Ways of Learning

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CHILDCRAFT WAYS OF LEARNING

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FOURTEEOI VOLUIV1ES VOLUIVIE ELEVEN

WAYS OF LEARNING

FIELD ENTERPRISES, INC.

CH CAG O I

CHILDCRAFT (Reg. U. S. Pat. Off.)

Copyright, 1949, U. S. A.

by Field Enterprises, Inc. Copyright 1947, 1945, 1942, 1939 by The Quarrie Corporation

Copyright 1937, 1935, 1934 by

The

W.

F. Quarrie

& Company

Child's Treasury

Copyright 1931, 1923 by

W.

F. Quarrie

& Company

International Copyright, 1949

by Field Enterprises,

Inc.

International Copyright, 1947

by The Quarrie Corporation

All

rights

reproduced

reserved. in

This

whole or

volume may not be in

part

in

any

form

without written permission from the publishers.

Printed in the U.

S.

A.

CONTENTS Parents Sholt-d Expect of the \T'iIIiani H. Kilpatrick School

Language

\\'h.\t

.

.

Emotional Factors Learning. What Emotions

i

in Children's

10

Confusion and Frustration Because of Restric12

tions

Confusion in the Face of New Difficulties What Emotions Speed up or Aid Learning The Parents' Role in Learning and School Suc.

.-

15

gg 68

Le.\rning through LiTER.\TURE Eleanor

M. Witmcr

.

Nursery Rhymes Picture Books Books to Read Aloud

73 74

.

Poetry

75

Lands

Folk Tales and Fables

76

.

77 77 78 80

.

Bible Stories

The Nursery School

.

Ruth Andrus

Experiences Provided by Special

Problems

the Nursery School Encountered in Nursery

Schools

Home

29

and School Co-operation

Special Characteristics of Different Age Groups Grouping Nursery Children by Factors other

than

27

Age

The Nursery-School Teacher

30 30

Learning to Read

.

ScUc

E.

Moore

Readiness to Read .

87

.

93

.

95

Beginning Reading Developing Reading Attitudes and Skills Broadening Experiences through Reading

33

Reading for Fun Reading for Specific Study Purposes Measuring Achievement and Correcting Defi

87

95 96

.

The Kint>ergarten

ciencies

yiiiiam H. Brubalcer

36

The Nature of the Child of Kindergarten Age Growth in the Understanding of Young Chil-

38

dren The Kindergarten Room The Kindergarten Teacher Living Together in the Kindergarten Planning for the Child's Physical Development Guiding Children's Emotions Opportunities for Mental Growth Records and Reports Parents and Teachers as People

39

...

....

Learning to 39 40 41

43

46

\\^rite skills

.

.

.

Wahlert 104

Jennie

Involved in Learning to Write

105 108

Left-handed ness Cursive and Manuscript Writing

Teaching Handwriting Co-operation between Parents

.108

.

108

and

Teachers

109

Horn

113

47 48 49

Le.\rning to Spell

.

Ernest

Spelling Scores of a Second-Grade Class

Language Development How

the Child Learns

Language

.

99 100

.

....

Remedial Reading Programs

Progress in Teaching Spelling

Ethel Mahie Fall

83 05

Different Stages in Learning to Read

32 32

Functions and Value of Nursery Schools in a

Community

Books Young Children Can Read Books Older Children Eniov

The

71 72

Picture Books of Other

17

cess

63 gi

lo

with Learning anil

School Success?

62

Talents

Special

Sybil K. Richardson Interfere

Activities in School

Study of Indiviiiual Needs Corrective Teaching Speech Defects

^i 52

How

Parents

.

Can Help

113 119

120

Learning Arithmetic William A. Brownell 12-

Rate and Nature of Language Growth

53

The

Child's Place in Family Conversation Broadening Children's Experiences

55 57

Earliest

Writing Freedom of Speech for Children

58

Relations between

.

.

Letter

.

61

Number

128

Experiences

Home

and School Helping Children Understand Numbers

129

.

.

130

Childcraft

VI

PAGE Teaching Children to Count Giving Further Meaning to Numbers Teaching Children Number Combinations Giving Meaning to Number Combinations Teaching the Larger Numbers

130

Child

.

134

Denominate Numbers and Measurement Skills

Fractions

Involved in Computation

Verbal Problems Five Types of Difficulties

.

.

Translating Language into Mathematical

quirements Social Values of Arithmetic

Studies

Home

Environment Social in the School Environment The Child's Intellectual Life Expands in the

Social

Experiences for Children

.

Music in the Infant's Life Music for the Toddler Music for the Preschool Child Spontaneous Bodily Rhythmic Activities Music for the Young School Child The Enjoyment of Music Extends a Child's Ho.

rizons

The

138

School 203 Guiding the Science Interests of Young Children 204 Learning to Seek Facts 206 Learning to Obtain Scientific Information 208 Learning to Use Books and Other References 209 Learning to Use the Radio 210 Learning to Appreciate Nature 211

Parents' Role in the Science

First

146 152

202

Science

EUis C. Persing 213

.

1

59 i6o 162

.

.

.

213 .

.

.

Experiments with Light Experiments with Sound Experiment with Motion Scientific Principles

219

225 227 228

Applied to Toys

.

.

.

228

166 169 172

Home and

School Co-Operation Ernest G. Osborne 232 .

Home

and School

Attitudes of Teachers toward the

.

the

Simple Experiments in Experiments with Water and Air Simple Experiments with Electricity

B. Crofoot 180 .

Grade

Program of

Attitudes of Parents toward the School

The Value of Self-Expression through Art The Child's Growth in Art Expressions The Child's Workshop and Materials

199 201

u8

Relative Responsibility of

.

198

Program

Science in the Middle Grades

176

Drawing, Painting, and Irene Modeling

198

Science in the Kindergarten and

156

.

Ideal Science

.

.

143

.

Music in the Child's Development Helen Christianson

Science Taught in the Schools?

137

143

.

.

Is

137

139 140

....

How An

Re

Mary M. Reed

.

Development Development

GJcnn O. BJough 197

.

Parents' Attitude toward a Child's Questions

135 136

Learning through Social Social

.

Young

134

.

Common

PAGE

Science for the

Work and

.

Home

,

.

.

.

Play Together

iSi

Contacts of Teachers with the Parents

184

Pupil Contribution to

192

Organized Parent-Teacher Groups

.

Home-School Relations

....

233 235 236

239 240 243

245

Ey

rreiich from Cushlng

School should be a place where children can be happy. Good schools provide the room and equipment needed for both individual and group activities.

WHAT

PARENTS SHOULD EXPECT OF THE SCHOOL WILLIAM

ACCORDING

to Dr. Kflpatrick,

H.

KILPATRICK

Emeritus Profes-

sor of Education. versit}-.

Teachers College, Columbia Uniparents ha\ e a right to expect teachers to be

acti%ely interested in planning with

that the children

may be

them

in order

well equipped for happv

and successful living in a democratic societ\-. The home, the school, and the communit\- must all co-operate. Dr. Kilpatrick's introduction to "W'avs of Learning" will help both parents and teachers to understand the modern school. Children learn as they live. Parents and teachers must, therefore, see to it that what thev ask the child to learn is fit to be learned and li\ed.

TO SOME,

the idea that parents should expect definite things from the school to which their children go may seem quite out of place. It

often

is

felt

that only the school people

should have any responsibility or real concern for what goes on in the schools.

Such an attitude

is

completely errone-

ous. Parents ha\e ever}- right to expect

and school officials to be intere\en eager, to establish a partner-

teachers ested,

ship ^^ith the

home

in the business of

educating the children of the community-. Tlie school is responsible for providing the more definitelv organized and planned experiences ^^•hich educate the child.

But

it

cannot be successful unless community do

the home, church, and

their share to guide the child's learning.

As

in

anv partnership, each partner

has special functions and particular jobs. Much emphasis is given in Childcraft to the part that parents play in the

Childcraft e\'en^dav

education

and guidance

of

their children. \Miat, then, are the duties of the school?

What

responsibilities

does it have? Wliat co-operation should it expect from the home, the church, and the community? Funcfions of the School. Not too many vears ago, the main job of the school was considered to be book learning— the development of the writing,

arithmetic,

of reading,

skills

and the learning

of facts thought to be important.

home and community

Then

provided

the

the

they carry on in school.

acti\'ities

They

who

learn differ

consideration

from them

others

for

and

in capacity

achievement. In such a school, children learn through living more than they learn through words, spoken or written. In so far as practical matters are concerned, learning by doing is no new theory. Homes have always practiced it. But the old-fashioned school could not ha^'e followed such a principle even had it

\\-ished to

do

The

so.

lessons

ga\'e

it

children to learn could hardlv be lived

compelled, then, to assign

rich varietv of other experiences neces-

at

But along with the development of a more highly industrial societv, living became less simple. The need for learning to work and to get along with others became greater. The school had to take on tasks that parents had neither the time nor the preparation to handle. Indeed, in some

these lessons as tasks and duties and to

for

sary

living

a

full

life.

communities, parents came to feel they no longer had anv important part in the education of their children. Today, the school continues to provide the child with skills in the three R's. In addition, however, it tries to provide opportunities for character building

and

Through observation, and

personality development.

trips,

work

experiences,

participation,

children

learn

firsthand

It felt

all.

force children

to

memorize words.

It

was thought that the school was "teaching" because it required of its pupils

"work

in

definite

amounts

definite

at

times and of approved quality."

It was thought that the pupils were "learning"

perseverance, patience, faithfulness, liability,

and

sincerity,

re-

In

earnestness.

however, such a procedure made the avoidance of punishment or the sereality,

curing of good marks the main criterion.

Quite often children forgot what they had studied before thev even came to recite

forgot

it.

Or,

it

if

they could recite

it,

they

by examination time. Or,

if

they passed the examination, they forgot most of it when they left school. The

what kind of world they live in, and, more important, they learn to live well together. If such a school program is well planned and executed, respect for human personality and the worth of people will come before any other objective or aim. Nothing is more important

he accepts

in a democratic society.

people, afraid of public opinion, live one

Children learn to respect other people's

and points of view. They share and to co-operate through

ideas

learn to

the group experiences of helping to plan

old-fashioned school erred because

it

did

not recognize the fact that the pupil's learning and behavior is based on what in his heart. \\Tiat

he does

outwardlv, under compulsion, with his heart opposed to

it,

is

neither learned

nor reallv accepted. For instance,

many

way when people can their

often

see them, but in another way, and that other way when they

hearts li\-e

prefer

think thev will not be found out. These

By Algner from Monkmeyer

Through construction

activities children acquire information. At the they learn to use their knowledge and to work effectively with others.

people build a disjointed character. They are one thing to one person, another thing to another person. They pretend

one thing and do something Acceptance in the heart is the factor that really determines what will be

to believe else.

built into character.

The demand then concern

itself

quality of living

is

that the school

primarily with the real

and uith the acceptance

of this finer quality in the hearts of the

same

time

pupils. If the school fails in these respects,

the pupils

may

de\-elop

such

wrong character traits as resistance and resentment, which often show themsehes in such \\avs as cheating to pass or even" when teachers are not looking. If the school concerns itself with the kind of living and learning disin "getting

cussed here,

it

will

need the

fullest

co-operation of parents in building

program. Only as school and

its

home and

When

classes are small, the teacher is study the individual needs of each child. A child's learning activity

able

to

can then be planned according to his readiness for the learning.

formal arithmetic is giveri that the children can really understand and will use in their everyday li\'es. Children should not be expected to sit silent and motionless all day, Keystone View Co.

community groups plan together

other

books.

It

studying lessons assigned in

has been found that proper

study includes little formal memorizing and frequentlv goes on best when the

can thev achieve richness and fuhness of hving and learning for their children. What Should the School PiogTam Be?

the schoolhouse. Children should share

Parents differ considerably in their think-

in

ing on

what the school program should

Some demand

be.

the kind of school

they themselves attended. Others want the school to adopt some "new approach," simply because they have heard that this is "the latest thing" in educa-

education should, like womsimply follow the shifting stvles. Still others wish only the best education for their children, and they tion, as

en's

if

hats,

therefore, very desirous of finding

are,

out what that best is. Some of the best will be old and Children should learn to read, to

and

tried. spell,

do arithmetic; they should speak the truth, and learn to respect the rights and feelings of others; they should be able to persist to a rea-

to

write,

to

sonable conclusion of every enterprise properly undertaken. Other parts of the best

may be new

to

many

parents. For

should not be expected to learn to read the first term in school, or even the first year. Formal arithmetic should not be taught in the first three grades; instead, an in-

instance,

all

first-grade children

children are talking things over together or are engaging in activities outside of

mapping out the work they is one good

Pupil happiness

will do.

sign

of

teacher success.

Since tices are

many of these theories and pracnew to many parents, it is neces-

sary, perhaps, to

go a

little

more fully into

the meaning of the best in education in order to see

how

parents and teachers

can co-operate for the highest good of the children concerned. The Child as an Individual. Parents should expect teachers to be interested in each child as a person— a person-inthe-making, yes— but also as a person now while the child is young. It is strange how slow mankind has been to recognize that children are real persons,

even though small and immature; that the life pangs and joys of children are as real to them as they are to adults. In the past, children were suppressed. The belief was, "Children should be seen but not heard." They were dressed like small

any picture before the nineteenth century shows. There were no

adults, as

books cessful

for children.

The

book written

first really

for

suc-

them, Swiss

What

Parents Should Expect of the School

Family Robinson, did not appear until 1813. In those days schools were terrible places for the young. Less than a hundred vcars ago, a children's primer, entitled

Reading Without Tears, was pubgood

lished. Until ven' recently, reall\-

and

intelligent people simplv could not

feel that child life

on

culti\ated

meant

to the

as well as for

was

real life, to

be

own level for what it child when he was a child, what it could lead to when its

he became an adult. At last, many people are coming to see that the school should be a place in which children are expected to be happy. Some people still cannot underthey think that to plan for children to be happy means to turn them loose to run wild. Exactly the opstand

this;

posite

is

meant

here.

If

children live

wildness, they will learn wildness.

They

need supemsion and guidance. Alone, they have neither the knowledge nor the enable them to choose or plan ways of li\ing that can be depended

will to

upon to make them live well now and grow properly into the next stage.

Children in the school as in tlic home should be treated witli consideration, not simply scolded and ordered about. As far as possible they should understand what is expected of them. If thcv are made to act without understanding, they may build not only a confused mind but a lack of confidence in themselves, in their parents, or in their teachers.

Cliildren should be encouraged to think at their own level. They should

be given as much responsibilitv as they can manage. Tliey should be encouraged, under guidance, to develop also

purposes of their own. By working out plans of their own, children learn to search out means to ends, to persevere,

and ess

to apply their thinking. is

All

The Children

Such

a proc-

real education.

Teachers and parents must learn that each child has his own indi\"idualitv and

must be treated accordingly. Indi\idualitv does not mean freedom to do just as one wishes or to be odd or queer. Selfrespect cannot be built properly on whims; it grows on reasonable thoughts and acts. Even today, however, there are man\- people

From

5

who

are

unable to see

But and rights of children recognized, modern educators can-

what stands

so plainly before them.

until these needs

are

not eliminate altogether the old deadly school procedure with its memorizing and punishment. School Activities Must Be on the Child's

Level.

what they

live,

Because children learn parents should expect a

school to provide the finest quality of

In a

modern school, the young child is move about and to choose his

free to

own activities. Children learn best as they live real experiences which are on their level of development.

Childcraft living possible. Tlie school

must be

so

a conducted that each chance really to live and practice each

child has

desirable character

fair

and personality

trait.

Let there be no mistake about it, this means a really different kind o: school from those with which most adults are familiar. It

is

a school

where

acti\ities

are suitable to the children's years. first sight, it

may seem much

as

if

At

they

were at play. The teacher, however, alwavs concerned with looking ahead, guides the activity so that it not only interests the children, but also pro\ides the basis for developing desirable traits. For instance, first-grade children will live, and in some measure learn, orderly arrangement when they plan their luncheon. Thev learn to count by setting the table with the right number of plates and cups and spoons. They learn to cooperate bv talking over what they will do and carrying out what has been decided.

Thev

learn perseverance, in

its

be-

ginning stage, by wishing to finish what they are about, and sticking to it, in spite of difficulties.

not have seats planned for children's living has chairs and tables which can easily be moved about. If money permits, another room will be provided in ^^•hich tools and workbenches will be kept so that such noisy activities as hammering and sawing will not interfere with the quieter activities. In a word, the modern schoolroom and its equipment allows a kind and degree of real child living which was not dreamed of at the time desks were placed in straight rows and screwed down. A good school will also have plenty of play space— ample playgrounds outside and a gymnasium inside. Children need This sort of school

and

will

to learn to play together.

As children games builds co-operation, give-and-take, and eventually the spirit of good sportsmanship. The number of children under the grow

older, the placing of

supervision of each teacher should be limited or the individual child will be

overlooked.

Parents must co-operate with teachers to keep classes from getting too big. How big depends partly on available

money. Forty

is

counted the

maximum beyond which no

elementar}' school class should go, but this is too big to enable the teacher to give proper attention to the individual child. Thirtyis better; thirty is counted the proper maximum for reallv good schoolwork. Twenty-five would be better for

five

the younger children, and the preschool

must be smaller still. This kind of school will not give class marks and will not send out the old-t}pe report cards. In fact, it may not use report cards at all. Class marks are apt almost to destroy the chance of any fine classes

existing between teacher and pupil and, without such a relation, eflfecrelation

tive

guidance cannot take place.

At

desks. Tlie school

first, it

may seem

some

strange to

be no talk about promotion or failure. Promotion is an idea based on subject matter alone; it does not fit into a school which is primarily

but there

will

interested in building character. If possible,

each child should be placed with

those with

whom

will usuallv

he can

This be according to social age. live best.

Even the old-type school found by study that refusal to promote

tific

in

its

scien-

failed

purpose.

Curricuium in Terms of Living Experiences. Obviously, the curriculum of the

modern school

curriculum

of

the

will differ

older

from the

school.

Ex-

What

Parents Should Expect of the School

periences in actual li\ing seldom, stav \\ithin the di\"ision lines subjects.

A woman

child's dress

if e\'er,

between

buying cloth

for a

must know how much

to

bu\-, but is she li\ing arithmetic, or household arts, or motherhood, or all three? For this reason, the modern school is an actixity school. It teaches

and arithmetic and geograph}' and the rest, and better than the)' used spelling

to in

be taught, but assigned,

it

does not teach them

separate

lessons.

It

uses

and arithmetic and the other

spelling

subjects, just as adults do, in actual liv-

ing experiences. Tliere may be need special drill for indi\idual pupils,

most

for

but at

be a small part of the total seems necessary-, it is best done when the child also sees the need for it and \xorks at it as he does when he learns to skate. If such a curriculum is follo\\ed. it be-

work.

this will If

it

comes the

dut}" of the teacher to

know

need to learn in order to be well equipped to live a full, all-round life; what kno\x-ledge they should ha\-e; \\hat children

what

habits, attitudes,

will need. If she

and

knows these

skills

they

things, the

teacher has the proper basis for guiding the activities of her pupils.

Parents should not be troubled \xhen

thev find that their children are not

stud\ing at school in the same way the parents studied a generation ago.

beginning

away

child

at reading

Interest in

may not

start

or spelling.

and understanding

The right

Children

of

com-

necessary for good citizenship. Children gain some understandings through observation of community workers at work. As they get older, they will be able to share intelligently in actual community work.

munity

activities are

must be "ready" they start or

To

for these skills before

much harm may be

force anything

on

a child's

done.

mind

be-

he is "ready" may give him a case of "mental indigestion." Many a child has suffered because of such treatment. Parents should expect more trips and fore

excursions in their children's school davs than older people took in their school da\s. Tliis

is

one of the best wavs to is an cspecialh'

learn about the world. It

good way

for children to learn "to take

care of themselves." Before thev start

out on a what the}-

trip,

they will plan carefullv

are to do,

and the teacher

will

be xxatching over them all the time. After pupils have experienced a good man\' different kinds of such excursions, thev have acquired a reliabilit}', responsibility

make an

and self-confidence that

will

excellent beginning along the

road to\\ard practical wisdom. It is the business of the teacher to see to

it

that the cumulati\-e result of pupil

learnings through the Keystone View Co.

months and

years

Childcraft

8

more and more adequate and

gives a

all-round education according to the age

Some schools have been critifor too much repetition, studying

reached.

cized

"boats," for instance, during two or three successive years.

A new

teacher, perhaps,

did not take pains to find out what the previous teacher had done. If this should

happen, it is the fault of the teachers and not of the method. Each teacher should leave a full record of class activities during the year, and the principal or supervisor should see to it that the teachers from time to time consider the total effect of what the school as a whole is doing. If parents have any doubts, the questions should be brought to the teacher or,

The

if

necessary, to the principal.

school people are, of course, profes-

sional in such matters,

and the parents

Parents, however, should un-

are not.

derstand what

being done, and the teacher should be glad to talk things over with parents. Both must work cooperatively together for the common good of the children. If such a curriculum is properly developed and carried out, careful studies show that the children learn reading, is

spelling, arithmetic, as,

and

in

many

Children

this

new

school but at tion.

by the

In addition, the

new

gets better results in character

building.

under

so on, as well

cases better than,

older methods.

method

and

read

more books

teaching not onlv in

home and

while on vaca-

They enjov books more.

Pupils also

and judge far better than formerly. They do much better creative think, plan,

work; they get along better together; and they accept greater responsibilitv for getting things done. older, they

become more

As they grow interested in

thoughtful matters; they read more and

better papers, magazines,

show more public public

spirit

and books; they and concern for

affairs.

New

Ideas About Discipline. Some parents do not understand how schools can be run well with so little compulsion

and punishment press

it,

The

"with so

or,

as they often ex-

little discipline."

best judgment of those

studied

the question

is

who

that,

hr-ze

on the

whole, punishments as such should be abolished.

Most good

already. This does not

may not be until

schools

mean

know

this

that a child

deprived of some privilege

he can so act that he does not

inter-

fere with the proper living of others.

The

question of discipline joins at once with the most important aim of the school— the pupils' social-moral outlook and self-control in following that

outlook in their dailv beha\'ior. The old school tried to make children get the ideas of the good outlook, but it stopped there. The behavior required of the children was positive only in regard to studving and reciting. Otherwise, it was negative. All the evaluations and responsibilitv for performance were duties of the teacher. This was a very inadequate social-moral character-building program. Our affairs in this world are all so tied together that what one does almost alwavs affects the happiness and welfare of others. Each child, then, should always

be learning

how

to act so as to take ever

better account of others

how

and to

realize

them. This is one of the chief advantages of the moderntvpe school over the old-tvpe. Today, the children actuallv li\'e together, each ha\ing the opportunitv to learn how to treat others, all working together on comhis action affects

munitv affairs and learning how to get on in the world.

WiL\T Parents Should Expect of the School

9

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

\\Tiat do you think should be the major responsibihties of

agree with you?

Do

If

What

tlic

home

in the edu-

Do

your friends not, what do you believe are the reasons for disagreement?

cation of the child?

are the major responsibilities of the school?

and program of the school your child due to the reluctance of the school staff to talk with parents or vour reluctance to approach the school? In either instance, what mav be some good steps in developing an intelligent understanding of the school's program and policy? 2.

vou ha\e a

attends?

clear idea of the philosophy

If not, is this

3. What, if an\-. studies and activities were carried on when vou ^^•ent to school that vou think should be more definitelv included in vour child's school? Whv do vou think so? Ha\e vou ever discussed your feehng with your child's teacher or with the principal

of his school?

In what

4.

wav docs your

to his out-of-school life?

mav 5.

ha\'e

de\eloped at

Do

child earn.- over the interests he has dexelopcd in school you know whether the school accepts and uses interests he

home

or elsewhere?

W^hat do you believe schools have a right to expect from parents? Do vou know who would not be co-operative? Wliat do you think may cause their attitudes?

parents 6.

In

what

specific

ways ha\e you been able to co-operate with the school which your

\oungster attends? Do you feel that co-operation the attitude of the school people?

is

welcomed?

If not,

what may cause

7. If you were asked to be a member of a committee that was to propose changes in the educational program of the school to which your child goes, what would be some of the more important questions or policies you would want considered?

BOOKS TO READ Bain, Winifred E. How Parents May Judge the EHectiveness of the School's Program. Child Welfare Pamphlet No. 60. Iowa Cit}': The University- of Iowa Press, 1938.

Dewey, John. Experience and Education. Kilpatrick,

W.

H. Group Education

for a

New

York:

The Macmillan

Democracy.

New

Co., 1938.

York: Association Press,

1940.

National Society- for the Study of Education. "Child Development and the Curriculum." ThiTt\--eighth Yearbook oi the Society. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 1939.

United States Office of Education.

ment

Know Your

School. Washington, D.

Wrightstone, J. Wayne. Appraisal of Newer Elementary School Piactices. Teachers College, Columbia University Press, 1938. Rose. Glimpses into Child Life; the Twelve-Y ear-Old at York: William NIorrow & Co., 1942.

Zeligs,

New

C:

Govern-

Printing Office, 1939-41.

Home

New

York:

and School.

EMOTIONAL FACTORS CHILDREN'S LEARNING

IN

SYBIL

THE AUTHOR, who

is

K.

RICHARDSON

the coordinator of research

ability to learn goes

all sit-

W^ords already learned are more if followed by reading which is unpleasant and sad than when followed b}' reading which is pleasant and cheerful. Such facts naturally lead one to ask questions. For example: WTiat emotions interfere with learning and school success? Wliat kinds of feelings speed up or aid learning? How can

intelli-

parents and teachers help the child de-

gence and their emotions. They have emotional feelings as they

\elop emotionally so that he can best use his intelligence in learning?

HUMAN

uations

quickly forgotten

beings respond in ^^•ith

both their

are using their intelligence in learning,

and these

feelings

become attached

What Emotions

to

the things \\hich they learn. Wliile a boy learning the multiplication tables, he

Feelings of Insecuzity. All

Emo-

that he

is

is

praised

succeeding than

blamed and

feels that

he

is

and

be-

They

need to feel lo\ed and secure, and they need to obtain affectionate response from others. These needs are particularlv urgent in childhood and strongly

determine the kinds of things people can leam, how rapidly they learn, and how well they remember what they have learned. Poems which are liked are learned more quicklv than those \^hich are disliked. Learning is more rapid tions

the learner

human

ings have basic emotional needs.

also learning to like or dislike arith-

metic, his teacher, and his school.

Interfere with Learning

and School Success?

is

when

even further than

this.

they are emotionally disturbed or because they are being denied all expression of their own interests and abilities. Feelings of success and achievement, appro\al from others, and self-confidence will speed up the ability to learn.

is

upon the

of emotional feelings

effect

and guidance for the Los Angeles Countv Schools, emphasizes the importance of the child's first experiences. If his experiences are happy and satisfactory', and if he is sure of his parents' lo\e, he will respond freely and effecti\ely to learning situations. Some children cannot learn readily because

influence behavior.

Some alwavs

feels

when he is failing. The

children's emotional needs are unsatisfied

during early

are continually trying to get atten-

tion

and

praise.

Tlieir

e^•er^•

seems to be directed toward

lO

years.

Thev

thought this end.

ia

?'

^L^! r*vH?Sv:'» -

%i6^..v

Boys and

girls

work with

when allowed to follow their own interests.

zest

Collecting and organizing material to present to an interested audience is a

most valuable experience. Keystone View Co.

ents and relati\'es. This attention had become necessar}- to his security and happiness. \\Tien he came to school,

Such children cannot, therefore, respond well in learning situations. Margot felt that she had lost her parents' love when her younger brother arri\-ed. She clearly showed her jealousy and was often found trying to hurt him.

Her

Gary er's

He

attempts to correct her

ties

sen'ed only to further con\-ince Margot

sire

parents'

that they preferred the baby.

school

was

Margot

left

un^^illingly,

an

unhapp\'

Going

thirt\- other children. could not take part happily in activiin the classroom. He felt only a de-

to

attract his

attention,

teacher's

though he obtained it through disapprox'cd beha\ior. Thus, lo\-ing parents had unwittingh- blocked their child's

to

e^•en

experience.

Mother and Babv Brother and her thoughts were upon

learning in the school situation.

Louise had ne\-er plaved

good times thev were ha\"ing at \^-hile she was away. The teacher noticed that she was uninterested and the

home

hardl}- a\\'are of the other children.

disliked ha\ing to share his teach-

attention \\ith

It

seemed to Margot that school pre\-ented her from being loved at home. She began to learn reading and other skills only after she felt more secure in her parents' affection and realized that through learning she had opportunities for winning their approval. From his birth, Gary had recei\ed the

\^"ith

other

she was anxious to

came to school, and make friends. Louise

needed time children were

and opportunities

children before she

find

to like

out \\hat other to

them. In school, she was so concerned with the disco\'er \\a\s of plaving \\ith

other children that she paid little attention to the language and reading experiences \^-hich her teacher was pro^•iding for the group.

Margot, Garv, and Louise are exam-

constant attention of his de\oted par-

ples

11

of children

whose experiences

at

Childcraft

12

home have

not given them warm feelThey are unable to learn as parents and teachers expect them to learn because they must use the school ings of security.

situations to

sohe

their inner

and more

important needs. Tutoring in reading or extra help in spelling will not result in improved learning. Extra help may even be harmful if, for instance, it increases Margot's feelings of being disapproved or prevents Louise from playing with other children. Instead,

become

upon

ent

adults.

and

Joel became upset over difficult tasks. His fear of failure prevented him from applying himself to any task set before him. He was gi\en the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test alone after an exam-

iner

is

are

slow and

materials.

new

At school they

when asked the simplest questions. constantly replied, "Gosh, I can't. I'm dumb; I never get that stuff." WHien

He

Confusion and Frustration Because of Restrictions

When greatly

trated

carefully

watched

toys. start

out,

you may get

Marianne became

a fearful little

who them

ran to adults for help or looked for reassurance.

At school she

was anxious and slow, needing much encouragement and personal direction from her teacher. Her good intelligence did not work as it should because of her

to

fail,

or

a

becomes

child

confused.

is

frus-

Children in

one

are other children

Each

child was then allowed to

playing with

esting tovs,

some unusually

among them

a doll

inter-

house

enough to enter and an artificial complete with sandy beach and island. The children responded eagerly to these new and fascinating toys. As soon as a child became deeply interested, however, the experimenter took him back to the simpler and more falarge

lake

miliar toys

and adjusted

a screen so that

he could see but not reach the new and

caution and anxietv.

There

something which

denied

desired,

structiveness of their play with simple

concern for her safety, they frequently cautioned her, "Be careful, you

"Watch

activity.

nursery school were rated in the con-

their

to

in-

nerv-

any new

Marianne had been

girl

relation-

breathing

Joel's

and he became flushed and

creased,

over by her anxious parents. Because of

fall,"

him.

They

learn efficiently.

may

with

increasingly depend-

respond to learning situations in the same way. Upset by new demands, afraid to try in an unfamiliar situation, their attention is divided, and they cannot

hurt."

had established friendly

ships

encouraged, however, Joel was often able to respond correctly to the question which had first upset and confused him. Because Joel had been scolded and punished too much, he was convinced that he would fail, and he became panickv and emotionally upset whenever he tried

overcautious in their approach to situations

they do have.

ous

what these children need

help in finding a satisfving place among the adults and children with whom they live. Their ability to learn will increase as their emotional and social adjustments are improved. Timidity and Lack of Seli-Conhdence. Children who are shy, timid, and selfconscious

of their shortcomings, they cannot use to the best advantage the abilities which

who

expect

and, because thev are convinced

interesting play materials.

The

children

expressed in different ways their emo-

Only as children aie

free to

plan and

carry out their plans can they develop

Through and boys learn

play together,

effectively.

their

girls

the "give-and-take"

of co-operative activity.

tional disturbance at having

been denied

new to\s. Some cried or became angry; some tried to climb over the the

screen; others tried to \\hecdle the adult

into allowing

them

desirable tovs.

The

plav,

the

to go to the

self-help,

which had been sharply in almost

more

constructi\eness of

and the

displayed all

short time after the frustrating situation

was o\er, these children appeared to be less creatixe and less intelligent in their to

the very same materials

which they had previously enjoyed. In countless schoolrooms or at home, children work willingly but without interest at tasks which have no real meaning for them. The zest with which a bov collects rocks or stamps, constructs model airplanes, or follows other out-ofschool interests and hobbies disappears when he is faced with tasks \\hich have no definite relationship to his own strong interests.

Ray, a nine-year-old bov in the third seemed unable to remember the

grade,

He was listand uninterested in school. His teacher wondered whether he was bright enough to learn to read. An individual mental test, however, revealed that he had average ability. He was weak in some kinds of memon% but he showed excellent understanding. His judgment and ability in practical situations was supe-

simplest words in reading. less

lilack

bur

decreased

the children. Tlieir

responses to materials now became careless and lacking in imagination. For a

responses

By KuubuuiatL Hum

interest

rior. Because of his interest in airplanes, he had collected small cards describing

each type of plane and delighted in identifying planes as they flew overhead. He

complained about the book he was supposed to read saying, "It's baby stuff, with no sense to it." Ray was reading a primer story about a baby and a bunny which was far remo\ed from the normal interests of a nine-year-old boy. There was no relation between what Ray was expected to learn in school and his interest in the world about him. Other children, when continually curbed and kept within bounds, have developed emotional patterns of resistance. Tliev have acquired habits of rebellion which interfere with good learning. Their experiences with discipline have taught these children that adults do not understand their needs but interfere with their wishes. Their energy is directed toward protecting themselves from adults and resisting demands. Learning is often resisted, too, for it seems to the children to be just more demands from adults. Because of Jimmy's vigor and drive, he was alwavs interested in the materials 13

The toddler is full of curiosity. He is eager to do things for himself. Give him playthings which he can manipulate, and he will play happily without attention from anyone.

when

faced with

familiar

a

difficult

The

puzzle.

and un-

children

varied

widely in their persistence, some giving up in four minutes, others working for

more than two

hours.

responses were observed.

Many different Some children

immediately tried to get away from the situation while attempting to keep their self-respect by excuses: "My hay fever is

coming on."

"Mv

eyes hurt." Others

Frederic Lewis

around him. As a young he was "into e\enthing" and frequently broke or damaged toys and dishes. His parents were distressed by his destructiveness and attempted to restrain him. Jimmy's eagerness and interest might have been the basis of zest and satisfaction in learning, if he had been given toys that didn't break and helped to find constructive outlets for his energies. Instead, he became more concerned in resisting and fending off

and

activities

child,

all

demands upon him. He did not

finger

is

sistence to stay at the task.

Adults make similar responses

when

faced with unusually difficult or trying tasks.

People

who

are usually

get so excited that they

calm may

become con-

fused or emotionally disorganized.

It is

generally recognized that father's tem-

per at

learn

home

ma\' be short

when an impending.

well in school because he was accus-

tomed

otherwise efficient secretary

to ignoring or outwitting adult

is

An

may "blow

up" when correspondence accumulates

and guidance.

Confusion in the Face of

"Mv

tient and showed a forceful kind of an approach toward the material, wanting to break the ends of the puzzle or to "chop it off." Many children showed their lack of confidence by such comments as: "I'm no good at this." "I'm getting dumber." Several became so emotionally upset that they were unable to continue their efforts. Only a few showed sufficient determination and per-

portant business deal

direction

sore."

became very impa-

New

hopelesslv. Difficulties

tience

when

Mother may lose her pathe fam.ily demands on her

time are too great. Learning makes up

In Glimpses into Child Liie, an interstudv of tweh'e-vear-olds. Rose Zeligs described the reactions of children esting

children's lives,

H

and

a

large part of

their progress

is

un-

Emotional Factors

ln

der close and constant observation. Their personalit\" adjustment is frequentlv threatened b}- new difficulties thev meet in learning. Marilyn was a bright, happ\- little girl during her preschool vears. She was

and learned rapidlv. She recei\ed appro\al from adults \\ho were friendlv

with

pleased

Upon

her

entering the

howe\"er,

de\elopment.

rapid first

Marihn found

grade at school, difficultv in be-

word

ginning reading and recognition. Because this was an important part of her school experience, and because her teacher and parents became anxious and in

Marihn

disappro\"ing, herself.

Her

lost

confidence in

entire personality"

seemed

Children's Learning

15

makes it work?" "I low is it made?" "Wliere does it come from?" Beginning at about the age of two years, a child approaches e\er\thing about him with these attitudes:

He

ment and touch

is

eager to experi-

he wants to shake them and pull them, see what they sound like, feel like, and of what the}- are made. He chuckles and cries out to express his joy as he conquers the material and looks around for approval and appreciation of his efforts from adults. He never tires of taking the top off the jar or placing one pan reach;

within the other. Seif-Con/idence. Because he has been successful

in

the

the

past,

change because of this experience; she became spiritless and uninterested. Catherine had a\"erage success in

learner feels that

school until the fourth grade. At the

other problem. His attention

to

lem or difficult)-. he is willing to tn- again or

beginning of her vear in that grade she

upon the problem and not upon his

her class well started in multiplication.

Catherine became increasingly confused

and felt sick at arithmetic time. She became anxious and depressed, presenting a picture of and frequenth-

cried

effective

he can solve the probIf he finds he cannot,

had been absent. She returned

to find

within

object

ever)-

own

to is

its

tr\-

an-

centered solution,

feelings of inadequacv

These are the children who test, and gi\-e us harder problems to see if we can do them bv ourselves." The energ)-, eagerness, and determinaor failure.

often say, "Let's take a

unhappiness in contrast to her former

tion of the topical preschool child con-

happv appearance.

trast

What Emotions Speed Up

and or

Aid Learning?

strikinglv \nth listlessness of

the unwillingness

many

school-age chil-

dren. Ha\-e these children been denied

expression

of

their

own

and no longer

interest

Eagerness and Cuiiosity About Environment Studies of children and adults

abilities

who leam

and well show that

faced so man\- tasks to which they can

not colorless or without emotion. On the contran, thev feel eager and cheerful as they approach a problem, and they keep on attempting

bring no meaning or understanding that they have lost all enthusiasm? Or has

to sohe it because of the satisfactions which experience has taught them to expect. Such people, both as children and

to succeed?

rapidh"

their learning

is

adults, are the question askers:

"What

have

so often

an\-

that they

purpose? Have they wearily

repeated failure replaced their willingness to tr\- \^-ith a feeling of being unable

Personal Satisiaction and Outside Apis speeded up by look-

proval Learning

ing forward to the satisfaction to be felt

Instruction has more meaning when the child feels a need for it. The child who

helps plan and works independently is more apt to ask questions and to understand the explanations given him.

planned their own work with the help of the adult. Tliey were allowed to work together freely and to vary their plans purposes changed.

as their

The two groups showed

striking dif-

ferences in the beha\ior of the children, in the interest and progress of their ef-

and in the quality of their work. In the autocratic groups, the children did not continue work unless supenised forts,

Press Syndicate

when

success

is

achieved.

The

by the adult. They showed

learner ex-

pects this satisfaction because he has ex-

perienced

it

in

the past

when he

ti\-e

and were

unfriendly to one another and to the adult leader. They felt little satisfaction

has

been successful. His knowledge of the fun and the thrill of success keeps him

when

little initia-

or interest in the project

or interest in the completed products.

Although the learner may not always be successful, he feels happy as he rec-

In the democratic groups, the children developed morale and strong group feeling. They were interested and eager

ognizes that others appreciate his efforts.

in

tr\ing

The

child

faced with difficult tasks.

who

has not had frequent

making

They

plans.

nation, self-help,

and

displayed imagi-

responsibility

when

the ap-

the adult was absent from the group.

proval of others for his effort cannot look

Tlie children were appreciative of their

forward to these satisfactions; therefore,

adult leader's help and satisfied

he has nothing for which to work. A studv was made at the Uni\-ersity of Iowa to determine the conditions under which children respond best. Groups of bovs were organized into clubs for the construction of model airplanes, masks, and similar play materials. Some of the groups were designed to follow an "autocratic" plan. That is, the adult leader gave all directions and assignments,

the product of their efforts.

experience with success and

felt

praised or reproved the children's

These studies suggest that children find the strongest desire to learn

when

they also experience the most satisfying personal their

work

growth.

Freedom

own purpose and

to

outline

to help plan the

creates the interest

and progress

that are necessan' for effective learning.

Under

these conditions, too, children

improve their relationships with one another and with adults and de\-elop selfreliance and responsibilitv. Classrooms in which all direction is given by the teacher, with the children

ef-

and

closely supervised their work. groups were characteristically "democratic" in spirit. The children

forts,

with

Other

16

Emotional Factors

ix

Children's Learning

taking no part in planning, do not de-

much

disapproval

\clop creative and intelligent students.

given,

and the

Lessons assigned by adults because thev will be of \alue in the future, but which

his parents' lo\e.

answer no immediate need or purpose, mechanically learned and often quicklv forgotten. A few children mav seem to do better if they are scolded or allowed to compete for prizes and stars. Under this s^•stcm. howcxer. thev do not obtain skills in working co-operativelv with others; neither do thev develop independence, initiative, and responsibility. Many other children not only learn poorly under such methods; are

become discouraged

they also

or con-

trary Because of the emotional

tudes created in school they use their abilities well later in

atti-

may not

Learning and School Success

The Parents' Role

in

make

adults

happy and

there

bv

If

a babv's early experiences

satisf^ing, his responses are

where comlanguage and curi-

are cared for in institutions is

little

individual attention

pare unfax'orabh- in ositv

Security.

be rich and varied. Children

likelv to

who

Emotional

Child

with children

families.

who

The parents'

are cared for

use of language,

continuous and early efforts to teach the child new words, games, and songs, all help to develop his personality and interests and lav the basis in un-

their

derstanding for his later learning. As children get older, parents begin to

direct

pro\al

their

beha\ior

through

ap-

and disapproval. Sometimes too

a child's attempts to help her mother do the housework are gladly accepted and approved, she develops self-confidence and an eagerness to learn.

If

He

feels that

they

dis-

feeding herself ver\' trying because she W'as so anxious to have her

efforts at

and

correctlv. Sally

was scolded or sent from the table spilling milk or for eating vvith her

fin-

and

ate

gers.

Give

punishment is to doubt

approve not only of the beha\ior fault but also of him. lie mav become so anxious to maintain his parents' love and approval that he docs not dare to risk failure and subsequent disapproval. In many situations where there is opportunity to learn he mav not respond at all. His development and the ease with which he learns mav be seriously slowed up by this caution and restraint. Sally's mother was a good housekeeper, quick and competent in eventhing she did. She found Sallv's first

child learn quicklv

life.

or

child begins

Soon

Sally gave

up

so slowlv that she often

Bv the time she was

trying

had

for

to be fed.

five years old, Sally

was so dependent that she waited

for

her mother to dress her and to help her in all routines.

Children need to H

Arnistronc Roberts

feel secure in their

Childcil\ft

.8

and acceptance. They some beha\'ior may be disappro\ed they, themsehes, are loved and approved. The atparents' affection

must be helped

to feel that while

tention of adults should center primarilv

upon the

child's intention or his effort

rather than

upon the end

results of his

not important that the floor is swept untidih' or that the handkerchief is unevenly hemmed, or that the milk is spilled when Mar\" sets the table. Tlie important points are: She is sho\\-ing independence; she is attempting to take responsibilit\"; she shows an beha\ior. It

is

eagerness to help.

Sometimes the child who is insecure he can never gain his parents"

feels that

approN'al because the}" expect too

of him. Their high standards

much

and

their

gan to show him in many wavs that he was accepted and loved. Tliev ga\e him lessons in ice skating so that he could have experiences in which there could be no comparisons ^^•ith the older bovs. Roddy's life in the family became more secure, and his schoolwork improved.

allow

much

difficulty.

Roddv's

parents

were disappointed

and at a loss. Their older children had been successful in school and well liked bv children and adults. Although Roddy had ability, he had been slow in learning and was disinterested. He rarely took friends

home

or entered into family ac-

ti^•ities.

After several inter\-iews with a

clinical

worker,

Roddv began

to

talk

about his thoughts and wishes. It seemed to him that there was nothing he could do that his brothers had not already done better. He did not feel that he was really a part of the happy, busy family life. WTien Roddv's parents realized that they had often compared him unfavorably with his brothers, thev be-

different,

his

to

temperament do not

his sit

still

for long practice

But neither does Susan have his curiosity and enthusiasm, his wide vocabular\-, or his fund of information. Only as the child's present efforts are accepted and approved will he impro\"e. Study Child's Growth. Parents must

benefit

which they so much desire they and learn slowh" and ^^•ith

is

periods.

children discourage his ow^n efforts. Be-

lack interest

and

him

know

pro\-al

child

or neatly as Susan; his co-ordination, his interests,

comparisons of him with older brothers and sisters or with other more capable cause children such as these do not feel that the\- can secure the parental ap-

each

Since

growth cannot be compared with that of others. Richard may nexer write as clearly

their child well so that thev can

when he will obtain the most from certain experiences. Learning depends not only upon the child's experiences and the effort he makes to learn; it depends also upon his inner de\elopment and gro\xth. Many studies estimate

ha\e sho\\n that attempts to teach may be wasted if the child's abilities have not advanced sufficiently for him to take ad\antage of the teaching. This is well illustrated in a study of twin girls. One child \xas taught to climb stairs at

the age of

fort\'-six

weeks, while

her t\\in \\as prevented from having any similar experience. After six weeks of training for

one

t\\'in,

they were both

observed in their efforts to climb stairs. At first the trained twin was superior in this skill. Through effort, howe\-er, the untrained twin quickly equaled her

sis-

performance. Six weeks of groxxing had accomplished in one twin the same skill that painstaking practice and inter's

struction

had

in the other.

19

As a

child builds with his blocks, he gains control of his large muscles. In a sense, his play is work since through play he learns about his world. As he builds his house, he gets new ideas and learns how to solve problems.

the schools, these age standards w ill. no doubt, be greatly changed. There arc man\- clues which the w atchful parent can find that show the degree of his child's readiness. The day

when Keystone View Co.

ot

X. T.,

Inc.

Research on groups of normal children has shown that the teaching of reading is not successful before the child is six and one-half \ears old. \\^hen such children are taught earlier, the}' are likely to acquire many faulty practices. Some of them tend to reverse letters of words. Because the}' are not ready to learn ^^'ith success, they develop negati\'e and unco-operati\"e attitudes. After this age, however, teaching effort meets with success as far as normal children are concerned. Several studies have been made to determine the age at which children can grasp the arithmetical skills of addition, subtraction, division,

and

fractions.

Most

normal children were successful in learncombinations after thev were se\'en years of age, addition and subtraction of fractions when they were about eight years old, and all t}-pes of long division after thev were nine or ten ing addition

Through the usual school pracmost children are faced with these

years old. tices,

learning tasks before they have reached the age ^^•hen they can do them with

reasonable success.

As

better activities

are pro\ided in readiness programs in

the

small

child

questions

asks

about pictures in the stor^•book; the day when he asks to see a particular ^^•ord, asks what it spells, or asks to have it written for him marks a new step in readiness for language and reading experiences. Children's questions are a reli-

able index to their growth

"How many nickels ter?" "How much minutes

is

and

readiness.

are there in a quar-

longer than thirtv

an hour?" or "Wlicn

\A-eek?" re\eal

new awareness

next

is

of quantity,

and numerical relationships. Create Favorable Attitudes Toward Learning. Adults often show bv their attitudes that work is boring and tiring, and that play, though perhaps enjoyable, time,

is

futile

and worthless.

nately, true for

many

Tliis

is,

people

unfortu-

who

are

engaged in work for which the}' are not suited or in which thev find no satisfaction. It is also true, however, that the productive worker is one who finds pleasure

and

satisfaction in his work.

other hand,

many

kinds of play

a great deal of effort

and the

results are far

Children's plav since

it

is

is,

On

the

demand

and perseverance, from useless. in a sense, work,

their effort to interpret

and

understand their world. As the child plays house or store or airport, he clears up ideas and gets information. This is

may

Bottle feeding

not be the best feed-

ing method for

baby lambs, but the young lad's friendliness and consideration are important in helping him

own

develop his

them

personality.

until they are solved are learned

constructive

in

play activity-. Respect should be shown for children's play in order to keep the work habits which it

and understandings which

creates

shows.

The

child should

warning so that he may

Many

play.

it

be given a complete his

habits of inattention and

by the which children's play

shifting interest are established

thoughtless is

By

in

interrupted.

Parents can help their children estabfavorable attitudes toward learning

Allen and Son from Centnrj' Photos, Inc.

J. C.

way

lish

shown

comdo cook

by the attitudes which they themselves

sometimes." "Where does the storekeeper get the things he sells?" "Tlie pilot must wait to be told he may land

mother and father reading and writing, or enjoying books and letters, his opin-

repeatedly

ments while

children's

in

at play: "Fathers

the miniature airport constructed

lems.

again, the block tower carefully

after great labor of clearing leaves dirt.

skills will

bed may be made over and over added

Observation shows that children use both energy and persistence in play. The

to, or

ion of the desirability of these

be developed. The girl who watches her mother studying out a pattern for a new dress and the boy who helps his father repair the vacuum cleaner develop desirable attitudes about attacking prob-

his plane."

doll's

show. WTien a child regularly sees his

The

adults

"stop their

may be

silly

who

tell

and

children to

about

play and get to work"

destroying the

they wish to build. Adults frequentlv direct children to

"work"

at

tasks

in

respect or scorn for education

in

parents'

comments

casual

relatives, neighbors, or teachers are

reflected in the child's values.

work habits and effort which

B\- their behavior, adults

ver\'

of interest, persistence,

The

re\'ealed

can demonday brings

strate to children that e\'er\^

some new knowledge or interesting problem; that there

excitement in search-

is

\\hich these characteristics cannot func-

ing for facts, in weighing evidence, in

tion. Since the

finding an answer, or changing an opin-

purposes are the adult's

and not the child's, the child feels no problem to be solved, so persistence disappears

when

ion.

Too

in spite of

often, however, children see,

what

is

told

them

of the value

absent or the

of learning, that their elders

reward withdrawn. The skills of seeing problems and persisting in work upon

problems

the adult

is

interest in solving

ing

20

new

information.

have

little

or in seek-

Emotional Factors

in

Provide Stimulating Experiences. Parents arc important to their child's sncccss in learning not only beeause they influence attitudes, but also because they control man}' of the child's experiences.

As new

abilities

and

interests ad\ance,

provide experiences which and dcx-elop these abilities. Experiences mav be routine, ever\day happenings which the child's new interest and the parent's help make suddenly

Children's Learning

and spent some time looking at books and magazines. I'Vcquently when his mother or father checked out a book, Freddie and his sister each cheeked out one, too. Occasionally his father listened to rVeddie's radio program with him

alert parents

and afterwards told him

will use

wild

meaningful.

