Wayfinding: People, Signs, and Architecture 0973182202, 9780973182200

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+ y,_;. r---\0 fi"'.ild"'lng process worb 26 5.1 Wayllndlng &11 epallal problem soMng 27 5.2 Declalon making and decision executing 28 5.2.J How declalons are made 28 5.2.2 The stn&cturlng of declBloDS 29 5.2.3 From deelsions lo behavior 31 5.3 Information processing 33 5.3. 1 Environmental perecptlon 33 5.3.2 Envtronmenlal cognition 37

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Part Three: Principles of wayfinding design

Chapt&r6 What is wayfinding design? 42

6.1 Spatial planning 43 6.1.1 Setting the stage 43 6.1.2 The role or decision diagrams in spatial planning 44 6.2 Environmental commurucatioo 45 6.2.1 Communication !or decision making: the script 45 6.2.2 The form or information 50 6.2.3 Communication !or cognitive mapping 51 6.3 An integrated view or wayfiodlog design 52 Chapt1tr 7 Who is involv&d in wayfinding dMign7

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7.1 The design profession 55 7.1.1 Architects and urban planners 55 7.1.2 Environmental graphic designers 56 7.1.3 Landscape architects 57 7 .2 Management 56 7.2.1 The owners 56 7.2.2 Building managers 59 7.2.3 Security personnel and fire marshals 59 Chapt1tr 8 For whom do Wit plan?

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8.1 User groups 63 8.2 The unimpaired user 63 8.3 Perceptual impairment 63 8.3.1 V'ISual impairment and blindness 64 8.3.2 Hearing impairment and deafness 66 8.4 Cognitive impairment 67 8.4.1 Situational cognitive impairment 67 8.4.2 Developmental cognitive impairment 68 8.S Dllteracy 69 8.5.1 Functional illiteracy 69 8.5.2 Multi-lingual llllteracy 69 8.6 Moblllty Impairment 72 8.6.1 Persons In wheelchairs 72 8.6.2 Moblllty impaired who can walk 72 8.7 Macro- and micro-approaches to planning 73 Chapter9 Planning for wayfinding conditions 76

9.1 Day·lo-day conditions 77 9.1.1 Travel conditions n 9.1.2 Working conditions 78 9.1.3 Playing conditions 79 9.1.4 Retail conditions 79 9.2 Emergency conditions 80

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Part Four: Architectural components of wayfinding design

Chapter 10 Spatial pl..,,nlng 84 10.1 The prooess or planning a layout 85 10.1. 1 ldentllying spaoos and tbelr Identity 85 10.1.2 Orouplngspacee Into destination zones 86 10.1 .8 Lloldngand organlzlogs!l8(l Rlmil)'polM;lheydonotloolilnaubotLOtlaJ(ao tbougblbey1'1"" &hololtocuri).Theylooli ao tbougbtbeybadoubot&ne)ollproperly. &lldbocauolbeolgolndullley. blghlyoopbllllloa1od&lld""U 0qulppod,laoa~leolperionn1D«tl>e.....rtr.oldeoiplnf.ln'1&11-

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Chaple< 5 How the w ayflndlng proc:eu works 5.3 Information processing

There are three different types of braille.

Grade 1 braille is strict transliteration of the original language; however. grade 2 braille,

which includes many contractions, is much more effie:ient to use. Grade 3 is a type of

shorthand and does not concern us here. Onty about one in ten of those registered with blind organizations can read grade 2 braille, although rather more can read grade 1. The assumption that every blind person

can read braille is certainly false.

