Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: Mihouse Project 9789586190404, 9789586190410, 9789586190428, 9586190404

Table of contents :
Contents
Construction Design
Water Management System
Energy Management System
Innovation
Sustainability

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: Mihouse Project

CALI

Reservados todos los derechos © Universidad Autónoma de Occidente Autores © Javier Ernesto Holguín González - Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón

Alejandro Beltrán Márquez,Ana María Ramírez Tovar, Andrea María Quintero Osorio, Andrés Felipe Ramírez Vélez, Daniel Mauricio González Naranjo, Diego Fernando Gómez Etayo, Eliana Melissa Morales Rivera, Fabián Andrés Gaviria Cataño, Hugo Andrés Macías Ferro, Isabella Tello Gómez, Javier Eduardo López Giraldo, Jeffer Steven Mosquera Castillo, Juan Manuel Luna Rodríguez, Juan Pablo Aguir, Juan Pablo Trujillo Chaparro, Juliana Alexandra Muñoz Lombo, María Camila Calle Mena, Mariana González Zuluaga, Nicolás Noreña Leal, Wilson Eduardo Pabón Álvarez.

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings Mihouse Project Primera edición, 2020 ISBN impreso: 978-958-619-040-4 ISBN Epub: 978-958-619-041-0 ISBN pdf: 978-958-619-042-8 Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia Km. 2 vía Cali-Jamundí, A.A. 2790, Elaborado en Colombia Made in Colombia Gestión Editorial Director de Investigaciones y Desarrollo Tecnológico Alexander García Dávalos Jefe Programa Editorial José Julián Serrano Q. [email protected] Coordinación Editorial Pamela Montealegre Londoño [email protected] Corrección de estilo Fernando Alviar Diseño y diagramación CMYK Diseño e Impresos S.A.S.

Water and energy engineering for sustainable buildings: mihouse project / editores académicos Javier Ernesto Holguín González Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón.-- Primera edición.-- Cali: Programa Editorial Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, 2020. 121 páginas, ilustraciones.—(Colección investigación) Contiene referencias bibliográficas. ISBN: 978-958-619-040-4 1. Arquitectura sostenible. 2. Construcción sostenible. 3. Casas ecológicas. 4. Energía solar. I. Holguín González, Javier Ernesto, editor. II. López Castrillón, Yuri Ulianov. III. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. 720.47- dc23

El contenido de esta publicación no compromete el pensamiento de la Institución, es responsabilidad absoluta de sus autores. Este libro no podrá ser reproducido por ningún medio impreso o de reproducción sin permiso escrito de las titulares del copyright. Personería jurídica, Res. No. 0618, de la Gobernación del Valle del Cauca, del 20 de febrero de 1970. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, Res. No. 2766, del Ministerio de Educación Nacional, del 13 de noviembre de 2003. Acreditación Institucional de Alta Calidad, Res. No. 16740, del 24 de agosto de 2017, con vigencia hasta el 2021. Vigilada MinEducación.

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: Mihouse Project

Javier Ernesto Holguín González Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón Academic Editors

Contents List of Figures

9

List of Tables

11

Introduction

13

Chapter 1 - Construction Design

15

Urban Scale

16

Prototype Scale

17

Chapter 2 - Water Management System

21

System Design

22

Design Criteria

22

Storage

27

Rainwater Volume Calculation

28

Ground Water System

34

Drinking Water Tanks

39

Plumbing System

41

Water Budget

43

Chapter 3 - Energy Management System

47

Electrical System Design

48

Solar Energy Resource

49

Energy Efficiency Design Narrative

79

Technical Project Manual

79

Project Dimensions:

79

AC Systems

79

Domestic Hot Water

79

Electrical Energy production

79

Energy Consumption

80

Energy Balance

81

List of singular and innovative materials and systems

82

Chapter 4 - Innovation

83

Innovation in Engineering and Construction

84

Lightweight Concrete

86

Thermal Conductivity

87

Water Use Reduction

89

Innovation in Energy Efficiency

89

Innovation Through Energy Efficiency.

90

Benefits of efficient selection of components of the electrical and photovoltaic system equipment.

91

Benefits of deployment of control sensors step.

91

Use of Natural Light

92

Use of Led Lighting

93

Chapter 5 - Sustainability

99

Introduction

100

Water Strategies

101

Water Cycle

103

Catchment

103

Distribution and use

103

Reuse

104

Outputs

104

Solid Waste Management

104

Rainwater

107

Greywater

108

Solid waste

109

Materials

112

Lightweight Concrete with Addition of Stone Coal (PC)

112

Calculation of Ecological Footprint

113

Life Cycle Stage Analysis

113

Making of materials

113

Solar Facilities

118

References

120

List of Figures Figure 1.1. Mihouse urban proposal

16

Figure 1.2. Prototype Scale

17

Figure 1.3. Main Table and Central Table

18

Figure 1.4. Mihouse Prototype design 19 Figure 1.5. Assembly of the modules up to the completed building

19

Figure 2.1. Sloping Slabs

30

Figure 2.2. Prototype rainwater tank

34

Figure 2.3. System components groundwater

35

Figure 2.4. Technical data of low consumption toilet

36

Figure 2.5. Greywater storage for 6 apartment blocks (zone 1)

37

Figure 2.6. Greywater storage for 6 apartment blocks (zone 2)

38

Figure 2.7. Flowchart for greywater treatment system

38

Figure 2.8. Prototype greywater storage.

39

Figure 2.9. Drinking water distribution system

39

Figure 3.1. The Solar Village location

50

Figure 3.2. Meteorological span figures from 10th November until 10th of December 2014

51

Figure 3.3. Solar radiation and temperature in an specific day

52

Figure 3.4. Components and energy flow on a solar PV grid connected system

54

Figure 3.5. Rooftop with the solar PV system

58

Figure 3.6. Solar grid-connected inverter

58

Figure 3.7. Panel technical information

62

Figure 3.8. System metrics

63

Figure 3.9. Monthly Production

64

Figure 3.10. Sources of loss

64

Figure 3.11. Condition Set

66

Figure 3.12. Components

67

Figure 3.13. Wring Zones and field segments

67

Figure 3.14. System Connection

68

Figure 3.15. Simulation results, cash flow summary

69

Figure 3.16. Simulation results, cash flow

70

Figure 3.17. Monthly Average Electric Production

71

Figure 3.18. PV Output

72

Figure 3.19. Primary Load

73

Figure 3.20. Grid sales 74 Figure 3.21. PV power

75

Figure 3.22. Frame for a flat roof

76

Figure 3.20. Heater components

77

Figure 3.23. Energy Balance Simulation

81

Figure 3.24. CO2 Emissions Simulation

82

Figure 4.1. Lifecycle analysis of materials

85

Figure 4.2. Lightweight concrete

86

Figure 4.3. Lightweight concrete production process

86

Figure 4.4. Energy Efficiency strategies for sustainable social housing in developing countries

90

Figure 4.5. Efficient selection of photovoltaic equipment

91

Figure 4.6. Energy rating label

93

Figure 4.7. Comparative between incandescent and LED lightning

94

Figure 4.8. Benefits of good lighting in each scene

97

Figure 5.1. Location of the TSU and waste use areas

105

List of Tables Table 2.1. Type A apartment data

28

Table 2.2. Values of the necessary variables for the calculation of the catchment area, water demand and water supply

28

Table 2.3. Calculation of maximum flow that transports the gutters in the apartment

29

Table 2.4. Maximum permissible flows in downspouts

31

Table 2.5. Number of required drainpipes

31

Table 2.6. Results of the monthly average precipitation, monthly water demand and water supply,  and calculation of the demand and accumulated supply and storage volume

32

Table 2.7. Greywater consumption

36

Table 2.8. Devices that generate greywater at home.