West

stories of the or of early inventions which

the program suggested. Freddie heard his parents discuss radio programs and

saw them trace current events on maps on a globe. Sometimes the family selected a motion picture of general interest to see together and enjo\'ed discussing it afterward. Freddie had a regular allowance and from experience had or

Jimmy's parents were worried about his slow progress in the fourth grade.

was anxious to succeed and and parents. As Jimmy talked about his out-of-school hours, he described few experiences which added lie,

21

too,

please his teacher

him inforschool. Jimmy

to his efforts at school or gave

mation and skills to use at rareh' saw his parents reading or heard

already

learned

the

of hasty purchases

money. about a

When

disappointments

costing

his

class

too

much

was reading

them

discussing events they

dairy, the familv drove in the country one Sunday to see the cows and barns and milking such as Freddie had

about

in books,

read about.

had read newspapers, or letters. He had never been to the neighborhood branch of the library and did not even

know where to

it

was.

He listened

regularly

two radio programs by himself and

On

auto

trips,

the children's

attention was often called to things of particular interest— the changes in crops,

the lavers of rock and sand where the

had been cut

hill

awav of Sometimes

or the wearing

never discussed them with anyone. The family rarelv listened to the radio or at-

the riverbank by the flood. the family got out of the car to look

tended motion pictures together. Jimmv had an allowance, but he never handled money. It was put in a sa\'ings fund for him, and his parents bought him what he needed. Some of Jimmv's impressions about everyday information were confused and inaccurate. While he had been on several automobile trips, he had not actually seen anything on the way and looked forward only to getting out for something to eat. Freddie, in the same classroom and with a similar background, had had many and varied experiences. His family regularly went to the local branch library

more

closely at

something or to

collect

different rocks or leaves.

Freddie's parents used even' opportunitv to help their children develop a

power of observation, a range of interest, and a fund of general information. Jimmy, on the other hand, had missed countless

opportunities

of

thinking

through his observations and information and of strengthening the skills he

had already learned. Give Child Opportunities To Practice Skills.

Mankind

ing, writing,

built the skills of read-

and arithmetic in order to and communicate

short-cut experiences

The young gardener gets meanings for some of his school subjects as he helps

make

the family garden.

He

learns

new

words as he places the labels. He gains a better understanding of arithmetic as he measures and counts.

Simple ever}'day activities, such as counting laundry and making laundr^• lists, arranging cupboards and labeling jars, measuring windows for curtains, or laying out the beds for plants in the garden, can give meaning to the skills

which the child has learned. Often, one experience which is vi\id and of use to the family is a much more effective learning activity than numerous repetitions in mechanical drill. Tlie use of the allowance in planning

with

more

Man

took manv generations to work out symbols that enabled him to write words and others

rapidh'.

for special purchases

ing will develop a

sense

sav-

more

quickly than the solving of pages of arithmetic problems in workbooks. A family bulletin board in the kitchen

numbers so he was no longer entirely dependent on spoken language to convey his thoughts or on beads or other

on the back porch where notes or reminders are left is real e\idence to the

or

objects in order to count. Children need to go through a similar experience. They need opportunities to build and to add to their spoken vocabulary before they can connect these meanings with the written marks called words. They must work with objects in various amounts before they can fully understand the abstract

idea that

which require

number

child that writing

is

necessary.

Taking

part in letter writing or addressing invitations provides the child with practice

which

is

purposeful as well as fun.

Because parents are close to their dren's

out-of-school

hours,

chil-

they have

greater opportunities than the teachers

8 — 6 = 2.

have to bridge the gap bet\^•een the skills learned in drill situations and the everyday experiences for which they are

Because adults recognize the importance of these skills, they sometimes press children to learn the symbols before they have had the experience necessary to understand them. Many children can count glibly to one hundred but have difficulty in counting nine objects. They may multiply on paper mechanicallv and not understand how to make change with money.

needed. Original Interest in Learning Be Renewed? Often, parents or teachers ma\' not realize that a child is having really

How Can

difficulty

in

learning until after emo-

have developed. Then it observed that the child is fearful of failure or that learning has become distional attitudes is

22

Emotional Factors

in

Looking back, the teacher mav the first grade had httle reahze meaning because the child was too voung. because he had more important tasteful.

that

social needs, or

because the

acti\itics did

not relate to his own experiences and His parents mav realize that his learning difficulties de\eloped because they expected too much of him, thus causing him to face frequent criticism and disappro\al. Or it may be that they failed to utilize the opportunities in exerydav li\ing to add to his backinterests.

ground

for

How can come

new

learnings.

be helped to o\er-

this child

the emotional attitudes and

ings that keep

him from

learning?

feel-

How

can his original interests, curiosity, and satisfaction in learning be renewed? Studies of young children have shown that this can be done bv arranging exper-

Children's Learning

childish responses to failure by gi\ ing up or becoming angry and crying. These

children were then given easy puzzles,

more difficult ones being graduallv introduced. At the same time, thev were encouraged and praised for their attempts work alone and for their effort. Later, thev were observed when faced again with difficult tasks in which but icw sucto

ceed. Tlie attitudes of these children

and they displayed persistence and

emotional about failure because from their experience they have come to believe that

child

who

it is

little

self-confidence or in-

for

new

instance,

experiences.

Some

children, for

must become accustomed

to

the jungle g\"m or swing or teeter slo\xlv

own

and

in their

ful

introduction to a

way.

They need a carenew subject and

more than one explanation because they become confused and upset when a new process is presented quicklv. often

In another studv in which cult puzzle-tvpe tests

of the children

\er\- diffi-

were gi\en. some

showed undesirable

or

fail-

ure needs experience \nth easv success to convince

were selected for training. Tliev were gi\'en materials, games, puzzles, and songs which the rest of the group had not had. Afterwards, the materials were introduced to the entire group. Under this procedure the self-confidence, ease, and enjoyment of the sh\" children was greatlv impro\"ed, which suggests that such children merelv need preparation

impossible to succeed. Tlie

has been over\\helmed bv

while.

itiative

de-

termination e\en when their attempts were not successful. This suggests that some children are

one group,

who showed

had

impro^•ed remarkably. Cr\ing and temper displays had disappeared altogether,

iences especially for these children. In for instance, those children

^5

him

that his effort

is

worth-

Tlie attention and approval of

upon final upon the child's

adults should be centered not

success or failure but efforts

and willingness

to

tr\'.

Co-opeiation With Teachers. One of the most important elements in the

development of better education for children is a program of effective parent-teacher co-operation. As more becomes known about the wavs in which a child's emotional patterns are part and parcel of his learning, it becomes clearer and clearer that parent and teacher must share their guidance of the child. Only as this is done consistently and thoroughly can children profit most effectively from their school experiences. Improvements in education depend upon the active interest and understanding of parents. The quality of any school program reflects the wisdom and insight of the community' which it serxes.

Childcraft

24

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

In vour community, are the children's needs for activit}' and rest, for developing and group loyalties, and for receiving approval from others being considered

friendships jointly 2.

by the homes and schools?

Do home and

classroom activities develop readiness for later learning and relate and past experiences? Are trips, discussions, pictures, and recent

to the child's interests

events used to give 3.

Are

skills in

realit}'

and

clear

meaning

to learning?

working together in groups, as well as

skills in

individual achievement

developed? 4. Are children given an opportunity to take part in planning? Are they helped to recognize the purpose and value of the things they do? 5.

Do

attitudes

you as parents and do your children's teachers recognize the importance of and feelings in effective learning? Is progress in reading, arithmetic, or other

learning in school or at

home made

at the

expense of lifelong

dislikes?

6. What is being done to make sure that young children have many successes in doing things? Are they protected against too frequent failure until they build a sense

of self-confidence? 7.

When

difficulties arise,

do teachers and parents search together

for causes or

is

the child merely blamed and punished?

BOOKS TO READ Biber, Barbara,

and Others. Child Lite

in School.

New

York: E. P. Dutton & Co.,

Inc.,

1942.

Department of Supervisors and Directors of Curriculum. "Mental Health in the Classroom," Thirteenth Yearhook. Washington, D. C: National Education Assn., 1941. Driscoll, Gertrude.

College,

How To

Columbia University

Study the Behavior of Children.

New

York: Teachers

Press, 1941.

Mead, Margaret. And Keep Your Powder Dry.

New

York: William

Morrow &

Co.,

1942.

Meek, Lois H., and Others. The Personal Social Development of Boys and Girls With hnplications for Secondary Education. New York: Progressive Education x^ssn., 1940. Zachr\',

C.

B.,

and Eighty, Margaret. Emotion and Conduct

York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1940.

in Adolescence.

New

Courtesy National

I'olie

Three- and four-year-olds are bundles of energy. In a wellequipped nursery school, they can safely climb and swing on the jungle gym. Thus, they develop their large muscles and learn how to play happily with others.

THE NURSERY SCHOOL RUTH .\NDRUS

AS CHIEF of the Bureau of Child Development and Parent Education. State Department of Education

of

New

One

which both parents needed to keep the family going financiallv. These parents sometimes

York, Dr. .\ndrus sees the nurser\

work

school as one means of guiding the young child's dailv living for his present and later mental and

She holds that if the child's guarded and guided needs, his future will be taken care of.

emotional health.

meet

his

in order to

placed their children in dav nurseries,

dailv experiences are carefullv

to

of these groups consisted of city

families in

al-

though such nurseries often provided little more than physical care. The other, and even smaller group, consisted of parents with considerably above the average

ESS than

a dozen years ago, most peohad never heard of schools for ^ children under kindergarten age. For the most part, only two groups of parents had any opportunit}' to provide experiences under trained leadership for their three- and four-vear-olds.

means who could

ple

I

afford the fees of the

pri\ate or uni\ersity-sponsored nursery

Such schools usually provided program for a period of from two and one-half to three hours in the morning or an all-day program from time to time. schools.

a

25

Childcraft

26

Compared with the ever,

how-

period private nursery schools are also

these famihes were but a small

now. But the nursery school has not yet been accepted as a definite part of the

fraetion

of all

total figures,

the families

who had

children under five years of age.

During the ies

made

twenty

last

years, the stud-

in the field of child

growth and

development have made more people aware of the needs of young children. Different organizations have arranged conferences for mothers of young children. Magazines and bulletins have been published which deal with the growth and development of little children, their feeding and their play, as well as the importance of happy home life. Radio programs and motion pictures have also helped to give mothers, fathers, grandmothers, grandfathers, aunts, and uncles a

much

better understanding

young child

as

rights of his

own.

Two

human

a

of the being with

great national emergencies— the

depression

in

World War

the

II in

earlv

thirties

and

the early forties— pro-

vided greater need for nursery schools and more opportunities for them to

More mothers began work outside the home, and the fedto eral government, industry, and various state and local communities all cofunction properly.

operated in establishing nursery schools

and

child-care centers.

was only natural that as these facilithe all-day care of young children were established, they were often placed under the supervision of the public school. Consequently, thousands of school people have had firsthand experience with nursery schools and preschool children and have begun to realize the importance of the carefully planned and intelligently directed group experience that a good nursen^ school provides for It

ties for

the children.

Many more

of the short-

available

public-school

system.

become known

Though

bers of people, there are teachers,

ents,

leaders

who

visability of

still

has

it

favorably to larger

num-

many

par-

and other community

question seriously the ad-

having children under

five

away from home and their mother's care even for a few hours daily.

}ears of age

Despite the differences of opinion, the for nursery schools is spread-

movement ing

more and more and parents are more seriously the question,

facing

"Shall

I

or shall

I

not send

my

child

to a nursery school?"

Before such a question can be answered at all intelligently, each parent who is deciding whether to send a child to a nursery school should look over what the nursery school can contribute. Only with these facts can they determine whether the home can provide for these needs equally well. Some parents, before getting such information, have decided views on the subject. Some doubt that it is advisable for young children to be away from their homes even for a few hours a day. The doubting ones say, "Nothing can take the place of a mother in the

voung

child.

The

life

of a

early years are so im-

portant that the mother should be happy

and willing to spend all of her time with her children and not turn them over to someone else." Others say, "If women can put their children in nurser}^ schools, they will be free to go to work, to pla\bridge, or to go to the movies, and home life will be weakened." Intelligent people are agreed that in

the family experience,

more than

in

any

The Nursery School found the important facgrowth and de\elopment of both child and adult. Tliere are children who have no real need for nursery school and others who would suffer if taken awav from the home. Tlie nursery-school mo\ement has alwa\s had as one of its chief aims the strengthening of familv life, and if there were good evidence that nurser\- schools were weakening famih' life, few parents or educators would defend them. other,

is

to be

tors that affect the

In

all

nursery-school

acti\ities,

the

children's needs should be fullv cared for.

They should learn show a respect

others,

to li\e well \\ith for their rights,

work and play in friendliness, make some choices and decisions, sho^^ a willingness to "act their age"— in other

27

There are health risks in the various procedures carried out in the course of the daily care of young children— in toileting and the ser\ing of food and water. In such routines, the child's health is

protected

when

the nursery school

is

under proper super\ision. Children grow quickly

at

school age. Tliis makes

particularj\-

it

nurser\-

important that the right foods for good and growth be included in the child's diet. Tlie mother should inform herself about the foods to be supplied by the school so she will be able to plan the child's whole intake of food properly. In the all-dav nurser\- schools, hot dinner and midmorning and midafternoon "snacks" are sen-ed at small, low tables, with chairs of correct height for healtli

The

words, begin to learn the principles of

the different ages.

democratic

year-olds have the opportunity- to ser\'e

li\ing.

Experiences Provided by the Nursery School

An

themsehes. fi\-e

and

four-

and from three

to

children are usually seated at one

table so there

Health Inspection and Pzactices. Each day before the child comes in contact \nth the other children, a trained person

adult

three-

is

opportunity-

for

the

children to talk together.

Young

children need frequent periods

and

for rest

relaxation.

A

ten-to-fifteen-

examines him to see that his skin, throat, eyes, and nose show no svmptoms of infectious disease. From time to time, the teacher should find out from the parent

minute rest period immediatelv before the noon meal is helpful in relaxing the

some

one from one and one-half to two and one-half hours, depending upon age, indixidual differences, and the amount of rest a child has at home.

details in regard to the child's eat-

ing habits, rest periods, and toilet habits

home. \\'^ith such information she can plan more efficientlv to build on to the desirable habits and to help correct the

at

fault)-

ones.

be more exposed to disease because

of attendance at a

Young

good

nurser\- school.

children also need a nap after

The

lunch. sleeps

It is

Parents need not fear that their child will

child so that his food digests properly.

^^-ill

length of time each

\ar\'

important that children's natural be observed

intervals for using the toilet

on an

indi\-idual basis.

possible

that

However,

it

is

regular toileting periods

is

can be arranged for small groups of children. WTien the toilets and washbowls

of the children,

are

If a

child shows SMiiptoms of illness, he

immediatelv separated from the rest and the parent is called and asked to arrange for his care.

low enough for children to reach them and ample time is allowed for the

A

child will accept naptime as fun when others nap with him. Every nurseryschool child needs to have a nap after lunch a short sleep for some; perhaps

—

two and one-half hours

for others.

wholesome de\'elopment. To pro\ide them, there must be proper equipment, plenty of space, and some understanding adult always near to guide and encourage the children. Manv homes are unable to provide all these activities and safeguards for the child.

Children also need daily plav outdoors if they are to grow strong and healthy. The length of the period depends, of course, upon the weather. In cold weather the outdoor period should be short and, if possible, at the time when the sun is warmest. Outdoor activities include climbing, running, balancing, pulling wagons, tricycling, lifting, and building with blocks and boxes. WTien

use of them, the children soon leam to be independent. Play. Children need an opportunity

They enjoy playing at keeping house, caring for babies, driving

the equipment

horses or cars, flying planes, and so on.

their

to play in groups.

reach of the

group play affords one of the most natural opportunities for developing friendliness and a respect for each with

many

They need,

themselves and their equipment. Even the two-year-old can learn

own

ideas, or several plan-

ning and \\orking together. Thev model with clay, paint pictures, use cravons.

They pound the pegs on the pegboard, build with big blocks, boards.

They enjoy

begin to learn

how

dri\^e

nails into

picture books and

to take care of them.

The

such

trips.

especially interested in pictures

must

see that the children

hurt.

But she must

stories,

about their own e\er\dav acTogether they listen to or tell listen to music, or sing songs and

march

or dance.

They are and

stories

tivities.

much

from trips around the school grounds and in the near neighborhood. Threeand four-year-olds can take longer trips —to the garage, to the grocerv store, or to other places connected with their daily lives. On these trips children learn about the world around them. One adult can supervise only six to eight children on

too, to pla\-

kinds of materials, each car-

rying out his

children, they choose

own plavthings and plav activities. They grow in abilitv to take care of

This

other's rights.

located within easv

is

little

super\isor,

also

do

of course,

do not get

much

more.

The children's many questions must be answered; guidance must be given so that the children grow in ability^ to take

All of these activities are necessarv to

care of themselves.

28

The Nursery School Special Problems Encountered

a

in Nursery Schools

short time. There he can help his for the new babv and learn

mother care to take his

Because of the varieh' of activities in which children participate and the great differences

among

individual children,

new

place in the group.

The Child Without Playmates. Tlierc are many homes today in w Inch children have

parents often need guidance and help in

little opportunity for contact with other children of their own age. Mothers

order to forestall problems or deal

in

them promptly

if

are se\'eral definite cr^•

the\" de\elop.

\\

ith

Tliere

wavs in which nurs-

schools can help and counsel parents.

The Insecure Child. feel insecure.

child

The

Manv

children

neglected child, the

whose mother

much of who feels

lea\es too

his care to servants, the child

displaced in his parents' affection by the

new babw

all

are likeh- to de\elop feel-

ings of insecuritv.

Some

of

the signs

such homes hear constantlv, "Mother, to pla\- with me." But when a playmate does come, the child does not know how to share his tovs with him and soon there is quarreling. I

want someone

The nursery school gives such much needed opportunitv

this

poned

clinging to adults, avoiding other chil-

enter kindergarten

dren, or eontinuallv "showing off."

realh-

patient, careful guidance, these

feelings of insecurit^"

max be overcome

or definiteh- changed for the better. In

mam-

cases, this

is

nurser\' school awa\"

done better in the from the setting in

which the insecure feeling developed. Reallv good and lasting results can only be obtained, howe\er, through cooperation of teachers and parents. As v\ith all t\pes of correctix^e

treatment, the

cause of the feeling of insecurit\- must be

taken into consideration in planning the

remedv. Sometimes onh" the

home

give the child the feeling of security

can

One

such case in\ol\es the child who feels insecure with his parents because of the babv brother or sister who is getting the attention which was once all his. Such a child

He

mav be

better off at

home

for

is only three, but he finds the low hook which belongs to him and hangs up his own wraps with care.

to live

with other children and to learn to plav and share things happily. This learning is most important in the total development of the child. It cannot be post-

of this disturbance are thumb-sucking,

With

a child

until the child if

is

he

old enough to is

to

become

a

happv, friendh* \-oungster.

The Shy Dependent Child. Though no one can denv the desirability of a close mother-child relationship, it is also important for the mental health of a child that he begin earh- to learn self-reliance

Bj-

Biyan from Black Star

Childcr.\ft

3°

and independence. Lea\ing his mother's side for a few hours a dav and entering into the activities and companionship of other children and another adult will gi\e him a feeling of strength and independence, a sense of doing things on his own, and of being important outside the home. Manv people do not think such things are needed b\- two-, three-, or four-vear-old children. Tliev think chil-

dren of that age need to ha\'e most things done for them. But to thoughtful parents, the child's efforts to eat b}' himself, to free his own entangled tov. or to climb upon a chair without help show a

through the procedures used by a prepared teacher, but by disco\ering that other children do not approve of their actions

and

attitudes. It

is

much

easier

to de\elop steadiness, a sense of achieve-

ment, and consideration for the feelings of others through the work and plav of the nursery- school than through a child's life with adults only— a situation so often found in homes.

Home and By means

home

visits,

School Co-operation

of indixidual conferences,

group discussions, and par-

opportunities for a child to achie^e some-

ent work in the nursery- schools, parents and teachers increase their understanding of each other and of the child in whom both are interested. \\Tien fathers and mothers visit or take part in the work of the nurser)- school, thev see

thmg through his own efforts than homes with o^ercautious mothers

the

their children in a

are

that children of different ages behave dif-

reaching out for achievement.

who

is

alwa^"S

develops

little

The

child

watched and waited upon

The nursmanv more natural

independence.

en- school proxides

ever able to pro\ide.

ferently.

The Demanding Child. Parents

are

often embarrassed bv a child's behavior

when he companv

is

awa\"

is

in the

from home or when home. Thev sav. and

realh' belie\'e, that the child ne\"er de-

mands ilv is

much

as

alone.

attention

Most

when

the fam-

parents have

known

They

new

light.

Thev

learn

see, too, that all children

have their joys and sorrows, their shortcomings and abilities. The parents gain a greater feeling of confidence in their

own have

child,

and the

felt are

anxieties thcN"

mav

usuallv lessened. Nurserv-

schools are likelv to ha\e a refreshing influence on famih"

life.

"spoiled" children and are determined

Special Characteristics of Different

own shall be calm and happy. manv cases, to keep from ha\ing

that their

Yet, in

a scene,

his

thev proceed to gi\e the child

own wav and vield to

all his

demands,

Age Groups In nurser\' schools children are grouped

according to age and development.

The

onlv to suddenh- wake up to the fact that thev themselves have one of those

age at which children are accepted var-

"spoiled" voungsters.

from two to four years old belong

The

parent

demands

who

gi\es a child

what he

he has resorted to a temper tantrum is encouraging temper tantrums. The\- ma^" be sure that he will use that method again. Such children can gain much from nurser\" school, not onhafter

ies.

Some people

nurser}- schools; all

think that

some

children in

prefer to include

children from two to

fixe; still

others

admit of eighteen months. Manv public-school teachers and administrators believe that no child younger than three can profit from nurser)children

The Nursery School school

Some

V

schools include the

often tend to overestimate their ability

four-vear-old children in the kindcrgar-

and expect too much of them. Thev need warm affection from grownups to aid them in gaining the place in the group for which they are so eager. One teacher can adequately supervise no more than ten or twchc of these three-

life.

ten along \\ith the fi\c-year-olds and provide a two-year kindergarten program.

The Tv/o-Y ear-Olds. The two-, three-, and four-year-olds should be grouped separately for most acti\ities; the vounger the children, the smaller the group.

One

teacher can super\ise from six to eight children of the two-year age. Two-vear-

by themselves, need

olds, playing

room

individual attention and

to

much mo\e

about to de\elop better control of their bodies. They should not be hampered bv bigger children who run and climb and

year-old children.

The Four -Year -Olds. Four-vear-old are social beings and prefer to be with children rather than adults. Children at this age need careful guid-

children

T\\o-\"ear-old

ance as they learn to play together in groups, but one adult can supervise from fifteen to eighteen of the four-year-olds because of their increased independence.

children are just beginning to find them-

In their play, the four-year-old chil-

plav together in groups. selves

about

as

persons and so kno\\'

ho\\- to

adults.

little

approach other children or

Some hang

back; others attack

the stranger— that being the only approach the^ know. All need help in making these

first efforts

so that they

mav

toward friendliness,

get pleasure for them-

sehes and gi\e pleasure to others. The Thiee-Y ear -Olds. Three-year-old children are beginning to play together, instead of merely plaving side by side like the two-year-olds. Thev can leave their mothers with greater ease than

dependent around them. Tliey are great talkers. Words pour forth, and as they meet in the morning at nursery- school, they tell each other about children of

t^^•o

on the approval

but are

dren

the

them They are

activities.

Thev

mail,

and so on. Tliey pretend

that they are bears, or steam engines, or

They move quickly from one thing to another. Sometimes a child is the leader; sometimes a follower. Each child must learn to wait his turn and to automobiles.

when another is

plav \\illinglv

Guidance

is

the leader.

needed while the children

learn these lessons lest the plav

become

a "free-for-all fight."

This rapidly moving play, which

still

of adults

dramatize

like to

play doctor at the hospital, grocer at the grocery store, postman delivering

is

the four-year-olds' wav of becoming acquainted with their world, needs the

guidance of understanding adults who will answer their questions. The four-

everything that has happened to

}ear-old children are constantlv asking

since the last time they met.

"W^y?" which some adults find annoyThe children want no lengthy answers to their questions. Too many

not good listeners and often compete with one another for attention. This frequentlv leads to quarrels which demand sympathetic guidance from an understanding adult. Because some children express themselves so well and are fairly controlled in routine situations, adults

ing.

times this eager curiosity

is

dulled be-

cause brief, intelligent answers require

fund of information which adults sometimes lack or do not have the pa-

a

tience to give.

Enjoying food is a most important eating habit. To nursery-school children, lunch is much like a party. They enjoy eating

and

talking together at

an

attrac-

tive table just the right size.

The Nursery-School Teacher Courtesy Niitional College of Education

Nurser)'-school teachers

require spe-

Training or experience in teaching children of the elementarv grades, or high school, or in some special cial training.

Grouping Nursery Children by Factors Other

Age tors to

is,

Than Age

subject such as music or art does not constitute training for work with young

one of the facgrouping young

of course, only

be considered in Often a two-year-old has the of some three-year-olds, or one

children of nursery-school age. Kindergarten teachers, also, are not necessarih-

children. abilit\'

Fortunately, an increasing

is

four-year-old;

pendence

prepared to teach in a nurserv school.

much more like a young another may show the de-

three-vear-old

young

of a two-year-old.

in

In planning small groups within the larger

ters of routine or play with others may be together, or they may be put with the more mature two-year-olds. Three-yearolds who have well-developed motor co-

ordination or ability to get along well with others may make up another small

must

group, or even be grouped with the

voung

mav do activities

and

in

are

offering

special

field.

also

know what environment and

experiences are suited to the needs of

less

children.

Furthermore,

mature four-vear-olds. Sometimes larger group activities should be planned, when the objective is to allow each child to live in a group where he can both contribute to the group and have a chance to develop indi\iduallv. At times, two-year-olds and three-year-olds should be together, and, at times, three-vear-olds and four-yearbest in

schools

Teachers who work with young children and the parents of voung children should be friendly, steady persons. They should be happy and able to find real enjoyment in being with children. Not onlv must thev have knowledge of child growth and development; they

development should be For example, those threeyear-olds who seem less mature in matin

A

of

are

courses in this

considered.

olds can share such activities.

number

becoming interested nursery-school teaching, and teacher-

training

nursery-school group, individual

differences

women

teachers

of

nursery-

school children should be prepared to

work with parents as well as with chilSome of the most valuable services proN'ided by good nursery' schools include guidance to parents on problems of child growth and development, familv relationships, mental hygiene, and dren.

nutrition.

In

child

order

that

teachers

and others

remain balanced well, relaxed, and emotionally

one group for certain another group for others.

working

3'

in a nurserv school shall

The Nursery School

33

they must have a reasonable working situation in terms of hours of w ork and responsibility, and they should be adequately paid. It is the dut}- of par-

and people in the world around him. Such thmking has led to the belief that,

ents of nurserv-school children to insist

can be their teacher. The other viewpoint

people,

be maintained

that such conditions

order that proper safeguards are

in

gncn

"play," and,

who

are

therefore, almost

especially

anvonc

held by those

is

interested

in

the

growth and dexelopment of children.

their children.

They

Functions and Value of Nursery Schools in a Community

Two

in the nurser)' schools, the children only

believe that

if

each child's daily

experiences are carefullv guarded and

widelv different points of \iew

guided to meet his needs, his future will be largeh' taken care of and will follow

regarding the educational function and

the earlv pattern as the night follows the

\alue of nursery schools ha\e de\'eloped

day.

among

school people. Those

who

see

education as the acquiring of information and the gaining of skills wish to make the nurser\- school a period of preparation for kindergarten, which, in turn,

is

preparation for the

To many

first

of them, the child's

grade. experi-

ences in nursen' school and kindergarten are valuable primarilv to equip

him

with so-called "readiness to read." For example, they see his play with blocks as

an opportunity- to teach him to count

and gain

background for the arithmetic learning which is to come later. The \-oung child's trips about the school and neighborhood will gi\-e him a background of information about his communit^- which later will help him understand geography. Tliese people are prone a

to ignore or discount

its

value in guiding

the \oung child's daih- living for present

and

later

mental and emotional health,

or to aid his understanding of the things

The preschool child is an active tot eager to learn about his world. To learn and develop well, he needs a safe place out of doors where he can push and pull his playthings about.

To

these people,

voung children

is

the

"play"

of

of great educational

value and, as such, needs the understanding guidance and interpretation of wise and well-trained teachers. Indeed, the most important element in a child's day, from his \iewpoint, and the thing that makes life worth living, is his play. A voung child is so tremendously active and creative that, indoors or out, in sons, with other children

By Luoma from Montaneyer

all sea-

and bv himself,

Childcraft

34

the healthy growing child will play. If he does not do so, it is because he is

turns, to share things,

checked by some adult or is so undernourished that he hasn't sufficient energy. If children are not given toys and

group decisions. This is the type of experience children need for developing the democratic way of living. The people who respect the play and spontaneous activities of children believe that the nursery school is an excellent means for helping children to have

other materials especially designed for play, the}' will

\\ith

pla}"

rags,

stones,

anything else that will imitate the activities Thev handv. is may also be exof life about them. They information pected to enlarge upon any they gather. But play is not simply play. Play enables children to learn to adapt to life and to take an acti^'e part in it. By playing or acting out adult activities, they discover how to play with others, and thev learn more about themselves and their role. They develop control sticks, clothespins, or

over objects and learn ships, qualities, ho^^• to get

and

uses.

their

relation-

They

find out

the results they want. In play own standards and meas-

the\' set their

ure their achievements with their yardsticks of success.

They

own

learn to take

Keystone View Co. of N. T., Inc.

ideas.

They

a good

learn to

life.

and

make

to exchange

individual

and

Such persons think of the

nursery school as the link between the

home and

the school, the place where

parents and teachers together can devel-

op the best possible home-school for each child. Certainly,

the nursery school

is

it is

living

true that

not hampered by

the traditional practices which are

lowed

in

fol-

most grade schools and high

schools of our country. Inviting parents

and others to school

merely for the purpose of informing them what the school is doing is not enough. The school is a community agencv, and all \\ho are concerned in the education of the youth of the community should contribute to the life of the school. Nursery schools can be the meeting ground for all groups and community agencies interested in the welfare and development of children. If properly administered, the nursery school will help luring

help

the schools out of seclusion, will take their rightful place as

them

one of the important community organizations interested in children.

children thrive best when they are loved and enjoyed. They need an audience as they "do their stufi." They are quick to sense the feelings and attitudes of the adults around them. Their own behavior is apt to be patterned after the adults' behavior.

Young

"^rHE

Nursery School

35

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

WTiat questions have you had about sending

a two- or a three-year-old child to a

nurser\' school? 2.

What

inquiries

child before entering

would you make concerning the nursen- schools a\ailable for your him? "\\'hich of these questions do vou consider most important?

WTiy? 3.

If

your child

is

attending a nursery- school,

in

which he engages. \Miich of these

at

home?

visit

actixities \\ould

the school and list the actinties you be unable to provide for him

4. WTiat changes in interests and attitudes ha\ e you noticed in vour child since he has attended nurser\- school? In what ways do you feel the nurscr.- school has helped bring about these changes? 5.

your

Ha\e vou visited your child's nurser\- school? WTiat \isits? Did \"0u learn more about \our o\\n child b\-

specific

seeing

help did vou get from living with others?

him

6. In what special wavs do the nursery- schools in vour communit}" assist parents to give better guidance to their children? If you were recommending that another mother send her child to a nursery- school, what arguments would you use?

BOOKS TO READ Andrus, Ruth, and Others. Curriculum Guides for Teachers oi Children from Six Years of Age. Xe\x- York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1936. Baruch. Dorothv. Parents and Children

Go

to School. Chicago: Scott,

Two

to

Foresman &

Co.. 1939.

Christianson, Helen hood Education, 1940.

(ed.).

Music and the Child.

Xew

York: Association for Child-

Gesell. Arnold, and Ilg, Frances L. Infant and Child in the Culture oi Today. York: Harper & Brothers. 1943.

Hart. Beatrix Tudor. PJav and Toys in Sursen- Years.

Xew

York:

The

Xew

\'iking Press,

1939.

Langdon, Grace. The Nuiser}- School Tlie University- of Iowa 37, Iowa Cit\ :

UpdegrafiE,

Co., 193S

as a

Family Aid. Child Welfare Pamphlet. Xo.

Press. 1936.

Ruth. Practice in Preschool Education.

Xew

York: McGraw-Hill Book

THE KINDERGARTEN MIRIAM

IN THIS

H.

BRUBAKER

Miss Brubaker answers many of

Instructor in Kindergarten Education at the Na-

There are other questions, too. Harmother wonders about the effect a group will have upon Harry, who is so easily excited. Mary's mother wants to know whether Mary will be as safe and healthy at kindergarten as she is at home. Some wonder whether a child who be-

tional College of Education, Evanston, Illinois.

gins school at the age of four or five in

article.

the questions parents ask about the \alues of the kin-

ry's

dergarten for their children. She describes kindergarten activities and

tells

how

and plav with other children

children learn to work of their

own

age.

Miss

Brubaker's discussion will help parents recognize the \alue of such group activity as well as the need for

parent-teacher co-operation. Miss Brubaker

is

a kindergarten will think of school as a

THE

day of school approaches each year, one group of mothers especially asks many eager questions about school. That group consists of mothers of children of kindergarten age, most of whom are facing for the first time the sharing of their children with teachers.

AS

place to play or will, perhaps,

first

The mother

of

four-year-old

first

when

other children

right to question

children.

what

is

best for their

They should weigh the

values

of kindergarten experiences.

Billy

visit

grade.

So the discussions go. However, both the informed and the uninformed are

It is

wants to know why she should send Billy to kindergarten when he plays so well alone. She thinks that learning to play with others can wait until he is six. Other mothers also dislike the thought of changing the pattern of living which they have enjoyed and eagerly agree. On the other hand, the mother of five-yearold Susie has a different idea. She has found that Susie dislikes sharing her plavthings

become

bored with school before he enters the

true that the practices in kinder-

garten often vary considerablv. TTie character of each kindergarten

depends upon

the training and background of the individual teacher, the understanding which

the superintendent and the school board have of this level of learning, and the

equipment supplied. Howe\'er, the modern kindergarten under a skillful teacher follows the best methods known to educators has a program that considers the child's de\'clopment from everv' an-

who

her

and that she expects always to have her own wav. This mother believes her child

gle. Its

needs to go to kindergarten.

come

objective

individual needs,

36

is

to

and

a co-operative

meet the child's him be-

to help

member

of a group.

By Godsey from Monkmeyer

Listening to records

is a valuable musical experience for children. with music helps kindergarten boys and girls to enjoy their day.

Studies ha\e

shown

understand

that the four-vear-

wholesomeh' in kindergarten, but the age at which the individual child should enter kindergarten depends olds develop

(

(3) the dangers to be faced in the going

usual spread of contagious diseases. The teacher safeguards the health of the chil-

to school law.

the

opportunities the child has through

must

but not overtaxed or overstimulated. Rest periods are a part of the program, and each child is gi\en his rest according to his needs. Tlirough health inspection, children in the best kindergartens are protected from the dangers of an un-

)

kindergarten program and

sometimes he

happiness of the whole group. A good kindergarten teacher plans the work so that children will be challenged

and coming, (_|.) the size of the group, and ( 5 ) the legal age of entr}- according

The

quiet period

forego his o^^n wishes for the good or

upon the particular situation. The parmust consider the kind of i schools in the communit\% (2) the distance between the home and the school. ent

that

A

dren under her care and teaches them to follow correct habits to develop strong,

it

should lead him to be more resourceful and independent in his plav at home and to find satisfactions in being entirely on his own at times. He should learn, also, to plav more happilv with others in the neighborhood and to respect their rights. Correctly guided, he will come to

healthv bodies and minds.

The

fact that a child enters school at

the kindergarten level when he voung will not in itself cause

is

quite

him

to

attitudes about school. If

form wrong the school program 37

is

correctly set up,

Childcraft

38 each consecutive year brings ences,

The

new

challenges,

kindergarten has

new

experi-

and new

interests.

own

place in

its

development of the child and is not to be thought of as a mere preparation for the first grade. Howexer, there is evidence from carefulh' made studies to

this

show

that the child

who

has attended

kindergarten adjusts more easih" and has

background for learning than those who have not attended.

a better

Parents should not stop with ques-

sleeping. He needs equipment that will help him satisfy some of his desires to be active. Big muscles need a great deal of

and smaller ones, too, must be de\eloped. Tlie kindergarten child is at exercise,

a stage

when he

some opinions

beginning to ha\e

is

of his own.

ing out for companionship.

He He

is

reach-

wants to

pla\' with children of his own age who have interests and abilities similar to his. He is not contented with just little

brother or

the same old things

sister or

He

becoming aware of home. He must ex-

tioning the values of kindergarten ex-

to play with.

periences for their children. After the

others outside the

child enters the kindergarten, the par-

perience a great deal of give-and-take

ents should take an acti\e part in the

in play

school program. Sometimes conditions exist in the school o\er

which the teacher

is

with others before he can find out what is acceptable and what is not.

Many

children

are

sensitive to

the

around them and imi-

has no control, such as an overcrowded

feelings of those

room, which causes overstimulation, or inadequate equipment. The parents' influence with school authorities in such cases might help improve the kindergarten ^^•ork. But more important still are the home and school contacts. If he most wholesomely, the is to develop child must feel that his parents and his

tate quickly. \\Tiether a child develops

teacher are friends. Parents should

^isit

the kindergarten, talk with the children teacher, join in the play, share

and the

the light lunch, or go with the group on little

excursions.

At no other time

child's school life

is

in the

close co-operation

between home and school more

essential.

a happy disposition or a sullen one depends largely upon the guidance given

him during

Child of

of the

The kindergarten

child

active little creature.

ergy that

must

find a

is

an extremel}'

He

has

wav

out.

much

He

tinually experimenting with his

is

en-

con-

arms and

what he can do. He all these mo\ements,

legs, tr\'ing to see

needs space for

which

are as natural for

him

learns

and

him

what he wants and to shun those actions which bring him discomfort. Mentallv, the child is reaching beyond his own home, his own yard. He wants to know what is happening down the street. Life, as it goes past his home on \\heels or on wings across the sky, holds a fascination for

bv what he

him.

He

is

challenged

finds in nature. Materials of

fascinate him.

How

does that

WTiat can I do \\ith this? How do those things fit together? He seems to be one big question mark. He wants to know.

work?

Age

Kindergarten

He

results of his beha\'ior

tends to repeat behavior that gets

all sorts

The Nature

these early years.

through the

as eating or

The preschool period is the time when the child is most easily guided. this period, from birth to six learns more than in any other he vears, similar number of vears in his whole life.

During

The Kindergarten There

no evidence

is

to support the idea education contributes

college

that

a

more

to success in life than does pre-

school education. Manv believe that the preschool }cars contribute more toward personalit\'

than anv others.

Growth

in the

Understanding

Young Children

of

Looking back over the history of child one finds that children used to

studv,

be considered little adults. Far too much was expected of them. Tlianks to some of the educators, especially Rousseau

and Froebel, voung children

now

are

39

telhng the child what to do. Tlic kind garten aims to gi\e the indi\idual child e\er)'

opportunity to make the most of

so that he shares in both work and play within the group. Tlius, through experience in group living, the child has an opportunitv to practice democracy at an earlv age. No matter how wiselv planned or equipped a home mav be or how underhis

possibilities,

standing the parents are, children cannot find at home the stimulation, satis-

and experience that thev

faction,

considered as \en" different indi\iduals from adults in the familv. Their interests

trolled kindergarten.

and needs were found to be from those of their ciders.

wholesome intimate

different

in

this

cannot

in

The

kindergarten

anv wa\" take the place of the life

in

the home;

neither does the kindergarten teacher

Since the establishment of the kindergartens

find

through li\ing with others of their own age in a properly equipped and con-

first

count^^•— about

i860— there has been a serious attempt more and more about the voung

to learn

mothShe tries to provide a richer life for the \oung child through group play under guidance and to giNC joy and chal-

desire or attempt to take o\er the er's role.

The

child.

lenge in a wider

changed

broadening as he finds out what goes on in the neighborhood. He mav have passed the fire department dozens of times or run errands to the corner grocen- store, but these take on new meanings when the group be-

Kindergarten procedure has been as research studies have brought to light new findings about the child. Tlie most important studies began about 1920, when child-development centers were established in

some leading

the United States and Canada. \\"hile most of the studv was

uni\ersities

in

conducted on the le\"el of the two-, and four-\ear-old child, the knowledge gained has helped educators to understand the whole preschool period.

three-,

The

kindergartens

follow

the

best

methods known today and base their programs on child development, not merelv upon child training. A childde\eiopment program means that the teacher strives to help the child become the kind of indi\idual

what ing

to

do

who

will

know

for himself; in a child-train-

program,

the

emphasis

is

upon

child's

world

variety" of activities.

is

comes interested in the part firemen or grocermen plav in the communit}'. The Kindergarten Room

The room

for the kindergarten should

be selected with care. It must fit the needs of young pupils. Sometimes even school administrators, who should understand

this,

kindergarten

hold the attitude that the just something tacked on

is

to the regular grade school.

Sometimes

the kindergarten draws a basement room for its place. Imagine a gardener putting \oung shoots which he is really anxious

1

Childcraft

40

To help

to develop into fine plants into any old corner of his greenhouse! The kindergarten room should be

children care for their belongthere should be low shelves for books, toys, puzzles, and crayons. Each

and airy, big and sunny. There should be enough space for games, rhythms, and freedom for children to move about. There should be room for building with large blocks and for leaving the structures up from time to

child may have his own shelf or each type of article its own shelf. Labels will help the children know the right place for each article. Tlie so-called "toy chest"

light

time, so that the children

may add on

without having to start from scratch. Cleanliness, proper heat, and lighting are of concern to the good teacher. She wants the floor kept clean, since it is a natural, convenient place for children to

work and not

play.

The

school janitor

demands

like the teacher's

may

for floor

but in properly managed be gov-

cleanliness,

schools, the practices always will

erned bv what

is

right for the child.

In the school, as in a well-ordered

home, there should be "a place for evervthing and ever\'thing in its place." Following that procedure builds good habits of orderliness and responsibility. The kindergarten is a workshop and not a parlor, and many times there is confusion and mess. (It is usually no more confused and messv, however, than Dad's basement workshop or Mother's sewing room.) Children enjoy working together to clean up after themselves

and watch order come from chaos. Children are practicing good democratic living when everyone pitches in and helps until the task is done and everyone feels that all should help. At home, clean-up time either

too

is

often

a

Mother does

one-sided

all

affair;

the work and

not helping or Mother stands over Junior while he does the cleaning up. The attitude toward the work is even more important than

scolds

at

the work

Junior

itself.

for

ings,

which

is a "catchall" soon becomes an untidy mess, leaving the child with no

respect for his things.

Near

the

kindergarten

should

be

and washbowls which the children can reach and use alone. If toilet or bowl is too high, the teacher must pro-

toilets

vide a platform for the children to stand

upon. Fear of falling at the toilet, and having to stretch up on tiptoe to wash hands are stumbling blocks to developing independence. As in the home, the towels should be within easv reach. If a mirror is placed low enough for the child, he will not always wait for an adult to

tell

him

to

wash

his dirty face.

In addition to being a workshop, the

kindergarten should be as colorful as possible.

colors are overstimulating.

vi\'id

fect

artistic

Too many

should be soft and pleasing.

and

or too

The efGay pic-

tures in

which things

needed

in children's rooms. Discussing

the

pictures

them

to

are

happening are

with the children helps

become more

observing.

The Kindergarten Teacher

What

be desired young children? Children need the guidance of one ^^•ho lo\es life and finds great satisfaction in what she does, whether it be in or out of school. She should be a person of hobbies and interests and one who works with others to improve the community in which she lives. She must be interested in people of all kinds and recognize the worth of the are the qualities to

in a teacher of

By Bauer from Monkmeyt-r

Kindergarten children enjoy books and learn to take care of them. Most of the children can "read" pictures well, and some recognize a few words. With such begiimings, they learn to read more quickly in the first grade.

different hpes.

Above

all, she should be genuine lo\e for children, for they are quick to sense whether or not grownups like them. The teacher of young children needs to have excellent health and a warm,

sincere

and have

Perhaps the best description of a good kindergarten teacher was made b\- a

a

I

Living Together in the Kindergarten

may

catch a spirit of warmth and genuineness from her. She must guide without dominating or overstimulating.

It is

love

the

outdoors,

children's literature.

teacher

music,

To do

work.

jo}'

The

to step into a well-planned

and

see

voungsters

at

comfortable, free atmosphere

created by a skillful teacher gives chil-

dren a feeling of belonging. There is and understanding. Frequently, there is trouble, but that is part friendliness

of the

game

of learning to live together.

Arguments, e\en

needs to art,

a

kindergarten

The good teacher needs the background of child study to help her understand the children's needs and know how to meet them. The old idea is fast fading that "anyone can teach kindergarten, but the higher the grade in school, the smarter the teacTiers have to be." kindergarten

said, "Oh, she isn't like a She is something like a mother. guess you might call her a pal."

teacher.

pleasant personality, so that the children

The

who

child

fights, are

the "growing

pains" of this age.

The

gives the children a

chance to experi-

kindergarten

ment in how to get along well together. Children soon learn what kind of beha\'ior is liked and what is not liked by

and

the best work

with young children, she must sing and play sufHcientlv well to carr\- on such

the group.

activities in the classroom.

snatches a toy, the

41

If

someone

pulls hair, hits, or

skillful

teacher looks

42 Kindergarten children are eager to do things for themselves. When wash bowls are low, they take responsibility for keeping

hands clean.

their

Dirty

faces are more likely to be washed without urging when a mirror hangs above the wash bowls. By Cosmo-Siler from

and and

listens,

but she does not step in

ever, that the children

she

how-

settle the dispute. If she feels,

need her help,

may

some

ask a few questions or make suggestion to help the children do

better thinking.

them

Then

to carry on.

she steps aside for

She

counthan as to be done.

serv^es as a

selor or "senior partner," rather

an authorit}- who says what is She tries first to have the pupils use ''talking

than

some times

it

over" to settle a dispute rather

force.

But there

is

studies that force until

child

a

e\idence from is

has

necessary at a

sufficient

language power to reason with words. The child is taught through play to

hold his own when it is fair for him to do so. He can depend upon the teacher to stand by him in this. To know that any material he is using belongs to him while he is using it, helps develop a respect for propert}" rights. However, sharing must be encouraged, too. Desire to share grows out of friendly living together. Forced sharing often causes unfriendliness

and anger.

Intelligent following assvvell as leader-

ship

brings

its

soon see that sometimes

it

the passenger on the train, the popular engineer who whistle.

There

Children is fun to be rather than

satisfactions.

blo\\"S

are times in the dav

the

when

Bla> k

it is

good

when one

to

be alone. There are times

enjoys being a part of the

group, playing and visiting or planning and sharing ideas. The child learns that sometimes he cannot follow his own wishes, but must accept the wishes of the group— a most important lesson. Individuals grow in social ways through

being useful members of groups. The skillful teacher tries to develop good social qualities bv her example. If she is kind and helpful, the children sense it. When she commends things the children do, they get a sense of fairness in regard to others. The child who hunts a lost mitten, the one who struggles with a classmate's coat button, and the one \\ho volunteers to hold the board \\'hile his pal drives a nail are all praise. W^ise adults

worthy of

look for opportuni-

ties to give praise for

good

acts, rather

than for chances to scold for bad ones. Good manners are better caught than taught. Children catch the spirit of good will as they li\e

with a teacher

who

has

good will tow^ard those around her. It is important that the children learn to say "Excuse me" and "I'm sorr\-," but the mere saving of polite phrases does not make a well-mannered child. A truly polite indi\idual acts well toward others because he feels right inside himself.

The Kindergarten Of

course, in li\ing together, children

"get out of step" sometimes.

That

is

normal. But some kinds of beha\ior are signals that something is wrong. When

such signals come, the teacher and parent need to do some thoughtful checking. \Miy is John acting as he is? Is he ill?

Was

last

he

in

bed

at his usual

bedtime

43

once said to her punish by physical

class,

"Anvonc can

even an idiot can use that means; but it takes brains to punish in other ways." The "other wavs" are far

more

force,

successful in child de\elop-

ment, though we might train the youngster to perform many desirable acts through force.

night? Answers to such questions

may

point to the correct solution. Sometimes the solution comes through help-

ing the

"out-of-step" child face facts,

through talking with him and getting his help in working the thing out. Children gain much in forming desirable beha\'ior patterns through such treatment. Neither the teacher nor the parent should dodge issues with children. The wise teacher or parent

tries

to see the

whole picture when children are in a social jam and to deal fairly with the situation. If punishment has to be given, it should be as nearly as possible the natural result of the behavior. child ^^ho will not pla\-

A

fairl\-

A

with others

which has not been used correcth- may be taken awav. Permission to use tovs which have been needlessh' broken ma}" be refused. Punishment should be gi\'en always for ma^" be isolated.

pri\ilege

purpose of correcting the child's thinking and beha\ior, never just to ease the adult's feelings. A psychology" professor who was a highlv successful mother the

r..n\ t-na S.

Car;: enter

— U.S.

Bureau

of

Planning

for the Child's Physical

Development Health Inspection. Tlie well-prepared is a keen obser\-er of the

teacher today

She feels a redo all in her power to keep children well and to use her influence in bringing about the best possible state of

children's physical needs. sponsibility to

for e\"er\one. Her preparation should ha\"e equipped her to recognize beginning symptoms of common ill-

health

nesses. It

is

one of her duties to look over

ever}- child e\"er\"

dav at the beginning of

the session to find irregularities such as watery eves, a congested nose, or a red

may

throat. E\"en a fatigued expression

be looked upon with suspicion. In some schools, a public-health or school nurse

mav make

the inspection, but

it is

the

on the alert change from the

teacher's responsibilit}" to be

through the da\" for an}" normal. Tlie best schools are provided with an isolation room so that the children who are not well are kept apart from the group. Studies show that con-

Home Economics

A snack of a glass of milk, fruit juice, or crackers at the middle of a session does not spoil the child's appetite for his next meal, since

it

comes

more

than two hours before mealtime.

1

All children of the

same height and age

should not be expected to weigh the same. The important thing is for each child to

make

satisfactory gains.

Hygiene and teacher Courtesy National College of Education

First

Aid.

Wliile the

interested and concerned with

the physical needs of children, her view-

point should be one of plain common sense and good mental hvgiene. No un-

tagion can be kept low through such

due attention need be paid to every hurt happen; bumps and bruises must be cared for.