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• PcrceMng an original sound source in the environment • PerceMng sound produced by the person (e.g., cane lapping) and reflected by objects in tbe environment (ech-looatlon) The value of a sound source for wayfindlng Is often reduced because of the unreliability of tbe source. You can, for example, see a tree from a given distance, but you can only bear It wben the wind blows. Ech-location is more reliable in this sense, but It requires a relatively quiet environment and only works at small distances. You can "bear" a tree through ech-location only if you are direcUy in Iron! of it. II bas been argued that only blind people have developed the ability to use sound to identify objects. We don't think this is so. In an unpublished study done a few years ago (Romedi Passini), blindfolded, sighted subjects were also found, surprisingly. to be capable of ldentlfy!ng openings, barriers, and even relatively smali overhangs through ech-looation. Sounds are perceived regardless ol bead position. Sounds for that reason are excellent warning cues. Crossing a busy slreet without being able to bear is quite an unsetUing experience for anybody. Indeed, deaf people, because they cannot rely on sound signals, tend to be excessively !earful of accidents. To make lhings worse, almost ali evacuation warnJng systems (flre alarms, for example) are based on sound signals. Salety Is probably one of the major conceros or deaf and hearing-Impaired people. Sound, by the same token. ls much more dllficult to screen than visual stimulation. Screening, when using a hearing aid, ls particularly troublesome. This in itself is a good reason why we should be concerned about the sounds eape or our built environment. We are singularly indifferent to noise pollution -even when we know that noise obscures informative sounds and that the effects of noise.on s tress and health have been clearly demonstrated. Tactual and baptie perception apply only to proximal objects. The white cane of the blind person is an extension of his or her a.rm. but that is as far as it goos. The cane sen-es to identify obsta· cles and to follow direction-giving lines such as a curb or the edge or a footpath. Braille and raised letters, raised numbers, and even some raised symbols are read by the blind population. The difficulty with using tactile slgnage, however, ls that blind way!inders fll'St must know where the information Is located before they are able to use it. Furthermore. it has been noted that a social stigma ls attached to tactile exploration. At a conference held by the SOOD (Society of Environmental Graphic Designers) in 1988, a blind speaker, Michele Brule, illustrated this point with the poignant question: "Do you see me exploring the white wali or the Impeccable glass door or the corporate omee in order to find the company's name?" Tactile maps ha"e been shown to be use ful to blind travellers. Just like the reading of braille and of raised letters and symbols, the reading of tactile maps has to be learned. !Wsearchers have identified characteristics of tactile maps that facilitate their use. They have also developed techniques £or producing tactile maps Original from

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that have a hlgh detection quality and are eaay and inexpensive to manulacture. Few would argue that we have lost the ablllty to lollow our noses, although our sense or smell ls not usually enough to get us home. Our pereeption or odors Is simply not fine enough to give us many directional cues. Our sense or smell may have some limited use aa a cue for place Identification but It tends to be very unrellable In our contemporary environment. Some research baa shown that stimulations, usually associated with one particular sense, could be perceived by other senses as well. A French psychologist by the name of Duplessis, tried to show that discrimination of colors without sight was possible. According to her studies, about 20 percent of the population is able to discriminate colors by what she calls dermo-optic perception. We tried to replicate the experiments In a wcll-rontrolled study, but

\\'ere not able to produce any similar

fmdings. 18

The meaning or cognilion is knowing and understanding. Two aspects or environmental cognition can be dlstlnguished: 1. The knowledge peopl e have about the given components or a setting, such as the buildings they remember in a cityscape 2. The understanding or the spatial characteristics or a setting, whlch has already been described as a cognitive map

In ~rfume,

1' a novel by the German author

Patrick SQskind, Grenouille is a malevolent genius and master perfumer who is morbidly fascinated by his skills. He conceives the idea of capturing and preserving the fragrance of (not for) a particular girt. By his nose, he locate$ her - even though she lives on the other side of the city. One day he steps outside his workshop and immediately knows that something is wrong . . . "The atmosphere was not a.s It should have been, from the town's aromatic garb, that veil of many thousands of woven threads, the girl's golden thread was missing ... it was gone, vanished, untraceable despite the most intense sniffing." Even though the girt leaves town, Grenouille, using "the compass of his nose," follows her half.way across France, murders her, and at last successfully captures and distills the essence he has sought for so long.

