibers The most popular inorganic compounds used in new technologies to create inorganic fibers are made from aluminum, boron, copper, gallium, indium, lithium, manganese (from which comes, for example, asbestos), silicon, silica (from which comes, for example, glass), titanium, zinc, etc. It should be noted that for centuries, metal components have been used instead of textile fibers, mainly iron, copper, aluminum or even silver and gold since these are very flexible and ductile. All of these are also notably good conductors for electricity, which is very useful for certain textile applications and smart textiles. EXAMPLE:– The chainmail of the Hundred Yearsʼ War and today’s fine mesh shields against RF rays and pollution, as well as the material of pouches and trouser pockets that prevent contactless radio frequency chip cards from being read. 6.2.2.3. Characteristics of textile fibers Overall, the textile fibers that we have just listed above are characterized by three main factors: – Their composition: - For a continuous thread, we speak of strands or filaments. - For broken threads, they are designated by the terms fibers or fibrils that affect the feel and the softness. – Their length: - The length of the long or short fibers that make up the textile affects its firmness. – Their physical–chemical properties: - These criteria play a role in the utilization and maintenance of the textile. - The functions sought after for clothing and furnishings concern different assets such as the textile’s rendering (feel, appearance, elasticity, etc.), the colors (hold, gloss, etc.), ease of maintenance (crease-proof, anti-perspiring, etc.) and capacity to be reinforced with fabrics of technical use (resistance to traction, to tearing, to fire). With these fibers and then threads, we can make fabrics, either by weaving, for example, or perhaps by knitting and/or meshing. Please see Chapter 7 for a discussion of the near and distant future of textile fibers.

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6.2.2.4. Optical fibers Among the chemically derived fibers, there are those that have special compositions and that are used to make special fibers called “optical” fibers, with threads of glass (from silica) or more often, plastic (from polymers), to make (POF – plastic optic fiber) which can, under certain bending radii conditions, be woven – allowing the transport of information translated into light signals, and therefore at high speed and with very little loss of quality. Optical fiber is made of a fiber core and a sheath. We will detail all of this in Chapter 9, in the technological part of this book. 6.3. Textile/fabric/cloth Again, words that are similar but different! We will begin with definitions given by the French Larousse dictionary. 6.3.1. Textile “Textile” is the name given to all material that can be woven or knitted. By extension, the word textile can also apply to the result after transformation, for example, a bedsheet is a textile. If it is woven, the textile becomes a fabric. The action of separating the fibers of a textile is known as spinning. As a reminder: – Weaving is a fabric production process in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric (Jacquard weaving process): - the vertical threads that are parallel to each other and follow the length of the fabric are called warp threads; - the horizontal threads that are therefore always perpendicular to the warp threads are weft threads. – The fabric is therefore a surface obtained by the regular assembly of fibers or threads arranged in two series crossed at right angles as described above. The method in which these threads are woven together influences the characteristics of the web obtained: - the weave designates the repeated pattern formed by the warp threads crossed with the weft threads. Different weaves give different renders. The weave is selected based on the desired characteristics of the final textile: softness, feel, firmness, sturdiness, etc.

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– Knitting is a material of extensive work with interlaced loops that fall under the term mesh. The fabric is thus constituted of a single thread coiled in loops on itself. These weaving and knitting (meshing) techniques have a strong effect on the possible “e-textile” and “Smart Textiles” manufacturing technologies. 6.3.2. Cloth A cloth is an article made by the entanglement of textile material with a certain cohesion. 6.3.3. Texture The texture is the way in which the threads of a cloth are assembled, for example cloth made from a loose fabric. This is also the name currently given to all clothes, whether mesh, unwoven or actual fabric. 6.3.3.1. Comments concerning “luminous” textiles Certain “luminous” textiles are obtained by simultaneously weaving optical fibers with textile fibers following a Jacquard weaving process, and using a “satin” type weave in the following manner: the warp threads are composed of textile fibers similar to traditional textiles. In contrast, the weft threads are a mix of alternating textile and optical fibers. The use of this technique then gives the final textile a firm finish while the use of this weave allows the optical fibers to remain uncovered and increases their luminous surface after treatment. Next, the light sources (LED, for example) are placed at one extremity of the fabric in order to irradiate its entire surface with light (see Chapter 9). 6.3.4. Ennoblement Having now obtained a crude fabric, regardless of the textile family (waft and weft, meshed, unwoven, etc.), in order to market it, it must be ennobled to imbue it with market value and to value it following the different decorative and technical finishing stages. This stage/phase, called ennoblement or even finishing and which consists of groundwork, is very important in the fabric manufacturing process which includes many environmental constraints (chemical, mechanical, etc.). The fields of intervention that are applied to the fibers have roles and effects on the performance

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and quality of the final product, and on the potential contribution of electronic systems or components that could be within the fabrics to provide smartness to the clothing. We will give several details of this stage so that the smart apparel designers understand the underlying constraints into which they venture. – Ennoblement, but with what objective? - for long-term use (choice of colorants, effects of the application process); - to master the dimensional stability of the fabric (thermo fixing, compressive removal, resin, relaxing drying, sanforization, compacting, etc.). – For which desired effects? Here, the list can get quite long: - visual effects (coloration, x-chromium, embossed, schintz, etc.); - tactile effects by modification of the appearance or feel: softening, scraping (fleece), grinding (peach skin, carbon finish) and washing (stone, enzyme wash, garment wash); - addition of specific properties and specific functions such as anti-stress, damp proof, waterproof, breathable, fireproof, anti-bacterial, anti-mite, anti-odor, perfumed fabrics, temperature-regulating fabrics. – The ennoblement process: – Preparation: - thermal (bowing, thermo fixing, etc.) and chemical (bleaching, mercerizing, optical brightening) operations; - pre-treatments. – Coloring techniques (dye and print): - dyeing materials and their application procedures; - dyeing techniques and classes of dyes (fixing principles and effects on solidity); - ensuring compliance of colors and their control. – Controlling the solidity and conformity with specifications: - what dye, what material, for what matter and what results? - application techniques (continuous, broken).

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– Printing based on different techniques: - flat, rotating, digital frame, etc.; - digital transfer and printing; - printing modes: pigment, fixed, washed, etc. printing; - screen printing on the manufactured article. – Mechanical and chemical primers: - mechanical primers compressive removal);

(scraping,

grinding,

embossing,

controlled

- application techniques of chemical primers; - chemical primers (padding, coating, micro-encapsulation, plasmas); - coating consisting of applying a surface coat, usually liquid (lacquer, paint, oil, etc.), onto a textile, followed by drying and eventually curing. From this stage onward, and based on the preceding stages, we can hope to make an e-textile or a smart textile and create applications. As a conclusion to the preceding sections, Table 6.1 shows a summary of the value chain, from the primary matter, the fiber, to the finished products, to smart apparel and their applications. Primary matter Fiber and threadproducing

Textileproducing

Specific treatments

Half-finished or Applications finished products (functions and results)

NATURAL: Plant: cotton, linen, burlap, hemp Animal: wool, silk

Weaving

Ennoblement

Confection of functional products

CHEMICAL: Polyvinyl alcohol Aramid Elastane Polyamide Polyvinyl chloride Polyester

Spinning

Coating Spinning

Large or narrow fabrics

Preimpregnation

Impregnating Various transformations: Milling Twisting Texturing, etc.

Braiding Stringing Cabling

Laminating

Mesh and

Adherization

Mechanical results: Resistance + Maintenance Restraint + Reinforcement Elasticity Protection: Mechanical + thermal Chemical + NRBC + electric

Health / Medical Sports & leisure Agriculture Construction Civil engineering Defense Electronics

Examples of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles Polyethylene Polypropylene INORGANIC or MINERAL: Chemical Carbon processing and thread coating Ceramic Silica Glass Metal

knits

Unwoven 3D textiles

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Electromagnetic Dyeing Printing Primers

Extreme conditions

Protection and security Transport

Exchange: Filtration + wiping Absorption + waterproofness Drainage “Bio” functions: Bioactive + biomimetic Hygiene + biocompatible

Earth, air, sea Wrapping Environment Industry

Table 6.1. Summary of the textile–clothing value chain

6.4. A few words on technologies 6.4.1. Weaving with applied or integrated electronics In this section on weaving with electronics, there are still distinctions to be made. Is the electrical/electronic element applied to the fabric or is it an integral part of the weave during its manufacture? For the former, this is not really a fabric with integrated electronics. Here are two examples: We will start with a hint of nostalgia as we recall the 1950s and 1960s (already 60 years since smart textiles started to appear) where: – to minimize night-time household heating, knitted “Damart” undergarments made of “Thermolactyl” (fiber with triboelectric properties, for protection against the cold and humidity) were worn – not electronic, and the fiber did all the work! – in winter, the bed was pre-heated with a “Calor” heated cover that was carefully switched off before going to sleep, to avoid setting fire to the sheets and the whole neighborhood – the heating resistor was sewn into the cover and not therefore woven into the cloth. In short, nothing very new! Here is a second example:

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During the weaving phase, very fine and very flexible plastic optical fibers are used as warp threads. They are therefore definitely integral parts of the fabric and the weaving can be referred to as integrating “electronic/optical components”. The finished result is shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1. Example of weaving with optical fibers. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

6.4.2. On wires 6.4.2.1. Heating wires In “applied” techniques, many technologies of heating textiles exist on the market: – using bendy resistive wire (copper, aluminum, etc.) applied and sewn onto the fabric (like the heating cover presented above); – or, for example, making a deposit of conductive ink on the fabric (therefore not woven and added, for example, using a screen print or other during the fabric’s ennoblement phase), etc.; – or even woven into the fabric during manufacture. These technologies are designed based on the principle of transformation of electrical energy to thermal energy with, in consequence, increases in temperature that must be managed on top of the general and classical problems found in clothing applications (constraints on size, lack of softness or elasticity of the material), but

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especially mechanical resistance and fatigue, wash fastness and the eternal problematic of the maladjustment of electrical connectors between different functional and/or sensor elements. We will look at one example among many others. Example: heating wires – Tibtech With their know-how in the field of conductor wire resistance and fatigue, the Tibtech company contributed to advancing the viability of products with problems linked to applied heating function technology (Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2. Example of fabric with applied heating wires. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

For example, the family of bare, non-isolated Thermotech wires is characterized by: – good semi-resistivity of the materials (from 3.6 Ohms/m to 60 Ohms/m); – constant conductivity, with or without mechanical charge or tension; – materials allowing for small bend radii within the flexible textile or composite structures; – excellent resistance to the effects of fatigue; – good mechanical resistance; – resistance to high temperatures (up to 600°C, or more if they are well protected from oxidation in a neutral atmosphere); – in certain versions, weldability and ability to be sewn;

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– excellent performance in high frequency – HF (for RFID antenna-type applications); – resistance to sweat, oxidation, salty water, etc.; – excellent manipulation;

wash

fastness

through

industrial

processes

and

repeated

– ideal for the fine cutting of polystyrene or other thermoplastic material. 6.4.2.2. The risk of hot spots? Despite all this, in an applicative manner, it is always necessary to evaluate and avoid the potential presence of hot spots on the flexible conductors or heating wires which could not only lead to a loss of the desired function in the textile, but also set fire. In a conducting or heating structure, a “hot spot” is a specific point at which abnormal heating occurs compared to the rest of the structure. Fires are very often caused by the inflammation of materials that are in contact with the spot where the temperature is abnormally high. 6.4.2.3. A few simple technical explanations To better understand this phenomenon, we will take a technical step back to very simple high school notions of electricity and examine the case in Figure 6.3!

Figure 6.3. Example of the application of heating wires (TibTech document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Imagine a 1 m long resistor wire with a resistivity equal to 10 Ω/m and fed with 12 V. We apply Ohm’s law: I=U/R

=> I = 12 / 10 = 1.2A

P=UxI

=> P =12 x 1.2 = 14.4 W on 1 m of wire

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The power dissipated per cm of wire will therefore be 0.144 W. The loading rate (power per cm divided by unit area – in watts/cm²) of the wire will be equal to: Loading rate = 0.144 / (0.138 x π) = 0.33 Watt /cm². COMMENT.– For purists, the loading rate depends on the total effective exchange surface with the environment. For multi-strand wires, the equivalent exchange surface must be calculated between the total developed external surface and the surface of the cylinder corresponding to the equivalent mono wire. Suppose that the wire below is locally damaged, crushed, for example, in a very small part of its length (zone 2) see Figure 6.4. This corresponds, locally, to a conductor in a much smaller section, around 1/10th of its surface area, on a very short length: for example, on 1 mm.

Figure 6.4. Example of the creation of a hot spot (TibTech document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

We return to our notion of loading rate: In zone 1: P1 = 9.99*(1.19)2 = 14.15 W or loading rate = (14.15 / 99.9) / 0.44 = 0.32 W/cm2

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In zone 2: P2 = 0.10*(1.19)² = 0.14 W or loading rate = (0.14 / 0.1) / 0.44 = 3.19 W/cm² It is commonly admitted that the loading rate of high-temperature alloys cannot exceed 2 to 2.5 W/cm2, or they run the risk that the heat cannot escape, that the temperature increases and that the metal fuses and melts (for copper, or worse, aluminum, the fusion points are even lower). In consequence, this, of course, creates a high increase in temperature at the weak point, accelerating the potential rupture of the conductor wire even more. This example highlights that even with devices working at low voltage (12 V – like in cars – in the example above), it is possible to have significant local heating which will rapidly degrade the mechanical resistance of the metal, making the weak point even more fragile, hence how the increase in temperature can lead to the incandescence of the wire which, on contact with other textile materials nearby, can start a fire or completely break the wire. APPLICATION TO HEATED SEATS IN VEHICLES Initially, the product will work perfectly, but with time, due to repeated mechanical flexing efforts when passengers sit on the seating structure or when they get in and out of the vehicle, the conductor wires will become fragile in areas, leading to the creation of hot spots and potentially setting fires.

6.4.2.4. Threads for RFID antennas Nothing is easier than applying or integrating electrical conductor threads in textiles and using them as antennas, notably to make an RFID tag working either in HF at 13.56 MHz or in UHF at around 900 MHz. Here, again, we will provide three examples. Example: in HF – Dag System This integration and/or sewn-on fabric (or paper) application technique has already been in use for over 20 years by the DAG System company (from Lyon, of course) to make bibs equipped with RFID chips working in HF (13.56 MHz) for triathlon runners (whose paper or fabric bibs go in water and are subject to sweat and perspiration) (Figure 6.5).

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Figure 6.5. Example of a marathon bib (DAG System document)

Example: in UHF – Tibtech Another example of a simple applied RFID antenna in UHF (bandwidth between 860 and 960 MHz) is given in Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.6. Example of an RFID antenna applied onto fabric (Tibtech document)

Example: in UHF – Primo 1D This company created a process, baptized as E-ThreadTM technology, enabling the linkage between a small casing (Figure 6.7) containing an electronic chip (of 0.4 × 0.4 mm) and a textile thread, the whole becoming a UHF RFID tag (conforming to the usual read and/or write ISO 18 000-63 and EPC Gen2 norms) that can be sewn/integrated directly into the textile (Figure 6.8). The target applications are for tracking clothes, fighting against textile duplicates, the pneumatic identification and traceability of vehicles (which are actually just metallic textile structures coated in rubber!), the connection of sensors for athletic equipment, etc.

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Figure 6.7. Thread technology with LED or with UHF antenna (Primo 1D document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Figure 6.8. One needs to look carefully – the chip is integrated directly in the middle of the antenna thread under the young woman’s left eye! (Primo 1D document)

6.4.2.5. LED threads The technology from the preceding solution can also be used to establish connections with LEDs in micro casings that can be sewn and integrated directly

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into the thread/fabric, for applications including decorative fabrics or even for fabrics used for high-end fashion (Figure 6.9). Example: LED threads – Primo1D Of course, the thread has a conducting core in order to be able to proceed to the electronic feed of LED.

Figure 6.9. Thread with integrated LED (Primo 1D document). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

6.4.3. Optical fibers We will go into more detail on this technology in Chapter 9 but here are a few words on luminous Textiles. 6.4.3.1. Luminous textiles Woven with other textile threads (of all kinds, whether natural or synthetic), optical fibers (most often in plastic polymers known as POF) allow the creation of luminous fabric/textile. The creation process and the stages of achievement of such a fabric with lighting properties are as follows: – Weaving of “textile” optical fibers, usually in the direction of the weft thread with other threads in warp. – Surface treatment of optical fibers to obtain lateral lighting through the physical, mechanical (sanding), chemical (solvent) or optical (laser) processing applied to the surface of the fabric, with the aim of degrading the surface of the fibers (the same as the treatment carried out on antireflective blocks on television screens). This makes the visible light on the surface “diffuse” (in contrast with “specular”). It should be noted that in order to provide homogeneous lighting along the surface of luminous fabrics, the surface of the fiber must not be too degraded in

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the areas close to the light source in order to give the light fewer exit points, and more degraded in areas further from the light source (see Chapter 9). – Other surface treatments and assembly of materials. – Linking of optical fibers in matrix form. – Establishment of connections to a LED-type light source at one of their extremities. – Coupling of bundles of optical fibers with LED light sources. – Feeding their LED and controls and addressing. A concrete example of this from Brochier Technologies is presented in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10. Example of luminous textiles (Brochier Technologies document)

By connecting the “luminous fabric” to LED sources of different colors (red, green, blue), either different isolated colors or a wide palette are obtained, the latter in an additive color manner. The color of the textile threads woven with optical fibers is also one of the parameters which can make the color of a fabric thus constituted vary. By directing pixels (picture elements) or optical fibers independently or not, based on three LED light sources of colors R, G and B, a veritable flexible luminous textile screen can be obtained. Luminous fibrous textiles also find themselves applied in medicine, notably for skin cancer treatments. Methods such as photo chemotherapy use these textiles fed with lasers. They enable the activation of photo-sensitizers (porphyrin, chlorophyll, etc.) in the patient’s body in order to destroy the cancerous cells. However, in this case, the technology of light diffusion is very different because once the braiding with another textile is done, the fiber is wrapped around the latter so that the fiber becomes twisted, and because of this, there is no longer any internal total reflection,

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and the light can escape locally or throughout the length (based on the need) of the optical fiber (see Chapter 9). To finish these few lines, we will quickly present a few conventional optical fiber characteristics and their implementation. Characteristics of generally used optical fibers – Adjustable optical fiber density. – Weight of 100 to 600 g/m². – Mixes of natural and synthetic textile threads of varying colors and textures. Design characteristics of luminous fabrics – Uniform or patterned lighting. – Surface appearance of a textile or other material associations. – Surface areas up to several dozen m². – Ultra-thin (< 1 mm) and ultra-light illuminating area. – Soft or rigid, flat, curved or 3D surface. – Applications for ambient or functional illumination with homogenous or sectional light distribution. Electro-optical characteristics – LED of different powers. – White (color temperature between 2700°K to 7000°K), monochrome or RGB LED. – Electronic control/management of diodes by zone, color and intensity. – Remote electronics. – Low voltage feed (5 V, 12 V, 24 V) or mains power supply. – Low electricity consumption (0.3 W, 1 W, 3 W, 3 × 1 W). – Lifespan of 50,000 to 100,000 h. – Simplified maintenance. Example: Brochier Technologies The Brochier Technologies branch of Groupe Brochier Soieries (Lyon, France) works, notably, in haute couture (from 1999, this enterprise created the first

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illuminating fabric for the Olivier Lapidus Collection). Since then, this company has developed luminous fabrics using optical fibers which enable the manufacture of: – Rectangular panels (Lightex®) with homogenous or sectoral lighting surfaces of widths ranging from 10 mm to 1 m, lengths from 50 cm to 3 m and thickness from 0.6 mm to 3 mm, made with: - optical fibers measuring 175 µm, 250 µm, 500 µm, 750 µm, 1000 µm, 1500 µm and 2000 µm in diameter; - and, of course, depending on the fibers used, that can admit bending radii of 4 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 15 mm, 25 mm, 40 mm and 80 mm. – Light beacons up to 3 m long and of max diameter 2, 4 or 6 mm. We will now move onto what will soon be the near future of smart fibers and smart textiles.

7 The Future of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles

For many years, the health problems of an aging population have been interpreted in different ways and in the context of the different activity sectors in which smart textiles will have a leading role.

Figure 7.1. Technological future of smart apparel

The Wellbeing complex → Silver economy → Fitness → Health → Sport → PPE → Medical = second skin = very smart fibers! Why do we have a concept with so many extensions? Well here is the key to this enigma to help summarize and solve the beginning of a long history, which will

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continue into the near future of smart apparel, and which requires several explanations. The following sections will elucidate how this concatenation of things leads to the chronological and technological future of smart textiles and smart apparel (see Figure 7.1). Let us therefore break down this chain of reasoning. 7.1. Wellbeing For many long years, the textile industry has researched and managed to produce soft, pleasant and warm clothes for the wellbeing and comfort of the consumer, who has not often asked for more. Since that distant time, those consumers have aged, technology has advanced, and their demands have evolved! 7.1.1. Silver economy We will quickly give a few numbers to outline the problem. According to AgeEconomie.com, in 2015 there were approximately 900 million people in the world over the age of 60, which is equivalent to a 48% increase compared to the estimated 610 million elderly people in 2000. Between now and 2050, the world’s population of elderly people should be more than double that in 2015, reaching approximately 2.1 billion people, of which 434 million will be over the age of 80. This clearly shows that the population is getting older and that there is a third age economy, the infamous “Silver Economy”. Some people have put the current requests and wishes of this class of persons into a few simple formulas and words, as “needs and expectations” which can be translated to: – connected well-being: this means informing, accompanying and sharing; – well-being at home and surrounded by relatives can be translated as following, facilitating and reassuring; – aging well and reliance are translated into monitoring, warning, autonomy, looking after themselves, relaxation and leisure, and so on. NOTE.– When speaking on these subjects, the term Hedonism is often used, following a Greek philosophical doctrine according to which the search for pleasure and the avoidance of displeasure constitute the main objective of human existence. In parallel, the main illnesses affecting seniors, summarized in Table 7.1, must be taken into account.

The Future of Smart Fibers and Smart Textiles

Disorder or disease

Expectations and sequelae to treat

Undernutrition

Troubles with hydration – muscle wasting

155

Diabetes Falls

Osteoporosis – collarbone and femur fractures

Cardiovascular disease

Addiction to tobacco and alcohol, osteoarthritis rheumatoid arthritis

Breast cancer

Physical activity

Sleeping trouble and others

Urinary incontinence and urinary urgency. Eye pathologies, loss of hearing, presbycusis, depression

Alzheimer’s disease

Loss of orientation in time and space

Parkinson’s disease

Flu, medicine-related illness Table 7.1. Main illnesses of elderly people

The set of “needs and expectations” and “disorders or diseases” gives an idea of certain scenarios for the design of smart apparel in response to these problems, going as far as a “smart diapers” (Petit Bateau) for (children and) incontinent elderly people. 7.1.2. Fitness How can one stay or get back in shape (fitness) and monitor a few simple physical parameters related to one’s health, weight, stress, heart rate, etc.? Move up a notch and then there are many parameters to monitor, and the main activities are either focused on leisure training or on higher level athletic training with detailed performance measurements and actions, which are increasingly in line with the body. Here, we will also show some numbers. 7.1.2.1. In France In France (according to Cabinet Deloitte), fitness represents a market with 5.46 million subscribers, 4,000 clubs and a turnover of 2.5 billion euros. 7.1.2.2. In Europe At the European scale, estimates show that 56.4 million Europeans are members (increase of 4.4% between 2015 and 2016) in one of 54,710 clubs. In 2016, the turnover of fitness clubs in Europe rose to 26.3 billion euros, an increase of 3.1% compared to 2015, and the top 30 European fitness chains represent 12.7 million members, or 22.5% of all members in Europe.

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7.1.3. Sport In the field of sport, many textiles now interact with the athlete by integrating sensors whose aim is to replace connected “accessory” Wearables such as cardio frequency meter belts, GPS watches, pedometers or monitoring bracelets. All these connected “accessory” Wearables intended for this market are hindered by prohibitive costs compared to their “classic” version, with, in addition, weak battery life and personal data security that is not always established. In this field, a very lively competition has been instilled in the racing section (running, big city marathons, etc.). The release of an intrinsically smart fiber would bring solutions to the points mentioned above, notably a better autonomy and battery life by generating its own energy, using less energy greedy sensors, and an increased monitoring of many physiological parameters of the human body. 7.1.4. PPE – personal protective equipment Here again, we will begin with a few numbers concerning the market and its clients. 7.1.4.1. In Europe There are more than 10,000 “Seveso” sites to which we must add dozens of thousands of other risk sites such as sensitive industrial sites, military sites, hospitals, large departments, etc. 7.1.4.2. In France Many sites are included in the law on military programming (the loi de programmation militaire, LPM) framework. Big lines of questioning have been identified and it is necessary to answer the following questions in the context of software security as well as physical security: – Where are the immaterial goods such as strategic data stored? – Who processes them and for how long? – Which business processes are involved? – Where are the material goods that require protection stored, the dangerous materials and so on? In the Seveso framework, service offers must be developed in the context of sensitive sites for the protection and circulation of people on the sites (see Figure 7.2).

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Figure 7.2. Services to develop for the protection and circulation of persons

As this figure shows, in this framework, many smart textile, smart fabric, and smart apparel opportunities will appear in the market for both professionals and the general public. Personnel are or will be equipped with nomadic objects and smart apparel (watches, GPS position sensors, pressure sensors, etc.) to detect falls, find and control access in dangerous areas, and prevent critical situations. Smart fibers and smart fabrics will be increasingly connected to the body to capture as many of the person’s parameters as possible in order to prevent and anticipate instances of accidents, in dangerous activities such as theatres of military operations for civil protection, and even exposure measures in arduous situations. 7.1.5. Medical To finish, as we have already mentioned several times, in this domain we are as close as can be to the body, with the most viable measures possible, which means that smart fibers, smart textiles and smart apparel become a “second skin” integrating all its sensors and allowing the direct interaction with the patient and their caregiver or relatives. 7.1.5.1. The second skin Effectively, these smart textiles could be considered as a real second skin in which embedded technologies allow the amplification of the cognitive characteristics of our senses. The calculation and manipulation of data could create

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visual or tactile experiences transmitted over a long distance to the wearer of the smart apparel, and the market will need to generate smart fibers and smart textiles capable of carrying out several functions at the same time. There will then be a plethora of new services to develop. A market estimate (Table 7.2) shows that one part of the accessible market is estimated at 150 million patients and represents a turnover of 30 billion euros on the horizon of 2030. Applications

Number of patients (Mu)

Neurology (epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases)

90

Cardiology

150

Pneumology

180

Sleep disorders

190

Maternity/pregnancy

15

Distance monitoring TOTAL

700

Table 7.2. Summary number of patients per application type. Source: BioSerenity

Added value for the person with a second skin One objective is to be able to constantly monitor the patient in order to detect abnormal behavior. Figure 7.3 shows the added value cycle of the person connected with a second skin.

Figure 7.3. Added value cycle of the patient connected with a second skin

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The concept of a “second skin” This smart textile, smart apparel or “second skin” will feature a great many sensors, 30–60 discrete sensors distributed over the body in soft, washable fabrics with an adapted electrical connector, etc., and with all the qualities required of both apparel and sensors. In short, something which is far from simple! This raises the question of how to reduce the size of the sensors and systems (electronic or not) that process the measurements to produce valid, refined, and pertinent data, which, if we go as far back as possible in the chain, results in the fact that it is at the textile fiber level itself and its technology that this should be integrated! Second skin = everything happens at the highest level in the fiber … again, in short, something that is not at all simple with all the required features! This means that the fibers and then the threads behave like passive electronic elements, resistors, capacitors and coils (self-inducting) to which, initially, active electronic components (microprocessor) must be added in a current format, and then, technology allowing and aiding, directly inserted within the fiber. Today, already, fibers can be woven to show simple information or colors. Equally, at the fiber level, using a coating of tiny magnetic particles, it is possible to store binary information in them, just like chip cards with magnetic strips and the hard drives in our computers, while providing very large storage surface and redundancy. The surface of the fabric then becomes a new playing field that can capture smells, feelings and sound, recovers energy and stores information, and this second skin will be able to communicate with the Cloud. The real challenges in developing a second skin For the next few decades, it will be a case of developing a veritable family of fibers and sensors as outlined here below, including sensors of temperature, pressure, 3D position, energy recovery, motion, humidity, etc. It will also be necessary to know how to connect these smart fibers together to carry out electronic functions specific to a family of individuals or projects. These threads will also need to be woven to adapt these technologies perfectly to the physiognomy of a person, and coupling the smart textiles with connected objects is the logic that will need to be grasped first and foremost! In contrast, in order to build solutions that are rapidly marketable, it will be necessary to share the provision of free access to software dedicated to these new businesses. Many developers can then use these basic software building blocks to create new solutions and make simple and ergonomic applications.

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Another point which will need to be established and resolved will be, on the one hand, the issue of washing (for example, the RETEX project, a regional Euro partnership financed within the Interreg France-Wallonie-Vlaanderen framework), and on the other hand, the recycling of smart textiles and, ultimately the respect of personal data processing within the context of GDPR regulations, which should be carried out in full regulatory legality and conformity (see Chapter 4). To this day, production costs, modeled turnover and return are in their infancy and few companies are truly competent on this subject, but the potential is great and many research projects are underway. A radiant future is therefore on our horizon if we manage to solve the technological barriers. 7.2. Smart fibers In this day and age, it is imperative to develop smart fibers and smart textiles, which are defined as products in which the fibers and/or filaments, woven or knitted, can interact with the environment and the user. On the basis of two medical application examples that we will present in Chapters 8 and 9, the stakes are as follows: – sleep apnea: - 700,000 people sleep with the assistance of a machine; - 450,000 people are examined in France, and they represent a cost of 79 million euros for the French health system; - global market of 2 billion euros. – trouble sleeping: - 150,000 examined in France; - cost of 35 million euros for the French health system; - global market of 1 billion euros. For these two examples, we could easily calculate the unit cost of the measurements carried out and the interest of a double-skin-type solution in the form of pajamas etc. To this end, the convergence of conductor fibers and textiles with electronics could be useful for the development of “multifunctional” materials that are able to simultaneously accomplish a wide variety of functions, and provide a solution for the connection between textile and the electronics to be integrated.