So to the parents' question, "Will m\- child pick up e\'erv child's disease that comes along?" the answer is, "Not when inspection and isolation are practiced faithfulh." Children must build up immunities; thev cannot be "wrapped in cellophane." They are far more open to contagion bv running with the neighborhood gang, going to the movies, or shopping with Mother than practices.

the\' are in

is

or slight injury. Accidents will

The

skillful

teacher lends a sympathetic

hand and ear. W'^hen the finger has been bandaged or a bit of cold water has soothed a bump, she helps the child turn something else. Should mishap occur, she informs the parent and gives what help is neces-

his attention to a

the kindergarten.

more

serious

sary at once.

Examinations. The kindergarten teacher is interested in a program of routine physical examinations and the

Girls and boys of kindergarten age frequently use the same toilet rooms, as thev do at home. They are guided to

Physical

proxiding of immunities through vac-

think of using the toilet as a perfectly

and other practices of the docWTiile each familv might look after

normal procedure, and any incidental

cinations tors.

discussion of sex

such matters in co-operation with their own family physician, in some cases health clinics

mav be asked to

assist.

made bovs and

The

takes

no

initiati\e to

in

and children

are asked to

fall.

hands before eating and

defects

may be attended

after toileting;

and manv more lifelong habits are being formed b\- the young children in the

of local doctors, examinations are given.

means

to

proper bathroom procedures; learning to enjov a good, big drink of \\ater— these

to

the school, and, through the assistance Tlris

certain habits that are valuable

sneezes and coughs; the proper care of the nose, ears, eyes, mouth; washing the

Par-

come

kin-

them now and will be just as valuable when the\- are sixteen or sixty. Covering

the assistance of the federal

government, some kindergartens take advantage of the "annual summer roundup" of children who will be old enough ents

The

Tlie good teacher guides the children

have examina-

to enter the kindergarten in the

girls different.

build \x-holesome attitudes to\\ard sex.

tions without the parents' consent.

Through

taken as a matter of Nature has

dergarten teacher has an opportunity to

teacher consults parents on such matters

and

is

course. Tliey learn early that

to

kindergarten.

before the child begins kindergarten.

44

The

mother's responsibil-

The Kindergarten ih' is not o\er because the school has stepped into the picture. Tlie teacher is onh- helping to fix these desirable habits most often begun in the home. Play Materials and Equipment. The

child from a crowded apartment neighborhood \^•here the sidewalk, the alley, and the street are the only places to play will find release in

the climbing appara-

tus at kindergarten. Teeters, swings,

and

climbing bars satisfy his desire to do his "monkev tricks" and at the same time

45

Through

play, a child experiments.

He

he knocks things o\cr; he tries out this and that. If he is not scolded for mishaps but encouraged to be less awkward, he finds satisfactions. He mav not make connection with the coat hook at first, but if it is on his level and if he is praised for trxing. he will keep on until he can. spills;

Rest and Reiieshments. A few kindergartens ha\e an all-dav program; therefore, a hearty

lunch

is

served,

and then

dcNclop his muscles. He learns to balance and to judge distance. It is little

the children are gixen a period of quiet on cots for naps. Because other children

wonder that some children get serious injuries climbing on porch rails or using umbrellas for parachutes from the garage roof, when thev ha\e no safe place to "tr\- their \\ings." To some people, the growth of shrubs and flowers is more important than the growth of children, and

are eating the foods

the plants get the space the children need. Boards and boxes x^hich are such a help to children's creatixe play are often

not allowed in the back yard, since they spoil the beautv of the grounds. Tlirough games and rhythms, the child improves his big muscles and builds

good health and posture. Games and rhvthms are fun. too. It takes a number to play many children's child next door will not do. The games. The well-equipped kindergarten has

of

children

big blocks for use in building indoors. It has beanbags and balls for tossing

and taking naps

mav

"balk

"

at

which are served

who

willinglv, the child

home

follows the crowd.

Children, through this group lixing. learn to eat foods which manv mothers have

found

be

to

"bugbears."

trained kindergarten teacher

The

well-

knows not

onlv what foods children need, but knows how to build attitudes that

also will

help the child learn to like almost exen'thing found on a child's menu. She simple xxell-cooked meals appeal to children, xxhile mixtures are not liked so xxell. She sen'es nexv foods knoxxs that

in

small serxings. She ax-oids. at

foods that are

lumpy

consistencv. Children look

upon them

xxith disfaxor. Consistencx-, rather flaxor.

is

first,

or of unexpected

than

the cause of children's antipathy

toxvard certain foods.

Manv

courage the use of the finer muscles.

midsession snack. If any refreshments are serxed, thev should be served at least txvo and one-half hours before the next meal-

Putting puzzles together, hammering,

time.

and sawing call forth the use of hands and arms. Simple musical instruments-

such a lunch, since

games. Art materials, such as cravons. scissors, paste,

clay, paints,

and paper,

en-

sand-

drums, tambourines, paper blocks to "swish" — add to the fun and help develop motor control. bells to jingle,

kindergartens

Fruit juice

is

it

hax-e

a

recommended

for

tends to stimulate

and is quickly digested. For manx- children xxho do not haxe sufficient milk at home, the serxing of milk better appetite

is

a real boon.

Young "play

children like to house/' and a

work shop delights them. In the kindergarten playhouse and shop, the children learn to do things for themselves and to play happily with others.

on

their cots or rugs during the

session.

Such

laxation

for

and

fatigue

a period of quiet

mid-

and

the child, results in

re-

less

the end of the young children are the home, too. Arguments irritability at

day. Rest periods for

Courtesy National College of Education

needed

in

o\er the

home

to take place

rest periods are less likely

if

of-fact attitude

Parents can often find valuable help by conferring ^^ith teachers about their

have

the children in the classroom

a

learners.

great

influence

Knowledge

a teacher to

make

upon \oung

of the needs enables their

group discus-

mark. A kindergarten teacher is ahvays ready to help for she knows, as does the parent, that ^^•hat happens at home affects the school and what happens at school must in a like manner affect the home. In the kindergarten the children follow readil}- the plans for a rest period sions

hit

the

46

taken bv the mother.

Guiding Children's Emotions

The

children's eating, as school discussions

among

a calm, relaxed, matteris

kindergarten offers the child op-

portunit}'

express

to

his

feelings.

He

jumps up and doxMi or gives a little squeal or shriek when he is happy. At home, the child may have to be checked such joyous outbursts, as the folks do not like his noise or Grandma wishes to rest. The shrieks of glee mav be accepted, but not the outin

do\\nstairs

around him know displeased or unhappy. The

bursts that let those

that he skillful

that

is

teacher

certain

tries to

actions

help the child see others un-

make

The Kindergarten happy. To control his feehngs within reasonable limits will make life smoother for himself and for those around him. Even a young child can find pleasure in practicing helpful.

self-control

The

in

order

be

to

desired results are obtained

best through praising a child's efforts.

The

sensiti\e child, the one who is and ^^ithdraws from the group, needs real sympathy and understanding. The good teacher studies this tvpe of child and tries to find the cause of his fears. She praises him quietly and gives him little boosts here and there. As he begins to sense her affection and interest, he gains in self-confidence. Tlie kinderfearful

garten

is

especialh" helpful in loosening

I'he

47

kindergarten program offers op-

portunities thrills of

and

for

a

child

to

adventure. Learning

experience

new songs

expernnenting with materials of different kinds, seeing \\ood take on the shape of an airplane (crude though it may be) are all experiences stories,

which

satisfy

the desire for ad\enture.

Games ha\c

a value in teaching fair play and good sportsmanship, even to

the young children. Properly guided, a child learns to take his turn, to be a good

and

loser,

to praise the winner.

satisfaction is

What

comes to the child when he

the winner!

Many

situations arise daily in

which

children face realities and learn to accept

own

the too tighth" knotted apron strings of

the consequences of their

some mothers. The child who reaches the age of six and still cannot lea\e his

boy uho wandered off and da\\dled about something else, while the others in his group were making rabbit ears for their play, felt unhappy when he found himself to be the onh" little rabbit ^^ithout any ears. Too often, in cases of

mother \\ithout

feeling fearful or anx-

unfortunate — almost a Parents are often flattered hv cripple. such attention and fail to see what torture they are building up for the child. The teacher is not coldhearted if she ious

ver\-

is

insists that

the child learn to

lea\'e

home

happy frame of mind. She begins bv accepting the child on the for school in a

\\Tien he follows her about and looks to her for reassurance that all is right, she lets him know that level that

he

is.

she has not forgotten that he

is

there.

him frequently that "Mother will come" or "Soon, we are going home." Each day, however, she puts him more and more on his own, so that gradShe

tells

he grows in independence. Guiding children's emotions

ually

cate job.

Any

nature

more

is

a deli-

easily understood.

teacher needs to child before

is

other part of the child's

know much about

she can really

The the

help him

develop wholesome emotional responses.

The

actions.

little

this kind,

some w^ell-meaning adult

pro-

the child with the needed object, thus depri\ing him of the learning of one of life's lessons— the taking of the \-ides

consequences of one's own carelessness, do one's part.

laziness, or failure to

Opportunities for Mental Growth Ever\- da\

the child in the kinder-

garten faces dozens of problems that make him think. The day is full of prob-

lems to be sohed or questions to be answered. How can he and his playmates make the block bridge stay up? What can the\- use or make for a pilot's wheel on their boat? What color will be best for the curtains in the playhouse? \'isitors looking on can almost see "the wheels go round" in their little They see concentration. Tliey

heads.

There is plenty of opportunity a child's imagination and skill to develop as he builds with blocks and cartons of different sizes and shapes. for

Courtesy Public Schools. Madison, Wis.

hear good

suggestions

They watch

and reasoning.

the children's ideas

shape. ]Ma\"be an idea works; doesn't.

But when one thing

ma\be fails,

these will be useful in

acti\ities. All of

coping

take

the

\\ith

new

experiences

child will ha\e in the primary grades. x\n

off

analysis of the actiyities of the kinder-

go the children, undaunted, to

garten

thing

tr}- someAgain the teacher ser\-es as a "senior partner," ready to lend a hand or make a suggestion if the job seems be-

people, that practically

else.

new

child

child

to

idea

The of

kindergarten

reading,

too,

Records and Reports

The

take on a new meaning as he finds in them pictures and stories which answer questions that are poppmg up in his mind. Things are ah^ays under way, so that

own community. Books

a

an

to

learn about the big world outside his

when

gets

recognize his own name in print. Kindergarten children will ha\-e a better background for understanding later on than will those who did not haye this informal beginning.

things to

begins

of the sub-

all

through recognizing labels and learning

Through these excursions and the little talks which follow, he sees relationships and fits many things together which he has wondered about. kindergarten

many

to the surprise of

education, arithmetic.

think about.

The

sho\\-s,

jects called the "school curriculum" haye their beginnings in the kindergarten. Yes, kindergarten children do haye science, social studies, art, physical

vond the youngsters. Many times she \\ ill help them up just one step toward the solution and let them think through the rest of the problem for themsehes. Excursions, carefully planned and carried out, gi\'e the child

the

it

child of kindergarten age

is

in a

The good teacher down brief notes and

period of rapid change. finds time to jot

to keep a card file of significant things about each child. She \\ill know what he enjoys, what he dislikes, the things he does well, acti\ities in which he needs help, his greatest improyements, how he gets along with other children, and so on. If such notes are kept regularly and dated, the teacher can see easily how rap-

child leayes the kindergarten

at the close of a session, he often has an eagerness to "hurn- back tomorrow."

Certainly, the kindergarten proyides a

background of ideas, habits of independent thinking, and experiences in group planning and in carrying forward fine

idh-

48

and how well the child

is

growing.

The Kindergarten Information kept in this \\a\' can be passed on to the parents through conferences or letters. The kindergarten teachers ne\'er ha\e been guilt\- of "grad-

ing" a child A, B, C, D. or F, as in

manv

is

done

traditional grade schools.

In-

stead, the}' recognize each child as an in-

and measure his growth bv what he was able to do before, not h\ what his neighbor can do. dixidual

Tlie written reports, usually informal letters, sent to

the parents at least twice

summarize the child's strong points and his weak points as a member of the kindergarten group, and suggestions will be gi\"en regarding wa\"S to bring greater improvement. Many kina \-ear. ma\'

dergartens, using this kind of report, find

49

At school, the parent

new

in a

sees his child

There, the child is one of a group and not the center of attention light.

the time, as he

is apt to be at home. teacher can get a better understanding of the child, too, if she sees him in his home. Parents who ha\e their child's

all

The

interests in

mind

the home.

It

in\itc his teacher into

surprising what good and clear understandings can come from a few moments o\cr a cup of tea or a chat while sharing a box of cand)- or a bowl of popcorn. Discussion groups in which all parents and the teacher get together ha\e pro\ed to be \er\' helpful and timesa\-ing, since many parents face the same problems. At such meetings general matters conis

feelings

that thev are \-aluable to both parents

cerning the kindergarten child can also

and

be discussed. The discussions

teachers. Parents

have a greater

re-

spect for a school that carefully analvzes a child's

help cipals

him

work and play and

stri\-es

to

correct his weaknesses. Prin-

and other teachers who

receive

such reports, learn that the kindergarten is more than just a place where "children have fun, sing songs, and play games." Parents and Teachers as People

may

help

the parents see the kindergarten as a firm rung in the educational ladder. Such

meetings

may

also help to build a re-

spect for the kindergartens thusiastic boosters for

voung children. Bv now, parents tioning: "Can we

and gain

en-

group education

of

where

all

are,

no doubt, ques-

find a kindergarten

of the practices discussed here

been welcome in kindergartens, and they have been frequent and interested visitors. Tire vounger the child, the greater is the need for discussion and planning between the mother and the teacher, since

Will all of these goals be obtained?" The answ^er, of course, is, "No, especiallv not so long as a school budget must be figured and teachers required to use 'mass production' meth-

the child lacks the language ability to be the go-between of home and school. Frequent meetings of parents and teacher not only gi\e the child a feeling of security because of the friendliness he sees in them, but parents learn that teachers are really "just people," and the

child have a teacher with

Parents have alwavs

teachers see the parents as to

whom

human

they can talk freely.

beings

are carried out?

ods." Parents

ties listed

may

also ask, "W^ill our all

of the quali-

here as desirable?" Again the

"No." But parents will find and many unusuallv good teachers all over the eoun-

answer

manv trv.

is

fine kindergartens

The

job of teaching, like the job

of being a parent, always has

room

for

impro\ement. There is a challenge ahead for both parents and teachers.

Childcr.\ft

5©

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

How much

do

\"oii

know about

the acti\itics of the kindergarten vour youngster

About the ideas and attitudes of his teacher? If vou know comparati\ehis it because you ha\en't been particularly interested or because there has seemed no way in which you could learn about these things? attends?

httle,

to

be

2. \\Tiat changes in interests and attitudes has your youngster shown since attending kindergarten? To what extent do you have evidence that these changes have grown out of his kindergarten experiences?

Did you have any qualms about "sharing" your child with the kindergarten teacher? you ever find yourself critical of what she does with the children? If you discussed vour feelings with a fair-minded friend or neighbor, do you think you would continue to have the same attitude? Have you e\er tried talking with your youngster's teacher? 3.

Do

4. Arrange to visit a kindergarten group, either the one of which your child is a member or another. Keep a simple record of some of the things indi\ idual children and larger groups are doing. \Vhat experiences are youngsters ha\ hig which would be either difficult or impossible to pro\ ide at home? 5. Wliat can you take from the kindergarten experience of your child and applv to adxantage in your home? \\'hat modifications of equipment or playthings might be used

at

home?

BOOKS TO READ Adams, Olga. The Modern Kindergarten. Washington, D. Childhood Education. 1937. Baruch, Dorothy. Parents Faegre, of

M.

Minnesota Foster,

Book

}.

L.,

Can Be

and Anderson,

Press,

C, and

J.

People.

New

C: The

Association for

York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1944.

D. Child Care and Training. Minneapolis:

Uni\ersit}"

194c.

Headley, N. E. Education in the Kindergarten.

New York:

American

Co., 1936.

Pruette, Lorine. Parents

and the Happ}- Child.

New

Updegraff, Ruth. Practice in Preschool Education.

York: Henr\' Holt

New

&

Co., 193--

York: McGraw-Hill Book

Co., 1938.

Zvve, Claire T. Growth Through School Living. Washington. D. Childhood Education, 1940.

C:

Association for

i

Thinking and learning aro dependon language. Explanations of "how" and "why" should be made in clear, concise words and with good diction. Thus, a child develops the ability to use and understand language, in addition to learning ent

new

facts

and

skills.

Press Syndicate

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ETHEL MABIE FALK

THE HOME opment

influences the child's language devel-

more than the school. Through imitation of those around him. through familv con\ersations, and through radio programs and motion pictures, far

disposition, his attitudes, and even the kind of associates he chooses. Language is not merely words; it is the

the child's standards of language are established and formed. If those standards, attitudes, and habits are poor, the few hours a week which the child spends in school can do little to counteract

entire process of

important for parents to know how to gi\e constructi\e help in language de\elopment. The author was formerly Super\isor of Curriculum in the Madison, \\'isconsin, public schools.

tant,

his habits

them. Hence,

it

is

It

communicating ideas. manner of

includes tone of voice,

speaking,

and

facial expression.

may make

timid \oice

a forceful

an

manner

of talking

audience

that

statements are true.

LANGUAGE

one of man's most

precious possessions. A person cannot even think \\ithout language, because he thinks in words. Language is important, also, in establishing successful relations with people. From what a person says and the way he says it, people form their opinions about him —his education, his general culture, his

51

hesi-

good

speech ineffective, while, unfortunately, \ince

is

A a

school was

amused

A

con-

wrong

\isitor in a cit\

to hear fourth-grade

pupils arguing o\"er the

that a

may

even

number

hen might be expected

of eggs

to lay in

much heated debate, one boy stood up, allowed time for an impressi\e silence, and then said in a tone of conviction, "A good hen will lay fi\e or six eggs in one dav." There was no further argument in that class. No one a day. After

Children will comprehend variations in

meanings

the

of

words more easily

if

explanations are accompanied by demonstrations. This is as effective for words that express ideas as it is for those which

name

objects.

has only a limited knowledge of reading, arithmetic, spelling,

and geography. The

attitudes toward other persons

child's

are usually also well established.

He may

be open, spontaneous, and courteous; he may be repressed, sullen, and argumentative; or he may be an exhibitionist. Such attitudes will have a definite effect

upon

A

his language. child's sense of securitv

home

the result of his

Press Syndicate

largely

is

conditions and

treatment. Timidity and fear are frequent causes of inarticulateness, poor organization of ideas, and even of usage

Listening habits, as well as pat-

errors.

dared question that tone of voice, and

terns of behavior in using the telephone,

no one did! Written language is an even more complicated problem than oral lan-

in conversation, in

guage. Punctuation, arrangement,

legi-

at school.

spelling enter

help, but

bility, capitalization,

into the impression

and

made by

letters

tell

so

much about

The

school can and should extremely important for parents to understand and guide the child's language growth as carefully as

and

it is

they do his physical growth.

one is interested in the first letter that he receives from a friend, because a let-

mav

home

or in other social situations, rather than

other forms of written expression. Every-

ter

making contacts with

strangers are also built largely at

How

Leams Language

the Child

the writer.

The

Clear, tactful language results in finer

child learns to speak entirely by

he

he can make

re-

imitation. \\'hen

ex-

develop

sounds, he experiments with his vocal organs just as he tries his muscles. Even

the best language expression of which the child is capable is the joint respon-

before he learns to speak he establishes communication with those around him.

personal relationships; good personal lationships, in turn,

pression easier

sibility of first five

and

home and

make language better.

school.

or six years, the

To

He makes them

During the

home

realize

has the

he

complete responsibility. WTien the child enters school he can use language more or less satisfactorily, though usually he

is

yhen he

finds

understand his is

pleased;

able to understand

on

desires,

his part,

many

of the

wishes of his parents and others. Facial expression, tone of voice, and gestures

52

Language Development build up understanding. Later, the

all

child adds language.

The

infant discov-

the sounds which he makes ac-

ers that

53

doubt, the sound alone is what attracts the child at first. Later, the meaning makes the right use of the word an

as "Da, da," or "Ma, ma," have meaning to his parents, and that thev are pleased when he makes them. Tliev repeat the sounds, pointing to themsehes at the same time, and thus give the child ideas by repetition and gestures. After a while, the sounds and signals come to have meaning to the babv, and the process of learning

achie\ement. A three-vear-old was told that she might help gather flowers from

language has begun. It is important to realize that the child learns onh- the language that he hears. Parents cannot feel too seriouslv their responsibilit\' for having the child

Another little child stood bv her vounger brother's crib as her mother sang softly, and the babv fell asleep. Suddenly she looked up and said. "My, you

hear good speech during the vears from two to five, because gro\\th in language is greater at this period than during anv

Finding that a \\-ord often has several meanings is a puzzling and interesting

other three-\'ear period of the child's

bank

cidentally, such

life.

Parents sometimes wonder wh\" pro-

heard onlv once, is remembered and repeated hx the child. It is because he has been impressed bv the forcefulfanity",

and effect of the expression, although he ma^• be completely unaware

ness

of

its

meaning.

A great manv

parents teach their chil-

dren bv example without realizing

Thev speak

it.

and correctly, greet guests naturallv and graciouslv, ask fa\-ors

clearlv

instead of giving orders, answer the

telephone

and

courteouslv,

The

Her aunt

the garden.

them, and

said.

"You

"\Miat is meaning had been

"Select." said the

little girl.

select?" \\'hen the

explained to her. the child \\ent

row

after

think

I'll

select

cut the stems."

I'll

row

down

of the garden saving, "I

select this one."

fascinated him. didn't you?"

experience. as

One

a

little

place

who knew

girl

where

checks

a

were

cashed was startled to hear in a stor}up on a bank. By

that a muskrat crawled

using the correct names for the objects

and experiences surrounding the child and bv explaining when the child is confused, parents can do much to satisfy this normal interest in words. Building up the desire to express ideas and gaining the ability to listen to others are important achie\"ements

the preschool period. In

conversation

is

of

homes where

enjoved, children learn

converse

naturally to share ideas. For such chil-

these

dren, language develops on a sound foun-

hears his

father speak

clearly in a pleasant tone.

His great ad-

dation of interest in and consideration for the attitudes, desires, and thoughts

with interest. conditions.

He

child senses

miration for his father makes tate that

manner when he

children, just as

what he hears

at

wav of home.

talking

Children's curiositv can for the

imi-

he imitates an arrogant,

\'ulgar, or careless is

him

talks to other

development of

if

that

of other people.

Rate and Nature

vocabular\'.

No

Language Growth

Cleainess. Man\- children seem naturallv to

be utilized

of

use complete sentences and to

express their ideas clearly.

though,

Sometimes,

a child lets others complete his

Childcraft

54

from their imagination or knowledge of what he is tr\'ing to say. sentences

With such

a child, a question at

for services are habits that children learn

by imitation and wise direction. In

re-

right time will help to bring out the

gard to all these points, parents should avoid being fussy in their demands upon

complete expression. Great excitement will cause a child to

slowly.

leave out parts of his sentences or to be-

wrong

come confused

their objections carefully.

in his expression. In

remedy

the

such

them

children. Let

learn adult customs rebuking them for saving things, parents should explain

When

The

explana-

to listen qui-

tion should always be designed to arouse

etly

and answer slowlv until the nervous is over, and the child speaks more clearly. Sometimes children repeat their sentences several times. They do this partly for emphasis and partly to gain attention. \Vhen a child really has something to say, he deserves attention. At other times he should be reminded to let If he has a reasonable others talk. amount of attention when he deserves it, he will not be so likely to babble on and on in an effort to get a hearing at

consideration for the other person. For

tension

example, one might say, "How do vou suppose Sally felt when you told her that her dress was queer?" or "Grandfather thought he w^as right. He's very old, and it bothers him to have vou argue with him."

a case, the best

is

Coiiectness. There

a great deal of

is

between the formallv exact speech expected of adults and the cor-

difference

rect speech asked of children.

demands

that parents should

The only make of

the preschool or primary child are that

other times.

he avoid expressions that would embar-

Appropiiateness. Even a small child can learn how to greet strangers and how to answer the telephone or the doorbell. Adults are often embarrassed when a

rass

child breaks into a conversation

"Why If

and

says,

we

standing here? Let's go." children are introduced and included are

in the conversation, they are

tient

and more

more

pa-

careful of their speech

than they otherwise would be, because they feel that they are part of the group. It is necessary to teach children rather

early that

about

some

things that are talked

home are One family

not to be repeated does this by saying, "This is 'family talk.' It belongs only to us." A certain loyalty about not reat

outside.

peating family talk

To be

is

thus built up.

businesslike

and

brief in car-

rying out an errand at a store, to ask for things politely,

and

to express thanks

him

in

ordinary social situations.

as, "Me and him was "That ain't the one," "They have went," and "The guy what done

Such expressions

there,"

it" are of this type.

Ghildren sometimes have logical

rea-

sons for their errors. "I haven't nothis an expression that the child uses because "nothing" is what he wishes to emphasize. "I haven't anything" does

ing"

not seem to him to express what he means, while "I have nothing" seems to him an unnatural, indirect way of speaking.

The problem

"Ain't"

very

is

difficult,

of

avoiding

because most

children are self-centered and want to call

attention to themselves frequently.

Unfortunately, there tute for "Ain't I?"

is

no good

Some

substi-

children say

"Aren't I?" which they reason out from "Aren't you?" Parents should not try to

Language Development teach

"Am

pression

is

child's use.

not?" because such an extoo stilted and adult for a

The

The

part in

I

desire

and tendency to and

sav "Ain't" lessens with maturity,

the error

probably disappear. Chilhear onl\- good speech at home \\ill

who mav sometimes

55

made the center of attention. who is not allowed to take the con\crsation mav grow up

dren are

child

to be one of those shy, self-conscious people who never carr\' their share of

sions outside. If corrections

responsibility in con\ersations and who embarrass thcmsehes and others because of their apparent effort when they do

error at a time, so that the child docs not

t\pc of

have too manv to remember. He must, also, be commended ^^•hen he uses the

aggressive, with a

dren

pick up incorrect expres-

need to be made, attention should be called to one

correct form.

Natuialness. The natural, spontaneous expressions of children are more delightful than all the beautifully ^^orded speeches that one might teach them. Indi\idualit\ever,

if

is

quickh- destroyed, how-

the child's remarks are consid-

to talk. Tlie child

tr}-

home

from the other

ma\' grow up to be

o\'er-

tendency to monopo-

the con\-ersation in a group. Neither type is socially successful because both

lize

are self-conscious— one arrogantly so, the

other timidly alist forgets

so.

A

good conversation-

himself and

is

interested in

whom

he is talking. Ver\' young children do not demand

the person with

much

of listeners.

They

often talk just

ered "cute" and repeated for others. One little fellow said, "WTiat was that cute

ing particularlv whether their compan-

Mother? Tell

ions listen or answer. Children are usu-

thing

I

Aunt

Stella."

said

yesterday.

Their natural language should be respected and encouraged but never exhibited. Children who are gi\'en varied and delightful experiences, like trips to the

new books and picgarden to work in and enjoy, \^•ill find many things to talk about and new wavs to express their ideas. Let children share in the work of the home. The park and the zoo, tures, or a

because others are in the room, not

allv

doing something

Thev

use their voices

else as

much

they

as

car-

talk.

they use

their hands, experimenting and playing with them. By the time the child enters school, however, he is likely to want to talk to someone or to have someone talk to him, instead of being content just to talk. His realization that language is reallv communication is one evidence

that he

will alwa\"S

is readv to learn to read. Children should be expected to listen to others and to avoid interrupting when

and

others are speaking.

child

who

has

manv

skills

and

interests

have topics for con\ersation No one is more bored and boring than the child who cannot or will not take part in the e\er\'day activities that interest his friends. a rich \ocabulaR'.

The Child's Place in Family Conversation Unfortunately, there are some

homes

which the children are expected to be "seen and not heard," and, just as in

unfortunatelv, others in \^hich the chil-

The

ability to listen

is sometimes more valuable than the abilitv to talk. Again, example is an effective training method. If adults pay no attention to a child's conversation,

thev can scarcelv expect the child to listen attenti\ely to

WTien the

them

or to others.

child shows a desire to

have a listener, he should get one. Mealtime and the hour or so before the

Children should always be introduced

and included

in the conversation. If courteously treated, they will feel they are part of the group and will learn to listen to others and to express their own ideas more clearly.

Some of them react by becoming quiet and shy, while others are actively resentful and have to be rebuked for rudeness. Members

of one's familv can be taught

to talk with children naturally ply,

and sim-

without teasing, but the beha\-ior

of guests

beyond one's

control. \\Tien with guests, the only solution is quietly to remo\'e the child from the room. is

such situations

arise

Tlie child should be given the experience

Press Syndicate

and pleasure of sharing conversa-

who enjoy children and are enjoyed by them. Large tion with those guests

child's

bedtime are often

satisfacton' pe-

riods for con\ersation with children,

there are not too

many people

if

An

exchange of the day's experiences, questions about the day's events, and of a

social e\ent.

Too few

adults

know how

to

talk

with children. A four-year-old who had probablv been asked hundreds of times the t\AO standard questions \^ith which most adults greet children, "WTiat's your name?" and "How old are vou?" walked up to a guest in his home, held out his hand, and said, "Hello! I'm Tommv. I'm four. \\*ho are you?" Many adults make teasing remarks, laugh at an unintentionally amusing or naive remark of the child, or ask the child impertinent questions. Sensitive children are puzzled

a child. \\Tien five or six adults

and one

child are in the room, the child, too

present.

comments from different members the family make the evening meal

groups, howe\'er, are o\'erstimulating to

and hurt by such treatment.

56

often,

becomes

a talkati\-e entertainer of

an adoring or a bored audience. Children converse with each other less frequently than with adults. Most of their remarks are directions or comments concerning and accompan\ing their play.

Much

of their play

matic interpretation of the them. Their con\-crsational

life

is

dra-

about

abilit\"

de-

velops in the main from their associations with adults.

Talking to children and discussing inideas that are within their comprehension, makes for a feeling of companionship and enriches their knowledge and understanding of this complicated world. If adults were less impatient with children's questions, they would have more opportunity for conteresting

Language Development versation. Children

cannot be expected

to remain intellectually curious through

and bevond

their school years

if

their

questions are completely discouraged before they are

A

sur\e\-

rexealed sation,

b\"

children's

interests,

their questions

was made

as

and con\er-

in a city of sixty thou-

sand population. Interest in natural science (animals, plants, stars, sun, moon, and weather) was at the top of the list in all grades from the kindergarten

through the sixth grade. The list of topics about which children converse was sufEcienth" \aried and worth-while to do credit even to adults.

Broadening Children's Experiences

The

attitude of adults toward con\er-

and letter writing is frequentlv due to the experiences thev are ha\ing. If interesting thmgs have been happensation

ing,

they are eager to express themselves.

Children, likewise, respond to an

en\-i-

ronment that provides them with stimulating experiences and someone ^^ith \\hom to share them.

A child's experience ma\" be enriched bv association with interesting people, opportunity to hear and read stories, the enjoyment of pictures and music, various hobbies, or the pleasure of Libraries,

museums, picture

tra\-el.

collections,

and the theater pro\ide these advantages in most communities. Tlie radio,

children's

room

in the libran-

is

library

children have rich and varied experiences, they have many things to talk about, and they are stimulated to express new ideas and feelings.

is

an

e\'en

better

source of pleasure and experience. \\"hen children own their books, the\" can read

them again and again and share them with other children. Tlie proper care of books is more easilv impressed upon children w ho

dren

who

own books than upon

chil-

read onl\- borrowed books.

Tlie child's books should be where he can see them and use them at any time. Tlie ordinarv bookcase is not practical for children's books which are varied in height, width, and thickness. A wide magazine rack, similar to those used in libraries, is one solution. Small books fit into the front slots and taller books stand behind. Stories and appealing poems should be read to little children daily as soon as they are old enough to enjoy them.

With most

children that

the second year.

is

as early as

Not

only does the child enter a whole world of imaginati\e experience, but his sense of the beauty and music of words develops. Probably nothing contributes to a child's \-ocabulan-

growth more than listening to stories and poems. Parents are often surprised at a

child's pleased

words from

repetition of long

his stories.

usuallv

and inviting and even voung children enjoy going there. Mothers who accompany their children on the first attractive

If

the library- will be well repaid. The child should have a chance to browse among the books and enjo\- the atmosphere of a library \isit to

A home

six.

of

57

By Gregor from Monkniever

One mother

of

Childcraft

58

a preschool child reported that the fol-

lowing books were provocative of est in new words:

Many Moons bv

inter-

James Thurber

Alexander, the Gander by Tasha Tudor A Woods Ston' by Elsa Ruth Xast This Is the World by Josephine \on Dolzen Pease

Make Way

Ducklings bv Robert

for

McCloskey

The Little House by \''irginia Lee Burton

The young

child

of the delightful

snow poems dren will see

who

has heard some

moon, wind,

rain, or

that are written for chil-

new

things in his

home

and in Nature and express his own ideas more beautifully because of his storehouse of word pictures. T\\'o recentlv published poetry books, Little

A

Pra\'er for

Things by Rachel Field and Secrets

by Jessie Orton Jones are especially rich

in

parents can curb their impatience over the litter children make, they will find that these interests stimulate worth-

while reading and conversation, in addition to providing just the sheer fun of doing things.

Near the end children begin

hobbies.

of the primary grades, to

develop interest in high

From then on through

school, with only a little interest and encouragement from adults, children will spend many hours on such activities.

They

will write letters to sources of in-

formation, consult older people

known

Attitude

Toward Lettez

are the only for

Wziting. Letters

form of written expression

most people.

It is

important, therean early age,

fore, that children gain, at

The wordplay, the humor, and the absurd exaggerations of Alice in Wonderland and the nonsense poetry of Edward Lear or Laura Richards are quite often reflected in the whimsical remarks

an attitude toward will

make

One

is

give their children

travel experiences

can help them

letter writing that

and not a task. seldom tempted to reread letters written from a sense of duty. it

a pleasure

Attitudes are "catching." If

down

Mother

her desk and complains about the task of answering letters or if Father boasts that he leaves the letter sits

Those who cannot real

are

Letter Writing

appreciation of the child's surroundings.

of children.

who

have similar interests, and talk about their hobbies with each other. to

at

Mother because he

develop an appreciation of, and interest in, other peoples and lands through the world of books. The first six \'olumes of

writing to

Childcraft contain a variety of stories and verses especially selected to interest children and broaden their experiences. The encouragement of wholesome

some duty to be postponed as long as possible. Thev are con\inced that their

hobbies

is

practically an obligation

both parents and

of

There is pleasure and relaxation in becoming absorbed in some hobby, whether it be gardening, stamp collecting, making model airplanes, caring for an aquarium, sewing,

teachers.

photography,

or

drawing.

If

dislikes

to write letters, the son or daughter begins to think of letter writing as a tire-

parents write letters because they have

not because they want to. The aim should be to make the writing of a letter to,

seem

as natural a

means

of

communica-

tion as conversation.

To do this, children should be given an opportunity to write letters very early, long before the artificial standards of form, spelling, and punctuation inter-

Language De\elopmext way

fere with the child's natural

of ex-

pressing himself. Let the child dictate his own letters before he can \\rite. One should view the child's first effort to

write a letter in the

views his ciation

same way that one to talk— with appre-

first effort

— offering

encouragement

and

help onl\- when it is asked for or needed. Supervision for the sake of making the letter correct and proper will kill enthusiasm. The child will not feel that the letter is his own if adults tamper with it,

if

be ended are correcting and laborious cop^•ing

and pleasure

demanded

in writing will

of him.

Opportunities for Letter Writing. \Mien does a \oung child ha\e any occasion to

There are many occasions —if adults do not manage too many of

write letters?

the child's

affairs for

him! Junior

may

Grandmother does not come for a visit. Mother may then suggest that Grandmother might come

ask his mother wh\'

if Junior himself in\ited her in a letter. \\lien Junior has read his first storybook, he mav want to tell his aunt, who gave

him the book. He can

write the invita-

59

sages for such occasions, they begin to understand that letters are just another

wax

of talking to people.

The idea

that the child ought to write a should be avoided. It is not difficult to create the desire to write letters if c\ery occasion is used to make letter writing mean something. Time and Place tor Writing. Timeliness is a factor in encouraging children to enjoy writing. Letters that are postponed day after dav become more and letter

more

difficult to write. If

the child writes

immediately after recei\ing a letter or a gift, he \Aill express himself more easilv and more naturallv because of the freshness of his interest.

The

place and the material for writing

should also receive consideration. Tlie table and chair should be of suitable size, so that the child is comfortable while writing. Tlie light should be adequate. W^riting is an effort for younger children, and the environment should be as fa\'orable as possible in order to

minimize the

effort.

Stationery for Children's Letters. Chil-

own

tions to his birthda}- part}- instead of

dren enjo\- ha\ing their

ha\in2 his mother send out conventional cards. WTien Junior visited a friend perhaps he forgot some of his belongings.

although it is a real treat occasionally to be allowed to use Mother's or Father's paper. The child's stationen' should be

He

at least eight inches

might write

his friend a letter, en-

stationen',

by ten inches,

pref-

The

closing the postage for the return of the

erablv with lines one-half inch apart.

articles.

small folded sheets that are often sold

There

are

also

thanks, letters to

who

are a\\a\'

children written.

numerous notes

members

on

trips,

of

of the family

and notes

to

who are sick which should be Some mothers leave notes \\hen

for children's use are

not

satisfactory- be-

cause the child will ha\'e difficultv adjusting his normalh' large ^^riting to so

small a sheet. If

the stationer^-

is

in a

convenient

thev are awav for a time and encourage

place, the child will write a letter

the children to write messages whene\-er

quicklv than

necessan. "Dear Mother,

I

am

over at

the clubhouse with Shirley," writes Priscilla.

When

children learn to

\^•rite

mes-

if

he has to hunt

more

for mate-

Even adults find the generous and con\enient supply of stationer}- in hotels an inducement to write letters long rials.

6o It is

important for children to develop the

toward

right attitude

Small

letter writing.

children can dictate letters to Grandmother or they may want to "write" a message before they are able to write. Their scribblings have meaning.

delayed. If the stationery that the child uses

is

attractive

and

suitable, the teach-

ing of good form and legible writing will

not be

difficult.

Good

paper

is

an

incentive for the child to be careful in the writing and arrangement of a letter.

The

should be considered important to be worthy of

child's letter

sufficiently

By Pinney from

Moiikinejt.r

suitable stationery. Individuality. Children enjoy illustrat-

ing their letters

and receiving

letters

The

below, written by an eightan example of unsuppressed

letter

year-old,

is

with illustrations in them. Simple line

and delightful

amusing and charming in children's correspondence. Such individual expression should be encouraged, even though the letter does not meet all the standards of formally cor-

this child, letters are really a

or stick figures are

rect correspondence.

No rules for good letters can be given, because every letter is an individual problem. What shall be said and how it shall be said depend upon the person who

is

to receive the letter, his dispo-

sition, his interest in

the writer, and the

situation that calls forth the letter.

ing

is

less

letter that has ob\'iously

by an

adult.

been dictated

Children sometimes em-

barrass their parents

and

Noth-

interesting than the child's

by

their frankness

their naive disregard of convention,

vet those very qualities constitute the of their speech and letters. Gradthey will learn to sense the many "mustn't-say-thats" of conventional social intercourse. Do not, however, rob

charm ually,

children of

all

spontaneity and natural-

ness of expression.

letter-writing ability.

means

To of

conmiunication. She writes almost as easily as she would talk. The letter was written to a former teacher several after the child had gone on to another grade. It was written in manuscript writing. The spelling and punctu-

months

ation have been reproduced exactly:

Dear Miss Gordon: I suppose vou think that after a child has passed from the grade you are teaching, the child will say hello when it sees

not realy pay atention to you, but now I have proved that that is not the same with me. I even talk to Mrs. Kamp when I see her, and if I am not in a hurr}' I talk with her a long vou. but

it

will

time but what I realy am writing to you about is coming now. You see a jar, or whatever you want to call it, was just emptied and washed

and I wanted to make a vase and my parents couldn't understand how to do it, and said that I should ask you again how to do it betonight,

out of

it,

Language Development fore

I

it. So I am asking you now me a letter and put Miss Fosters

tried

to write

top and put it in her mailbox at school but on the back put my name so that when she is about to open it she will find that it is for me. And if it does

name on

not bother you will you please print beI can not read cursive writing yet. Sallv has mo\ed and is not going to randall school any more. I am doing my best in school. I do not think you are interested, but if you are I will tell ^•ou. I am going to caus

be

in the junior choir.

the degree of friendliness that

full

of

hugs.

Conven/ions of

of Letter Writing.

form

are

A

important

it

ex-

an end-

kisses."

On

the whole, however, matters of form are not nearly so important as the

content of the letter. Master}' of form develop slowly but surely. At first,

will

the child should be encouraged to copv such forms, but too much insistence

upon

correctness

may

destroy both the

desire to write letters

and the

naturalness of his expression.

Freedom

few

and Ad-

also included

own— "Love and

ing of her

^ Iargaret

matters

She had

pressed.

child's

Cargoes of kisses and ships

had learned in school its meaning or

closing that she

without understanding

\'isitors

often

in

of

Speech

for

Children

modern schools are ven,and somewhat con-

surprised

should be explained to children. dressing the en\elope correctlv is necessary' in order that the letter ma\- be delivered. The child should write out the name of the state because children's writing is not alwavs plain and abbre\'iations mav be confused. Thev

cerned about the freedom of speech and mo\ement that is permitted— and e\en encouraged— among the children. In the

need to learn the correct wav to place the address and date in the heading and to leave a suitable margin. Thev need to understand the differences in formality in the various salutations and closing expressions. The little girl who ended her letter to her aunt with "Lo\e and kisses. Sincerely yours," was using a

a

traditional school of the last generation,

children talked

very-

They were

little.

commended for being quiet. They responded when called upon, and perhaps few braver ones volunteered. WTien

they talked, they usually repeated or

summarized what thev had learned from a textbook. There was almost no discussion among the children. Language expression

consisted

largely

of

teacher-

not surprising that the children did not develop fluency pupil recitation. It

is

Ewing Galloway

Today, school children develop fluency in language ability

by participating

in

group discussions, by talking over

own

and settling their and by taking

affairs,

part in activities like the school newspaper, plays, or

book

clubs.

Childcraft in language with this kind of training.

mod-

In an elenientan' classroom in a

ern school, a group of children

may be

around the

making

gathered

teacher

lems that can be settled b\' group judgment. They ha\e story and book clubs. In other words, the aim of language instruction in the

modern

schools

is

to

plans for a trip to a dairy farm or to a

teach children to carrv on adequately the

fire station. They will be talking freely, with only the restriction that governs adults in conversation— the need to wait for a chance to talk without interrupting someone else. Another group may be busy at some construction work and

type of writing and speaking that

when

and with animation. A small committee may be working around a table, composing a talking,

group

necessarv, freely

letter.

Freedom

to express ideas

is

part of a

sound mental-hvgiene program, articulateness ing.

The

study.

essential to clear think-

who

does not want to an atmosphere needs careAs people express their

child

talk in such ful

is

thoughts, their ideas grow.

think

more

since

They

usually

and

after a

clearh' during

were the only reason freedom to express themselves, it would be sufEcient. Language is not merelv the product of one's discussion. If that

for giving children

thoughts;

it is,

in addition, a stimulation

Diill. Tlie school is responsible for teaching the conventions of writing and

speaking. Although a child's letters need

not be perfect as to clearness, neatness, and punctuation, drill is provided in the school to establish habits of correct

usage in regard to spelling, grammar, punctuation, and so on. The teacher i :Ke sure that the children understand the reason for the capital letter, the comma, or other language form

tries lo

that they are being taught to use.

however, and should practice to remove

own difficulties. Practice is given when the need for the form or skill is made real to the pupils. For example, the child who is to be announcer for a his

school radio program

WTien the

eager to recei\'e

class

newspaper

being pre-

is

in writing brief, clear sentences.

try to provide real-life

see the

through these experiences that children develop language power. Letters are written and mailed, and answers are received. Children plan their own assembly programs. Thev write an-

The

it is

nouncements and

invitations

parents or to other adults.

to

their

They

inter-

view people for information on subjects that they are studying.

They

print their

own newspapers and give radio proThey discuss playground prob-

necessary

if

Much

children under-

stand the principle or rule involved and

situations requiring the use of language,

grams.

is

intensive training in speaking distinctlv.

less drill is

for

Each

child should be treated as an individual,

Activities in School

Today, schools

the}-

life.

pared, children are glad to ha\'e training

to one's thinking.

Language

will use in adult

need

for the

knowledge.

habit of using correct expres-

such as "He and I," "Have writ"Has seen," and so on, is established by frequent oral and written drill. The form must be made to sound natural to the child or he will not use it automatically. Such drill is largely indisions,

ten,"

vidual because, as a rule,

usage.

same

all

pupils in a

do not have the same

class

To

error

drill is

faults

in

the entire class on the

a waste of effort

and might

Language Development even confuse a child

who

automatically

uses the correct expression. Parents can

quicth' correcting errors

help

b\-

the\'

hear them.

Study

when

Needs

there are certain pupils

special ties.

is

the child \\ho

is

talking

that the child neither deserves nor

In classrooms where each child's spe-

who need

attention for language difficul-

Tliere

upon others by

The resulting personality characteristics may cause an unpopularmuch.

too

understands.

PeTsonality Pioblems. In e\er\- class-

room

to force himself

it)-

of Individual

6?

too tnnid

to take part in discussions, the child \\ho

too aggressi\'e and tries to monopolize or the child \\"ho a\oids criticism by resorting to silence as often

cial

language

needs

are

the

studied,

out why the child is too aggressi\-e or too timid. Tlie procedure used in o\-ercoming the difficulty depends upon the cause. The child who teacher

tries to find

monopolize attention may be

to

is

tries

con\'ersation,

assigned to work with a group of very

as possible. Tliere

is

also the too docile

who needs to be encouraged to think and act for himself. Such difEculties can be o\'ercome by patient study child

and

effort.

Many

of these problems are the re-

maladjustments. The all the time may really be concealing a feeling of inferiority. He displays an arrogant manner partly to convince himself of his ade-

sult of personality

child

who wishes

to talk

quacy but largely to secure attention

from others. The timid child may draw from group conversation because with-

of a feeling of insecurity.

The home and

the school must work

together to find the trouble and to correct

it.

One

child

mav have

attention; another, too

too

little

much. Perhaps,

at

one child is too often made conspicuous by being the chairman of a committee or by giving a special report. Another child mav not have sufficient opportunity to use the abilities that he knows he has, and his efforts to secure

school,

recognition

make him appear

olize the attention of class.

and

At home, the

sisters,

mav be

to

monop-

both teacher and

attitudes of brothers

parents, friends, or relati\'es

responsible for the child's desire

competent and

demand

articulate classmates

who

their share of the discussion op-

He may be asked to study problem and report on it, with instructions to keep within a time limit. portunities. a special

\Miatever method is used, the object the establishment of a better relation-

is

ship between

Tlie

who

his fellows.

who seldom volunteers, only when called upon di-

talks

rectly,

him and

child

may need more

approval.

A

feel-

ing of security and ability can be built

up if all his small successes are obser\-ed and commended. He may be allowed to work with small groups with whom he comfortable, until he develops feels more assurance and confidence in his

own

powers.

Tl:iere are

such

as

too

other personality problems,

much

of indifference

docility or an attitude toward the opinions or

standards of others. Back of

problems

is

some

all

these

cause or causes,

and

even' case needs special study and treatment, which the school language program should pro\-ide. The co-operation of the home is essential in carrying out this

program.

Physical Conditions.

Many

language

troubles as well as personality difficulties

have their basis in the

child's physical

Childcraft

64

of fatigue or illness.

meets children who speak incorrectlv, he begins to make errors that he did not make before. Association with children of all types is desirable as a means of broadening the child's social understanding, but it does present a problem

dren quarrel easily

in speech.

condition. this

Parents are well aware of between health and lan-

relation

They notice, as soon as the child can talk, that a petulant tone and poor language expression are often symptoms guage.

overstimulated,

rudely

They find that chilwhen thev have been and that they may speak

they are ill. Psychologists and physicians urge that ever}- effort be made to relieve the child

—both

if

at

home and

at

school— of

strain,

must keep

Parents

mind

in

and patterns of speech are the correction can be made

that standards

copied.

If

before the incorrect habit becomes fixed,

time and effort are needed than

fatigue, the distraction of noise, or in-

less

terference with accomplishment. Chil-

the habit must be corrected gentle reminder when the error

dren, like adults, are

more vigorous and

confident in expressing themselves

when

they ha\e a feeling of physical well-being. Insufficient sleep, frequent colds, or inadequate food mav leave the child too tired for clear thinking

To

and expression.

who is overtired or to make an oral report

require a child

emotionally upset before the class is futile so far as language training goes and may, in addition, set

up

a fear of similar situations

always

that children learn to talk by imitation,

later.

if

is

A

made,

the quiet substitution of the right form, all, the constant example of

and, above

correct expression at

home will do much To

to establish correct speech habits.

punish or embarrass the child by ridicule or repetition of his mistake before other people may result in correction of the error, but it may also produce a personality problem that is far harder to overcome than the speech error. If cor-

becomes

painful, children will

in the future.

rection

Nutrition studies show that as children gain in weight and have sufficient rest, they begin to take an active part in the language activities of the class

escape the attack by becoming silent and

and

more

are able

engage in discussion

to

without becoming

Wise

teachers practice

than before the

class.

making

Parents will obtain

desirable results

they, too, use

if

the individual conference

irritable.

when making

corrections of a child's language.

Corrective Teaching

The home

reserved.

corrections in a private conference rather

The

should co-operate with the

corrections that have to be

at school

and

at

home,

if

made

school in a continuous effort to over-

may

come

habit of correcting others. This

the habits of incorrect speech that

children acquire as soon as they have

many

There seems to be something contagious about "Ain't," "He done," "He seen," and sim-

contacts

ilar

with

incorrect expressions. Parents

speak correctly in the as

people.

soon

home

who

observe that

as the child goes to school

and

result in the child's

commendable thermore,

it

made

publicly,

forming the is not

social behavior, and, fur-

has the unfortunate effect

of giving the child a feeling of superiority

over those

whom

he

corrects. If talk-

ing the problem over with the child does not end this tendency, it may be wise to take up the matter with the teacher.