The things we remember It may be or interest to know which buildings people remember best, but more important for the planner ls an understanding or the physical and non-physical characteristics that make buildings memorable. Researchers studied these characteristics and arrived at four !actors that enhance memory for buildings In a cityscape:

t. The rorm or the building; us size, contours, compleXity or shape. and uniqueness or architectural style 2. Vlslblllty and access: pedestrian access and the posslblllty or moving around the building 3. Use; II a building had an Important !unction and was used orten, It was also well remembered 4. Symbolic slgnlllcance: elderly citizens were particularly aware or historical and cultural meanings associated with buildings" Cognitive mapping The representation and mapping or the spatial characteristics or the environment has been a subject or research and debate for many years. Research in the early 70s aimed at dm'Oloplng a typology of cognitive maps. A distinction was made between two types of cognitive mapping: l. People may structure the environment in terms or routes, that is,

the points where they change direction, the angle or directional change, and a measure of tne distance from one point to ana other. Digitized by

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Chapter 5 How the wayflnding process wons

5.3 Inrormation processing

2. People may record the topographical relationships between critical elements or the explored environment directly, without relying on a specific route or decision pla.n. The first type or structuring has been referred to as egocentric and sequential, leading to a representation in the form of a strip or route map. The seoond type has been referred to as coordinate, leading to a representation in the form of a survey map.10 In the procese or mapping a new environment, some research-

ers showed that people tended to start by recording landmarks a.nd

........

used them as a.nchor-points to subsequenUy 1111 in the paths;"

others have assumed paths and districts to be the original structuring element." The choice may well be detennl.Ded by the type or environment and the predominance ol one or the other ol these !eatures as much as by personal pre!erence. During the last decade, some oognltlve and environmental psychologists have made a distinction between two types ol representations: I. A propositional representalion Is seen to be schematic and somewhat abstract In nature; the representation ol a setting based on personal exploration tends to be or that order. 2. An analogue representation ls seen to be figural and ~talt­ llke In nature; learning a setting from a physical map can be seen to result In a figural representation."

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q-.1.nc1.-. nate structuring of

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The distinction is or interest because different characteristics are associated wltb each type or representation. The representation or a route learned !rom a physical map (analogue representation) tends to be oriented. One will ·see· a map in one's mind's eye, although it may have to be turned to align with the setting. The representation o! a route learned wbJJe exploring a setting (propoeitionai representation) is not oriented a.nd therefore is more Oexible in usage. On tbe other ba.nd it may be less precise." Research has shown that both representations can coexist even U they contain contradictory information. It ls one thing to have a representation or a setting. It is quite another to manipulate Ibis representation so that it can be used to solve waylinding problems. In order to study these spatio-cognitive manipulations. we have ldentiJled as many basic wayflndlng tasks as possible." For each. we have detennl.Ded the necessary spatioognlttve manipulation. Se\'On distinctive tasks and seven corresponding spatio-cognitive manipulations are retained as crucial !or waylindlng. They are summarized here.

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Buie -.ytlndlng task

Correo-ding spatlo-oognltlve manipulation

l.

learning a new rout0

recording a decision plan and/or dlMlloplng a cogn!Uve map

2. returning IO the point of origin

(ret.....,,gooe'• stepo)

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botk w•yflndlng

tnb and the c°"""

ponding splOtlocognttive m11nipul• tiom.

inverting a decision plan or

the mapped route

8. linking known routes to new configurations

combini.Dg decision plans or

•ectlons of mapped routes Into new combinations

4. learning a route trom a am.all

m&klng a tr&D.Sfer of scale

c!Japlay and malclng the journey 5. polnllng IO the dJJ'ectioD6 ol 1cations Wiled on a journey

malclng a triangulation

6. lcamlng a route from a DOD·

malclng a mental rotation

aligned c!Japlay 7. understanding the overall lay·

out of a viaited setting

ldentllylng the underlying principle ol spatlal organlzatlon

This short overview ol wayllndlng demonstrates how Interesting and complex the process ts. Considering tbat every journey we ever make Is based on wayllndlng, tbe process works surprisingly weU. With the exception ol some specific spa~goltlve operations, such as mental rotation, people are quite skilled at spatial problem solving. The wayf111ding dilllculties they have are usuaUy due to particular features of the environment. It may, for example, be difficult to understand the spatial organization of a setting because It is too complex or, more likely, because it Is not clearly articulated. On the other hand, relevant Information may be dilllcult (or Impossible) to obtain or to understand.