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In addition to the function of conducting electricity, these materials must respond to the need for relief and resistance to stress conditions (temperatures, constraints, deformation, external pollution, etc.). Although the multifunction nature of such materials is in full development, their technological and economic realization remains as a real applicative challenge. In the field of sport, many textiles now interact with the athlete by integrating sensors whose aim is to replace simple connected objects such as cardio frequency meter belts, GPS watches, pedometers, or monitoring bracelets. 7.2.1. Integration of high-tech in the textile substrate The need for high-tech textile materials is growing because they answer to changes in our social environment. This last decade has highlighted the benefits of nanomaterials that offer new functions. The search for high performing textile fibers motivates partnerships between enterprises with a high technological potential and fiber experts, leading to the emergence of new technologies in the fields of nanotechnology, biotechnology and organic electronics. 7.2.1.1. Nanotechnologies Materials made at the nanometric scale improve certain crucial functions (conductivity, antibacterial action, fire resistance), with a decrease in the size of components, an increase in the surface area and operational interfaces, and a reinforcing of the interactions between materials. Nano-fibers open the way for new applications. Their low density, large surface areas and large porous volumes confer incontestable advantages compared to other fibers used for non-woven solutions, especially in filtration. Today, there are still many obstacles to the production of nano-fibers because the manufacturing process is very expensive and the ecological effects remain to be evaluated. 7.2.1.2. Biotechnologies Biotechnologies also integrate textiles, and this cooperation is the source of innovative projects. In biomedicine, textiles lend themselves to tissue engineering, the repair of wounds and implants. Biologists and engineers work on the development of absorbent 3D fibrous biomaterials that are adaptable to the patient’s physiology. Traditional textile techniques such as knitting, weaving and braiding are used with PEEK fibers (polyether ether ketone). PEEK fibers are an alternative to titanium used in implants since the latter is incompatible with human tissue. Moreover, textile engineers can choose the flexibility/suppleness of the fabric based

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on the desired therapeutic objective. Each geometric structure of biotechnological fibers confers mechanical and physical properties, thus allowing for more porous materials to be obtained, or presenting, on the contrary, a barrier effect. Polymers, metals, and filaments of biological material can constitute a composite textile structure corresponding exactly with the desired characteristics and conforming to biological processes. 7.2.1.3. Organic electronics For dozens of years, discussion has been ongoing on an unseen industrial techno-economic semiconductor – organic electronics. Organic electronics could be a technological revolution for the production of more ecological and cheaper semiconductors, equipped with more properties, notably for energy recovery, display (which has begun in televisions and flexible computer screens) and lighting. Supple and flexible circuits that can be inserted into clothes, and organic photovoltaic panels (OPV) or can be designed for display or lighting solutions organic electroluminescent diodes (OLED) perhaps even components of organic thin film transistors (OTFT). On principle, one of the advantages of semiconductor polymers is their ability to be used and shaped through printing techniques on flexible substrates of large dimensions through an electronic printing process. With the same manufacturing yield, investments and costs are also lower than in a classic silicon wafer production factory, despite the introduction of engraving down to 17 nm pushing the boundaries once more! Organic electronics should represent a significant sector of activities pushed by the need to save energy and the will to reduce the use of rare metals in electronics. New applications should appear in sectors such as health and clothing, but the ecological aspect must first be studied closely. 7.2.1.4. In conclusion All these new textile materials and possibilities will contribute to the challenge of dematerialization, an ideal in our consumer society, and will eventually lead the textile world towards new sensitive communication methods as an extension of laptop computers. The constant progress in the miniaturization of electronic components will allow these elements to be incorporated into textiles, and to design devices that we can carry on us, added to us. We have already seen the concept of “Wearables/computer clothes” emerge, in direct link with all our senses. The next generation of smart textiles will include an autonomous energy generation system, derived from solar rays, movement and even temperature fluctuations. They will feel our presence, control our health and adapt to our personal needs.

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After waxing lyrical (but not too inaccurately!), know that for several years, many scientists and manufacturers have been on board, and keenly focusing on these themes in their work! 7.2.2. Examples of a few R&D projects Among all global, European and French projects concerning smart fibers, we have selected two French projects (ANR, FUI, etc.) and two American projects that have recently been launched in the fields of graphene-coated threads, nano-fibers, automobile textiles and energy recovery threads. 7.2.2.1. Example 1: Graphene-coated thread In 2015, an international team of researchers, in partnership with teams from the University of Exeter (UK), INESC Microsistemas e Nanotecnologias (Portugal), University of Lisbon and the Belgian Textile Research Center (Centre Belge de Recherche Textile), began to develop a new technique for introducing graphene electronic elements (a carbon derivative creating carbon nanotubes, flexible and transparent materials) into textiles. Textiles are usually too fragile to withstand nano-fabrication processes that notably involve high temperatures. In addition, the fibrous nature of textiles makes adherence to other materials difficult. Up until now, the techniques used involved thick layers of material to the detriment of fabric suppleness and transparency. FILOGRAPH II project The aim of the French project known as FILOGRAPH II (duration of 42 months from the end of 2017) is to develop a smart textile from natural and/or bio-sourced threads transformed into conductor threads through a process whereby textile threads are coated in monolayers in graphene-based suspensions with a controlled growth suspended in an aqueous solution, and then transferred onto the fibers. This process has shown great electron conductivity and mobility potential. The process is carried out at room temperature and with surface treatment based on ultraviolet-ozone irradiation, which strongly increases adhesion to fibers. Owing to the transparency and suppleness of graphene, the color, feel and malleability of fabrics remain intact and their conduction properties allow batteries to be foregone while maintaining lightness, suppleness and flexibility. This allows manufacturers to incorporate digital devices into the clothing itself, such as phones, MP3 players, GPS or even tools for medical monitoring. These graphene

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threads will serve to manufacture textiles that can feed themselves through body movements during exercise, and will allow improved heat evacuation for the user – incidentally, in the first instance, products for the running sector are planned, with further expansions in following years. This project has strong economic and social stakes. The participants in these projects are the French companies Moulinage du Solier, Salomon SAS, Graphène production, Textiles de la Dunière (France), Science et Surface, and the Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères and Institut des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, both at Claude Bernard University Lyon 1. Laboratoire ISPB – Lyon (Rhône). 7.2.2.2. Example 2: nano-fibers Researchers at MIT in the USA have developed a simple and low-cost process for the production of polyethylene nano-fibers which show strong rigidity, tenacity and resistance (even though it is difficult to find materials whose performance in one of these qualities does not weaken that of the others since, for example, too much rigidity often alters the tenacity and leads to fractures in the material). The process used relies on a gel electrospinning method, very similar to gel spinning, which is routinely used. It is done in a single step and uses electrical forces instead of mechanical forces to create the fibers. The polymer gel is extruded via a syringe heated in a chamber, where an electric field is applied. This allows fibers of several hundred nanometers to be produced, rather than fibers of approximately 15 micrometers. The researchers have tested multiple gel compositions (different solvents and concentrations) and examined the different fibers thus created. It would seem that the thinner the fibers, the better the performance. To this day, this correlation appears to be attributed to a significant degree of crystallinity, to the orientation of crystallites (isolated monocrystals) combined with polymer chains presenting few defects and able to easily slide between them. In this case, in comparison with classically used carbon fibers or ceramic fibers, these new fibers are equally strong, but more resistant to fracturing and surpass that seen in materials such as Kevlar or Dyneema used in bulletproof vests. Moreover, this process has the advantage of being easily transposable to the industrial scale and thus opens up rosy prospects. These fibers could become the material of choice for nanocomposites or protective coating, and are of great interest in the creation of new composite materials. 7.2.2.3. Example 3: for automobiles The example presented below concerns the world of textiles in automobile applications, which have been hit in full force by the major economic change linked

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to the intrusion of connectivity: cars now have to be considered as huge “secure connected objects” whose connectivity significantly changes the way in which they are used. Textiles – fabrics for “automobile” applications Before, vehicles were differentiated by the car body and the mechanics within. Electronics were minimally present. Today, many of these paradigms have totally shifted and it is now the operating system and electronics of a vehicle that differentiate them. The latter allow the increased automation of functions, whether, for example, to improve security or to simplify use through guiding or parking systems. Everyone knows that the next stage, which has been planned for a long time, is the generalized automation of driving, which is currently limited to assisted parking functions, and even automated driving on highways, but which will, in a few years, move industrially to a superior stage through totally autonomous vehicles for all terrain types, including cities and countryside (the famous “Level 5” of autonomous vehicle technology!) (see Paret (2018)). In this industry, automobile manufacturers risk being relegated to simple subcontracted roles specializing in folding metal sheeting or plastic material, with more value given to those who have connectivity and/or access to the Cloud, and are able to manage and provide the necessary information for piloting automobiles (Google and Tesla are examples among many). Most manufacturers began their evolution by systematically interconnecting many ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems) functions to their vehicles. LITEVA Project – Interior Lighting Textiles for Autonomous Vehicles In a context of new HMI (human–machine interface) functions in automobiles, it is necessary to develop adapted alarms in order to ensure the security of the autonomous vehicle passengers. They must – attract the driver’s attention; – identify the nature of the danger; – identify the level of urgency of the situation; – guide the driver on the action to carry out. With this aim, the placement of alarms is crucial; integrating the alarm in the supple material (seats, dashboard, etc.) appears to be the most adapted places to answer to these constraints. A change in color and/or a vibrant light signal makes

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the most sense with regard to this problem, which must be completed with other modalities of sensory interactions such as sound or haptic actions. To this day, there are only a few technical solutions on the market that respond to the extent of this active security issue in vehicles. The objective of the LITEVA project (duration of 36 months from end of 2017) is to respond to this need by developing new fibers for multifunctional textiles, which can be integrated in the passenger compartment of an automobile (seats, dashboard, steering wheel, etc.) (see Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4. Fibers for multifunction textiles which are integrated in the passenger compartment of an automobile (Brochier Technologies). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

This project follows four specific themes: – display a vibrant light signal; – ensure an alarm that is visible under all circumstances; – allow the display of complex messages; – respond to the automobile’s specifications. It is therefore necessary to develop new, innovative multifunctional fibers and textiles for the automobile sector, which broadcast adapted alarms in the passenger compartment of a vehicle (seats, dashboard, steering wheel, etc.) to ensure the security of passengers in autonomous vehicles.

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This project is co-labeled by Techtera and Moveo hubs, and the participants in these projects are LUTB, EFI Lighting, PSA, Brochier Technologies, Elkem silicones, Moulinage du Solier, IPC, Treves TSC Intertex, MDB Texinov and Ensait. 7.2.2.4. Example 4: energy recovery threads Scientists at the Georgia Institute of Technology, USA, have created energy recovery threads (known as triboelectric nanogenerators), mainly composed of regular textile materials such as polyester, cotton and wool, capable of recovering energy produced by motion to charge/recharge portable devices such as portable medical sensors, “smart watches” or mobile phones, and can be woven into colored and washable textiles (see Figure 7.5). These fibers/fabrics can be sewn into socks, sweaters or other clothes.

Figure 7.5. Energy recovery threads

As we will see in detail in Chapter 9, it is possible to use three forms of energy available to us when using a smart fabric: motion (tribological effect), heat (from the body) and exposure to solar rays. It is also possible to use the piezoelectric effect to produce electricity and then combine it with mini photovoltaic cells. 7.2.2.5. Example 5: IFTH studies The many laboratories of the Institut Français du Textile et de l’Habillement – IFTH (French Textile and Clothing Institute) – are very active in the field of research and technological innovation, and we could cite many projects under way in partnership with big groups, SMEs and start-ups. Moreover, in conclusion to this chapter, we present a very condensed summary that gives a panorama of existing technologies and highlighting the multitude of unlimited and accessible functions for making textiles active and reactive by mixing conventional and innovative procedures!

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“Pro” functions

“Anti-” functions

Heating

Bacterial/fungal

Illuminating

Mites/insects

Diagnostic

UV radiation

Multimedia and textiles

Odors

New visual effects

Fire

Shape change

Stains

Self-cleaning, self-repairing

Dirt

Cosmetic textiles

Dust

Thermo-regulating

Static

Comfort Conductors Table 7.3. Panorama of existing technologies (IFTH – E. Govart)

Here ends this chapter dedicated to fibers and their future. We will now move onto a description of some examples of smart apparel.

8 Examples of Smart Apparel

There are numerous Wearables that can be classed under the “smart apparel” section – nearly enough to fill an encyclopedia! In the spirit of this book, we have chosen to restrict this universe and only present a few examples that are characteristic of “more electronized” smart apparel throughout this chapter, which we have divided into three categories: – simple connected smart apparel, - for example, denim jacket simply linked via Bluetooth to an application on a mobile phone; – connected smart apparel linked to the Internet, - for example, PPE-type clothing linked via Bluetooth to a mobile phone application, which relays the information collected via GSM onto the Internet site belonging to its employer; – connected smart apparel linked to the Cloud with intermediaries, (real clothing that communicates in the Internet of Things – IoT – technologies), - for example, medical device-type clothing linked via Bluetooth to a mobile phone application, which relays the information itself via GSM to a generic cloud allowing the distribution of certain data through intermediaries to different end users (for example, doctors, care assistants, families, etc.). Examples of applications: we will now take a few examples market by market and start with the applications concerning Fashion, Luxury Style and Street Style.

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8.1. Fashion These last few years, the trend on fashion catwalks has been to present many dresses embellished with numerous light effects made from mini LED networks or even optical fibers. These solutions, not connected, and “prototypes” that are usually applied onto the fabric (with LED diodes sewn in and separate electronics) have the main ambition of creating a “Fashion Tech” event, because such solutions are not really marketable. Figure 8.1 presents examples of these collections which have been extracted from the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FxvBVvBWh4I.

Figure 8.1. Examples of luminous Fashion clothes. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Figure 8.2 shows how LED are incorporated into the structure of the fabric and gives an idea of the simple electronics for their control (see Chapter 9).

Figure 8.2. Examples of LED assembly and their electronics in the clothing. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Figure 8.3 presents the pathway of the electrical connection thread, which serves as a connection to the LED.

Figure 8.3. Example of conductor thread pathway with LED in the clothing

8.1.1. Luxury style More than two centuries after the invention of the weaving loom by the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard in Lyon, the cradle of the textile industry, some people now dream that this digital revolution will lead to a new creative and technical upheaval in Fashion and ready-made clothing. Here are several examples! 8.1.1.1. Example 1: Lacoste Lacoste polos and their emblematic logo – the little crocodile – are so often imitated or copied in all the counterfeit ways possible. Today, it is possible to directly weave this logo using threads that integrate a self-fed RFID-type chip, equipped with an RF connectivity element, which ensures an excellent traceability of products. 8.1.1.2. Example 2: Lise Charmel – Aubade From 1999, all manufacturers of high-end and luxury feminine undergarments (for example, those from the companies LOU, Aubade or Lise Charmel) highlighted the problem concerning the high ratio of price to weight in their products. In short, they are not voluminous, do not take up much space, are easy to take off, and are not too difficult to copy – thus, they are subject to counterfeit! Therefore, they need to be secured (against theft), but include instructions (for washing), not to mention that the tag must: be invisible (so, very small), not lead to any trouble with perspiration, be washable, be ironable, be impossible to rip off the undergarment (therefore woven in directly), not scratch nor itch (and therefore be on a very, very soft support), not make any noise when folded, etc. and, primarily, communicate with an

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(RF, RFID) interrogator. In effect, these are just more problems that are not easy to resolve, but which have been tackled for a long time. Fortunately, sometimes feminine lingerie underwear has the goodness to help itself in solving electronic technological problems. In the same way as the glasses’ arms mentioned in Chapter 5, the metallic frame and ribs of bra cups sometimes serve as electromagnetic (in UHF) antennas in order to ensure a link between the connected Wearable and the gateway. 8.1.2. Street style and for the young We will start with Street Style, ready-to-wear clothing, and take two characteristic examples of the smart apparel of the coming years. 8.1.2.1. Example 1: Levi’s and Google Since 2015, predicting that connected textiles might be the new era and one of the new technological revolutions, Google ATAP (Advanced Technology And Projects) announced the realization of a connected textile, which only saw the light of day two years later in late September 2017, when Google and Levi’s put their first joint achievement on sale: a denim jacket with connected sleeves, baptized, as a homage, “Jacquard” (see Figure 8.4).

Figure 8.4. Connected smart jacket (Google and Levi's doc). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

The project’s approach In 2015, ATAP presented fabrics which, with the direct integration of sensors in the woven surfaces of the jacket, helped to understand the movements of the wearer and were able to add new functions to a mobile phone. Through this process, ATAP dreamt of a more natural and fluid interaction with one’s mobile phone. Since then, the objective pursued by the creators and designers of Levi’s and Google has been to make the fabric of the clothing tactile like the screen of a mobile phone, resistant to a washing machine drum and able to dry in a tumble dryer without ruining the

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electronic circuits, and especially to “make an item of clothing and not a highly technical gadget”. Owing to this, rather than adventuring into implanting still experimental functions, for its first item of clothing, Google ATAP settled with equipping the jacket with a simple permanent connection to a mobile phone, and with an interactive button. Connected sleeves Let us get back to the essence of this smart apparel. In fact, to be precise, it is not the whole fabric of this jacket that is connected. The technology of the Jacquard jacket is solely concentrated in its sleeves. During the manufacture of clothing (in cotton, silk, polyester, etc.), the basic idea consists of adding electronic components into the sleeves, so that they feature an interactive surface that reacts to touch and slide, just like an ordinary tactile screen. Thus, movements and gestures carried out on the surface of the sleeve can be detected, interpreted, and transmitted to a nearby terminal (in the present case, a mobile phone compatible with iOS and Android, for example). In Figure 8.5, we see that the conductor threads used in the Jacquard project are woven to form a matrix/grid, which facilitates the comprehension of the user’s movements on the fabric.

Figure 8.5. Matrix of the connected sleeve (Google and Levi's doc)

In contrast, the bigger elements, such as transmitters for communicating with a mobile phone, are placed in more discrete places: in the lining of the jacket for example, or under/in a large button. The functionality of this system would, for example, make it easier to pick up – or not – a phone call, to open an application such as an assistant, or to change a song and music while cycling, at the wheel of the car or walking in the woods. Similarly, instead of hanging up at the end of a call, you just slip your hand into your pocket, while the simple act of tapping twice on your stomach launches Yelp, etc.

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In partnership with the legendary Connected CommuterTM Trucker Denim jacket, Levi’s and ATAP designed an object that we could imagine to be easily adopting, representing huge progress for Fashion Tech. Levi’s delivered a medium/high-range product, ready to wear, whose functions are simple, precise and obvious. The two companies put the spotlight on athletic and urban uses, such as travel by bike, and do not hide their desire to be players in the field of “extra little things that change life”. In 2018, this product was marketed in the USA at around $ 350 (a Commuter Denim costs a little less than $ 150 without the magic Google button). The rest It remains to be seen where the Jacquard project will go as a project which, incidentally, is not limited to clothing alone. Leatherwork products could also become connected (see the Vuitton example in Chapter 5). Was this simply a technical demonstration or does Google want to set foot in the textile industry (after all, isn’t the American enterprise already inviting itself into the automobile sector with its autonomous cars?)? Google is far from being the only company to work on smart apparel. Ford and Lumo have done as much on the same subject of jackets. Other high-tech groups such as the big brands of the textile industry (Décathlon, Ralph Lauren, etc.) are on the verge and since early 2014, universities such as MIT have, for example, developed a connected jacket which makes the reader physically feel the atmosphere of a novel and the emotions of protagonists. 8.1.2.2. Example 2: Parrot The second example of Street Style clothing, is that of Parrot. A little technology Parrot’s patent summarily describes the proposed solution which “… includes a hollow formed in a visible part (of the clothing) able to receive a module with a removable electronic display that fixes onto the clothing using thin and supple magnetic bands in a provided hollow on the front of the clothing and which is connected by a supple layer to an electronic module”. To make the clothing smart, an electronic element is therefore linked, and it includes two distinct parts, of which one part is a flat module featuring, on the inside, a support on which a flexible printed circuit is found, to support electronic components, and the other part is a display. – The flexible printed circuit supports various components, which allow the realization of all the electronic functions of the module such as: - microcontroller; - flash memory;

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- display controller; - MEMS-type motion sensor; - low-energy BLE-type Bluetooth radio circuit; - the batteries that allow the module to be autonomous, etc. – The display placed on the front part of the module is, in turn, composed of an “e-paper”-type flexible screen (see Chapter 9), which makes it thin (approximately 0.8 mm), very pliable (so the screen can be deformed without risk of damage) and with little consumption, and allows the maintenance of a fixed image which does not require any energy provision. The control board is linked to the display through a pliable connector and the flexible support can also hold an RF antenna such as a Bluetooth antenna. Once these different elements are gathered, we have a thin electronic module (less than 3 mm), weighing approximately 50 g, typically with the dimensions 125 × 160 mm, supporting a rectangular display, which is 7 inches (178 mm) diagonally. In addition, this module is pliable enough not to hinder the user’s movements when it is mounted on the clothing. 8.1.3. For haute couture In the following sections, we will not use examples of dresses, outfits, etc., of smart apparel (often experimental, like concept cars in the automobile industry) presented during famous designer catwalks and often made especially, just a few units, during fashion weeks, but exceptionally in this book we will look at tools that are very much linked to the textile and designer and haute couture clothing environment. 8.1.3.1. Example 1: Euveka’s robot mannequin The French company Euveka designed a progressive connected mannequin/robot (see Figure 8.6) able to customize itself, in less than one minute, to the exact size of a person or a target group of individuals. It can reach a level of mimicry that covers 80% of Caucasian, Asian and Mediterranean women’s morphologies. It therefore allows the fine-tuning of clothes to an exact size in record time, to economize on materials, to improve “bien aller” and to help produce better and more smartly. Its applications apply not only to haute couture workshops, luxury style and the general market, but also to the universe of sports and medicine, and even to general management in the military!

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Figure 8.6. Robot mannequin for the development of clothes (Euveka)

8.1.3.2. Example 2: the Système expert mensuration – SEM (expert measurement system) Another example, in the same vein, is that of the “SEM” – Système expert mensuration (expert measurement system) – designed by a group of manufacturers/distributors and professional textile organisms: IFTH, DEFI, UFIH and CFIVIF Mulliez-Flory. It is a smart software designed to determine, from a distance, the ideal clothing size of a person knowing that with professional clothing, the commercial size does not necessarily have the same significance in terms of fit and “bien aller”. With the rapid development of online changing rooms (measurements, order, supply, etc.), the SEM system enables: – the deduction of the commercial size closest to the consumer’s morphology without any physical measurements (the consumer is absent); – the saving of a significant amount of time by considerably reducing the need to take measurements; – the reduction in client returns due to a wrong sizing choice and the associated costs;

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– the reduction of frequent order mistakes that generate returns and expenses for manufacturers and users; – the assurance of accurate measurements calculated at a distance for a large portion of the population; – the identification of atypical profiles which must be processed through alternative measurement-taking systems. Based on ad hoc statistical equations, the system is able to closely predict the measurements of a client using a few simple data entries: gender, stature, weight and age. After body measurements and trying on several professional clothes (PPE clothing, Image clothing, uniforms), it is then time to proceed to “virtual” tests with two options: – the GRAFIS option: a photo-taking module associated with a CAO module; – the NETTELO option: a 3D body scanner on a mobile phone. The different virtual measures, associated with previous numbered data from tests carried over the year, are statistically processed by an automatic calculation software called “Quick Size Calculator”. 8.1.4. For well-being In terms of heated smart apparel, for example, for well-being (socks, leg warmers, shirts, hoodies, etc.), some of them (not connected) automatically adjust their heating capacity based on body temperature and using temperature sensors (see Figure 8.7).

Figure 8.7. Heating shirt (Myant)

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8.1.5. For sport/fitness Soon, smart apparel will not only be accessible to professional athletes, but will become affordable to λ users looking to compete in the gym. We will quickly look at three relatively similar examples, with a few variations. NOTE.– Physical fitness refers to the set of physical activities that allow an individual to improve their physical condition and way of life, with a concern for wellbeing, perhaps a little related to health, but still far from falling under the medical field! 8.1.5.1. Example 1: Wearable Experiments The company Wearable Experiments created leg warmers usable for certain applications during training sessions. “Nadi X yoga” is, for example, a line of active yoga clothes – pants and tights – that listen and respond to wearerʼs body, to guide them during their session. These smart apparel are designed and manufactured with an integrated technology using vibratory feedback. After connecting with the Nadi X mobile application, the pants encourage you to work out using light impulses around the hips, knees and ankles, and will do part of the work for you. This company also proposes a few iterations, although slightly less adapted to the field of performance. For example, a sports shirt that transmits haptic vibrations to allow spectators to feel, in real time, the vibrations based on the current stage of play in their favorite athlete’s competition! 8.1.5.2. Example 2: Hexoskin This Canadian company specializes in “Biometric Shirts” for high level or elite trainings, and had the pleasure of providing biometric clothes to certain NASA cosmonauts for their last few manned flights (see Figure 8.8).

Figure 8.8. Shirt for athletes (Hexoskin). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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On top of the classically required and demanded qualities in clothing (machine washable, with high-performance textile that dries fast, with “breathable” fabric, light, anti-odor, resistant to chlorine and UV rays), but not so straightforward for smart apparel with electronics on board, this item of clothing allows the measurement of different parameters: – Cardiac - heart rate: 30–220 BPM, resolution 1 Hz; - heart rate variability (HRV), which gives an estimation of stress, fatigue and heart recovery; - electrocardiogram (ECG): 1 channel sampled at 256 Hz; - detection of RR intervals: resolution 4 ms; - detection of QRS events: resolution 4 ms; - respiratory rate (RPM); - respiratory volume (L/min): two channels at 128 Hz for thoracic and abdominal respirations; - 50–60 Hz noise detection. – Movement and activity - acceleration (and sleep position): three channels at 64 Hz, range of +/-16 g, resolution of 0.004 g for each axis of the accelerometer; - level of activity: 1 Hz (0.004 g resolution, sensitivity > 0.027g); - step counter: 30–240 SPM, step by step counter; - cadence 1Hz (30–240 SPM); - estimated energy expenditure (kCal). – Connectivity - Bluetooth connection with an iPhone, iPad or Android device; - the Open Data API allows the collected raw data to be uploaded in order to exploit them in a program of your choosing; - data validated by independent bodies.

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8.1.5.3. Example 3: muscular activity – Athos Last slightly similar example among many other solutions, the company ATHOS based itself on electromyography – EMG – a clinical technology that captures the activity of muscles. Effectively, it is possible to record the resulting overall electrical activity using electrodes placed on the surface of the skin (for example, on the muscle groups of the upper body: pectorals, biceps, triceps, deltoids, etc.). After amplification, the records obtained this way in different conditions allow links to be made between the electric phenomena measured and voluntary and involuntary nerve and muscular activity. Integrated sensors placed in the clothes (see Figure 8.9) catch biometric signals in real time, including muscular activity, heart rate, calorie burn and activity time compared to rest time, and sends these data via a Bluetooth connection directly to your mobile phone to collect and display which muscles are active and how they work, and to analyze and measure their performance and the progress made in the gym by identifying muscular activations and evaluating the progression of movements and the monitoring of stress accumulation in muscles throughout training.

. Figure 8.9. Smart apparel for measuring muscle activities (Athos). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

8.1.6. For the medical field To visualize the following long sections, we have taken a few representative examples of this professional branch. Let us therefore begin by highlighting an important point, which is the industrial strategy established in the field of smart and connected clothes with medical uses.

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8.1.6.1. Industrial strategy established Often, big groups with traditional pharmaceutical backgrounds are not equipped to explore this new branch and new technology of connected smart apparel, but have signed many partnerships with other companies to become leaders in connected health. Pragmatically, in order to rapidly have products put on the market and to prepare a diversification of their turnover over five or ten years, they generally/often choose to work together and hand in hand with SMEs and start-ups. Identification of partners Speeding up the decision process with regard to the ordinary tempo and rhythm of a large group, and by anticipating and working ahead of the market, the identification of the right partners consisted of finding potential partners by scouring conferences, business incubators, universities, engineering schools, accelerators and other areas where innovation is thriving, and travelling around the whole world on the lookout for “nugget” start-ups. Next, following more advanced discussions with some of them, there were, of course, selections. This was the case in France, for example, for the companies BioSerenity, specialists in connected medical clothing, Cardio-Renal, Imalink Medical and others. To concretely illustrate the following sections, we have chosen to use an example – without meaning any publicity because many other examples exist in the world – of certain products made by the company BioSerenity, a member of the Systematic competitive cluster, working with the IFTH (Institut français du textile et de l’habillement, French institute of textile and clothing), whose objective is to develop smart and connected clothes in the medical field, designed in collaboration with the Institut du cerveau et de la moelle epinière (brain and spinal cord institute) at the Salpetrière hospital, and in tight relation with hospital doctors. This is a “medical device” and not a “well-being” product, and the patients must therefore be seen by a doctor to acquire it (see Chapter 4). Having decided to work on the “point of care”, which means proposing a system to a patient to be followed daily, even outside of hospital walls, the products are designed around clothes adapted to patients who have pathologies requiring long series of medical measurements. These clothes concern new medical diagnostic methods, particularly mobile devices capable of collecting key data for doctors in the sectors of: – neurology; – sleep disorders; – cardiology; – monitoring of pregnant women;

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– monitoring babies at the time of birth; – certain non-medical products. In addition, the enterprise cooperates with big brands on certain products focusing on enuresis (“bedwetting”, regardless of the person’s age). Figure 8.10 summarizes the overall architecture used for this concrete case proposed, starting at the level of the patient and his/her smart apparel, moving through a gateway (mobile phone, server or other) and finally uploading onto a secure medical cloud in order to be distributed via an intermediary to the final users (doctors, families, patients, etc.).

Figure 8.10. Example of the overarching architecture of Wearables/smart apparel for IoT

WARNING.– All the following Wearables must conform with the European “Medical Devices” regulation, (in France) the Code de la santé publique (French public health code) – CSP – and the terms of regulated management of Data of a Personal Nature (biometric and behavioral), GPDR.

8.1.6.2. Examples of applications Epilepsy Epileptic seizures affect approximately 50 million people in the world and six million in Europe, of which only 50% receive adequate treatment. The problem is often linked to the absence of a diagnosis and the fact that a large majority of them must wait several years to be diagnosed and receive the appropriate treatment. Actually: – this requires hospitalization in a specialized health center with the equipment needed to capture it; – several weeks are required to get a consultation; – once fixed, the sessions are of (too) short duration;

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– the duration of hospitalization can vary between a few dozen minutes to a week; – the chances of recording a seizure are therefore very low; – it is not always enough to record seizures; – to define a good treatment, it is necessary to collect data on cerebral activity during a seizure. Example: the BioSerenity Neuronaute On the heels of that last point, the “smart” epilepsy follow-up and diagnosis solution – the Neuronaute smart apparel – (see Figure 8.11) was designed to help neurologists diagnose epilepsy over the space of a few weeks rather than the several years needed with the current systems, and has the objective of “freeing us from the constraints of time and space”. This big step forward for the follow-up and well-being of patients has, of course, received strong support from patient associations. In the end, to respond to a veritable public health issue, it is hospitals that buy this device in order to then put it forward to patients with epilepsy. This solution is based on the use of an outfit – connected smart apparel – which is composed of a cap/helmet and a T-shirt – in order to obtain a multimodal examination including a collection of cardiac, muscular and respiratory activities (see Figures 8.11 and 8.12).