37

Table 2.9. Apartments Distribution by type

39

Table 2.10. Storage volume for the Drinking water tank

41

Table 2.11. Drinking Water Pre-dimensioning

41

Table 2.12. Activities related to the water consumption

44

Table 2.13. Daily Cycles

45

Table 2.14. Total generated volume of water

46

Table 3.1. One-year time series detailed analysis of Mihouse electrical load

48

Table 3.2. Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on a Horizontal Surface (kWh/m /day)

51

Table 3.3. Top manufacturers

54

Table 3.4. Available surfaces

56

Table 3.5. Estimation of area per living unit module

57

Table 3.6. Energy load requirements per living unit

59

Table 3.7. Energy consumption during a regular day

61

Table 3.8. Annual Production

65

Table 3.9. Electric and Photovoltaic – special chart

78

Table 3.10. Characterization of total energy consumption in the competition’s house

80

Table 4.1. Comparative table of lightweight concrete and structural concrete

87

Table 4.2. Different properties between conventional lightweight concrete

88

Table 4.3. Comparison of Consumption Among incandescent lighting and LED lighting

95

2

Table 5.1. Estimation of the amount of waste generated in the residential condo

106

Table 5.2. Cost savings Mihouse complex, using the rainwater and groundwater exploitation system

108

Table 5.3. Mihouse project viability on saving resources

109

Table 5.4. Savings in pesos of Housing and Urbanization

109

Table 5.5. Waste quantity generated by the residential unit

110

Table 5.6. Quantity and valorization of waste to be exploited

111

Table 5.7. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated in the construction phase

114

Table 5.8. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated by transporting supplies and raw materials

115

Table 5.9. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated by transporting construction waste

116

Table 5.10. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated using the prototype

117

Table 5.11. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated by the use of the demolition of prototype

117

Table 5.12. Calculation of the ecological footprint of building materials associated with the life cycle analysis

118

Table 5.13. CO2 Emission FACTOR per kWh

118

Table 5.14. Emission per Technology

119

Globally, the concern for climate change has led governments and the community in general to consider the affectations that we as humans have been doing to the planet. The production of electricity is a relevant factor due to the pollution produced by fossil fuels used for this purpose. The excessive industrial production to cover the growing demands of products and services, combined with the disproportionate use of transport systems that use internal combustion engines responsible for the thousands of tons of CO2 equivalent release to the atmosphere, and the deforestation without control, are also part of the driven forces for global warming and climate change. On the other hand, oil as a king fuel, which moves the world economy, are numbered as it has already been reported, due to the few world reserves. This is affecting the oil companies and the countries with economic support from these companies, like it can be seen in the cases of Ecopetrol in Colombia, PDVSA in Venezuela and Repsol in Spain.

Javier Holguín, Yuri López

Introduction

All of the above, is creating a growing interest in the environmental sustainability of the planet, humanity and obviously the resources that are owned by. It is for all these factors that the use of renewable energy resources, such as the sun, for energy production, and the application of new and more efficient construction technologies, are altogether the basis for the integral design of sustainable urban projects. The design and implementation of Sustainable Housing, which is the result of this project, uses solar energy as a source of electricity and reduces the use of natural resources, by promoting the reuse of wastewater, the use of rainwater and the recycling and use of solid waste. This house has been built with constructive processes that are friendly to the environment using renewable and local construction materials with a long-life cycle and low ecological footprint, such as concrete and plastic wood. Additionally, the house works with passive lighting and ventilation systems, reducing the energy consumption and the environmental impact during the operation of the building. In order to promote knowledge concerning technologies that could be used in the construction of houses that take advantage of solar energy, since 2002, the US government is supporting the international university competition Solar Decathlon, which was held for the first time in 2015 in Latin America and in which the authors participated with the Mihouse project. 13

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: Mihouse Project

14

The Mihouse project is the result of an interinstitutional and interdisciplinary work developed by professors and students from the faculties of engineering, economic sciences and social communication of the Universidad Autónoma de Occidente (UAO) and architecture at the Universidad de San Buenaventura (USB) both located in Cali, Colombia. Within the framework of this project, students from the UAO Renewable Energy and Integrated Water Resource Management research groups participated in this project, both in charge of the UAO professors. As a result of this project, two publications have been developed; the first one focused on sustainable architecture and bioclimatic architecture (Villalobos, Cobo, y Montoya 2018) and the second one focused on water and energy engineering for sustainable buildings (i.e. this document).

Chapter

1

Construction Design

Mariana González Zuluaga1 Juliana Alexandra Muñoz Lombo1 Juan Pablo Aguirre1 Diego Fernando Gómez Etayo2 Javier Ernesto Holguín González3 Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón3 Students of Architecture. Universidad de San Buenaventura, Cali. Architecture Faculty staff of Universidad de San Buenaventura, Cali. 3 Engineering Faculty Staff. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. 1 2

15

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Urban Scale The Mihouse urban project consists of common areas with buildings with four to five stories formed by groups of apartments. These buildings can be replicated depending on the place, the density requirements and the types of urban blocks (Figure 1.1 right). Figure 1.1. Mihouse urban proposal

Note: (left) Mihouse urban proposal, (right) Mihouse urban proposal in the neighborhood. Source: The Authors.

The whole residential condominium would be composed by 30 buildings surrounded by eight parks destined for different uses like landscape contemplation, parks for recreational activities, among others (Figure 1.1 left). Also, the whole urban compound would be surrounded by 4 blocks.

16

CONSTRUCTION DESIGN

Prototype Scale Figure 1.2. Prototype Scale

Note: Process of post-war reconstruction Source: The Autors.

The project Mihouse constructive system is based on the prefabrication of prestressed concrete structural elements, recognized advantages in the construction of mass housing at reduced costs and widely used in many experiences in our country. On the other hand, the seismic condition of Cali, located in the western region of Colombia, which is part of the so called “Ring of Fire”, known worldwide for its high probability of major earthquakes, requires the construction of buildings with high resistance to such natural events and precisely with material that provide the proposed structural safety system required in these cases (Figure 1.2). This criteria, paired with the high sustainability of the chosen materials and the principles of constructive and structural efficiency, has hallowed to propose the Mihouse project as a building that can be shaped primarily by two prefabricated structural modules in prestressed concrete. These concrete modules can be conveniently repeated and assembled together and they define the spatiality of the housing units and the number of floors required for the technical feasibility of the proposal.