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Part Three: Principles of wayfinding design

Chapter 6

What is wayfinding design? Wayfindlng requirements, whether they be at the regional, urban, or architectural scale, are Integral to tbe design process - from tbe most general, overall spatial organization of the setting to the articulation of tbe form-giving festures, and right down to the Individual architectural and graphic messages. Wayftndlng requirements shape the setting, allect the choice of the circulation system, and contribute to the design of tbe Interior. Tbls ls particularly true In large building complexes. The enormous Impact ol wayflndlng cooslderatloos on the outcome of the design of a setting Is one of the reasons we feel justtned In using tbe term "wayflnd.lng design." The other reason Is strategic. Wayflndlng Is a very Important aspect of dally We and bas been neglected for so long that we want to give It Its rightful place on tbe drawing board. We are totally convinced on this subject. Even II It can be argued that, In tbe past, the built enVlronment was relatively simple and clear, this Is certainly not true of today's mammoth building complexes. When "wayllndlog design" becomes a consideration In Its own right (llke "HVAC" or •emergency exit procedures"), planoers wW be made aware that It Is a vital part of design, and II they pride themselves on being professionals, they should know about It. Wayllndlng design Is also a principle. It Is user oriented and derives Its approach and Its Interventions from the behavioral and psychological fonndatlons of wayllndlng. l!lllclent, accessible, sale, and spatially attractive wayflndlng environments can be designed only when the principles of wayflndlng are understood and when this knowledge Is translated Into applicable form. Tbe aim of this chapter ts to make the link between design and the wayflndlng principles Introduced previously. Two aspects of wayflndlng design wW retain our attention: spatial planning and environmental communication.

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6.1 Spatial planning Wayflndlng occurs Jn space. The spatial cba.racterlstlcs or a site, that ls, Its size, Its organization, and the nature or Its elreulatlon systems, all contribute In one way or another to the way!lndlng dllficultles that confront the site's users. Spatial planning provides the context !or wayflndlng and sets the stage !or the problem-soMng per!ormance. Spatial planning determines the location of the entrances and exits or a setting, the location of the major destinations and, there!ore. the nature of Its circulatlon system, the organization of Its spaces, and the visual accessibility of Its architecture. Spatial planning not only defines the wayfmdlng problems or the future users. but affects the ease or difficulty they wUI have in understanding and cognitively mapping the setting. Spatial planning is, therefore. the first major component in wayfmding design.

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first wa.yflnding design component:

spatial pllnnlng. Setting the stage for

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the probfem-solvlng performance.

Settings need not necessarily be simple !or people to fmd their way adequately. Waylindlng-i!fficlent environments can be spatially Interesting, even complex. It would be erroneous and dangllrous to suggest a return to over-slmpllclty. Boredom ls not particularly suited !or efficient wayllndlng. The challenge !or way!lnding design, we feel. is to create Interesting settings that allow for gratifying spatial experiences and that are sale, accessible, and waylinding.cllicient, despite any complexity they may have.' Spatial planning has traditionally been the domain of architects and urbanists. Although the spatial layout and the circulation system undeniably emerge from a number of considerations, such as the functions of the facilities contained in the setting, the servic.

ing or the setting, the site, and the neighboring architecture. it is wayfmding and circulation that constitute the prime space-binding !actor. In airports, public transportation terminals, health..:are !acilitles, and many other public settings that have to accommodate

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Chapter6 What Is wayflndlng d..lgn7

large amounts of tratnc. the spatial organization ls the dlrect expression of circulation and wayllndlng.