Many

simple speech de-

fects are corrected as

child

a

learns to use his

speech organs correctly. The mirror enables a child to watch the mouth position as certain sounds are made. Courtesy Public Schools, Madison, Wis.

her technique

Possibly

for

corrective

teaching needs to be changed. She

pleasant voices,

may

be making unwise use of pupil criticism

when

in allowing children to call attention to

the errors that other pupils to discuss errors ers or adults in

made by

make and

his correct

the

the community.

language seems to set him

in speaking

and such adjustment

is

Causes of Detects. There are manv and many causes of speech defects. Stuttering is probably the most noticeable defect, Bab\- talk and the substitution of letter sounds— b for v in

to the

types

not nearly so critical of the me," "Drive slow," or

expressions, "It's

"\\^ho do you

mean?"

as it

is

of

some

very,

other errors. In correcting the speech care should be taken

of children,

for

first

th in

thread

to

or other,

w

for s in

continue after the

child reaches school age,

only the more offensive errors

should be corrected, such as "He done," "That ain't the one," "He seen," "You is," "He come," "W^e was," and the like, leaving points of less importance for cor-

tord for

wh in why or where, and th

see— if allowed

to

avoid being too precise and demanding.

At

thev reach

at

corrected as early as possible.

flexibility

situation are advantageous. Societ}'

age

speech correction is the period of greatest physical growth. For manv reasons, speech defects should be analyzed and

apart from his playmates. If the child right form, such

when

which they become selfconscious. Moreover, the best period for

public speak-

knows the

pronunciations,

they are learning to talk or are in

the primar\' grades than

Occasionally a child uses incorrect language in order to be one of the group, if

faulty

and slo\enly articulation. Such defects are more easily corrected in children

may become The

defects that are hard to eradicate.

avoidance or substitution of other sounds for the sibilants s, sh, z,

and zh con-

which, if it is of one type, is easilv corrected while the child is young. If the organs that are important in the formation of clear speech sounds —tongue, lower jaw, and lips— are not used freelv, enunciation is poor and stitutes a lisp,

rection later.

Speech Defects Although no one has perfect speech, persons are unaware of their un-

many

speech

65

is

inarticulate.

Childcraft

66

The child's

Many

attitude

speech

of

is

who

parents

parents

to\\ard

Sometimes poor speech

a

of major importance. are excessi\eh- care-

how

not knowing

from

results

to use the muscles of

the lips and tongue.

To overcome

this

and

difficulty there are definite exercises which

manners are apparently indifferent to They may be amused bv his sound substitutions and imitate them

can be used for fi\e or ten minutes a dav with gratifying results. A specially trained

become family

The statement is often made that a child stutters or has a tense, high tone

ful

of their

child's

clothes,

diet,

his speech.

until

they

expressions,

the repetitions of ^^hich only

fix

the

wrong concept

of the sound. Or, speech is entirely a learned abilit}-, they find in the fact that a grandfather or some other relative lisped or stuttered an explanation for the child's speech defect and assume that nothing can be done about it. Some parents, who are oyeranxious for the child's success, take an emotional view of the problem and are guilts' of nagging and faultfinding. An attitude which does serious harm to the child's emotional adjustment is the oversentimental, protective coddling that permits the speech defect to become an excuse for all other deficiencies and enables the child to escape from reality by retreating into sichild's

that

forgetting

lence and submissiveness.

The

step in diagnosing a speech an examination of the physiorgans concerned with the making

The

nose, throat, teeth, pal-

tongue, eyes, and ears should

examined bv

a

physician.

all be For speech

caused bv a defective organ, no suggestions can be given here. Only competent physicians should attempt difficulties

diagnosis

To

mental or emotional disturbance and will

and treatment

when is

the cause of the

remo\'ed. Tliis cause

sometimes the stuttering itself. Certemperaments are more easily put out of adjustment than others, but there is usually some specific cause for emotional instability. Lack of emotional is

tain

poise

may

midity,

re\eal itself in excessive

overadoration,

ti-

overdepend-

or

much

ence on parents or others, too

docility in accepting suggestions, with-

drawal

from

with

association

people, tantrums, or an

artificial

nism and stubbornness that

other antago-

really co\'er

Stuttering

without knowing the exact

may be caused by

a physi-

cal defect, birth injuries, serious illness,

injuries to

the ner\'ous system, or in-

terference with natural left-handedness.

Ner\-ous

shock,

fears,

teasing,

excite-

ment, poor mental hygiene in the home, inadequate physical hygiene, and an attitude of shame regarding stuttering usually aggra\'ate the condition.

Some

in such cases.

prescribe exercises for a child with a

cleft palate

disappear

child's difficulty

a feeling of inferiority.

is

of sounds. ate,

because of ner\ousness. In reality, the ner\ousness is an outward sign of some

first

difficulty cal

teacher should be consulted.

speech defects are the result of

fault\' learning,

of dialect, or of imitation

of family peculiarities of speech. In

some

condition and the physical limitations of

cases,

power of speech might set up emotional disturbances that would increase his speech difficulties and cause per-

of fault}' learning. Discover^' of the cause

sonality maladjustments.

cording to the cause.

his

is

imperfect hearing

is

the real cause

of major importance, since the treat-

ment needed

will

obviously differ ac-

Language Development CoTiection 0/ Deiects.

fortunate enough to be

the child

If

in a school

is

where

speech correction, ha\e the benefit of correctixe treatment. Tlie help that is gi\-en should be supplemented hv the efforts of the classroom teacher and the parents, under the direction of the speech expert. there

he

is

a specialist in

will

\Mien the

home

in the

child's defect

or elsewhere,

is

discussed

should be

it

67

Some children with speech defects are mistakenly considered dull, because thev retire into silence as a means of escaping embarrassment. It is well to gi\e attention to their superior abilities along other lines in order to build

up compensation

for their lack of confidence that

bv

is

caused

stuttering. If

his difficulty has followed a serious

physician may recommend that the child should not be urged to talk

illness, a

considered from an objective, matter-offact point of view. In so far as possible,

much

the child should be allowed to forget

his physical \igor.

wholesome activities. He from teasing or annovance hv other children. At the same

the part of the parents cannot be over-

himself

in

shc^uld be protected

time, he should cultivate an unemotional

acceptance of his condition. Fixing attention upon his difficultv may cause

even more disturbance. Tlie parents' attitude toward the child's defect will be transferred unconsciously, just as any feeling of irritation becomes apparent to the child and lessens his assurance.

fundamental

child's

be nourished.

The

The

should can accept

self-respect

who

child

his condition to the extent of

practicallv una\^"are of

it

is

becoming

able to be

until

he has completelv reco\ered

The importance

verse,

where children say poems

consciousness and to gain assurance by expressing himself in a situation where his defects are

not noticeable.

Books on speech correction (see the reading references at the end of this article)

suggest certain

people.

selves

drills

difficult}-.

for each

Parents them-

tir-

should know how sounds are made. Thev can then show the child that

overstimulating radio programs,

biting the lower lip slightly will start the

Late hours, exciting movies, long

and other interferences with routine are ven' harmful. An atmosphere of quiet, regularity, and confidence should be created for the child.

The

in uni-

son or in groups, has given the child with a defect the chance to lose self-

t\pe of speech

trips,

on

emphasized. If parents use clear, reasonably slow speech, the child \\i\\ not be encouraged to speak too rapidly or too excitedly. In classrooms, the use of choric

natural in his relationships with other

ing

of careful speech

child should learn to face the fact

very correctly, that by breathing out and then saving what or where, he can make the wh sound correctly. A mirror may be used to show the child how he is making the sound. Only one

\\-ord

should be attempted at a

that he has a difficultv, the ccirection of

correction

which

willing to earn-

time,

and to follow

should be pro\ided until the making of the correct sound has become a habit. A\-ailable e\idence seems to indicate

is

possible

if

out the necessar}-

he

is

drill

suggestions. He alone can bring about improvement, although an interested, encouraging attitude on the part of those around him is of great value.

and regular

drill, in

brief periods,

that changing from left-handedness to

right-handedness

may

cause emotional

Childcraft

68

But when

disturbances that in turn cause stuttering.

In some cases, retraining of the

when

the child

is

left

the child use his right hand

insist

mav

correction of speech defects usua long

and courageous is

program of patient Discouragement

effort.

manv

frequent, because so

I

it is

Hugh

that

purpose at the cost of a speech or a reading handicap.

means

think

thought the sky was just lots of air, then I thought it was a piece of painted tin. Then I thought it was some big, white I

And

clouds,

But now

phvsical

and mental conditions need adjustment. Interested and intelligent parents can, by their care of the child and the regularity' of the games or drills that are used, do more to secure improvement than speech specialists alone can do. Consistent effort is necessary.

I

know— it

is

who

power

vivid

in

the

use

are unusually

of

this ability so that

language. it

will un-

fold naturally and simply is discussed bv Paul Engle in "Writing Our Thoughts," in Childcraft, Vol. 8. Mr. Engle has been astonishingly successful in de\-eloping the talents of artistic,

poetic children.

The

repetition of the child's clever

remarks or original verses by adults, with

undue centering

of attention

expression in any way,

who

is

upon

his

unwise. Parents

are eager to preserve these expres-

them when the child not aware that he is being noticed. The following poems were obtained in sions should record is

that way:

The

poplar stands

tall

and

graceful.

The pine

When I

think

I

is stubby and short. look at the poplar

it is

where

Rodney

a princess beautiful

God

I

saw a cloud that looked

WTien

The

(age Gve)

like a lion,

thundered, I heard it roar. lion was swinging his big black it

tail,

But soon another cloud scared the

lion

away.

June (age

sensitive to beauty reveal ver\- early a

Training

just

lives.

Special Talents

Certain children

(age six)

achieve

their

The

I

older has led to definite

improvement. Parents who

ally

look at the pine a beggar Standing at the door.

hand

six)

If the talent reveals itself in a desire to write, diaries, notebooks, and neigh-

borhood papers are

suitable places for

the preser\'ation of original stories and poems. \\Tiether or not they eventually

prove to have any literary merit is beside the point. For the child, the fun of expressing himself in his own way is enough. Many elementar}' schools now sponsor class or school newspapers, mag-

which encourage Such projects gi\'e the child a feeling that ^^•hat he has written is of real value, and the publication of his work gives it the attractive qualit}- of permanence. The wav in which children prize these papers and books is shown by the length of time they are saved, read again and again, and shown to relatives and visitors. azines, or yearbooks,

the

children

The

to

write.

pleasure that children take in

writing for these booklets or papers responsibility in

is

freedom and regard to the whole

in direct proportion to their

prefers the left hand. No special problems will arise if he is allowed to follow his natural tendency. A forced change may cause an emotional disturbance and unusual behavior such as stuttering and stammering.

He

They should be gi\en ahiiost complete control in selecting and preproject!

paring the material. rect, rense,

When

adults cor-

and impro\'e the

children's

always a noticeable lack of pride and pleasure in the writing. Parents can give a real impetus to the embnonic stor\- writers and poets contributions, there

is

bv sho^^"ing an interest and expressing encouragement. Dramatic plav is a natural acti\ity of childhood. Some children have a talent for expressing their enjovment of stories through bodilv action, pantomime, and dialogue. Sometimes this dramatic play upon original stories or the is based beha\"ior

adults.

of

Parents

are

often

amused when children impersonate them in play, but it has value. Children make use of their imagination, and the\- prac-

Press Syndicate

he

li\es in such a happv atmosphere. Puppets, always appeahng to children,

may be

the performers in the child's

Manv materials can be used for the puppets; sponge rubber. clay, paper pulp molded and dried. car\ed \\ood, and rag dolls. The simple dramatization.

hand puppet dren will

good t\"pe to begin with puppet technique. Chilgradualh- progress to the com-

can de\-elop this interest in dramatizing

plicated

string

and valuable use of leisure hours. These dramatizations mav become neighborhood acti\"ities which gi\-e children opportunity" to share their pleasure in stories and to

ment

tice

A

grown-up li\"ing. mother who understands children

stories into a pleasant

express

their

interpretations.

A

costuming

needed.

A

scarf

wooden sword,

and can

spare

equipment

make

a knight.

ing background will

A

come

a

are

pirate,

estlv.

puppet.

of a dialogue to

Undue

praise

discouragement

The

de\elop-

accompanv the

later,

mav mean bitter when the child is is

not

are

no

forced to recognize that his talent

Knowing

unique.

for

howe\er.

parents

childish effort

a

its

when

there creative

should

work,

encourage

and withhold decision on

worth or lack of worth. The greatest

\alue

69

that

judging

standards

child's read-

to life

a

performance gi\-es much opportumt%- for language expression. WTiatever the special talent, it should be handled sympatheticalh' and hon-

room in the basement, attic, or garage. will make a good spot for a Littie Theater. Blankets will make a curtain, and pillows will make acceptable seats. \'er\little

is

for developing

is

the child's joy in self-expression.

Childcraft

yo

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

just

Think over incidents from your own experience which show an individual

but a

abilit\'

that language

not

is

social experience.

2. Make a list of actual situations in your home in which you ha\e been able to teach your child appropriateness in the use of language. Think of other situations which you

might utihze 3.

and

to better advantage.

Suppose you have careless expressions.

years of age who is beginning to use incorrect procedure would you follow?

boy nine or ten

a

What

4. Think over opportunities you ha\e to encourage your child in letter writing. Does your child's attitude toward letter writing seem to be influenced by the attitudes of the adults in the home? 5. WTiat practices do you follow in correcting your child's grammatical mistakes? Does the presence of guests make any difference in the way you handle the corrections? Are your methods getting good results? Think of other methods you might use, both when alone with the child and in the presence of guests.

6.

What

steps

would you take

to prevent a speech defect, such as stuttering,

from

growing worse? 7.

Tliink o\er the ways to encourage a shy child to express himself, ways to guide the

overtalkative child to be a courteous listener.

BOOKS TO READ National Societ}' for the Studv of Education. Forh'-thiid Yearbook, Part U: "Teaching in the Elementary- School." Chicago: Universit}' of Chicago Press, 1944.

Language

Eisenberg, A. L. Children and Radio Programs.

New

York: Teachers College, Colum-

bia University Press, 1936.

Trent, Alvina, and Others.

They

All

Want To

Write. Indianapolis:

The Bobbs-

Merrill Co., 1939.

Hildreth, Gertrude. Learning the Three R's. Minneapolis: Educational Publishers, 1936. Merr\-, F. K..

and

Merr\', R.

V. From Infancy

to Adolescence.

New

York: Harper

&

Brothers, 1940.

Robbins, S. D., and Robbins, R. Boston: Expression Co., 1937.

S.

Correction of Speech Defects oi Early Childhood.

LEARNING

THROUGH LITERATURE By Sandra from Monkmejrer

Children enjoy books long before they can read. They like to look at bright, colored pictures of familiar objects; they

ELEANOR M. WITMER THE CHILD'S home

will

experiences with literature at determine his attitude toward

first

largelv

also like to listen to rhymes or to short, descriptive sentences about the pictures.

readmg throughout life. It thus becomes the parents' opportunit)and pri\ilege to direct those experi-

—

—

ences so that the child will not onlv enjoy reading but will also enjoy the ver\- best literature. The author is Librarian and Professor of Education at

interests and needs. Children should be encouraged to give their honest opinions about books, so that the adult may more intelligently guide the

child's

Teachers College, Columbia University.

READING of even-

of

some kind is a life. "The

child's

part

child to find those experiences in

real

erature which he should have

purpose of books," says Christopher Morley, "is to trap the mind into doing its own thinking."

he can enjo\'. what children

Very young children

all faith

are greatly influ-

enced b\' \\hat is read to them and by what they read for themseh'es. Imagination is stimulated, beliefs are formed or

and experiences

are

widened

through literature as well

as

through

destroyed,

prescribe arbitrarily

shall read

is

likelv to kill

in the adult's choices

to the furtive reading of

and lead

mediocre or

harmful books. \\'ithin the limits of good literature, there is such a wide choice that each child's interests can ha\-e free play. WTiere only a few books are a\ailable, however, much finer discrimination is needed, and it is in this connection that the results of studies of

Books for children of all ages should be chosen most carefully and N^ith due regard for the individual actual

To

lit-

and which

li\-ing.

71

Childcraft

72

children's interests in reading are of the greatest \akie.

Nursery Rhymes

The

ver}'

to literature

young

child's introduction

made through \Mien

well

is

long-lo\ed nursen^ rh\"mes. heard, they

Some

of

may ha\e

them

the first

meaning.

little real

alwavs remain what

\\ill

thev are— pure nonsense. But an interest in words and a feeling for the patterns in which they are used can be built up bv the rh^•thm of these verses and the music of their repeated words. In many of them there is action as well as rhythm.

Jack be nimble,

is challenged now and then since they are fantastic. These jingles were never intended to teach facts. Long ago,

rhymes

just as today, they captivated children with their rollicking humor, their unexpected climaxes, and their simple rhythm. Tliese three factors alone are reason enough for their popularitv.

Many editions of Mother Goose have been published. In choosing a Mother Goose book for the ver\' young child, care should be taken to secure clear, bright, simple pictures and the original words. Some recent \ersions have attempted the substitution of modern words and phrases, or have added new verses. Frequently, these

Jack be quick, Jack jump over

changes spoil

the simplicity of the original and take

and they grow to expect motion as the natural accompaniment of such rh^•mes

away the chief value of the rhvmes. For young children a small book that is light and easv to handle is better than the larger, more elaborate editions. The Real -Mother Goose, with pictures by B. F.

as:

W^right,

The

candlestick.

Children are quick to act them out,

To

market, to market, to buy a fat pig.

Home

again,

home

again, jiggety

jig.

or the lines:

London

bridge

is

falling

down.

Falling down, falling down.

In a short time children learn to

re-

peat these verses for themselves, and

they get great delight from the repetition of certain words and phrases. This is plav of the finest sort, and

it presents an opportunitv for making the child's first experience with books the pleasurable one it should be. The value of the Mother Goose

by Mumro Lawson

From Ferdinand

the

Bull

illustrated

by

Robert

Leaf,

(Viking Press).

is

one that

is

\er\-

popular with

children. Sing

Mother Goose

new way

present the old rhymes.

to

furnishes a

anthologies and digests and poems provide an allround reading diet. They also stimulate children to want to read further on Well-selected of

stories

certain subjects of special interest.

Picture

Even before great

delight

Books

a child can read in

looking at

he takes pictures,

recognizing familiar objects, or getting satisfaction

from the

colors.

The

desire

be fostered by carefulh- chosen picture books which have simple words accompanying each picture. Not all picture books, however, ha\e this type of text; many teach through pictures alone. The best of these picture books will depict children's interests with the simplicity' with \\hich a child views life. There \\'ill be much kindh" humor in them. The pictures will be gay, colorful, and full of action. They may be grotesque but never ugly or frightening. They should be simple and wholesome, never detailed. Such books are usually instructive and interesting. For example, Harriet Huntington's Let's Go Outdoois has colorful pictures of worms, insects, and bugs that help the child learn about the world, ^^"innifred Milius in to learn to read can

her Here

Comes Daddy

pictures

the

bread wagons, the buses, cars, and trucks which pass along a cit\- street. Other picture books show how children li\e in other lands. Snfpp, Snapp, Snurr, and the Red Shoes bv Maj Jan Lindman pictures the adventures of Swedish boys, and Hannah Marie by Richard Bennett is a delightful stor}- of an Irish girl. Some of the most fascinating picture books consist of stories about small animals, such as Peter Rabbit or the little

Pre^s ^^yndicate

kitten in

Wanda

Gag's Millions of Cats.

M. Green in her Evenhodv Has a House shows many different animals and their homes. The animals which a Mar\-

little girl

collected are pictured bv Fran-

coise in CoJ]ette.

A child can learn about countn- things from E. Bo\d Smith's The Farm Book. The countrv child gets real pleasure from recognizing the familiar animals; while the

cit^"

manv new

child learns

An American

\illage

things.

pictured in Berta

is

and Elmer Hader's Little Town. Through such books the child's imagination recei\'es a real stimulus and much that is \aluable

dren

is

like

learned unconsciously. Chilto

build

their

own

stories

but most of them

around some prefer books in which the pictures pictures,

tell

the stoR- clearly.

Before entering school, a child may learn how to handle books by looking at them with either his father or mother, or

with older children.

73

He

should be shown

Childcraft

74

From The Poetzy Book by Huber, and Curry (Rand, McNally).

Bruner,

Stories too difficult for children to read are frequently enjo\'cd when lis-

tened to. Fables, folk tales, poetry, and the richly imaginative modern stories provide much that is good to draw upon.

Sometimes the reader will need to preface the story with a few simple explanabut usually it is better to avoid any attempt at interpretation unless called for by the children. Fables and folk tales, especially, need to be pretions,

served in their original language. All parents are not good storytellers. It is better for such parents to read well that which has been carefully written by the author than to attempt to retell it in

their

how

to look at pictures,

pages,

and how

fresh looking.

how

to keep books clean

From

and

to tell

and

the pictures he can

learn to recognize colors, to jects,

to turn the

"what

is

name

ob-

happening"

in

the picture.

There are indestructible books for very young children which are as simple, colorful, and gay as the paper ones. Tliey need to be just as carefully chosen for suitability of content and juvenile appeal. Pictures of animals and ever\day objects and pictured nursery rhymes are popular with most children.

own

words. All too frequently, the

beauty of the words and the value of the story are lost in the telling. The beauty of the story may also be lost in the oral reading unless the reader with the text.

is

very familiar

There are numerous collections of good stories to tell or read aloud to young children. Old favorites are reBryant's

many of them. Sara Cone The Best Stones To Tell to

Children

is

peated in

and "Epaminondas"

a well-selected collection

includes such stories as

terial

and other fairy or folk tales, many of which older children can read for themselves. All the old favorites are found in Nursery Tales from Many Lands by Eleanor Skinner and Ada M. Skinner. Realistic modern stories based on the

of

child's

Books To Read Aloud

"Good

literature"

is

any reading ma-

which is likely to build up a sense sound values in the child's slowly developing outlook on life. It is in this respect that many cheap books for children fail. They may be liked by the children, but they do not contribute to his sense of true values.

firsthand

experiences

will

be

Lucy Sprague Mitchell's delightful Here and Now Story Book. Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stones, which found

in

should be a part of every child's heritage, is

likely to bring

demands

for

many

repe-

Learning Through Liter.\ture

75

Told Under the Blue Umbreila: Xeu- Stories for Xe\v Children and Told Under the Green Umbrella; Old Stories for Xe\v Children are stories

There is an abundance of good poetr\' which will appeal to all t)-pes of children. Some collections are based upon

adults will enjo\- telling or reading to

are based

titions.

Thev were

the choices of adults for children; others

selected by the

lit-

dren's

committee of the Association Childhood Education.

for

ume 1

children.

erature

upon

own

scientific studies of chil-

Hie poems

choices.

of Childcr-vft are of the

They were chosen bv children's literature

Poetry

Hugh Mearns Youth,

we

"We

read;

in

says

talk so

and when

it

poem his

much comes

Creati\'e

better than to poetr\-

I

safelv claim that the inability" to read,

either aloud or silently,

is

the

main cause

for the failure of poetry- to take

its

right-

ful place in the lives of children." It

in \'ol-

first

t^pe.

who know

adults

and children. Each

in the collection has

an appeal to

young readers. The Poetr\- Book, compiled bv Miriam B. Huber, H. B. Bruner, and C. M. Cum", is an example of the second

t}"pe

of collection.

first-grade class

From

it.

a

chose the follo\^ing, by

Lerov F. Jackson,

as their favorite verse:

is

To China

well kno\^-n that although children are

almost unanimouslv fond of the Mother Goose rh\mes, manv do not retain an interest in poetr\- as they grow older. Tliis ma\- be due partlv to their failure to hear read aloud the kind of poetr\which can so easily be a steppingstone from these rh\mes to other \erse. A sincere feeling on the part of the reader for the mood of the poem is another important factor in building up the child's interest. Since children are alwavs quick to note the indifference and lack of enthusiasm of the reader, anv parent or teacher who does not love poetn- should not attempt to present it to children.

gun one that shoots.

Buster's got a popper

A

reg'lar

And

Teddy's got an engine

\\'ith a whistler that toots.

But

A

Oh,

A

I've got

something

finer

yet—

pair of rubber boots. it's

boots, boots, boots.

pair of

mbber

bootsi

could walk from here to China In a pair of rubber boots. I

The Poetr\- Book contains much that has been \mtten recentlv, as well as a good selection from the older poets. Another ver\- helpful collection for parents and teachers is Sih-er Pennies

Three illustrations from Four and Twenty Blcckbiids, nursery rhymes by Helen Dean Fish, illustrated by Robert Lawson (Stokes).

^kt^^mni^^

Childcil\ft

76 by Blanche

J.

Thompson. Her

intro-

ductory notes do not spoil the appreciation

of

poems.

the

fa\'orites are well

The

old-time

preser\ed in the Posv

Ring by Kate Douglas \\'iggin and Nora A. Smith, which is a standard collection used e\erv\\here.

Within recent children's

among

number

years the

poets

has

increased.

of

It

is

these contemporar\- writers that

parents and teachers will find

much

that

genuinely fine for use with voung children in the first three grades of school. The name of A. A. Milne seems destined to be perpetuated through his is

We

Winnie-the-Pooh and When Were VeT)' Young. Few children could resist such poetr}'

as:

of their works

rounded

Edward Lear, CaroWells, and Lewis Carroll have helped to provide the humor and nonsense which are too frequentlv omitted from }Oung children's reading. Sung Under the SUvct UmhieJk has two hundred poems for younger children. These poems were selected by the literature committee of the Association for Child-

hood Education. Caution should be observed in the use of the poetry concerning childhood davs and children. Such poems are usualKreminiscent of the poet's own childhood are concerned with themes of interest only to adults— certainly not of interest to present-day children.

and

Picture Books of Other Lands

fellow. a six-foot his

tail,

beard was

yellow,

And James was

la

There are a number of ju\'enile books which picture life in other lands in a delightfully childlike way.

a ver\- small snail.

Rose Fyleman's de

in\aluable to anv well-

hn

Ernest was an elephant, a great big

Leonard was a lion with George was a goat, and

is

collection.

fairy poems, Walter Mare's delicate and imaginative

and the poems of Annette Wvnne and Ralph Bergengren all contribute to the enrichment of children's experiences verse,

through poetn,'. Others, such as \^achel Lindsay and Carl Sandburg, are not primarily children's poets, but a selection

M1LU0N5 OrCPiTS

Some

of the

best of these picture books have been translated

American

and

are

children.

thus

a\ailable

\Mien thev

to

are not

translated, the foreign edition can

still

often be enjoyed, for the clear, bright pictures tell the whole stor^-. These books are particularlv helpful in forming true conceptions of

life in

other lands.

They show how the children dress; their means of transportation; the houses they li\-e in; and the trees, plants, and animals which are a part of their lives. In this respect, the\- are

more \aluable

than most American books about other countries. PeUe's New Suit, bv Elsa M. Beskow, is one of the best examples of the

From

delightfull}-

fine

Millions o{ Cats

(Coward-McCann).

picture books

by Wanda Gag

77

From Animals tions

of the Bible

by Helen Dean

Dorothy

P.

with selec-

Fish, illustrated

by

Lathrop (Stokes).

"The Old Woman and "The Little Red Hen,"

simple tales of

Her

Pig,"

"Henny Penny," and "Tlie Gingerbread Man." Tliese can be read bv the children in the second grade. All of them deal with animals

and people that are Those which

familiar to the children.

stress cruelty or greed are not usually included in collections prepared for voung

children. Stories of the tvpe

Andrew

found

in

Lang's Blue Fair}- People have

been carefully chosen and edited and are nou' a\ailable in translation. The pictures and simple text tell how Pelle helps to earn his

new

suit,

and they

give

the entire procedure that produces it— from the sheepshearing to the finished

product.

Folk Tales and Fables

Long before peoples and

races

tained the culture which enabled to set

down

at-

them

in writing the literature of

they handed it down by mouth. Gradually, the best of these tales found their way into print. In them, children find familiar experiences times,

their

^^•ord of

intermingled with the unfamiliar. Reli\ing these tales in imagination has

come

to

form one of the great

jo}S of

childhood reading. Usually the stor\- is a simple one, with frequent repetitions of words or phrases which, like the Mother Goose rhymes, catch the children's fancv. sess

Animals

human

in these tales often pos-

qualities,

people do. There is ous in such stories.

and they

much

that

is

talk as

humor-

For young children, there are the very

suitable for children of all ages.

The

fables

selected

from

Bidpai,

Aesop, the Jatakas, and La Fontaine appeal to children primarily because they are short stories about animals. The human qualities portrayed bv the already familiar animals gi\e children great ]o\. The moral implications are sometimes understood, but these are not the chief \alue of the fables. Neither should they be stressed. Frances Kent's Puppy Dogs' Tales and Stones of Other AnimaJ Friends includes fables, folk stories, and extracts from various tales, old and new. Bible Stories

Certain of the great books of ma\' be

\oung

made

all

times

a part of e\'en the ver\^

child's experiences

if

carefullv selected. Tliere are

passages are

many

parts

of the Bible \\hich cannot be interpreted

bv children. Yet the beautv of the Psalms and parts of the Gospels will give them a basis for appreciation that no other book can

give.

The

read aloud to

child

him

is

who

has such parts

fortunate. In addi-

tion to these selected passages, children

Childcr.\ft

78 \\ill

enjoy the ston' parts of both the

Old and New Testaments. Onh" verv young children need to have these in simplified form.

One

of the best collections of Bible

selections

is

The

which contains

Little Children

s

Bible,

fifty-seven brief stories in

the language of the King James version, chosen from the Old and New Testa-

ments

for children aged five to seven.

Frances

J.

To Read

Olcott's Bible Stories

and Tell is a more extensive collection of Old Testament stories which are enjoyed by children. An Old, Old Story Book, compiled hx E\-a March Tappan, uses the Old Testament stories, from which certain passages ha\-e been dropped but none added. A beautiful picture book is Animals of the Bible, with its stories selected from the King James Bible bv Helen Dean Fish and illustrated by Dorothy Lathrop.

An

illustration from JeTiy and the Pony Express by Sanford Tousey (Doubleday, Doran).

A

Books Young Children Can Read

small

tures,

Most

adults agree that children should

read the things they want to read.

It

is,

however, the work of those who are guiding them to encourage them to want what is good. Even more important than the books which are read aloud to children are the first books which they read for themselves. Here, individual interests

and

abilities

become more

apparent, and

hold the interest of children, books must have certain elements. Children like books ^^hich contain some new material. Even though they delight in being able to read for themselves stories that hitherto have been read to them, they need something new to stimulate their reading interest. If the books are too difficult in \-ocabulan' or sentence structo

ture, the children

\\ill

aged and their interest

become will lag.

discour-

and

book with

clear,

simple pic-

a carefullv graded vocabulary-

\\hich contains stories about other chil-

and familiar objects, is by first-grade children. During the past few years many such attractive books have been published. Primers and Readers ha^e also become more appealing. Manv of them contain the work of ranking artists, and their varied condren, animals,

usually liked

tent

is

better suited to children's inter-

than heretofore. First-grade children frequentlv prefer an attractive Primer or

ests

Reader to the more elaborate picture book. One bov said of his Primer, "I like this book. It is about a little boy and his dog.

often

I

can read

make such

it."

Young

statements.

children

A

reading

up by such Primers without much effort. Having enjoyed one \'ocabular\-

is

built

book, the child

is

eager for more.

Realistic stories are

among

the best

Learning Through Liter.\ture From The

79

Airplane by Lois Lenski

Little

(Oxford).

\

loved.

Such

Helen

F. Orton's Prince

stories

will

be found in and Ro\cr oi

Farm, Sanford Touse\"'s and the Pony Express, Berta and Elmer Hader's Farmer in the Dell and Little Town, and Carolvn Havwood's Betsv and BiJJw Folk tales, fain" stories, and old nursery- fa\orites make up the Cloveifield

/ern-

content of James Baldwin's Fain- Stones and Fables, Madge A. Bigham's Stories of Mother Goose Village, and Mabel S. LaRue's The F-U-y Book. Quite as much lo\ed bv children are the stories of strange lands and peoples as told in Mav E. Hall's /an and Betje, Evelvn Young's \Vu and Lu and Li, Armstrong Sperr\'s

One Day

with Tuktu,

An

Es-

kimo Bov, and Lib" Duplaix's Pedro, -Vina, and Perrito. Following these bovs'

and

di\ersified,

girls"

and

\'en'

interests

simple books,

become more

stories of airplanes, boats,

and objects of the machine age demanded. Such eas^-to-read books those in Helen S. Read's social-science

series— Stor}-

About

Airplane Ride, Billy

s

Engine's

Letter; Lois Lenski's

Stor\-,

The

An and

Little

and H. A. Rev's How Do You Get There.'— form a natural link between the first books and those which are written for slightly older children.

Animal stories continue to interest and eight-^"ear-olds. Sometimes these are full of imagination and hu-

se\en-

trains,

mor,

as in A.

Pooh

or

as

Mrs. Tuhhs. as

with

Tali BuiJdings,

.\irplane,

are

From One Day

An

Hugh

A. Milne's \T'innie-theLofting's

\^erk- real

The

Stor\- of

adventures, such

Charlie and His Kitten Topsy, by

Violet Maxwell and Helen Hill, and

Tuktu, An Eskimo Boy by Armstrong

Restless Robin, hx Marjorie Flack, are

Sperry (Winston).

taining. Real questions

sure to be instructive as well as enter-

about

how

wild

animals look are answered by the fullpage drawings in Therese O. Deming's

American Animal Life. Interpretations of our modern American world are making their appearance in books for thirdand fourth-grade children whose interest in derricks, steam sho^•els, ships, and trains has been aroused by everyday contacts with these things. To younger children, machines are quite as interesting

Childcraft

8o

From Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame, by Arthur Rackham (Scribner). as

giants or fairies.

Works, by Wilfred

Now

the Derrick

Jones, presents e\ery-

dav happenings in a lively wav; Dorothy W. Baruch's Big Fellow at Work shows how a steam sho\'el helps to build cities. A\iation is well represented for small children in

The

Picture

Book

by Frank Dobias, and Jimmy

of Flying, Flies,

by

Dorothy Heiderstadt. Books Older Children Enjoy

Among the animal stories no child should miss are Kipling's Jungle Book and Just So Stones. Children of eight to

tweh-e find

illustrated

delight

in

Kenneth Gra-

hame's tales in Wind in the Willows, in which the rat and the mole on the river bcha\e like human beings. z\ll children enjoy stories about pets. Tom Robinson's dog stor\- Pete holds their interest,

and Eric Mowbray Knight's Lassie Come Home, one of the best dog stories ever \\Titten, ncNcr fails to delight. Adxenture with the animals can be found in Felix Salten's Bamhi, a Life in the Woods, Will James' Smok\', the Cow Pony, and Jack London's Call of the Wild. Other ad\enture stories which enrich the older children's experiences are to be

found in such old-time favorites as Samuel Clemens' (Mark Twain) The Adventures of Tom Sawder and HuckJebern- Finn, Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and Ho\\-ard Pvle's The Merri^ Ad\'entures of Robin Hood. Children will also respond to more such as Richard South Pole— the group life in the

recent real ad\'entures B\Td's journey to the disco\er}-

of

and the

bleak land of ice and snow— as told in Little America; and the

From Bambi by

Felix Salten, illustrated

by Kurt Wiese (Grosset & Dunlap).

Learning Through Liter.\ture Lindberghs' flight to the Orient, with Charles as pilot and Anne as radio operator facing dangers and experiences in strange lands, in Anne Morrow Lind-

Xorth

bergh's

the Orient.

to

The

ac-

count of ho\\- scientists gather up e\-idence of earlv man's ways of lixing as told in Ann Axtell Morris' Digging in Yucatan is particularly appealing to bovs. Older readers like imaginative tales, too, and no child should miss George Macdonald's At the Back of the Xorth Wind. James M. Barrie's Peter and Wendy. Lewis Carroll's Alice in M^on-

and Lagerlof's \T'onderfu] Ad\-cntures of Sils. Kate Douglas W'iggin and Xora Smith have given many a child pleasure \\ith their humorous stories in derJand,

Tales of Laughter.

Familv life is pictured in an interestand \^"holesome wa^" in such fine books as Little Women, bv Louisa Alcott; Understood Betsv, hv Doiothv Canfield Fisher: The Fair Ad\enture, bv Elizabeth Janet Grav; and Thimble Summer, bv Elizabeth Enright. The ing

8]

Jenny Lind by Laura Benet. Thev experience real ad\enture in science as thev read

E\e

Curie's

Madame

life in

stor\-

of her mother's

Curie.

Like the younger readers, the older children want to know about life in the '"long ago," when Grandfather and

Grandmother, or Great-grandfather and Great-grandmother were \oung. Tlie\-

many

can find answers to

of their ques-

tions about those davs in such books as

Laura

Ingall

Wilder's

charming

House in the Big Woods House on the Prairie. Thev

stories. Little

and

Little

\\ill

like.

too.

Marguerite de Angeli's

Amerika about a Swedish girl in America, Enid Meadowcroft's Bv Wagon and Flatboat, and Phil Stong's Honk, the Moose. There are many excellent stories of Elin's

other countries

for

Some

true pictures of life in

that

gi\"e

the older readers.

faraway places in delightful stories are: Johanna Spyri's Heidi, a ston' of Switzerland: Jo Besse \\'aldeck's Little Jungle

some of the fine biographies of the men and women \\ho have lived fullv and se^^"ed mankind well. Thev enjov the

about the jungles of South America; Eleanor Lattimore's Little Pear, about life in China: Ruth Sa\\Ter's Least One. about a lad in Mexico: and Hilda \"an Stockum's Day On Skates, about Dutch children. There is no lack of attractive books through which "to trap the children's

thrilling stor\- of the pioneer in

minds into thinking."

more humorous delightfulh-

Hale's

Xo

The

told

sides of famih- life are

Lucretia Peabodv

in

Peterkin Papers.

child's library-

is

complete without

James

Daughert^'s Daniei Boone. Thev see the gentleness of a great

man

in Daughert^"'s

Abraham Lincoln. Thev make friends \^ith the artist-naturalist and come to love nature more through Constance Rourke's Audubon. Thev are inspired by unselfish semce as thev read Clara Barton by Mildred M. Pace and Florence XightingaJe b\- Laura E. Richards. They are delighted

by the ston- of Enchanting

Village,

\\Tiile the chil-

dren should be free to choose the books thev \dll read, parents cannot guide their tastes \dsely unless they, too,

the best books.

One

know

of the best ways of

gi\ing guidance to children

is

through

reading books aloud in the family group

and discussing them

together. Parents

enjov their onmi children to the fullest \^•ithout enjoying with them manv of the books which the\- read.

cannot

reallv

ClIILDCR-\FT

82

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

WTio should choose

take in the choice?

I

the books which children read? WTiat part should parents low can parents stimulate the child's interest in reading? Can all

children be expected to enjoy reading? 2. \Mrat ad\antages are there in reading aloud to the entire familv? Should the voungest reader have an opportunity' to read? Make up a list of books that vou mav use for oral reading in the home. 3.

Do

portray 4.

the picture books and children's stories of other lands, which vou ha\e seen, in other lands in a manner to encourage friendlv understanding?

life

\\Tiat

makes

a

book worth reading? Should

all

books be read for the sheer fun of

reading? 5. How can the public librar\- be helpful to vour children? Has your child a special bookshelf of his own at home? \\'hat have you learned by studying the t\"pes of books with which he fills the shelves?

BOOKS TO READ x-\ssociation

Beust.

Childhood Education. Bibliography oi Books

for

Washington, D.

C: The

for

Young

Children.

Association. 1942.

Nora E. Five Hundred Books

foi

Children (Pamphlet). \\^ashington. D.

C:

Office of Education, 1940.

Duff, Annis. Bequest oi Wings.

Eaton,

Anne

New

York:

The

Thaxter. Treasure for the Taking.

Frank, Josette.

What

Doubleday, Doran & Co.,

Books

for

Children?

\'iking Press, 1944.

New

York:

The

\'iking Press, 1946.

Guidcposts for Parents.

New

York:

i93'7-

Xew Worlds

books for Catholic boys and York: Pro Par\ulis Book Club, 1946. Traffic Lights: safe crosswavs into modern children's literature from the Catholic point of view. Kielv. Mar\- Frances.

girls.

New

ed.,

annotated, illustrated.

to Live: a catalog of

Xew

Illustrated, 1941.

Strang, R. M.. and Others. Gateways to Readable Books.

Xew

York:

The H. W.

Wilson Co., 1944. U. S. Dept. of Labor. Children's Bureau. For the Children's Bookshelf. Washington, D. C: Go\ernment Printing Office. 1944.

Learning

to

raad

is

easy

for

who is ready for Nancy, many just dis-

the child

Like

it.

cover that they can read. Mother's pleasure at the achievement gives the learning a real "boost."

LEARNING TO READ NELLE

SINCE

reading books

is

of childhood

and success

depends

such

one of the greatest

E.

xMOORE

jovs

but those words had been used together to gi\e se\'eral interesting thoughts to the children. Those first-grade pupils had met the words before, in sentences which the teacher had different words,

in even- field of learning

a large extent upon reading, eager to have his child learn to read easily and well. Parents ask: "How do the teachers teach reading in the schools? What can everA-

to

parent

we do Moore

is

the homes to help our children?" Miss points out ways they can help wavs both

in

—

upon the blackboard in manuand on charts which the teacher had written for them from their

written

pre\enting difficulties from arising and for correcting those that may already exist or may occur. Nliss Moore has had wide experience in the field of reading. She has taught college courses for teachers and has directed reading clmics and for

instruction in elementar)- schools.

She

is

script writing

own

statements about pictures or about

had taken.

short trips they

also co-

Tlierefore,

the dav the teacher handed the children the new book, they could read it—

author of a successful series of readers.

it, which means they got the meaning. This teacher knew the importance of ha\ing her pupils experience

realh' read

SIX-YEAR-OLD Nancy had been in the first grade onh- two months when she burst into her home after

success in the early stages of reading.

school one day and called out excitedly,

"Mother,

I

\\Tien

read a whole book

today!" It was of no importance to Nancv or her classmates that the book was a \-er\small one \^ith more pictures than sentences. In fact, the book had onlv fifteen

Nancv

mother with her

burst

in

startling

upon her disco\-er)',

her mother, naturallv, wanted to hear her read. Tlie teacher had wisely allowed Nancv to take the book home with her.

Nancy was

found the

83

first

a little excited,

but she

page, let her eyes run over

Childcraft

84

the whole sentence below the picture,

a child

then read it aloud as a thought which she was speaking. On each page she followed that same procedure, \\lien her mother

he

may

attend the

limits.

that a

asked, "Just where do }ou see the words

before February- the

baby kitten' on this page?" Nancy's chubby little fingers quicklv made a frame around those words. She could find words which looked alike and words which looked different in the game her mother plaved with her.

first

'the

And

Nancv's learning received another "boost" through the interest her mother took in her first reading from a book. Of course, all the children in Nancy's class did not disco\er that they could

read on the same da\- that that

first

grade, as in

Nancy

most

did. In

first

grades

more than and bovs. They were all different. Some were strong and healthy; others were thin and listless. Some spoke o\er the country-, there were thirty girls

using man\- \\ords; others spoke

freelv, little,

using few

^^•ords.

Some knew many

which their parents had told or read to them; others knew few stories. Some had been manv places and had plaved with many toys; others had ne\er been verv far a\\"a\- from their home and had onlv a few toys, E\en- mother having more than one child knows well that no two are exactly alike. Sisters and brothers do not all cut their first tooth at the same age, take their first steps in walking at the same age, or begin talking at the same age. Thus, it is quite easv to understand that stories

the pupils in Nanc\'s room were not readv for reading on the same dav.

Some grade

parents

children

think that

are

the same age— six

all first-

variation

pected. In

manv

than states

is

a

might be exthe law says that

mav

first

grade in September.

enter the

So,

in

that

some children are five \ears and eight months old; others mav be anvwhere along the way up to six years and se\en months. A few months makes a

school,

great deal of difference in the develop-

ment

of children at so

young an

age. All

other factors being equal, children begin-

ning

first

several

are in a

situation; while those

thev are

six vears and most favorable

grade at the age of

months six

mav

who

begin before

ha\'e a handicap,

if

thev

measured bv the same standards as the more mature children of the group. Fortunately, Nancy was attending a school which treated each child as an individual and allowed each pupil to develop according to his abilit}'. It was unfortunate, howe\er, that Bobbv, one of the children in Nancy's room who lived next door, was not yet ready to read from a book. \Mien his mother heard about Nancy's reading, she went to school to find out whv her Bobby was

are

not reading in a book, too. \Mien Bobby's mother had been a first-grade pupil,

all

the first-grade children read the

same book and began reading on the same dav. The pupils were given marks which compared them with the others in the class, and, at the end of the term, onh- those

who

were promoted. anxious for

mav

vears or thereabouts. Actually, there

greater

all

when

grade

first

Each school, therefore, sets up For example, manv schools sav child whose sixth birthdav comes

is six.

could read a

Bobby's

Bobbv

first

reader

mother was and she

to succeed,

thought of success in terms of her own experiences. She failed to understand that Bobb\-'s school was different. She did not realize that under this school

program

all

the pupils \\ould eventually

Learning To Read no

lead and that

special merit

uho began

those

to read

first.

was due Tlie fact

gram she

much

8:

is

really responsible for. In fact,

of the child's success in learning to

Xanc\- had walked when she months xounger than Bobby was two was when he began to walk had not in any wav handicapped Bobby, for now both walked and ran with perfect control. So

been developed since

be with reading. If each child is given his chance to begin when he is readv and helped according to his needs, each will become a good reader. Furthermore, each child will be happv and

and kindergarten, the home remains the

that

it

will

A

eager to learn.

compares

his

voung child seldom

performances with others.

and fears which come from such comparisons are usually implanted bv adults.

The

anxieties

Readiness To Read

When

a child

developments and abilities necessary- for success in beginning reading. The list of these developments and abilities includes: (i) good general health and normal speech organs, normal vision, normal hearing; (2) emotional stability-, especialh' freedom from anxiety and fear; (3) a mental age of six years and six months (manv children, however, who are quite normal but slow in maturing, will be se\'en and one-half or tain

eight years of age before they reach a six and one-half (4) and accurate spoken and listening ^•ocabularies; (5) a wide background of experience with ordinary-

mental age of

"i;

fairly large

things;

(6)

children and to tions

common

to listen

to

ability-

meet

plav with other easily

new

situa-

in child life;

and follow

(7) abilit}' directions; (8) an

eagerness to read.

A

how much

upon the interests, and physical fitness which

ha\-e

Manv

chil-

birth.

atti-

dren are almost entirelv under the care of the mother during this earlv stage of learning— infancv to school age. Even with children who attend nurscrv school biggest factor in supplying the activities

de\elopment emotionally, menand ph\sicallv. A studv of some of the acti\itics which make for reading for their tally,

readiness

max help

parents understand

what belongs in that stage of development and wh\'. Bui/ding a Reading Background. The reading background through their plav

with blocks, trucks,

and

dolls,

tov animals, trains,

airplanes.

The

this list carefully

of the readiness pro-

four-

and

five-

vear-olds get helpful ideas as they build a

plavhouse,

make

the

furniture

and

the dishes for it, and windows. The\- gain other useful experiences as they pla}' on the swings, at the sandbox, and in the garden. On walks in the neighborhood or in the park with their mothers, young children stop to look at trees, flowers, plants, birds, rocks, animals, and buildings. If a child is encouraged to ask questions, and his questions are answered accurately, his ideas about the world in which he liNCS grow. These ideas are important in

sew curtains for the

learning to read.

Thoughtful parents take young

chil-

dren with them on shopping trips and patientlv answer the many questions that come.

They

fi\-e- and sixand count}- fair.

take the

vear-olds to the circus

mother who reads

will see

tudes,

toddlers get valuable experiences for a

readv to read? He is read\" when, and onh- when, he has ceris

read depends

Thev allow the ^•oungsters to keep pets when the conditions are right for such

Childcr-\ft

86 animals to be propcrlv cared

for.

Citv

fortunate.

The

short stories with

much

visit to

repetition of words are best for develop-

the zoo, a drive into the country- for the children to see the chickens, the pigs,

ing a useful listening vocabulary The child needs opportunities to talk if he is to learn to use words well. He

parents plan \\alks in the park, a

the cows, and perhaps to help gather in the eggs and to watch the cows being milked. Country- parents take their children to the cit^" \\here thev see the tall

teller

buildings and the large stores and per-

and again

haps take a ride on a street

car.

these earlv acti\ities have a bearing upon later stages of learning to read. They gix^e the background in experience necessary- to get All

of

definite

learns as

he

heard or

as

retells the stories he has he repeats with the storythe parts which are repeated again

in the stories. Many families con\erse together about their different

experiences.

The voung

have his chance to his pets, his

child

should

"news" about toys or books, and his pla\ tell his

Wise

with playmates.

parents avoid

all

meaning from printed words and sentences. The^ gi\e training in recognizing differences in objects— some big, some small; some tall, some short; some near, some far; some rough, some smooth —

By calling objects by their correct names and practicing using correctlv worded sentences, the young child builds an accurate \ocabular\- and imitates good ex-

before the child needs to see differences in the tinv svmbols used in words. This

pression of ideas.

"baby talk"

\\ith

the young child.

After the child starts to school, the

impor-

teacher pro\"ides con\-ersation periods in

tant at e\'en- stage in the child's de\elop-

which the children talk about their experiences. The good teacher draws different children into the talks and helps the children learn to be polite, both as listeners and as speakers.

process of getting experiences

ment, but

it

is

is

especially important at

the preschool and earlv school ages. Parents who understand this will appreciate

the school program which pro\"ides such experiences for the children.

The child who and poems at home is

Learning To Use Words. hears

manv

stories

By Newman

The

child ^^ho has

come

home

in speaking in

to feel at ease

con\"ersations

and

with his classmates at school will have more confidence in himself in the read-

Sk:hmidt from Frederic l>wis

ins: activities to

Recognizing ences.

Among

come

later.

Li/cenesses

and

Diiiei-

the blocks \\ith \\hich the

toddlers plav are usually square ones,

round ones, long ones, and short ones. As the child pla\s \\ith them, he learns

Ability to distinguish

and square

blocks,

between the round the big and little

blocks, will help the child later to distinguish between words which are alike

and words which are

different.

Learning to distinguish

between the square and

the round, the short and the long, the big and the Httle.

show

He may draw

squares, triangles, circles.

hnes to

He mav

plav games with figures on paper— lines, squares, circles,

which are

and so on— picking those those which are differ-

alike,

ent, the smallest, the largest. Later on,

he \\i\\ learn to see words which are alike and words which are wholly different, or different onlv at the beginning, or dif-

ferent at the end.