17

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

For identification, we have given the name “Main Table” and “Central Table” at Figure 1.3. Resting on a foundation of reinforced concrete plate, which must be designed according to the type of terrain that applies in each case, the main structure of the building is resolved as a stack of these basic structural modules, linked together by mechanical fasteners that provide and ensure its comprehensive action to support vertical loads and horizontal seismic forces. Along with a perfect assembly of the constituent parts, this new system excludes the need to dry joint, which is one of the most critical points in the traditional way as usually these structures are resolved. Figure 1.3. Main Table and Central Table

Main Table - Central Table Source: The Authors.

The following Figure 1.4 shows the design of the prototype of the apartment located at the top floor of the building at the residential condominium, the process of assembly of this house would be first the junction of the modules shown in Figure 1.3 through high resistance mechanical anchors, then the installation of the ramp, steel orchard, Teak wood blinds, the green wall structure and the plastic wood deck, would be made forming the residence shown in the Figure 1.4.

18

CONSTRUCTION DESIGN

Figure 1.4. Mihouse Prototype design

Source: The Authors.

In addition to the residence prototype, the following sequence shows the assembly of the modules up to the completed building, and conceptually illustrates high construction efficiency of the proposal. Figure 1.5. Assembly of the modules up to the completed building.

Source: The Authors.

Wall lengths resulting in each orthogonal direction of structural plant generate a high regularity in response to earthquake resistant assembly being confluent in perfect symmetry and the center of mass and rigidity, thereby providing high reliability in evaluation of earthquake resistant building in the light of the rules required by the Colombian Earthquake Resistant Building Regulations NSR-10, mandatory in our country (Figure 1.5).

19

Chapter

2

Water Management System

Daniel Mauricio González Naranjo1 Alejandro Beltrán Márquez1 Javier Eduardo López Giraldo1 Jeffer Steven Mosquera Castillo1 Juan Pablo Trujillo Chaparro1 Nicolás Noreña Leal1 Javier Ernesto Holguín González2

1 2

Students of Environmental Engineering. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. Engineering Faculty Staff. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente.

21

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

System Design In this project we considered the rational use of natural resources; therefore, our proposal is to have an integrated water management system that allows us to have sustainable solutions such us: (1) to reduce the consumption of drinking water; (2) to treat and to reuse the greywater for flushing the toilet; (3) rainwater exploitation. In the following section, the strategies for each element of the plumbing system design are described. The plumbing system is composed by four main components: •

Water tanks: composed by 66 tanks (2 underground drinking water tanks, 2 underground greywater tanks, 60 elevated rainwater tanks and 2 underground rainwater tanks),

•

Pumping system: composed by 6 pumps (2 for taking the water from the underground drinking water tanks to the utilities, 2 for taking the water from the underground rainwater tanks to the irrigation system and 2 for taking the water from the greywater tanks to the toilets),

•

Conduction and discharge pipes (for hot and cold drinking water, rainwater, greywater and black water),

•

Greywater treatment system and drinking water meters.

Design Criteria The criteria considered for using and reusing water was developed based on an objective, which is the adoption of alternative sources of water. In the following paragraphs a detailed description of the water storage tanks, and the plumbing system considered in the technical proposal for Mihouse project is presented. Water storage tanks – Rainwater. In general, a rainwater exploitation system for domestic use should have three main sub-systems, a rainwater collection sub-system, an interceptor sub-system and a storage sub-system. These three main sub-systems are composed by several elements such as: a) roof’s catchment, b) collection by gutters and downspouts, c) a first flush rainwater interceptor, d) storage tanks, e) a physical treatment unit and, f) a distribution system.

22

The use of rainwater in this project aims to satisfy the basic needs of the people living in these apartments related to the use of non-potable water (washing floors, watering of plants and so on). Our proposal consists of two elevated storage tanks which are located on top of

The capacity of the two elevated storage tanks is 216 liters. Each of these tanks has the following dimensions: 0,30 cm high, 0,60 cm wide and 0,60 cm long. It should be emphasized that the storage capacity varies because part of the water can be stored along the pipeline or it can decrease due to evaporation of the water. The rainwater collected in these tanks is conducted by gravity to each apartment through a pipe of ½ inches and it may be supplied by a tap located 30 cm above the floor just below the sink and next to the laundry machine.

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

the roofs and that will be fed by a system of gutters. The rainwater collected in these tanks is afterwards conducted to each apartment. Additionally, the water which is not collected in the storage tanks is drained to the 2 underground rainwater tanks.

Each of the buildings has this exploitation system for the rainwater. This system will allow people to reduce water consumption. The total storage capacity associated with elevated tanks is about 6480 liters, distributed in 60 tanks, 2 tanks in each of the 30 buildings of the residential complex. Technical and Economic Factors. From the technical perspective, it should be considered the water demand and the water availability, which is closely related to rainfall during the year and the seasonal variations of it. So, it is essential to work with the rainfall information provided by the competent authorities at the time of designing the catchment system. Moreover, due to the water demand and water availability by rainfall there is a direct relationship between supply and demand for water, which defines the size of the catchment area and the storage volume. Both considerations are intimately connected with the economic aspects, which may preclude access to a collection system of this type. The implementation of a groundwater system involves knowledge about the type of soil, nearby sources of pollution, large machinery and infrastructure cost. Moreover, it is necessary a rational use of groundwater because an excess of demand could affect the natural ability of the system to recharge.

System components •

Rainwater Catchment: The area where the project is located has a direct relation with the possible rainwater harvesting. The catchment system is implemented in the roofs of the buildings, by using gutters, tiles, etc.

•

Interceptor and rainwater driver: It is a fundamental part of the system collecting rainwater, they are responsible for driving the collected water to the storage tank.

23

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

•

Collection and conduction gutters: Gutters are accessories to collect and to conduct storm water runoff to a storage system; its dimensions are a function of the duration of precipitation (short and homogeneous), the water concentration time, the length of the passage area and its slope.