6.1 Spatial planning

decision diagram: a diagram established for design or research purposes. showing the desired way for users to solve wayfinding problems cledsJon plan: the mental solution to a wayfinding problem as It is developed by the

u,..r

Wbat makes good spatial planning? To answer lhis question satlsfaclorUy, we have to return IO lbe notion of decision pl&ns. Let's reealJ that a decision pl&n Is the user's solution to a wayllnding problem posed by the spatial organization and the associated cfl'hlc Dttlgnen (SEGO), Cambridge, Ma5SadluMtts.

Environmental communication is a blanket term the.I embraces architectural information as well as graphic and verbal (or audible) communication within a given setting. Environmental grapblc design is a relatively new calling, dating only from the early 606. Until recently, it recruited its members exclusively from the ranks of graphic designers. In the early 70s the Society of Environmental Grapblc Designers (SEGO) was formed with offices in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and ever since has assumed a leading and inOuential role In raising professional standards and in broadening an understanding of the graphic designer's function in the environmental and architectural contexts. The SEGO bas also taken a lively and intelligllnt interest in education - so far. hov.rever. in the race or a less-tban·li\•ely response from the groves of academe. The institutions of learning clalm that their curricula are already lull and that they cannot, therefore, accommodate new courses on subjects like environmen· ta! communication. Tbls ralses a problem In that Increasingly in future, arcbltects and grapblc designers will have to be forming closely knit collaborations In the development of environmental communlce.tion and very few Institutions are Interested In preparing them for tbls. The role of the arcbltect In wayllndlng design has been described in the preceding section. In any case, the role ol the arcbltect has always been well established and we aU know wbat architects do. Whal. however, does the graphic designer do In tbls new context of collaboration on environmental communications projects? His or her prime contribution is a thorough knowledge of the effective planning and organization of twaogiog. W&yfinding (In Its true sense) Is now one of their criteria and 1.8 just about as Important as any of tbe others. Aller all, wbeo one comes to think of It, wily shouldn't It be vital ll'om a tenant's viewpoint that visitors should be able to • slngie out and ldeotlly tbe building itself from Its neighbor, • know bow and where to enter tbe bulldlng. • park their veblcles easily, and find their way back to them wbeo they have llnlsbed their business, • understand wbere they are In tbe bulldlng, • develop an action plan on tbe route that they will take to gilt to the tenant's office or laclllty, • execute that plan easily and eHectlvely. • If redirected. find other offices or facilities in the complex jUBI as easily, and finally, • quit the premises al the exit of their cboice. The dlllereoce between eucb a building complex and one that bas none or only a few or these advaola!l'ls ls that the former has a distinct marketing~ because visitors will feel that It was a pleasure doing bueine88 (or shopping or whatever) there and will Digitized by

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MLDt to oome back ap.l.n. There la real evidence to show, by oontraat, that people will deliberately avoid. il they have the choloe. bulldlng eomplexes lhat Ignore the wayflndl.ng oomponent.

The proliferation of slgn8 la to no one's advantage. Not the d6algner, wbo la Invariably blamed for lousing up a bulldlng wlth "too many• signs. Not the archltect, wbo regards them aa ·unnecee11&1')'. " Not tbe owner. wbo must pay for them and maintain them. And laat, but far from leaat, not the publle. which, at best, ls merely bemused when confronted by "too many" signs. The question or why there are ao many signs (If Indeed tbere are) ls rarely aaked, and just aa rarely answered. Here are a !cw topics on this subjoot that relate to the wa.y the building Is managed (aa distinct from the wa.y It was bullt and whether the wayllndlng component waa considered In Its planning): • At every decision point en route to destinations that requires a sign. tbe question to ask la whether Visitors are routed In a manner that requires the minimum number or decisions: are they, In other word&, being routed lnefJiclently? • U the wbeelcbalr route la cllllerent from the pedeelrian, wtU that !or even more 1.lgn1? • In an olllee building or a bole>