Figure 8.11. Example of smart medical clothing: the Neuronaute (BioSerenity)

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Figure 8.12. Another version. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Overall, this set is equipped with many active biometric dry sensors and electrodes (see below) enabling the recording of: – ECG (electrocardiogram) at the thoracic level; – EEG (continuous recording of patient electroencephalogram at a distance) at the head level; – EMG (electromyogram sensors recording muscular contractions during an epileptic seizure) at the shoulder and elbow levels; – the patient’s position during a seizure using accelerometers. In addition, it is concretely made up of: – a cap holding 20 integrated electrodes designed to memorize the patient’s cerebral activity for several consecutive days, with: 21 EEG, 2 EOG, 1 EMG, 9 axis accelerometer; – a connected T-shirt aiming to store the data collected on an integrate memory card before then transmitting them via Bluetooth to a certified health host, with: 4 EMG, 1 ECG, 1 to measure the respiration rate, 9 axis accelerometer;

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REMARKS.– The T-shirts and bonnets are fed by a rechargeable battery and washable 30 times; – an associated mobile application linked to the mobile phones of the patientʼs family, their doctor and even the patient themselves; – a software platform located further away in an owned secure medical cloud available 24/7, in which the data shared can be consulted at any time by the doctor managing the patient. As much information as possible is provided to help the doctor’s interpretation, and therefore the diagnosis. This set of clothes allows records to be made from home at any time of day and night, and the collection of data will then be analyzed within the dedicated software since recording seizures is indispensable for confirming the diagnosis (platform of the tele-experts Serenity Medical Services-Neurophy, branch of BioSerenity, validated in 2016 by the ARS, already deployed in 60 hospitals); – the patient, on his/her end, can use the mobile application to launch or stop the system, gather new information or visualize the history.

Figure 8.13. The Neuronaute, a smart and connected T-shirt (BioSerenity). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Example: Innothéra The scientific and technical industrial partnership between the previously mentioned company BioSerenity and Innothéra (fifth independent French pharmaceutical laboratory) has notably enabled the development of connected medical devices that rely on the research and innovation capacity of the former, and the know-how of the latter in terms of the development, manufacture and marketing of medical textiles, as well as the elastic venous compression (EVC) technique in which they are experts. This complementarity enables the design and development of new connected textile devices in the fields of angiology and obstetric gynecology to improve the screening, prevention and follow-up of different pathologies in these fields. These two companies also partner up for the industrialization of innovative connected textile devices in cardiology, neurology and sleep disorders. Sleep disorders Troubles with sleep affect nearly 20% of the population. The most common issues are sleep apnea, insomnia, daytime sleepiness, restless leg syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). These issues become more frequent with age. After 65, sleeping issues affect 50% of the population. The prevalence is higher in industrialized countries. An estimated 50–70 million American adults have sleeping or waking issues. Major consequences In road accidents, one out of every three deaths is linked to falling asleep at the wheel. These sleeping issues have a significant impact on everyday and professional life (difficulties in learning for children, trouble paying attention and memorizing, sleepiness, etc.) and are also increasingly observed as precursor signs of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. A PolySomnoGraphic (PSG) taping helps to make a diagnosis and personalize case management. Today, a specialized medical structure and hospitalization are necessary, where the available places are few and the costs are high. Example: Somnonaute The Somnonaute is a medical device intended for recording a PolySomnoGraph in the context of sleep medicine. In order to carry out a complete examination, the clothing requires a cap, a T-shirt and pants.

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Figure 8.14. Example of smart medical clothing: the Somnonaute

The measurements required for recording are the electroencephalogram, electrocardiogram, electromyograms, oxygen saturation, motion, body position and respiration. Cardiology Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the world. More people die each year from cardiovascular diseases than from anything else. Among the most widespread causes: – atrial fibrillation is an irregular heart rate (arrhythmia) that can lead to blood clots, strokes, heart failure or other cardiac complications. Millions of people live with atrial fibrillation in the world; – ischemia is a state in which the blood flow is limited or reduced in part of the body. Heart ischemia is the term used for a decrease in blood flow to the heart muscle. Many people have ischemic episodes without knowing it. These patients could have a heart attack without prior warning. The need for clinical studies is increasing and it constitutes a significant cost, potentially several dozens of millions of euros. Ambulatory systems and data analysis could be good solutions, and they reduce the overall costs of studies while decreasing the time to commercialization. An ECG (electrocardiogram) device is the standard practice for the diagnosis of these problems, although many devices cannot carry out long recordings and/or only record limited and insufficient numbers for the diagnosis of ischemia. European and American recommendations advocate for longer recordings but with cost, comfort and technical limitation issues, and these longer recordings are often lacking. Once again, the main advantages of using connected smart apparel-type solutions to follow trials are: – continuous and highly precise collection of patient data (the patient can wear the physiological data and side-effects monitoring system);

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– distance monitoring of patients (the applications can be personalized for gathering patient data); – real-time study dashboard (a cloud solution enables the monitoring and storage of data and the easy visualization of trends); – data analysis (using a search engine, it is easy to facilitate the automatic identification of links, even in unstructured data entries); – patient selection (helps to identify sub-groups); – personalized companion diagnostic and treatment (helps to create a companion diagnostic to accompany treatment for a faster access to the market); – translational medicine (proposal of laboratory tools by the patient’s bed, with constant data feed and in a looping manner). Example: the Cardioskin The partnership between Laboratoires Servier, the European number two in the cardiovascular domain, and BioSerenity, who previously concentrated their efforts in neurology, resulted in the development and launch of the Cardioskin, a connected T-shirt, washable up to 35 times, identically reproducing the technical performance of an electrocardiogram and enabling the continuous monitoring and measurement of electric cardiac activity over several weeks, thanks to a dozen sensors. This will be marketed by Servier with the accreditation of authorities (CE stamp).

Figure 8.15. Example of smart medical clothing: the Cardioskin. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

To finish these sections, Figure 8.16 presents, in a picture format, the normal chain of events that a patient must undergo during the treatment of his/her illness and during which the use of smart apparel in diagnostics, following-up of treatment, monitoring and post-treatment, is important.

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Figure 8.16. Example of the normal chain of events that a patient must undergo for the treatment of illness with the help of smart apparel (documents from BioSerenity)

8.1.7. For the field of “social care” Beyond simple Wearables that simplify data recovery, the changes that will produce the technology for smart apparel will also have significant repercussions and impacts on the economic models that they induce. 8.1.7.1. Introduction This family of “social care” applications includes those for the home assistance of elderly or dependent persons. In theory, this is simple and easy, but the reality is far cry from theory! This system must create communication and a community of users (from the IoE and not just the IoT!) between those supported (dependent persons), the specialized caregiver (nurses, physiotherapists, etc.), the families, the different service providers who move between the homes (grooming, housekeeping, meals, etc.), the marketers, the neighbors and so on; in short, a lot less simple than the theory. It is at this stage that it becomes clear that the starting point, the Wearable/smart apparel itself (mainly its hardware), only represents the small visible tip of the immense iceberg of the system and that its cost, which is quite significant (see details in Chapters 11 and 12), will often be drowned by the mass of other

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parameters. At all times, every single cent must be considered to ensure that the complete solution is not just sellable, but concretely “buyable” and by who! Example: Z#bre The highly concrete example that we have chosen to present to you in the context of social care is linked to the home care of elderly or disabled persons in a French department. In France, both communities and departments are responsible for this subject and spend significant amounts to satisfy needs. Moreover, the highlighted problem must resolve several problems: – improve the quality of life of elderly people and that of their families; – better manage expenses and guarantee the efficacy of regulated delivery (which amounts to approximately 35 million euros per year for 10,000 dependent persons); – ensure that the department remains in close contact with the dependent persons and their families, whereas, generally, it is the home care structures who are in direct contact with citizens, the department often acting solely as financer. The reflection around the design of smart apparel to manage these problems has been to take data, including economic data, into account. This is a key point of the problem laid out because too many projects are not backed with a viable economic model, leading to their blockage at the proof of concept (POC) stage or during initial trials. However, a successful solution is a solution that is deployed and economically profitable, rather than just a technological demonstration with no future. The course of action retained to solve this problem is simplicity and the desire to improve the lives of as many parties involved as possible. For this, the solution must generate economic profit superior to the cost of the solution. To respond to these challenges, the underlying solution used for smart apparel is based at home using a smart, comfortable vest, similar to Google’s denim jacket, able, without contact, to read and write a badge (such as a contactless chip card), equipping all types of home-based caregivers (personnel who help with getting up, meals, housekeeping, nurses, medical aides, etc.) and transmitting this information via a LPWAN network (see Chapters 11 and 12). Following this, it then becomes possible: – across contactless connected smart apparel using NFC (near-field communication through induction coupling) or IBC (intra-body communication through capacitive currents) technology, to understand the medical problems of people at home;

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– to know, in real time, the visits and types of intervention carried out by a caregiver at the home of an elderly person; – to associate and adjust the different payments that are really carried out by caregivers to providers; – to inform families in real time on the progress of services carried out. As such, faced with the challenge of an aging population, a department can improve its interventions and develop supplementary services in order to respond to the desire for the secure home-based care for people who are losing autonomy, as well as responding to the expectations of their families. This desire is notably translated into a direct and prioritized link between departments, the beneficiaries (already ~ 10,000 by the end of 2014) and their families: – via a smart communicating vest, equipped with contactless NFC technology for the link between the user and the caregiver, and installed in the homes of beneficiaries who have the capacity to adapt to new services in the field of security and home-based care; – via a social gateway intended for beneficiaries, their families and home-based care providers, to make information available in real time pertaining to rights and home interventions, and to facilitate contact between the set of actors. The innovation of this project has brought: – the direct linking of the department services concerned with the people supported and those physically present in the homes of the beneficiaries; – the free provision of a smart vest with contactless technology for citizens benefiting from support to elderly persons; – the use of low-throughput LTN NB “Sigfox” communication technology (see details in Chapters 10–12), which has no impact in terms of public health and authorizing a battery-based functioning; – the presentation of a device with a known cost thanks to low-throughput technology (low telecommunication communications costs); – the presentation of a service with a return on investment from the first year with the establishment of control of effectiveness. A summary of the overall architecture of the system is shown in Figure 8.17.

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Figure 8.17. Overall architecture of the system. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Finally, this project: – was deployed in six months for 10,000 beneficiaries; – generated large savings per year for the department; – allowed the families of elderly people to be informed in real time of the state of the person and the interventions carried out; – improved the quality of the service with access to information for home-based care structures. 8.1.8. For industrial/protective PPE clothing The connected PPE (personal protective equipment) project falls under both the prevention plan of organizations aiming to improve safety, as well as under the evolution of professions with an increasingly digital support. The future worker will be “enhanced” (perhaps in terms of salary, but definitely in terms of protection). In this context, manufacturers have worked together to develop a set of connected equipment in order to improve the security of operators and the ergonomics of work in the field, with the objectives of: – presenting progress in the field of instrumented clothing; – presenting the benefits of connected clothing;

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– generating new applications; – making it so that the use of these new services and their associated connectivity conform to regulations and improve the conditions of work, optimize production and increasingly enable a quick return on investment. Let us look at a few examples. 8.1.8.1. Example 1: connected work outfit Following the enhanced helmet seen earlier in this chapter, which protects and enhances the sensory capacities of the wearer, and certain exoskeletons (these are also “accessory” Wearables) that support their endeavors, here is the personal protective equipment (PPE) of the future: geo-localized safety shoes, protective goggles, vests equipped with sensors, glasses with integrated cameras and so on; nothing will be forgotten. This, for example, is how the partners from the Ideas Laboratory in Grenoble, among which are Bouygues Construction, Suez, Air Liquide and the technical research board of the CEA, designed different elements enabling the improvement of work conditions, whether on industrial production sites, construction and public work sites, or even waste management sites. These partners work in collaboration and capitalize their knowledge and expertise in their sectors of industry by leaning on the new technologies, including “cobotics”. NOTE.– The term “cobotics” (or “collaborative robotics”) is a neologism of the words “cooperation” and “robotics”. Cobotics is a technology aiming to produce robots to assist humanity by automating some of their tasks. It is characterized by the real, direct or tele-operated interaction between a human operator and a robotic system. This field of activity is a sort of interface between cognitive engineering and the human factor (behavior, decisions, robustness and control error), biomechanics (behavior modeling and motion dynamics) and robotics (use of artifacts to produce reliable, precise and/or repetitive mechanical behaviors for industrial, military, agricultural, health, conviviality, etc. purposes). Intended for operators on construction sites, this connected work outfit notably includes: – a high visibility vest equipped with sensors for the analysis of the quality of the air breathed by the operator and fitted with LED displaying the potential dangers; – protective goggles integrating a camera similar to Google Glass as well as warning pictograms in the periphery of the line of vision; – geo-localized working boots for locating oneself better on a working site;

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– a “connected sleeve” – a sort of individual terminal worn on the forearm for guiding and informing the workers in real time on the site. Compatible with wearing gloves, it ensures communication and optimizes the efficiency of workers, regardless of the climatic conditions (see Figure 8.18).

Figure 8.18. Example of a connected sleeve (© Bouygues Construction). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

8.1.8.2. Example 2: work outfit – Kiplay/Nomadic Equally as dramatic as falling from a height, the risk of an operator being knocked over by a machine constitutes a daily concern for employers. This smart high visibility parka and its associated service come from a collaborative project, which unites Sté Kiplay, the IFTH and Nomadic Solutions, and to which the DGE (French general directorate for enterprises) gave its support and some financing.

Figure 8.19. Standard example of glowing and connected parka

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This smart apparel was created to improve the comfort and safety of personnel on roads, construction and public work sites, airport areas, etc., who are much more exposed to bad weather and road risks than other corporations. In brief, as well as being a heating (or cooling) and glowing jacket, this product brings a package of professional services dedicated to enterprises that use PPE daily: – heating panels (front and back) (waterproof); – a row of LEDs (front and back) (waterproof), from 20 to 30, with an emitted light intensity manually or automatically controlled depending on the brightness and flashing speed, which can be controlled in flash, continuous or discontinuous modes using a command box; – visible up to 400 m; – options of sensors (via I2C bus commands) – temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, brightness, gas, radiation and so on; – an accelerometer (number of steps, analysis of the acceleration signature to evaluate arduousness, counting the number of washes, etc.); – logical entries and exits (monitoring); – an anti-collision system communicating through RFID with modules embedded in carts or any other machine within a perimeter of 10 meters. In case of danger, this system warns both the conductor and the wearer using light, sound and vibration alerts; – a removable “power bank” (20A – 5V – USB) which must be taken out before the parka goes into the washing machine; – a Bluetooth BLE communication/connectivity card (waterproof); – control functions simplified through the use of a mobile phone; – a pouch for inductive recharging of a mobile phone (using a QI system or using a traditional USB connection) (waterproof); – communication with a Web platform transmitting geo-localized alerts in case of problems on the site; – reserve energy and mobile phone charger: - via a clothes hanger with an energy buffer, which can charge the batteries of the clothing as soon as it is hanging, - via a “power bank” clothes hanger that charges (QI) the clothing during resting hours,

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- via a “power bank” clothes hanger charger, which is linked to the charging section of the clothes hanger’s “power bank” while the clothing is worn by the collaborator. The outfit is provided with a hardened mobile phone (using Android), which enables: – the activation at any moment of the “private life” function using a button that stops the geo-localization and time stamping, all while respecting in perfect conformity the CNIL/GDPR directives regarding the respect for individual freedom; – the control of heating panels and LEDs; – the voluntary activation of the “isolated worker/lack of movement” function; – the display of the charge status of the on-board “power bank”; – the automatic or manual Bluetooth BLE reconnection with the clothing in case of loss of signal (for example, in case of distance between jacket and mobile phone); – the return of the mobile’s data on the Web service platform: - geo-localization, - arduousness, - triggering of the private life button, - rupture of the Bluetooth link between the clothing and the smartphone (as well as warning the wearer by vibrating the smartphone); – the ability to make a call; – an access to the Web service platform which - time-stamps and geo-localizes events (e.g. clock-in time, clock-out time, etc.), - from a distance, controls the “isolated worker” function, - receives/transmits field alarms, - generates information on arduousness, - can form an interface with existing IS (API). This service allows a PPE to increase its worth in terms of work security, and to always remain in strict conformity with standardization.

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On top of these purely functional aspects, there is also a monthly “all inclusive” subscription option, including the washing of the smart parka. This CaaS (Clothing as a Service) service includes: – BCC clothing that is pre-equipped and can be washed 20 times in a washing machine (40°) (around one wash every 15 days); – a maintenance service guaranteeing the respect of visibility norms; – the replacement of the clothing in case of deterioration during the rental period (two per year); – other present or future possibilities thanks to cloud and IoT technologies. 8.1.8.3. Example 3: professional clothing – Mulliez-Flory The Mulliez-Flory group and the company Altran propose an item of professional clothing which allows all enterprises, regardless of their size, their legal status and their activities, to respond to their obligation of preventing painful working conditions (decree no. 2015-1888 from December 2015, pertaining to the simplification of individual prevention of arduousness accounts and the modification of certain arduousness factors and thresholds). When an employee is exposed to arduousness factors beyond certain thresholds, the employer has an obligation to establish a declaration and set up an individual prevention of arduousness account (CPPP – compte personnel de prévention de la pénibilité), which allows the acquisition by the exposed employee of points accumulated in their account (one point per quarter of exposure).

Figure 8.20. Example of smart apparel measuring arduousness (Mulliez-Flory)

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With the aim of satisfying the law, the textile that this clothing is composed of incorporates 10 sensors that can measure, in real time, data on employee posture and deduce the individual arduousness of a personʼ activity during their day of work, according to the main criteria detailed by the decree, which are: – maintaining arms above shoulders; – upper body twisted at 30 degrees; – upper body bent at 45 degrees; – crouched position; – kneeling position; – identification of repetitive movements. It is at the price of all the performances presented in these examples that equipment labeled PPE truly becomes smart apparel! ******************************************************** Thus, here ends the second part of this book, covering a large synopsis of the many applications. We will now launch into the third part of this book and progress onto the many technical and technological mysteries of Wearables.

PART 4

The Technologies Behind Wearables

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Introduction to Part 4

In discussing the extremely numerous examples presented in the previous chapters, we have looked at the required functions, features and performances of these various Wearable accessories, textiles and smart apparel. Readers will no doubt have noticed that some or even many of them, in similar or different markets, are common to multiple applications, and that many of these elementary functions are combined in the technologies employed to serve them. The table below offers a helpful overview.

EPI

✓

Medical

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Position on GPS Motion

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Acceleration Center of inertia Energy harvesting

✓

✓

LED

✓

✓

✓

EPI

Sport

✓

Medical

Fitness

Pressure

Sport and Health Wellbeing

✓

Furnishing decoration

Temperature

Fashion and Luxury

Fashion and Arts

Parameters measured and elements involved

Street fashion

1

✓

✓

✓

ECG

✓

✓

✓

✓

PPG

✓

✓

✓

✓

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Having drawn up this list and highlighted the common ground between all of these groups of Wearables, we can now restrict the scope of this third and final volume, which is essentially technical and technological, the aim being to elaborate on the principles, the operation and the technologies behind the main elements used in Wearables (sensors, actuators, display units, RF connections, connectivity, system architectures, network architectures, etc.), which are found to be increasingly common in Wearable applications, including accessories, textiles and smart apparel, and which thus serve as the technical and technological bases for new creations in this domain.

9 Components

In this chapter, we will focus specifically on the numerous electronic components which go into the making of a Wearable accessory or a textile or a piece of apparel to make it “smart”. This aspect covers a very significant portion of the field of e-textiles. Along the way, we will look at how to provide energy to the smart part, envisaging cases where the Wearables are battery-assisted or batteryless and also looking at energy harvesting systems. Let us start by looking at sensors.

9.1. Sensors Throughout the series of examples presented up until now, it has been necessary to input information data many, many times, using numerous devices called information “sensors”. In this chapter, we will take a much closer look at those sensors, technically and technologically. Before we begin, though, it is important to note that the market for sensors is expanding very rapidly (notably due to the explosion in the number of applications for almost autonomous vehicles, which will consume millions of sensors) and that, in the very near future, these components are likely to evolve greatly in terms of quality, reduction in dimensions (MEMS – microelectromechanical systems, and new technologies) and, of course, in terms of price. Having completed this brief introduction, let us now get down to the nitty gritty of the subject.

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9.1.1. Sensors and physics Generally, a sensor is an interface that transforms a physical process into usable data. We also speak of transducers, which are devices that convert one physical signal into another. – For example, a sensor might convert a physical measurement of pressure (in pascals) into a value of electrical voltage (in volts). In Wearables and smart apparel, the sensors dealing with physical properties – mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, radiation, chemical and so on – are the means of harvesting so-called “raw” data, which is termed “data acquisition”, belonging to a host of derivatives of broad families of phenomena. The data produced are mainly analog: measurements of temperature, pressure, magnetic fields or inductions, positions, etc. Similarly, in order to harvest data, a variety of physical principles are put to use by the sensors (variations of resistance, inductance, capacity; the Doppler, Hall, Faraday, photoelectric, thermoelectric, Seebeck, piezo-electric effects; expansion, strain, the vibrating wire principle, etc.). With these tools in our arsenal, it is possible to measure new physical values such as (non-exhaustive list) angles, stresses, forces, inertia, electrical currents, magnetic fields, rates of flow, displacements, distances covered, levels, positions, pressures, acoustic waves – sound, temperature, light and so on. In addition, generally speaking, it should be noted that these sensors can be modeled in the form of an impedance Z (be it mechanical, acoustic, electric, etc.) and a variation of the physical phenomenon being studied (measured) provokes a variation in that impedance. Table 9.1 that is drawn from the technical report CEN/TR 16298 demonstrates a few examples of applications per category of stimulus depending on the environment (optical, mechanical, chemical, etc.), and shows the nature of the functional response provided by smart materials and textile systems. Type of stimulus Optical

Optical response

Chemical response

Photochromism (1)

Mechanical Piezochromism

Electrical

Mechanical response

Electrochromism, electroluminescence, electro-optical effects

Electrical response

Thermal response

Photovoltaic /Photoelectric effect Expansion (5), thixotropy, auxesis

Controlled release

Shape memory, super-absorbent polymers, soilgel/hydrogel (4)

Electrolysis

Piezoelectricity

Friction

Heating by means of the Joule effect, Peltier effect

Components

Thermal

Thermochromism, thermo-opacity

Shape memory (3)

Seebeck effect Pyroelectric effect

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Phase change (2)

Shape memory, magnetostriction Examples of applications in Wearables and smart apparel: (1) baby clothing which changes color if the child has a fever; (2) spacesuits, gloves, ski jackets; (3) membrane which retracts when exposed to heat; (4) filtration of artificial snow for cinema and theater; (5) coating of soft silicone in a shock-proof jacket which hardens in the event of impact. Magnetic

Table 9.1. Examples of applications per category of stimulus

In addition, the technical criteria that characterize a sensor are generally its measurement range, sensitivity, resolution, accuracy, reproducibility, fidelity, linearity, response time, bandwidth, hysteresis and functional temperature range. In the majority of cases, in order to be able to work and produce an output signal, sensors require an external energy supply (for example, thermistors, photoresistors, potentiometers, extensometers or strain gages). Technologically speaking, sensors are often directly integrated into the Wearable or smart apparel in the form of integrated circuits known as standalone circuits or directly embedded on a monochip built into the Wearable. 9.1.2. Signal processing Today, almost anything can be recorded, measured and thus quantified with a certain degree of accuracy, in analog and/or binary form. The range of such sensors is practically infinite. Some of them operate in “on/off” mode (binary, 0 or 1, all or nothing, open or closed), but most of them record analog physical signals with extremely low values which typically need to be amplified by differential amplifiers. To turn these initial “raw” analog physical values/data, measured and input (temperature, pressure, etc.), into usable information, these signals are often converted into digital signals using analog/digital converters (ADCs) which have increasingly fine resolutions (16 or 24 bits) and which should ideally consume as little energy as possible. Then, it is necessary to have a computation unit (a microcontroller) available at the local level, in order to make corrections and produce “exploitable, polished” data (for example, the value of a pressure typically needs to be corrected in terms of temperature). Finally, the “signal processing” part,

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which is purely mathematical, can begin, with its signal refinement equations (all kinds of filtering processes – Bessel, Butterworth, etc. – noise reduction, Fourier transforms, wavelet transforms, Hilbert transforms, convolutions and convolution products, etc.). Then, we are finally able to extract the “refined” signal, useful and usable, from the sensor, which can be fed into a management device or a digital network. This means that the presence of small and/or larger microcontrollers locally is almost unavoidable. Once these major operations have been carried out, then comes the “smart” part of the sensor (often in the form of software loaded onto a microprocessor – CPU – with all its specific algorithms – complex, patented, secret, exclusive to the developers, etc.) which makes the signal tell us what we want it to tell us, and transforms the “dumb” electrical signal into a top-of-the-range “xxx sensor” (for example, a cardiac arrhythmia sensor, an ECG sensor, etc.). 9.1.2.1. Data refinement Using two examples, let us quickly depict what is meant by “data refinement”: Example 1 When measuring pressure, in order to gain a clearer picture of its value in its original frame of reference, it is always important to correlate it, correct it and marry it with the value of the ambient temperature, etc., which means that one sensor is no longer sufficient; we need two sensors: one for pressure and one for temperature, plus a computation unit capable of running a particular algorithm to correct the pressure reading as a function of the ambient temperature. Example 2 In order to avoid unnecessary bulk, prevent needless transmissions and consumption of information/data which bring nothing to the system, and thus at the same time, try to reduce the Wearable/smart garment’s energy consumption, it is useful to save, process and send over a digital network only those data which are deemed relevant, and avoid the presence of duplicate information. Here, again, it is necessary to pre-process the initial data using software. In the two examples presented above, which are very representative of daily life, we need to find a “small”, affordable microcontroller, which has sufficient computing power and whose associated activity does not “weigh upon” the Wearable’s energy consumption and does not impact its dimensions, weight, volume, esthetic quality, etc. depending on the size of the battery needed locally.

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9.1.2.2. Fusing/merging sensor data It is not uncommon to need several pieces of physical information, drawn from different sensors in order to deduce the “usable, refined data” we need. With this in mind, we need to carefully and economically execute certain algorithms to merge (mix) different elementary data to extract and obtain the coveted final piece of exploitable data. Here, again, there are brilliant formulas, great technical secrets for dark commercial purposes, which are jealously guarded (for example, in the field of security, medical laboratories) for reasons either of the quality of the data obtained or the speed with which they can be retrieved. 9.1.2.3. Processing of computed data and GDPR As we saw above, it is common to carry out preliminary processing and/or fusion of initial data to create new data. It may be that information collected with just one sensor is meaningless, but after merging with other data, it falls into the category of “personal data” and, increasingly, the data produced or recorded directly from the output of sensors in smart apparel, by their very principle, relate specifically to the “individual” in the strictest sense of the person, and the data produced by the processing soon come under the regulatory and legal remit of the GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) – sensitive data or personal data which are likely to be subject to very strict controls, as they are classed as biometric or behavioral data (see Figure 9.1). Thus, extreme caution must be exercised in handling such data; otherwise, we may find ourselves facing the harsh fines set out in Chapter 4.

Figure 9.1. Examples of measurable data which are directly subject to the GDPR (data from Yole). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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9.1.3. Sensors frequently used in Wearables Having made these general introductory remarks, let us now look at a non-exhaustive list of the sensors commonly found in Wearables, cloth and smart apparel, presented in Table 9.2. Type of end data sought

Physical type of measurement

Measuring technology used

Applications, uses, examples

Heart rate

Electrical

ECG

Medical

Perspiration

Chemical

Absorbent pad measuring the content/concentration of calcium, sodium and potassium in sweat

Way of selecting appropriate drinks to replenish the body and aid recovery

Gas

Chemical

Gas detector

Mechanical

Pressure Temperature

Electrical NTC VBE diode

Measuring external temperature and body temperature

Fire brigade’s personal protective equipment (PPE)

Magnetic field

Magnetic Hall effect

Angular variation

“Dead man’s vigilance device”

Position

GPS

Velocity

Electrical Mechanical

Acceleration

Mechanical Moving plate, shifting Movement in the between fixed plates, x y z directions moving in all directions in space

Capable of measuring the user’s activities

Center of inertia

Center of inertia

Center of inertia uses no external information. It is used when the position cannot only be based on GPS, which is not sufficiently reliable with moving targets

Instrument capable of integrating the movements of a mobile component (acceleration and angular velocity) to estimate its direction, linear velocity and position. The estimation of position is relative to the starting point or the last point at which a reading was taken

Table 9.2. Examples of applications per category of sensors

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Let us briefly present a few examples of conventional sensors. 9.1.3.1. Example: temperature sensor Let us, for the time being, forget about the variations in resistance values found by the well-known formula R = Ro (1 + αT), and begin by looking at the simplest temperature sensor in the version which is integrated into a semiconductor. For this purpose, we usually use a P–N junction (a diode), with direct polarity. Solid physics theory, applied to the semiconductor, establishes the relation between the current Ia circulating in the junction/diode and the voltage Vd experienced at its terminals: Ia = Is (eVd/Ut – 1) With direct polarity, eVd/Ut >> 1. This equation can be simplified as: Ia = Is eVd/Ut thus

Ia/Is = eVd/Ut

where Is = diode saturation current ~ 1 µA or lower; Ut = thermodynamic potential = k T / q; k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/°K; T = absolute temperature in °K; q = charge on the electron = 1.602 × 10−19 C; thus Ut = k T / q = 26 mV at 30°C. If we adopt the Napierian logarithm of the last expression, we obtain: Ln (Ia/Is) = Vd / Ut Vd = Ln (Ia/Is) × Ut For example, if we use a generator to feed the diode with a constant current Ia of 1 mA and measure Vd = 598 mV at the terminals, we can deduce that:

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Ia/Is = eVd/Ut Ia/Is = e23 = 1010 Vd = Ln (1010) × kT/q = 2×10−3 × T Thus, the partial differential is given by: dVd/dT = −2 mv/°K = −2 mv/°C

Figure 9.2. Relation between temperature and voltage at the terminals of a diode

In conclusion, in the case of a diode with a constant current Ia, across an extensive range of temperature T, the voltage Vd decreases by approximately 2 mV with each increment of temperature ∆T in degrees Celsius (or Kelvin) (see Figure 9.2). Thus, we have converted temperature variations into voltage variations that can easily be measured electronically. Most semiconductor temperature sensors used in Wearables operate on this principle or variations thereof. 9.1.3.2. Example: pressure sensor The principle of the pressure sensor presented as an example in Figure 9.3 is to detect the variation in absolute pressure using a suspended membrane to vary the impedance of a piezoresistor, generally made with a MEMS (microelectromechanical system).