Such

ability- \\i\\

aid

him

in gaining po\\er to help himself

with

new

words.

Xurser^-

jingles

help

children

hear

words which rhvme. "Jack and Jill went up the hill" gives an easv rhyme— Jill and hill. Manv children will go on from there and add '"pill, sill, mill."' and others. Children like to name words which begin with certain sounds— with "s," the sound of the hissing snake, and "m," the humming sound. They hear little words in big words— "it" in kitten, "an" in ran, "air" in hair. All of these acti\"ities are just play to the children, and some adults see nothing more in them, but from such play

the children get the beginnings of the ability"

to

with

help themselves

new

words, and thev gain the self-confidence necessan- for success in learning to read.

The

Different Stages in Learning

Manv

To Read

educators use the term "read-

ing readiness" to describe the in readins;, acti\it\' is

first

stage

though actuallv none of the reading. Following the readi-

ness period there are the true reading stages.

For convenience

in understand-

ing the four stages belonging in the ele-

mentary- school, thev

mav be

getting ready to read,

(

2

1

To Read

87

developing fundamental reading atand skills, (4) broadening the interests and experiences through reading. Tlicse four stages are followed bv the adult stage in which there is constant refinement of reading attitudes, habits, (7,'^

titudes

and

interests.

Parents should understand that these stages in learning to read are not "steps,"

but rather a continuous process of development, and that there is much overlapping of the actinties of the different stages. In fact, children are often carrying on actixities in stage one and stage

two

at the

same time. The

classifications

into stages are merelv for convenience in

seeing the continuous process.

Neither should the stages in learning be thought of in terms of grade

to read

All children in the first grade will not begin with stage one; some are in stage t\\o when thev enter school; and some in the second grade mav still be in

le\"els.

stage one of reading, since most schools determine grade placement according to the social maturity- of the child and not according to his ability- to read. It is highly probable that stages one and two belong to children below the age of eight vears and that all formal reading should be placed in the school program at a much later time than is

now

the

common

schools do

But most

practice.

recognize that

each child

should be allowed to de\"elop through the different stages of reading at his own rate without pressure. The important point is that all children should read well bv the time reading becomes important to

them

as a tool.

Beginning Reading

called: (1)

beginning to

use printed symbols in getting meaning,

Children in the

first

and the second

grades are usually at the guidance stage

88

Childcr.\ft

in learning to read,

though some

chil-

dren begin to read before school age and still others begin later than the second grade. Before anvone can be a good guide for any acti\it\', he must know definitely where he is going or what he hopes to obtain as an outcome of his guidance. Since a teacher must guide the beginning reading, she must first have a clear idea of is

what a good reader is. Here good reader in simple,

a picture of a

everyday language: ( i ) All his reading is to get thought or. as in oral reading, to get and gi\"e thought. ( 2 ) His eves mo\-e smoothly across the line from left to right, without the aid of a pointer. (3) His eyes swing from one line to another easily. (4) In silent reading, he gets the thought with his eves without having to use his throat to speak the words. (5) In oral reading, he groups words to express the thought clearlv. (6) He recognizes manv simple words at sight. (~) He can help himself \^-ith new words, getting the meaning through the use in the stor^- and the pronunciation through recognizing similarities to kno\\"n words.

Kno\\ing what

wanted

is

product, the adult

who

as a finished

guides the child

begins the guidance in wa\"S \\'hich set

up the

correct habits

and

\\ill

attitudes,

thus safeguarding against the need later

on

for "correcti\-e teaching."

Individual Diiieiences.

If

tion

is that obtained from the parents— sometimes secured through conversations; sometimes, through visits to the home. From the parents, the teacher can learn: WTiat are the child's likes and dislikes? Has he brothers and sisters? How many and what are their ages? Does he enjoy playing with vounger or older children? XMiat hour does he go to bed? Does he eat the correct foods? Does he enjoy his meals? WTiat diseases has he had? It is exceedingly important that the parent ha\e the correct understanding about this information. Some parents

remember their own school davs, when making marks was even* pupil's goal and when impressing the teacher was used to secure marks. Sometimes thev inaccurate information or withhold it. thinking that they are putgi\'e

ting their child in a better situation for learning.

But the parents who accept the

teacher as a partner in the business of

helping their child to learn, present the facts accuratelv and thus put the teacher in possession of the information which she needs to plan the child's program. To know the children as indi\iduals, the teacher must continually study them.

She obserses them at work and at phx. She learns manv things about their their likes and diswavs of getting what they courtesies and discourtesies, to hold their own, their tend-

beha\'ior patterns,

the teacher

likes,

their

to prox'ide for indixidual differences,

want, their

she must begin getting acquainted with

their abilitx'

the children on the

encies to stick to a job until

is

Her first thought, to make each child

first da\-

of school.

feel he realh' belongs. few weeks pass, she accumulates a fund of information about each of the children \^hich she files away for use in planning the classroom actixities. Among the most valuable informa-

As the

first

No

of course, should be

it is

done.

teacher can keep a daily record of

each child's

and atticam- information her mind. There-

acti\"ities, interests,

tudes; neither can she

about each child in man^• good teachers, after recording

fore. a

child's

histon"

make notes

of

and general pattern, outstanding beha\ior.

Learning the words for objects is not so hard when the objects are familiar to the child. The more real experiences a child has, the better background he has for learning to read.

These notes may include

especial acts of

consideration for others, ability to lead, o\eraggressiveness, selfish acts, ability to distinguish

between

fact

and

fancy,

c\idences of fatigue. As the informal

and les-

sons begin, she notes the ^^•illingness to take part, the unusually large or very

small vocabulary, the artistic sense, the

rh\thmic sense, the muscular co-ordination or lack of

it,

the self-reliance.

After the pupils ha\'e been in the

first

grade long enough to feel at home, at ease with each other, with their teacher, the principal, and the supervisors, the school usually collects more information about each child through tests. In many

From time to time even* good teacher goes over the information about each

schools, tests called intelligence tests are

child.

However, since a child's ability to perform satisfactorily on these tests depends so greatly upon his experiences,

to the child's activities

Courtesy Xational College of Education

She compares her own notes as and learnings with the parents' information and the test information. She is especially concerned about those children who are not doing what they might do. She interprets her own notes and considers as important only those acts which appear frequently enough to mark a definite pattern and disregards acts which occur infrequently.

given.

many

of

them

experience

are

tests.

more accurately

Some

schools

called also

what is called "Reading Readiness Tests." These are simple games with pictures and symbols in which the child, give

following verbal directions:

mark on ever}-day

(i) puts a

pictures of objects familiar in

From

(2) checks pictures, numwords which are alike or differ-

teacher and parent together can plan

life;

more

all

significant facts in a record, the

and and (3) keeps more than one direction in mind as the marking is done.

the reading readiness activities, the child

Many

has definite equipment for beginning to

bers,

too,

physical examinations are given,

and the

results

wisely for the child.

Inioimal Reading Activities. Through

ent;

read printed symbols.

recorded: height,

He has had experi-

ence with things to give him clear ideas, and he has a good spoken \ocabular\^ He now must learn printed words and

weight, vision, hearing.

These different tests give the teacher a background for planning a program more nearly fitted to individual needs.

sentences by associating

89

them

with, or

Childcraft

90

them onto, the

fastening

ideas

and

spoken words whieh he knows.

The good

teacher guides the children

making those associations. Following some of the short trips around

easily

into

the school or in the neighborhood, she has the children talk over the things they

have seen and enjoyed and draw pictures of some of them. With the children's help, she puts some of the pictures on big charts. She writes in manuscript writing or prints with a printing set the simple sentences which the children tell her about the pictures. These chart stories are then read by the pupils with the help of the teacher. They read from left to right, go from line to line, and get meaning from the sentences. During a conversation period, the teacher may write upon the blackboard

some

most interesting things which the children tell the class. These sentences are then read by the pupils. of

the

First they look over a sentence to

be

its thought; then they read aloud to say that thought as if they were speaking. The teacher and other children encourage the oral reader by showing that he has helped them to get the thought. Their praise of statements

sure they get it

expressed well helps a reader gain confidence and feel a pride in good work.

A Large Sight Vocabulary. Children who rapidly learn many words at sight

usually

readers.

Man)' of

ample, the mother labels certain things in the home— a place in the closets for each member of the family, the canned fruit and jellies, rows in the garden. The young child can help put on the labels and thereby come to know some of the

words and see that labels have a meanAt school, he uses labels, too. His own coat hanger or shelf for playthings has his name upon it. In this way, he learns his own name and the names of ing.

his classmates.

Children child

may

like

games with words. One

take a handful of big cards

with names upon them and go about the room placing each card where it belongs, to label correctlv objects in the

room:

the desk, the door, the window, a chair, a hat, a book, in the

and

so on. All the children

game watch

to see that

all

labels

are correctly placed.

Some mothers have a family bulletin board upon which short messages are written by different members of the familv. Mother will be away from home when Jimmie comes in. She leaves a note saving, "I have gone shopping" or "I have gone to see Grandmother." Jimmie mav get the message merely by distinguishing between "shopping" and "Grandmother," but he learns that reading

Press Syndicate

become good

the child's activities at home contribute to this vocabulary development. For ex-

is

getting thought.

In other experiences around the neigh-

borhood, too, the child learns printed words.

He comes

to recognize

"Keep

off

Reading is thinking, not word calling. Thought getting is the goal of these children as they read notes left on the family bulletin board.

91

Sometimes a

child likes to test himself well he reads. Books with pictures to be colored according to dito

how

see

rections or

words

to

moke good

pictures

Young

be matched with

tests.

children also like to color pic-

tures in books

made

for that purpose.

Sometimes, they may follow

a written

A

dirccrion as to the colors to use.

mother

fewer questions

will find

bus\-

she has a chart of colors on the wall. The chart should contain colored objects with color names below them so that C. p.

if

the child can follow the written direcby looking at the chart.

Cushins

tions

tions or calling his attention to the

Some books for children are made for matching games. The child fits such words as dog. cat, flower, girl, boy, baby,

mon

mother,

the grass," "For rent," "For sale," adults help

him bv answering

if

the

his ques-

comaround them. At school, the teacher sometimes permits a child to direct the morning acti\ities in the classroom through \\ritten directions. He holds up a card upon which a child's name is written in manuscript writing. The child bv that name stands. Then another card is shown. signs that are all

Upon

it is

written a direction, such as

"Mark the calendar." "Water ers." The child carries out the

the flowdirection

\nthout speaking the uords.

Young

children like to plav xWth pic-

ture books. Their plav

mav be made

a

tures.

father

with

the

Even the words

in,

correct on,

pic-

under.

above, below can be learned through picture associations. Manv times a whole

sentence kite

is

is

matched with a picture: The the bov is running; the

flying;

baby is sleeping. Parents can find many good books for the coloring and matching experiences at any bookstore. Thus, the children learn to know manv words at sight, and at all times they think of reading as getting meaning. Manuscript writing or accurate printing is important to good beginning reading,

part of the process of learning to read.

since the letter forms are like those used

Some

in

of the picture books ha\"e simple

sentences with the pictures.

and

five-year-olds begin to ask,

The

four-

"WTiat

is

word. Mother?" or "WTiat does it say under the picture?" Mothers are sometimes annoyed by the child's persistence to get answers to his questions. They should not be. The child's curiosthis

it}-

and persistence

are valuable assets in

the learning process.

the books \^-hich the children will soon be reading. Inioimal Training in Phonics. In the discussion of readiness activities, it was suggested that mothers play word games with the children, games in \\hich the child could hear words that sounded alike or different, and little words within big words.

As

a

child learns to

he goes a step further

and

finds

read,

words

Childcraft

92

which begin aHke, in both looks and sound, and \\ords which end ahke, in both looks and sound. Tliey both hear and see little \\ords in big \^ords. Tliey make up rh\mes and recite nursery fun of hearing rh\mes. Sometimes, the teacher writes the rhvming words upon the blackboard for them. jingles for the

This, of course,

but

it

many this

is

is training in phonics, informal training. However,

children will need no

type

of

\^•ord

game

more than order

in

to

"catch on*' or to get a general idea which

they will use of their

own

learning

new

need

great deal of such

a

\\ords.

order to grow in

sehes

^^•ith

new

accord in

Other children

abilit}"

\\-ill

acti\"itv

to help

in

them-

series of

books, the teacher

is

skilled

stantly in

mind. Smce the pupils are

still

in the stage of learning at \\hich thev

are fixing associations bet\\'een the spo-

ken word and the printed one, most teachers

proxide for

much

oral

read-

Howexer. the teacher may keep "thought getting" in the minds of her pupils by asking them to read quickhwith the exes \xithout speaking the words ing.

before they begin to read the sentence aloud. Such emphasis

upon getting and meaning will do much to prethe stilted word calling sometimes

expressing \"ent

called reading. Parents should keep this in

mind, too,

as

they listen to the child's

oral reading in the

words.

who

in teaching reading keeps her goals con-

home.

Book Reading Begins. Through the

In the talks about the stories which

experiences in the earlv stages of begin-

the children are reading, meaning should always be uppermost. The teacher or the

ning reading, a child gains certain reading abilities

and

that reading

is

attitudes:

{i) the idea

thinking with the printed

words and saying the thought

as

if

con-

movement from then down to the left of

versing, (2) skill in eve left to right,

the next line,

skill in recognizing at ) ( 3 words, and (4) an interest in reading. \\"ith such equipment, he is readv to read from a book. Manv chil-

sight

many

or

knows that some children become overanxious about words and fall into the undesirable habit of word calling. At certain periods during the day, ho\x-e\'er. most teachers do play games uith words and phrases \x"ith the children \xho need more repetition. She helps the children's eves become accustomed to seeing a group of words at one

readers.

glance, thus la\ing the foundation for

dren are just as happy and surprised when thev read their first book with success as was Xanc\". The books used in primar\- classrooms today ha\-e been prepared with great care. First-grade readers usuallv sets of

come

two or three preprimers.

three primers, then several

first

parent mav ask about the pictures the words present, how the people or animals felt, or ask what colors the words brought to mind. The skillful teacher quietlv tells the oral reader anx word he does not recognize and avoids word drills during the reading period. She

t^^•o

in

All the books in the set are built to gi\'e

more

development and to repeat the same words and phrases frequently enough to give the child a chance for quick and accurate recognition. As the child mo\-es along through the

dren

a gradual vocabulary-

rapid reading and keeping the chil-

awav from word calling. Most of games described for earlier stages the

of learning are appropriate here.

Some

teachers go farther and check each child as

to

the size of his sight vocabulary-

Learning To Read from time to time, and plan child to use or phrases

which are

During

for each

more frequently the words

these

difficult for

him. with

periods

early

books, the teacher safeguards the chil-

dren against forming incorrect habits. WTien thev read silenth-, and in many of the games thev plav with words and phrases, she encourages them to "use the eves onlv" and to respond in ways other than speech. She gi\es markers to children

who

easih- lose the place

on the

page, in order to pre\ent the formation of the habit of finger pointing.

She de-

whose eyes do not mo\-e quicklv and smoothlv over the lines. She

93

fourth grade. the

first

Some

reach this stage in

or second grade; while others

gain little independence in reading below the fourth or fifth grade. Reading has become a tool, and thev are using that tool all the dav. both at home and at school. A child reads books just for fun; he reads to get directions; he reads simple books in arithmetic, social studies, art. science, and music. Oral and Silent Reading. Different habits and attitudes are needed for oral and silent reading. Children do not learn to skate on ice bv skating on roller in spite of the fact that

some

tects the child

skates,

recognizes that a child

elements of the two acts are similar. Children do not learn to be skillful

is

tr\ing to read

too difficult for him when he pauses often to decipher a word or lets his eves mo\"e back over the line to

which

material

is

pick up the thought. She gives that child easier material

without calling attention

All of these procedures are equally

appropriate for mothers and children in the home. Parents should realize that children are "dex^eloping

skill

in using

and not "learning reading lessons." Many parents want to ha^e at home the same books which the begintool"

ning reader unwise.

using at school. This

is

It is far

different

books

the same

le^•el

better at

if

is

the children use

home, but books

of difficult\".

of

From time

and book he has read at school home with him and read from it to members of his familv and take a book he has read at home to school and read to his classmates and teacher. to time, a child can. with pleasure profit, take a

Developing Reading Attitudes and

Skills

bv reading

orallv.

In fact.

oral reading hinders silent reading in several wa\"S. In oral reading, the words are spoken; while in silent reading, the pupil who must let his throat respond in order

to get the

to the faults- habits.

a

silent readers

The good

thought

is

slowed up

greatly.

words thought without that extra \ocal response; hence, silent reading can be a more rapid process. In silent reading, the reader is getting the thought for himself alone. Oral reading is more complex. The reader must both get the thought and express it clearly. It is important at this period in learning that the oral reader, whether at home or at school, have a true audience —that is. the oral reader should be the

and

silent reader sees the

gets the

onh- one with a book. The reader must take the responsibility- for getting the correct thoughts o\er to his listeners. Xaturallv. then, the material a child is

asked to read orally should be simpler than the material the same child can read silently.

Most

children

independence

develop considerable

in reading in the third or

Using the Dictionary. \Mien children are able to read independently, they can

The oral reader must interpret the story dependent upon the reader is necessary

also get

the

meanings of man\"

way they

\\-ords

from

are used in the sentence.

Ho^ve^e^. they ^^ill also begin to look up meanings in the dictionan". From the beginning of their dictionan- work, children should recognize that words have se\-eral meanings. The words to be looked up should be seen in sentences, so that the child selects the correct meaning to the use in the sentence. In dictionary' \^ork. the children need to think of the letters in alphabetical

fit

manv

others.

to

for

good

Hence, an audience that

is

oral reading.

and thev now

feel a

need

for

knowing

the alphabet in order. SeJecfion of Reading Materia]. Parents should know that during the period of

independence in reading, all pupils in the grade need not read the gaining

same books. In fact, it is highly desirable that thev do not. Thev have much more to share with

each other

different books.

Each

books suited to his

The

teacher

if

the^"

read

child should use

development. books \^ith this

le\el of

selects

children have

de\"elopment in mind for the different

learned the order of the letters long be-

reading groups in her grade. ^^Tlen a

fore this, but no harm has been done if they have not done so. Thev work from an alphabet on the wall or blackboard.

pupil selects a

if

Thev

Parents should not push their children

order.

pupils'

Of

course,

word

arrange

names

enjoy doing

lists

and

lists

in alphabetical order

it

since

it

library'

book

for himself,

he usuallv selects one that he can read.

of

and

no adult presses him

to read

books too

because some

has a purpose.

94

to select another.

difficult for

them

just

other children are reading

Learning To Read

who understand

those books. Parents

these points and help to keep the reading on the child's level do much to help

the child dexelop speed and accuracy in reading and gain interest in books.

classrooms ha\e library sheKcs or tables with books that are to be read just for fun.

To low

a large degree, a child should fol-

his

reading.

come

Broadening Experiences Through

95

own interests in this type of Many parents and teachers be-

so anxious about

"cultivating a

good books" that they guide to the extent of stifling. Tliey want to dictate the books to be read and thus take taste for

Reading

By

grades four,

five,

and

six,

most

chil-

dren have learned to read and are reading to enjoy and to learn, without much thought to the mechanical process itself. Naturally, as the child does more and

more

he gains more speed and accuracy and greater interests. Youngsters

reading,

now

continually

carr\^

on two gen-

(i) fun reading

eral types of reading:

as a recreational activity,

and

(2)

work

reading as a study acti\ity.

There fits all

is

no one reading

ent reading

some

ability

which

needs; there are dozens of differabilities.

of these activities

A

discussion

mav help

of

parents

and and thus become better guides and companions for them. to understand their children's needs desires

Reading

From

for

Fun

their picture-book days, children

have been reading for pleasure, but at this later stage of development they begin to reach out for experiences bevond their immediate environment. Books open up new worlds to them. If good books have been given a child as gifts from early childhood, he has already learned to care for books and to enjoy having his own library. Wise parents go with young

much

of the fun out of the activity.

most

satisfactory guidance

The

probably through suggestion and example. The mother who buys good books for gifts for her child and takes turns with him in reading them aloud is guiding and cultiis

vating good taste in books. So also is the teacher who displays attractive books in

the classroom, changes the display frequently, and allows the pupils to select books to read aloud in the group. The

who

librarian

and

talks to a child

finds

out what he likes and helps him find what he wants has an opportunity to guide through her suggestions. Allowing freedom of choice and time for pleasure reading are important factors in developing broad interests in reading.

book covers good advertising. Lists of books which other children have enjoyed attract attention. Some librarians and teachers and parents who direct book clubs Posters showing attractive

are

ask pupils to write a short note finish reading a

book

when they

telling other chil-

dren whether they liked the book and why or why not. They can then send a child file

who

is

seeking a

new book

to the

to read these informal book reports.

children to the library

A child enjoys looking for notes from his

how

friends

days

ones

to

and teach them check out books, even from the

when

picture books are the only

they can enjoy. Schools usually have a library room where children may browse around among the books. Many

tions

and usually takes their suggesmore seriously than he takes sug-

gestions from adults.

Book

talks in the library, in the class-

room, or

in

the

home where

children

-.r^^"^^*^

As a

girl

bakes a cake by a recipe, she

learns the need for accuracy in such reading. Other activities in the home furnish opportunities for a child to read to follow directions.

Much more desirable recome through keeping this type of

for each book. sults

reading truly pleasurable to the child, lea\ing the checking for accuracy to the study reading.

Reading

for Specific

Study Purposes

As the child progresses in school, the curriculum contains more fields of learning and broader ones. Arithmetic presents more challenges to the pupil as a

The child's world has extended from his home, his school, and his community to include his country^ and other reader.

Press Syndicate

tell their

book experiences

countries

are valuable

encouraging reading. Members of a group may take turns in "selling a book" to the others, thus helping them to

make better upon which

choices.

Attractive charts

a group of children write

the names of the books they have read give suggestions to other readers

and

all

over the globe.

He

reads

about many things. He wants to know about the other planets. He wants to know more about what science has done— some things about radar, skv rockets, and atomic energ\^— as well as about everyday things which people enjoy because of scientific discoveries. To to learn

in

also

make

furnish a record of the t^"pes of books

a bit of guidance will help to interest a

things in the shop, carr}' out an experiment in the laboratow, make candy or bake a cake, \\Titten directions must be followed. Tlius, the child reads

reader in different types of stories.

for different purposes,

a particular indi\-idual usually chooses. If tastes

run too

much

in

one direction,

Much

has been done to spoil children's fun reading through "required

book

want

his habits

and

WTiile the beginning reader has a spoken \'ocabulary than his reading one, the child in this later stage of

and "required book reports" gi\en to make a credit or mark. Both parents and teachers are frequentlv too much concerned as to whether a child reads his library book carefully. Thev trv to get a child to use his study methods of

larger

lists"

reading in the fun reading.

and

attitudes van,' as his purposes vary.

reading de\elopment

much

larger

is

likelv to

have

reading vocabulary'.

a

The

growth of the reading vocabulary' depends largelv upon the amount and kind of reading done. Manv words are learned without any conscious effort on the part

Some e\en

to check accuracy of the reading

96

Learning To Read

A reader may see and get meaning from many words which he cannot pronounce. Sometimes adults are of the learner.

upon the reader, and undcrstandmg of the

for selection

sibility-

encourages

the

facts sufficiently well to state

own words

troubled because a child skips o\er a word here and there or says, "I don't know that word but I get the meaning."

new connection. Todav,

The

sters to

child's

procedure

quite natural;

is

good adult readers do the same thing. Well-written books for young readers use words in such a way that the meanings are clear. Howexer. there is no longer the need for carefullv graded lists of words in a child's textbook as is found in the

priman--grade books. In

fact, fol-

reader's

them

in the

or to use theni in a

parents will find

that the better schools teach their \-oung-

which

read for fit

manv

activities, rather

different purposes

own

into their

interests

and

than to read merelv to

"learn lessons." Ciitical is

Reading.

Xo

more important than

for the

Some

reading critical

abilit\"

reading

purpose of forming judgments.

parents are agreeablv surprised to

lowing that primary' plan of a standard-

find their youngsters in the fourth grade,

would defeat one of the

or earlier, questioning an author's state-

ized vocabular\-

The young

objectives of this stage of learning— that

ments.

of increasing the meaningful vocabulary".

the factual from the fanciful h\ compar-

Bv now. the dictionan" habit should ha\e become well established. Many books, too, have a glossary- of words with meanings and pronunciations. Children

ing the ideas he reads with the facts as he knows them. He can learn to distinguish e\-idence from opinion. Parents can help guide the child's thinking as he

should be encouraged to use the glossaries and mav need help in using them

reads simple material

effecti\ely.

Facts. Most parents remember the days when children learned lessons by reading and selecting

Reading To Select

will

facts to

answer questions.

thought of that

Some

readers

reading as the

t\"pe of

reader can distinguish

if

thev talk

o\-er

stories with him and question him in such a w^y that he becomes more critical of what he reads and forms judgments

for himself.

Reading To Follow to

follow-

thinking. Mar\-

Reading

Directions.

directions

calls

for

careful

Smith learned that

fact

se-

while she was in the fifth grade, not through a lesson at school, though she had such lessons. She got her real understanding when her mother allowed her

lecting of facts to answer specific ques-

to bake a cake for dinner. Mar\- read the

tions encouraged the readers to repeat

directions from Mother's recipe book,

the words used in the text and to accept them, rather than to understand and be

but she didn't follow them carefully and got a \er^- flat cake. Her brother Jim in the third grade, however, followed the directions with great care as he built an airplane in his shop and turned out

only

t\"pe of stud^• e\er

the old textbooks ers

gave children

know

and

needed. Certainly their use

little

by teach-

opportunity- to

other methods of study. Such

critical. It is possible, too.

that

all

except

the parts called for in the questions were

read carelessly. Selecting facts to sohe a

problem, to wTite a plav. to build a fort, or to draw a diagram requires more thoughtful reading, puts greater respon-

a

splendid model. Since

life

demands

such reading of everyone— following directions, filling out application blanks

This boy made this airplane fuselage with no help from grandmother. He read the instructions for himself.

Such

activity

home

helps a child to develop his reading skill and to understand the importance of knowing how to read well. in the

order of appearance of the characters. Susan's mother helped them to find the

beginnings and the endings of scenes or acts through thinking out the places at which the curtain would need to be

drawn

to change the stage setting.

These

youngsters were learning in a simple wa}' to grasp an author's organization.

Reading To Report. Jack Duncan was planning a talk for his class one evening at his home. Jack was greatly interested in birds. He was reading an account of bird tra\elers, the routes they followed, how the go\'ernment in W^'ashington, D.C., has recorded the routes and habits of the birds. His father talked about the report with Jack. Jack worked with great interest but wasted time because he was not systematic. His father helped him work out a plan for his work. First, he

Ewinj; Galloway, N. T.

recipes— it

using

questionnaires,

or

is

desirable that children build an attitude of carefulness

and exactness

in following

written directions. Visualizing

What

Read. All good

Is

mature readers picture scenes described in a

in

their

stor\-.

minds

They hear

speakers and their different tones; they feel

glad,

happv, gav, or sad with the

characters in a

read the whole selection rapidly to get

stor)'.

the main ideas; second, he read it more slowlv, pausing to think and to ask a few

Janey had just read a story at home. Jane\''s mother asked her to draw a picture to show a scene in the ston'. Janev's picture was really a test of her ability to visualize as she read. She found that she had to reread a bit to clear up some

questions; third, he

divide

it

a

through the discussion, going back to the text for the parts which were not clear to him. In order to show the bird

Susan Peters and some of her classmates gathered in the basement playroom at her home to dramatize a story which they had read at school. Her parents were much interested in what the youngsters were doing. First the children stor\' to

making

the discussion; and fourth, he thought

points for her picture.

reread the

reread,

simple outline of the main divisions of

routes to his classmates. Jack

map.

He

several times in order to

map was

made

a big

reread parts of the discussion

be sure that

his

correct.

All readers will not use the identical

pattern which Jack used in preparing his report, but all readers will ha\'e some

into scenes.

They sometimes

disagreed as to the order in which the scenes came and the

pattern,

98

and

it

will

be different from the

Learning same

reader's patterns for reading for

other purposes.

Reading on a topic from manv different books and reporting on the topic is more difficult than reading and reporting a single selection. The reader must be able to use books and library- catalogues effecti\elv— the alphabetical

He must

and index.

table of contents,

file,

select information, take notes, organize

the information, put ing form, think

it

it

into an interest-

through

sufficiently

well to talk easilv. Today, youngsters in

the fourth,

much

and

fifth,

sixth

grades do

Good

of that kind of reading.

books in the home, challenging books of

and people, and a good encyclopedia which youngsters can use ^^"ill help them greatly to do a good job in such

real life

simple research tvpe of reading.

Measuring Achievement and Correcting

To

such evaluations. The parents should keep clearly in mind that impro\ement

comes only when the child recognizes own need or feels a desire to under-

his

take the job

some svstem

of test-

ing and measuring the results of the

teaching and the learning of reading.

manv

of

them

interpret

the results of the tests in terms of scores made and a pupil's place in his group.

But the onlv evaluation

or

judgment of

the quality- of the reading that valuable

is

self-evaluation.

these judgments as to

the reading

information

is

Of

the

truly

course.

the qualit\- of

ma^ be made from teacher

mav be made with

the test

obtains

and

the help of the

teacher. Howe\-er. a child in the higher stages of reading

stock of his

own

de\elopment may take reading achie\"ements

from time to time and note strong points and his

He

of straightening out his

own difficulties. The child who

is a poor reader because of incorrect habits, gaps in the learning, or bad attitudes ma\- be thought

his

own weak

own

Manv

of as a corrective case.

rection

lies \\ithin

times cor-

the power of the par-

ents. If they can keep the child well, calm, happy, and confident, thev can help him remo\-e man^• of the small reading difficulties.

Johnny was a poor reader largelv because he would not bother to read for himself.

At

school,

he

just

hstened to the

other children read aloud and got the thought of the stor\- that way.

home, did.

Unfortunatelv.

99

\\-hen

he wanted a

asked Mother to read

Deficiencies Ever\- school has

Re.\d

Mother

it

ston-,

to

a

just

him and she

finally realized that

making Johnny

he

all

At

she was

reading cripple,

so

next book, she read to Johnnv onlv until he became ven^ much inter-

\\ith the

ested, then she

had

to go

about some

other business. She put the book

down

uith the place marked. WTien she returned. Johnnv was reading on bv himself. Johnnv was on the way to getting the practice in reading for himself which

he needed to de\'elop skill. Susan read poorly. One trouble was that she was trying to keep up to the "so-called" standards of the second grade of her school. Now there is no such thing as a second-grade standard. Each child in anv second grade has his own place,

for

learning

to

read

is

a

con-

can then set himself some specific

tinuous process rather than a series of steps up. WTien Susan was gi\en a book

become more Parents can help a child make

on her le\-el of attainment, she read well and was ver}- happy until her mother

jobs to be efficient.

done

in order to

points.

Childcraft

lOO discovered she was reading a

read-

first

Tlien more corrective work had to be done to undo the attitude Susan got

er.

from her mother. Billy was a slow

silent

prompt treatment

extremely impor-

Remedial Reading Programs

who

reader

is

tant to a child's success.

There

is

usually

no one cause

used his oral reading method of saying each word as he read silently. But Billy

difficult

problem

factors

enter

was told just what his difficulty was and he took the job of correcting his fault. For some days he took his lower lip between his teeth while he read silently. Biting the lip is not recommended as a

among

the causes of reading

way is

to correct lip

movement; the point

that Billy found his

own

way. His

determination did the trick. Unfortunately, many of the reading problems go uncorrected for so long that thev grow extremely difficult and cause other problems. Many are so deep-rooted in

are:

(2)

defects that the road to recovery

is

long

1 )

Many Chief

difficulty-

and a small spoken vocabulary beginning stages, ( 3 ) poor vision, (4) poor hearing, so that sounds are hard to distinguish, (5) speech defects, (6) nervous disorders, (7) undernourishment, (8) lack of mental maturity when the learning began, and (9) physical defects such as anemia, adenoids, bad in the

tonsils,

and bad

Wlren

teeth.

a child fails to learn to read

satisfactorily, the first is

perts in different fields of child study.

entirely

to

along the way and

cases.

feelings of insecurity or anxiety,

parents

all

most

lack of experiences with ordinary

of ex-

Careful diagnosis

into

things

emotions or so related to physical

and hard and requires the help

(

for the

cases in reading.

thought of many

that the school

method

is

Sometimes that is arising from bad teach-

blame.

true. Difficulties

ing methods, especially failure to hold Kc-stone View Co.

up the formal reading until a child is ready and putting a child into situations

bound

continually in which he

is

do hinder progress of

many

However,

in

most severe

to

cases

many

factors enter into the picture, only a

of

which are under the

fail,

children.

few

direct control of

the school. In order to apply correct remedies, a

studv must be failure to learn.

made of the causes of the The symptoms only help

These pupils are the

difficult

for

one

all

reading, but not

same book. Some can read more material than others. Providing

each child according

to his ability is

of the secrets of successful

of reading.

teaching

Keystone View Co.

As pupils carry on activities in their different books. They develop reading

in leading to the causes; cures will

come through The child who

treating the is

afraid to

not

symptoms.

tr\-

insecure in his relationships at

may

feel

start there. ulary-

The

child

whose

sight vocab-

remains small in spite of his con-

tinual exposure to printed

words

in their

correct settings reveals a s\-mptom.

The

chances are that the real cause is bad \-ision, and after repeated trials and failures, a feeling of anxiety has, no doubt, entered the picture. Jane is listless all the time and quite indifferent about learning to read. The listlessness is the svmptom. All the scolding in the world to get her to be attentive will be of no a\ail, since it would be

symptom onlv. The cause may be undernourishment, bad tonsils,

treating the

adenoids, or failure to sleep enough.

It

without tiresome

drill.

may be "daydreaming" caused by

a feel-

ing of insecurity due to the arrival of a ne\\' bab\- in

the home.

Harold who had been a

home. In

that case, the remedial treatment should

many

social-studies program, they read skill

satisfactory-

became problem during his second year. was nervous and unhappv. He was

reader in his

first

\ear in school

a real

He

unable to gi\'e attention to anything for length of time. His teacher sent him to the reading clinic where he met an understanding guidance worker. She recognized at once that Harold was not in need of reading instruction but did need an\-

to

gain

feelings

confidence.

of

Through

security

and

in\estigation

self-

of

Harold's case, she found that his mother ver}- close to him. She mostlv to servants while she spent much time outside the home. The father had recognized the boy's need for understanding and attention. He had

had ne\er been left his care

101

A

child

more

is

likely to "lose himself"

he selects his own books. Parents and teachers do well to develop his tastes through his interests rather than to set up required book lists for him.

in his reading

if

ing others read them. She was tning,

though, and thought she was doing just what all the others did. A study of the case shovsed that Dorothy had rickets

from babyhood until she was five years old. She had had none of the play experiences that other children have in Ewing Galloway, N.

Y.

preschool days, yet the school had treated her just as they did all the others in the

spent as much time as possible with Harold, and a deep bond of affection had developed between them. A few months before Harold entered the reading clinic,

first grade. A combination of causes was responsible for Dorothy's failure to read. Chief among them were lack of

mother and father had separated. Tlie court had given the mother custodv of Harold for the part of the year when school was in session. So Harold had lost his father— the parent who had shown

words and lack of

experience to

his

ognition of the words

From

as

stories

she

from hear-

phrases.

understanding of remework. They should keep in mind, however, that prevention of difficulties should be their most important considdial

ness to set

upside-down

and

will get a better

eration. For, while

had memorized the

other

these few specific cases, parents

mother understand his need so that she began to give Harold more of her time and affection at home. In a few months, with well-selected books on Harold's le\'el of abilit}' and suited to his interests,

right-side-up — for

to printed

Many

as

ing in his group. She was able to help his

the remedial teacher was able to get the

vitality.

she attempted to read, especially the habit of memorizing instead of getting meaning through recarose

difficulties

him real affection. The remedial teacher knew that Harold's development in ability to read must wait until Harold was emotionally readjusted. She helped him to gain more definite feelings of belong-

boy back on the way to learning to read. Dorothy in the third grade could not read. She could hold her book and glibly relate the stories on the pagesshe could do this as well with the book

meaning

gi\-e

fit

it is

the school's busi-

up the reading program

to

the needs of the children, the school

cannot do the whole job of making good readers of the pupils.

To

a large extent,

depends upon his physical well-being, his emotional stability, his interest, and his confidence in the child's

success

himself. Children, mentallv normal,

have developed wholesomely these directions

usually learn

\\ithout difficulty

if

of

them

at

any

no more

to

who

all

of

read

expected

stage of the learning than

they can do successfully.

102

is

ir

Learning To Read

103

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. If vou have more than one child of school age, think o\er the differences you have noticed in their reading interests. Did each of them begin at the same age level? What have been vour own attitudes toward these differences?

2. Have you in con\ersations compared your child's reading progress fa\orablv or unfa\orablv with other children? Ha\c you noticed any attitudes of your child which might ha\e come from vour own attitudes? 3. Think oxer the list on page 85 of de\elopments and abilities which are considered necessar^ to success in learning to read to see how some one of \our children measured up on those points when he entered the first grade. Does the list and the discussion of it

suggest to vou anv steps you might take with a toddler or preschool child to help develop "readiness for reading"?

you have a child who learned to read without difficult}-, can you think of several whv he learned so readily? If you have a child who was (or is) slow in learning to read, think over his development to find reasons for his slowness. 4.

If

reasons

Wliich do you think a child just learning to read can read at home with greater the same book that he is reading at school, or other books of the same level of difficult}? For what reasons? 5.

profit,

6. Think o\er the different reading abilities vou need as an adult. Watch your own reading methods as you read for two or three different purposes. Do vou read at the same rate in all cases? In what other ways do }our procedures differ? 7. Are your children interested in reading for fun? WTiat are you doing to encourage fan reading? \\Tiat other procedures might vou use?

BOOKS TO READ Betzner, Jean, and Moore. A. E. Co., 1940.

E\-er}-

Child and Books. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Mer-

rill

Bond, G.

L.,

and Bond, Eva. Teaching the Child To Read.

Xew

York:

The Macmil-

lan Co., 1943.

Eaton,

Anne

T. Reading with Children.

Frank, Josette. day,

Doran &

Lee,

J.

What Books

for Children?

Xew

York:

The

\'iking Press, 1940.

Guideposts foi Parents.

New York:

Double-

Co., 193".

M., and Lee, D.

Centur}' Co., 1940.

M. The Child and His

Curriculum.

New

York: D. Appleton-

A

has more incenii he allowed to express his child

tive to learn to write is

ideas and feelings just

made

— not

to practice let-

ter forms.

LEARNING

TO WRITE Press Syndicate

JENNIE V'AHLERT

ing

is

beautiful.

For

her, as for

many

children, learning to \\Tite presents

problem

UNLESS a child puts into practice the things he has learned at school, his formal instruction will have little permanent value. For this reason, parents should

know something

of the

way

in

I

which

can't understand \\h\

vou

such a scrawl. \\'hv don't \ou try?" Bob's father commented as he looked over some written

work that Bob was preparing. you are just careless."

"I belie\e

Bob's sister Sallv, however, has no difficulty with penmanship. Her handwrit-

no

all.

Bob's father should have tried to un-

handwriting and other school subjects are taught so that thev can give the right kind of help when help is necessar\\ The author is principal of Jackson School, St. Louis, Missouri, and is co-author of a manuscript-writing series for the priman,- grades.

BOB, write

at

derstand what were the real

difficulties

confronting the voung writer.

No

doubt,

he \^'Ould hax'C found much more than mere carelessness. The handwriting of adults may var^in the degree of legibility and speed, but the actual process of writing is simple for them because they have long since forgotten the learning stages. For a child, however, learning to write is difficult and complicated work, and parents must not be too ready to condemn. Tliey need to keep in mind that "hand\^•riting is one of the latest and highest achievements of man."

L04

Learning To Write In the past, children were taught to

some system

A

teacher gave tests to see whether

penmanship which placed great emphasis on form, slant, and color of line. Some of them

a large

learned to write a beautiful hand, shad-

larities

write by

of

and adding elaborate time was spent in acquiring the skill to write, for writing was considered an end in itself. Copybooks the

ing

letters

flourishes.

were

Much

with careful imitations of the set patterns. Even \\'hen all the writing of the world was done by hand, there was little justification for the time spent in painstaking practice, but there is exen less defense today since the business filled

uorld uses the typewriter. Most adults use handwriting onlv for social purposes, for

making

occasions.

and

notes,

\Miile

at

few other

for a

children

school,

should learn to write a legible hand and to acquire sufficient speed in writing to

meet

their

a tool.

Handwriting

needs.

longer an end in

no

is

a

means,

Only those children who

are hav-

itself;

it

is

lO 5

number

of six-year-old children

\\ho were to enter the

first

grade had the

ability to see correct images.

and

many

not discernible to

dren; abstract letters

more

The

simi-

differences of pictures were

of these chil-

and words were

still

confusing. This lack of ability to

image

is

a

handicap

for the child

must

in learning to write,

learn to see small

and

combinations with beginning, connecting, and ending strokes, and must learn the proper spacing. It is interesting to watch a group of children attempt to copy a geometric figure. Some children appear to see immediately the place at which to becapital letters in

and make splendid reproductions. begin at the most awkward point, show confusion, and are unable to complete the pattern. For some chilgin

Others

dren this inability to copy seems to pere\en when they carefully observe each step as a figure is drawn or a letter

sist

ing difficulty in learning to write will

or a \\ord

need more than

to write in\oh'es not only the ability

Involved in Learning To Write

Skills

To

brief periods of practice.

learn to \xrite, the following four

1.

Ability to see form.

2.

Ability to reproduce the

3.

image that

seen.

The muscular development and

co-

ordination necessary' to reproduce the

form \\ith some degree of and speed. 4.

An

legibility

but the

ability to

muscular co-ordination of the arm, hand, fingers

are

necessary

of the muscles

The

of observation to aid

and

nerves.

muscular co-ordination is not ready Yet teachers are often guilty of trying to teach such a child to learn to write.

and they expect

legibility

that only fine

likely to forget that the recognition of

ordination can produce.

and

differences

cause difficulty for a child.

achieve

six-year-old \\ho lacks the neces-

to write,

similarities

to

speed and accuracy of form. Observation of others is helpful, but only through continued practice does handwriting become an automatic function

them, adults readily perceive similarities and differences of form. Thus, they are these

reproduce

sary

interest in the task undertaken.

With many years

written repeatedly. Learning

the image. Muscular development and

and

skills are essential:

is

to image,

is

may

a degree of

muscular co-

On

this point,

Frank N. Freeman, who has made special study of

how

a

children learn to

Harold M. Lambert

Handwriting writes

is

smoother if the movements in the writing are rhythmical. A child if he sits at a table that is the right height for him.

more legibly

write, says,

"Evew

indication points to

the necessity of making small

demand

on the young child in respect to both the accuracy and the speed of the writing movement." In nursew school, kindergarten, and first

grade, children should be given op-

portunities to obser\'e

many

things.

and manipulate

The handling

of varied

materials— blocks, clay, sand, wood, paper, and so on— helps to develop the muscles of the arms, hands, and fingers. Many toys which voung children enjoy aid in this development. Pegboards, small insets of various shapes, wooden simple puzzles, and the like strengthen and develop the muscles and help to achieve finer co-ordination. Children who draw ha\e little difficulty learning to write, for thev have the ability to see real or imaginative form, beads,

plus a gift for execution.

Educators formerly believed that the would learn to write only if he practiced over and over separate letter forms, simple words, and certain movement exercises. Pupils used to spend child

hours and hours on push and pull exercises-continuous ovals, and unbroken

up-and-down strokes. The novelty of such penmanship drill soon wears off. The children lack the interest which is so necessary- to a good piece of work. The writing lesson becomes a bore.

From

the verv beginning, the pupils are

building the wrong concept of handwriting. It interest

is

to

not related to anything of them. \\'ith this method

of teaching writing, children in the early

grades do not realize that writing

is

means

and

of expressing ideas, thoughts,

feelings. Instead,

they think the writing

of separate letters

and words and

movement is The teacher who

ticing

writing

is

a

a

prac-

writing.

realizes that handtool— a tool developed by

use through writing things that interest the child— has an entirely different ap-

proach to the learning situation. She knows the importance of correct letter forms, spacing, slant, and

movement,

but she emphasizes form only in terms of legibility of content. "That is an interesting story,

Lo6

Hugh." "You described

Learning vonr

trip to

otlu',

but

more

if

the countn- splendidly, Dor-

we would

cnjo\-

\ou would learn

\our ston-

to write care-

W rite

To

children or

up

tion

read your story."

If

finish

your

interest

make the

Watch me

letter F."

dren

is

course,

and thoughts with other chilenough to \\ork toward

incenti\'e

in

skill

The

handwriting.

must understand

teacher,

of

the ele-

all

ments that enter into handwriting and must be able to help the indi\-idual child with his special problems.

Children unconsciously imitate.

The

teacher must, therefore, be expert in the

kind of writing she she

then

adults could al\\ays is

class explana-

are justifiable.

remember

that

necessar}- to successful learn-

they would not assign dull, stupid A little imagination and initiative on the part of parents and teachers will achieve satisfying results with children ing,

tasks.

Children's eagerness to share their experiences

some new point has come

and practice

"I'm sorrv you didn't

Tr^• to \\rite a little faster.

if

for the first time,

fully. It is diflBcult to

story.

107

is

teaching, so that

may show

the children the correct mo\'ements in writing as well as the

by enlivening

their interest.

on February She began to learn to write bv writing, "I have a dog," thus using hand\\riting in connection with something that interested her. The illustration on page 108 shows that at first her letter forms and co-ordination were immature, as \^-ould be expected from an a\-erage six-year-old child. She continued to write about her interests, gradually acquiring \'irginia started to school

first.

Her splendid growth

form of the finished product. She must show the beginner where to start to make a letter and the direction in which to mo\'e, rather than to ask him to write from a completed cop\'.

few months Children

Parents should ask the teacher for her

three years have usually acquired legi-

correct

form and have her explain her

letter

method

of presentation so that

thev help the child at

home

when

same

letters.

words, and sentences for a certain period of time each week. Handwriting periods should be used to help the indi^•idual child If

overcome

the difficulty

his specific difficulties. is

common

to

all

the

Children are not able to leam to write until their small muscle co-ordination is well developed. In addition, they must be able to recognize variations in the size

and shape

in the illustration of

later

of different objects.

in

is

mus-

shown

her handwriting a

shown on page

who have been

109.

writing for

\\"hen the child is no longer concerned with letter forms, as bility in writing.

By Pinney from Monkmeyer

wasteful of effort and time for

children to practice the

all

and co-ordination

their in-

structions will not confuse him. It is

letter form.

cular control

Childcr.\ft

io8

5"«#e

ainio »

I

ha,

1 an average

Virginia, in school.

From

the

above aiter only twelve days she wrote about things that interested her.

six-year-old, wrote the

first,

they are becoming habits, he will develop the necessary speed.

make a letter The beginning,

or

to

strokes are difficult for

Left-Handedness Belie\ing

that

genuine handicap,

left-handedness

manv

is

a

parents change,

or insist that the teacher change, the

naturally left-handed child to a right-

handed

writer. Since the findings of re-

search on this subject do not entirely agree, interference with left-handedness is

considered unwise.

The

left-handed

child can be taught to use his left effectively

meet

hand

bv adapting conditions

his particular needs.

pencil or cra\on in the

He

to

holds his

same way

as the

write

young children

manuscript to cursive

tion at his desk or blackboard

in\oh"es merelv the adding

the

same; he needs only to adjust the paper so that he will not cover up his work. Cursive and Manuscript Writing

place

takes

of over loops.

The made

and under curves and inverted

A

continuous stroke

is

used to

it

on of begin-

usually in if

a

change

to cursive

the second or is

desired.

Teaching Handwriting

ing children to write: the cursive alpha-

the cursive alphabet are

simple, since

The change from manuscript

Two forms of letters are used in teach-

letters of

is

connecting, and ending strokes.

ning,

third grade,

bet and the manuscript alphabet.

word.

because they lack fine co-ordination of the muscles of the hand and fingers. The letters of the manuscript alphabet are made of circles, straight lines, and parts of circles combined with straight lines. There are no beginning, connecting, or ending strokes. These letters, once learned, may be used in anv combination. Teachers have found that beginners are aided in learning to read if their first writing is manuscript, since manuscript is much like the print in books. Tlie process of changing from

right-handed child, and his writing posiis

a

connecting, and ending

first step in teaching penmanship to stimulate children to have a purpose in writing; the second is to help

The

is

them

attack their problems intelligently.

.

Learning To Write

xn5ev Jchool

Ir^im

Nov/

3

2,

o

ha\t

I

jog

rd bbits

I /ve- Qi ouf

I dm

d/e(i.

wc

flk^

hoSJi

bO Tf]f- left

Virginia continued to write about her interests; the sentences above, written aiter six

The

months

show how her handwriting had improved.

teacher begins \\ith the child's

interests, usualh-

or a label tion

in school

with his name.

mav be needed

project

or

a

A

sign

and the

not attempt to reproduce the writing. In this approach to writing, a correct conis

initiated— the

child

sees

that

handwriting is a tool for expressing This concept is most important. The next step is to help the child ac-

ideas.

quire legibilitv realizes

or pencil,

lems.

and speed. The teacher

that letter forms, proportions,

spacing, the

manner

of holding the chalk

and correct posture

By obser\ing

are prob-

the indi\'idual child

he \mtes, she corrects first the fault which seems to hinder him most and gradually works toward eliminating the others. She takes care, howe\-er, not to destroy the child's happiness and satisfaction in his work bv too much criticism. Parents also must be patient in helping the child to o\ercome difficulas

they should constantly remember is a gradual process.

that learning

for a construc-

drawing,

teacher writes the name plainly as the child dictates. The child observes the teacher as she writes; he mav or mav

cept

ties;

Co-operation Between Parents and Teachers Parents and teachers have, or should ha\e, the

same

interest: the child's best

de\'elopment. In order to achieve effec-

and teachers need to know and understand one another. Conferences should be held frequentlv— not just when something goes wrong— in order to bring about a clearer concept of the part that home and ti\e co-operation, parents

school each play in the

Mothers often or nursen" school nitely,

what the

\-isit

life

of the child.

the kindergarten

and know,

fairly defi-

child's acti\ities are in

such a school. The teacher, in turn, is just as aware of the child's life at home. Child training at the nurser\--school level demands continuous guidance, and cooperation between school

is,

therefore, essential.

child enters

there

home and

is little

the

first

grade,

nursery'

\Mien the however,

opportunity- for the parents

no

Childcraft

7n

n a (? 2 ^Jiy^^ ^4^.^^^

.-^^

/T-rLz/^^-?/

c:^^^6/^

'TT

//

:>L

3-

^^S

J i ^

^0

In cursive writing a continuous stroke is used to make a letter or write a word. Since cursive writing requires fine co-ordination of the hand and finger muscles, it is seldom taught before the third or fourth grade.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO

P0R5TUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstu

vwxyz The big, round letters in manuscript writing are easy for the first-grade child to make. Manuscript writing is easy for him to read, too, since it closely resembles the printing which he finds in his primers. The change to cursive writing is made easily by adding a connecting stroke.