In a catchment area, the water concentration time is a fundamental parameter in the hydrological study of a watershed and runoff areas with slope. This time is described by mathematical expressions which, considering physical characteristics of the catchment area or basin, can provide a resultant hydrograph. Below, are shown the equations for determining the gutter flow transported, depending on the precipitation time, draining and other factors: 1. In order to calculate the concentration time (tc), we used the Kirpich’s formula:

(1)

where: S: is the average slope; L: is the length of the catchment area in meters; tc: concentration time in hours. 2. Time in which the maximum runoff is reached in the basin or catchment area (tp): (2)

where: D is the duration of effective rainfall in hours. If the duration of daily maximum precipitation is unknown, the following equation is used: (3)

3. Concentration Time of the maximum flow (tb). It is estimated for draining all the surface runoff from impervious catchment area, it is estimated by the following equation:

24

(4)

(5)

CONSTRUCTION DESIGN

4. The maximum Flow (Qp). The maximum flow expected to net precipitation in the draining area is estimated by the following expression:

where: P is the effective precipitation (mm); A: catchment area (km); 0278: conversion factor (m3/s). 5. Estimation of the gutter area. The water that flows in the conduction gutters behaves as a spatially varied flow, because this water is gradually collected over of the gutter. In order to determine the required conducting area, we used the continuity equation, in which only the area is unknown and average speeds of 0,9 m/s on slopes 2-4 % and 1,2 m/s on slopes 4-6 % are assumed. (6)

where: Qp: channel flow (m3 s); V: Gutter flow velocity (m s); A: cross sectional area (m2). 6. Storage volume (VA). The required volume for storing rainwater (VA), is given by the difference between the accumulated rainwater available (OA) and the accumulated water demand per month (DAM’) (Eq. 7). The highest value of (VA) is the value adopted for the tank volume. If (VA) has a negative value; it means that catchment areas are not enough to satisfy the rainwater demand. (7)

where: VA: storage volume for the “i” month (m3); OA: accumulated rainwater offered for the “i” month (m3); DAM’: accumulated rainwater demand for the “i” month (m3). 7. Accumulated Offer (OA). It is given by the following equation: (8)

where: OA: accumulated offer for the “i” month (m3); OA’: previous month accumulated offer “i-1” (m3); OAMP: accumulated offer for the “i” month considering losses (m3). The accumulated offer per month (OA) will be included in the equation 7 and thus we can determine the storage volume for the rainwater collection system.

25

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

8. Water offer in a month (OAM). Considering the average monthly rainfall during the evaluated years, we proceed to determine the quantity of rainwater collected per month. (9)

where: OAM: rainwater offer in the month “i” (m ); P: average monthly precipitation (l/m2); C: runoff coefficient (0,9); A: catchment area (m2). 3

In order to find the rainwater offered of the month considering the losses (OAMP), it is necessary to estimate the rainwater available during the month (OAM), both terms are used in Equation 10. It is noteworthy that the runoff coefficient in the Mihouse project takes the value of 0,9, because it is associated with metallic surfaces, which do not resist the flow direction. This feature matches the characteristics of solar panels on the roof of the buildings and the prototype house, moreover, it is important to note that the catchment area is function of the roof surface of the buildings, which in the urban complex consists of three different models. 9. Month Offer “i”, considering losses (OAMP). According to Abdulla and Al-Shareef (2006), one can assume a value of 20 % of annually rainwater losses because of evaporation, the storage and an inefficient collection system. For this reason, the volume of the available supply is affected for that percentage. This will prevent oversize the system and include in the design related losses. (10)

where: OAM: rainwater offer in month “i” (m3); OAMP: Accumulated offer of the month “i” considering losses (m3). 10. Pluviometric information. In order to design the rainwater exploitation system, we should have the rainfall information in the study area, and it should be at least from ten consecutive years. With the obtained daily data, the monthly average precipitation is estimated, in accordance with Equation 5. With these results, we can analyze if the available rainwater is enough to implement a system to capture rainwater to fulfill the necessities of the project. Furthermore, the equation 11 is employed for obtaining Ppi which will be necessary to develop Equation 9. 26

(11)

11. Water catchment coefficient. The efficiency of the rainwater catchment depends on the runoff coefficient of the materials used for the catchment area, which varies from 0,0 to 0,9. 12. Monthly Water Demand (DAM). The water demand can be estimated in several ways, the most common is by using the water endowment assumed by a person or the used for irrigation. This method calculates the amount of water needed to meet needs in each month.

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

where: P: monthly precipitation average (l/m2) of the “i” month evaluated every year (mm/ month); n: number of evaluated years; Pi: Monthly precipitation value “i” (mm).

(12)

Where: DAM: Monthly demand (m3); Dot: water endowment (l/irrigation/day) (2l/m2); N: total irrigation area; N: number of days in the analyzed month u d. 13. Accumulated demand per month (DAM’). It is determined by the expression proposed by Abdulla and Al-Shareef (2006). The (DAM’), is introduced in Equation 7 in order to determine the volume of the storage tank for rainwater. (13)

Where: DAM’: accumulated demand per month “i” (m3); DAM: Month water demand (m3); DAM (i-1): accumulated demand from the previous month (m3).

Storage The storage process allows us to accumulate the rainwater in the storage tank to supply a specific population and to provide irrigation to a parkland. The rainwater storage unit must be durable, and it must comply with the following specifications: •

Waterproof to prevent water losses for transpiration or drip.

•

In order to minimize over-pressures, it must have a maximum depth of 2 m.

•

It must have a lid to keep out dust, insects and sunlight.

•

It must have a hatch cover sufficiently large to allow a person to access for cleaning and repairs.

27

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

•

In order to prevent the entry of insects and animals, the entrance and the overflow should have mesh.

•

The tank must be equipped with devices for water removal.

Rainwater Volume Calculation Calculations considering the equations 7 and 13, were performed to establish the rainwater volume available to design the storage tank water collection system of the urban complex and the prototype house. These calculations are summarized in the following tables (Table 2.1 and Table 2.2). It is also important to note that the maximum flow transported by gutters was calculated as a function of the roof area (using equations 1 to 6) according to the type of apartment. Moreover, it should be emphasized that the value of the maximum flow is critical when sizing the diameter of the downspouts, overflows, and other hydraulic facilities which formed the catchment system. Table 2.1. Type A apartment data Type A apartment data Total area for irrigation (m2)

40

Water endowment (l/m2/day)

2

Runoff coefficient

0,9

Source: The Authors. Table 2.2. Values of the necessary variables for the calculation of the catchment area, water demand and water supply Catchment area dimensions Section 1 catchment area (m2)

Section 2 catchment area (m ) 2

b (m)

3,4

h (m)

0,89

l (m)

5,7

b1 (m) 0,77 b2 (m)

7,8

h (m)

3,47

b (m)

3,15

h (m)

3,3

Section 3 catchment area (m ) 2

28 Total catchment area (m2) Source: The Authors.

49,72

24,45

14,87

10,40

Method 1 Interceptor Volume = CE*AC*LM (14)

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Determine the Volume of the Interceptor. To determine the volume of the tank that intercepts first wash water, it can be implemented following two recommended methods (CEPIS y OPS, 2004):

where: EC: runoff coefficient, AC: catchment, LM: Water Print. The runoff coefficient is associated with the roof material, in the case of solar panels a value of (0,9) and even catchment area 49,72m2, previously calculated, so the water level is assumed from 0,4 to 5 according to the quality of water required. In this case a value of 1, due to their type of use; obtaining a value of 44,75 L to be stored in the tank interceptor.