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Figure 9.3. Example of a pressure sensor (LPS33HW by STM) – dimensions: 3.3 × 3.3 × 2.9 mm

The applications of these pressure sensors relate to Wearables in the category of accessories (for example, a digital barometer for an electronic bracelet), as they exhibit the unique feature of being perfectly waterproof, thanks to the use of a particular gel, and also show resistance to chemical products such as chlorine, bromine and saltwater, making them an ideal solution for swimming, be it in a pool or in the sea. They are also resistant to soaps and detergents used for showering or cleaning. The block diagram of this sensor is shown in Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4. Block diagram of the pressure sensor

The description of this product as a “pressure sensor” is not quite right (as is the case with many others) because, whilst it does indeed measure pressure:

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– it has a pressure range from 260 to 1,260 hPa, with a maximum pressure of 10 bars; – it has a very low effective pressure (0.008 mbar); – it is based on pressure data presented in 24 bits; – it operates at a depth of up to 90 meters; – it is suitable for toric joints (O rings). It also measures temperature, and is able to correct the value of the pressure on the basis of: – the temperature data presented in 16 bits; – temperature compensation integrated into the sensor; which – corrected pressure and temperature – means that relatively simple algorithms can be used to design applications such as altimeters, depth gages or even weather stations! 9.1.3.3. Example: wellbeing and health systems At present, there is a market tendency for diagnostics systems of so-called “clinical” format and quality to gravitate towards mechanical supports that are small enough to be integrated into all sorts of connected apparel worn on a daily basis. These technologies are defined by: – first, the desire of designers of Wearable healthcare systems (used, for instance, in fitness and sport) to go ever further in the acquisition of data, as close as possible to medical standards; – second, the interest shown by doctors and healthcare organizations in the miniaturization of rigorous physiological analysis systems to make them wearable, as close as possible to the body, with 24/7 measurement of medical parameters. EXAMPLES.– In this context, for example, the semiconductor manufacturer Maxim Integrated has put forward a range of steps to advance into the complex environment of the Health and Well-being market: 1) An assessment platform comprising an integrated module in combination with an accelerometer. This module (see Figure 9.5), designed to cope with an extensive range of temperatures (−40°C to +85°C), uses a 1.8 V power supply and a separate 5 V power supply for LEDs. It has an I2C interface to transmit the data to the outside world.

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Figure 9.5. Example of an acceleration sensor module (Maxim Integrated)

2) A MAXREFDES117# platform (measuring 13 × 13 mm), designed for applications in accessory Wearables. This tiny card can be placed against a finger or an earlobe, in order to accurately detect the heart rate and blood oxygen (pulse oximetry – SpO2). It is based on a combination of three integrated circuits: i) a primary circuit (5.6 × 3.3 × 1.55 mm), which notably includes red and infrared LEDs to modulate the pulses needed to measure the heart rate and blood oxygen level (SpO2 – peripheral oxygen saturation, estimation of the amount of oxygen present in the blood per measure of pulse); ii) a set of LEDs, photoelectrical detectors and optical elements combined with low-noise electronics and ambient light cancellation (ALC); iii) a high-yield, low-consumption voltage converter; iv) a translator to express the logical accuracy level; v) the device only requires one power source and dissipates only 5.5 mW. From the viewpoint of software, this platform is issued with an open-source algorithm to calculate the heart rate and SpO2, in combination with proprietary onboard micro-software (see Figure 9.6).

Figure 9.6. Example of a module sensing the heart rate and blood oxygen (Maxim Integrated). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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3) A final solution offered in sub-systems bringing the concept of preventive healthcare together with that of Wearable electronics. The ensemble of these circuits (see Figure 9.7) is notably designed to measure photoplethysmogram signals (PPG, analyzing variations of blood circulation in tissues through the lens of variable light absorption) on the wrist, the finger and the ear. The purpose is to determine the frequency and variability of heart rate and pulse oximetry by means of optical sensors. It is also possible to add on an AFE (Analog Front-End) to take readings from the chest or wrist for the ECG biological signals (electrocardiogram) and bio-impedance signals (BioZ, a measurement of electricity conduction through the body to analyze body composition) and detect heart rate, respiration and arrhythmia. By collecting cardiac data, beat after beat, these solutions collect data which theoretically should enable users to make an early diagnosis of certain conditions. Finally, it should be noted that this solution conforms to the clinical standards ECG IEC 60601-2-47.

Figure 9.7. Example of a module to measure photoplethysmogram signals (Maxim Integrated)

Due to their low energy consumption (85 µW for an ECG and 160 µW for a BioZ meter using 1.1 V), medical device manufacturers are able to design devices which offer precise monitoring of vital signs to generate alerts regarding health problems, and also bio-detector smart underwear to monitor and track physiological details 24 hours a day. 9.1.3.4. Example: absolute orientation inertial measurement unit Why choose an “inertial measurement” sensor to use as an example in a book about Wearables and smart apparel? The answer is quite simple. Instead of describing numerous examples of sensors, our aim here is to kill many birds with one stone – to ricochet from one to the next, we might say! In addition, out of many

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other possible examples, we have chosen to present a product from R. Bosch, well known for making automobile accessories. Another question then arises: what does Bosch have to do with Wearables and smart apparel? Again, the reason is very simple: it will be a reliable product, small in size, widely distributed and therefore reasonably affordable; when dealing with Wearable applications, we need to find the products which are best suited for the purpose. To return to the point at hand, let us look at what an inertial measurement device is. Its primary function is to measure the absolute orientation of a thing or a person, using raw information provided by sensors with 9 degrees of freedom (9-DOF). What is it made up of? On a single silicon chip, this component has an ARM Cortex-M0 processor (see Figure 9.8) and three elements/functions: 1) a MEMS accelerometer; 2) a magnetometer; 3) a gyroscope.

Figure 9.8. Example of an inertial measurement circuit (BNO055 from Bosch)

What is the purpose of such a device? After converting the analog signals to digital, subjecting them to mathematical treatments and refining the raw individual pieces of data from the different sensors, the microcontroller (which, on request, can integrate several modes of fusion algorithms – see Figure 9.9) digests those raw data in “real time” to provide usable data, refined in the form of unitary quaternions, Euler angles, linear accelerations, gravity vector and so on (terrifying names for complex mathematical concepts), enabling us to extract useful functional information from the accelerometer, gyroscope and magnetometer to create a “3D spatial orientation” sensor which is capable of orientating itself and knowing its position without having a specific frame of reference.

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NOTE.– This avoids the need to spend weeks or months developing our own algorithm (which may work, but is not guaranteed to), with varying degrees of accuracy and complexity, to produce a smart sensor with 9-DOF which belies all the complexity of developing a system to fuse accelerometer, magnetometer and gyroscope data, specifically for a real-time system, and at a reasonable cost.

Figure 9.9. Example of an arsenal of modes of fusion for the BNO055 circuit from Bosch

If we add, to this component, a pressure/temperature sensor (Figure 9.10) based on the piezo-resistance effect, providing data on temperature and barometric pressure/altitude, then we obtain an inertial device giving us 11 data axes: three accelerometric data axes, three gyroscopic data axes, three magnetic data axes and two pressure and temperature axes.

Figure 9.10. Example of pressure/temperature sensor (data from Bosch)

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EXAMPLES OF CHARACTERISTICS.– 3-axis gyroscope:

±250, ±500, or ±2,000 °/s;

3-axis compass:

±1.3 to ±8.1 gauss;

3-axis accelerometer: ±2g/±4g/±8g/±16g. Barometric pressure: Up to 0.03 hPa / 0.25 m resolution; 300 to 1,100 hPa (9,000 m to −500 m) with 0.17 m resolution. Temperature from −40 to 85 °C, accuracy: +/−2°C. NOTES– The pressure reading can be used to easily determine altitude, which is very helpful when we wish to avoid the addition (and the attending cost) of a GPS unit, and the dialog with the whole system takes place by means of the I2C bus. APPLICATIONS TO WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– At first glance, all the above may seem utterly superfluous in this book on Wearables. However, for people designing underclothes, clothes and PPE whose function is to help locate people, monitor isolated workers and ensure that they are still alive by recording their movements, for medical applications to help high-level athletes optimize their performances by examining and studying their movements in detail, and for people developing equipment and underclothes for medical monitoring of astronauts at NASA without any fixed points of reference for geolocation, it all suddenly begins to make concrete sense! The Canadian company Hexoskin (Carré Technologies Inc.) and the French company Bioserenity have developed body-worn sensors which can measure precise biometric data underneath the clothes, and smart, comfortable, washable biometric shirts which can measure the heart rate, breathing rate and vital activity. They also offer clinically approved systems to monitor ECG readings with pulmonary function and track activity. This viable and non-invasive solution for long-term monitoring of patients is relevant for healthcare, clinical research and development, sport and physical fitness and the space and defense industries, and such applications are already available for iOS, Android and smartwatches.

9.1.3.5. Example: smart passive sensor (SPS) without power supply So-called smart passive sensors are simple sensors (temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) paired on the same crystal with a batteryless RFID tag, the latter’s purpose being to provide power to the sensor part using energy harvested from the UHF signals sent by an ad hoc RFID reader and, at the same time, to harvest,

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aggregate, analyze and quickly return the signals measured at the time of the UHF RF reader’s request. These wireless and batteryless sensors can be used to monitor devices when the distance is not too great and it is inconvenient to replace the batteries. This economic approach is suitable, in particular, for applications subject to stringent constraints on energy consumption. NOTE.– These sensors are able to read data over greater distances than systems built on NFC technology, and, unlike with Bluetooth technologies, they do not need a battery. Thus, designers can quickly and easily configure and deploy advanced solutions to measure physical parameters on the network periphery. 9.1.4. Analog front-end (AFE) IMPORTANT REMARK.– Whilst many readers might dismiss this section as being “off topic”, in fact, it is very closely linked to smart apparel such as PPE, medical devices and second skin.

9.1.4.1. Example: electrocardiography (ECG) It is often crucially important to be able to monitor a person as they undergo athletic training, experiments or medical examinations. Such monitoring consists of recording numerous physiological signals such as temperature, blood pressure, respiratory rate, cardiac activity (ECG – electrocardiogram) and cerebral activity (EEG – electroencephalogram). Thus, we come to an area of study which is very well known in the medical world, and is often found in the form of an “ECG sensor”, or a subderivative of a “heart rate monitor”, somewhat indiscriminately, often in adverts for consumer devices for well-being, fitness, sport, etc. As before, let us begin with a few dictionary definitions of the terminology used here: – an electrocardiogram is the graphical representation of the heart’s electrical activity on paper; – an electrocardiograph is a device used to create an electrocardiogram; – an electrocardioscope is a device which shows the same plot of cardiac activity on a screen. To be absolutely clear from the outset, it must be understood that there is no such thing as an “ECG sensor”. There are many different kinds of sensors to detect analog signals, generating electrical potentials for which the resulting voltages – once they have been electronically filtered, fused and then processed by logical and mathematical algorithms – will create or yield a new signal (or signals), representing an electrocardiograph.

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Electrocardiography (ECG) then is the technique of recording, together with a graphic representation, the activity of the electrical currents accompanying the contractions that occur in the heart, which are linked to variations in electrical potentials of cells specializing in contraction and cells specializing in automation and driving influxes. In addition, this cardiac activity is recorded using electrodes placed on the patient’s skin in a painless, non-invasive examination which entails no danger and takes only a few minutes. Such an exam may be carried out at a local doctor’s surgery, in hospital, at home, even while walking down the street and so on. It is complex to interpret, and requires a clinician’s experience. It serves to monitor the cardiocirculatory system – in particular, to detect irregular heartbeats and prevent myocardial infarction (see an example of a reading of the measurements in Figure 9.11).

Figure 9.11. Example of a reading of an electrocardiogram (ECG)

Thus, to begin with, this requires the design of sensors and/or fabrics or clothing which ensures constant good contact of the electrodes (preferably non-sticky) with the skin, and the issues of hair and sweat must also be dealt with. A little history and technological detail In 1895, W. Einthoven demonstrated five deflections P, Q, R, S and T on an ECG (a deflection is a wave on an ECG which deviates either upwards (positive deflection) or downwards (negative deflection) from the baseline, and expresses the mean vector of depolarization or repolarization at a given moment in an area of the heart in relation to a given electrode). Precordial derivations are used for medical diagnosis and, in 1942, unipolar frontal derivations were used by E. Goldberger to create the first fuller plot using 12 leads. Thus, there are a variety of possible measuring techniques.

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The most important points to take into account when looking at an ECG are: – the positions of the electrodes in relation to the heart, which determine the appearance and qualities of the deflections on the plotted heart rate, that is, the precise position in the garment; – the high temporal accuracy necessary to measure with satisfactory results (devices often use a minimum sampling frequency of 30 kHz); – the analog input in the form of initially detected electrical signals from the waves, measuring approximately a millivolt. These signals are generally amplified by low-noise amplifiers operating in conventional differential mode (see Figure 9.12).

Figure 9.12. Example of positions of the electrodes for the reading of an ECG. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Once we have obtained raw analog data, in order to obtain and ensure easy readability of the results, the signal must be digitally processed, by means of (for example): – digital low-pass filtering to eliminate high-frequency signals due to muscular activity other than cardiac muscle, and possible interference from electrical devices in the subject’s immediate vicinity; – low-frequency filtering to reduce fluctuations of the secondary baseline due to breathing, as far as possible;

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– improvement of the signal quality obtained by the technique of “averaging” several complex pieces of data. Although this function causes artifacts in the event of irregularities in the heart rate or certain extrasystole beats, this technique is particularly widely used in devices suited for cardiac stress tests, where the plot is significantly skewed by the patient’s own movements, which is always the case with Wearables (accessories and clothing) for athletes. Numerous devices (so-called “ECG” integrated circuits for Wearable applications, which are not true “medical devices”) come with software, either embedded or external, to interpret the data readings. However, despite the developers’ best efforts and greatest goodwill, due to (sometimes technical, but mainly financial) constraints, this software is not 100% reliable, and is no substitute for a medical device.

Measurements and where to place the sensors in the clothing We shall now return to the subject of information inputs and their impacts, the implantations and positions of the sensors on/in the Wearable and the smart fabrics and apparel. In order to have a clear picture of all the heart’s activities, we usually define its electrical axis and numerous (12) auxiliary axes spread out every 30°, giving 12 analog derivations in total. Obviously, the more measurement probes are placed along these axes, the better the result of the ECG produced will be! This is often where the separation between well-being, health and medical concerns begins!

Figure 9.13. Electrical axis and auxiliary axes (12) of the heart. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

These 12 (standardized) derivations enable us to build up a complete three-dimensional picture of the heart’s electrical activity. In fact, the ECG includes (see Figures 9.13 and 9.14): – six frontal derivations (DI, DII, DIII, aVR, aVL and aVF) (typically, the first three are simply referred to as I, II and III); – six precordial derivations (V1–V6).

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The six frontal derivations are: I:

bipolar measurement between the right arm (−) and the left arm (+);

II:

bipolar measurement between the right arm (−) and the left leg (+);

III: bipolar measurement between the left arm (−) and the left leg (+); aVR: unipolar measurement on the right arm; aVL: unipolar measurement on the left arm; aVF: unipolar measurement on the left leg. The letter “a” stands for “augmented”. The six precordial derivations are: V1: 4th intercostal space on the right-hand side, right edge of the sternum; V2: 4th intercostal space on the left-hand side, left edge of the sternum; V3: midway between V2 and V4; V4: 5th intercostal space on the left-hand side, on the mid-clavicular line; V5: same horizontal as V4, anterior axillary line; V6: same horizontal as V4, mid-axillary line.

Figure 9.14. Examples of readings based on the frontal and precordial derivations

NOTE.– there are other derivations (six) which are used in certain cases to refine the EC – for example, topographic diagnosis of a myocardial infarction – which go beyond the scope of this book Let us once again come back to our applications in smart apparel (well-being, sport, PPE, medical devices, etc.), and look at the positions of the sensors in the garment or “double skin”: how are they positioned, how many of them, for what purpose and where are they positioned. However, before going any further, we need to define a new term:

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– a lead is a difference in potential (not the potential, but the difference in potential) present between two electrodes; each lead offers a unique piece of information about cardiac activity. W. Einthoven’s theory states that the heart is at the center of an equilateral triangle formed by the shoulders and the left thigh (see Figure 9.15).

Figure 9.15. Examples of definitions of leads

With three measurement probes and three frontal derivations I, II and III (thus three leads), it is possible to calculate the value of all six frontal derivations. The crux of the matter is that, by using the well-known Kirchhoff and Thévenin laws (node law) in electrics, applied to that triangle, if we know two values, we can find the third. Thus, in fact, two probes are sufficient, which can be suitable for the placement of the sensors in the garment, or almost so. Indeed, with leads, when we speak of differences in potential (that is, voltage), by the very principle, we are talking about measurements between two points (the bipolar measurements at I, II and III). For ease of measurement, it is often preferable to measure each (RA, LA and LL) in relation to a reference point – typically the earth. Thus, we place another electrode at the bottom of the right leg: the right leg drive (RLD) – see Figure 9.16.

Figure 9.16. Examples of definitions of leads with the earth reference point

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In total, this gives us the position for the four frontal electrodes (which must be placed in the tissue or in the clothing, of course): VR on the right arm, VL on the left arm, VF on the left leg and Vindif on the right leg, producing the three bipolar measurements I, II, III and three unipolar measurements (with respect to Vindif) aVR, aVL and aVF. For example, from the values of I and II, we obtain: III

= II − I

aVF = II − I / 2 aVR = − I / 2 − II / 2 aVL = I − II / 2 These equations explain why, in reality, electrocardiograms often record only two derivations, and construct the remaining four on the basis of those measurements by simple calculation. The same is true for the six precordial derivations measured on the chest to obtain V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 and V6 (see Figure 9.17).

Figure 9.17. Examples of precordial derivations and the associated leads. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

This leads us to the following summary presented in Table 9.3. And, more basically, from the standpoint of smart apparel, to define the number of sensors that need to be included in a garment (see Figure 9.18).

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Table 9.3. Relations between the frontal and precordial derivations and the associated leads

Figure 9.18. Number of leads which can be used. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

To give some concrete examples, certain suppliers of professional-grade medical biometric shirts or cardio belts (see Figure 9.19) that can be used to monitor certain conditions (for example, epilepsy) install a total of 30–50 sensors, which can be costly (washable, of course – a certain number of times – which limits the usable life of the garment), and this makes it difficult to achieve a return on investment.

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Figure 9.19. Examples of “cardio” belts. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

A concrete example Among various others on the market, our chosen example is the ADS1293 integrated circuit from Texas Instruments, designed for low-power applications in Wearables/smart apparel in the medical field, sport and fitness (heart rate and ECG with 1/2/3/5/6/7/8/12 leads), vital sign, Holter, event and stress monitoring and telemedicine – in short, anything that is of interest to us in this book on Wearables and smart apparel in sport, PPE and medicine! This integrated circuit offers the following specific properties: – three high-resolution digital ECG channels – low power; – differential input voltage range: ±400 mV; – 24-bit analog front-end for biopotential measurements; – right-leg drive amplifier; – EMI-hardened inputs; – low power: 0.3 mW/channel performance; – input-referred noise: 7 µVpp; – input bias current: 175 pA; – data rate: up to 25.6 ksps; – AC and DC lead-off detection; – Wilson and Goldberger terminals; – ALARMB pin for interrupt-driven diagnostics leads externally; – built-in oscillator and reference digital pace detection; – flexible power-down and standby modes; – operating temperature ranges from −20°C to 85°C.

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Figure 9.20. Recommended electrode positions

The block diagram of this circuit is shown in Figure 9.21, where the SDO, SDI and SCLK pins of the SPI bus serve as a link to the external microcontroller, which performs the functional analysis of the ECG.

Figure 9.21. Block diagram of this integrated circuit

Figures 9.22 and 9.23 show the connections and results obtained with configurations having 4, 8 and 12 probes depending on the types of applications desired or intended (sport, fitness, medical, PPE, etc.)

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Figure 9.22. Application with four leads

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Figure 9.23. Application with 10 leads

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Basics of interpretation of an ECG Once these electrical signals have been obtained, an external microcontroller performs an algorithmic ECG analysis to determine the parameters necessary for the desired application. For this to happen, a range of technical things need to be taken into account: – correct calibration, proved by a calibration signal which is visible on the plot; – the 12 derivations containing various complexes, and a plot which is longer by at least one derivation, so that we can clearly visualize the heart rate; – a plot which (as far as possible) is free of parasitic electrical signals on all the derivations, and has a straight (rather than undulating) baseline; – it is necessary to perform a test with the electrodes in the wrong position. The P wave must be negative in aVR and positive in D1, D2 and V6. In addition, the morphology and amplitude of the complexes Q, R and S must progress harmoniously in the precordial derivations. Furthermore, to read and interpret an ECG requires familiarity, which can only be gained through regular practice. It should also be noted that ECG is merely one tool among an extensive range of others which lend medical professionals ammunition to support their diagnosis. Hence, interpreting an ECG is a matter for a professional. In parallel, on the market, there are software packages delivered with certain electrocardiographs or certain integrated circuits with their own application libraries which can help with diagnosis. Under no circumstances, though, may they substitute the opinion of a doctor or a specialist.

Figure 9.24. Division of an ECG into several intervals. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Obviously, knowing that the electrical plot of an ECG contains multiple repetitive successions/irregularities called “waves”, the signal curve obtained is divided over time into different intervals: the P wave, the PR segment, the QRS complex, the delay in recording of the intrinsicoid deflection, the point J, the interval QT, the segment ST and finally the T wave (see Figure 9.24). By analyzing this detailed representation, we are able to study cardiac rhythm and heart rate (number of QRS per unit time) and arrhythmia. Many accessory Wearables or certain items of commercial smart apparel in the fields of “well-being” or “health” claim to be able to do this. How, though, is it done? On what is it based? Strictly speaking, this ECG representation can only show us the value of a regular “sinusoidal” heart rate, with a constant R-R interval, and thus we can determine a heart rate equal to the inverse of the R-R interval (multiplied by 60, so it can be expressed in number of beats per minute), and claim to have invented the famous heart rate monitor which is so beloved of manufacturers/sellers of watches, bracelets and sporting equipment, but so far from qualifying as a “medical device”. APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS IN RELATION TO SMART TEXTILES AND APPAREL.– All of the above highlights that: – well-being, fitness, sport, PPE and medical focus on the heart and cardiography, but at different levels of finesse of the measurements and interpretations; – the interpretation of an ECG is a matter for specialists, who will be able to understand it; – the algorithms must be set in stone from a medical point of view; – only accredited medical devices can boast an ECG; – thus, at different levels, the number of analog sensors which need to be connected means that we need to include smart fabric (second skin) which must be supple, washable, affordable, etc.; – and, finally, once again, Wearables for well-being, fitness and sport are not in the same league as Wearables for PPE and medical devices.

9.1.4.2. Example: applications in competitive sport Let us stick with non-textile Wearables (but ones which are worn on the body, of course), designed for equipment used for high-level sport training. Yet for the sake of some variety, instead of looking at a human, let us take the example of an animal: a racehorse which, in fact, wears a girth strap, laid against its chest. One such device is marketed by Seaver (see photos in Figure 9.25).

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Figure 9.25. Smart girth for a racehorse. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

In this Wearable, the front-end analog, the microcontroller and the associated electronics must be able to carry out: – ECG measurements using good-quality carbon rubber electrodes that can: - be placed directly on the horse’s hair without the need to shave the skin,

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- be reused multiple times, - stand up to the horse’s transpiration and sweat; – measurements of the horse’s respiratory cycles; – instantaneous and precise geolocation of the animal on the track on the x, y and z axes, using an inertial measurement unit (as we saw earlier): - the accuracy on the x and y axes does not need to be too great; +/−20 cm is sufficient, - the accuracy on the z axis must be 5 cm or 10 cm maximum in order to refine the horse’s efforts to ensure it is able to jump the next obstacle. The calculation in “z” is made by calculating the angle and the initial velocity (by the gyro-magnetometer, GPS and accelerometer). In addition, the solution must have mobile phone connectivity using a Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) link to: – make use of the GPS on the mobile phone; – directly feed back the measured data to the jockey’s mobile phone, in the knowledge that the BLE antenna is located beneath the horse’s body (which, like a human body, contains around 80% water) and is near to a breastplate made of carbon, and that the girth strap must be completely watertight, because the horse goes through water when crossing rivers! In brief, it must do all of this to adapt and detune the antenna circuit from 2.45 GHz, and thus reduce the communication range. It must mechanically accommodate: – an electronic card whose dimensions are 6 × 4 cm, excluding the battery; – a 2 Ah physically flat battery, laid alongside or beneath the electronics, as in a mobile phone, designed to provide eight hours battery life, rechargeable through a USB connection, and that needs to be electromagnetically insulated against RF from the electronics by a sheet of plasto-ferrite. EXAMPLE.– One solution for front-end analog can be designed with multichannel 24-bit Deltasigma (ΔΣ) analog–digital converters (ADC) (see Figure 9.26), with simultaneous sampling, low power, and integrated programmable-gain amplifiers (PGA). These integrated circuits have a range of specific functions required for ECG, making them particularly well suited for applications (dealing with heart rate or respiration, for example) in sport, fitness and evolutive telemedicine.

Figure 9.26. Block diagram of the ADS129x integrated circuit from Texas Instruments

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9.2. CPU1 and power consumption 9.2.1. For applications in fitness, health and the medical domain Although, in the past, heart rate monitoring was the only convincing form of biometrics, the ability to measure various indicators of physical fitness is now expected in modern Wearable products. 9.2.1.1. “All in one” After having gone through a range of technological solutions, discrete to varying degrees and discussed at length above, the “integrated bio-processor” solution became the classic “all-in-one” health solution employed in industry, because the surface area of a bio-processor circuit represents about one quarter of the total size of a system made from discrete components, which is ideal for small portable devices, whilst also offering a multitude of options when designing new devices. In fact, to comply with current requirements (measuring fat mass, skeletal muscle mass, heart rate, skin temperature and stress level, various combinations of these factors for a range of new use cases, etc.), a standard bio-processor includes, for example: – analog front-end (AFE): - bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), - photoplthysmogram (PPG), - electrocardiogram (ECG), - skin temperature, - galvanic skin response (GSR); – microcontroller units (MCU); – power management integrated circuits (PMIC); – digital signal processors (DSP); – eFlash memories. Thus, a bio-processor is capable of processing numerous biological signals without the need for other external circuits.

1 CPU – central processing unit – microcontrollers.

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9.2.1.2. Power consumption levels of CPUs and ancillaries Here is another very important point in the story of all Wearables and connected smart apparel. The term “consumption” tacitly includes those of battery life and lifespan, which are often the main arteries of the act of selling and buying the product. Battery life is often directly correlated with the availability of a battery of voltage U (in volts) – and its technology – serving as a source of energy W (in joules) to the in-built system. In principle, such a battery must be described in terms of the quantity of electricity “Q” (in coulombs) it contains and is able to supply to the device, conventionally presented as the product of a current I in amperes multiplied by a time t in seconds: Q = I t (in coulombs), but very often, the value is expressed in ampere hours (Ah). Remember that the available energy is W = U Q. Here is the problem with which we are presented: for the same number of coulombs Q (that is, the same volume or the same cost of the battery), how do we distribute I and t? In other words, to maximize the time “t”, we need to reduce and optimize “I” – the consumption in mA, µA, nA, etc. Obviously, this is what everyone has been doing for decades and it is only getting worse. 9.2.2. Quantifying energy level The more time the Wearable spends inactive or in sleep mode, the less energy it consumes – but then, there is always the issue of knowing whether someone (or in this case, the device) has properly gone to sleep and is actually asleep. The only effective way of finding out is to wake the person up and ask! The same is true in reference to Wearables. In brief, we need to very closely estimate the details and phases of the Wearable’s energy consumption and, above all, quantify them. 9.2.2.1. Coulomb versus Ah This may shock some readers, but having worked for over 30 years in this field, the classic “Ampere hours – Ah” stated on the boxes of batteries are not the author’s favorite unit of quantity of electricity! We will stay true to the good old Coulomb (symbol: C) which, in the international system (SI), is the true unit of electrical charge. To recap, the charge is the quantity of electricity passing through the section of a conductor, traversed by a current of 1 ampere intensity for 1 second (Q = i t). Why the coulomb? Although it seems rather complicated, it is actually very simple! To estimate battery life in a given application, we first need to quantify the operation of the application for each micro-slice of time (for example, µs by µs), all the amounts of electricity consumed by the different elements and the different

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functions of the Wearable. Then, we need to do the calculations (µC by µC) for all these active phases of time, and take account of the duty cycles δ for each of the various components/elements (phases of wakefulness, activity, sleep mode or hibernation, verification of sleep mode and how to do this, complete shutdowns, waking up only a portion of the functions, presence of partial networks, etc.); to find the total, find its integral by using the formula Σq = ∫dq = Q, then average this quantity over a second, and finally express that value Q of coulombs in ampere hours. We are thus able to estimate the battery life for the operation of the Wearable, in days, months or years, depending on the (nominal) specifications of the chosen battery/power cell. Lengthy it may be; painstaking it is; the method is certainly tricky to implement, but it is the only method so as not to have to lie or invent or put a value of battery life on the product documentation “off the top of your head”, and thus avoid the possibility of some very harsh criticism from your customers! 9.2.2.2. Some examples A concrete example – imagined, educational, but very representative of real-world operational sequences – is shown in Figure 9.27.

Operational sequences

Figure 9.27. Operational sequences of an IoT system (data from the expert Renaud Briand in Toulouse/Bayonne). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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The second example is that of an ordinary “communicating Wearable” – a watch with a pressure sensor, which measures the pressure and corrects its value as a function of the temperature by means of a microcontroller and a Bluetooth LE connection. Table 9.4 provides a representative example of the quantities of electricity consumed during the different phases of operation of the Wearable, which must be totaled up in order to estimate the type of battery which needs to be used. Consumption Elements Micro

Sleep Consump. (run @ 2 MHz)

500 µA

communication time

200 ms

Q=it Duty cycle & reads/day Sensor

−6

100×10

coulombs 0.1

Consump.

0.15 µA

Read time Q=it Duty cycle & reads/day 2

e prom

coulombs

Duty cycle & reads/day

30×10

−6

0.01

via I2C Consump. Q=it

300 µA 100 ms

0 µA

Write time

Clock

Working

100 ms coulombs

0×10

−6

0.01

Consump.

250 nA

Write time Q=it Duty cycle & reads/day Total

Σ Q per day

coulombs 0.05 coulombs

−6

130×10

Table 9.4. Example of the amounts of electricity consumed during the different phases of operation of the Wearable

From this, it is easy to calculate the value of the battery life. Battery life = t = Σq / I

t, in seconds

and in the case of so-called “energy-harvesting” devices, where a capacitor C is charged at a voltage V:

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Battery life = t = Σq / I = CV / I

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t, in seconds

EXAMPLE.– Remembering that one year = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 31,536,000 seconds, with a 100 µF capacitor charged at 1 V, that is, Q = CV = 1×10−4 coulomb, to achieve a lifespan of 1 year, the current, averaged as a function of the duty cycles, must be no greater than: I_ave = 1×10−4 / 31.53×10+6 = 3.17×10−12 = 3.17 pA 9.2.3. Energy harvesting We now come to a new important point relating to Wearables and smart apparel. How can we, if possible, supply the Wearables with energy to feed their batteryless electrical and/or electronic systems, or where necessary, with a small, portable battery which can be recharged in some way other than plugging it in to the mains supply? This is the point which we will examine in the following sections. As is our wont, we shall begin by giving a few definitions. “Energy harvesting” is typically defined as being “the conversion of energy already present in the surrounding environment into usable electrical energy”. The energy sources available in our surroundings and in our daily lives may be of a range of types: light energy/solar, wind power, vibration energy, acoustic, mechanical, kinetic, thermal, chemical, electrical, electromagnetic energy (sources/fields given off in RFID, NFC, etc.) and so on (see Figure 9.28).