"Scribbling" is the first step in the writing process. The next step is taken when a child has the proper physical and mental maturity to be able to write.

and teacher

to ha\e conferences, since Itlnrk Star

the educational scheme generally does

not recognize

this need. Follo\\ing tra-

dition, parents too frequently lea\e the

education of the children to the school. Though the teacher, being the trained guide,

must take the

bility,

the parents need to co-operate

greater responsi-

with the school, keep informed about new methods and practices, and gi\e the

when he encounters home. They should know,

child correct help difficulty at

for example, the philosophy of,

and the

educational practices involved

teaching of handwriting. to

keep

in close

Thev

in,

will

the

need

uise for the parent to talk over

problem \nth the teacher before criticizing, or trying to change, any phase a

of the child's handwriting.

Some

over-

ambitious parents boast, "My boy could write his name before he went to school." It is a mistake to force a child to write before he is ready. He will learn at the proper time. Parents sometimes ask, "WTiat can I

do to supplement the teacher's

Make

visits

\'eal

and appreciation of the child's effort. For instance, a child has a problem in writing and comes to Mother for help, but she puts him off with, "Run along, I can't be bothered."

The

to

child

and the older

who child

too young to write whose thoughts come

is

too rapidly for his handwriting abilitv will usually

he dictate

welcom.e the suggestion that The parent then

his story.

writes neatly

and

in correct

child's stor\' or report.

The

form the

older child

should be encouraged to do some of the writing. Parents should take an understanding interest in a child's problem and help him to discover and overcome anv difficulties in technique. Children between the ages of five and

efforts

ten vears are in the receptive or imagi-

The answer

nati\e stage. During this stage the child

the school, obser\-e

copies forms and movements set before him. By understanding all the elements that enter into the problem of handwriting and bv placing before the child only well-executed examples, both in movement and form, the teacher and the parents will lay the foundation for good

in teaching handwriting?" is:

WTien he is put off or rewith indifference, the parents rea complete lack of understanding

the parents. cei\'ed

touch with the teacher

they are to understand the child's needs and provide for them.

if

It is

e\en more important in developing a \\holesome parent-child relationship. A child many times brings his work home, anticipating keen interest on the part of

your child and the other children at work, obser\e the teacher's methods; follow the \isit with a conference if there are problems or questions to be cleared up.

Appreciation of the child's efforts is important in the learning process and

penmanship.

m

Childcraft

112

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

\Miat

are the elements in\olved in learning to write? \\h\-

recommended 2.

is

manuscript writing

for the beginner?

How

does manuscript writing differ from cursive writing? If vour child used manuhe ha\e anv difficult}" changing to cursive \\Titing? or whv not? ^\^lat can parents do to help?

script writing as a beginner, will

WTiy 3.

How

How

can parents meet the problem of the immature child who wishes to write? can they meet the problems of the child who is mature enough, but who lacks

interest?

as

4.

How

would you

5.

Why

beginning writer watch the moxements in the WTiting obser\-e the finished copy before he attempts to write it?

well as

is

it

treat a left-handed child as

he learns

to write?

essential that a

BOOKS TO READ Conard. Edith U. Trends

Columbia Griffiths,

in

Manuscript Writing.

New

York:

Teachers College,

University- Press, 1936.

Nelhe L. Manuscript Writing. Chicago: Hall and McCrear}- Co., 193".

Hildreth, Gertrude. Learning the Three

Ks. Minneapolis: Educational Publishers,

Inc.. 1936. \'art}", Jonathan \\'. Manuscript ^^^riting and SpeUing Achie^'ement. Teachers College. Columbia University- Press, 1938.

New

York:

\'oorhis, Thelma C. The ReJati\e Merits oi Cursi\e and Manuscript Writing. Ne%v York: Teachers College. Columbia Uni\ersit}' Press. 1931.

A modern child.

He

school

the right size for

moves for

his chair

comfort.

fits

the

a table

sits at

him and around

In spelling

he leams only the words which he needs to use.

LEARNING TO SPELL ERNEST HORN

MODERN

parents are often surprised

when

has undergone radical changes in the past ten or

twenty years. Children are no longer drilled on hundreds of words which they will seldom, if exei, use. They are taught only the words that are ordinary writing situations. The author has conducted se\eral important imestigaactually used

The

they

obsene present-dav methods of teaching spelHng. The whole philosophy of the teaching of spelling

in

tions concerning the spelling and writing needs of children and adults, and the spelling te.xtbook he has prepared is widely used. Dr. Horn is Pro-

Education and Director of the Uni\ersit)Elementary School at the Uni\ersity of Iowa.

education of the child

is

a co-

operati\e enterprise. It requires the best

efforts

of

the

parents,

the

thing for parents to do

way

is

to

spelling

is

taught in modern schools. .^lanv important changes in teaching methods have occurred, and it is not strange that these changes sometimes lead to misconceptions about the purposes and practices in the schools.

Progress in Teaching Spelling

fessor of

THE

first

get a clear idea of the

Many parents, influenced no doubt by the traditional tendencv to remember only the best of one's childhood efforts, seem to think that spelling is neglected in the schools of today

and

that

it

is

and the other adult friends and associates of the child. /\t no time is this co-operation more important than

not so well taught as formerly. Nothing could be further from the truth. The scientific study of problems in spelling

during the child's

has greatly increased knowledge of

teacher,

first

years in school.

Education in spelling is no exception to the general rule. This article has been prepared to show parents how thev can best co-operate with the school to improve the spelling

abilit}-

of their children.

spelling

One

may be

taught most

how

efficiently.

of the most important steps in the improvement of the methods of teaching has been concerned with the selection of words to be learned.

13

Childcraft

114

The Modern Spelling Book. Modern do not contain nearly so many words as those of earlier periods, but this smaller number of words more nearly meets the needs in writing, both in school and in the world outside. The older spelling books contained many ^^•ords which are seldom, if ever, written by either children or adults; such words, for example, as reflux, phthisic, and conspellers

The

in

the

early

lessons

famous blue-backed Webster's speller are found such words as wot, asp, dolt, cyst, and sago. In contrast, the of the

early lessons of

modern

spellers are

made

up and school— words universally written by both children and adults. of such words as dear, mother, write,

The

selection of

words for the

earlier

spelling books was largely a matter of

guesswork, since at that time no one had taken the pains to find out what words

most needed in writing. Word lists in modern spelling books, however, are selected from a tabulation of the words most frequently used in the writing of children and adults. More than 5,000,000 are

words were analyzed in an investigation which included every important type of writing done by adults. More than 36,000 different words were found, and a record was made of the number of times each word was used. These words were then arranged in order of frequency, with the word most often used placed at the top. This arrangement disclosed some interesting facts. It was found, for example, that J, the, and and, with their repetitions, made up ten per cent of the 5,000,000 words which were tabulated. This means that in adult writing one of these three words running

found, on the average, ten words.

is

among

every

I

to

in

the

a

we

and

vou

for

of

These words, with

make up about

their repetitions,

twent\-five per cent of

adult writing; that

is, one of these words about every four words that are written by adults. The fifty words most frequently used

is

fumacious. Even

ten words most frequently used

are:

found

in

in adult writing are: I

are

the

not

and

as

to

at

from an

one time he

a

this

you

with but

of

get

do been

in

on

we

if

letter

for

all

can

it

so

would

that

me

she

is

was

when

your have

ver\'

about

my

they

will

had

any

be

our

These are the words that make up nearly fifty per cent of adult writing. In

ordinary correspondence,

other word

nearly

every

one of those listed above. words are also among those is

These fifty most frequently used

in the early writ-

ing of children. Similarly,

quently used

500 words most

fre-

make up more than

sev-

the

enty-five per cent of adult writing. Practically all of these

500 words are simple

ones, which children, as well as adults,

use frequently. Since they

make up

so

large a proportion of children's writing.

1

Learning their written

when

work

is

greatlv

improved

can spell them. The Words Which Childien thc\'

Use.

It

was formerly belie\ed that children of six,

seven, or eight vears of age

few words.

One

writer

knew an

of

\

earlier

be not more than se\ent\five words. Any parent can easih- pro\e that such an estimate is absurdh- low cabularA- to

know more than

At

children

six,

words about the familv car or about the kitchen. As a matter of fact, an\ child who is perfecth- normal and who has been talking a \ear knows far more than se\ent\-five

sevent^-fi^e words.

of

Interest in the language

de\elopment

young children has led

to investiga-

tions to lari-

determine

how

which words are most frequently used. Counts have been made of the words children use in speech, of the words thev write in their earliest letters and themes, and of the words which they read. Although children \-an- greatly in the number and nature of the words thev use, few normal children of six have

and

to disco\er

a vocabulary- of less than 2,000 words,

and manv ha\e an

The most

following likelv

to

e\'en larger \'ocabular\". list

school.

The

contains the words

be used

writing during their

first

in

children's

three vears in

child will learn

man\- of

these words incidentalh' before he

upon them

does

comes

in his regular spelling lessons.

hand happy

dog doing

hard

doll

has

before

don't

hat

best

door

ha\e

better

down

haxinff

big

dress

he

birthdav black blue

Easter

book

e\er\-

e\er

hear help her here

books both box bov bovs bring

brought but

fell

I

be-

few

if

large a vocabu-

children possess at various age levels

1

be because bed been

er\-

period estimated the six-year-old's vo-

for today's six-year-olds.

To Spell

him face

his

fall

home

fast

hope

father feel

hot house

feet

how

fine

came

first

can

fiN-e

Vm

candy

for

in

can't

four

is

car

friend

it

card

from

It's

cat

fun

children

ni

just

Christmas

ga\e

class

get

kind

close

getting

know

cold

girl

come

girls

last

coming

gi\e

let

could cousin

cow cut

glad

letter

go going gone

like

good

long

little

li\e

a

am

aunt

daddv

got

lot

about

an

away

day

grade

lots

lo\e

davs

grandma

dear

grandmother

did

guess

as

babv back bad

made make

at

ball

do

had

making

after

and

afternoon

any

again

are

all

along

dinner

Childcr.\ft

ii6

mamma

presents

then

man many

pretty-

there

put

they thing

me

work working would

\\riting

yes

wrote

yet

write

year

vour

you

merry

rain

things

milk

read

think

miss

reading

third

frequently by children of a given age

Miss

red

this

with

more morning mother Mr.

right

thought

adults,

room

three

run

till

time

Mrs.

said

to

much

saw

todav

sa\'

told'

must

By comparing the words used most

that are useful to children for their pres-

ent writing needs as well as their future ones. The best modern schools design their spelling lessons with this in

mind.

Not only are the lessons limited to words commonly used by children; they also

tonight

school

too

name new

second

took

see

town

fifteen

next

seen

tree

third grade,

nice

send sending

two

night

no

sent

uncle

not

set

up

she

by

possible to select the words

it is

says

now

used most frequently

those

contain fewer words than did the lessons more than

in earlier spellers. Usually not

words a week are taught in the and a much smaller number

in the earlier grades. In grades four to eight,

from

fifteen to twent\^-five

are usually taught each week.

plan,

it

is

us

words

Under

this

possible to teach thoroughly

700 or 800 words by the end of the third

show of

sick

\'alentine

off

sister

\-er\'

old

six

on one

snow

only

some

wanted was

grade and 4,000 to 5,000 words by the end of the eighth grade. \Mien a third-

grade child can spell the 800 words most ^^•ant

frequenth' used in children's writing, he

or

soon

\\ater

well along toward solving anv spelling problem he might encounter. New Methods of Teaching Spelling.

other

sorry

we

The

our

stav

\\eek

pone the formal teaching of

out o\er

stiil

weeks

summer

^^•ell

sure

^^ent

so

were

pair

is

trend in

modern

schools

to post-

first grade or even second or third grade. There is, however, some informal work in spelling in connection with other school acti\ities. Parents need not be disturbed when thev find that there are no formal til

the last part of the

until the

papa paper

take

what

teacher

\\hen

part}'

tell

where

pencil

while

picture

than thank

play

that

will

plaved

the

child in his future study.

plaving

their

wish with

please

them

wood

b\"

\\hite

is

spelling un-

spelling lessons in the

first

grade. It has

been shown that the postponement of formal lessons does not handicap the

ment

The

enrich-

of the first-grade course of study,

adding nature study, industrial

arts,

*»

Freida Zylstra

Children learn to spell new and difficult words on their own initiative they need to make labels or describe work they are doing.

and other acti\'ities, more than makes up for \vhate\'er ma\- be lost by not ha\'-

as well as better

who

\'isit

schools will

probably be impressed with certain differences between the method by which spelling is now taught and methods used \\-hen they were in school. Tliese differences are of degree rather than of kind, for a iew teachers ha\'e alwavs used some of the methods now commonlv employed in schools.

Today, spelling is written rather than There are manv reasons for making the change from oral to written spell-

oral.

ing.

The

word is, write it. More-

a written spelling lesson gives each

child the opportunity to spell the word.

The method

is

therefore

more thorough

is

now

placed

on teaching the pupils how to study

spell-

ing independentlv. Since there

never

a time will

when

the spelling of

is

some word

not need to be learned, the develop-

ment studv

of efficient is

methods

of

how

to

essential.

The modern

school seeks to de\'elop

an intelligent interest in spelling. Tliis is accomplished by providing situations in which the pupils recognize a need for spelling and by pointing out to them the success of their

Manv

final test of spelling a

of course, the ability to o\'er,

adapted to the needs of

Considerable emphasis

modern

they find

the individual children.

ing these formal lessons.

Parents

if

urallv

in

own

efforts.

occasions for writing arise nat-

the progress

of schoolwork.

For example, letters are \mtten to classmates who are sick at home or who have moved away; parents are invited by letter

117

Childcraft

ii8 to attend

some

in

some school

enterprise;

and letters

sometimes written to business firms ing permission to

\'isit

tenth. ha\e another hen and she will be ready for the eggs Monday.

Thank you

are ask-

The

The second slide

rules

making

few examples of children's writing are given below. The first example is a letter written by a second-grade girl to her classmate who was sick at home.

We

list

for-

the rules, so we are of them for each grade.

of

stand away from the foot of

slide.

down

the

We

4.

sand-

PRISCmLA

grade was discussing the student council.

2. We do not catch at anyone who is coming down the slide. we come 3. We sit forward when

very sorry you are sick. have some new toys in the sand.

Sincerely yours,

a

We

1.

the

Phyllis,

much more fun to plav in the box since we have the new toys.

in

gotten some

stories,

It is

Grade

thought some of you might have

A

We

First

rules prepared by a group of second-grade children in regard to using the slide in the playground. A copy was sent to each of the primary grades.

Children are encouraged to write poems

am

letter,

Tlie fourth example consists of a set of

containing interesting items about things which have taken place at school.

I

your nice

Sincerely vours,

letter

Dear

for

their establish-

ments and to thank those who grant permission and give time and assistance. Alany schools ha\'e a bulletin board, upon which notices or news items prepared by the children are posted. Some schools print or mimeograph a news-

and

We

May

special program; children

of other grades are asked to co-operate

slide.

do not make

trains

on the

shde.

The

fifth

example

is

poem by

a

a

third-grade child.

The second example is a news item, prepared by first-grade pupils.

Fiost Candles Frost candles on

We

planted tomato and cabbage seeds put them by the playin boxes. porch door.

my windowpane

Are darkened through the night; But in the morning sunshine comes And makes them flame with light.

We

Bobby T. Tlie third example

by a

is

first-grade class

teacher to a dealer

a letter

composed

and written by the

who had assisted them

in a project of setting a hen.

Dear Mr. King, Last week end our hen disappeared and her eggs were broken. We felt \ery sad until vour letter came saying you would gi\e us some little chickens. Then we were very happy. Miss Kiesling told us vou could give us some eggs that would hatch about

It is easy to see that a child will

want

to learn to spell in order to share in these

interesting enterprises. In

most schools

such writing does not take the place of spelling, but it motivates the spelling and also provides for the application of spell-

ing

skill as fast as it is

The modern tries to

developed.

school recognizes and

provide for individual differences

in spelling ability. In this is

way the

child

encouraged to compete with himself

Learning rather than with other people. His attention

constanth- kept on the idea of

is

making progress. Tlie reahzation that he is making progress is one of the strongest

To Spell lems

Notice the record gi\ en below) of a certain second grade for the first half of the vear. This record shows (

made on

differ

kind and in degree.

in

the teacher to

with each case according to

deal

Number

Pupils

no

practically

that Pupil less.

On

beginning of the term and on a test of equal difficult^ at the end of the term.

problems.

once

1

to

Number

ha\c

5

spelling problems, except

Number

1

mav be a

little care-

NumNumber 25 have ver\- serious The modern teacher begins at

the other hand. Pupils

ber ig to

to gi\e such children special help.

Tlie scores at the end of the term Spelling Scores of a SecondGrade Class (First Half of the School Year)

its

particular need.

a spelling test at the

the scores

both

Modern methods enable

influences in keeping the child interested in spelling.

iig

show Ten

the success of this particular teacher. of the twentv-three pupils

made

perfect

on the fift\-word test. All but three made scores of go or abo\e. and thev had made marked progress.

scores of the

3

4

the

98 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 94 94 100

88 84 84 80

5

6 7 8

9

72 72 68 68 68

10 11

12 13

96 100

64 60 48 48 40

14 15

16 17 18 19 20

% 98 90 92 74 94 90 62 66

32 28 20 8

21

22 23

The

Term 96 92 92 88

1

2

at the

End of Term

Beginning

Pupil

Number

4

tabulation shows that the scores

beginning of the term range from

4 to g6. Ob\iouslv, Pupil Number 23 needs much more encouragement and assistance

from

his teacher

than does Pupil

Number

and parents 1.

His prob-

It

should be kept in mind that each

of these twenty-three pupils constitutes a special t\\"een

problem

likelv that Pupil

from

in the co-operation be-

parents and teacher.

Number

It

seems

a score of 64 to a score of 100.

Number

Pupil

20, \\ho

\er\"

who moved

i_j.,

and

mo\ed from

a

score of 2S to g4, had the benefit of superior co-operative efforts on the part

of the school

and the home.

The amount spelling a dav.

is

of schooltime gi\"en to

usuallv onlv fifteen minutes

For manv children

Some

children,

more time

this

howe\"er,

to spelling.

is

enough.

should

The

give

teacher

fre-

more schooltime to spelling by allowing them to come earlv, gi\"ing them extra help in studv periods, and encouraging them in quentlv

enables

ever\- possible

them

to

give

wav. Parents can encour-

age children to feel grateful for any extra time— e\"en after school hours— that the teacher spends with

them

to help

them

succeed in their work. The entire purpose of an\ extra help is defeated, howexer, is

if

children feel that this extra work

in the nature of

punishment. Tliey

Speech

cause

difficulties often

read-

difficulties in spelling or

ing. Parents

should correct

made by

rors

the

child,

er-

and

they themselves should speak slowly and distinctly and pro-

nounce words

correctly.

Vivian RodTogtn

mav

somewhat from the gen-

should, nevertheless, be held responsible

school

for the mastery of the spelling lesson.

eral description in this article,

How WHien

Parents

practice in the best schools

Can Help

becomes advisable for the take over some of the actual

in spelling, either because the child has been absent or because he is falling behind, they are confronted

instruction

with

many

face

the teacher.

of the

same problems that

The

following para-

graphs give definite suggestions as to how parents can do their part. Onlv the

most important problems are treated, but resourceful parents will think of other wa\-s to help the child.

Get Acquainted With the School. The thing to do is to get acquainted with the teacher and find out how spelling is first

taught in the school, so that the school will not work at crosspurposes. It is important for the parents

and the home

to

know when

systematic instruction in

begun at school; what book, if any, is used; what methods of teaching are recommended; and what svstem of writing is used. Tlie practice in anv gi\en spelling

is

is

but the

the same

on the main points. Provide Occasions To Use Spelling.

it

parents to

\'an'

The home

is

rich in natural situations in

which the need apparent to

the

to

spell

child.

write letters to friends

and

may become WTien

adults

relatives,

might, for example, ask even the

they xei}'

voung child, "Do you want to tell Grandmother anything?" Before the child has learned to write, he can dictate what he wishes to say, the adult can write it for him, and then help him to sign his name. Waiting should not, however, be a burden to him. At this early stage, only a small amount of writing should be suggested or even permitted at one time. The writing of simple letters provides one of the best sources for motivation in spelling. As the child grows older, he should be encouraged to write simple notes himself, to be included with the parents'

own

He

letters

to

relatives

and

can take o\'er the famih' correspondence at times when the parfriends.

120

Learning To Spell ents are busv or ill. He mav also write independently to relati\cs or to friends of his own age. There will be oeeasions for writing simple in\-itations. All of this writing should be kept exceedingh' simple,

and

good judgment

to

super\-ision should

be

requires

it

kno\\- ho\\'

much

gi\en. His interest

must not be

destro\"ed

bv the burden of either the writing or the spelling. For this reason, his letters

121

the items which might be included in his

letters

to

Tliere are in

is

ha\-e heard.

It is

possible to write the final

called

correctly. The child mav also be encouraged to make a list of the things he plans to do during the week or to jot down reminders of errands to be run. If sent on an errand to the store, he should be able to make a list of the things he is to get. Many ver\- young children show an

interest

poems

in

Such writing

as

stories \\ill

they

pro\ide

another excellent motivation for spelling if

the child's writing

is

displa\ed on the

famih- bulletin board, put into a scrap-

book

to

be read bv others, or published

Resourceful parents can supplement with man^"

this list of writing situations

merous opportunities will arise in which parents can bring about a discussion of the importance of spelling in letter ^^•riting. For example, parents can remark upon how pleased his grandmother \^ill be to receive a letter from him in which not a single word is misspelled. As the child becomes more independent in spelling and writing skills, the

to spell.

him some

such

They may also out poems and

be interested in writirig songs they ha\e learned or

others equally good.

discuss with

writing,

creati\-e

or short stories.

There should be a steadv emphasis on the necessity for spelling all the words correctly. Nu-

may

situations

needed. Occasionally,

in the school paper.

in his study.

draft of his letters himself.

parents

home

other

and

important that the child begin as

is

is

he ^^ill need in e\"er\' letter, since some words are rarelv needed. On the other hand, he can be encouraged to keep a list of the commonlv used words which are difficult for him and to gi\e special

as early

interesting,

upon to write a mestaken o\er the telephone. should be taught to do this briefly

the child

sage that

He

them

many

which writing

should be kept \'cr\- short. If the mother is present when the child is writing a letter, she mav spell the words orallv as the child asks for them. Tliis is not so helpful, howe\er, as to write the needed words so that the child ma\" copv them. \Mien the ^^•ord is written and copied, he can see how the letters are made and joined together. \Miile the child should be helped to spell anv word that he needs in his writing, it will not be necessary- for him to learn thoroughh' e\"erv ^^•ord which

attention to

make them

such as short accounts of school and home activities, news about the famihor friends, amusing anecdotes about pets, and reports about hobbies.

of

Creating a need

for the use of spelling in the

home

is

of

unquestioned value in teaching a child It

removes spelling from the

category of a school subject and makes it

a vital,

meaningful

skill.

In making

needs apparent and in creating and maintaining the child's interest in correct spelling, parents can perform a these

yer\-

helpful ser\ice.

Studying Spelling at Home. Systemwork in spellmg is ordinarily not begun before the second half of the first atic

Childcraft

122 grade,

and manv schools do not begin

second grade. The problems of beginning lessons in spelling are much the same, however, regardless of the time at which the work is begun. As soon as spelling lessons are assigned, the parents should become interested in the success with \\hich the until

spelling

the

few short periods a more systematic procedure should be introduced.

a

If

follo\nng

1.

that used successfulh" in

but

it is

modeled on

is

many

schools,

described in terms of the

may be used

situation. It

1.

home

either to rein-

and supplement the ^^•ork of the school, or it mav be used independently

1.

\\'rite

child's

first

on the blackboard some of the words he on

a piece of paper or

4.

4.

5.

he

Proceed

It

this is

wav with each

best to

of the

take onlv a few

time and to stop before the child shows any sign of becoming tired

words

at a

or bored.

With

a little ingenuit}*,

lessons can

become

a

game

these early

that

is

pla^"ed

together by parents and child. \\"hen regular lessons are assigned in school. this

same method mav be

used, but after

\\Tite.

It

especially helpful for

is

these children to say the letters as thev

used in \\Titing the list given earlier in this article. If cursive \%Titing is used in the school,

in

Ask the child

Help him if he needs assistMan^" children can spell well but confuse the letters when

orall\-

words most commonly might be chosen from

aloud.

sav the letters. erase the word.

writes.

they

words.

him

Cover or

frequently in his writing. For example,

it

in a

to write the word, saying the letters as

the word. The}' should be encouraged to make a practice of saving the letters to themsehes whene\er the\" \\Tite any word, if the transition from write

call attention to the way one letter is joined to the next one as you \Mite the

3.

Use the word

Let the child pronounce the word again.

ance.

words slowly. Ask the child if he can spell any of the words that ha\e been wntten. Ask him to point to the word he thinks he can spell and to sa}" it. Cover the word. Ask the child to spell

carefully.

the letters in the word. 3.

has alreadv learned to recognize in his reading and probably will need to use fift\-

it

Ask the child to pronounce the word. Be sure that he pronounces it correctly. Ask him to make a sentence of his own. using the word. Ask him to say

Ha\"e

a few of the

2.

lessons in spelling:

of the words included in

sentence.

force

to teach the

Choose one

the child's lesson. Pronounce the word distinctly and clearly. Ask the child to

look at

method

method may be

used:

child does his \\ork.

The

the child has alreadv begun to write

in school, the following

to

oral

written

spelling

causes

them

difficult}-. ^.

the

If

has

child

it

for

attention to the hard parts. write

it

Ask him

to

again.

The procedure unalterable, but tive

with anv him, calling

difficult\-

part of a word, write

it

described here

is

not

has been found effec-

with beginnmg Longer words mav be broken teaching purposes. For example,

in helping pupils

spelling.

up for going may be taught in the following wa\": \\'rite the word go; write -ing; show how go and -ing are joined together; teach the It is

words learned.

whole word.

wise to re\iew occasionalh" the

which

the

child

This helps to

fix

has

already

the correct

Learning and to show the child that he

spelling is

actualh" learning

how

to spell.

but do not ask the child to write the Parents should keep in mind, of

letters.

knowing how to spell a means kno\nn2

that

\\ord in life situations

how

to write

it.

Therefore, as soon as

the child learns to write, he should be asked to write his spelling words as the

them. The difficulties is one

final test of his abilit\- to spell

elimination of

\\"riting

of the chief tasks in teaching spelling, cither at school or at

home.

is

it

and use

the child

2.

^.

4.

Look Look

6.

He

who

is

recommended

to stud\"

for

bv himself:

word. Say it to yourself. the word. Pronounce it. Say the letters of the word. Close vour eves. Sav the word. Tr\- to see the word as \ou sav the letters. at the at

Open your

eves and look at the word you spelled it correctlv. Repeat these four steps until vou think you ha\e learned the word. to see

5.

in a sentence.

then ready to attack the spelling. Tlie

following steps are

1

it

if

Xow

tr\-

word

to

to write the word.

see

if

letters correctly.

above

123

will be successful with most chilTlie methods which have been

reconmiendcd may need

mented

Look

at the

vou ha\e \ratten the If you have made anv

mistakes, go through the first four steps again until you are sure that vou ha\e learned the word.

Encouraging Inferior Spellers. The program which has been described

to

be supplewho have

in the case of children

special difficulty in learning to spell. Tlie suggestions which follow pro\ide such

supplementary aid. They are written with the problem speller in mind, but they are also helpful to good spellers.

An important teaching principle is that e\er\- pupil shall attain some measure of success and know the jov that comes with

success. Wlien a pupil succeeds in doing one type of \\ork well, he \\ill work harder at it, spend more

time with

The

and enjoy doing is no exception.

it,

ing to spell

Helping the Child To Study Alone. As soon as the child gains any abilit\" in the master)- of words, he should be gi\en some means of learning his spelling bv himself. The words to be learned should be presented hx sho\\ing him each ^^ord. bv pronouncing it, and then having him

pronounce

o Spell

dren.

In some schools, children are not taught to write as soon as the teaching of oral spelling is begun. In such a case, the parents follow the aboxe procedure

course,

1

child

to spell

who

it.

Learn-

really trying to learn

is

must not be discouraged bv un-

attainable goals. Spelling lessons that are too long or too hard ma^• bring feelings of inferiority'

and discouragement,

vrith

a resulting lack of interest. All children

in a gi\en class

spelling needs.

do not have the same

The

goals for each child according to his own ability and achie\'ement. Parents ha\-e opportunities even greater than the teacher for arousing and maintaining a child's

should be

set

interest in learning

The

abilit^•

different

how to

spell.

to spell \aries even

members

of the

same

among familv.

not closely related to intelligence. The child recognizes, as soon as an\"one, that he cannot spell so well as other It is

children. He must be helped to face his problem calmh- and sensiblv. Parents must look at the matter rea-

sonably. ^^'hen their attention to the difficulties their child

with spelling, the if

first

task

is

is is

called ha\'ing

to discover,

possible, the causes for the disability-.

The

next task

ties, in

is

to correct the difficul-

co-operation with the school.

124 The school newspaper is an incentive for good spelling. Children like to see their stories and poems in print. They show their papers proudly, and they want the words to be spelled correctly.

Causes

of Spelling DUticulties.

Recent

experiments indicate that many reading difficulties, and probably many spelling difficulties, of young children arc

due almost

entirely to ph\siological immaturity or to defects of the eves. Failure to see the letters in their proper position is one sign of this immaturity; spelling words backwards and reversing letters

within the word are probably additional indications

of

this

condition.

As the

becomes older, some of this diffio\ercome hx the verv fact growth and maturation. If there is

cided tion

is

disadvantage.

Faulty pronunciafrequently the result of following

child

bad examples

culty will be

by children's

of

any evidence of poor e\esight, the eves should be tested by a competent eve specialist. If children's eyes are being overtaxed by attention to the letter positions in words, it may be wise to confine the spelling lessons to oral work until

the condition

Hearing

is

relie\ed.

disabilities

may

spelling difficultv. Children

also

cause

who do

not

in speech

which

are set

can do a great deal to correct poor speech by setting a

associates. Parents

good example and bv correcting

errors as they occur.

Pronunciation and enunciation drills home may be helpful. Oral spelling is frequently recommended, especially with vounger children, for whom the writing of the word complicates the spelling difficulties. Oral spelling is particularly helpful, as has been mentioned, where at

make

difficult for children

hear distinctly miss the phonetic clues

eve defects

word and frequently are unable to distinguish between the spelling of words which sound much the same to them. The teacher can be asked to place children whose hearing is deficient in a position in the room

to see the letters in their proper rela-

to the spelling of a

where they can hear best. Speech difficulties are often responsible for poor spelling. Although many English words are not spelled phonetically, errors in pronunciation are likely

to cause errors in spelling. Children are unable to

make

between sounds and

who

direct connections letters are at a de-

it

is not uncommon who is able to spell all his but who misspells words

tion to each other. It to find a child

words

orally

when he

\\Tites them. Poor handwriting is another source of

difficulty in learning to spell. Tlie early

lessons in spelling should include help in the ^^•av

forms of

letters as well as in the

they are joined together.

to find out

It is well

whether cursive or manu-

script writing

is

taught at school.

If par-

do not know how to do manuscript writing, they can no doubt secure a ents

Learning To Spell cop\book

and use it as a guide spcllmg lesson or any ^^o^k. Since poor writing is

at school

writing the

in

other

w-ritteii

often due to carelessness and lack of

much

effort, as

as to lack of skill, the

child must be encouraged to make effort to write neatly

and legibly. some letters

ever\-

In cursive writing, trouble than others; a, e, and t are especiallv troublesome. It

gi^•e

much more

avoiding looping in letters

of

making rounded

of

like

rather

m

i,

than

and n.

in spelling

possible.

he

is

likely to

become

ease with others in the group

ill

at

who seem

him

in achievement, thus inchances for failure. The school is not alwavs entirelv to blame for the social difficulties of the poor

to surpass

creasing

his

speller.

At home

pared,

either

the child

is

consciously

or

uncon-

sciouslv, \\-ith brothers or sisters of su-

not permit the child

that the child

who

fails

on spelling

to get a

be not dwell on the fact behind the other mem-

satisfactoR- score

They

tests to

^^ill is

bers of his group in school. Instead, the\will

encourage and praise him for the \\ell. In that wav. the\-

things he does x^ill

establish a general feeling of self-

Children learn the meanings of many as they carry on the activities

new words in

social

difficult)- \\ith spelling, the need co-operation between teacher and parents is clear; but when pupils are

making normal help

progress,

the parents'

be enlisted or volunteered. Co-operation is nonetheless deis

less likely to

and important. In such cases, parents need not do much actual teachsirable

but they can co-operate x^ith the teacher in maintaining a correct attitude

studies.

toward the improvement of the child's and toward the application of spelling in all Nmtten work. Many children who can spell correctly are some-

spelling

times careless spellers \\hen thev \Mite. Parents' praise

interest,

are

They learn

such words without having through dull, monotonous drill.

to to

spell

go

encouragement, and

in\aluable in helping such

children to do their best.

often com-

perior spelling ability, ^^'ise parents will

teased.

the teacher from improving the abilitv of the better spellers. When pupils are

ing,

should be removed as soon Unless he is treated with

special care,

help to children

spelling disabiliries often pre\ent

for

An\- disabilib.- which hinders the child

as

sity for gi\ing special

\^ith

having

straight up-and-do\\Ti strokes in letters like

Encouraging Supeiioi Spelleis. Lack large classes, and the neces-

of time,

is

to emphasize the importance of closing such letters as a, of making the loops on such letters as A, of dotting i's,

and

confidence and sarisfaction rather than of discouragement.

r,

well

125

Bt Aigner from Montaneyer

Childcraft

126

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. Find out how spelling is taught in your child's school. How does from the method used in the school you attended as a child?

2.

this

method

differ

Look over your

child's spelling book. Perhaps you can find several ways in which from the one you used in your school days. Do you think that most your child's spelling book are words he will use in his written work?

his textbook differs

of the words in

3. Make a list of situations in which your child needs to write at home. In what ways can \ou encourage him to write at home?

How

can you as a parent best co-operate with the school to improve your child's can you help your child so that he will learn to study his own hard words independently and effectively? 4.

spelling?

How

Discuss with the teacher what seem to be the chief causes of poor spelling. Plan :;. with the teacher for the removal of these difficulties.

BOOKS TO READ Foran. T. G. The Psychology- and Teaching oi Spelling. Washington, D. Education Press, 1934. Hildreth, Gertrude. Learning the Three

C:

Ks. Minneapolis: Educational

Catholic

Publishers,

Inc., 1936.

Horn, Ernest. "Spelling," Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Macmillan Co., 1941.

McKee.

Paul.

Language

in the Elemental}' School. Boston:

New

Houghton

York:

The

Mifflin Co.,

1939.

National Societv' for the Study of Education. "Child Development and the Curriculum", ThiTt\--eighth Yearbook of the Societ}'. Bloomington, 111.: Public School Publishing Co., 1939.

H. Armstrong Uoberts

A

child begins to

things.

"Are

all

the

understand numbers when she associates them with familiar pups here?" "L 2, 3, 4. Yes, they are all here."

LEARNING ARITHMETIC WILLIAM

MAN~\' children have encountered

difficulh"

learning arithmetic. Parents naturallv ask.

can

we do

A.

in

"\Vhat

to help our child gain skill in handling

numbers?" However, arithmetic need not be such a "bugbear" to the young learner and his parents if the child is gi\en plent\' of concrete experience with numbers before he is asked to handle abstract numbers. Dr. Brownell. Chairman. Department of

Education at Duke Uni\ersity. gi\es helpful sugand stresses the need for meaningful activities with numbers in the child's dailv life. gestions

BROW'XELL

ber experiences in the school are pre-

sented as the child arithmetic

read\' for

is

them,

no longer be considered

\^"ill

a "bugbear."

Early attempts to deal \^ith numbers of necessity" be crude and relati\'elv

must

unsuccessful. In their eagerness to assist

the child through the awkward,

uncom-

fortable stage of learning this subject,

parents sometimes use methods \\hich

NUMBER

experiences begin

the child

day living

is srill is

when

cause

a toddler. E\-en--

full of

opportunities

young child to discover things about numbers, and most children know a good deal about them befor the

fore thev enter school. If the

new num-

It

still

which,

more

the

is

if

trouble.

abstractness

readv, causes difEcult)-.

tomed that are

A

child

is

is

accus-

to dealing with concrete things

open

identification.

127

numbers

of

presented before the child

to investigation

A

and

direct

baseball bat, a horse,

Stringing beads is fun. In addition, it develops hand-eye co-ordination and provides background experience for learning to enumerate.

rounded idea of "5," not all at once, but by passing through se\-eral developmental stages. He must first count, and By

Feller from

Monkmeyer

stone— these are learned to the point of recognition, and once so learned, thev "stay put." But numbers can only be approached partially through the senses; they do not "stay put" until the child is able to separate the abstract concept of numbers from the physical objects they represent. Thus, one day he is shown some horses and is told that there are fi\e of them. "Five" then becomes a

identified as a property of horses.

why

not? Shortly afterwards, he

toys (or chairs or oranges)

that there are five of these.

may

well

seem to be wrong

is

And

shown

and is told Something

to the child;

there isn't an\- "horsiness" in these objects,

five

and yet there

are five.

Or he

sees

blocks arranged like this:

manv are are

combining smaller groups within the

An

numbers and of the difficulties from this abstractness should make parents more sympathetic toward ture of

resulting

the child's task.

should also prevent

It

them from expecting rapid progress at first; should prepare them for errors on the

part

help

them

when

the

of

child;

and

should

to restrain their impatience

the child

fails

to grasp what, to the

and the

Number Experiences

parents' problems in assisting a

when

self-deceived

if

takes a long time for a child to learn "5," that is, to understand it and to use

He comes

five.

understanding of the abstract na-

the child first enters school; they merely become more acute at that time. Tlie problems realh- begin with the child's first

grossly

in telling off five objects.

Not until much later can he grasp the number of five objects as "5" through

The

there? ^^^l^• should there

with intelligence.

sound he makes

child to learn arithmetic do not begin

they think their own ease in apprehending the true number in the groups abo\-e should imply equal ease for the child. It

it

only as a point reached in counting, as the last

Earliest

here, too?

Parents

know "5"

ar-

D D D n D fi\-e

for a while

simplest of computations.

"Fiveness" means the horizontal rangement. He sees the blocks thus:

Ho\^'

must

parents, are self-evident facts

n D D D D

be

and make mistakes, and recount, promptly to forget what he has counted so that he must count still again. He guess,

to a well-

often

number

as much days. The

come

his school

experiences,

which

as four years before

child gets meanings

numbers through his own experiences and not through instruction. Let the child discover things about numbers. of

Parents

mav

especially

plan

acti\ities

that will introduce numbers, but these

.28

Learning Arithmetic iicti\ities

should be normal happenings

to the ehild. 1 he\" inav expose the child

pebbles,

to

and other

buttons,

sticks,

objects. Tlie child will count them, group them, and compare them as to

The

size.

child

who

is

sent to the store

on errands for his mother will learn much about money. He \\ill learn to measure distance as he counts blocks from his home to the store and to other places in the neighborhood. Tliere

is

an

abundance of such opportunities, and if thev ha\-e been utilized, the child will enter school readv for new and more svstematicallv planned experiences. Indi\idual

however, are

differences,

so great that anv attempt to discuss pre-

school arithmetic as distinct from school arithmetic t\"pes

of

unwise. For this reason, the

is

arithmetic

skills

standings \\hich the child

and underis

Relations Between

Earlv instruction in arithmetic

\\'id-

ens the child's en\-ironment, just as certainly

as

does learning to crawl and

Through knowledge

learning to walk. of numbers,

he

is

given

control o\-er ph\sical

new forms

and mental

of

activi-

through learning arithmetic, he denew powers which socialize him and put him on terms of closer cooperation with his companions. The

ties;

in arithmetic is an exccedinglv delicate one and may unintentionally be violated, with serious consequences to the child's learning. WTiat the parents need to do by way of helping their child depends upon what the teacher is doing for him.

the teacher

If

from

are not to

earlv svstematic instruction

be thought of

as preparation thev are gains which ha\"e immediate value and use.

for

other grade

^^•ork;

They must count the scores in their games. Such activity helps to give a child meaning for rote counting.

trul\-

is

effective in her

instruction, the parents' part

limited

is

supplementing her efforts. On the other hand, there are circumstances under which the parents mav, even should, take the place of the teacher. These to

circumstances arise when the teacher fails to provide the experiences which make numbers meaningful. Thus, one

mother found her

six-year-old daughter

and over again a homethough uncomprehend-

carefully copying over

of combinations given her for

work. Patiently,

she was writing "4

inglv, 3

+

=

7

10, 2

+

=

2,"

+

2

and

=

6,

so on.

The mother pointed

to the combination 2" and asked, 'AMiat does that mean?" The child replied, "I don't

"2

+

o

=

just told to copy them Further inquir\- revealed that the "2" had some meaning, but that the "c" had none whate\er; it did not even have a name.

know; we were four times."

velops

gains

School

relationship between the school and the home with respect to instruction

list

be discussed without regard to whether he learns them in school or out of school, before coming to school or after he has entered school,

Home and

The

to master

will

129

Press Syndicate

,

Childcraft

130

Such a teacher-gh-en lesson, while undoubtedly extreme and unusual, nevertheless differs only in degree from much primary instruction in numbers still to be found in the schools. One of the immediate tasks of the parents is to find out the teacher's \'ie\v of arithmetic. If the teacher uses the

drill

theon- of arith-

tion

on these meanings the child receives he can always benefit by mere.

in school,

Helping Children Understand Numbers

The

child's first

number

are probably those in

which

experiences large differ-

ences

in quantity are recognized for purely practical purposes. There is, to

cern as to their significance to the child)

be sure, a certain number consciousness vague awareness that an object which has been present for some time is now missing. WTien the

then the parents must provide the ex-

child notes

metic (in accordance with which facts and processes are taught through repetition, oral and written, \\ith little con-

which

bv the teacher. If the teacher's theon^ cannot be learned through conversation, then it mav be inferred from her practices in the classroom, which mav be obser\ed, or from the child's answers to questions on the lessons assigned him. The point periences

are

slighted

in the small child's

the absence of part of a group of playthings, he is ha\ing num-

ber experience of a sort. But these experiences, while they represent the origin

of

quantitative thinking

and pro-

vide a substantial foundation for later crude. Small unnoted; exactness is lacking; the child's limited \ocabulaR' —"a lot," "not much," "some"— reveals clearly that he has far to go before he kno^^s much about numbers. Such

learning,

are

necessarily

differences

pass

the child, in spite of glib recital of number facts, ^^•ill soon have tasks for ^^•hich

knowledge

as

he

unprepared. Parents can safelv leave to the teacher the skills and mechanics of arithmetic and confine their attention to helping the child with the meanings. There is no danger in overdoing the assistance

help the parents give is without much deliberate intention to teach the child

meanings, assuming, of course, that the meanings are mathe-

count though the exact age at which the^ begin varies greatly from child to child. Tliere are two kinds of counting: (i) rote counting, which consists of reciting

is:

The

parents

must satisfy themselves is making arithmetic

that the teacher

mean something to the child. If this is done neither at home nor at school, then

is

^^•holly

gi\"en a child in

matically

and

socially

right.

There

is

nothing in arithmetic which the child can understand too well. He cannot possibly have too much meaning for his

number sion of

ideas, or too

number

much comprehen-

relations as they are in-

\'ohed in the fundamental operations, or too

much understanding

like.

No

matter

how much

and

instruc-

he possesses he acquires

through his

own

initiative.

The

arithmetic as such.

Teaching Children To Count

Most

the

parents teach their children to

number names

in

order,

\\ithout

reference to corresponding objects; and (2)

enumeration,

matching the

which

series of

consists

of

number names

against objects.

Rote Counting. Parents usually tend

of the uses

of arithmetic in insurance, sa\"ing,

the

largely

to

emphasize

rote

counting

first

in

order to teach the child to say the nuni-

Learning Arithmetic ber

names

in order. It

this practice

no attempt the

relate

is

probable that

is

not altogether wise.Wlicn

is made to have the child number names to objects,

memorizing the series "one, two, three" and so on is equivalent to memorizing

but

131

probabh- be equally

all will

satisfac-

torv to the child.

Enumeration. A superior plan is tc teach the child to enumerate from the start.

Enumeration mav

readih- be

made

to ser\e a real purpose in the ordinarv

nonsense terms, such as "bigso, Of course, from the standpoint of the parents, there seems to be meaning in the child's performance and purpose in his learning; they believe that

he lost one of his books? Again, enumeration gives the answer: 1,2,3. ^^^^' ^"^

some

is

a list of

e\cnts of the child's

life.

Are

ludin, krasni."

blocks here? Enumeration swer: 1,2,3,4. ^^^' '^^^y ^^^

gi\-es

dav, later on, the child

tuallv use these

number names

merate objects. For his learns

^^ill

part, the child

number names and

the

ac-

to enu-

their

because he enjovs their rhythm, partly because by learning them he is able to imitate his parents, but largelv because he sees that learning to sav the numbers is expected of him. order,

parth^

There

a psvchological principle to

is

the effect that generalities and abstracha\'e

intelligible

counting meration

One

acti\ities.

is

To

separate

entirely

missing. Tlie artificialitv of rote count-

ing

is lacking; the child learns something which he can put to immediate use. The

moti\ation of the learning is therefore much sounder than \\hen rote counting is taught first and without enumeration. Furthermore, through enumeration the

number names tent.

sound;

make

it

no longer merelv a is more than the sound to the sound "two" and before

is

after

rote

or

who

the sound "four." It

more

objects

to see that

tionship

and "moreness"

mav

take this form: "1, 2,4,8, ^5,

3,2,^5, 14,2." In the midst of this confu-

sion, the child

He

is

entirely complacent.

has violated nothing of consequence

to himself

when he

sequence

so

^^•recks

the

number

to

the

identifies

of

"four"

emerge. Tlie

He

the

begins

not make that sound need for it. TTie rela"three" to "two" and to the relationship between and "lessness" begin to child is on his \\ay to more

he

unless there

how

to him. His

and

three enumerated as a group.

has learned rote counting to appreciate

counting

take on quantitative con-

"Three"

enu-

has only to obser\'e the beha\ior

mean

Has

from

of the three- or four-\ear-old child

\\ords

here.

teach

to break with this principle.

little his

his

is a sound with a meaning; it is what the child savs when he comes to the third in a series of three

be taught until their been de\-eloped through

tions should not

meanings

^^1

all

the an-

will

is

a

ad\anced modes of quantitative thinking. Tliere is no more fascinating studv in which parents may engage than that

adult's

of observing the ^•arious stages in de-

when he has learned to recite the number names in order, they possess for him little, if any,

\elopment through ^^•hich the child comes to mature arithmetical kno^^•ledge, understanding, and skill.

quantitative sense, ^^^len asked to count

accordance with child would be taught at of the numbers, say 1,

thinking.

five or

essential

Even

later,

ten objects laid out before him,

the child's totals varv from counting to

counting; none of

them may be

correct.

In

pace here, as in

all

this

plan,

the

first only a few 2, and 3. The

stages of learning,

Childcraft

132

should be slow enough to permit him to master one difEcultv before coming to the next. Giving him at once the

numbers up to 8 or lo confuse him. Furthermore, he has much to learn in the act of enumerating. He should be taught to lay his

names is

for the

likelv to

hand

or finger

tions a

on each object

as

number name, touching

he may then and so on, until he can enumerate to 10. Enumeration bevond 10 does not need to be so carefully

and

a fair degree of speed,

be taught

4,5,6,

The

taught.

child already understands

the process of enumeration, and he max be left largely to himself to extend the

he men-

practice

and to enumerate objects by is

the

beyond

10.

first

An

adult does not ordinarih-

number

object as he savs "one," the second as he

find the

and so on. It is not, howe\'er, enough that he merely touch the objects. He must be made to understand that "two," "three," and so on

group by enumerating by I's. Instead, he enumerates by 2's, 3's, or the like, or he breaks up the whole group, actually or in imagination, into smaller groups which he can add or multiply. Such methods of dealing with more than 10 objects should be taught to the child rather than further enumeration by I's. Most children, probablv through their

savs "two,"

refer,

not to single objects, but to

all

the objects thus far counted. Tlie exact

enumerated objects is by no means a simple thing for a child to dex'elop, but it is a necessary skill. \\ ithout it, he may fail to recognize the identification of

fact

of one-bv-one addition,

\\hich

is

He

should be enumerate anything that encouraged to

implicit in enumeration.

he will usually delight in

he can, and doing so. Children frequently form what mav properly be called a passion for enumerating— much to the distress of their parents, who at times can ill afford to wait until the operation has been completed to the child's satisfaction. \\Tien the child has learned to enu5 with confidence, accuracy.

merate to

Ewing Galloway. N.

own to

efforts at self-instruction, are able

enumerate by

jects

of objects in a large

when they

up

i's

to 20 or 25 ob-

enter school.

Tlie child's repeated practice in enu-

merating objects will probably develop skill in rote counting up to 10 at least. If not, a little coaching will produce the ability. As for counting beyond 10, the parent may go as far as he cares to go, and as far as the child seems interested in going, although 25 is a reasonable parental

for

limit

instruction

in

pre-

school counting. Training in counting to higher points may be left to the teacher.

T.

begin

below

Bv

The

teacher will,

instruction

in

of

counting

course,

much

25.

itself,

counting

The practice

of the

is

inadequate prep-

addition combina-

tions is just fun for these children as they play a game of dominoes. The use of

dots instead of numerals helps to give them clear ideas of the numbers which they must add.

Learning Arithmetic number

33

termediate t}pe of instruction. Tlie fact that this intermediate instruction is sel-

counting and enumeration and the apprehension of number bv more direct means. "Tell me how many there are," can be answered either bv enumeration

dom

or by direct observation of the group

aration for the

coiiibinntions.