Method 2 This method does not require a rigorous calculation, because the volume of the interceptor is based on the ratio of one liter of water per square meter of rain draining area ceiling, whereby a volume of 49,72 L. is obtained. For a greater safety factor with regard to water quality interceptor volume is determined with the method two. Table 2.3. Calculation of maximum flow that transports the gutters in the apartment Concentration time Variables

Section 1 ( square)

Section 2

Section 3

L (m)

5,7

(Trapeze)

(Triangle)

7,8

3,15

S (surface slope)

0,2610

0,2610

0,2610

Tc

0,0021

0,0027

0,0013

Time when the maximum is reached in the runoff area catchment Tp

0,0925

0,1046

0,07342

0,2792

0,19604

22

22

Concentration time of maximum flow Tb

0,2470 Maximum spending

P (mm)

22

29

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Catchment area (km2) Qp (l/s)

0,000024

0,000014

0,00001

Qp (l/s)

1,586696

0,818868

0,83300

Qp (l/s) total flow

3,239 Estimate of the area of the gutter

V(m/s)

0,15

Area of the chute (m )

21,59

2

With the aim of preventing concrete slabs being affected by moisture due to water accumulation, it will be given a slope of 1 cm per linear meter, guiding its evacuation to the front of the house, each tile will be connected by a 2” hole allowing the exit, as expressed in the image presented below in Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1. Sloping Slabs.

Note: Blue arrows: direction of the slope, Red line: indication of the value of the slope, Yellow circle: Connection 2” between slabs. Source: The Authors.

30

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Size and number of downpipes Table 2.4. Maximum permissible flows in downspouts Diameter (mm) (inch)

Maximum flow rate (l / s)

50(2”)

0,90

75 (3”)

2,50

100 (4”)

5,10

Rectangular 60 x 101

3,75

Source: AMANCO, pipe systems Technical Manual (2016).

In the above table the association of the maximum flow that can be transported to the capacity of the downspouts, in the case of apartment type A with 3,239 l/s where a downpipe 4” is required, is presented. Table 2.5. Number of required drainpipes Ceiling Area (m2)

Nominal size of the drop (mm) (inch) 50 (2”)

75 (3”)

100 (4”)

60x101 rectangular

10

1

1

1

1

20

1

1

1

1

30

2

1

1

1

40

2

1

1

1

50

3

1

1

1

60

3

1

1

1

80

4

2

1

1

100

5

2

1

1

120

6

2

1

2

140

7

3

2

2

160

8

3

2

2

180

9

3

2

3

200

10

4

2

3

300

15

5

3

4

400

20

7

4

5

500

25

9

5

7

Source: AMANCO, pipe systems Technical Manual (2016).

31

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

To calculate the number of downspouts, it is only necessary to determine the ceiling area which is required to evacuate rainwater and divide it by the factor chosen for the area of the section. This means that our catchment area (49,72 m2) has to have a stud of 4” to evacuate rainwater. According to the results shown in Table 2.6, the volume of the storage tank corresponds to the highest difference calculated by the accumulated demand and accumulated supply (i.e. 27,7 m3) this value represents the rainwater volume that can be given for irrigation of 40 m2 per month. Table 2.6. Results of the monthly average precipitation, monthly water demand and water supply, and calculation of the demand and accumulated supply and storage volume

Month

L/ m2

Month of day

DAM m3/month

Monthly accumulated offer of the month considering losses OAMP m3/ month

January

72,9

31

2,48

2,48

3,20

February

93,5

28

2,24

4,72

4,10

March

126,6

31

2,48

7,2

5,55

April

187,3

30

2,4

9,6

8,21

May

132,0

31

2,48

12,08

5,79

June

45,2

30

2,4

14,48

1,98

July

30,3

31

2,48

16,96

1,33

August

33,4

31

2,48

19,44

1,47

September

32

Ppi

Monthly water demand (DA) m3/ month

62,2

30

2,4

21,84

2,73

October

148,3

31

2,48

24,32

6,50

November

138,7

30

2,4

26,72

6,08

December

116,4

31

2,48

29,2

5,11

m

3

Water offered in month m

3

Previous month accumulated offer m3

Storage volume m3

5,15

3,26

1,95

2,67

10,23

4,18

6,13

5,51

17,34

5,66

11,79

10,14

28,39

º8,38

20,18

18,79

31,87

5,91

26,08

19,79

30,09

2,02

28,11

15,61

30,79

1,35

29,46

13,83

32,42

1,50

30,96

12,98

36,47

2,78

33,74

14,63

46,88

6,63

40,38

22,56

52,66

6,20

46,58

25,94

56,90

5,21

51,79

27,70

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Accumulated offer

Source: The Authors. Note: Results of the monthly average precipitation, monthly water demand and water supply, and calculation of the demand and accumulated supply and storage volume.

Urban Level: for the urban design, it has a raceway system that collects water previously collected on the roof, this water is conducted by means of drainpipes, the size of the drop vary according to the type of the apartment and the type of diameter is 4”. The water is transported to an intercepting system which has a storage capacity of 700 liter, once filled, clean water will continue its travel and pass to the storage tanks of 80m3, which they will be distributed by the irrigation system on the whole. Prototype Design: the system was implemented in the model home which is based on the apartment type B location on the fifth floor. This consists of a channel system which is covered with a mesh preventing coarse material such as leaves, branches, and other items for entering the system. The rainwater is led to the down comer, due to the inclination it has been provided. After this, the rainwater reaches an interceptor tank where the first flush of the roof (the most polluted part of the rainwater) is retained. In order to prevent that rainwater from the interceptor reach the underground storage tanks, a check valve (which ensures that the water flows in only one way) is used.

33

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Once you reach the underground storage tank, it may provide 250 liters of water to the green area of the house, by a hand pump. (Figure 2.2). Figure 2.2. Prototype rainwater tank

Source: The Authors.

Groundwater System The construction of two wells at a depth of 40 meters will be made. The function of these wells is to collect water from the water table by means of filtration to be used mainly for irrigation of the condominium. In order to construct these wells, detailed studies of the soil will be made in order to result in a stratigraphic column, which will be needed to see if a coating in the wells is needed in order to protect them from possible leaks of contaminated water or to prevent instability problems (mainly to avoid contact with clays, considering humidity can cause landslides and widening of the well). Collecting water from these wells is completed at 19 meters depth with a maximum flow of 4,3 m/s, this decision will be made because the specific capacity for wells is approximately 0,4 (L/S)/m, which will generate an efficient well performance. The wells will be located near the areas of rainwater storage because when no water is taken of this medium, it is recharged by groundwater to be distributed by the irrigation network. Each of the wells will supply half the demand together with a flow of 960 L/d, in total have a 1920 L/d being used for the condominium daily demand for irrigation activities.