Figure 9.28. Examples of energy harvesting technologies. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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In comparison to the energy stored in conventional storage cells such as standard batteries, our environment represents an almost inexhaustible source of energy (until proven otherwise). These energy harvesting methods are characterized by their power density, as opposed to their energy density. In the applications of interest to us here, the main aim will be to supply power to autonomous sensors or to a network of such sensors, to power and/or control wireless transmissions to a receiver, and to power RF-connected articles (mobile and wireless devices). 9.2.3.1. Energy requirements of Wearables and clothing In spite of the amount of effort invested in reducing the amount of energy required by the operation of devices such as micro-sensors in biomedical, industrial, military (etc.) domains, wireless structures and environments include a great many functions, meaning that the systems require a great deal of energy to be supplied. Unfortunately, given the constraints on the volume of Wearable electronics, there is a limited supply of stored energy available, often resulting in relatively short battery life and lifespan of the devices. Thus, our aim is to increase the density of energy present in the batteries whilst knowing that they will inevitably have short, finite lives, but also, of course, to prolong the life of the device by efficiently managing its power consumption, minimizing power losses which needlessly drain the battery. A sustainable energy supply, independent of the amount of energy initially stored, is an attractive option, and one which is increasingly in demand in applications such as biomedicine, with Wearable devices for implants. For this reason, an automatically renewable energy store, which can constantly replace the energy consumed, has a place in a large number of applications in Wearables (in the broader sense of the word) and, particularly, applications in smart and connected apparel. The main question, though, is how to harvest that energy from the surrounding environment and how to store it in the device. For several decades now, we have had sensors, transducers and MEMS. Modern-day technologies are able to harvest and extract energy from vibrations, thermal gradients, exposure to sunlight, the presence of electromagnetic waves present in our environment and so on. The energy extracted/harvested in this way can then be stored, for example, in thin-film rechargeable lithium ion (Li ion) batteries. However, energy harvested from the environment is generally low in value and is unpredictable, because it is available in the form of short, intermittent bursts, in disjointed “peaks”, irregular and random. This energy then needs to be transferred from the source to batteries, capacitors and other electrochemical storage systems. It is therefore important to develop a particular kind of electronics (which itself must consume very little and exhibit few losses) to transfer it into the rechargeable battery and supply it to the local system. In this way, the energy taken from the environment can be added/injected into the system, which decreases (or in some

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cases, eliminates) the need to replace the battery or recharge it periodically from external sources. Let us now briefly examine the six main options. 9.2.3.2. Harvesting of light energy For Wearables and smart apparel, sunlight can be used as an energy source, but it is heavily dependent on the intended application (indoor/outdoor) and on the length of time for which the Wearable is exposed to that energy source. Photovoltaic cells The photovoltaic cells which have become familiar in today’s world, based on semiconductors, convert incident light into electrical values. Each small cell is made up of a conventional semiconductor PN junction, forming a diode which is in reverse polarity. The energy supplied by the photons present in the light causes electron–hole pairs to arise in the depletion region of the junction, and the resulting electric field in the function immediately separates the electrons (drawn to the N+ side) and the holes (drawn to the P- side). The positive and negative charges then accumulate, creating an open-circuit voltage. When a device is connected to the terminals of the cell, the excess electrons travel through it from the N+ side to recombine with the holes on the P- side, generating an external current which is directly proportional to the light intensity. Thus, small PV cells such as this could supply enough power to operate the microsystem of a Wearable (for example decorative or fashionable textiles). This technology is compatible with standard electrical characteristics of integrated circuits, and photovoltaic energy conversion produces high levels of power in comparison to other energy conversion mechanisms. Unfortunately, the availability of output power depends heavily on weather conditions, and changes significantly with different levels of light intensity. 9.2.3.3. Harvesting of thermal energy Thermal gradients (∂T/∂x, the partial differential of the temperature with respect to the distance) present in the environment can also be directly converted into electrical energy by the Seebeck effect (a thermoelectrical effect). For example, the differences in temperature between the opposite ends of a conductive material generate a heat flow within it; therefore, mobile charges (free charge carriers) diffuse from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. As these mobile carriers diffuse, in accordance with Fick’s law, the concentration gradient ∂C/∂x due to ∂T/∂x produces an electric field across the material, which hampers the diffusion of the carriers, finally leading the whole system to return to equilibrium conditions. At equilibrium, the mobile carriers due to the electric field traveling

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towards the warmer junction cancel out the number of warm mobile carriers traveling towards the cold junction; hence, no voltage is created. Thermocouple A thermocouple configuration is more appropriate for producing electricity by electrically joining P- and N-type materials at the hot extremity. The heat flow transports the mobile dominant charge carriers from each material (electrons in N type and holes in P type) at the low-temperature junction, by respectively ionizing each starting electrode with an opposing charge and establishing a differential voltage across the low-temperature electrodes. As the charge carriers move away from the warm extremity, they leave a trail of ionized molecules which, instead of attracting the opposite flow of material itself, attract the opposite type of carriers in the material. Ultimately, the voltage and the power levels generated are proportional to the temperature difference and depend on the type of material, by way of the so-called Seebeck coefficient. The selection of appropriate materials and significant thermal gradients are essential to produce the levels of power needed for Wearable applications. In addition, owing to the small mechanical dimensions of the microsystems found in Wearables, temperature differences of more than 10°C are uncommon, and unfortunately thermocouple devices therefore produce only very low levels of voltage. Because of these very small gradients, the thermal energy collected is limited to about 15 µW/cm3 (less than 10°C), and this technology can deliver only about 5% efficiency in converting heat into electricity. 9.2.3.4. Harvesting of vibrational energy Extracting/obtaining energy from mechanical vibrations is based on the classic principle of the motion of a “spring-mounted” mass, vibrating in relation to its support, in which mechanical accelerations caused by vibrations cause the displacement of the mass along with a phenomenon of damped oscillations (the second-order differential system mass-spring-damper is well known). These oscillations cause forces of friction and damping to be exerted against the moving mass, which absorb the kinetic energy from the vibration, causing the reduction and even the cessation of oscillations. This occurs, for example, when we impose an electrical damping force (with a magnetic field) or an electric field (electrostatic) on a moving piezoelectric material. We thus capture the vibrational mechanical energy and convert it into electrical energy; in doing so, we are harvesting energy from the surrounding environment. This vibrational energy is a moderate source of power, with power density levels ranging between 1 and 200 µW/cm3, but again, this is highly dependent on the application.

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Electrostatic vibrational energy harvesting Methods of harvesting vibrational energy by electrostatic (capacitive) means are generally based on the work applied against the electrostatic force of a variable capacitor (or varicap), dependent on the vibration. As the vibration causes a mechanical variation in the value of the “varicap” reading, at a constant level of charge or under given voltage conditions, the mechanical energy is converted into electricity. The simplest solution is often to maintain/impose a constant voltage at the terminals of the variable capacitor. As the vibration forces the capacity C_varicap to decrease, the surplus charge Q (Q = C_varicap × V_varicap_constant) is evacuated and run into a battery/energy store at predefined voltage levels. For this purpose, the C_varicap is, for example, connected to a battery by a diode, whose role is to clamp the voltage present at the terminals of the capacitor to that of the battery V_bat, bringing about current harvesting i_harv, directly charging the battery. Electromagnetic vibrational energy harvesting Electromagnetic vibrational energy harvesting exploits either Faraday’s law, whereby a voltage develops at the terminals of a coil when it oscillates mechanically through a magnetic field (or vice versa), or the stress or strain experienced in a piezoelectric material which causes charge separation in the device, bringing about a voltage drop proportional to the applied stress. These two harvesting methods generate alternating, non-steady voltages which thus require an additional rectifier circuit to obtain direct current and condition the extracted power. In principle, this conditioning of harvested power causes additional power losses, thereby reducing the efficiency of the whole power supply mechanism. Furthermore, electromagnetic harvesting generates low voltages (100–300 mV), posing further challenges in terms of design. Ultimately, both methods require magnetic and piezoelectric materials that are not easy to integrate. APPLICATIONS OF VIBRATIONAL ENERGY HARVESTING IN WEARABLES.– The kinetic energy of vibrations generated by human motion (pressure applied manually to a surface or a button, pressure exerted by the heel on a sole plate as the wearer walks or runs, etc.) is used, for example, in applications for children’s shoes to make them visible on the roads at night (or simply to produce a display of pretty dancing colors!). For example, the performances of sensors using the concept of vibrational energy harvesting or piezoelectric sensors/generators are approximately: – frequency range of vibration sources: 50 Hz to 300 Hz;

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– acceleration range: 0.2–1 G. They are designed to provide power to other sensors (temperature sensors, shock sensors, etc.), communicating their data via Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) or over long range by wireless communication protocols (SigFox, LoRa, etc.).

9.2.3.5. Energy harvesting from electromagnetic radio waves A form of energy harvesting which is becoming increasingly fashionable at the time of writing is the harvesting of the energy contained in RF electromagnetic waves which are all around us (RFID, Wi-Fi, BTLE, GSM, etc.). Broadly speaking, all these waves fall within the frequency range from 800 MHz to 3–5 GHz. The propagation of alternating electric fields E and magnetic fields H present in these waves causes the creation of a Poynting vector (the vector product of the vectors E × H), transporting power per unit surface (watt/m2). Obviously, this alternating current power collected by a wide/multi-band antenna is very weak, and needs to be rectified (so a rectifying antenna – a Rectenna – is used), and then passes through a voltage multiplier to be converted into direct current voltage by a charge pump, so that it can be stored for local usage in a gold capacitor. As nothing is perfect, all this circuitry does exhibit losses and has a given yield, which does not entirely solve our problems, but it does produce sufficient energy with which to operate. APPLICATIONS WEARABLES.–

OF

ENERGY

HARVESTING

FROM

ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES

IN

The system’s antenna is also often used for the purposes of RFID, and the usable charge is a small transmitter for SigFox, LoRa or Bluetooth, which periodically sends messages (generally about 100 per day), to maintain a link with remote systems (for example clothing in PPE and the medical domain).

Here concludes our brief discussion of “energy harvesting”, which is a very promising technique for the near future, owing to the rise in power of miniature components which have embedded MEMS structures, built on the same substrates as the silicon chips which are used to refine the signal. 9.3. Actuators 9.3.1. General points This is a term which is often employed in the field of Wearables, textiles and smart apparel. A dictionary definition of it tells us that “an actuator is an item which transforms the energy supplied to it into a physical phenomenon, which carries out work, modifies the behavior or status of a system”.

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EXAMPLE.– The electrical current passing through a resistor produces heat; a lamp produces light; a screen produces a display; and a loudspeaker creates sound. Now that we have clarified the concepts with which we are dealing, let us look at the actuators specifically found in Wearables. 9.3.2. Display and display units When we speak of a display, we speak of something that is seen. That display may be local (on the Wearable, the fabric or the smart garment) or else remote (on a separate screen, a PC or a mobile telephone). Here we shall begin our discussion with a little vocabulary relating to the qualities, the properties specific to a display or a display unit, which many people often confuse. 9.3.2.1. Luminescence Luminescence is the light emission which takes place after excitation of the electrons in a material. There are two types of emission: fluorescence and phosphorescence. To simplify: – fluorescence (appearance of super-luminous color in daylight) is the specific property of certain substances of absorbing light (visible or otherwise) and emitting it again, possibly on a different wavelength. Light emission ceases very quickly, immediately, when the excitation source is removed from the material. – we speak of phosphorescence (mainly produced by phosphorus) when the light emission is deferred in relation to the excitation. The excitation may be caused by a range of factors: electricity (electroluminescence), a chemical reaction (chemiluminescence), etc. Whilst phosphorescence can be seen in the dark, unlike fluorescence, it is not because the material is in darkness, but rather because the electrons’ return to their base state is long/slow enough that darkness has the time to fall. The light emission decreases as the electrons return to their initial state. The time taken for this to happen, in which the perception of light continues even into the period of darkness, we call remanence. 9.3.2.2. Remanence Remanence is the persistence of a phenomenon (often visual) after its cause has been discontinued. It always reacts in the same way, with a very effective peak seen at the very beginning, followed by a sharp drop in performance. Depending on the quality of the products used, remanence may range from a few minutes to several hours.

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Let us now move on to the definitions of a number of physical values used in textiles and smart apparel, which are the fundamental building blocks of this field of display. 9.3.2.3. Luminous intensity Luminous intensity is the basic photometric value, expressing the capacity of a point light source to provide illumination in a given direction. It mainly serves to establish the distribution of the light given off by a lit surface depending on the direction. In mathematical terms, luminous intensity is defined as the quotient of the elementary luminous flux by the elementary solid angle in which it is propagated. It is expressed in candela (cd). In addition, as sunlight is not perceived equally by the eye depending on the wavelength at which it is received, in order to take account of human visual sensitivity, the expression of luminous intensity is weighted by the “spectral luminous efficiency function”, shown in Figure 9.29.

Figure 9.29. Spectral luminous efficiency function. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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9.3.2.4. Luminance Luminance is a photometric physical property that corresponds to the visual sensation of brightness of a surface. A very bright surface has high luminance, whereas a perfectly black surface has zero luminance. In mathematical terms, luminance is defined as the power of visible light passing through or emitted at a point on a surface and in a given direction, per unit surface and per unit of the solid angle. It is expressed in candelas per square meter (cd.m−2). 9.3.2.5. Colorimetry The final crucial point of principle in luminous smart textiles (for instance, those using optical fibers) is color and the concepts of colorimetry. When color TV was first introduced, entire volumes were written on the subject. Here, though, we shall only mention the Kelly chart. Kelly chart The Kelly chart, well known in colorimetry (see Figure 9.30), is based on the principle of three primary colors – Red, Green and Blue – which are additive (rather than subtractive, as is the case with paint). The x, y coordinates on that plane define a “color point” of the visible spectrum in the triangle. To simplistically produce an image, at the center, the curve shows the colors of the different “whites” obtained using the pseudo-equivalent method of “color temperature in °K of a tungsten filament”.

Figure 9.30. Kelly diagram and position of the primary colors within the space. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Having recapped all these details, let us finally return to textiles and luminous smart apparel.

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9.3.3. Peculiarities of displays for luminous textile applications Overall, we need the textile or garment to be: – luminous or readable; – if possible, made of flexible material; – if possible, washable! 9.3.3.1. Electroluminescent displays Electroluminescence is luminescence caused by an electric field or current passing through a substance (known as cold light emission, in contrast to incandescent lamps, for example, which heat up a tungsten filament). Examples of cold lights include: – light-emitting diodes (LEDs) which are electroluminescent; – the background of a liquid crystal display (LCD). Before we proceed with the discussion, it should be understood that the electronic term “diode” refers to an electronic component with two connections which, depending on the polarity of the voltage applied to its terminals, is traversed by a current (directly polarized, conductive, passing current in the “forward” direction) or is not traversed (inversely polarized, blocking current in that direction). Light-emitting diode (LED) When a light-emitting diode is directly polarized and traversed by a current, it produces light whose spectrum is visibly monochromatic or very slightly polychromatic. Certain components, at their edges, have a juxtaposition of multiple LEDs (red, green and blue) which, from the viewpoint of the human eye, operate as a minuscule image point (known as a picture element or pixel) of “additive light”, which allows the device to display a broader range of colors in accordance with the Kelly chart. The wavelength of the radiation (and therefore the color emitted) depends on the width of the “band gap” of the semiconductor used (the band between the conduction band and the valence band). This width or distance is numerically expressed in eV – electron Volt (that is, in energy – in joules). Today, practically all values in the luminous spectrum (visible or not) can be obtained. For example, infrared LEDs (which are beyond the range of human vision) were among the earliest to be used in remote controls to operate television sets and open car doors. The LEDs at the conventional “visible” wavelengths used for smart textiles and apparel are manufactured from inorganic chemical elements such as silicon, gallium

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arsenide (AsGa) doped with silicon (Si) or zinc (Zn). In industry, these LEDs are found in numerous physical casings. The smallest such devices (naked chips, measuring 0.4 × 0.4 mm) can be connected (“bonded”) with conductive gold wires (10 µm in diameter) into a textile thread (for example, Primo1D). In addition, every diode and LED technology has precise characteristics in terms of luminous intensity (expressed in candela) for a given level of current and a specific viewing angle. After the advent of LEDs in infrared, red and then green (N.B. in additive light, the addition of “green + red” produces yellow), the arrival on the scene of blue LEDs and then white ones (a fine mixture and dosage of the primary colors R, G and B) meant that applications could be developed in the areas of signage, light therapy, decoration, architecture and textiles, coming into use as a decorative element. Applications in Wearables and smart apparel (and sometimes connected): – light-up shoes for children’s safety; – fashion accessory for haute couture dress, fashion show, decorative cloth, etc.; – PPE – indications of different levels of danger depending on the colors displayed; – gadgets: Christmas hats with different flashing colors.

Examples: string of decorative lights EXAMPLE 1.– In this example, a single integrated circuit can be used to control multiple LEDs, arranged in a chain/cascade (16 in the example, which may be monochromatic or polychromatic), with a simple serial connection between them (see Figure 9.31).

Figure 9.31. Example of a serial cascade LED control circuit

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EXAMPLE 2.– In this example, the integrated circuit commands and controls smart chains of luminous sources made up of three LEDs (R, G and B) integrated in a single micro-casing, forming a colored pixel from the viewpoint of the eye. Also, thanks to programmable current generators, in each pixel, each of the primary colors R, G and B in the three LEDs (see Table 9.5) can be displayed at 256 different levels of luminous intensity (in millicandela), meaning that per pixel, we can obtain a total range of 256 × 256 × 256 = 16,777,216 colors (practically the whole of the Kelly chart), all refreshed at a frequency of over 400 Hz. Emitting color*

Wavelength (nm)

Luminous intensity (mcd)

Red

620–625

390–420

Green

522–525

660–720

Blue

465–467

180–200

* To be situated in the Kelly triangle. Luminance Y = 0.3 R + 0.6 V + 0.1 B.

Table 9.5. Characteristics of R, G, B LEDs

In principle, to create a limitless cascade of pixels, communication from one pixel to the next passes in the manner of a “Daisy Chain”, going from circuit to circuit (see Figure 9.32). The signal transmission is reformatted at each step to avoid deformation of the transmitted signal. When the frame rate (refresh rate) of the chain is 30 frames per second (this value is sufficient in terms of the retina’s retention capacity) and the data rate is 800 kbits/s, the cascade can reach up to 1,024 pixels.

Figure 9.32. Example of a daisy-chain LED control circuit (data from WorldSemi). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) OLED stands for organic light-emitting diode. Organic components made with polymer conductors are linked to the chemical industry, which are used to manufacture flexible screens and “elastic” electronic circuits; as such, with modern technology, it is possible to deposit thin layers of semiconductors on a flexible substrate. For a number of years, one of the flagship applications has been that of flexible screens and e-paper (see section 9.3.6.1). 9.3.4. Optical fibers Optical fibers are materials made either of glass (silica) or plastic polymer – POF (Plastic/Polymer Optical Fiber) – whose purpose is to carry light in the visible spectrum (from near infrared to ultraviolet) or invisible light on either side of the spectrum band. 9.3.4.1. A little technical detail By definition and because of the fiber manufacturing technology, the material used always has a refractive index “n” (described by the well-known formula sin i = n sin r, with i being the angle of incidence, n the refractive index and r the angle of refraction), which is either constant or has a variable gradient (varying continuously or stepwise), but is known between “the center and the edge” of the fiber. For conducted light of a known wavelength, this value directly impacts the phenomena of partial, total and maximum reflection angles, and thus a maximum value of the angle of incidence beyond which the light reflecting on the wall of the fiber either stays within the core of the fiber and continues on its journey, or is lost from the fiber (see Figure 9.33).

Figure 9.33. Examples of light propagation in the fiber on the basis of refractive index, angle of incidence, etc

When a beam/ray of light enters an optical fiber at one end at the appropriate angle, it propagates along the fiber by reflection, multiple times, until it reaches the other end, taking a zigzag path to obey the classic laws of reflection and limiting

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refraction angles. The light can propagate within the fiber with very few losses, even when the fiber has a slight radius of curvature. The whole of the fiber is generally covered with a plastic protective sheath. The core of the fiber has a slightly higher refractive index than the sheath (a difference of a few thousandths), and can therefore confine the light, which is fully reflected multiple times at the boundary between the two materials (due to the phenomenon of total internal reflection). Certain rays of light pass out of the fiber because their incidence angle with the sheath is too low (see Figure 9.34).

Figure 9.34. Impact of the fiber surface state on the propagation of light. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Ultimately, these phenomena lead to what? Mechanically speaking, there is a maximum value of the radius of curvature of the fiber, which poses limitations on the flexibility of the fields of application to textile manufacturing thus equipped (fabrics/clothing not folded, put on hangers, etc.). Let us cite a few figures to paint a clearer picture: – silica optical fibers are generally used for UVC and infrared; – polymer optical fibers (POFs) are generally used for wavelengths between 360 nm and 700 nm (visible light, from violet to red); – in Wearable/smart apparel applications, optical fibers of different diameters are used (generally from 175 μm to 1 mm); – the maximum radii of curvature, of course, depend on the diameters of the fibers and materials used, for example a maximum radius of curvature of 4 mm for a POF of diameter 175 µm; – the fibers do not become hot; – the fibers do not radiate electromagnetic fields (EMFs); – they can be used to create optical layers; – a single light point, such as an LED, can feed a bundle of dozens of fibers (see the example of Brochier in Chapter 7);

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– connection problems (contacts, positions, watertightness, dust, etc.) between the LEDs and fibers are often at the level of the connectors and diffuser technology used. 9.3.4.2. A little background on the technology In order for a fiber to have an entirely luminous surface, its surface must be treated to obtain diffuse reflection of light across its whole surface. There are a whole range of different types of treatment to achieve these ends. Abrasive process This process consists of using an abrasive material to create mechanical surface defects in the fiber to obtain a uniform outlet of light. The abrasion can be carried out either by mechanical tools (a knife, sandpaper, etc.) or by spraying of abrasives (sanding, etc.). For example, the latter treatment of the fibers, notably by sanding, creates patterns by causing luminous reflections at the edges. Example in textiles: micro-texturing The light conduction properties of optical fibers can be modified by treating the surface of the optical sheath, creating “micro-perforations” or rough patches, using an abrasive, causing surface defects, and allowing light to leak out along the fibers. The initial optical fiber then obeys the rules of waveguides, transporting the light radiation from one end of the optical fiber to the other. This technology is used by Brochier Technologies, and is based on the patent “multi-point lateral illumination optical fiber” in which the surface luminous flux (ϕx) varies in the direction of propagation of the luminous flux in accordance with a progression law such that at a point i, the surface luminous flux (ϕi) is proportional to the luminous flux in the fiber and to the surface density of the alterations. The luminous fabric will have a homogeneous yield if ϕx remains constant across the whole length of the textile. However, to keep ϕx constant, it is necessary to increase the surface density of the alterations to compensate for the decrease in luminous intensity in the fibers. By applying a progressive treatment along the optical fibers, the surface luminous flux is kept constant, which is verified by observing the radiation visible on the textile. Chemical process The chemical process involves: – either attacking the optical sheath of the optical fiber with acetone or another solvent capable of dissolving it to create surface defects; – or using the qualities of doping of the optical fiber’s sheath. Doping causes discontinuities in the refractive index, leading some of the light to leak out of the optical fibers.

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Examples: – Doping with ZnO lets out light below a wavelength of 380 nm – that is, UVA; – Doping with Al2O3 also dissipates visible light as well as UVA. This principle is often used for the development of luminous textiles and the manufacture of clothing and fashion accessories. 9.3.5. Liquid crystals Keeping matters simple, liquid crystals are substances which exhibit a state that is intermediary between liquid and solid. Generally, display units are made from liquid crystals, a light source known as a “backlight” (backlighting and therefore energy consumption) and a polarizing filter to eliminate certain wavelengths. Using an electric field, we can control the polarization of crystals in order to allow more or less light to pass through. Liquid crystals are, in a manner of speaking, bistable micro-blinds controlled by electrical pulses. This particular structure facilitates optical applications which are very widely used for flat screens. This technology is based on a principle called “surface anchoring”. In this technology, the liquid crystal has two stable states: “uniform” (U) and “twisted ” (T), each being selected by the simple application of an electrical signal. Once one state or another is selected and achieved (white or black display), it is maintained without consuming energy. An electrical pulse pulls the molecules away from the surface, breaking the weak anchorage. The shape of the downward front of the pulse defines the organization of the molecules in the “U” or “T” state. 9.3.6. Electronic paper (e-paper) and flexible screens Electronic paper (also known as electronic ink or simply “e-paper”) was developed 20 years ago to overcome certain limitations inherent in conventional computer screens. E-paper is a primarily monochromatic display technique on a “flexible” medium (such as paper or plastic), which is electronically modifiable, designed to imitate the appearance of a printed sheet of paper and which, like paper, does not require energy to retain a text or an image displayed on it. Unlike the conventional liquid crystal display techniques described above, which require backlighting or the emission of photons, e-paper is purely reflective, and uses ambient light in the same way as ordinary paper does. Electronic paper must be able to display text and images indefinitely, without consuming energy, and must allow us to change what it is displaying. The pixels of such a system must therefore have a range of different

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stable states, to keep the information displayed intact in the absence of an energy source. Most electronic papers only consume energy (albeit a relatively large amount of it) at the moment when the displayed content is modified. Finally, the backlighting of certain liquid crystal screens may be damaging to human eyes, whereas e-paper reflects incident light in the same way as would a normal sheet of paper. Additionally, it is very easy to read from electronic paper regardless of the viewing angle. Finally, e-paper is lightweight, durable and very flexible in comparison to other types of display (though still less flexible than real paper). 9.3.6.1. Monochromatic e-paper A range of technologies can be used to make electronic paper. The main two are electrophoresis and bistable liquid crystals. Electrophoretic display A flexible e-paper screen is filled with thousands of microcapsules containing black pigments (negatively charged) and white pigments (positively charged), suspended in a transparent fluid and encapsulated in a sheet of plastic. Underneath that film is a transistor matrix (based on plastic). When a negative electric field is applied, the white particles move to one end of the capsule and the black particles move to the other, which rearranges the ink in the pigments and allows the device to display various gradations and images. By placing millions of these capsules on a surface and controlling their state with electric fields, we can generate a two-color image. This rearrangement uses a very small amount of energy, which is then shut off completely, leaving the image remaining on the screen without consuming power until it is next updated. This is different from conventional backlit liquid-crystal flat-panel displays, in which a constant electrical supply is needed to maintain the content. 9.3.6.2. Polychromatic e-paper The principle of color e-paper consists of the superposition of a matrix of colored optical filters on the monochromatic electronic paper described above. The grid of pixels becomes a grid of groups of pixels: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and blacK (CMYK), much like the technique of offset in printing. Thus, we obtain a color version (4,096 colors). The system can have four electric fields for each microcapsule, meaning that we can produce four levels (shades) of gray: 100% white; 75% white and 25% black; 50% white and 50% black; 25% white and 75% black; and 100% black. This system is bistable: a single polarizing pulse defines

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whether or not a pixel is illuminated. In addition, the very high contrast of the display makes direct or indirect lighting pointless. All of this delivers an appreciable gain in terms of energy consumption. Finally, the medium can be semi-flexible, which represents a step forward in comparison to conventional display techniques. The main advantages of this system are: – the very low consumption of electrical current: this system only consumes power when changing the display/turning the page; after that, the page remains as it is without consuming any energy; as with a real book, the illumination comes from the ambient light; – the possibility of having screens which are “flexible”, like paper. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– The applications range from posters that allow you to change the decoration of a room through electronic tagging to industrial measurement and domestic robots. In Wearables, we could point to the display screens used on jackets (see the example of Parrot in Chapter 8).

9.3.7. Electrochromic materials Electrochromism is the capacity of certain materials to change color in response to an electrical stimulus. Electrochromic materials hold benefits which make them useful in flexible structures – notably textiles – to form smart textiles. We could, for instance, cite the broad range of colors they are capable of creating, their low power consumption and the fact that their color change can be seen from all viewing angles. A number of textile-based electrochromic structures can be envisaged by: – decreasing the number of layers required to produce an electrochromic display unit, from 7 to 5, and adding a layer of textile as a storage layer; – replacing all non-textile components with textile components, thus significantly improving the flexibility and the feel of the structure; – designing a flexible electrochromic structure that is 100% textile and single layer. Textile screens made up of multiple electrochromic pixels have been produced. However, one of the problems remaining to be solved is the rapid ageing of these displays – at present, their short lifespan is a barrier to their use commercially.

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9.4. Printed circuit boards, connectors and electrodes We come now to another major problem. The above is all very well, but we also need to assemble the devices themselves, which involves connecting together the sensors, actuators, electronic connective components, etc. on a medium which is tough, thin, flexible, washable and mechanically connectable to other items. Let us begin by looking at printed circuit boards. 9.4.1. Printed circuit boards In this domain, people from an electronics background find surprise after surprise with the manufacturers of textiles and smart apparel! 9.4.1.1. Flexible for some, yet tough for others How can two disciplines so different as these come together and work together? On the one hand, we have people with a background in electronics, for whom integrated circuits and other components need to be mounted on printed circuit boards which were originally made of Bakelite, then epoxy glass and, nowadays, on thin films of polyester which everyone in that profession calls “flexible” , but which, unfortunately, are still very often too tough, too rigid and not flexible enough for people in textiles, in relation to the purposes for which they use – and want to use – circuit boards. Furthermore, these flexible films must truly: – be able to be folded without breaking or deteriorating, and notably be able to withstand the motion in a washing machine; – not make noise when they are folded (for instance, in the past, certain RFID tags have been turned down for inclusion in the collars of top-of-the-range shirts, because of a slight noise that they made when the wearer turned his head); – not scratch and cause skin irritation; There is still some room for improvement, even in relation to polymer-based connection technologies. The same is true in the next section, regarding connections and connectors!

9.4.2. Connectors Once made, all these small elements or small modules must be connected to one another, sometimes like automobile cord harnesses (see Figure 9.35), as

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imperceptibly as possible within the garment, by means of extremely small, flexible, high-quality connectors, able to prevent the wrenching out of wires/fibers by any means, as well as being waterproof, washable, ironable, inexpensive with small welds, thin, reliable, which do not scratch or tickle, and fulfil a range of other requirements (see Figure 9.35).

Figure 9.35. Examples of connectors and connection harness in a smart garment (source: Tibtech). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

In short, what we are faced with are things which are simple, but are not simple to solve! The connections are one of the crucial points in Wearables and smart apparel, particularly in the field of professional medical care.

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9.4.3. Measuring electrodes Of course, this point is important, because the quality of contact and the information capture are essential. In general, measuring electrodes need to be placed in as close contact as possible with the skin, including allowing for hair and sweat. When they are an integral part of an accessory (a cardio belt) or item of clothing, they are included within the fabric, and therefore the information is more badly “noised”. Hence, in principle, it requires more profound signal processing. In addition: – it is important to maintain stable contact between the wearer and the sensor by applying sufficient pressure to maintain contact between the sensors/actuators and the skin; – the sensor needs to be comfortable and fairly stretchy to adapt to users’ body shapes, have as few seams as possible and use fibers which are comfortable against the skin; – the signal-to-noise ratio must be as high as possible.