Counting must be followed by some

supplied bv the teacher

argument

in-

not an

is

On

unimportance.

it-

pro\ided the group is small enough. child should be trained progres-

the

self,

contran-,

it is an imperati\e reason why should be gi\en. This intermediate instruction consists in teaching the smaller

The

it

si\ely to neglect the separate objects in

for

its

numbers as such. Hold up four fingers

to a child

who

is

count to 4 or 5 and ask him, "How many fingers do you see?" He will count correctly, ''1,2,3,4." ^^ow ask just able to

him

again,

"How many?" He

is

as likely

to say "2" or "3" as he is to say "4." The explanation is not that he forgot his answer. Repeat the experiment and he will again be uncertain of the number of fingers held before him. True, he counted to 4, but the 4 he secured was not reallv a number. It was only a sound made at an appropriate place in a series of sounds.

have

The numbers must come

to

own— identity

as

identit}' of their

groups— so that he can deal with them in thought, without breaking them up into the

number

of

I's

each represents.

Giving Further Meaning If

as

the child

is

to

Numbers

to learn the

numbers

numbers, he must be taught them.

The method

is

as

follows:

After the

some time been able to enumerate small groups of objects (up to three objects, for example), his attention should be drawTi to the groups therein, representing 2 and 3. He should be made to see the 2 and the 3 not merely as results obtained by noting the child has for

small groups of 2 and 3 and to recognize the totals as 2 or 3 on sight. As the

numbers become

larger and cannot be immediately grasped as wholes (such as the child will need to add an 5 and 6 extra step or so between enumeration and direct understanding. Thus, he may for a time see 5 objects as groups of 3 )

,

and 2 or of 4 and 1, before seeing the whole as 5. He will get the idea of a number, any number, as a group to be dealt with as a complex unit divisible into smaller parts. He will know, too, that the

number

is

not only a group but

combining subgroups and that the number can be represented in many ways—by a variety of objects and in a variety of arrangements. The meaning of the numbers can be increased materially by matching exercises. For example, bv matching three also the result of

cups with four saucers, the differences in

become

quantity-

defined. plv,

The

enumeration,

without

number

steadily

better

child can be asked to sup-

of objects:

"Please

a

certain

hand me

three handkerchiefs." If parents grasp

the \ital importance of teaching the

numbers

as groups, thev will

be able to

many specific aids to help the They can err in supplying such ex-

invent child.

periences only

if

they bore the child.

parents should continue to

individual items successively, as in enu-

Short of

meration, but also as units recognizable

teach the smaller numbers, certainly up

in themselves.

A distinction should be made between

to 6 or

-7,

this,

until the child

dealing with

them

is

accustomed

as wholes.

to

)

Childcraft

34

Teaching Children Number Combinations

when the child comes number combinations that

deficien-

most

likely to

of the

number

It is

the

cies in earlv learning are

show themselves. Some combinations subtraction

(those

first)

of

to learn

and

addition

are usually taught in

though they may be postsecond year. The teacher usually assumes that the child, being able to count, knows all he needs to know in order to master the combinations. She, therefore, presents the combinations, a few at a time, to be memorized. In one lesson, she may present the

first

poned

3

+

grade,

to the

4, 5

+

1,

and

7+3.

All too

com-

monly, the presentation consists merely in telling the child the answers and in drilling him until the answers are given at once upon his seeing or hearing the combinations. Drill is relied upon to fix the combinations in the child's mind and to give him all the necessary knowledge about the combinations. Drill is then followed by problems in which the new combinations are used. (It should be understood that by no means all teachers teach the combinations in this manner, but it is probable that more of them approximate this

method than the method which scribed below.

is

de-

In order to assist the child, parents should understand thoroughly just what is and what is not to be expected from drill

on

Look

times a day.

How many

require

learn

to

its

da\'s would von meaning? WHiat

would be the effect of the "drill"? You would pronounce the sounds with greater facility and speed, but that is all, unless you force some kind of meaning, by some artificial method, into the syllables. Suppose that the child has no clear idea of the numbers 4, 5, and 9. His teacher presents the combination

and

tells

him

that the

sum

is

child repeats the combination, "4 are 9," over

and over again

4+5

9.

Tlie

and

5

as drill period

is continued combination mean an\thing more than a group of sounds? The effect of drill on the combination will be precisely the same as the effect of drill on the nonsense syllables "Golsi brando strexit lufter krinka." That is, the effect will be the same, except for cer-

follows

drill

period. If drill

for weeks, will the

tain complications.

The

child

is

required

one nonsense sentence, but hundreds of nonsense number combinato learn not

He may become greatly confused who would not?) and give the in-

tions. (as

correct answers as frequently as the correct ones. Eventually,

he may become

discouraged, stop trying, and develop an

unwholesome tic.

attitude toward arithme-

Or he may

discover for himself, or

adopt from a schoolmate, some means of dealing with the combinations which enables him to hold them in mind. Giving Meaning to Number Combinations

a combination.

brando and read it aloud. WTiat does it mean? Read it again. WTiat does it mean now? Ob\iously, it means nothing except the sounds you make. Suppose you were to read this nonsense sentence over and over again, thirty at this nonsense: "Golsi

strexit lufter krinka,"

If the child has sound concepts of the numbers themselves, he should have rel-

combinations. In fact, the combinations will already have been discovered, in part, in stud\'ing the numbers, and they will be seen to emerge, as it were, as a necessary atively little trouble with the

Learning Arithmetic

itr^i 5-3 = 2 3-2^3 The same

the rate of instruction must be adapted to the child's learning. Number ideas

Q O €) Q ^^

facts

may

35

de\ elop slowly.

_^

Teaching the Larger Numbers

By the time children reach the fourth grade they are usually dealing with numbers in the thousands, or e\ en millions,

be shown thus:

and se\en-place numbers. the meanings of such numbers have not been made the object of special instructions, the numbers can scarcely be \\

ith sixIf

or thus:

/T^X

intelligible to children.

There are ways,

howcNcr, of making them meaningful,

©0

and there are reasons for so doing. It is becoming increasinglv important for both children and adults to ha\-e some means of grasping large numbers and putting sense into them. State and fed-

consequence of the nature of numbers.

eral

Properh- taught, the child will recognize that he \\ill sa\e time in the end by

kinds, popular reports of scientific ex-

learning the combinations as facts. Sticks,

cutout pictures, blocks, matches,

buttons— any of these may be used to develop meaning for the combinations. The button arrangement in the above illustration mav be helpful. The same facts mav also be demonstrated by using

many

different patterns with buttons or

budget

figures,

statistics

Instead of being printed in numbers, the de\"oted to these quantitative data might as well be left blank if the

spaces

reader

is

such large It is

not prepared to understand figures.

more cumbersome to represent numbers in concrete form, and

larger

himself, in as great varietv as possible,

san-.

and alwavs \Mth attention to the 3 and 2 as groups and not to the separate objects, e^entuallv he will arri\-e at the

making these numbers

The method

of

instruction is simple enough; parents need not doubt their ability- to demonstrate and teach the facts. The chief danger is that thev may expect the child to see the facts at once and, ha\'ing seen them, to learn them once and for all.

Thev must

continualh-

remember

that

mam-

periments, and other t\pes of reports and reading matter frequentlv involve six-, se\en-, and eight-place numbers.

uith other objects. If the child is encouraged to make these arrangements

generalizations himself.

of

their exact

enumeration

is

seldom neces-

Nevertheless, for the purpose of intelligible

to

children, piles containing 25 to 100 ob-

should be placed before the child, to determine how man^• objects there are in each of the piles. x\t first, the child \\ill enumerate bv I's. Then the adult's method of counting large numbers by groups should be taught. The objects should be grouped into lo's, making as many groups as possible, and the balance should be jects

and he should be asked

If

Johnny needs a dollar

to

buy a

special

flashlight for his bicycle,

he will see some sense to knowing how to count the pennies, nickels, and dimes in his piggy bank.

about denominate numbers and measurement. Her instruction, therefore, is planned to acquaint the child with the

more common measures — quart, pint, dozen, and so on, with coins, and with crude measurement by means of a ruler. By the time the child is in the fourth or fifth grade, he has generally learned

the various tables of denominate Press Syndicate

designated as

I's.

The

difference

in

quantities that can be actually seen will

tend to

make

num-

and avoirdupois weight and dry measure) and has solved verbal problems using them. bers

(linear,

It is

liquid,

well for the parent to

remember

clear the differences be-

that the particular measures of weight,

tween such numbers as 21 and 54, 36 and 87, and so on. Besides, this type of practice with groups of lo's is excellent preparation for the writing of numbers, wherein place is so important. The numbers above 100 can hardly be

volume, and the like which are taught the child are not as important as the facts which are taught about them. When he first learns about denominate numbers, it is enough for the child merely to become familiar with the names and terms. Next, he may form

taught ^^'ith objects, unless objects can be found which may be easily grouped into hundreds, Tlien, they can be taught in

the same

way

as

are

the numbers

below 100. In addition to direct conwith hundreds of objects for spe-

tacts

instruction, large groups of objects should be pointed out as standing for so many hundreds. Understanding of large numbers will come, for the most part, through dealing with the number system— in writing and reading numbers and in computation. cific

Denominate Numbers and Measurement

The

first-grade teacher usually

that the child

assumes

knows exceedingly

little

notions of the general characteristics of the measures, thus recognizing a pint as

from a quart and a peck as different from a bushel. He will not care much about the exact quantitative relationships of the different measures and will not be concerned with such matters different

as the

number

of pints in a quart or

Such knowledge and instruction in the tables should be spread over several years, not concentrated in one or two grades. Ideas of space and volume mature slowly as do all other arithmetical ideas. In attempting to make denominate numbers meaningful, parents will ounces in a pound.

comes

136

later,

Learning Arithmetic do well

to adapt the pace of their instruc-

tion to the child's interest

and

capacitx

for learning. is

largeh'

the product of maturing social

intelli-

gence. As this intelligence de\elops, the

may be expected to concern himself

more and more with exactness in measurement. To demand exactness from the beginning is to expect the impossible.

Common

Fractions

Fractional ideas, like the ideas of de-

nominate numbers, are not expected to be part of the equipment of the firstgrade child, although the ax'erage firstgrade child has alread\- begun to de\'elop the idea of the fraction and has

made

more

progress than is generally assumed. For example, he has a \er\- fair idea of one-half as one of two parts of an object—a candv bar or cravon or orange. He uses the term in this sense with reasonable accuracy and is able to demonstrate his understanding by furnishing one-half of an object on demand. He

mav

also

know

Instruction

ideas

usually postponed until the in-

is

these fractional

in

The fact that the school does not expect the child to ha\e these fractional ideas

is

by no means equixalcnt to saving no instruction in

that he should receiv^e

them.

He

be nearer two-thirds of an object; him if it is one of two parts though unequal. He knows nothreally

one-half to

probably should recei\e such if he wants it. The child is

instruction

undoubtedly able to learn much more about fractions than he is now taught in the lower grades. If practice were changed in this respect, the gain would be t\\ofold: (i) Tlie child would have something to challenge his interest and would come much sooner to possess a

new

tool for quantitative thinking.

He would more ment

(2)

be prepared graduallv and

carefullv for the intensive treat-

of fractions \\hich so often dis-

tresses

him

in the fifth grade. Parents

not go amiss if thev give the child concrete experiences with fracwill, therefore,

pro\iding,

tions,

of

course,

that

thev

work always toward giving meanings rather than abstract practice.

one-third and one-fourth

and perhaps one-fifth in this same wav, but he knows \er\- little more than this about fractions. Even these ideas are rather crude. To the child one-half ma\ it is

grades.

termediate grades.

measurement

Precision in

child

13'

Skills

Involved in Computation

^^Tlatever help parents gi\e a child in

computation should agree in principle and procedure with \\hat the child has learned and what he is still to learn through his teacher and his textbook. If they help a child, thev should

themselves

with

ing, or \en- little, of the fraction as ap-

miliarize

plied to groups of objects, one-half of

textbook and find out

the

first

fa-

child's

fraction as an indicated di\ision, with

how he is supposed to learn these particular skills. The teacher can develop computational skills

the denominator as the divisor and the

more

numerator as the di\"idend. He knows nothing of the fraction as a ratio. There is no reason whv he should know these things; thev represent usages which are of little \alue to him in the primary

stands numbers, the

6, for

example.

He

does not

know

the

readilv in

tions,

The

and the

the child

\\'ho

under-

number combina-

ideas of the operations.

parents' chief contribution, as has

been repeatedly understandings.

stated,

is

in regard to

Childcraft

38

The child should not be permitted to write his digits in a careless manner, so that 5 and 3 or 2 and 7, for example, cannot be distinguished.

IMPORTANT PARENT'S HELP

NEEDED HERE

done

NOT

b^"

the child in the presence of the

parents should

meet the standards

by the teacher

in regard to these

set

me-

chanical aspects.

J5?7

Verbal Problems

Commonlv,

the real bugbear of long-

and the equally long-sufproblem solving. The fre-

suf?ering parents

BUT

fering child

is

quency of the child's appeal for assistance and the ver\' evident need he experiences causes parents to become most painfully aware of the child's (and perhaps their

3.527

own) shortcomings

in arithmetic.

Five Types of Difficulties

There are two mechanical aspects arithmetic

comes

all

in

^^•hich

the

of

teacher wel-

possible assistance.

The

first

has to do with the making of the figures.

Children should not be permitted to digits in a careless manner, so that and 3 or 2 and ", for example, cannot be distinguished. A large number of ^^•rite :;

errors

in

formed

arithmetic arise from poorh-

figures.

The second mechanical

aspect has to do with the forms in

numbers

\\

hich

written for computation.

are

Thus, the columns must be kept straight in

otherwise

addition,

some numbers

Children find problems hard for one more of five reasons: ( i ) They cannot read the subject matter in the problem. (2) They make computational errors, largely due to carelessness or inadequately mastered number facts. ( 3 ) Thev do not understand numbers and the number combinations. (4) They do not or

comprehend the nature

of the funda-

mental processes of addition, subtraction,

and

multiplication,

division.

(5)

Tliey cannot translate the language of the problem into

its

mathematical

re-

quirements, a disability which includes

between what

be omitted and others \^'ill be added more than once. In multiplication, the numbers in the partial products must be

essential

written carefully for the same reason,

of general disabilit\- in reading, rather

^^•ill

and precision must be secured

in align-

ing partial products properly with respect to each other.

ing the sion

is

The need

numbers also

for care in writ-

in subtraction

and

di\i-

ob\ious. Arithmetic work

failure to distinguish

The

and \\hat

first

is

tvpe of

is

nonessential.

difficult^" is a

matter

than a matter pertaining to arithmeThe second tvpe of difficulty (computational errors') has been purposely

tic.

omitted from detailed discussion article

on the theorv that the

in this

responsibil-

Learning Arithmetic almost exclusi\ely with the third t)"pe, understanding the number combinaand numbers of earlier in the article, discussed tions, was as was also the fourth type, understanding of the ideas of the fundamental operations. Tliere remains the fifth t\pe of difficult^- in problem sohing, the one due to the nature of the problems themselves. Arithmetic examples, as distinguished from problems, tell the child ih"

here

teacher.

precisely is

lies

The

what

to do. If

ing." '"Find the

sum

similar; or addition

sign

("'").

he

is

to add.

he

"Add

the follow-

of," or

something

given the direction.

is

indicated by the

In problems, on the other

is no specific cue as to what Note the following problem: had three apples and bought two

hand, there

he "I

to do.

is

How manv ha^•e I no\\?'" There is word "add" and no sign of addition no As a matter of fact, what in this ( + ) problem does suggest that one should add? Why should one not subtract? more.

procedure ga\e her correct answers in the majoritv of cases.

An

examination of arithmetic texts

show that when problems contain three or more numbers, one does add

will

to solve them; in like manner, her methods "worked" in the case of the other

three processes.

stands

One

Language

into Mathematical Requirements

little girl

formed the practice of

adding whene\"er she found three or more numbers in a problem, of subtracting when she had two long numbers, of multiphing or di\iding when she had one large

number and one small mav seem

one. Curious as this practice

from the standpoint of mathematics. even more curious is the fact that the

Shopping at the grocery store will teach children about measures such as quarts, dozens, pounds, and bushels. Practical experience of this type helps them understand arithmetic.

The

arithmetic

child

who

performs

the

under-

same

operations as did this girl, but not for the reasons which appealed to her. The

good arithmetic pupil is able to see in the language of the problem the require-

ment

for this or that process.

The

girl

was unable to translate this language in an efficient manner, but once she had decided upon the operation to use and then made no mistakes in computation, her answers were correct. Children incapable of interpreting the language of problems deWse their owti methods

.

Translating

39

Press Smdicate

As children develop

in making need for knowing how to figure the size and shape of the finished article and the materials needed to make it. skill

things, they discover the

by the

mathematical operations. For example, docs this problem indicate that I should put numbers together? If so, I shall

add or multiplv.

^^•hich From

All the Children

I

is

as

odd

the one described above, but they

may be

remotely related to mathematics. Thus, it is not uncommon for children to add whenex'cr thev see the words "more," "together," "both," or "in all" in problems; to subtract whenever they see "less" or "take away"; and so on. In their ignorance of how to decipher the language of the problem into its mathematical requirements, thev set up rough and readv cues to which they just as

react in specific wavs.

point that parents, ha^ing themselves that the child's difficult}' is reallv due to the nature of problems and not to some weakness in reading or arithmetic, can be of great help to the child. Tlie task of deciphering the language of the problem in order to undertake the necessary' operations is no small one. Anah-sis of the problems in It is at this

satisfied

arithmetic texts shows that there are literally

hundreds of wavs of indicating

that one should add, subtract, multiplv, or divide.

The way

out

is

not, therefore,

one by one all these \arious phrases and terms. Tlie child must learn to turn the language of problems into to teach

patterns of thinking that are represented

there

Is

number

some

unit

Then

of times?

shall multiply. Similar questions will re-

\eal the

of solving problems, not perhaps as

taken a

The

need

for subtraction or division.

instructional procedures are to be

selected with a view to developing un-

derstandings. In large part, the child's success with problems depends

upon

his

understanding of the meaning of numbers. If he understands numbers, number combinations, and the idea of the operations, he is well along toward masten* of problem sohing. The new element in problems is the language in which the required operations are expressed.

The

must be taught to strip this language of those items which do not pertain to mathematics and then to examine the \\ords which remain for their impli-

child

cations as to the fundamental operation.

Social Values of Arithmetic

Arithmetic needs to be learned for its importance and its social values rather than for its theoretic appeal. The instruction of both teacher and parent must, to be truly effective, have practical

its

origin in,

and

from, the child's

mav be

its

form

needs. Tliese needs

actual uses which appear ^^hen

the child of his

largely take

own

is

own

engaged

planning.

in

some

Or

they

enterprise

may

result

from participation in acti\ities suggested by others. The latter type of activity in-

140

Learning Arithmetic eludes the arithmetic uses found in the textbook or in problems set by the

141

garden, matching patterns to materials, cutting out clothing, measuring space

teacher— activities designed to promote

for

the learning of arithmetic as a school subject. It is unwise, and certainly un-

child

necessary, to restrict the term "actixity"

more

to those performances of the child \\hich

metic. Tlie hobbies and current interests of the child, such as making a pla\house,

needs \yhich he has

spring from

dis-

coxered himself. There is no reason \yhy he should not be made to feel as great a need for arithmetic as for something quite unconnected \yith schoohyork. Indeed, under conditions of ideal in-

in

various purposes,

who

utilizes his

and

so on.

Tlic

number knowledge

connection with such

acti\ities will

readily appreciate the uses of arith-

feeding pets, and playing store, mav be shown to invohe arithmetic.

also

Tliese practical applications of arith-

arithmetic \yould be the dominant moti\-e back of his study of the subject. If

metic not only stimulate the learning of the subject; they have the greater \ahie of providing the kind of training \\hich the child needs to make his arithmetic functional. Tlirough using arith-

the desire

metic, he obtains practice in quantita-

struction, a natural eagerness to learn

is

associated \yith acti\ities in

\yhich the child

arithmetic

is

The

yitally interested, his

not likely to be a formal

thing, learned to ent.

is

satisf}'

teacher and par-

uses for arithmetic

\yill

be made

apparent through actual application. The dut\' of the parent is therefore clear.

Out-of-school situations \yhich

in-

tive thinking,

new

in a

new

illustrate the applications of arithmetic.

parents

and

selling suggest themseh'es at once.

The planning of purchases and the ing of money to make purchases are

num-

he soh'es problems which are real to him, he dex'clops a new means of analyzing life about him. Arithmetic goes beyond the textbook; properly learned, it makes the learner intelligent

used to the largest practicable extent to opportunities afforded in bu\ing

skilled in in-

bers,

voh'e quantitative elements should be

Tlie

he becomes

terpreting situations \\hich invohe

way.

The

de\'elopment of this be the aim of

intelligence should

who

seek to help their child.

Donald M. Snow

sax--

also

experiences familiar to the child in the

lower grades. Duties about the house have certain aspects which are quantitative: setting the table, estimating

amounts

of foodstuflfs, selecting recep-

tacles for storing materials, laying

out the

"Sharing" the gumdrops means they must be divided in tv/^o equal parts. Faced with such a problem, even small children will quickly see the value of

knowing how

to count. .i-^

Childcraft

L42

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1. In what wa^•s can parents help children with numbers in their preschool days? List some e\er^•da^ experiences in family life which help the child get meanings for numbers and number combinations.

2.

Why

should children the difference between counting and enumerating? What opportunities are there in the for teaching children to count?

\Vhat

is

learn enumeration before they learn rote counting?

home 3.

List a few of the difficulties your school-age children have encountered in arithmetic.

\\^ere

}0u able

again,

how would

to help }"0u

them

satisfactorily?

If

you should meet the same

diflBculties

help your child?

Suppose your child in the fourth grade does not know the number combinations. could \ou help him feel a need for learning them? How would vou go about helping him learn them? 4.

How 5.

What

do you think causes many parents to believe that arithmetic

subject for children to learn?

What

really

is

the cause

if

difficulties are

is

a difficult

encountered?

6. Read some of the "stor^'" problems in your child's textbook in arithmetic. Are they about experiences in the child's daily life? Is the wording clear and simple enough for the child? List ways by which arithmetic textbooks for primary' children can be improved.

BOOKS TO READ Brownell, W. A. The Development oi ChUdien's Chicago: Universit}' of Chicago Press, 1928.

Number Ideas in

the Piimary Grades.

Hildreth, Gertrude. Learning the Three R's. Minneapolis, Minn.: Educational Publishers,

Lee,

1936. J.

M., and Lee, D.

M. The Child and His Curriculum. New

York: D. Appleton-

Centur}' Co., 1940.

Morton, R. L. Teaching Arithmetic

New

in the

Elementary School, Vol.

I,

Piimary Grades.

York: Silver Burdett Co., 1937.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. "Arithmetic in General Education," Sixteenth Yearbook. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University' Press, 1941.

If parents have an inquiring and open-minded attitude toward life and other people,

their children will

same

acquire the

point of view. Bt Grecor from Monkmeyer

LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL STUDIES MARY PARENTS and

gmdmg

play a most important part in helping a child to learn

stand the world in which he

about and to underli%es. It falls to

them

to provide man\- of the varied experiences through

which the child makes

his

social

learnings.

It

REED

M.

is

important that thev understand the role of The author was formerh- Assistant Professor of Education. Teachers College, Columbia University-, and one of the editors of a series of

also

the school.

social-science readers.

Parents and teachers need to recognize the child's immaturities at each le\el of

growth and to understand the meaning of his resistance to demands which are beyond his abilit}- and stability. Only then can they gi\e the child social securitv in his big, buzzing world and the self-confidence to

adjust himself to a

world of conflicting

come

BABIES out social

into the world with-

Social Development in the

behavior patterns, and without ideas of right or wrong.

Home

Adults ha\e the great responsibility'

of helping

them grow

socially.

The

child offers his possibilities for learning;

the adult provides the enxironment. This

environment should be adjusted to each individual child and also changed to fit the child's abilitv at different levels of growth. It should pro\ide opportunity

social standards.

i?e7afionships

Environment Within

the

Family.

A

program is alwavs in action in the home. Understanding parents meet problems of social relationship in ways that :ay the foundations for the future social problems of their children. Mr. and Mrs. WTiite have three chilsocial-science

dren.

Bobbv

is

the babv. Mrs. \\Tiite has

for the child to experience the social con-

studied her books on child development

com-

and child guidance; she has watched the two older ones grow. She knows that her

tent of family

munity

life.

life

and,

later,

of

143

Childcraft

44 children

come

to her at birth completely

She

una\\-are of others.

feels responsible

Mrs. \Miite puts him on the floor. His enyironment is extended now. He

play.

for helping to

creeps,

titudes.

e\'erything, learning

shape desirable social atShe carefully obser\-es Bobb\-'s beha\ior. Since he is dependent on the members of the household for his comforts and physical \yelfare, he immediateh' becomes a member of the group. She watches his first social reactions. He coos and gurgles \yhen he receiyes the physical care he needs. At t\yo months he smiles. Later, he shows these same reactions, not just to her ministrations, but to her when she enters the room. During the first half \ear, Bobby shows new manifestations of growth. He no longer is content to be a mere spectator; he wants to be a member of the group.

He

raises his arms, stiffens his

the best language he

body, uses

has— babbling and

cr}'ing— in anticipation of being picked up. In fact, he seems to ask the of the family to let

He

him

members

plav with them.

chuckles as the children or parents

engage in playful acti\-ities. He reaches out to grasp objects. This, Mrs. ^^^^ite realizes, is a big step toward becoming a social being.

He

begins to use the giye-

and-take technique which play.

social

his

is

his

mother

first

his

then he takes it back. pulls Dorothy's hair and explores

rattle.

He

He hands

She takes

the features of

it;

Tommy's

face in his de-

Bobby's acti\ity program progresses. In the second half of the year, Mrs.

W^hite notices that he has better use of equipment; he notices more

his physical

he giyes attention for longer periods. These growth patterns haye things;

Bobby

a long

later toddles,

of touch, sight, taste,

household

is

in\estigating

through his senses

and hearing. The

arranged so that Bobb\-

can in\'estigate, and treasures which he might destroy are remoyed.

Mrs. WTiite realizes that all of her must not be gi\en to the baby. She tries to get Tommy, age fiye, to help her with the bab\— to pick up the bab\-'s pla\things and to carr^• his milk attention

But Tommy says he wishes he were a baby so he would not haye to do so much work. Dorothy, age two, has a tendency to go back to baby acti\ities in order to get more attention. She is still self-centered. She thinks of the other members of her family as people to be used in satisfying bottle to the kitchen.

her needs. WTien she goes outdoors to pla\", she shows no interest in other children except to get rid of them when they interfere with her acti\"ities. Occasionally,

she pauses to look at a noisy child near

One

by.

day Herbert,

a noisy, energetic

comes to \'isit. He tries to get acquainted with Dorothy by pushing and hitting her; then, by being yer)' affectionate. She has not sufficient lanchild, age three,

guage to

She

tell

cries;

him

she

that she doesn't like

yells.

it.

But Mrs. WTiite un-

derstands that Herbert has not intended

sire to inyestigate.

taken

and

way

in his social de-

She sees in his actions attempt to get acquainted. Mrs. WTiite inyites Herbert to bring his shoyel and dig in the sandbox with Dorothy. Tommy, the fiye-year-old, gets into the play, too. At first, there are to hurt Doroth^•.

a

three-\"ear-old's

many

quarrels;

each child claims the Under the wise

\-elopment. His relationship with people

property of the other.

is no longer mere satisfaction in getting food but real satisfaction gained in social

guidance of Mrs. WTiite, howeyer, property rights begin to be recognized.

Learning Through Social Studies

45

Home Enviionment. Opportunities for social learning in the

houses. Susie and her playmates watch the workmen. Thc\- ask many questions

modern cit}- home are somewhat limited. The mechanical contri\'ances used in everyday living make it difficult for chil-

of their mothers

dren to understand the contributions of their fellow men. A button is pressed and a light comes on; a handle is turned and heat is produced for cooking; a telephone call brings the grocer's bo\- to the door with \egetables and bread. Children take the acti\ities in this mechanical world for granted and, therefore, get little social understanding of how things are pro-

Tlie young children

duced and de\"elop little appreciation the labor and skill of the workers.

^'egetables grow, help pick the peas

Limitations o/ the

for

and of the older and boys among the watchers.

A

telephone

workman mends

girls

a wire.

along the street watch him climb the pole, fix the wire, and use his telephone to test his work. If parents explain these activities and answer the children's questions, there will

be helpful

social learnings.

Bobbv Jones and

Five-year-old four-year-old

Bettw

sister,

father plant the garden.

help

his

their

They watch

the

and

beans, dig the potatoes, and so on. Tliev

Opportunities for social learning in the home are also further complicated bv small families, and hx the gradualhdiminishing space both for indoor and outdoor play. Modern cities are arranged for adults, who often expect children to adjust themseh-es to conditions beyond

ground for greater understanding of man's food problem as thev grow older. Expanding the Home Environment.

their social maturitv.

which the familv

Social Growth in the Neighborhood

Environment. Parents do ha\e, howcN'cr, abundant opportunities to help children explore and learn to understand the social world in which the\' live, and the\' must learn to take advantage of them. Mrs. Brown goes shopping and takes three-vear-old Susie with her. Susie helps to

fill

the shopping basket with fruit and

\-egetables; she

watches the butcher cut

the steak; she sees her mother buy the bread at the bakers-; she watches her mother buv tooth paste and soap at the

are learning

how

people get food and

their small experience furnishes a back-

Mrs. \\ hite realizes the limited nature experiences of the citv environment in

and takes her At first,

li\-es

three children to the countrv.

the children are shv in this

new

en\iron-

ment. But the old-fashioned, rambling house seems just made for children.

Tommv becomes a He

regular question box.

many

does not understand

activities that

to put gutters

of the

go on. Mr. Price comes

on the

roof.

"How

do

vou paste the gutters together?" asks Tomm\'. Mr. Gudrow cuts the hav with an electric mower. "How does the engine work?" inquires Tommv. John weeds the vegetable garden. 'A\Tiy do you pull

living— the courtesv of her mother and

out the grass?" questions Tommy. Philip milks the cow. "Please, may I milk the cow, too?" begs Tommy. Mrs. Lengren's

the sales person, the care with which the

cat has kittens. "\\Tiere

items are wrapped, and the use of money.

from?" demands

drugstore. In is

all

of these activities Susie

learning important things about

social

Across the street from Susie's home, a bulldozer

clears

land for some

new

Tommv

do they come

Tommy.

begins to feel that he

vev,' little as

he faces

all

knows

these puzzling

Childcraft

L46

new experiences. He brags a bit to his new acquaintances. He assures them that he can earn' on all the acti\ities they engage in and do even more. His mother comes to his aid. She realizes Tommy's bragging is an evidence of his own lack of confidence. Mrs. White arranges things so that he mav contribute constructivelv to social group. All

this

Tommv's new

new

friends

become his teachers. His mother gives him some tin to cut, and Mr. Price helps him to solder it. He has his own little

He

sows his seeds and later pulls and weeds. Tommy and his mother examine an old car in the garden.

the tiny grass

dump

He

heap.

learns the

mechanism

She explains about the mother cat and her kittens. Day by day he observes the different people contributing to the needs and happiness of others. He begins to understand what they do and why. He feels an urge to contribute something himself. His vocabulary becomes less self-centered, more objective. He savs, "Here are some eggs of the gear shifts.

for breakfast," instead of

from

"Look

at

me

chicken the peas "You should see and coop," soon garden. can growing in the carr}ing

the

eggs

the

We

have some to eat," instead of "Come and look at mv garden." Two-year-old Dorothy has her social problems, too. She has not yet sufficient language to make her purposes known.

She snatches Tommy's most precious possessions.

Tommy rescues his little red

which he cherishes,

he puts corn in it to feed the chickens. Dorothy cries. Mrs. WTiite helps her by saying, "The suitcase is Tommy's; no, not Dorothy's. But Dorothy may watch Tommy feed the chickens." When Dorothy sees the chickens run for the corn, she laughs suitcase

with

Tommy

gives Dorothy throw to the chickens. This experience does not have the same meaning to her that it does to Tommy, but delight.

some corn

to

she enjoys taking part in the activity. next time Tommy fills the little red

The

suitcase with corn, she says,

"Tommy's

Chickens' corn. Not Dorothy's corn." She begins to appreciate the pos-

corn.

sessions of others.

She

is

learning to use

language to make social contacts. Mrs. White has a tolerant understanding of Dorothy. She knows that she must have more experiences before she can recognize the property rights of others. She guides her activities carefully. Dorothy develops some undesirable techniques for getting candy. Her uncle and aunt think this "so cunning and clever." Her mother, however, removes her quietly from the group and gets her interested in a

new

toy

some

visiting rela-

have brought her. She does not want the child to gain her purposes through whimpering, snatching, and saying, "Please give Dorothy," "Dorothy wants," or other wheedling phrases. By removing her from the group, Dorothy does not get approval of her beha\ior. Mrs. WTiite's knowledge of child development and child learning helps her to understand her children in the stages of growth in which they happen to be. She does, however, arrange the environtives

ments of the children so that their growth stages are not arrested. She continuallv plans experiences for growth.

for

Social Development in the

School Environment

Group Living With Peers.

The child's

learning increase

The

setting

is

the Child's

Own

opportunities for social

when he

enters school.

appropriate for broaden-

Keystone View Co.

A

child's social learning is greatly

life

makes a give-and-take

increased at school. There he learns that group

ing and supplementing the social training of the

and

attitude both necessary

home.

Children ha\e much to gain as thev the group life with children of their own age in school. Opportunities for give-and-take are in part regulated h\

live

own making

desirable.

problems and decide co-operativelv what must be done about them. A disorderlv group

at the drinking fountain

is

dis-

cussed and the children decide to take turns.

the

The

girls

want

pla^•grounds

for

a certain part of

building

a

plav-

to

house; the boys insist upon having the

meet the needs of a larger group. In most schools, a freelv organized program

dispute, but in the classroom they talk

rules

and laws of

their

of social learning begins in the nursery-

schools or kindergarten.

expands

as

Tlie program

children grow socialh' and

problems and can take greater responsibility'. The child's curiositv and desire to in\estigate are signals of intellectual growth and should be utilized in the school. At school, the child begins to measare able to understand social

same spot

for a ball

game. There

with the teacher, and, ^\•ith her thev decide for themseh'es what shall be done to give both a fair chance to plav as thev wish. The children sometimes come into the school halls from their plav using the loud \oices which thev ha\e been using on the plavit

o\-er

ground and disturb older children who are stud\ing in the building. Later, they

A

committee may be rooms

talk

of his classmates, rather than in terms

sent to visit in one of the study

He

He imitates the

others.

learns the "gi\e-and-take" of child

He

not only learns to respect the rights of others; he helps plan it that way and gets the beginnings of an understanding of whv he must do so. play.

The young

children talk o\er their

own

a

guidance,

ure his acti\itv in terms of the behavior of adult behavior.

is

that

over.

and to report on the disturbance or to talk with the older pupils to find out

\\hether they are disturbed by the ^oices.

Among

themsehes, thev come to learn

that a loud voice out-of-doors disturbs

while a loud voice in the halls or classroom is disturbing and

others but

47

little,

Children are young citizens. They begin learn about citizenship as they observe community workers at work. But they must also have an active part in to

community

lems of

service.

social li\-ing increase,

gradually

assume new

and thev

responsibilities.

Safety patrols are organized in the upper classes to assist

children.

and protect the vounger

The boys

get not onlv a chance

to act as patrolmen,

but the opportunitv

and to understand what means to the community

to serve others

such

ser\'ice

Some

schools, realizing the importance of the training for social li\ing, have abolished the old teacher-parent plan for excuses for a pupil's absence or Boy Scouts

also inconsiderate.

of

They decide

quieter voices indoors

and

tardiness. The pupil is responsible to the group. His classmates hear his excuse; evaluate and judge its worth, and ex-

America

to use

press ideas as to how he can prevent being absent or tardy needlessly. Thus, the children get a better understanding of the need to accept their own responsibilitv for being worthy members of the school group. Social Leazning Through Community

are learning

to respect the rights of others.

Sharing becomes a part of the social pattern of living— quite a different sharing than that experienced by many children in the homes in which adults fre-

quently keep the child on the receiving end of the sharing. Now the child learns to share his playthings, share his experiences through conversation, share his

on how to make something, ser\e on committees to keep the calendar ideas

marked

or water the flowers or straighten

the bookshelves.

He

learns

how to achow to

cept from others graciouslv and give of himself generouslv.

Thus,

an active group and helps solve the prob-

his place as cratic

young child takes member of a demo-

at school, the

As children develop, they begin to feel sympathy for those who cannot help themselves. When they parEnteipiises.

ticipate as actual

of

commu-

and understand the problems, thev grow by such participation.

Tliey see the posters of

children crippled by infantile paralvsis;

thev learn that

many who were once

crippled were helped to \\alk by the efforts of others;

Franklin

lems of living happily together. The problems are little, but the children's

from that

learnings are big.

in the

As the children mature,

members

nity or national campaigns

D.

thev hear the

Roose\'elt

who

stor}' of

suffered

disease. Tliey satisfy a desire

to help others as they send their

March

of

Dimes on

dimes

his birthday.

School children, too, have opportuni-

their prob-

L48

Learning Through Social Studies ties

to sen-e the adults in their

munity

in

make them For

group.

many feel

helpful

\va\s

comwhich

a part of that larger

example,

near

Christmas

each year, parents ask teachers for help in

selecting books for gifts for

voung

Suppose, instead of teachers making out those lists, the children themseh'es make up such a list of books under the guidance of a teacher. The experience would be e\'en more \'aluable children.

if

the children collected copies of

at-

Understanding the

make a casual sur\ey of the environment of any community to find it rich in opportunities for experiences

arouse children's interests.

men who protect their homes; of who construct buildings and

planes

ited several school buildings to see ^^•hat

thev had, and planned their speeches together so that there \\ould not be too

much

repetition in their talks.

workers on

of

A

Children can take part in handling even more serious community problems. A school board that was planning to remodel a school building asked a parent-teacher group to hold a panel discussion to get the question before the community-. Tlie leader of the panel selected not onlv some interested parents for the panel, but several sixth-grade pupils as well. The pupils took the assignment \er\- seriously. They took stock of the old building and its equipment, vis-

The

chil-

dren actually presented more concrete ideas than the adult speakers and won the respect of the adult group for their thoroughness and sincerity.

This lad is primarily interested in finding out how the machine works. At the same time, however, he will get an idea of the value to society of machinery and labor-saving devices.

which

Young

chil-

dren are curious about the actixities of workers. Thev have a surprising interest in, and abilit}' to understand, the acti\itics of the farmers \\ho produce their food; of the bakers who make the cakes and bread; of the firemen and police-

tion, telling the parents the merits

the different books.

of

to

ers

of

Contributions

Workers. Parents and teachers need only

books and displa\cd them before the P.T.A. and acted as librarians and "salesmen" in charge of the collectracti\e

49

trains,

boats,

labor-

roads;

and

air-

who make transportation possible.

be taken to a farm to see products gro\\ing, followed by a trip to the markets to see these same products distributed to the consumers. trip ma\'

diflferent

By

Haller from Black Star

Childcr-\ft

150

Through

a visit to the baken', the child

sees the baker miraculously

change

and other ingredients into cakes, cookies, and bread. He sees the bread and cake again at the store and then in his home.

The and

transportation of foods bv trucks trains

enced

and boats may

also

be experi-

fire

and

its

The

firemen don their firefighting clothes. An engine company and truck are sent. The chief calls for the equipment he needs. The surrounding property' is in danger. He calls out the fire patrol to spread hea\T canvas over the near-by buildings. The hydrants quarters.

are frozen.

He

calls

for

steam engines

thaw them out. Firemen must rescue people from a second story. The chief calls for ladders. A ceiling must come down. He calls for big hooks. A door must be opened. He calls for a battering ram. The fuel wagon comes and supplies oil and gas for pumpers. \\'ater towers are erected to throw the water higher. to

Someone give

is

first aid,

hurt; the doctor

is

and the ambulance

there to is

there

to take the injured person to the hospital.

A

fireman

and

B)- seeing

a net is spread for him. such acti\-itics and ha\ing

the reasons for

them

become aware

of the services rendered

explained, children

by co-operating group workers. Tliev see man's control o\er his social en\iron-

ment

made

in the rules that are

for fire

protection, and thev see the use of an

in part.

engine with its clatter, its dramatic action attracts the attention of old and voung. An excursion to the fire station fills children with expectanc}' and ad\'enture. A fire can be only a spectacular sight until other meanings come through \-ital experiences. Children should be taught that fires start sometimes because people are careless; and at other times, they are due to unavoidable accidents. A visit to the fire department shows the different wavs help is given when a fire does start. The alarm is sent in by telephone or from a box on the street. The message is received at the fire department's headTlie

speed,

building,

flour

is

trapped in a burning

organized group to give special ser\-ice to people in times of an emergencv.

There mav be a building under consomewhere in the communitv. Parents and teachers can guide children struction

the importance of cooperation to meet the housing needs of

to

experience

people.

The

The

engineers survey the land.

architects

draw the plans

of the

The land must be broken, for there is a basement to be made below the level of the ground. The builders dig down to bedrock. The workers must bring dynamite which, when exploded, building.

breaks the solid formation of the ground

and

Mechanics bring steam shovels awav earth and stone. The children watch the big shovel rotate on its rock.

to take

hea\y

steel frame. It goes to the earth,

and swings, empties truck. A warning signal

rises

its

load into the

is

given before

the steam sho\"el operates again. This

is

for the safetv of the workers.

The children see other workers take crushed stone, lime, sand, and water, and mix these ingredients

Now, they

in the mixer.

use the mixture to hold the

stone walls in place; at another time, to

make

the

floors.

Iron

girders

are

passed from one group of workers to the other. Noise and

commotion

reign

workers ri^•et girders together to form the building structure. Children see in a building construc-

as

tion

some

of the ways in

which

man

can control his environment. Thev also

Learning Through Social Studies see that there are

some

151

natural condi-

\ited to talk to groups of children about

which man cannot change; conditions which he must simply accept. They obscne the effect of rain, snow, wind, and temperature on workers. Rain

how they came to America and what America means to them. Sometimes

tions

with

interferes

digging.

Snow

often

makes work unsafe. Cold interferes with the careful work done by hand. Extreme heat

the pace of the workers. blows down temporar\' structures.

slows

Wind

Tlie seasons affect the working hours.

The

child can also be helped to appre-

how

workers depend upon one another. If one group refuses to carr^' out its part of the work, the acti\ities of other workers may be affected. If the owner does not pav sufficient wages for the workers' families to ha\e food, clothing, shelter, and recreation, the workers

ciate

Co-operation is necessan,' if the needs of a community are to be met. The children raise many problems as thev obser\'e \\orkers at work and in the strike.

which follow either in the As they watch

discussions

home

circle or at school.

Young

workmen and want

are

to

see that the

of different nationalities

know

ho^^'

the workers

tra\'-

community in which they are now living. They hear the workers speak and wonder about how difeled to reach the

children are extremely sensi-

around them. They believe what the adults

whom

they trust believe. Parents and

teachers, therefore, exert a strong influ-

ence through their

own understanding

and consideration for those who differ from them in nationality, race, religion, and political beliefs. Attitudes are formed through the parents' treatment of servants of foreign parentage and different races. Tliey are influenced by con\ersations of adults about foreign-born neighbors and workers in the community. Our girls and boys should have opportunities to see how our American culture has de\'eloped through the contributions from many lands. In some communities, children in the school

china,

They

of foreign-

tive to the attitudes of the adults

were made before the invention of the steam sho\el; thev want to know where from.

homes

to the other children.

exhibit

come

the

visit

born citizens and report what they learn

the construction of the building, they raise questions as to how exca\ations

iron girders

may

children

different

furniture,

potter}-,

articles

books,

of

clothing,

newspapers,

and art objects lent to them from the homes of families born in other

many

groups of children get a better understanding through visits to the areas where such families live. It is essential that our children learn lands. In

cities,

that people of different colors, different religions,

and

different political points of

dif-

view have helped to make our United States. For a broader understanding of

ferently in different parts of the world.

the different nationalities in America,

The Contiibutions of DiUeient Naiionalities. Races, and Creeds. The teacher

foreign-born citizens.

ferent words are said in different guages, or how language developed

or the parents

may answer some

lan-

of the

children's questions regarding different

peoples themseh-es. But, frequently, foreign-born mothers or fathers

may be

in-

children

may read of the contributions of Thev mav become

interested in locating the particular

com-

munities in which large groups of people of one nationality live. They can learn the folk tales

and songs of the different races

Libraries open up a new world to children. Through books they learn about things and people outside of their en-

vironment. Both good will and knowledge are increased.

Other lands through

Red

Junior children

Photo By KlUi 0. Hinij-

F.P.G.

ironi

or nationalities. Stories of famous people of other nationalities

and

races also help

children to gain a respect for the attain-

ments of people who

notice

these

and

differences

sometimes ask questions about them. If their questions are answered accurateh" and in a spirit of understanding and appreciation,

children

the

and show

catch

that

in their thinking

and

behavior toward those \\-hose beliefs

dif-

spirit

fer

from

children

it

their o\\ti. In

may

some

obser\-e the

attend some of the

instances,

customs and

festi\'als.

how important such ceremonies are to the people \^"ho take part in them. The\" realize that all people need not worship alike. Through books of other lands, children of todav learn about the simple

even-dav

life

the world.

different

countries

mankind

is

standing of peoples of different back-

grounds and

beliefs. Thev deser\-e the leadership of adults with a \\-orld point

of \iew. It

is

futile to

expect the nations

world peace the people of different nationalities,

to co-operate to build for if

and

religions cannot li\"e together understanding gained bv contacts \nth people who see an evoh-ing \^orld races,

\\-ith

culture in \^-hich the arts

and

scientific

This can onlv be

disco\-eries are shared.

when

parents,

leaders

become more informed and some

teachers,

of the old patterns of

and

political

communit}- think-

ing are broken down.

The Child's Intellectual Life

Expands

of the ditferent people of

Thev

see the

manv

The

wa\"S in

child reflects the environment to

which he

than

plan experiences that give

as

learn to

e\-er to

together in peace and harmonv. the children need to grow up \nth under-

which the people of the world are alike and think of them as neighbors rather

Some

learn

li\e

They come

to recognize

membership in the Sometimes school

about each other by exchanging letters. Tlie girls and boys who assist in collecting canned goods and clothing to help feed and clothe people ^^•ho suffered cruelly because of \\ar or other disasters gain social learnmg that helps them reach out be\-ond their o\^ti enWronment for world citizenship. Today, there is much talk about "one world."' If

are different.

People of different religions celebrate different holidays, hold different festivals, and worship in different wavs. Young children

of

Cross.

strangers \\ho are peculiar.

children

have learned

about

is

exposed.

It is

the work of

the parents and teachers to

him

not only a better

understanding of his uorld but to follow

15-

Learning Through Social Studies Children in school groups

his interests.

todav help

make

choices of units and

?)

magazines

with

excellent

home and

share

them with

may

pictures

at

their class-

acti\ities for their social studies accord-

mates, llicy

own interests. Those interests var\- among the indi\iduaLs in each group. Most often they grow out of

board with suitable pictures. Some children may make a picture scrapbook on some interesting phase of the study. Slides and films on manv phases of social li\ ing arc a\ailable to schools and homes, llirough them, children get clear ideas

ing to their

cvenday problems and expand into units of study. E\cn the four- and fi\c-vearolds ma\' show an interest in far-a\\a\lands and in world problems.

of

human

decorate a bulletin

and

acti^"ities

relationships.

Today, pupils get clear ideas of social lixing by ( i observing and exploring,

Tlirough pictures, the children can keep up-to-date on the newest de\elopments

looking at pictures, ( 3 ) reading books, (4) hearing music and seeing

in transportation,

)

I

2

)

dances, (5) listening to talks or watching plays. Ideas are further clarified

through expressional activities hv the 1 such as ( engaging in conversations, (i) drawing pictures, (5) learners,

")

constructing objects, scenes, and so on, (4) dramatizing, {:;) writing poems, short stories, or plavs.

Getting Inioimation Through Talks and Discussions.

workman, ist,

Sometimes an

architect, a

a reporter, a librarian, an art-

or perhaps a businessman or public

servant ma\- be in\-ited to talk with the

and answer questions \\hich thev raise. Committees of children ma\" children

inter^•ie^^• an especially wellinformed person to get information and

arrange to to report

ideas

it

to the class. Besides getting

and information that answers

their

communication, building construction, and the manv other activities of man. Reading Books. Well-selected books

help the children gain information. Per-

haps all the class may read material in the textbook to gain important information which the\' will feel no need to talk oxer since all have read the same selections. However, the classroom librarv, the school librarv, and the public furnish further opportunities

libran,^ all

for

through books.

investigating

child

learns

to

find

things

The books

in

through the use of the table of contents and the index and to locate books through the use of the card catalogue.

The more mature

children also use the

Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature

and

find

The

fact that all of the children are

up-to-date magazine articles.

same general topic

questions, thev learn to be polite in ar-

investigating

ranging the intenien- and in expressing

keeps the social group intact, but the

their appreciation; thev learn to be prompt; thev learn respect for training and experience; and the\" learn to organ-

fact

ize their

own

thinking.

Gaining Ideas Through Pictures and

that

the

different

pupils ha\e

differ-

ent interests and are therefore investigating different questions about the topic

and

are

reading

magazines,

puts

different

greater

Movies. Pictures are another source of

upon

mformation. Posters, wall pictures, diagrams, photographs, paintings— all help gi\e clear ideas. Children frequentlv find

that the \\hole group

pupils to collect

books and

responsibility-

and report

may

research. Indi\idual interests ties

ideas so

by theii and abili-

learn

are taken into account, since a child

Childcraft

54 selects the acti\-ities in

which he engages

and chooses the books he reads. Creative Experiences. The information gained from actual experiences or from talks, books, and pictures becomes clearer to a

child after he has attempted to

some form. Conwith members of the family

own homes and their school and the newly constructed buildings. They may draw plans of their own homes and those of their friends. The tsveen their

interesting information obtained through

observation and investigation can be

express the ideas in

corded

versations

some

circle

or with

help clarify such as pictures, diagrams,

classmates

thinking.

Creative

building;

drawing

activities,

maps, charts; writing pla^"S;

stories,

poems, or

dramatizing; and so on, are

able in clarifying ideas.

the release of creative children

li\-e

\-alu-

They allow

spirit. It is

richlv in ideas

and

for

only as feelings

that they can create.

Children

own

mav make books with

stories

and

of streets By

J. C.

own may draw

pictures of their

drawing or selection. They

maps

their

and

see the relation be-

Allen and J^on from ren'nrv Phntix Inc.

first as fact,

artistic

and then overflow

re-

in

form.