34

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

System components Groundwater. Well components will be primarily a system of filters that allow the entry of water from the water table to the well, this filter system will have two parts, an outer layer of gravel to serve as a filter and gravel PVC after further count with coatings to prevent contact and input unwanted substances; the well count in the background with a sand trap to prevent entry of unnecessary material to storage tanks also the surface of the well will have a tight lid to avoid pollutant emissions source. The components of the groundwater system proposed in this project are shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3. System components groundwater.

Source: The Authors. Note: the size and position of components lining the well may vary depending on the study of the soil.

Urban Level: It has two underground wells with a depth of 40 meters, which go through different soil types, which causes to vary the type of filtration. At 19 meters of depth extracting fluid with a flow rate of about 0,4 (L/s) are held, supplying the daily needs of the residential complex, equivalent to 1920 L/d for activities of irrigation of green areas. This system will work in combination with rainwater storage tanks because when they are empty, they will be burdened with this type of water for distribution. Greywater Tanks

In this project we plan to have a system for greywater treatment for the entire unit to allow the reuse of greywater from showers, laundry (washing machine and laundry) and sink for toilet flushing. Greywater demand was considered for the critical condition, i.e. assuming the

35

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

use of six daily toilet flushes per inhabitants per apartment. Considering a low consumption toilet (see Figure 1.7), with a consumption of 4,85 liters of water per flush and a total of five inhabitants by house, the greywater demand would be 29,1 liters per person per day (4,85 L / discharge * 6 downloads / inhabitant = 29,1 L / person / day) and 145,5 liters per apartment (29,1 L / person / day * 5 inhabitants = 145,5 L / day) (Table 2.7). Figure 2.4. Technical data of low consumption toilet

Source: Taken from Corona. Table 2.7. Greywater consumption Greywater consumption Demand toilet discharge

4,85 (L/d)

Demand per person (6 discharges)

29,1 (L/inhabitants/day)

Demand for apartment (5 inhabitants)

145 (L/day)

Source: The Authors.

36

Production, storage and treatment of greywater. For the management of greywater, we propose to have two underground collection tanks located in the green areas (see Figure 2.5, Figure 2.6, Figure 2.7). The overall output of greywater (AG) per person/day is shown in the following table:

DEVICES THAT GENERATE GREYWATER AT HOME

AG PRODUCTION (L/D-HAB)

Showers

45

Clothes washing

20

Washbasin

6 Source: López (2013).

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Table 2.8. Devices that generate greywater at home.

For designing the two greywater collection tanks it was considered: (1) production of greywater generated by the use of the showers once a day for five people per apartment (5 hab * 45 L / d * hab = 225 L / d); (2) half of greywater production associated with the consumption of laundry for five people per apartment (5 hab * 20 L / d * hab = 100L / d) and finally (3) the water generated by the sink (5 hab * 6 L / d * hab = 30 L / d). The total volume of greywater from showers, sinks and clothes washing that is needed to collect should be 355 liters per day per apartment, however an additional volume is considered to prevent overflow of water in the tanks during the critical time of generation of greywater, which corresponds when the washing machine is used. At that time, an additional volume storage is required to collect greywater corresponding to 7 days (5 bed * 20 L / d * hab * 7 d = 700 L), since the frequency of washing clothes is usually once a week. Considering the previous analysis, it is proposed to have two storage tanks for zone 1 and zone 2 (Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6), with a volume of 26 m3, with the following dimensions: height = 2m, width =2,6m and length = 5m. Figure 2.5. Greywater storage for 6 apartment blocks. (zone 1)

37 Source: The Authors.

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 2.6. Greywater storage for 6 apartment blocks. (zone 2)

Source: The Authors.

For the greywater treatment, it is proposed to have a treatment system (see Figure 2.7) composed of a grease trap, followed by a tank where the coagulation and flocculation processes are performed and finally the water distribution is performed by pumps, bringing the treated water to each apartment for toilet flushing. Figure 2.7. Flowchart for greywater treatment system.

Source: The Authors.

38

Prototype Design. For the production of greywater at the prototype house, it was considered to collect greywater from sinks, washing, laundry and showers. A basic treatment will be performed through a grease trap and a pump to reuse greywater into the toilet tanks, completely satisfying the demand. It should be noted, that in the toilets located at the prototype house, it will not be allowed any physiological activity that affects water quality, making the treatment adopted for the prototype in the Villa Solar very safe (Figure 2.8).

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 2.8. Prototype greywater storage.

Source: The Authors.

Drinking Water Tanks The Mihouse project comprises a total of 128 apartments with a total of 30 buildings, which are divided into two types of blocks: 22 blocks considered 4 stories and 8 blocks considered 5 stories. The drinking water at all apartments will be supplied by pumping from two underground storage tanks. These blocks have specific conditions such as: number of apartments per block, spatial distribution, number of floors and number apartment per floor. With that information and the population density in the project (five people/apartment), the total population to be supplied with drinking water is estimated (Table 2.9). Table 2.9. Apartments Distribution by type Total number of apartments in the complex: 128 Block type A

Block type B

Number of blocks: 22

Number of blocks: 8

Number of floors: 4

Number of floors: 5

Apartments per floor: 1

Apartments per floor: 1

Total Population to Supply: 640 people Source: The Authors.

39

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

The calculation of the water demand was estimated considering the Technical Rules of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Colombia - RAS 2000 (Ministerio de Desarrollo Económico Colombia [MDE], 2000) and historical records for the year 2014 reported for residential subscribers in Cali. In order to calculate drinking water demands according to the RAS 2000 (MDE, 2000) the level of complexity of the system was initially calculated, which is determined from the number of people, in this case for the city of Santiago de Cali in 2014 it was about 2 344 703 inhabitants (DAP, 2014). Because the level of complexity is high, the minimum net water dotation is 150 L/ inhabitants*day. From this provision the RAS recommended a correction for effects of population growth and climate. The first aspect was not considered due to the small population of 740 inhabitants in the project, while the second aspect was considered by increasing in a 20 % the minimum net dotation according to table B.2.3. Title B of RAS 2000 (MDE, 2000), setting a value of 180 L/ inhabitants*day. The project considers the reuse of greywater from showers, washing machines and laundry for toilets flushing. However, this reduction is not considered in the provision of drinking water, because it requires that the water supply will provide water for the toilets in case of maintenance of the greywater system and in case in which the greywater is not enough for toilets flushing.

Storage volume for the Drinking water tank In order to calculate the storage volume of the drinking water tank, it must be considered the drinking water demand per apartment, considering the restriction that is needed to have tanks to supply water by pumping to all floors of the buildings. It is assumed that the storage tank must store drinking water for one day of water demand, thus the calculation of the quantity of drinking water to be stored was made (Table 2.10).

40

Drinking water demand per inhabitant

108 l/hab/day

Number of people per apartment

5

Number of apartments

128

Storage volume for the drinking water tank

115,2 m3

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Table 2.10. Storage volume for the Drinking water tank

Source: The Authors.