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PART 5

Wearables: Smart Apparel, RF Connectivity and Big Data

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Introduction to Part 5

We now come to another fundamentally important part of the applications of Wearables and connected smart apparel, which cannot be overlooked in this discussion. We refer, of course, to the function of connectivity. Put simply, all the topics pertaining to Wearables, smart textiles and connected clothing which we have discussed since the beginning of this book represent only the visible tip of a gigantic iceberg: that of the input (sensors, actuators, etc.) and smart, refined conditioning of the measured data (in the medium term, within four to five years, this will be done by the actual fibers of the fabric) on a system, an individual, etc. The vast submerged part of this iceberg is the transmission of these data, by radio frequency connections, to centers (data centers, servers, server farms, big data centers, etc.), sophisticated processing for financial and commercial purposes, and dispatching and distribution of data through brokers, for a fee, to the end users, be they professionals in a given field or the general public. Obviously, for all of this to happen, there must be a function of connectivity (which is not simple to set up) between the two parts of the iceberg! That is the subject of this part of the book, which will lead the reader towards an awareness of systems known as “tele-smart apparel” (used in tele-medicine, tele-xxx), which will, within the next few years, come to be the keystone of this branch of activity. This essentially technical part has been added to this book to help readers from a purely textile background. For a detailed understanding of the issues at play in connectivity, we have chosen to present and illustrate a few types and examples characteristic of connectivity found in the applications of Wearables and smart apparel.

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10 RF Connectivity in Wearables

Why, from the very beginning of this book, have we made so much of the duality between Wearables / smart apparel and IoT technologies? The reason is very simple! Once we realize that all the data (the big data with which we are all so familiar) that companies collect about us (using all these sensors and also the Internet) are to be turned into “Golden Data” – plump, saleable and convertible into cold, hard cash for some people (insurance companies, for example, with health, etc.), then we will have made the connection between Wearables and the IoT. It should be noted that this is not exactly a new observation, and certain crafty businesses began harvesting data in this way many years ago! (we think, for example, of the four Web giants, collectively known as GAFA). 10.1. RF connectivity in Wearables This chapter is long and technical, but that is the price to pay so that creators, designers, manufacturers, etc., of connected smart apparel can have a clear idea of what awaits them in their careers, and exactly what lies behind “radiofrequency connectivity” and its concrete applications to Wearables and smart apparel. First, though, it should be noted that smart apparel and connected clothing are connected by means of RF communication, but this book is not an RF book (the authors have already written numerous, highly detailed technical manuals on that subject – see the references list); it is a book on Wearables and smart apparel, aimed at people working in that field. Our experience in Wearables (which first crossed our radar only a few years ago) has led us to believe that often, people working in textiles lack a certain amount of knowledge of the electronic part (which is perfectly understandable). It is for this reason that we have decided to include this instructional section, which is a little more detailed, to try and bridge that gap to a certain extent.

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10.1.1. Brief rundown of the basics of radio frequency (RF) In order to properly understand this chapter and the fundamentals and applications of radio frequency technology in Wearables and smart apparel, here (for novices and also as a reminder for those with more experience) are a few of the technical basics we need to know. 10.1.1.1. Power in W or dBm The unit of output power of a radio wave is normally expressed in watts (W), but it is often also expressed in a unit derived from the W: decibel-milliwatts (dBm). “0 dBm” corresponds to a reference power of 1 mW (see Table 10.1). dBm = 10 log10

P in mW 1mW Power

In W

In dBm

1W

+30 dBm

25 mW

+14 dBm

100 mW

+20 dBm

10 mW

+10 dBm

1 mW

0 dBm

100 µW

−10 dBm

10 µW

−20 dBm

1 µW

−30 dBm

… 1 nW

−60 dBm

1 pW

−90 dBm

1 fW

−120 dBm

0.001 fW

−150 dBm

Table 10.1. Power – correspondence between watts and dBmW

10.1.1.2. Noise floor On principle, we use the term noise floor (NF) to denote the level of power corresponding to the weakest signal that a (normal) receiver is able to detect. It is not uncommon for a receiver to have to detect powers as low as 0.01 fW. In

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addition, it is usual to allow safety margins in order to be sure of being able to function. To estimate that level, we can (quite easily) demonstrate that the theoretical value of the noise floor at ambient temperature (27°C = 300°K) is given by the expression: NF in dBm = −174 dBm + 10 log (Bw/1 Hz) where Bw is the bandwidth of the transmitted wave signal, in Hertz. Consider, for example, Table 10.2, for different bandwidths: Bandwidth Bw

Noise floor thermal noise power

10 MHz

−104 dBm

1 MHz

−114 dBm

100 kHz

−124 dBm

10 kHz

−134 dBm

1 kHz

−144 dBm

100 Hz

−154 dBm

1 Hz

−174 dBm

Table 10.2. Level of theoretical noise floor as a function of bandwidth

10.1.1.3. Link balance The “link balance” represents the difference (in dB or dBm) between the power (EIRP or ERP) of the signal transmitted and that of the signal received. EXAMPLE.– – at transmission, the maximum radiated power is +14 dBm (25 mW ERP); – if the strength of the signal received (for a given bandwidth and BER – bit error rate) is −126 dBm, we have a maximum free-space link balance of +14 – (−126) = 140 dB. 10.1.1.4. Potential operational distance The operational distance “r” is (typically) obtained using the Friis transmission equation,

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2

 λ  P_rec_eirp = (P_trans_erp × G_ant_trans) ×   × G_ant_rec  4πr  In this formula: P_rec_eirp = power received in W_eipr; P_trans_erp = power transmitted (radiated) in W_erp; G_ant_trans = gain of antenna of the transmitter in dBi; G_ant_rec = gain of antenna of the receiver in dBi; λ = wavelength in meters; r = distance in meters. NOTE 1.– (P_trans_erp × G_ant_trans) = P_trans_eirp in W_eirp NOTE 2.– 1 / (λ / 4 π r)² = att. = attenuation NOTE 3.– in dB: P_rec_eirp_dB = P_trans_eirp_dB − att._dB + G_ant_rec_dB The attenuation = (λ / 4 π r)² of a signal due solely to its propagation in air is equal to (take care not to confuse the units): att (dB) = 32.5 + 20 log f + 20 log r where “f” is in GHz and “r” is in m, so, for example, for a frequency of 868 MHz: att (dB) = 32.5 + 20 log (0,868) + 20 log r att (dB) @ 868 MHz = 31.27 + 20 log r r, in meters EXAMPLE.– Supposing that the attenuation in the propagation medium air, obstacles, etc.) is equal to, say, 131.14 dBm, 20 log r = 131.14−31.27 = 99.87 Thus log r = 4.99 so r = 98 km (in an ideally free space).

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10.1.1.5. Environmental losses The reality is quite different, because of propagation losses in air/the atmosphere, attenuation by a host of other things (buildings, trees, etc., which are always to be found when a signal is sent over a certain distance), interference with other signals, etc. Thus, the level of signal reaching the receiver may be very low indeed. Furthermore, it is typical to allow safety margins in order to be certain of being able to operate. For example, Table 10.3 gives a few common values of these parameters for transmission frequencies around the 900 MHz band. Frequency

868 / 915 MHz

Burial losses

~30 dB

Average losses in buildings

~20 dB

Losses due to fluctuations in weather

5–8 dB max

Losses due to average impact of trees

~10–20 dB

Average losses of a 20% impact of the Fresnel ellipsoid (hill effect)

~30 dB

Recommended margins for stability without channel encoding

15 dB

Table 10.3. Examples of environmental losses

The total of these losses (approximately 115 dB) results in the usable link balance, and of course, reduces the actual distance over which communication can be achieved (though not the commercial value!). Though 100 kilometers are theoretically possible, the reality of usable distance is closer to a dozen or a few kilometers only. EXAMPLE.– Link balance = 140 – 115 = 25 dB Thus, we have a typical distance of approximately 4–15 km. In the case of use of the standard transmission powers of 25–500 mW, “regional” propagation (up to 40 km in a rural environment) is quite common. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– For a concrete example of these equations, in the domain of smart apparel, PPE for applications in the fire brigade, airport runway personnel, security, road safety and military personnel (police, military police, intelligence agencies, etc.) may be operational 1–2 km from their base, if not further (dealing with forest fires, runway overruns, etc.) and communications must work properly. The same is true for telemedicine, for people either in hospital or living in isolated villages, using a biometric shirt that monitors medical parameters.

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10.1.2. Regulations and constraints in the field of RF communication With the above clear in the readers’ minds, let us now move on to the regulations and constraints that apply in the field of RF. The usual problem encountered is how to use transmission frequencies, freely accessible where possible, without a license, on which it is allowable to transmit, which correspond to our needs in terms of application and, of course, which conform to the various RF regulations in force both locally and internationally. The whole of the RF spectrum and the associated bands are regulated by the ITU – the International Telecommunications Union – and by states, who leave it up to their respective administrative departments to manage applications relating to communicating Things/Wearables, which are considered as SRDs – short-range devices (for example, in the USA they are regulated by the FCC; in Asia by the ARIB; in Europe by the ERC; in France by the AnFR, which delegates to Arcep). In Europe, there are a number of bands that are free to use, without licensing fees, for “non-specific SRD” uses. Often, they have functional constraints – typically in terms of bandwidths (UNB – ultra narrow band, NB – narrow band, WB –wide band and UWB – ultra wide band), with or without the option to spread the spectrum by direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) or frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), values of transmitted powers in ERP or EIRP depending on the frequency bands, occupation time (duty cycle) and a range of other small extra points to be taken into account very carefully. Ultimately, it is complicated, but we have to play by the rules, and this involves devising numerous technical tricks to get the most out of these constraints in order to satisfy the range of applications. Having covered these essential general points, let us now look at a few details in order to more closely assist designers in their understanding. 10.1.2.1. Regulators and regulations The ITU has divided the planet into three regions in relation to RF. In Europe In Europe, ECC ERC Recommendation 70–03 describes an SRD as being a “short-range radio frequency transmitter used in telecommunications for transmitting low-capacity information capable of causing interference, which would hamper the function of other wireless devices”. In the case of Wearables and connected smart apparel, of interest to us here, generally, the effective radiated power (ERP) authorized for short-range devices is limited, of the order of 1, 10 and 25–100 mW depending on the frequency bands used (see later on), which limit their

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usable range to between a few meters to a few hundred meters, or kilometers, and this means that their user does not need to have a license. ERC regulation 70-03 annex 1 (2018): non-specific short-range devices (available at www.erodocdb.dk) which are allocated the frequency range from 863 to 870 MHz for unlicensed operation, and which can use analog modulation, FHSS and DSSS, with either a duty cycle of use of transmission of 0.1%, 1% or 10% per hour depending on the band, or a “listen before talk” (LBT) system, which means that the transmitter listens to its radio environment before commencing transmission in order to be sure it is operating on a free channel, and/or with adaptive frequency agility (AFA), where the radio transmitter wishing to transmit locally and periodically monitors its radio environment and takes note of the channels that are in use. On the basis of that observation, the transmitter chooses an operating frequency which is not yet in use so as to prevent any collision/interference (for instance, using FHSS). Very often, AFA is twinned with LBT. The main bands used in France without a license are shown in Table 10.4. Bands

Applications

Performances

169 MHz Reserved for telemeasurement and tracking applications

Very long range

433 MHz As yet not very uniform within Europe Few constraints in terms of cycle time at present Rather crowded

Long range (>1 km)

868 MHz Reasonably uniformly regulated within Europe Strict rules on spectrum occupation time (RFID)

Medium range

2.4 GHz

Regulated to a uniform standard worldwide Increasingly crowded (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.)

Short range, high throughput

5.8 GHz

etc. Table 10.4. Main bands used in France without a license

In the USA and Canada The American/Canadian ISM band from 902 to 928 MHz (that is, a 26 MHz band with a central frequency of 915 MHz) is regulated by the FCC under the standards FCC Part 15.247, Part 15.249, Part 90 25 kHz, Part 90 12.5 kHz and Part 90 6.25 kHz.

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Notably, this band can be segmented into different channels depending on the intended techniques and the numerous frequency planes desired. Very often, users operate by dividing the band either by FHSS into multiple narrow-band channels, or sometimes using DSSS (see Paret (2008), for example) and/or “chirps” to help improve the transmission possibilities. In Asia, South America, Australia, New Zealand and China In these regions, the following standards are used, respectively. Asia – Japan – ARIB STD T-67 South America – Brazil – ANATEL 506, from 902 to 907.5 and 915 to 928 MHz Australia and New Zealand – AS/NZS 4268 from 915 to 928 MHz China – it is possible to transmit on the ISM band from 779 to 787 MHz 10.1.2.2. Unoperated and operated RF networks Finally, in relation to the regulators, let us discuss two terms that are associated with the regulations. Unoperated networks All RF links working on “open” bands are said to be “unoperated”. In such cases, by buying the equipment, the end user takes responsibility for the configuration and proper operation of their local network. Though they are perfectly well suited to professional purposes, these networks, which often have a local or ultra-local range, are typically very limited in terms of mobility. In addition, the technologies (W)PAN (personal area network) and (W)LAN (local area network) (Wi-Fi, BLE, Zigbee10, Thread11, z-Wave, NFC) offer very little or no connectivity on a national or international scale. Only SigFox and LoRa can offer “unoperated” possibilities for a long range. Operated RF networks The opposite case relates to operated RF networks, where a license is needed to operate on specific frequencies with exclusive authorizations, purchased from the state for a fee. Of the wireless RF technologies employed over long distances, known as “extended range networks”, such as MAN or WAN or LPWAN (low-power wide area network), the following are particularly worthy of note: – conventional cellular networks (3GPP): 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G;

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– solutions such as LPWAN for (certain) IoT applications using cellular (3GPP) networks of the types LTE-M, NB-IoT and EC-GSM; – certain networks (LoRa) that sometimes use an operator to set up and run their networks on a larger scale. 10.2. From Wearables to a whole connected world Now, let us look at the way in which a Wearable or smart garment communicates with remote high-level applications (by means of temperature, pressure sensors, etc. – an NFC mobile telephone, by pressing a button, presenting an RFID badge, etc.). 10.2.1. RF connectivity in proximity to or distant from the Wearables Sooner or later, Wearables or smart apparel will have to communicate with the outside world and provide data to their users (sometimes receiving data as well), either, as we mentioned in Chapter 9, with sensors (whether or not directly built in to the fabric of the Wearable/garment), or by means of RF links. In order to gain a better understanding of the resources afforded by these solutions in the context of Wearables, we shall detail the different applications – for example, the case of small communicating “Wearables” which often look for a local gateway that can later feed the data back to an Internet network (for example, a watch communicating with BLE technology trying to connect to a smartphone, which serves as a gateway). It is also the case where the Wearable or smart garment connects using RFID badges, NFC contactless cards or BLE to indicate an action, a presence, the sending of data, etc. (applications: secure verifications of right of access, usage rights, etc.). In these cases, the distances of communications in air are relatively small (around 10 cm, for a watch and a mobile telephone) or even very small indeed (only a few centimeters for an NFC badge). On the other hand, data garnered by PPE jackets worn by the runway maintenance personnel at an aerodrome may need to cover a much greater distance (2–3 km). Figure 10.1 offers an overview of the range of technological possibilities that can currently be used (2019) and indicates their usual positions in the “desired information throughput/operating distances” plane.

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Figure 10.1. “Throughput/distance” graph for the most common connectivity technologies. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

To supplement this general overview, Table 10.5 shows the most common wireless connectivity technologies. Types of networks

WPAN WLAN

Range / rate

Names

Options

Examples

Carrier frequency in MHz

short range

NFC

NFC Forum

13.56

short range medium range

BlueTooth

BT LE

2,450

Zigbee

2,450

Thread

2,450

Z Wave

MAN WAN

Li Fi

Light

Wi-Fi

2,450

SIGFOX, long range LPWAN LTN NB Qowisio, low LTN throughput LTN DSSS LoRa, Ingenu, long range LPWAN 3GPP high WB throughput NB 3GPP low LPWAN throughput

2G, 3G, 4G LTE-M NB-IoT EC-GSM

Table 10.5. Most common connectivity technologies

~900 ~900 qq GHz

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Let us now give a few details on the subject of these communications. 10.2.2. Short range (SR) Figure 10.2, labeled short-range communication – essentially between 10 and 100 m – is worthy of a few details and further information.

Figure 10.2. “Throughput/distance” of short-range (SR) technologies. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

These blocks include, in concrete terms, the following communication protocols (see Table 10.6). Short Range

Order of magnitude of distance

Names

SR LTN

SR WB

Throughputs

1–10 cm

VSR

Near-field communication

NFC

SR LTN

Low-throughput SR SR wide band

1–10 m

10–100 m

RFID Bluetooth Zigbee Thread

Table 10.6. Most common protocols for short-range technologies

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10.3.2.1. SR LTN Let us offer a brief treatment of short-range communications on a low-throughput network – LTN. Very short-range (VSR) (< 10 cm) Very short-range RF connections – roughly 10 centimeters maximum – between the “outside world” and Wearables may be of a range of types: for instance, high-frequency (HF) in NFC, ultra-high frequency (UHF) in RFID, etc. HF (13.56 MHz) NFC over very short range (from 1 cm to approximately 10 cm) NFC protocol is well known for its applications and its implementation in all mobile telephones on the market, be it Android (Samsung, Google, etc.) or iOS (Apple). It offers multiple possibilities for connection with the IoT, either directly or indirectly (see the 1,000+ pages on the subject already written by Dominique Paret, published by Dunod and ISTE Ltd – Paret et al. (2012), Paret (2016a, 2016b)). APPLICATIONS IN SMART WEARABLES.– The best-known applications are those for Wearables such as “connected watches and bracelets”, in which NFC can be used to link with a smartphone. An example is the “Bellamy” from Swatch, shown in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3. Example of smart NFC connected watches (document from Swatch)

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Short range – SR LTN (between a meter and a few meters) UHF over short range and RFID Odd as it may seem, connected/communicating Things hit the market a number of years ago, using the simple label RFID. However, at the time, RFID used (and still does use) various frequencies: LF at 125 kHz; HF at 13.56 MHz; UHF at 433 MHz, between 860 and 960 MHz, and 2.45 GHz; and SHF at 5.8 GHz. All these communication protocols are covered by ISO 18000-xx standards. Some of the batteryless tags/Wearables mentioned below can be powered by energy harvesting. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– Certain applications (PPE, medical and military) use smart apparel including links with sensors that are remotely powered by energy harvesting from the RF wave transmitted (often at UHF) by the RFID readers.

Short range – SR Wide Band (a few tens of meters) For certain applications, it is necessary, or even crucial, that the reporting of an action or presence or the sending of a morsel of data to the Wearables/clothing only take place over a range of a few meters. In this case, to effectively communicate with the “outside world”, the Wearable/smart garment can communicate with it (and vice versa) using, for example, Bluetooth protocol, or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), using UHF (900 MHz or 2.45 GHz). Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) Bluetooth is probably the most widespread wireless short/medium-range communication technology, as it is present in billions of mobile phones, headphones, tablets and millions of laptop/portable computers on the market, etc. Bluetooth Low Energy – BLE – is defined as the “low-energy” incarnation of the conventional Bluetooth standard v4.0 and v4.2. Thus, BLE uses a range of techniques to ensure very low energy consumption. The main characteristics, which are very useful in Wearables and smart connected clothing, are as follows (see Table 10.7): Technical features

Remarks

Operation

ISM band 2.4–2.483 GHz

Can be used without a license

Spread spectrum

FHSS – Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum

Better performances at long range and adaptive FHSS to prevent interference

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Carrier modulation

GFSK – Gaussian Frequency Idem Shift Keying

Maximum data rate

1 Mbit/s

With a net data rate of 260 kbits/s

Reliability

32-bit message integrity

Use of 24-bit CRC – cyclic redundancy check

Encryption

AES with a 128-bit key

N.B. It is not a secure element – just an encryption unit

Network topology Peer-to-peer – P2P Latency

Approximately 6 ms

Data protocol

Transmissions with low cyclic ratios

Star Capable of very low power standby mode, and can run for years on only a button cell.

Table 10.7. Main features of Bluetooth BLE v4.x

The output power must be within the limits defined below: BLE in v4.0, v4.1 and v4.2 i Maximum Output Power 10 mW (+10 dBm)

Minimum Output Power 0.01 mW (−20 dBm)

This maximum power can, of course, be reduced to optimize the energy consumption, or reduce interference with other devices. For example, an output power of 0 dBm (1 mW) is capable of a typical transmission distance (in air) of approximately 50 meters. EXAMPLE.– Multi-protocol integrated circuit. Without wishing to offer anyone unfair publicity, the integrated circuit nRF52832 from Nordic is a 2.4 GHz multi-protocol RF solution for Ultra Low-Power applications. It has an ARM® Cortex™ 32-bit processor, RAM and Flash memory, a 128-bit co-processor, AES ECB/CCM/AAR encryption and a BLE transceiver whose output power can be programmed in steps of 4 dBm, ranging from −20 dBm to 4 dBm. Furthermore, it includes detection of nearby NFC tags and an interface for automatic tag pairing compliant with NFC Forum NFC-A, which greatly simplifies the deployment of a solution.

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The radio RF part is distinguished by the sensitivity of its receiver, which is −96 dBm (see the sections or link balance and range in this chapter), by its low peak consumption and by two outputs: one to an external single-ended omnidirectional antenna (an RF balun is built in), and the other to an NFC antenna. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– These types of circuits can be paired with applications for iOS and Android devices using Bluetooth 5 technology. With very low power consumption in standby mode, these devices are obviously aimed at Wearables that have a BLE connection, such as medical and paramedical equipment, health and fitness devices, watches, bracelets and all kinds of sensors.

Zigbee and others We have no desire to denigrate other solutions in favor of BLE; in fact, there is a wide range of other industrial solutions such as Zigbee, etc., which provide a short/medium-range link before being relayed by other communication protocols and which can be used for applications in PPE clothing and military equipment, operating with mesh networks. Thread Belonging to the Thread Group (which also includes Google), the protocol Thread is equivalent to the physical layer PHY of IEEE 802.15.4, and is based on IPv6. It is free to use (without a license) for the Internet of Things (IoT), and able to communicate on a local wireless mesh network. Like Zigbee, Thread can use one of the three possible operating frequency bands: 868.0–868.6 MHz

Europe, on a single channel

902–928 MHz

North America

2,400–2,483.5 MHz

Worldwide up to 16 channels

and using different types of bearer shift keying ASK, FSK, GFSK, QPSK, UWB, depending on the bands used and different types of bit encoding: DSSS, PSSSS (parallel sequential spread spectrum) and chirp spread spectrum. Thread, in the OSI or TCP/IP model, is between the network layer and the application layer. UDP, IP routing and 6LoWPAN are encapsulated within Thread.

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NOTE.– 6LoWPAN is the low-power mechanism by which 802.15.4 can communicate with IPv6 (and thus the cloud), while IP and UDP routing help with routing and the secure presentation of data (all encrypted with AES-CCM). IPv6 enables any peripheral device compatible with Thread to communicate using Internet protocols such as LTE, Wi-Fi and Ethernet. Thread adds compatibility to devices already using IEEE standard 802.15.4. The device then becomes part of the Thread mesh network, and can share information, not just among the devices on the network, but also with the cloud, which can potentially eliminate the need for a central concentrator. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– In their actions (anti-terrorism, etc.), in addition to feeding back information, PPE clothing for firefighters and special clothing for military police and the army (Soldat 2020) increasingly needs to be interconnected in a mesh network, and for that reason, the Zigbee and Thread protocols are used.

Unfortunately, this book is not intended to be an encyclopedia on the subject, so we shall halt the discussion of short-range solutions there. 10.2.3. Medium range (MR) Table 10.8 gives an overview of medium-range solutions. Medium Range

Order of magnitude of distance

Names Throughputs MR wide band

MR WB

10–100 m Wi Fi BT v5

Table 10.8. Most common protocols for medium-range technologies

10.2.4. Medium-range wide band A variety of standards are available for medium-range communications (approximately 100 meters) in wide band, and indubitably, Wi-Fi is the best used.

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10.2.4.1. Wi-Fi Wi-Fi is a set of RF communication standards governed by standards in the IEEE 802.11 family, which describes the characteristics of a wireless local-area network (WLAN). A Wi-Fi network can link numerous Wearables in order to establish a link and allow high-throughput data transmission between those devices. See Table 10.9 for a few examples. Theoretical throughputs

True throughputs

802.11b

11Mbit/s

6 Mbit/s

802.11a or 802.11g

54Mbit/s

Approximately 25 Mbit/s

802.11n

600Mbit/s

802.11ac

1.3Gbit/s

Table 10.9. Digital throughputs of the most common members of the 802.11x family

IEEE 802.11 defines the lower layers of the OSI model for a wireless link, that is: – the physical layer – the modulation of the radioelectric waves and the characteristics of the signaling for data transmission are of four types: FHSS, DSSS, OFDM and Infrared; – the data link layer – the interface between the bus of the Wearable and the physical layer is formed, as per usual, of two sublayers: media access control, or 802.11 MAC, and logical link control, or 802.2 LLC. It is possible to use any IP-based transport protocol on an 802.11 network or on an Ethernet network. The “indoor” operating range reaches tens of meters (generally between 20 and 50 meters). Thus, we can establish a Wi-Fi network that can connect to the Internet in an area with a high concentration of users (examples in the domain of smart PPE clothing: building sites, airports, hotels, trains, hospitals, etc.). These zones or access points are known as Wi-Fi terminals, Wi-Fi access points or even “hot spots”.

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Networking techniques The setting up of a Wi-Fi network includes a range of modes of operation: – “Infrastructure” mode, which is used to connect Wearables (for example, PPE) equipped with Wi-Fi to one another, via one or more access points (APs), which act as concentrators; – “Ad hoc” mode, which can be used to directly and quickly connect, or interconnect, Wi-Fi-equipped Wearables without using additional hardware, such as an access point (example of clothing allowing data exchange between military personnel and military police); – “Bridge” mode, which serves to connect two or more access points to one another in order to extend a network – for instance, between two halls in an airport; – “Range-extender” mode, which is capable of relaying a Wi-Fi signal over a greater distance. This technology may have a broad spectrum of practical applications. It can be used with IPv4 or IPv6, and facilitates the development of new distributed algorithms. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– There are numerous potential or actual applications in PPE and Wearables – such as smart apparel for professionals (firefighters, civil security, medical applications, professional sport trackers, etc.).

Low-Power Wi-Fi The majority of Wi-Fi devices run on batteries. To extend and maximize the useful battery life, the devices (such as sensors) need to periodically wake up from their standby/sleep mode in order to receive or transmit data. The longer the device remains in standby mode, the less energy it consumes, but also the less information it can exchange (thus, more time is lost through the latency of the data exchange). In modern systems, by principle, low energy consumption and low latency are conflicting objectives. At present, the working group IEEE 802.11ba is working on Wake-Up Radio, to present a solution by ensuring that peripheral devices do not spend too long in standby mode and end up operating sluggishly, and that they can work simultaneously in low-power and low-latency mode. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– As before, there are obvious applications in PPE.

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Bluetooth v5.0 (BLE) Bluetooth version v5.0 (BLE, Bluetooth Low Energy) offers a great many improvements over previous versions. As the table below indicates, one of the salient points is the significant increase in the level of output power. Maximum Output Power 100 mW (+20 dBm)

Minimum Output Power 0.01 mW (−20 dBm)

The power levels have been ranked into classes, as shown in Table 10.10. Power Class 1 1.5 2 3

Maximum Output Power (Pmax) 100 mW (+20 dBm) 10 mW (+10 dBm) 2.5 mW (+4 dBm) 1 mW (0 dBm)

Minimum Output Power 10 mW (+10 dBm 0.01 mW (−20 dBm) 0.01 mW (−20 dBm) 0.01 mW (−20 dBm)

Table 10.10. Power classes in Bluetooth BLE v5.x

APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– Once again, there are applications that are plain to see in the area of PPE and certain health or sports equipment.

10.2.5. Long range (LR) – far field Let us now turn our close attention to the right-hand side of Figure 10.1, reproduced in Figure 10.4.

Figure 10.4. “Throughput/distance” plot for long-range technologies. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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Table 10.11 offers an overview of long range/far field solutions. Long range

Order of magnitude of distances

Names Throughputs

1 m to 10 km

LR Wide Band

LTE M

LR low throughput, narrow band

LTE NB IoT

LR WB LR LTN

LTE NB IoT LR LTN NB DSSS LR LTN NB FHSS

LoRa

SigFox, Qowisio, etc.

Table 10.11. Most common protocols for long-range technologies

Certain requirements for long distances, low data rates and low levels of consumption have led to the emergence of new techniques and technologies for mobile connectivity. These methods, which are able to deliver very low power consumption and low costs for the Wearables are often spoken of under the umbrella term “LPWAN” (low-power wide-area network). 10.2.5.1. Far-field RF connectivity technologies There are numerous techniques and technologies which can be used to cater for the multitude of connectivity needs for RF-connected Wearables and smart apparel – notably LPWAN LTNs (with LoRa, SIGFOX, Qowisio, etc.), each of which has its own proprietary, non-standardized solution for routing, localization, security, implementation, etc. In addition, a number of historically solid mobile operators have launched the “Mobile IoT Initiative” to speed up the commercial availability of a so-called “LTE” technology, suited to the use of the frequency bands which they own, and which can only be used under license. 10.2.6. Long range (tens of kilometers) 10.2.6.1. Low-throughput network (LTN) At a certain point, it becomes necessary to establish mono- and/or bi-directional RF links to communicate with Wearables / smart apparel in applications where they are generally (very) far from one another (long range), whose they will communicate

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little and infrequently (so low-throughput networks (LTN) would suffice), perhaps in narrow band (NB), or even ultra-narrow band (UNB) or other techniques, and the communications must be low power. Low-throughput network refers to the possibility of bidirectional RF networks suited to Wearables, which allows the transmission of data dedicated to long-range, low-throughput communications (“free space” distance of approximately 40 km) and/or establishing communications with subterranean equipment capable of supporting elements whose power consumption is minimal (a few milliwatts for transmission), operating for years on standard power cells. LTN technology is standardized by ETSI (GS LTN 001, 002 and 003), describing how to implement two different techniques, either using (ultra) narrow band (U)NB, or DSSS spread spectrum, which both offer effective interference protection. Figure 10.5 clearly shows (in green) the relations between transmitted power, throughput and operating range, and at the same time, defines the footprint of the technical range targeted by LTN.

Figure 10.5. Relations between transmitted power, throughput and range. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– LTN is particularly well suited for communication of Wearables and smart apparel, delivering a limited volume of data at a low rate, where latency is not a very great concern. Conventional examples of applications in Wearables are those of telemedicine (for example, management of biometric shirts for epileptic patients, monitored from home in telemedicine). This new technology also enables us to create smart communicating PPE clothing within the desired cost range. In addition, it should be noted that the complementarity between LTN and LTE-M mobile networks means that they can work together to deal with use cases where redundancy, additional connectivity or an alternative are necessary.