Interests of children in the actixities

communitv and

in communities and of other lands may be enriched through songs and poems.

of their

of other times

The

children sing or recite verses to-

gether; thev write songs

and poems of

own. In these verbal expressions, one often finds poetic insight, unique pattern, or just rhvthmic qualities. A child sometimes sings his language as he plavs. The rhvthm usuallv fits the movement of the activit}" in which he is engaged. He mav repeat a chant thus created o\er and over. Such a chant may be the beginning of poetic expression. The rhxthms which children express in language and music become also a part of their bodilv movements. They express rlixthm of an airplane— the take-off, the flight through the air. the landing. After a xisit to the zoo, where they see the different animals in various movements, voung children mav fiv about like a bird, leap like a frog, or walk majestically their

like

an elephant.

Children's

constructions

with

large

materials offer splendid opportunity- for

dramatic plav. Thev become the workers of the world. They reli\e many of their

Many

\ital

experiences.

city children are

work involved

in

Dramatic play

unaware

of the

such a basic matter as

food production and distribution. They should have a chance to learn such things first hand.

I

.

N

'-

'^r.

Kevstfue View Co.

An understanding an appreciation

is

bound

of the old

ways

for living in the

of

meeting community needs helps

modem

to follow the studv of trans-

portation or the construction of an

air-

plane, train, or automobile. Co-operation enters such plav.

One

child

mav become

the pilot; another, the na\"igator; others,

The airplane, become carriers

the passengers; and so on.

the train, and the truck of mail

and goods and co\er distances

dictated bv the

ences as

child's

actual

experi-

as the \i\idness of his

^^•ell

to

develop

world.

of our

own

countn*, or the kinds found

in other lands.

Thev

will

want

to

know

the reasons for the differences, and, thus, \\ill

find out ho\\- climate, natural re-

sources,

skilled

labor,

and

la^^s

of

a

help determine the kinds of houses which are built. Some of the children look up stories and pictures of temporary- houses, trailer houses, the country'

prefabricated houses,

and

so on.

The

Xew interests grow

period of "long, long ago" appeals to the children's spirit of ad\enture. In

out of each social-studies unit of activity'. For example, through the stud\' of con-

those days, when a man needed a house, he did not need to buv his lumber.

struction of houses, other interests are

modern houses

He went into the forest, felled trees, trimmed them, dragged them to the place where he planned to build, and made pegs and nails. He did the work

the kinds of houses in different sections

all

imagination. Interests

Lead On.

brought to the attention of the children.

The

children

mav become interested in or the\' mav investigate

yy

by himself, unless friendly neighbors

..

.

.

CniLDCRAFT

X56 sometimes

assisted,

or for food, or for

in

return for help

some other

things from

The

the builder's possessions.

children

may go

c\en further back and studx about the homes of the ca\e men and the tree d\\ellers. In stud\ing the new and the old ways

human

Experiences for Cuudren excursions Trip to fire department to sec the

men and \\a\"

to hear

them

tell

fire-

stories of the

work.

the}'

BOOKS FOR younger READERS Brown, Paul. Fire, the Mascot (Scrib-

needs, children see

ner).

contrasts

Follett,

efforts

between li\ing by one's own and li\ing that is dependent upon

Gramatkv, Hardie. Hercules, The Stonof the Old-Fashioned Fire Engine (Putnam). Hader, Berta and Elmer. M'hiffA- A/c-

of pro\"iding

specialized labor services. Tlie\" learn of

the cost of different kinds of labor, the laborers' rights to fair

working conditions, sponsibility to gi\-e

wages and good

as well as their re-

good

ser\ice.

So the child's knowledge of the world and its people grows. x\t the same time, the child also grows in social learnings through li\"ing in a democratic, cooperati\e group \\hich respects indi\idual contributions as \aluable both to individual achievement and to the group of ^^•hich the individual

is

a

member.

Helen. House

Mann (Oxford). Huber, Miriam Blanton. Cinder, the Cat (American Book). Kuh, Charlotte. The Fireman (Macmillan

)

Lent, Henr\- B.

millan

about their

social

becca

phvsical en\-ironments, children usually

ask

many

questions which send their

books for information. Therehelps for parents are given for two

elders to fore,

topics

in

social

studies

which

specific interest to children:

are

E., and Coffin, ReCity Stories (Macmillan).

J.

BOOKS FOR MIDDLE-GR.\DE READERS

The and

of

Fire Fighter (Mac-

Matthews, Florence

Stor}' of Fire

Helen.

Mitchell,

learning

In

The

)

E\ans, \\ainwright.

Social Experiences for Children

(Scribner).

Afire.'

of

Stor\'

Fire

The Thunder

Bird,

(Nelson)

Fire Fighters; Protection Past

Present (Row-Peterson). Parker. Bertha Morris. Fire

The and

(Row-Pe-

terson )

Learnings

geography

The

effect of climatic conditions

water in

fire

on the

hvdrants.

Fighting Fiies

Topics of Interest

How

fires start

Sending in the alarm Kinds of work the firemen do The reser\e squad

Equipment

HISTORY

Changes

in

trucks

which

carr\-

Use of

horses; use of gasoline for

power

to run trucks.

Changes Changes

in

equipment.

in speed to receive fire alarm.

Fire trucks

Fire boats

equip-

ment.

CI^TCS

Clothes for fire fighting Other kinds of equipment

Fire protection due to laws.

Care of equipment

Co-operation of workers.

Relief to injured workers.

.

.

.

.

.

Learning Through Social Studies TianspoTtation

by

Aii

KINDS OF AIRCRAFT Helicopter

Dirigibles

Monoplanes

Autogiros

Biplanes

Jet planes

Hydroplanes

PARTS OF

I'l

Irving. Boys Book of Forest Rangers (Dodd). McConnell, Margaret. Bobo, the Barrage Balloon (Lothrop, Lee & Shep>-

ard

Parachutes

oil

Famous

Radio

Propellers

)

\\ashburn, Stanlew Bamboo to Bombers (Wliitman). W^inslow, John. Famous Planes and

Pontoons Compasses

Engines

Gas and

)

Crump,

ANFS

Wings

Wonder

plcton

Balloons

57

Mar}- Elizabeth and Hanna, Paul Flights of Long Ago ( Ap-

Barr\-,

R.

It;-

AIRPORIS

Flights (Piatt).

children's \t:rse

Mooring masts

Hangars SOURCES OF MATERIAL \\'ood

Hubbard. Alice L., and Babbitt, Adeline. The Golden FJute (Day). Tippett, James S. "The First Zeppelin," "Up in the Air," and "My Airplane," from I Go A-Tra\eh'ng (Harper). ^^^nne. Annette. "The Airplane, from For Days and Da\s Stokes).

Aluminum Linen

Steel

TRANSPORTATION

"

Freight

People

|

Mail

Learnings

CEOGRAPm'

Experiences for Chiidren excursions Trips to airport or landing field to see people and mail depart and arrive on airplanes.

BOOKS FOR YOUNGER READERS

Gramatkv. Hardie. Loopy Gra\att,

Lila.

Pioneers

Putnam

(

the

of

"i.

Air

(Mentzer).

Hogan. Inez. rae Smith

Little

Toy Airplane (Mac-

Appreciation of the wa\s in which workers meet the problem of distance.

and ability- to make, maps which indicate the relationship of one

Interest in,

place to another. Appreciation of the \xa\s in which workers o\"ercome such atmospheric difficulties as wind, rain, and fog. Understanding of the instruments used to register speed, height,

and

direction.

HISTORY

)

Lenski, Lois. Little .\jrpJane (Oxford). MeXamara. John F. Playing .\irplane

(Macmillan).

Lucy Sprague. "Speed." from Here and Xow Ston- Book Dutton Petersham. Maud and Miska. Stor^- Book oi Aircraft Winston ) Read. Helen S. Airplane Ride and My Blue Book (Scribner).

Mitchell.

(

Comparison of modern methods of fast tra\el by air with tra\el on horseback, by stagecoach, or in the oldtime boats and trains.

i

civics

Appreciation of the courage of pioneer

(

BOOKS FOR MIDDLE-GRADE READERS A\iation Research Associates, Librar}-. America's Axiation Planes FIv (Harper).

Young

How

workers.

Respect for work and the desirability- of participation in worth-while acti\ities. Understanding people of other lands. Respect for the responsibility- and skill necessar\' to construct and maintain aircraft, airports,

and hangars.

Childcr-\ft

i^S

SOME THINGS TO THINK ABOUT 1.

Name

which you see in the process of de\elopment what ways have you guided them? In what wavs can vou pro\ide

several desirable social learnings

in your youngsters. In

e\"en greater opportunities? 2.

Do

ings than

you think that your youngsters have more or less opportunity for social learnyou had in your home as a child? Name several examples and explain reasons

for the differences. 3.

you?

^Mlat attitudes do you Which ones would \ou

you feel were "caught" from would \ou go about it?

find in your children \\hich like to

How

modify?

4. WTiat opportunities do you find in your neighborhood to help your young child explore and obser\e people at work? Are there opportunities which \ou ha\ e not used? 5.

WTiat opportunities do vour older children ha\e

to engage in

community- cam-

paigns? WTiat social learnings do you think they obtain from them? 6.

in

\\'hat clubs or vouth organizations do your children belong to? WTiat experiences

them do vou consider most

valuable?

Do

your older children most frequentlv studv assigned lessons in social studies at work at home more often upon acti\ities of their own choosing which were moti\ated b\- the classroom stud\? Which do \ou consider most valuable? WTiv? 7.

home

or do thev

BOOKS TO READ American Association of School Administrators. "Social Studies Curriculum." Fouiteenth Yearbook. Washington. D. C: National Education Association. 1936. Baruch, Dorothv. Parents

Can Be

New

People.

Murphv, L. B., Woodcock, York: E. P. Dutton & Co.. 194:.

Biber, B.,

Bode. B. H. Democracy as

New

L. P.,

York: D. Appleton-Centun- Co., 1944.

and Black,

New Them

a \T'ay of Life.

York:

I.

S.

Child Life in School.

The Macmillan

Face Child Studv Association of America. Let Bovs and Giih. New York: The Association, 1945.

It:

Gesell, Arnold, and Ilg, Frances L. Infant and Child York: Harper & Brothers, 1943.

in the

Co.. 1938.

Today's M'orJd in Books for

of Today.

New

Reed. Mar^' M.. and \\ right. Lulu E. The Beginnings of the Social Sciences. York: D. Appleton-Centur\- Co., 1941.

New

\\'aring. E. B.. and Johnson, Cornell Universit)' Press, 1941.

M. W. Helping

Cultme

Children Learn. Ithaca,

New

York:

Long before children understand the actual meaning of the words, they grasp the spirit and mood of

the music of lullabies, play

songs, and folk music. Press Syndirue

MUSIC

THE

IN

DEVELOPMENT

CHILD'S

HELEN CHRISTIANSOX THE CHILD of the daily

who

first

experiences music as a part

mothering during

his

baby

da\-s

is

a

fortunate child. Those early experiences help to bring about a later love for music. Music, like any other art, is meaningful when it is first "caught" not "taught." En]'o\Tnent comes first; technique follows. Dr, Helen Christianson, Supervisor of N'urserv School Training and Lecturer in Education at the Uni\ersit\- of California at Los Angeles, shows how lo\"e of music may develop from baby davs throughout childhood. Dr. Christianson has

made numerous

studies of the child's reactions to

and bulletins which among them Music and the are helpful to parents Young Child, published by the .\ssociarion for Childhood Education. music and has published

—

articles

the doing and the result bring satisfac-

one admires his product, he is apt to say, "I had a wonderful time tion. If

doing

WHAT does

art?

it

contribute?

said that art

is

It

may be

simply a way of

sitivit}-

to

to the qualities of things.

Both

a

consumer

of art, he

is

and enjovment from the

things about him. ^Miether, at the

moment, he

is a producer or a consumer, underlying motive is the same, namely, experiences which are interest-

his

ing and varied, full and satisfying. Thus, is

not hmited to something remote,

to be seen or heard

doing or making things which make evenday hving more pleasing and satisfying. Even- person, in \aning wavs and degrees, is both an artist and a consumer of art. As artist, he is the doer who combines skill with sentends

As

for personal use

many

art

How and to whom

is

it."

continually reflecting this sensiti\it\- to quality- in whate\-er he selects or takes

to

museum

on occasional

or concert hall. Art

is

a

trips

wav

which contributes to enio\ment and satisfaction in the home and neighborhood, the school, and community Is music a serious art to be taught to young children or a series of delightful experiences to be shared with them? How many adults grow along with their children through the enjoyment of music of li\"ing

159

ClIlLDCRAlT

6o together? Tlic traditional

method has

the part of music inyestigators and spechild de\elopment that enjoy-

usuahv been to begin \\ith formal music lessons almost as soon as a young child climbed on a piano bench and found pleasure first in the sounds he could make, and later in rln thmic sound accompaniments for his own singing as he turned the pages of a picture songbook. A five-vear-old experimented on the piano \\ith a forefinger of each hand, and as he found a pleasing combination called to his mother, "Isn't it beautiful?" This enthusiasm, instead of being shared bv the family, was interpreted as signif\ing readiness for lessons, so he was taken to a piano teacher for systematic

cialists in

introduction to ke\"board and notation.

delights in her

\Miat he

was continued and experiment

reallv ^\•anted

opportunit\"

to

imaginati\el\"

hear

beautiful

\\ith

sounds.

ment of music is more important than techniques in early childhood. Technical pri\ate lessons can be taken to better ad\antage after the age of eight or ten than before. Readiness, of course, depends on a

child's cra\ing for musical

expression, his bodily health,

motor

co-

ordination, social-emotional adjustment,

and other conditions. Music Fortunate

in the Infant's Liie

the infant

is

who

ex-

first

periences music as a part of the daih"

mothering

The mother who

actiyities.

baby

finds opportunit}" as

she bathes, dresses, and feeds

him

to

fondle and rock and sing and talk to him.

He.

watches her

in turn,

face, listens to

\Miat he got was drill and practice for ends so remote he lost interest, and music became a task instead of a joy. There comes a time later when the skill of the specialist wiW be ^er^• im-

her \oice, feels the gentle mo\'ements

portant in the artistic de\"elopment of

she sings a

ga\' little

the child. But just now, as a young artist, is more interested in exploring widely

him

is

he

He

rather than mastering an\- one thing. is

who how he

like the child

when asked book, "It I

care to

replied solemnly,

liked a

new

gift

more about penguins than know." Perhaps, in these earlv tells

vears of a child's

life, it is

the adult

who

with an instru-

needs to regain ment not used of late. His amateur efforts will be well repaid through the satisfaction of pro\iding further opportunities for family fun with music. For the his skill

parent ^^ho

is

a real musician, here

is

an

opportunit\" to discoNcr \\hat music that is

lastingly beautiful

may be

shared with

pleasure by both children and adults.

There

is

considerable agreement on

of her handling.

He smiles and coos, reHe turns toward her

laxes

and

when

she speaks and greets her appear-

ance

sleeps.

\\ith fl\-ing

up. It

arms and

legs.

tune

Perhaps

as she picks

this close relationship of

mother and infant which giyes meaning to the word "mothering." It is this lo\"ing quality in hahv care which has come be considered so nccessar\' for the \\holesome growth of infants. to

^^^lat are

some

of the possibilities

for gro\%'th during the first

baby's

life

month

which help bring about

of a

a later

loye for music? Probably sensiti\'ity to

sound and to body position are imporExperiments show that e^en before birth a child may respond by mo\'ements to the physical \ibrations \^hich produce sound. Studies of infants in the first weeks of life reyeal that the majorit\" respond in one wax or another to sound, though some babies respond

tant.

Music much more ing

is

jerking

acti\cl\"

common

a

the Child's Development

in

than others. BHnk-

response. Startled

mo\ements come

and

the noise

if

is

sharp or loud. Occasionally crying stops and bodih- acti\ity is lessened when

sounds are of moderate intensit^, as compared with complete silence. As early as the fourth ^^•cek, an infant reacts

the

more frequently

human

to the

sound of

\oice than to loud sounds.

TTius, earlv does a

babv respond

to

one

of the elements of music. F'rom time immemorial, mothers, mo\"ed hv emotion, have spoken in warm, endearing tones and sung soft lullabies or lilting rh\"thmic melodies. Likewise, the^ ha\e disco\cred ho\\' to handle their babies \\ith firm, yet gentle. mo\emcnts and to sooth a fretful one with changes of position or easy rocking. Perhaps, after all, a rocking chair or a cradle aids for a short time in the adjustment of the ne^^"born who, until birth, has been accustomed to the rh\thmic acti\-itv of the mother's uterus and s\^"a\"ing mo\ements of her bodv. A cradle or carriage at his mother's side is the suggested sleeping arrangement dur-

ing the bab\-'s this,

he needs

month of life. After room of his own adjoin-

first

a

ing hers. closelv united

mother and child are bv the ver\^ helpless-

ness of the infant. Soft, simple rhyth-

mical singing brings

relief

and

security'

to a sensitive ner^•ous svstem. It

remember

Because of the comfort and wellbeing, he is becoming more aware of them and likes to have them around. He turns when he hears a human voice, lie may laugh at Mother's peekaboo play or stop cr\ing as he hears the sound of a rattle. Bx the time he is six or seven months old. he is apt to en* at un-

is

well

and singing but temporar\" means

that rocking

rapidlv.

role people play in his

friendly

and smile

expressions

in

re-

sponse to friendly ones. A little later, he begins with familiar persons to imitate simple acts like holding out arms and clapping hands in pat-a-cake play. He expresses pleasure with crowing \\hen bounced on someone's knee \\ith song accompaniment. He finds enjoyment, \\hen alone, in listening to his own babbling. Thus, he is becoming not only an attenti\e listener, but a producer of sounds and rhvthmic mo\-ements. During the first weeks, the watchful

mother has given undi\'ided attention

to

discovering the routine best suited to her babw But when she begins to share his interest and satisfaction in other experiences, she

mav feeis

wonders what and

how

she

contribute musically. She hears and

and thinks about music

wavs. ^^'hat

Just after birth, still

ment multiply

lOl

is

there about

it

in

new

that brings

pleasure to such a small being? Sounds, the raw material, so to speak, of

^^•hich

music

is

composed,

catch

even- babv's attention and continue to hold great interest. Perhaps there is a

room which

at

clock in the li\ing

of

helping the infant adjust comfortabh" to

the hour. Frequentlv, there are bells that ring— the jing-a-ling of the telephone, a

new sensations

mellow chime

to

sleep time are

of touch,

sound with \\hich he

is

movement, and They

unfamiliar.

are not ends in thcmsch'cs. \\'ith wise and consistent mothering during the next few months, a babv's

satisfactions in sight, sound,

and move-

strikes

at the front door, a buzzer

in the kitchen, a musical dinner

gong

in

the dining room. Possibly a brass or sil\er bell for the tea table has been tucked awa^•

on

a

cupboard shelf and enjoyment.

out for occasional

is

brought

Young children like songs that suggest movement. Vigorous, stirring rhythms make walking fun; slow, swaying melodies are ideal for swinging.

cupboard for him. Aluminum saucepans and a wooden spoon result in ringing, (far more pleasing than Something small to drop into a pan and shake produces a different ef-

bell-like tones

tin!).

fect.

Aluminum

lids

Mother

gether. If

mav be tapped them

taps

herself

to-

and

rhythm, she is rewarded by chuckles and mavbe an attempt to imitate her movements. Or perhaps she sings "Ji^g^^ Bells" or "Jing-a-Ling" as he sings a gay little

Press Syndicate

\Mien babv

likes to sit in his chair,

plays with bells or rattle in his play pen.

and tone may be attached by string— one on either side— for his manipulation. In the next few months, as he is increasingly able to grasp and shake and tug and explore with his hands, he becomes at the same time both a listener and producer. Even paper makes surprising sounds as he handles it. Rattles, which formerly were explored by mouth, now take on new interest. A thoughtful mother sees to it that thev are pleasing and varied in sound, shape, and color. She may visit a

combines the raw elements — sound, rhythm, and movement— with which her baby experiments, and she comes to the conclusion that music in its beginnings is not something hard, to be postponed and then turned over to specialists. In the most satisf\ing form, it begins with her singing as she "mothers" her baby or does the housework. Thus, music becomes increasinglv part of the whole pattern of everyday living in the home.

two

bells of varying size

ten-cent store

for

further

Spontaneously, in her

Music

aluminum

one sings dies one's

utensil.

to creep, during first

year,

in search of things for himself.

covers the pots and pans

Toddler

How does one go about choosing songs for infants and toddlers? Often

tea ball, or attached to a plastic kitchen

inside a wire soap shaker, an

Wlien baby begins

for the

melodies she

possibilities

and make up new combinations. For example, small jingle bells may be placed

the latter part of the

little

he goes

He

dis-

on the lower

kitchen shelves. At this time, articles

which can be investigated pleasurably may be placed in

safeh'

and

a particular

first

the old well-loved melo-

mother and grandmother sang —lullabies, pla^' songs, and folk melodies. These tunes have been remembered and shared with succeeding generations because thc\- flow along so easily. They almost "sing themselves." This implies melodies that are "singable" and pleasing, carried onward b\' a rluthm appropriate for the mood and tempo of the

lt)2

Music verse— sometimes

in

vigorous,

ihe Child's

sometimes

soothing, sometimes whimsical and gav!

These tnnes are apt to be short; it not, onh- the most appeahng "snatch" is snng. Repetition, both in \\ords and mclodv, is also a distingnishing characteristic. Such songs are found in e\eri- tongue, and Americans \\ith roots in man\- lands

mav well

Eamilv

England

of the

but

those

the

of

\\ords,

mood and

he

gcsti\e of

from

w^ Ding

Heres our ba-by danc-ing*

Here's our ba-by danc-ing.

Reinecke. Fifty G. Schirmer, Inc., 1901. Carl

is

Begin

with some of the delightfulh- illustrated song

collections. Little Songs of Long Ago Xursen- Rhymes, illusand Our trated bv \\"illebeek Le Mair, contain the original tunes harmonized by Alfred Moffatt. Sing Mother Goose, by Opal WTeeler and Marjorie Torrev, \\ill ha\e interest as a picture songbook for the

OM

\en" voung. since the full-page illustrations are simple

(See

charming and for the Songbooks of

and

list

direct,

When

music is part of their daily lives, children do not have to be "taught" to like it. Enjoyment and appreciation grow along with the tional growth.

child's

mental and emo-

—

-m~w

dong, come a-long.

^^ 1.

and enjo^•ment.

^

^

and

the time to start a music bookshelf and ha\-e it grow \\-ith family

colorful.

^

Ding

"music of the heart" expresses height, breadth, and depth of emotion, experi-

interests

^

dong, come a-long.

t

i

homelands, thev may growing in mutual understanding of their neighbors here and far away. This

surelv than words.

Home

12.)

bring a delighted

i

folk

from old

\i\idh-

\'o1.

is an excerpt song by Carl Rcinecke:^

a

find themsel\-es

Xow

moNcment

intent of the singer. So,

and aspiration more

Useful

a

response. For example, here

comprehends

as adults sing these folk songs

ence,

"Building

Childcram.

During the second year, when big movement and running about are of great interest, rhvmcs and songs sug-

melodies their forebears and neighbors brought with them and made a part of America. Long before a babv grasps the

meaning

6?

bodily

United States

also

in

I,ibrar\,"

sing to their babies not only the

traditional songs

and

Development

By Hobart from Monkineyer

Children's

Songs.

Xew

York:

Childcraft

64

The Mother Goose rhvnie, "Dance to Your Daddy, My Little Bab}/' and "Diddle Diddle Dumpling, My Son John," are typical favorites. So

yj

J

J

IF.

this one:-

is

[T i

Rue! Rue! Rue! Ma-til-da lost her

jl-

I

J'

J'^'lf

Bare-foot

shoe!

f

J'

I

nowshe

well-known

rh\me from Ponv" ("Ride,

nurser\-

My

Ride Ranke"^), brings lasting pleasure to

^^

ff

A

Denmark, "Trot,

many

a child.

The

one-vear-old jogs

on Daddy's knee; the two-}ear-old

own movement on

itiates his

horse while

Mother

in-

a rocking

sings; the three-vear-

old rocks and sings for himself; the four-

^

\ear-old

becomes

the five-year-old

a trotting ponv;

and

the rider, as he dramatizes the song. Follo\\ing is a free trans-

runs a-bout.

is

lation of the \erses, one or se\eral of which may be used, depending on the age and interest of the child:

i'J'J'JMpi' Pit-ter pat-ter in and out. Rue! Rue!

^^ ^

*

Eue! Ma-til- da

S ^

many delightful rhymes to chant or sing when a \oung adventurer rides pickaback with Daddy or trots on There

are

Grandfather's knee.

Among

the

first

i»

H

E

p'^n

'

mm —

^-r

Hey! Ho!A-way we go\ Don-key rid-ing-,

s

i»

^

Vis-it Grand-pa

Trot, trot, trot

Trot, trot, trot,

Grandma

Sh^

ny!

-

Whith-er shall we ride a -way

to

be recalled may be "To Market, To Market," or "Ride a Cock Horse." Less familiar, but equally rhythmic and charming, is "Bab\'s Breakfast," Here is a gav and jaunty excerpt from an old English work song which originally helped a ship's company stow timber aboard:^

my po

Trot, trot, trot

^^ ^

lost her shoe!

for the day.

my

my

po

-

ny.

pony!

greets us just like this.

hug and then

First a

^

Trot, trot, trot,

my

a kiss.

pony.

my pony! we've come so fast Auntie's door we can't ride past. Trot, trot, trot, my pony. Trot, trot, trot,

^

4''W

)

j^i

c"r p

don-key rid-ing-. Hey!

y^^ ^^ Rid-ing-

i.

i. 4.

Thomas

on

a

Slower

-p^

Ho! A- way

we

now

g^o!

my

pony!

e\ening,

home

Trot, trot, trot,

SSE don

-

key.

\Micn

Walk

it's

we'll go.

then whoa! Here's some feed, m}- pony. into your

stall,

Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937. Songs from Dorothy Gordon. Aronnd the IVoild in Song. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1936. Hedviir Collin. Fore Gumic B(>incsan,jc. 11 Samlnig. Kohcnlunn Wilhelm Hansen. Musik-Forlap. 1921. Surette.

Miiiiy Lands. Boston:

:

Music

in

I'Vom eighteen or twenty months on through early ehildhood, spontaneous interest in bodily rhythm eontinues to gro^^'

and

Development

the Child's

more varied and Here is an illustra-

'65

aeeonipaninient to hghten daih' work.) From this little book, Mother will sing again and again:''

re\eal itself in

detailed expressions. tion:

The babe

in

arms

first

^^ X

\l\\>

;

showed an

music by bouncing, spring}' mo\enicnts. Next, he response

acti\'e

teetered feet,

to

unsteadih'

arms

and

li\eh"

on

legs

his

own two

widespread

to

maintain balance. With increasing skill in locomotion, he used more space for action. But now in the last half of the second \ear, earlier with some children, there is a growing awareness of melody, as shown bv the child's attempts to use his

own

The

Satis Ibid. Ibid.

Coleman and Alice Thorn.

Little Singing Time.

New

will

be

just

the

for this one:*"'

^

Ba-by takes big steps just likeDad-dyj

^ just likeBroth-erand

obser\ant

own invention as she bathed and dressed him, \\atched him pla\" with toys, or wheeled him around the block. Now, with growing awareness of himself and an increasing familiaritv with his home \\orld, he associates singing with the oftrepeated activities which revolve around him and tries to sing, too. This is a good time to add to the music bookshelf. Little Singing Time, bv Alice Thorn and Satis Coleman. This book, with its sketches of the toddler's day and very short, simple songs engages his interest and participation and encourages a resourceful mother to further song in\-ention. (After all, folk music originallv de\'eloped from expressions of the high lights of experiences and from rhythmic 7.

^

as=

appropriate phrases or songlets of her

3.

moment

te

singing \oice.

mother has already used as song material the routines and acti\ities which make up daily living for her babv. She has sung spontaneously

6.

Then some day there appropriate

A

own

little

is

too.

from playtime happily by NIother's

transition

little later,

to routine

^

Ma-ry,

made

song

^^ Rest

Up

-

ing time, rest the steps, in

1^=P^=^^ we go

Off

Af -

ter

rest

for rest we'll play

-

ing time. the door.

-ing timesome more.

In the late afternoon and just after supper are good quiet times for enjoying picture songbooks with the child in Mother's lap. Instrumental song accompaniments are not used this early, since the^^ tend to confuse the singing of a very young child. The more informal the setting, the more spontaneous the adult, the better are the chances for a child's spontaneous singing, since he York: The John Day Co., 1940.

^^^fppv^^^^-^'

f

A

lilting,

gay tune

dance

often inspires children

rhythm. Such bodily movement is a joyous outlet for feelings and impulses. to

to

its

plishment. \\Tien labored or cautious effort turns into easv satisf\ing performance, that

is

the

moment

for

an appro-

tempo and rhythm to coincide with the child's own mo\ements. The s\^ing of the song is both exhilarating and sustaining, and priate song with just the right

the child continues his rh\thmic pattern with ^^ holehearted abandon. '"Again!"

he demands, when the song ends. An ascending melody and suitable words are sung as he climbs the ladder, a descending phrase accompanies him

Pic;» syndicate

begins by imitating his elders.

By the end

down the slide. It takes a quick staccato tune to catch his sturdy footsteps as he

of the second \ear, he requests fa\"orite

runs to the gate, and a slow, graceful

them (he

swaving melodv to accompany the movement of a swing. Vigorous songs with

songs; sings phrases of

mav

or

may not be on

some

of

pitch ) ; recognizes

shows keen interest in sounds; and responds to markedly rhythmic music by large bodily movements. Moreover, he takes it for granted that music is an essential part of everyday activities. a few melodies;

Music

regular beats

For the two- or three-year-old, music movement and melodv. But at this stage, movement comes first. His largely

sturdy legs take

him

e\er\-uhere to

in\-es-

The young

and touch the things he sees and He not onlv walks and runs: he gallops and jumps, climbs and slides, jrocks and swings, pulls and pushes wheel toys.

Eventuallv, to his great satisfac-

ride a tricvcle. At first, he concentrates intentlv on some new activity, then he does it again and again, bubbling with delight over his accomtion,

he learns to

are

child enjoys songs about

sung when a parunderstanding adult may be asked to sing about dolls that go riding in a carriage, or about a little

is

if

in use.

An

bov who loads

his truck or goes

for a ride in a yellow bus.

Play

tigate

hears.

rhythm

her dollv in a cradle. his tovs, especially

for the Preschool Child

stirring

to sing

ticular tov

is

and

when out for a walk. A lulis harmony with the mood and laby in tempo of a t\\o-vear-old who gently rocks good

equipment

rhythmic mo\ement

which is

stimulates

eagerly used over

a considerable period of time,

first

for

plav and later in parallel and cooperative acti\-ities. A rocking chair or solitarv'

rocking horse gives a child satisfaction in initiating his own rh\"thm, and, before long, spontaneous singing accompanies

the movement, Joan, twenty-six months,

166

^

)

Music sings a familiar

in

the Child's Development

melody over and over

as

she rocks on her horse. In lieu of words she often carries on \\ith

"Da— da, Da-

Her rh\thm and During a week's time, she

pitch are excellent

da."

throughout.

been heard to sing: Reuben," "Bicvcle Built

10 or 12 inches in height provides dren,

if

an adult stands on the board,

too, to regulate the

bouncing mo\cmcnt.

Perhaps she sings—

fa t

'

Two, "London Bridge," "Here's a Pony Galloping." and "Yankee Doodle." (Many for

*

j^

J

J

and chants happily himself; singing in tune will come through spontaneous imitation.

Joan's next experience parallel pla\-

mav be

when another

that of

t\\o-year-old

Rocking chair and horse comes to are moved side bv side as Mother sings, and t^^•o little children look at each other and laugh. "Sing it again," says

^^

See howl'injump-ing, jump-ing,jun^-ing!

^sm

a child repeats a song rhythmically long

before he stavs on pitch. The important thing is that he likes to hear others sing

satisfy-

ing rhythmic experience for several chil-

"Reuben,

has

167

I

See how

I'm bounc-ing- like

a ball!

Another dav a little basket of bells is brought outside. Children like to pro\ide their

own accompaniment

as thev with wooden clapdelightful harmon^• and

bounce. Brass

make

pers

bells

visit.

}oan. Perhaps the

perience

is

toy rocking boat. child it

go

is

first really

shared ex-

initiated after the advent of a

apt to

sit

At the outset, one middle and make

in the

himself, but soon another

h\-

is

at-

movement. \\''ith a child seated in each end of the boat, there is a fine swing up and doun. Father sings an irresistible song, and here is the first glimmer that shared experiences may be more fun than playing by oneself. tracted

b\-

exciting

Presently a child discovers that jumpis fun \\hcther or not he is on a bouncing board; and if the rocking horse is not available, he can gallop on his own two feet. Tlien there is the song: ^

ing

m Pol

the

Even' child's yard needs packing boxes and boards to stimulate motor acti\"ity and dramatic pla\". Strong boxes hold long boards in place a few feet above the ground or at an incline, and these are to

use

alone

or

with

one's

Sometimes a walking song or drum rhvthm accompanies an excursion up and across and down the other side. A long flexible board held by sawhorses friends.

rhythm.

ly

Hold on

*

to

my

jer- kin. Hold on to

is

way

not

we march

to

onlv a gay

sings as she leads the

L. P.

9.

J.

town.

little

way

tune

to din-

it mav also be the cue to catch someone's skirt or coat and go in procession laughing and striding around the \"ard. About this time "Ring-Around-aRosy" as a social experience is enjoyed

ner;

MacCarteney. Sottgs for the Nursery School. Cincinnati: Willis Music Co., 1937. Rontgen and H. W. LeMair. Old Dutch Nursery Rhymes. Philadelphia: Uavid McKay Co., 1917.

8.

myg-own.

J

Thats the

Mother

kin.

=g

fe=

This

Per

CHILDCR-\Fr

.08

with one or two children and an adult, lliiis, a shv child mav participate and still

have the

sccurit}- of

Mother's hand.

Soon he is so absorbed that when hands are dropped he twirls indcpendentlv as others do in response to a new version:^**

^,^^Mi

jT)

n^

^pt=Jfe

Ring-a-lay,Rong-a-lay, Round we go!

and expressed

in sound and speech. two-}ear-old spontaneouslv exclaims "U-gha, u-gha!" as a car draws to the

play,

A

and

curb, honks, in,

the motor

m ^ ^

J

4^'i

J.

J-]

j.j jiJ

Rid

Rid-ing

ing

-

car,

in

^

in

^

a

*

J

*

^'

car, \^'heelsgo-inground and

^^m

£

:x=9 ± we go!

Ring- a-lay,Rong-a-lay, Upwego!

sings to

i

^tt=^

J. J J. J Ring-a-lay,Rong-a-lay, Do-WTi

familv gets

and Mother

the tiny tot as thev go:^^

Ring-a-lay,Rong-a-lay,Roundwego!

i''i'

The

stops.

starts,

round and round, Rid-ing

a

in

car.

\\'hen he is three, the child goes on a make-believe ride. His over-

many

turned high chair becomes a car with a He climbs in, starts the motor, and is off, again calling, "U-gha, u-gha!" WTien interest begins to wane. Mother's song contributes a new idea:^-

windshield.

Then

a gay dance tune mav follow and, spontaneously, he is mo\-ing about the

room with little running dance steps. "More!" comes the eager request, and so he

disco\"ers in bodilv

ment

rhvthmic mo^•e-

a joyous and satisfving outlet for

moods, and impulses. Herein lies a simple beginning which bears the promise of aesthetic experiences to come. There is no doubt that interest in music in these earlv vears is closeh" re-

i

^ ^ Wait

his feelings,

lated to the de\-elopment of

ing and running

skill in

and skipping.

with

language

using intelligiblv a vast

variety- of

wait

ing

for

^

JiJ 5

the lights are red.

-

Start the car!

walk-

It is as-

development, too. Even,- young child is absorbed in hearing, imitating, understanding, and sociated

^

-(^o^j.Jy now

and

ing

-

sounds.

I

^ ^'

^ f

^

i

Here we go!

Green light o

-

ver- head.

In a well-balanced dav for a young child, there

is

ample opportunit\-

for self-

People, plavthings, objects, animals, and

initiated plav, with time interspersed for

machines are recognized and named. Acti\ities are noticed, reproduced in

There may be a short rest at midmorning, when occasionally Mother

10. 11. 12.

relaxation.

Ermine Cross and Elsa Cross. Child Songs from Hawaii. Boston: MacCartcney, op at. Satis Coleman and Alice Thorn. Another Singing Time.

C. C. Birchard

&

Co., 1923.

New York: The John Day

Co.. l'>37.

Music and

also rests

THE Child's Denelopment

IN

and

sings a bit,

a

quiet

time in the late afternoon for shared enjoMiient of picture books and songbooks. When there is much spontaneous singing,

it is

just as natural for a child to

ask an adult to sing as to read.

He

likes

songs about the pictures in his room, and these may well be changed from

too,

time to time, as

done

is

in

nursery

school, to stimulate thoughtful observa-

broaden interest and appreis a piano, a songbook w ith gav pictures mav be opened on the music rack. A little child will be delighted to take turns with Mother in choosing a picture, then playing and singing about it. One famih- owns a small portable piano of three octaves \\hich Father now and then takes out to the patio, where he pla\s and sings \\ith the children before bedtime. Since the illustrations in songbooks plav an important part in helping a voung child to identify the songs he wants, this is a good time to add se\eral new books to the folk-song collections on the music bookshelf, selected earlier for long-range enjovment. The threevear-old delights in pictures and songs tion

and

to

ciation. If there

tvpieal of his

own

activities

and

interests.

The voung child's interest in sound and rhvthm finds satisf\ing outlet not onlv in singing and in bodily rhythmic movement, but also in experimenting with percussion.

Now

arranged. This one

ments. tle

It

mav

is

another shelf

is

for musical instru-

begin simply

\\ith a

lit-

basket of bells to be worn in dancing.

Some

of these will be strung

colored

cord

or

ribbon

to

on be

gaily

dramatic play. For example, some may be slipped on the rocking horse or on the handle bars of a tric\ cle. It will then be with your child, as with the in

bells

'fine lady upon a white Mother Goose fame: "She

horse," shall

of

have

music wherever she goes."

A

large basket with rattles of various

is interesting and desirable. Begin by selecting gourds in which the dr\seeds make a pleasing sound; they will be all the more enticing if painted gay colors. Mexican and Indian rattles used in traditional dances may be found oc-

kinds

casionally at gift shops. delightful

sensor^-

of sound, color,

These provide

experiences because

and

design. Wliile in

the shops be sure to look for bells and

from the Orient and add these needed for further

rattles

to the collection as

experiences.

A

couple

of

homemade

drums may complete the assortment for the time being, lliese can be made from a large and a small chopping bowl, or from a wooden bucket o\er which a drumhead skin has been stretched and

The thoughthow the child

tacked in place \\hile wet. ful

adult will obser\e

manipulates and experiments with these materials, \^•ill listen for beginnings of pattern,

and sometimes catch

his

rhvthm

song appropriate in mood and tempo. A child's first rhvthmic expressions, whether with instruments or bod-

\\ith a

movement, are apt to be fast rather slow and deliberate. Sometimes Mother will have a turn with a drum, as she sings and plays a song for dancing. ilv

than

Spontaneous Bodily Rhythmic

\\orn

around the neck, and others may be sewed on elastic wristbands. Larger bells mav be added for beauty of tone, for sound experimentation, and for use

169

Activities

Social

ment

and motor aspects of develop-

are pertinent to a consideration of

music because of the

child's

growing

Childcraft

.yo

fun to share many kinds of experiences with others. Bodih' awareness that

it is

rhythms, for example, may be roughly dance patterns and rhythmic-

classified as

The term

dramatic play.

"pattern"

is

here used in the psychological sense to

mean modes

of

reaction

or

characteristic of child growth.

behavior (It

does

lodic line coincided exactly.) Gertrude,

smiling,

hopped on

right foot all

around

the room.

mean

a model proposed for imitaThus, dance patterns begin with such fundamental bodily rhythmic mo\'ements as walking, running, jumping, jigging, which are manifested spontaneously by young children in response to inner emotional and external environmental stimuli. A two- or three-year-old is satisfied to continue a single type of movement throughout a song or instrumental accompaniment. Four- and fiveyear-olds begin to develop complex patterns by spontaneously trying out or combining steps. The following exam-

not

Adult: Tliere aren't any words here. Could you think of some? The children began to sing, "Hop. Annika," saying the words o\er and o\er as the music was repeated. (The crisp rhythmic pattern of the title and me-

tion.)

ples are typical of

what may happen

Adult:

When

Gertrude hopped on

am

thinking

Which would you

(Seemed more difficult more easily.)

two dances. (She hummed

like?

for-

Rollo jigged forward, backward, forward, sideways, always keeping rhythm, soberly keeping out of Maurine's way, careful about choosing space.

Gertrude:

middle

You

could sing

'stop' in

the

part.

Adult: Yes, stop

in the

middle and change

to the other foot.

This time as Gertrude hopped again, they sang:

Hop, Annika, hop, Annika, Stop, Annika, stop! Stop, Annika, stop!^^

When

markedly rhythmic music

is

terns of the five-vear-olds are usually in

keeping with tempo and intensity of the selection. Sometimes they evolve more complicated rhythmic patterns influenced by phrasing in the music or by the rhythmic pattern of the melodic line.

Adult:

Would you

left

the point of departure, the dance pat-

music was played she jigged

called

hop on

of

ward, putting in an extra tap now and then with left foot. She danced vigorously, tossing head, smiling.

It's

to

foot, tired

Hop, Annika, hop, Annika,

Maurine chose "Traeskodands," and

Adult:

stopped

if

a bit of each.) as the

left foot,

ing to right foot then back to left again.

appropriate accompaniment. I

plav again, try your other

once, but did not lose rhythm in chang-

children are given encouragement and

Adult:

I

foot.

like

some new music?

"Hopp Annika."

perhaps you'd like to try

it.

Listen,

and

(She plays.)

Do

nursery

vow remember playing this in (Adult sang opening

school?

bars of 'Tolly Perkin.")

Several

wanted

to play

it

again.

Elena

led the line with hca\y walking steps

Children: Sing

it!

(on quarter notes in music); put in

little

These instances are from the writer's doctoral dissertation. Bodily Rhxthmic Movements of Yottng Children. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Press, 1938, Chapter VH. 13.

'

)

Music

the Child's Development

in

171

times— a comphcated pattern, stimulated apparently by awareness of the melodic

Her friends watched her performance and tried it, too. Sometimes at this age one discovers one's own abilities as a

hne.

result of obser\ing others.)

accented

(on

steps

J Pol

-

;> j^ Hold on

eighth

J

J

ly

Per

jer

ray

at

At four and fi\'c, as indicated earlier, is a marked increase in rhythmic dramatic play growing out of some im-

J -

J

;>

j> to

notes)

kin

there

J -

mediate interest or constructive

kin

To}s may be used Maxine, holding out her skirts at sides, took dancing steps sideways, next a few running steps forward, then backward; dancing steps sideways again, then forward in a semicircle. She tilted her head to one side as she danced. The dance pattern she e\ol\ed sho^^•ed

soon

To made

who

but

acts the part.

a musical accompaniment Jack the airplane he had built dip and

as he walked and mo\cd his arm rhythm with music. Another day, with arms outspread, he, himself, became the plane as he ran swiftly and lightly, tilting wings when he changed direction. rise,

some aware-

\^alsante."

/""^^

the child

activity.

accessories,

in

ness of phrasing in the music. jMusic:

"Poupee

it is

as

Some time

later, after a visit to an airhe spontaneously started his plane from a stooping position, then ran with arms outspread; wings were tilted as he turned about to ease slowly into port, and he came to a kneeling position to

port, >

(

/

—

r

I

I

I

I

I

^)

indicate landing.

Gertrude, plaving boat, put arms in front of her for

very fast with

Oftentimes, it is the child's movement is the point of departure, and it is

that

who captures his tempo, inand mood as she sings or iman accompaniment with percus-

the adult tensity,

pro\ises

sion instruments.

Marie:! want

it this way. (She started running hea\ily with big steps around the room, then across the room, and ended with a few hops on one foot.

Janice:

I

can do

it!

plete somersault.

A

(She turned a comfew days later Janice

was able to turn slowly and rhythmically several

adult

times in succession while the improvised an accompaniment.

prow and

started to go

little scuffing steps;

adult

used a tremolo accompaniment on deeptoned drum to fit her pattern; later, the tempo was slower as the boat came into harbor.

These descriptions

of

five-year-olds

have been given by way of interpretation to those parents who might be tempted to delegate the role of musical guidance to special teachers of music or the dance before the children themselves

As previously indicated, the need is for opportunity to evolve own rhythmic expressions naturally

are readv. child's his

and unself-consciously out of everyday and to participate increasingly in family enjovment of music. For music instruments, more shelf

living

Childcraft

172 sppce will

is

now

required. Perhaps Father

drum from a nail keg or jardiniere. A drumhead from old

make

brass

a

inner tubing produces a deep, mysteri-

Finger cymbals used by ous tone. dancers (available at music stores) are

Sometime a beautiChinese tom-tom and a temple block and

clear ful

bell-like.

should be purchased. With the latter, one can make an excellent imitation of the beat of horses' hoofs. In addition to the percussion instruments, get an instrument on which simple melodies may be played. This might be a nursery harp with its six strings, a good xylophone or metal tubaphone with range of one octave, or a set of eight tonal blocks.

The

(Calttion: Nexer buy instruments which harsh, unpleasant sounds, nor any

make

which are there

If

off pitch!)

piano in the house, a few music will be

a

is

collections of instrumental

used sometimes to accompany bodily

rhythms and sometimes for quiet enjoyment through listening. Master Series for the Young, edited by Edwin Hughes, affords good collections. Four- and five-xcar-olds will be interested, too, in recorded music,

They

too complex.

if it is

not

will like recordings

of violin playing or of instrumental trios,

gay lilting folk music, such as Percy Grainger, Nathaniel Dett, and as well as

David Guion make use

(The

of.

so-

latter are preferable to the

called

cause each block

is

xylophone beseparate and may be

poor and tiresome musically. ) However,

arranged and used

in various ways; for

it is

example, the a

chid

three,

first five

may be

given to

to try out; another time, one, eight;

five,

blocks. Adults will

and later, all eight want to use the tonal

"children's

well for every family to

For

Is it

well constructed so that

it

can be

used over a period of time?

Does

produce interesting, stimulating, which one will enjoy hearing and producing again and it

beautiful sounds

again?

melodic instrument, are the tones melodious, true to pitch, and suitable in range for the singing voice?

If a

Does the

collection, as a whole, provide

for a considerable range of interest actixit)'?

life.

Music

and

Young School Child

for the

six-

and

seven-year-olds,

music

is

a delightful resource for family fun, for creati\e expression, and for increasing

enjoyment

pleasing in form, color, and design?

remember

is, the experience of singing and plaxing oneself as an expression of mood or feeling

and eventuallv play and sing songs of their own making. Try applying the fol-

Is it

often

early years for "live music," that

in daily

instrument

are

that records can never be substituted in

instrument to play familiar melodies as they sing. The four- and five-year-olds will experiment with the sounds first,

lowing standards to each placed on the shelf for use:

records"

beauty. since

in

shared

experiences

of

How these children have changed

babyhood and preschool

years!

Their ver\' size is remarkable! Their legs are growing so long! Their tempo of

movement less

is

accelerated.

and daring

They

are fear-

in using large play equip-

ment. Rh\thmic-dramatic plav, when meaningful, gives exidence of delightful appropriateness and grace of movement.

The

family

list

of songs should cer-

some for pure fun and nonsense. Children and adults, alike, detainly include

light in the rapid

rhythmic flow of words

.

Music

in

the Child's Development

and repetition of nonsense syllables which appear in manv of the folk songs. Probably four- and fi\c-year-olds begin to join in the singing of such songs as: "TTnis old

He plaved Six-

and

man, he played one knick-knack on my drum."

Range"

"Yankee Doodle." Several community songbook might be carried in the car so thev would be on hand for picnics and week-end trips. It adds to the fun if someone in the party plays a

becoming

skilled in hearing and reproducing tones and phrases. Tliey ha\e disco\ered howto begin singing with others and are skillful enough to join in on a chorus without trailing a phrase behind. Now

Courtin'," and "Pop! rise to

some songs which afford opporhumorous dialogue. "Reuben, Reuben," and "Grandmother Grunt" are examples. So is "Lazv Marv." or the Danish version. "Up, Little Hans."

i

details is

of

Went

\ou want anv more go

": "If

vourself."

Now the

making new rhymes Dorothv Gordon chose the

in the hilarit\- of verses.

phrase Sing

It

Yourself as the

title for

her

second book of folk songs, which supplements with songs from America and Europe her earlier collection. Around the World in Song. Both books are filled with gav, rollicking music. The brief yet picturesque accounts gi\en of how these songs were first sung help adults to catch the

it is

are times

and

places, too,

in

the

Stephen Foster,

well-loved

melodies

in patriotic songs,

"Home on

tie

Hans!

is sing--ing'.

'

No Moth-er, dear,

little

Its the

door thats creak- ing.

Hans: up,

little

Hans,

.\nd go to school so gladlv!" "No, Mother dear; no, Nlother dear. Mv stomach hurts too badlv."

"Up,

To 'Tes,

little

Hans: up,

the part\"

we

little

Hans,

are goingl"

Mother dear: yes. Mother dear, just what I was hoping!""

'Twas

"Three Blue Pigeons" vorite:

is

another

fa-

^^

4

when

satisfying to join older brothers

sisters

lark

No,Moth-er, dear!

mood and spirit of the melodies.

There

lit -

i "Up.

Tlien for a few minutes e\er\"one joins

and

Up

U'l'^

'

fun to

amusing absurdities of a stor\- carried on through verse after verse and sometimes to do just what is suggested in the last line of "Froggie

lit-tleHans,

'Up,

re-

anticipate the

it

or an

Select

Goes the Weasel." the challenge of

membering the cumulatixe "Had a Little Rooster." It

sing

mouth organ

tunit\- for

thev will delight in singing "Pollv Wolh" Doodle All Dav." "Froggie \\'ent A-

A-Courtin'

or

copies of a good

accordion.

se\ en-\ear-olds are

Watch them

73

d

•

^

dm

-v^^ m-

m

^

Three blue pi-geons sit-ting on a wall

and of

and the

*

:>; Three blue pi-geons

;^;u

sit-ting on

a wall.

in

such familiar tunes as

14. 15.

Hedvig Collin. 5