The volume obtained for the storage tank is very large; therefore, two drinking water storage tanks will be built with smaller dimensions. These tanks will be built and buried in the green areas within the complex of buildings. Each tank will supply 64 apartments with a volume of 57,6 m3. If the tanks are rectangular with a height of 2 m it requires an area of 28,8 m2. This height is appropriate because it allows reducing construction costs and problems with groundwater level (Table 2.11). Table 2.11. Drinking Water Pre-dimensioning PARAMETER

VALUE

Volume per tank (m3)

57,6

Area per tank (m2)

28,8

Height (m)

2

Wide (m)

4,11

Length (m)

7 Source: The Authors.

Plumbing System Drinking water distribution system: PROTOTYPE

Drinking water pipes are located as near as possible to the solar heating system, so the number of pipes used us reduced. Additionally, the system is also located as near as possible

41

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

to the utilities, to reduce the loss of heat from the hot water in the water conduction. These pipes are made of PVC with a diameter of ½ inch (1,27 cm). This material is perfect for both types of pipes for transporting hot and cold water (Pérez, 1997). The PVC is ductile, flexible and it is a material chemically and mechanically resistant. It is compatible with the speed required during the assembly of the prototype house and it has no need of welding, it is only necessary anchoring for greater stability of the pipe (Figure 2.9). In the prototype house it is not necessary to have storage tanks for drinking water, because the Solar Decathlon (SD) Organization LAC2015 provides water connections and drinking water to each team for using it during the contest period. The SD Organization LAC2015 will provide drinking water by a system of pipes to supply each team batch. The maximum pressure available in the prototype house is 15 meters of water column. The water supply will be monitored; therefore, the organizers will provide measurement instruments of water in a corner of the plot. The outlet pipe is ½ “in diameter. Figure 2.9. Drinking water distribution system

Source: The Authors.

Greywater collection system

42

Urban Context: Each mezzanine floor of the building has a horizontal drainage system of PVC with a diameter of 2 inches (5,08 cm), which receives greywater discharges from each sanitary appliance and leads greywater until a downspout. This is a vertical downspout pipe

Prototype: To produce greywater, we considered the collection of water from sink, washing machine, laundry and showers with PVC pipes with a diameter of 2 inches (5,08 cm). Wastewater collection system

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

passing through the false wall along the whole building, connected by elbows, which collects greywater and evacuated to the storage tank. In this tank the greywater is treated and then it is distributed by pumps to each apartment for toilet flushing.

Urban Context: Each mezzanine floor of the building has a horizontal drainage system that receives wastewater discharges of each toilet and dishwasher and leads it until a wastewater drainpipe. This is a vertical downspout pipe passing through the false wall along the whole building, connected by elbows, which collects wastewater and evacuate it to the primary drainage system. It is important to have a ventilation system for the downspouts in order to prevent the production of odors. This ventilation pipe leads the upper part of the downspouts onto the deck, where it ends in curve with two elbows of 90°, leading to an angle of 180°, which allow us to prevent the entry of rainwater. Considering the recommendations of Melguizo (1980), in order to evacuate the wastewater from the building to the sewerage system, we propose to have two inspection boxes (each inspection box covers half of the housing complex) in which we have a connection of the downspout pipes with the horizontal pipes. These two inspection boxes will be located underground in two green areas of the housing complex. These boxes allow inspection and cleaning labors. The walls of the inspection box are made of concrete with the following dimensions: 0.1 x 0.2 x 0.4 m, as stipulated (Empresas Públicas de Medellín, 2012). The boxes are built to the level of the platform or green area and they should have concrete lids with metal frame. In order to bury the pipes of the primary drainage network, we should leave a minimum slope of 2 %, i.e. 2 cm per linear meter of pipe. Prototype: Wastewater from toilets and dishwashers will be connected to the same wastewater transport system made of PVC with a diameter of 4 inches (10,16 cm). This system will transport wastewater to finally dispose it into a storage tank.

Water Budget Activities Related to the Water Consumption

The consumption of drinking related to the activities in The Solar Village is as follows. 43

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

44

Table 2.12. Activities related to the water consumption Activities

Consumption (L/ CICLO)

Clothes washer

65

Flushing the toilet

4,85

Hot water draws

50

Cooking

20

Dinner Party

10 Source: The Authors.

Daily activities that take place on The Solar Village and planned water consumption reached a total of 1174,3L water consumption during test of the competition; however, it can be considered that for the test of cooking is not used water since the recipe is based on vegetables.

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Clothes washer

0

0

0

2

2

2

0

2

0

0

0

0

Flushing the toilet

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Hot water draws

0

0

0

2

2

2

2

2

2

0

0

0

Cooking

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Dinner party

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

Garden watering

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Clothes washer

0

0

0

130

130

130

0

130

0

0

0

Flushing the toilet

0

0

0

4,85

4,85

4,85

4,85

4,85

0

0

0

Hot water draws

0

0

0

100

100

100

100

100

100

0

0

Cooking

0

0

0

10

10

10

10

10

0

0

0

Dinner party

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total volume from clear water (L)

0

0

0

100

0

0

Contest day

244,85 244,85 244,85 114,85 244,85

WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Day

Table 2.13. Daily Cycles

1942,5

Source: The Authors. The use of greywater and rain system to reduce the water consumption of the prototype is considered at the end, with the following results.

45

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

46

Table 2.14. Total generated volume of water Daily Cycles Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

Day

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Greywater waste

0

0

0

230

230

230

100

230

100

0

0

0

Black water waste

0

0

0

14,9

14,9

14,9

14,9

14,9

0

0

0

0

Contest day

1120 L

Total Volume greywater

74,25 L

Total volume black water Source: The Authors.

In the previous table it was obtained that the generated volume of greywater is 1120 L, which can be fully reused for irrigation of gardens and for filling the toilet tanks. The total volume of wastewater comes from flushing the toilets and scheduled tasks for cooking. Thus, the volume of wastewater during the contest days 15 to 19 was 14,9 L, whereas during the entire contest was 74,25 L.

Chapter

3

Energy Management System

Andrea María Quintero Osorio1

Juan Manuel Luna Rodríguez1

Ana María Ramírez Tovar2

Wilson Eduardo Pabón Álvarez1

Andrés Felipe Ramírez Vélez

1

Fabián Andrés Gaviria Cataño1

1 2 3

Students of Electrical Engineering. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. Student of Mechanical Engineering. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. Engineering Faculty Staff. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente.