Let us now examine the variants of LTN – notably those for long range. 10.2.7. Long range (LR: LTN) As regards technical solutions devoted to LR requirements, at standardized low throughputs (LTN), etc., there are presently two main types on the market: – a) narrow-band communications, known as UNB LR LTNs; – b) spread spectrum communication techniques, known as DSSS LR LTNs. Worldwide, there are numerous techno-commercial options in these domains, and each of them, of course, has its own specific technical properties: – the former, type a), are championed by the concepts SIGFOX, Qowisio, etc.; – the latter, type b), are promoted by the concepts LoRa, Ingenu (for example, On-Ramp), etc. It should be noted that there are many other potential solutions (Weightless-N or -P or Wireless M-BUS). Remembering that the constant and ultimate aim of this book is to look at the “design and real-world implementation of Wearables and smart apparel”, in the numerous sections below, we present the main technical peculiarities of each method, so that every reader can establish the content of their own solution in full knowledge of what they are doing. However, care has been taken not to fall into the trap of making comparisons (which are often tendentious because, too often, they contain too many commercial arguments).

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10.2.7.1. LR LTR NB and UNB We shall begin by explaining the terms NB and UNB – narrow band and ultra narrow band – and their applications in LTN – low-throughput network – and LP-WAN – low-power wan. NB or UNB (narrow band or ultra narrow band) A NB or UNB is a part, a band (in Hertz) in the radio spectrum – which is fairly narrow – often divided and/or divisible into channels on which we can communicate, in the knowledge that: – the bit of the base signal transmitted is encoded. Thus, it has a format (NRZ, BSK, PSK, BPSK, etc.), a duration and a bit rate (throughput) in bits/second. Depending on the type of channel coding used (type of modulation) and the type of spread spectrum (FHSS or DSSS) applied to the source encoding, the total bandwidth (in Hertz) necessary for transmission can be estimated on the basis of the initial bitrates in bits/second; – the overall shape of the transmitted spectrum depends at once on the type of bit coding of the base signals and on the type of channel encoding and channel correction systems used (FEC – forward error corrections); – the transmitted power is expressed in Watt EIRP, ERP, dBm or indeed a power level expressed as a function of the bandwidth – in dBm/Hz; – so that there is not too much anarchy in communications (collisions between carriers, etc.), generally, transmitters are allowed to “talk” only for specific periods of time (short or very short, in general), expressed in the form of a value of occupation time or “duty cycle”, generally defined per hour, or they also use “listen before talk” mode with “adaptive frequency agility” (LBT AFA). We shall now take a closer look at some of the details. 10.2.7.2. LR LTN in (U)NB: SIGFOX The French company SIGFOX was the first to design and market an entirely proprietary network LTN-LPWA (low-power wide-area) – (U)NB devoted to the IoT. The company has positioned itself as an operator – referred to as the local SNO (SIGFOX network operator) – and also as a technology provider.

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Figure 10.6. SIGFOX logo

SIGFOX includes a communication protocol, and guarantees international coverage on its network, based on its own rollout of networks and antennas, or on partnerships formed with local and national SNOs. Thus, there is no problem of roaming from one operator to another, with the exception of the need to comply with local regulations. It operates as follows: – the Wearable/smart garment decides, of its own volition, the moment at which it wants to send and transmit its message, by simply selecting a pseudo-random transmission frequency in the range of available frequencies; – the transmitted signal is then detected by the closest base stations, and then decoded; – it is then forwarded to the network server; NOTE.– message duplications and other protocol operations are managed by the network itself; – the messages are then passed to the user to exploit for their own purposes, made accessible through the SIGFOX API. Only the beginning and end points, indicated by italic text above, are accessible to the user. This is positive from the point of view of many companies, because it means that they do not have to worry about installation or maintenance operations, and can therefore focus on their application goals, forgetting about the communication aspect because no element configuration is needed. SIGFOX acts as a “plug and play” technology supply, where the user merely needs to create and send a message and the system works! On the other hand, the connected Things and

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terminals must be certified, proprietary “cloud”.

and

it is

289

compulsory to use SIGFOX’s

This solution offers little in terms of throughput, because the (U)NB bandwidth is only capable of digital throughputs of a few kbit/s. A SIGFOX Wearable can, at most, transmit approximately 140–150 messages per day, each containing 12 bytes of information. The SIGFOX network cannot compete with high-throughput GSM networks, and does not attempt to. This technology is designed for a different purpose, and holds interest and qualities for numerous other solutions for Internet-connected Wearables. Figure 10.7 illustrates SIGFOX’s footprint in terms of volume/distance/power/bandwidth.

Figure 10.7. SIGFOX footprint in volume distance/power/bandwidth. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

An overview of the SIGFOX standard proprietary architecture is given in Figure 10.8.

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Figure 10.8. Standard architecture of a SIGFOX structure. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

The main peculiarities and technical properties of uplink – that is, communication from the Wearable to the network – for this technology are illustrated in Table 10.12. Band

ISM, unlicensed transmissions

Europe/ETSI at 868 MHz and in the USA/FCC between 902 and 915 MHz, but can very well function at 68, 169, 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz

Maximum output power for transmission

25 mW erp = 14 dBm erp

868.00 and 868.60 MHz in Europe

Duty cycle for transmission

Max. duty cycle δ_max = 1%

Over one hour – that is, 36 seconds of every hour

Carrier modulation

BPSK – binary phase shift keying

Baud rate

100 bauds in Europe 600 bauds in the USA

Transmission bandwidth

100 Hz

Table 10.12. Main characteristics of SigFox

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Usually, this technology is used in a unidirectional mode of operation: from the Wearable to the network, but in certain conditions, it is able to deliver bidirectionality. This bidirectional communication targets applications which want or need, from time to time, to transmit or “push” a configuration parameter to the Wearables. This mode of operation avoids the need to remain constantly connected, and enables bidirectional communication to be established while still remaining a low-power system. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– This solution is very practical when we need to feedback information to patients (family, doctors, healthcare assistant, family helpers, etc.) in long-range applications. PPE, an outside temperature sensor on a self-heating parka jacket, regularly sends the temperature readings to a remote control center. Once it has sent data, it decides to remain on alert for a few seconds (four times a day at most, for example), listening in order to be able to receive an instruction to raise or lower the temperature of the jacket.

10.2.7.3. LR LTN using DSSS: LoRa LoRa, which is an abbreviation of “long range”, from RF technology for an LPWAN, also originated in France before being acquired by the American Semtech Corporation in 2012.

Figure 10.9. LoRa logo

The term “LoRa”, taken on its own, describes the proprietary protocol for the physical layer (PHY – layer 1 in the OSI model), and does not describe the functions of the upper layers, referred to as LoRaWAN; these upper layers, in certain circumstances, can be accessed by the public, through the “LoRaWAN Alliance”. LoRa, therefore, is the particular implementation of a proprietary physical layer which is, fundamentally, unaffected by the possible implementations of the higher layers. This means that LoRa is able to coexist and be interoperable with a range of pre-existing network architectures.

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LoRa is used to design modems (“modulator–demodulator”) to perform long-range RF communications with a high degree of immunity to interference, and also minimize the energy consumption of the Wearables. To do so, LoRa technology uses the following technical properties (see Table 10.13). Carrier modulation Spread spectrum Bit encoding Receiver sensitivity Range Complementary Maximum duty cycle Transmission throughputs

(G)BPSK – (Gaussian binary phase keying) DSSS, – direct sequence spread spectrum “chip”, known as “chirped spread spectrum” (CSS) −148 dBm > 15 km Localization applications 1% 300 bit/s to 6 kbit/s

“frequency modulated (FM) chirp”

More messages per hour

Table 10.13. Main characteristics of LoRa

For its part, the “LoRa Alliance” (Figure 10.11) promotes the capacities of the LoRa platform and network with both public and private operators. The platform and network are open (in the sense that any organization can buy LoRa hardware and set up its own networks without going through any central authority and having to pay fees), for which the standardized specification for its communication protocol is dubbed “LoRaWAN”.

Figure 10.11. Logo and members of the LoRa Alliance

This technical openness means, in commercial terms, that three main categories of network development can be constructed: – a completely private, proprietary solution, using only the LoRa physical layer and the components which manage that lower layer; – the use of LoRaWAN product(s) connected to a private LoRaWAN network; – or finally, the use of LoRaWAN product(s) connected to a LoRaWAN network, run by a conventional operator.

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LoRaWAN is an abbreviation of “long-range wide-area network”, which consists of an open model leading to the development of an interoperable standard, enabling terminals using LoRa technology to operate on the various networks available internationally, both privately and publicly available (see Figure 10.12).

Figure 10.12. Standard architecture of a LoRA and LoRAWAN system

Finally, LoRaWAN defines three modes of operation or classes of protocol to satisfy the needs of a very broad range of “bidirectional Wearable” applications if necessary (see Table 10.14). Bidirectional Downlink after the sending of a message communication Class A

Random opening of reception windows immediately after sending

Class B

Opening of additional windows at planned times for receiving data at regular intervals

Class C

Enables us to have maximum reception timeslots

Table 10.14. LoRa operating classes

APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– The applications here are the same or the same kind as with SigFox.

Now, let us look at LR WB.

Low consumption

Much more energy intensive

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10.2.7.4. LR WB Long-range (LR) devices also exist for wide band (WB). As usual, there are two types of networks: unoperated and operated networks. With regard to these technologies, the main salient point is that certain operated networks such as MAN or WAN are deployed on exclusive licensed frequencies: – conventional cellular networks, most of which notably belong to the historical cellular mobile networks, almost exclusively operated with 2G, 3G, 4G and, in the near future, 5G; – LPWAN solutions using cellular networks in the 3GPP group in ETSI: EC-GSM, LTE M, NB-IoT. Sometimes, LPWANs (low-power wide-area networks) such as LoRa use a well-established operator for the large-scale rollout and operation of their networks. LTE and LTE-M LTE (long-term evolution), which is more commonly called “4.5G”, is a very high-throughput technology for mobile communications. To cater for these needs of applications, the version LTE-M – versions 13, 14 and 15 – offers LTE Cat 200 kHz, often referred to as LTE-M NB IoT (narrow band-IoT) whose PHY (RAN1) and MAC (RAN2) specifications include a “narrow-band” IoT mode with a reduced bandwidth of 200 kHz and an uplink and downlink throughput of approximately 150 kbits. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– The applications in this case are the same as for SigFox or LoRa, with a little more digital throughput where necessary. There are possible applications in PPE or the medical domain.

11 Global Architecture of Wearables: Connected Textiles

11.1. Communication models in the IoT and Wearables In order to gain a fuller understanding of the architectures of systems built on Wearables and connected smart apparel, it is necessary to briefly recap (or take a journey of discovery for those readers who are new to the domain) on the standard communication models such as ISO and OSI, and those used for the Internet. While the communication setup for a connected accessory Wearable may be very simple, the setup for a Wearable/connected smart apparel (for example, a medical device or PPE) communicating through the Internet or IoT may be extremely complex. Let us begin by looking over the OSI and TCP/IP communication models. 11.1.1. OSI model The OSI (Open System Interconnections) model advanced by ISO 7498-1 divides a communication architecture into seven layers (see Table 11.1).

Upper layers

PDU

Layers

Functions

Data

7. Application

Network service access point

6. Presentation Handles the encryption and decryption of data, and translates machine data into data that can be used by any other machine 5. Session

Manages the sessions between the different applications

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4. Transport

Handles the end-to-end connection, connectivity and flow control.

3. Network

Determines the data path and logical routing

Frame

2. Link

Physical routing (MAC address)

Bit

1. Physical

Transmits signals in digital or analog form

Segment/Datagram Hardware Packet or “lower” layers

Table 11.1. OSI (Open System Interconnections) model. NOTE.– In this table, Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is the unit measuring the amount of data exchanged over a computer network. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Each layer takes care of a number of issues relating to data transmission, and provides specific services to the layers above and below. The upper layers (4 to 7), which are nearest to the user, are more application-oriented, and handle more abstract data. The services of the lower layers (1, 2 and 3) are more communication-oriented, putting the data from the upper layers into a form or format where they can be transmitted on a physical medium. In an architecture such as this, as we advance from one layer to the next, we see successive encapsulations of the different frames. See the example in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1. Encapsulation of different frames. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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On the receiver side, each entity analyzes the protocol envelope corresponding to its own layer, and passes the data on to the next layer up. 11.1.2. TCP/IP model The Internet also works by means of a layered model, which is similar to the OSI model, and the set of protocols (TCP and IP) at the base layer is used to transfer data over the Internet. The TCP/IP model is named after those protocols: TCP is Transmission Control Protocol, and IP is Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP Internet model (which has only four layers in total) was devised in order to deal with a practical problem, as shown in Figure 11.2.

Figure 11.2. Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP models

A more common approach to this model is to present a simplified two-layer model: the TCP/IP model. Indeed, IP eliminates the need for the physical network, and it is not an “application layer”, but rather “applications” which rely on a transport layer. This representation is more faithful to the concepts of IP. Thus, we would have (see Table 11.2):

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Normal concept of TCP/IP Number and name of layer Applications

Examples

………………………………. Transport TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, layer RSVP, etc.

2

Transport TCP

1

Internet IP

Internet layer

IP, IPv4, IPv6 ICMP, ICMPv6 ECN, IGMP, IPsec, etc.

Network access

Link layer

ARP, NDP, OSPF, Tunnels L2TP, PPP, MAC, Ethernet DSL, ISDN, FDDI, etc.

Table 11.2. The simplified two-layer TCP/IP model

In the TCP/IP model, the main protocols used are as follows, ranked on the basis of the layer to which they belong: Physical layer EXAMPLE.– NFC, Wi-Fi, SIGFOX, LoRa, etc. Data link layer EXAMPLES.– Ethernet, Wireless Ethernet, SLIP, Token Ring, ATM, etc. Network layer This layer resolves the problem of routing of packets through a single network. In one situation, there is no pre-established pathway between two terminals which need to communicate. This protocol is known as a “non-oriented connection”. Alternatively, the path may be established at the beginning of the connection, and the protocol is then known as an “oriented connection”. Applications layer Applications generally operate above TCP or UDP. It is in the “applications” layer that we find the majority of “networking” programs, notably for IoT-type applications.

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11.1.3. A kind of conclusion By way of conclusion, Figure 11.3 shows the classic data flow paths in Internet protocols operating in accordance with the different layers of the TCP/IP model presented above.

Figure 11.3. Classic data flow paths in Internet protocols. NOTE.– The TCP layer is not clearly shown here. It is just above the IP layer. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

11.2. Architectures of Wearable solutions1 Having looked at this broad panorama, we can now envisage defining the overall architecture for a solution in Wearables/connected smart apparel, etc., in which the Wearable itself becomes only a tiny visible part of an immense submerged iceberg. First, though, it is important to bear in mind the purpose, the goal, of an application: 1 We wish to extend our heartfelt thanks to our longstanding friend, Jean-Paul Huon – head of the connected company Z#bre and member of the RGPD Associated group – for his enlightened contribution to this chapter.

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– to collect raw or slightly refined data from a range of different sources (for example, sets of digital or analog sensors) which are far apart, and communicate with one another only little and infrequently; – to gather, sort, process, etc. all these data centrally in accordance with specific orders; – to break down and deliver the processed data to the end users in question, in accordance with their needs. 11.2.1. Technological description of the whole chain Figure 11.4 offers a very general, but very representative, overview of the architecture of the overall communication chain, consisting of sensors and Wearables, smart devices and gateways, along with the back-end datacenters and services, and finally, users.

Figure 11.4. Overview of the architecture of the smart Wearable chain (document from Inside Secure)

Very numerous scenarios and sub-scenarios (an infinite number) and uses can be envisaged and, obviously, it is out of the question to examine them all in this book. Hence, we propose a detailed examination of a number of solutions, which are general but can be very easily adapted to readers’ own concrete solutions. Figure 11.5 shows an initial, more general picture of the wide range of possibilities and options for solutions – far from being the only options, they are only the most commonplace and most likely.

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Figure 11.5. Possibilities and possible options for IoT solutions; these are only the most commonplace, most likely solutions. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

This figure is an initial representation of the general extent of the possibilities for connection of the Wearable, the architecture and a conventional device structure of the Wearable network, which emphasizes the main elements and the four main entities and areas of interest, which are: – the Wearable itself; – base stations/Gateways; – Cloud Servers; – users and their control tools. 11.2.1.1. The “Wearable” zone The Wearable zone includes elements of the network – Wearables/PPE, clothing, medical devices, sporting equipment, etc. – in which the creation and/or detection of basic information and/or its (pre-)checking are carried out. They are sometimes designed without the need for a direct Internet connection, and are normally deported by means of RF links, which are either short range (a few centimeters to a few meters) or long range (several kilometers). The description of the secure connected Wearable itself can be divided into two distinct parts: – a part which connects the user (the outside world) to the Wearable/apparel – that is, the way in which a “user” communicates with the Wearable (pressing on the sleeve, a button, a sensor and its electronics, RFID badge, NFC telephone, etc.; temperature and pressure sensor, etc.; AD converters), its local intelligence (microcontroller), its security (SE), etc.;

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– then, communication methods to be implemented by the Wearable/apparel to reach a gateway depending on the distances (short range, medium range, long range) and which types of communication networks we wish to use to reach those first relays (BTLE, Zigbee, Wi-Fi, SIGFOX, LoRA, GSM, LTE-M NB IoT, etc.). At the end of this book, Chapters 13 and 14 present an example of the concrete implementation of an application. 11.2.1.2. The “Gateway” zone The relay from the Wearable to the cloud is generally formed by an Internet network which goes through an intermediary gateway, receiving messages from the Wearable/smart apparel, whose function is to manage and convert the protocols (network, transport, session, etc.), to serve as relays and links, and then handle the transfer of data to the collection network, via a system of terrestrial links based on Ethernet networks, for example, or via a GSM-type cellular telephone link, or indeed via any other wireless telecommunication systems. Typically, these gateways are connected to a network server by standard IP connections. 11.2.1.3. The “cloud” zone Using gateways, the message reaches the network server (application layer in the OSI model) whose role is to manage the network, take measures to eliminate duplicate packets, organize receipt acknowledgements, adapt the data rates, distribute the data to the users, etc. 11.2.1.4. The “user” zone In the user zone, we find the “human–machine interface” (HMI) functions used (screens, PCs, mobile telephones, etc.) and the operating systems (OS) that can be used (Linux, Microsoft Windows, etc.). It is at this stage that we see how, in certain architectures, the whole of the network described above may be almost transparent, and how it is possible, using a single remote computer, to control the actions of the Wearables or gather the data from them and distribute those data to the various service providers. 11.3. The very numerous protocols in use As previously stated, a very broad overview of this architecture can be summed up as shown in Figure 11.6, which illustrates the main protocols used and their respective positions in the overall architecture of applications.

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Figure 11.6. Main protocols employed in the IoT. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Numerous protocol implementations have been widely adopted on the ground, and Table 11.3 presents, in table form, an overview of the protocols frequently used in the IoT. Frequently used protocols From Wearable to base station

From base station to Cloud Internet layer

SR

RFID NFC BLE

MR

Wi-Fi

IP IPV6 6LoPAN etc.

In the Cloud

Transport exploitation layer TCP MQTT HTPP etc.

OS Linux MS

applications

Return to end user

WEB service

AWS AZURE MS broker

TCP IP GSM HTPP

Apache

ZigBee … LR

LoRa SIGFOX

GSM CoAp

… GSM

GSM

Table 11.3. Overview of frequently used protocols in the IoT

Now that we have laid out the general situation, let us go on to look at some details.

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PART 6

Description of the Wearables and Connected Textiles Chain

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12 Chain for a Connected Wearable

This description of the processing chain for a connected Wearable includes an important series of ordered steps (in the direction in which information/data passes) of the different links making up the whole of the chain. This part, which tracks the progress of the base signal – that is, the data sent by the Wearable – is split into four distinct, but complementary, sub-parts: – from the outside world to the Wearable; – from the Wearable to the base station; – from the base station to the server; – from the Cloud server to the various users. 12.1. From the gateway to the server The gateway primarily receives messages sent by the Wearables/Clothing, and its purpose is to serve as a relay, a link, and then to transfer the data to the collection network and its server, generally via a system of terrestrial connections. 12.1.1. Network access layer: IP Protocols IPv4 and IPv6 are often used. Version 4 of IP, commonly called IPv4, is the main network protocol used today for packet transport and routing, on the Internet and on the majority of private networks. It uses 32-bit encoded addresses (meaning there are 4,294,967,296 possible addresses), where each user has their own IP address that serves as a unique identifier on the Internet. In IPv6, the address length was extended to 128 bits (that is, 16 bytes), in contrast to IPv4’s 32. Given that it is therefore possible for every Wearable/smart apparel on the planet to have

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an IPv6 address (or multiple ones), it is natural to wonder about the issue of privacy and defense against intrusion (see Chapter 4 on Privacy). Since, with IPv6, there are a vastly greater number of available addresses, it would be feasible for a single Wearable to use several different addresses (for example, multiple Google/Parrot jackets in a nightclub, a shirt, a handkerchief, etc.). Under no circumstances is this a guarantee of anonymity, but it does cover a few/many more tracks. 12.1.2. 6LoWPAN 6LoWPAN is the abbreviation for “IPv6 Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks” or “IPv6 LoW Power wireless Area Networks”. IPv4 and IPv6 are known to be efficient but are difficult to set up in networks of sensors and other systems and RF hardware, notably due to the large size of the headers they use. 6LoWPAN has defined mechanisms for compressing the headers, meaning that IPv6 packets can be sent or received with the communication protocol RF IEEE 802.15.4. There now follows a brief discussion of the main network access protocols used in the IoT. 12.2. The server The subject of servers is a vast one, and it could fill volumes; readers who want more details about servers should refer to more specialized publications. Figure 12.1 offers an idea of the typical design of a huge room containing numerous servers, and the soft- and hardware security problems that come with it (protection from hacking, buildings which are earthquake resistant, bomb resistant, impervious to attack, etc.), the management of their power supply and power consumption, the dissipation of the heat that servers give off when they are in enclosed rooms or chambers (this issue necessitates the use of air conditioning units, which, in turn, become hot and require cooling and so on and so forth!), etc. Let us now briefly describe the function of a server in the context of applications for PPE and medical Wearables. The network server and all conceivable variants thereof have the following main roles, depending on the languages and control software with which they are pre-loaded: – to manage the network and ensure that it is operating properly, for example: - to use the protocols most appropriate for the exchanges at hand, - to organize acknowledgement of receipt of the messages, - to take measures to eliminate duplicate packets,

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- to adapt the data rates to the different existing peripheral devices; – to manage the security of the end-to-end data transport; – to refine the data where necessary; – to store the data; – and above all, finally, to distribute the data to the different users/subscribers, via a broker.

Figure 12.1. Example of a server room

Nowadays, the owners of large server rooms/server farms (for example, OVH, AWS, etc.) sell/rent services, and become providers of higher-level computing services which (for a fee, of course) release the end users from the need to worry about maintenance of the server hardware and software, the optimization of the hard- and software resources needed for their applications, security and data duplication on other, remote servers, distributed in the form of a “server farm” or a “cloud” of servers – simply known as a “Cloud”. The end users are then no longer aware of exactly where the data are being processed, which can sometimes prove highly problematic in terms of signing specific contracts pertaining to sensitive data that must be safeguarded (for instance, in the domain of certain medical Wearables and smart apparel). In closing, note that there are a great many transport/messaging protocols, which can/must be loaded onto the server depending on the types of applications, to carry out these communication tasks safely and reliably. According to an enquiry in 2016,

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the two most widely used messaging protocols are the classic HTTP and MQTT; CoAP comes in third place. Let us now examine a new entity which is present in the chain for the IoT: the “broker”. 12.3. The broker The term “broker” means “an intermediary between two parties for an operation”. This is exactly what it means in terms of its function in the Wearables/IoT architecture! The “broker” function which is necessarily used for a Wearables/Cloud structure is designed, first, to handle a very large amount of “upload” data, in the form of numerous small messages sent by the Wearables, and second, to serve as a “broker” to disentangle and distribute all these data/inputs to specific outputs to be acted upon. The primary function of a broker, then, is to relay and redistribute the data “published” by “sensors” to all “subscribers” to that type of data (see Figure 12.2).

Figure 12.2. Architecture of a broker

12.4. Return from Cloud server to end users This final link in the chain for connected Wearables is one of the most important, because it is at this stage that the application frameworks come into play, in relation to the software applications and commercial applications (PPE, medical, sport, fitness, etc.) that you, the readers, will offer your customers for a healthy sum, and which will hopefully earn a living for you! Indeed, once we have successfully gathered together all the relevant data in a Cloud, all we need to do is: – first, carry out the whole task of organization, sorting, selection, etc., of data stored only very briefly in the Cloud using software running on market OS such as Linux, etc.;

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– second, organize the return of useful information to the users, and then organize the dispatching of those useful data on different communication channels (GSM, the Internet, etc.) to people duly authorized to receive them, on computers, tablets, mobile phones, etc. – in short, all conceivable manner of “human–machine interfaces” – HMIs (screens, PCs, etc.) (of course, these recipients include people authorized by the clients, various service providers involved in the process, various IoT network managers, end users and initial users, who have paid, on contract, to receive these data, and who are the lifeblood of the company). Hence, for a Lambda user, it may appear that by using a remote computer, they can control the actions of the Wearables or harvest the data from them; the whole of the network described in the previous chapters is essentially transparent from a user’s point of view. 12.5. “Cloud” The term “Cloud”, also referred to as “Cloud computing”, covers all remote data storage solutions. To be clear, your data, instead of being stored on your hard drives or local memories, are available on remote servers and can be accessed via the Internet. For this purpose, the various players in Cloud computing have gargantuan arrays of storage servers, commonly called “datacenters” or “server farms”. 12.5.1. Cloud and Fog computing Cloud computing is “free access, on demand, via a telecommunication network (such as the Internet) to the provision of shared, configurable computing resources and applications, useable at a price”. Thus, quite simply, it is the delocalization of computing infrastructure. Cloud computing, then, is the operation of remote computing power or storage on remote servers through a network – typically the Internet. These servers are rented, on demand, by users, who usually pay per chunk of time or per use, based on technical criteria (power, bandwidth, server occupation time, etc.), but also sometimes for a flat fee (for example, certain Cloud computing services such as “AWS”: Amazon Web Services). For a designer of Wearables or smart apparel, Cloud computing is characterized by its flexibility. Indeed, depending on the user’s (client’s) ability level, they may be able to manage their own server, or simply use remote applications in what is known as SaaS: Software as a Service. SaaS is a model for the commercial operation of software, whereby the programs are installed on remote servers, rather than on the user’s own machine(s). Clients do not pay for a user license for a specific version of the software, but instead use the service online for free or, more generally, pay a

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subscription. The main applications for this model are, for example, customer relationship management (CRM) and the feeding of information back to clients and/or end users. 12.5.2. Types of Cloud computing Cloud computing can be divided into three main types, generally known as: IaaS – Infrastructure as a Service; PaaS – Platform as a Service; and SaaS – Software as a Service. From these three Cloud computing solutions, by selecting that which is (or those which are) best suited to its needs, it is possible for a business to combine an optimal level of control and avoid a major overhaul of its computing structure. Certain companies (such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) or Azure from Microsoft, etc.) offer a wide range of computation services, storage, databasing, analysis and implementation, as well as application services. Such services are designed to help customers/organizations to evolve more quickly, to reduce their computing costs, to manage their infrastructure without compromising on extensibility, security or reliability, and bring their applications up to marketable level. Thus, this is the direction in which development seems to be heading in the field of future applications for Wearables and professional smart apparel (PPE and medical devices), and it is in this arena that software developers will weigh up all the ramifications of the new ranges of applications. After the physical design of the Wearable and/or smart apparel itself, the processing chain is the second major step in a project. Once this has been set up, we need to quantify the full cost of the product and, finally, devise and consolidate a strategy on how to sell the Wearable and/or smart apparel, so as to actually make money. The platforms most widely used in Cloud computing are, in the following order: AWS from Amazon, followed by proprietary solutions, followed by Azure IoT from Microsoft. APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– Cloud computing offers a simple way of accessing powerful servers, having extensive storage space, and being able to access databases and a wide range of application services on the Internet without the need for massive initial outlays on hardware or software. In addition, it avoids the need for clients to spend precious time on managing the hardware/tools and needlessly spending money on ensuring they work; a large percentage of the functional costs and capital expenditure (CAPEX) can be replaced by variable operating expenditure (OPEX); clients only pay for the amount of computing resources they have consumed; they no longer have to pay for datacenters and servers before they

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know how these resources will be used; they do not have to pay for the maintenance of datacenters, as the Cloud computing providers own and maintain the networked hardware required for these application services. Thus, the “Cloud” offers the essential operations which a business needs, and quick access to flexible computing resources at a low cost. In the market for connected Wearables (PPE, medical devices), Cloud computing is growing rapidly. For local applications that require greater fluidity, stability and swiftness, while also benefitting from enhanced security, Cloud and Fog computing offer users greater ease of use – for instance, in the field of local medical monitoring and on large work sites with laborers/people wearing personal protective equipment, etc.

12.6. Big data When they truly begin being used on a massive scale, medical Wearables, PPE and sporting/fitness devices will be characterized by the generation of data on an equally vast scale: “Big Data”. Then, we need to be able to process the uploaded data, and in particular, extract relevant information from those data. Here, three questions come into play: – how to eliminate inconsistent data; – how to identify data which are useful; – how best to make use of those useful data. The mass harvesting of data makes it very difficult to identify weak signals. However, very commonly, the IS (Information Systems/Structures) of businesses are not capable of handling vast quantities of hieratic data, and absolutely must be fed with relevant, tagged summary information. It is here that specialized platforms can provide solutions. Unlike traditional “Big Data” approaches, which handle “cold” data (consumer behavior history, visits to a store or a Website, etc.), certain Wearables (such as medical devices, PPE, etc.) work with “hot” data, or even “red hot” data, which need to be processed almost in real time, and which require a response within seconds. Consider the example of a patient experiencing an epileptic fit; obviously, it is crucially important that there be an instantaneous response, rather than one an hour later! APPLICATIONS IN WEARABLES AND SMART APPAREL.– In the market for connected Wearables (PPE, medical devices), Fog computing is growing in popularity. For local applications that require greater fluidity, stability and swiftness, while also benefitting from enhanced security, it offers users greater ease of use – for instance, in the field of medical monitoring, and so on.

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PART 7

Concrete Realization of a Wearables/Smart Textiles Solution: Examples and Costs

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Introduction to Part 7

We come now to the seventh and final part of this book on connected, secure Wearables. It is not our custom to leave our readers wanting more, and from the very start of this book, we have been working towards the creation of actual, concrete products. The time has come, and your wishes, dear readers, are about to be granted! Having lived through it many, many times over the course of their respective careers, the two authors, who have years of experience in the fields of Research, Applications and Industrialization of products, are keen to see this part on “Concrete Realization of a Wearables/Smart Textiles Solution: Examples and Costs” in print. It is rare to find such a discussion of real-world examples in technical manuals (particularly, a discussion which actually cites the true costs of solutions, rather than a vague and soporific drone about the general costs). Of course, the cases examined here are only examples, and all designers will need to adapt the content to their own applications, and re-examine the costs at the time they are doing their calculations. Nevertheless, we will set out the typical orders of magnitude of the costs involved in a project, so from the word “Go!”, our readers can avoid disappointment! May you find these final two chapters illuminating, and watch out for some surprises along the way.

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13 Examples of Concrete Realization of Wearables: Smart Connected Apparel

Our discussion here presents an example of a detailed framework which designers of Wearables/smart apparel connected simply or through the Internet should (indeed must) construct, in relation to the analysis of their technical specifications, the design of their product, the need to build a prototype, the proposed budget for the development of a project and its manufacture on an industrial scale. Obviously, in order to put together such an example of a project while sticking close to the realm of the concrete and real, we have made a certain number of hypotheses, estimating timescales, development costs, projecting a schedule for the project, and estimating the price of manufacturing the prototypes and the end product, which we will set out in detail in Chapter 14. Obviously, readers conducting their own projects will have to refine the scenario, adapting it to their own needs in terms of costing and scheduling, updating the information here and/or assessing other scenarios if need be, according to their own requirements. 13.1. General electronic architecture of a Wearable Let us begin by giving an idea of the functional content of a Wearable/smart apparel, based on its subdivision into electronic blocks. 13.1.1. Division of the electronic technologies Table 13.1 shows the division of the electronic technologies present in the majority of smart connected Wearables.

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Distribution of electronic blocks

Distribution of functions

techno discrete

semiintegrated

techno integrated

Physical or logical data sensors A/D conversion Digital processing of initial data

Filtration functions, Fourier, wavelet, refinement, etc.

Data fusion/ algorithms

Acquisition of relevant data

Data management

µC

Connectivity

NFC

Near

RFID

Proximity

Sub GHz UHF (Sigfox, LoRa, etc.)

Long

Over GHz Bluetooth, etc.

Medium

Display management, display Application functions, users

Local Deported

Mobile

Local Deported

Mobile

Table 13.1. Breakdown of the electronic technologies present in the majority of smart connected Wearables. For a color version of this table, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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13.2. Physical architecture of a communicating Wearable From a functional standpoint, the example of a communicating Wearable we have chosen – a relatively complete piece of PPE to illustrate our example, so that everyone can simplify it later on – consists of two main elements: first, one or more apparels (in the style of a “parka”), and second, an associated relay BASE: – the Wearables (the PPE) have access rights, allowing the various players involved to carry out different functions with the BASE; – the “BASE” is the part situated at the user’s place of operations. And of course: – these two elements of the overall PPE product (BASE and PPE apparel) both have parts which include electronic components. The detailed characteristics of the system are explained in the following section. 13.2.1. The BASE In addition to a Bluetooth Low-Energy RF connection, which is necessary for communication between the Wearables and BASE, to communicate with the outside world and to handle the “I” part (Internet) of the IoT, multiple versions/options for the RF connections of the BASE, described above, must be possible, depending on the degrees of the final applications, decided on in connection with the clients: – Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connections to communicate with the user’s Box; – a LPWAN Sigfox and/or LoRa connection to communicate long range (several kilometers) with an Internet gateway; – a GPRS/3G link using a 3G modem. In addition, the BASE also integrates the following functions: – RF demodulators (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc.), button or LED; – a power supply: - as the system is inbuilt, it is powered by 220 V mains power, using an external AC/DC adaptor;

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- depending on the final energy consumption and the product requirements in terms of battery life, only on the Sigfox version of the device, the BASE can operate on batteries alone. The overview of the BASE is shown in Figure 13.1.

Figure 13.1. Diagrammatic overview of the BASE. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

13.2.2. Wearable/smart apparel – The Wearable/smart connected apparel includes: – BLE – Bluetooth Low-Energy – connection; – sensors; – a button and LEDs; – it is supplied with power by a small portable battery. An overview of the electronic system of the Wearable/smart apparel is given in Figure 13.2.

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323

Figure 13.2. Diagrammatic overview of the Wearable/apparel. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

13.2.3. Compulsory steps in the concrete realization of the Wearable At this point, we are playing in the big leagues, and amateurs/start-ups may be seriously taken aback by the number of zeros in front of the numbers cited when we talk about costs (see Chapter 14). In this book, we set out the real-world industrial and commercial realization of a Wearable smart apparel with a planned production of a few thousand units per year (for example, a quantity of 5,000 parkas a year, produced over four years, with an envisaged grand total of 20,000)! Thus, to bring this product to industrial fruition, there are two main paths which can be followed: – the development phases including: - design of electronic cards for industrialization and serial production, - integration of firmware of the application and embedded software and adaptations depending on the card design, - design of the “mechanics” with a view to producing functional prototypes; – the industrial phase of the project, including: - certification tests, conformity testing (CEM “CE”, etc.), - industrialization, - serial production of the product for the intended quantities. And all this often takes months on end (for instance, in the event of strikes, delays in the supply of materials, and so on), and other problems are frequently

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encountered. In addition, in the case of VSEs or SMEs, it is typical to have to deal with temporary cash flow problems and numerous visits to/from the bank! Now, as promised, we will discuss the concrete realization of the products! Two design options for architectures of the BASE may be chosen: – an initial simple device (Figure 13.3), which is secured using an external (true) Secure Element:

Figure 13.3. Simple and secure architecture with an external Secure Element. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

– or indeed, in a more integral form, with a monochip (Figure 13.4):

Figure 13.4. Simple and secure architecture with an inbuilt Secure Element. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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325

– a second solution (Figure 13.5), also secured by means of a (true) Secure Element but equipped with an extra microSD card in order to satisfy the specific requirements of personal data security linked to users’ privacy, in full accord with the GDPR and the CNIL, as discussed in Chapter 4.

Figure 13.5. Architecture secured with a Secure Element and equipped with an extra microSD card. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

Following this technical overview, let us now look at the costs of these solutions.

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14 Cost Aspects

Having gone through all the previous chapters touching on points of solution architecture, technical principles, components, etc., we now finally present this detailed chapter on a point which tends to be rather thorny: the costs of a Wearable/communicating smart garment solution. Sooner or later, it is an issue which must be addressed, and in full awareness of all the facts. In the knowledge that, generally, numerous economic and financial points have already been looked at previously – in particular, the viability of the project, meaning the financial and marketing aspects, the establishment of the provisional budget to be set aside for the study of the project (see Chapter 4 for the details) – let us now look at a range of new, but very much everyday, phenomena. To begin with, in order to speak of costs, we need to divide them into two categories: CAPEX and OPEX. 14.1. CAPEX and OPEX These two concepts are fundamentally important in the way in which we industrialize and commercialize a Wearable smart connected garment: – “CAPEX” (capital expenditure) refers to investments, that is, expenses which have a positive value in the long term. EXAMPLE.– The purchase of a smart connected parka (non-consumable). – “OPEX” (operational expenditure) refers to the day-to-day costs of running a product, a business or a system. EXAMPLE.– The annual cost of the cloud, paid to Amazon for services provided by its cloud.

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14.1.1. CAPEX In connected Wearables, CAPEX is primarily divided into two areas: – the cost of hardware architecture, and the price of the components (the BOM: bill of material) and software specific to the Wearable itself (management of communication protocols, etc.); – the cost of the software architecture included in the Cloud so that the application software has a backbone. Let us begin by looking at the BOM for the electronic part. 14.1.1.1. BOM – bill of material for the Wearable The bill of material for the electronic part of the Wearable itself is only the very beginning of the story, although unfortunately, it is where far too many people stop! IMPORTANT REMARK.– To give readers a concrete idea, the prices and figures stated here, excluding VAT, which are typically charged in the world of business (presented in Figure 14.1), have of course been deliberately rounded off, and are indicated 1) as at a specific date (mid-2018), and 2) only by way of an example. It will always be advisable to update them in the course of future studies, in the knowledge that prices are only likely to go down in the coming months.

Below is an example of a BOM (Table 14.1), based on the examples given in Figures 13.3 and 13.5 in Chapter 13. BASE

Price excluding VAT

Microprocessor

€3

Bluetooth BLE

€4

Buzzer/LED

€3

Six-layer PCB

€3

Miscellaneous components

€3

Long-range modem

€15

5V power supply

€6

Plastic shell

€9

TOTAL for components

€46

Table 14.1. Estimated prices, excluding VAT, typically charged in business

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329

The reader can no longer say that they do not have a concrete idea of the costs involved in manufacturing a Wearable. Note, however, that the above is only the BOM for the BASE, to which must be added oneʼs own profit margin plus VAT at 20%. In addition, the same thing must be done for the electronic part of the Wearable/garment. 14.1.1.2. Development of electronic cards and their environments With the BOM estimated, it now becomes necessary to spend both time and money on the design, development and testing of the electronic cards which make up the technology. In parallel with one another, we see the different phases of development of the embedded software, comprising the low-level resource-management software layers (for Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Sigfox, 3G, button management, LEDs, buzzers, etc.), the onboard application itself on mobile telephones and tablets, its look and the creation of the environment for testing and approval, which will also be useful during the production process. 14.1.1.3. Scheduling Let us now take a look at the parameter of “time”. This often takes the form of a schedule, with a PERT diagram (short for “program evaluation and review technique”), estimating the duration of the development phases of the project, and an estimation of the pre-serial manufacturing phase. An example of a schedule covering all the necessary points touched upon above is given in Table 14.2 which, despite the numerous phases which are run in parallel, shows that a minimum period of seven to eight months is needed. Only extremely professional companies are able to sign a contract and actually stick to this very, very tight schedule. Generally, project schedules are closer to 10 or 12 months than to eight months. Month Month Month Month Month Month Month STUDY

1

2

3

4

5

6

Specifications Development of electronics Development of software Development of mechanics Test/Integration/Approval Second prototype Industrialization – machining PRODUCTION Table 14.2. Example of a schedule (in pedagogical form in this book)

7

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14.1.1.4. Development costs Carrying out each of the small segments of the above schedule for each of the parts of the Wearable (base and electronics) takes time which, when multiplied by an hourly rate, costs money! Let us not flinch at the numbers when we multiply all these hours of work by an industrial hourly rate typical of the market. For example, rounding off the numbers, which gives us Table 14.3. Development costs

Costs excluding VAT

Base Project management and specifications

€10k

Study and hardware prototyping

€10k

Study for onboard software

€20k

Mechanical study and prototyping

€15k

Testing and integration of early prototypes

€15k

Subtotal for study and initial prototyping

€70k

Wearable Project management and specifications

€10k

Study and hardware prototyping

€5k

Study for onboard software

€10k

Mechanical study and prototyping

€10k

Testing and integration of early prototypes

€5k

Subtotal for study and initial prototyping

€40k

FINE-TUNING Fine-tuning of base and tag cards EMC testing

€10k €30k

Subtotal for study and fine-tuning

€40k

INDUSTRIALIZATION Electronics of base and tag cards

€30k

Mechanics of base casing

€60k

Mechanics of tag casing

€40k

Subtotal for industrialization Table 14.3. Example of development costs

€130k

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331

The above, of course, excludes warranty, after-sales service and transport, depending on the locations used for production (Europe, the Far East) and delivery, the size of the manufacturing batches (multiple batches or a “mono-shot”) and shipping costs. In short, in light of the BOM + research costs + industrialization, developers should expect to pay approximately €300k, excluding VAT. 14.1.1.5. Approvals and certifications In addition to the above, there are also the costs of approvals and certifications of the products, but beware: in this field, too, there are numerous pitfalls and traps to be avoided! Indeed, before starting out, it is essential to reach a definite agreement with the end client in relation to the levels and depths of the certifications they want. Costs of approvals, certifications, etc. In order to be able to legally market the product, obviously, it is necessary to obtain approval and certification for the whole range of protocols used (Bluetooth, NFC, Sigfox, etc.), which requires knowledge, energy, time and therefore extra expense, which must be added on to the CAPEX. By way of example, the following are a few regulations with which we need to be able to comply: 1) CE pre-certifications and certifications – CE labeling is a matter of self-declaration, and the prices/costs charged by the Independent Laboratories which conduct CE pre-certifications or certifications are approximately €2k per day × 10 days = €20k. 2) Compliance with IEC safety regulations – It is also wise to consider undergoing the electrical tests set out by the standard IEC/EN 62061. 3) Compliance/certification with ETSI and FCC RF regulations – The same is true for undergoing the pre-compliance and then compliance tests for the European regulations on RF, and then those of the FCC if we wish to export it to the USA. Allow approximately €30k for this. 4) Safety certifications with ANSSI – In addition (but in a welcome fashion), in the Wearable market, the (costly) certificates and approvals of safety levels for products/Wearables are issued, for example, in the authors’ native France by the Agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes d’information – ANSSI (national agency for the security of information systems).

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5) Operational compliance/standards – In addition, if we wish to be able to display handsome logos on the Wearable without being investigated by the commercial competitiveness authorities (in France, the DGCCRF – Direction générale de la concurrence, de la consommation et de la répression des fraudes) for unfair competition and misleading advertising, here again, there are a number of hoops through which businesses must jump. Examples in Wearables 1) NFC When an “NFC” certification is required, the NFC Forum conducts a battery of tests through accredited laboratories. NFC Forum membership is mandatory (and involves an expensive cost). 2) Sigfox/LoRa Sigfox The electronic components are certified by Sigfox but, when the product is complete, it too must be certified by Sigfox, and gains a smart-looking “Sigfox Ready” badge for one of two modes: P1 module (for example, Telecom design 1208, etc.). P2: the complete Wearable with its casing, power supply, antenna, etc. This certification can only be obtained from the Sigfox laboratory. LoRa LoRa certification can be obtained through testing laboratories accredited by the LoRa Alliance, such as the companies IMST, Espotel, etc. 3) Bluetooth, others, etc. In short, it is a long and winding road that must be followed for every new Wearable/smart garment industrialized, and contrary to usual belief, the cost is not insignificant. 14.1.1.6. Cost price of commercial product We now have enough information to make an initial estimation of the price of a production run for the product, including the following.

Cost Aspects

333

Hypothetical production run of (for example) 20,000 Wearables/smart apparel The NRE – non-recurring engineering – cost (a “one-time” outlay for research, development, design, etc.) would be around 280,000/20,000 = €14 per unit, which must be added to the component costs, which gives us the following basic table (Table 14.4). BASE

Price excluding VAT

Subtotal for components (BOM)

€46

Assembly (30%)

€14

NRE

€14

TOTAL for components

€74

Table 14.4. Initial estimation of the cost of production run for the Base

With these hypotheses, we can estimate the manufacturing cost of the product, per unit installed: BASE

~€74 PU excluding VAT

Wearable (not detailed above)

~€5 PU excluding VAT

Base delivered with three parkas = 74 + (3 × 5) = ~€90 excluding VAT Furthermore, it is typical on the market that the ratio “sales price excluding VAT / factory cost price excluding VAT” be around two, which means that in the situation described here, the product would be sold to the end user at a price of approximately €180 excluding VAT. This difference in price generally includes: – a portion dedicated to financing research on future products; – the cost of after-sales service; – the cost of communication and advertising; – a profit for the company’s shareholders; – and above all, the profit/margin required by the distribution network.

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14.1.1.7. Software applications

development

for

Internet-connected

Wearable

Once the hardware part of the product is complete (see previous sections), the battle is half won, but now we need to look at the development and costs of the software parts pertaining to cloud computing, which will be situated and embedded in the cloud (data management, broker, security, etc.), and the ways in which they interface with the end user. Cost of the platform and application in the cloud For CAPEX, the first time that a company embarks on such a venture, starting from absolute zero, to create the whole functional part of the application software platform (management of all the HTTP, MQTP, etc. protocols, customer interface, user-friendliness of sites, etc.), it is necessary to plan for a cost of an (engineer) employee/year, which represents approximately €60k salary + employer’s social security contribution + office costs + so on and so forth = in total, roughly €100k, and this software part often costs just as much as the hardware! Therefore, it is necessary to add 100,000/20,000 = €5 × 2 = €10 to the final sales price excluding VAT, making it up to roughly €200 excluding VAT. Then, for any new projects, using the infrastructure that has already been built, it is sufficient to spend approximately three to four months adapting the pre-existing structures for each specific application project, representing a cost of approximately €30k. It is up to you to balance all of these costs in order to charge a reasonable amount to your end client, and come up with your own plan to make a return on investment. 14.1.2. OPEX How much is the operational expenditure likely to cost? Once again, we need to break down the Wearable solutions into their constituent parts in order to gain an idea of the OPEX for a product, a business or a system. – What is the cost of the link, with or without Internet? – Is the operator unique and/or is the network proprietary? – What is the cost of renting use of its LPWA network? – Are the Wearables talkative (requiring a great deal of bandwidth), or not very (relatively little bandwidth required)? – Are the Wearables located near to or far from the cloud host? – What are the impacts of these parameters on the costs of each of these communications?

Cost Aspects

335

– Once we know the cost of the communications for each Wearable per month or per year, and have multiplied that by however many millions of Wearables we plan to produce, we need to consider whether that sum is payable on a monthly basis, a yearly basis, all at once, etc. – If the network extends overseas, what are the costs of roaming with the network operator to recover the data locally? – The operator is paid to carry information and transmit it to the users, but in what form of data? Raw data? Already processed data? From where? – And many other questions of the same ilk. In actual fact, this is where the work really starts! 14.1.2.1. Examples in Wearables The following offer a few informal examples of elements of a response to some of the points above. Case of Sigfox For its proprietary network, Sigfox offers a rate which decreases with the number of Wearables we wish to connect, ranging from €8 to €0.70 per Thing, per year (these figures need to be updated in hours and time). Case of LoRa Three circumstances may occur: yes, maybe or no (Figure 14.1).

Figure 14.1. Examples of the three specific cases of LoRa applications. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/paret/wearables.zip

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– You can choose to build your own network, and buy and install antennas yourself. In this case, you need to take into account the cost of installing your own local network, with two or three or n antennas. – You want to make use of an existing operator’s network (for example, Orange, Bouygues, etc.) which also provides you with other services for the same price. Today, these operators’ rates are somewhat unclear, and we need to wait until they make overtures to businesses to conduct a true discussion of their pricing differences. 14.1.2.2. Cost of application platform in the cloud Having paid the pseudo-operators or operators, you then need to create your own software applications for the end users and those surrounding the broker, which are both situated in the cloud, and of course, fund them partially from the OPEX consumable budget. For example, Amazon (AWS) offers, for your application, a secure broker in the transactional direction of the exchanges, paid at output at a rate of 5USD for a million exchanges. Thus, it is up to you to obtain the information you need from your favorite service providers. 14.2. In conclusion If the marketing department of your company thinks that the planned smart Wearable application (20,000 units produced) can appeal to five different clients, we need to be sure that for each of the target clients, the sum paid in CAPEX for the company (even before the first unit is sold) of (20,000/5) × €200 excluding VAT = €800,000 = €800k represents a genuinely worthwhile investment producing a return, before beginning any work at all. In conclusion, let us look again at the well-known mantra we cited earlier: “the ‘saleable’ sales price of the product must correspond to the ‘buyable’ cost price from the point of view of the end client to whom we wish to sell it”. Now all you need to do is decide on your own approach!

Conclusion

We now come to the end of this tome, whose aim was to offer readers a modest overview of smart, connected (securable) Wearables, Textiles and Apparel, the regulatory, economic, etc. context surrounding them, their applications, the technologies involved and a basic understanding of the complete chain for Wearables: smart textiles and apparel that can be connected via the Internet, from their design ideas to concrete industrial realization. Throughout this book, our intention has been to give readers as clear a view as possible of all the lengthy and various steps with which you need to be familiar before venturing into the wild jungle that is the vast world of Wearables and connected smart apparel. It is true that certain commercial services offered by certain networks may appear to ease this path, and suggest that it is easy to implement such applications, but the reader must be fully aware of what is often hidden behind the convenience, to avoid any nasty surprises in the future. Our main aim, therefore, was to train the reader to be able to create permanent gateways between Wearables, fabrics, smart apparel, hardware and software, between the electronics and the computing components, between financial and societal values, etc. It is our hope that through this book, our purpose has, to some extent, been achieved. Should you have any questions, comments and remarks (constructive, of course!), you will find the authors’ contact details below. We will always be happy to hear from you: it can only bring enrichment to all involved! Dominique PARET

[email protected]

Pierre CRÉGO

[email protected]

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Appendix Reputable Players

In addition to the numerous references, sites and documents cited in the foregoing chapters, the following are a few websites (although by no means an exhaustive list) for the main organizations, schools, competitive clusters, well-known and reputable companies and other players involved in this field, all drawn from the authors’ native France. The Direction générale des entreprises – DGE, Directorate General for Business – devises and implements State policy in relation to industry, the digital economy, tourism, trade, craft and services. Through the regional directorates for business, competition, consumer welfare, labor and employment, it encourages creation, development, innovation and competition in businesses of all sizes, both in France and internationally. www.economie.gouv.fr/creation-direction-generale-desentreprises. The networks Centres Techniques Industriels – Industrial Technical Hubs – were formed through the desire of professionals in a range of fields to enable businesses to share equipment, skills and information to which they would otherwise not have access. www.reseau-cti.com/. The Union des Industries Textiles – UIT, Union of Textile Industries – is the mouthpiece for businesses in the textile sector, including the various specialties (cotton and wool, linen, thread-making, rope-making and net-making, silks, lace and embroidery, artificial and synthetic textiles, finishing, etc.) throughout France. Drawing upon its network, it strives to create a legal, social, fiscal and commercial environment, and sustainable development, which is favorable to the textile industry. At national, European and international level, it protects intellectual property, works to foment a Europe-wide industrial policy, and backs all initiatives that are likely to help SMEs to innovate and export. In addition, the UIT has formed cooperation

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agreements with the majority of professional associations in big textile-producing countries. www.textile.fr/. Paris, France. The Union Française des Industries de l’Habillement – UFIH, French Union of Clothing Industries – is an institution representing an enormous economic sector. Made up of four federations representing integrated industrial groups, ordering clients, manufacturers and finisher services, the UFIH defends the interests of the profession in general. www.lamodefrancaise.org. The Institut Français du Textile et Habillement – IFTH, French Institute for Textiles and Clothing – has a wealth of expertise in textiles, accumulated over more than 60 years’ experience in very diverse sectors of activity: ready-to-wear clothing, medical and paramedical devices, sports equipment, lingerie, cosmetics, hygiene, aeronautics, the automotive industry, personal protective equipment (PPE), building materials, smart textiles, geosynthetics, etc. www.ifth.org. Paris, France. Competition hub UP-tex – Working on behalf of businesses, UP-tex encourages and aids the commercialization of all sorts of creative, innovative ideas emerging from businesses and the associated scientific world. The hub aims to bring about concrete implementation of these ideas, on the ground, by helping businesses to grow, encouraging the hatching of new schemes, and thus helping to create jobs. uptex.innovationstextiles.fr. Tourcoing, France. Competition hub TECHTERA – Techtera – Textiles and Soft Materials – brings the key factors in competition to bear: the capacity for innovation, development of growth and employment in growing markets. This hub, situated in Lyon, at the heart of the region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, is a national leader in socalled technical textiles. www.techtera.org. Lyon, France. Sable Chaud – Florence Bost – Sable Chaud (literally meaning “hot sand”) contributes the founder Florence Bost’s expertise and experience in the integration of new technologies into textiles or soft supports. Her proclaimed artistic approach and training as a designer mean that she is able to serve as an intermediary, before your R&D projects begin, forming part of creative teams and new professional organizations with numerous constraints. www.sablechaud.eu/ – The site offers an excellent technical glossary for the field. Paris, France. ENSAD – Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs – www.ensad.fr. Paris, France.

Appendix

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ENSAIT – Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Industries Textile – www.ensait.fr/. Roubaix, France. GEMTEX – Textile Research Laboratory – www.gemtex.fr/. Roubaix, France. CETI – Centre Européen des Textiles Innovants – www.ceti.com/. Tourcoing, France.

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References

Dias, T. (2015). Electronic Textiles: Smart Fabrics and Wearable Technology. The Textile Institute and Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Koncar, V. (2016). Smart Textiles and Their Applications. The Textile Institute and Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Kromer, R.C. (2008). Smart Clothes: Ideengenerierung, Bewertung und Markteinführung. Gabler Edition Wissenschaft, Springer, Wiesbaden, Germany. Mattila, H. (2006). Intelligent Textiles and Clothing. The Textile Press and Elsevier, Cambridge, England. McCann, J. and Bryson, D. (2009). Smart Clothes and Wearable Technology. The Textile Institute and Elsevier, Oxford, England. Pailes-Friedman, R. (2016). Smart Textiles for Designers: Inventing the Future of Fabrics. Laurence King Publishing, London, England. Paret, D. (2008). RFID en ultra et super hautes fréquences : UHF-SHF. Dunod, Paris, France. Paret, D. (2016a). Design Constraints for NFC Devices. ISTE Ltd, London, and Wiley, New York. Paret, D. (2016b). Antennas Designs for NFC Devices. ISTE Ltd, London, and Wiley, New York. Paret, D. (2018). Véhicules Autonomes et connectés. Dunod, Paris, France. Paret, D., Boutonnier, X., and Houiti, Y. (2012). NFC (Near Field Communication) : Principes et applications de la communication en champ proche. Dunod, Paris, France. Schneegass, S. and Amft, O. (2017). Smart Textiles: Fundamentals, Design, and Interaction. Springer, Berlin, Germany.

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Index

A, B, C active textile, 16 AFE (analog front-end), 214, 218, 226, 235 ANSES, 48, 50 antennas, 42, 48, 70, 83, 111, 112, 120, 121, 143, 146–148, 172, 175, 233, 244, 268, 279, 288, 332, 336 approval, 57, 329, 331 automobile, 6, 55, 75, 82, 123, 125, 165, 166, 174, 175, 215, 257 biometric data, 59, 217 biotechnology, 161 BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy), 6, 7, 61, 103, 104, 130, 175, 195, 196, 233, 244, 272, 273, 277–279, 283, 303, 321, 322, 328 BOM (Bill of Material), 328, 329, 331, 333 bracelet, 7–9, 17, 18, 20–22, 45, 48, 62, 84, 85, 87, 88, 94, 104–107, 112, 156, 161, 211, 231, 276, 279 CAPEX, 97, 312, 327, 328, 331, 334, 336 cardiology, 158, 181, 186, 187 CEN (Comité européen de normalisation), 10, 12, 13, 15, 56, 58, 73–75, 78, 204 certification, 44, 47, 52, 54, 323, 331, 332

cloth, 72, 126, 137, 138, 141, 208, 249 Cloud, 7, 17, 47, 53, 62, 65, 66, 68, 87–89, 95, 115, 116, 125, 159, 165, 169, 182, 185, 188, 197, 280, 289, 301–303, 307, 309–312, 327, 328, 334, 336 connected watches, 20, 21, 108, 131, 276 connectors, 80, 143, 159, 175, 253, 257, 258 constraints due to radiation and pollution, 48 CPU (central processing unit), 206, 235 CSP (Public Health Code), 21, 51, 182 D, E, F data of a personal nature, 51, 52, 55, 57–59, 61, 62, 95, 182 development costs, 97, 319, 330 display and display units, 245 ECG (electrocardiography), 33, 53, 62, 179, 184, 185, 187, 201, 206, 208, 214, 217–221, 226, 227, 230–233, 235 eco-techno textiles, 16 electrochromic materials, 11, 256 energy aspects, 44 harvesting, 45, 201, 203, 217, 239, 240, 243, 244, 277

346

Wearables, Smart Textiles & Smart Apparel

ennoblement, 79, 101, 138–140, 142 environmental regulations, 70 epilepsy, 21, 96, 158, 182, 183, 225 ergonomic aspects, 40, 42 e-textiles, 9, 77, 203 ETSI, 29, 49, 56, 74, 76, 78, 86, 285, 290, 294, 331 exposure of the human body to electromagnetic fields, 50 fashion, 9, 18, 24, 25, 30, 85, 94, 101, 107, 112, 118, 124, 149, 169–171, 174, 175, 201, 241, 244, 249, 254, 331 fibers natural, 135 optical, 137, 138, 141, 142, 149–152, 170, 247, 251–253 smart, 133, 134, 152, 153, 156–160, 163 synthetic, 135 Fog computing, 311–313 fusing/merging sensor data, 207 G, H, I GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation), 28, 54, 58, 59, 61–63, 65, 68, 86, 118, 123, 125, 160, 196, 207, 325 glasses, 5, 8, 17, 67, 112, 113, 124–126, 172, 193 graphene-coated thread, 163 health and medicine, 21, 25 recommendations, 50 hot spots, 144, 146, 281 ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection, 29, 48, 50 IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), 73–76, 78, 214, 331 innovation, 30, 32–34

ironing, 15, 80, 83, 84 L, M, N LED (light-emitting diode), 24, 125, 138, 148–151, 170, 171, 193, 195, 201, 248–250, 252, 321, 328 level of security, 93, 96 link balance, 267, 269, 279 liquid crystals, 248, 254, 255 LoRa, 7, 61, 115, 244, 272–274, 284, 286, 291–294, 298, 303, 320, 321, 332, 335 LR, 49, 78, 244, 271, 272, 274, 277, 283, 284, 286, 287, 291, 293, 294, 301, 303, 321 LR LTN, 284, 286, 287, 291 LR WB, 284, 293, 294 LTE and LTE-M, 294 luminous textiles, 149, 150, 248, 254 mandate 436, 56, 57, 59 measuring electrodes, 259 medical devices, 5, 21, 22, 47, 51, 53, 54, 72, 76, 128, 169, 181, 182, 186, 214, 218, 221, 222, 231, 295, 301, 312, 313 Wearables, 22, 308, 309, 313 mobility data, 60 MR (medium range), 271, 274, 280, 303 nanotechnology, 161, 163 O, P, R OLED (organic light-emitting diode), 162, 251 operated RF networks, 272 operational distance, 267 OPEX, 97, 312, 327, 334, 336 organic electronics, 161, 162 pets, 118 PIA (privacy impact assessment), 56, 58, 59, 61, 64, 65, 69

Index

post-sale, 27, 28, 84, 86 power consumption, 235, 236, 240, 256, 279, 284, 285, 308 PPE (personal protective equipment), 25, 26, 48, 60, 63, 65–70, 77, 81, 84, 85, 88, 96, 114, 115, 129–131, 153, 156, 169, 177, 192, 193, 195, 196, 198, 208, 217, 218, 222, 226, 227, 231, 244, 249, 269, 273, 277, 279–283, 286, 291, 294, 295, 301, 308, 310, 312, 313, 321, 340 privacy by design, 59, 61, 64, 65 regulators and regulations, 270 regulatory aspects and recommendations, 47 ROI (return on investment), 41, 42, 191, 193, 225, 334 S, T, U scavenging, 45, see also energy harvesting second skin, 60, 153, 157–159, 218, 231 security aspects, 39, 86 target, 89, 90 shoes, 5, 8, 9, 25, 67, 69, 85, 88, 113–115, 119, 120, 193, 243, 249

Sigfox, 7, 61, 78, 115, 120, 191, 244, 272, 274, 286–290, 293, 294, 298, 302, 303 signal processing, 205, 259 Silver Economy, 153, 154 smart textile system, 12, 13, 80 social care, 189, 190 spinning, 83, 140 sport, 25, 33, 69, 104, 113, 140, 153, 156, 201 and wellbeing, 25 SPS (smart passive sensor), 217 SR LTN, 275, 276, 277 wide band, 275, 277 TCP/IP model, 279, 297–299 textile material, 10–12, 24, 74, 75, 77, 138, 146, 161, 162, 167 system typologies, 12 trackers, 33, 115, 116 unoperated networks, 272 V, W VSR (very short range), 275, 276 washing, 80, 83 well-being, 22, 153, 154, 201, 212

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