Hugo Andrés Macías Ferro3 Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón3

47

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

48

Electrical System Design A general description of the design criteria adopted for the electrical system of this project is going to be shown. To select the electric load (freezer, lighting system, laptop, washing machine, etc), studies made by utilities were used. In those publications, some reports explain the type of loads and electricity profiles in low income houses or what is called here social housing. Then, those studies were compared and the Mihouse electric load was defined. With the power and energy defined, the calculation of the photovoltaic system was carried out. The following table shows the energy consumed at Mihouse, which is simulated with a baseline similar to the papers studied, with an average of 1 000 W. Table 3.1. One-year time series detailed analysis of Mihouse electrical load #

Electric loads

AC voltage (V)

Power (W)

Daily hours

Total energy kWh/day

1

Led luminaire 120 living

10

5

0,05

2

Led luminaire 120 restrooms

10

2

0,04

1

Led luminaire 120 kitchen

10

5

0,05

1

Led luminaire 120 dinning

10

3

0,03

1

Led luminaire 120 patio

10

2

0,018

1

Led luminaire 120 bedroom 1

10

4

0,04

1

Led luminaire 120 bedroom 2

10

4

0,04

1

Led luminaire 120 bedroom 3

10

4

0,04

1

Blender

370

0,2

0,074

120

Electric loads

AC voltage (V)

Power (W)

Daily hours

Total energy kWh/day

1

Washing machine 31 pounds

120

125,6

1

0,1256

1

Refrigerator 222l

120

100

12

1,2

1

TV led flat 22’

120

30,4

3

0,0912

1

Phone charger

120

12

3

0,036

1

Laptop

120

65

6

0,39

1

Microwave

120

800

1

0,8

1

Oven

120

1000

1

1

TOTAL

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

#

2583 Source: The Authors.

Solar Energy Resource After having the demand clear, the resource must be identified with the site latitude and longitude over The Solar Village location. Location can be found using Google Earth as a basic tool and latitude and longitude appears by default as shown on Figure 3.1.

49

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.1. The Solar Village location

Source: Map of Valle del Cauca [online]. Google Earth [1 of december 2014]. Available on: http://www. google.com/intl/es/earth/download/ge/agree.html

Then, The Solar Village in Cali is located in Latitude: 3.379021 and longitude -76.537095. A most accurate solar resource can be obtained from weather stations, satellite data or statistics data registered. In this case a comparison between NASA meteorological data and the Universidad Autónoma de Occidente own weather station will be used.

50

First, the Surface meteorology and Solar Energy resource available at https://eosweb. larc.nasa.gov, which is a renewable energy resource web site (in its release 6.0), that has been sponsored by Nasa’s Applied Science Program in the Science Mission Directorate and

Meteorological Study

Some data has been collected on a weather station located near to The Solar Village location. As presented here, temperature, solar radiation, humidity and rain will affect the contest and they must be considered by the team to reach interior values measurements

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

developed by Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource Project (Power), will be used with an altitude of 990 m. Regarding solar radiation, it can be observed that the south of Cali has an average of 4560 Wh/m2. On the other hand, the average temperature is approximately 23,5°C considering maximum of 33°C and minimum of 18°C, with sunny days almost all year.

Data of Average Insolation on horizontal surface

The atmospheric Science data center that manages the Eos web application gives the following results: Table 3.2. Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on a Horizontal Surface (kWh/m2/day) Lat 3.37 Lon-76.5

22-year Average

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual average

4,05

4,28

4,37

4,21

4,09

4,05

4,34

4,30

4,26

3,99

3,89

3,82

4,13

Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/. Responsible > Data: Paul W. Stackhouse, Jr., Ph.D. Officials > Archive: John M. Kusterer - Site Administration/Help: NASA Langley ASDC - Document generated on Fri Jun 12 08:52:20 EDT 2015.

To confirm the data prediction, some weather information from a meteorological station is presented here. In the first place, outside humidity, then level of rain which apparently is just a few mm, Solar radiation with one peak around the 10th of November and the last one is outside temperature, oscillating between 20°C - 30°C (Figure 3.2, Figure 3.3)

51

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.2. Meteorological span figures from 10th November until 10th of December 2014

Source: Solar radiation and temperature in an specific day.

In this context, identifying solar radiation values would allow the Mihouse team to perform an accurate energy prediction. As an example, outside temperature and solar radiation of 30th of November 2014 is shown here. Figure 3.3. Solar radiation and temperature in an specific day

Source: Obtained from the meteorological station at Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. 52

Maximum values of 800W/m2, could be presented in a regular day of November, with peaks of temperature of 30°C. As it is shown in blue line for radiation, when the sun rises, minimum

Photovoltaic System Design In general terms and to accomplish with the Solar Decathlon requirements, a solar photovoltaic (PV) grid-tie system is considered to this project. Each dwelling will have its own electric load cover by that PV system which responds to the house needs and allows selling its surplus to the electrical grid. Furthermore, the methodology used to select and size this generation system will be presented.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

values of solar radiation appear at 7 am with 100W/m2 and in this case, radiation falls near noon when a solar radiation of 1000W/m2 can be measured. Then it goes down near 6pm and the last value could be at 5pm with 100W/ m2.

That system consists of 12 solar PV panels for each house. They capture the solar radiation (photons), and convert it into electrical direct current (DC). That DC current flows to the synchronous grid-tie inverter that convert it to alternating current (AC). PV modules general characteristics vary according to the technology. Nowadays, Solar PV High efficiency modules are being manufactured from Silicon such as: •

Multicrystalline silicon solar cells.

•

Monocrystalline solar cells.

•

Amorphous silicon.

There are some other new fewer commercial technologies: •

Hetero Intrinsic Junction HIT (Sanyo –Panasonic)

•

THIN –FILMS (CdTe, CuIGaSe2, etc)

•

Organic

Selecting the type of module to Mihouse depends not only on technology (high performance on tropical environments or adverse conditions), but costs, stocks, efficiencies, weight and area. Hence, PV modules and inverter equipment were selected using a multi-criteria selection system, based on these topics. Well recognized manufacturers must be taking into consideration for quality results. Moreover, code compliances are considered. After some time reviewing different solar PV manufacturer’s rankings, it was decided to analyze and compare the following table: 53

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 3.3. Top manufacturers Top MANUFACTURERS Canadian solar Kyocera Sunpreme Solarworld Yingli Toshiba Sanyo Panasonic First Solar Source: The Authors.

To select the grid-tie inverter, first, the electrical power demanded by the dwelling must be considered. Then, voltage and AC current from the load side (house) and AC input range voltage which must match with the PV array output values. Solar photovoltaic panels consist of many solar cells, being most of them made by silicon which are connected between them to produce an electrical direct current (DC) that goes to electronic devices such as inverter to convert direct current into alternating current for the amount of electricity required in a house for its electrical appliances. The full system is described by modules in the following scheme: Figure 3.4.Components and energy flow on a solar PV grid connected system

Source: The Authors.

Basically, a solar PV grid connected system has the following components: Solar PV grid connected system: Generally, a solar grid connected system consists of

54

•

Inverter system.

•

Protection System and health and safety elements.

•

Electricity power meter.

•

Transformer to grid (some cases).

Solar energy has the advantage of minimum expenses for maintenance. However, as an electrical energy system, it requires preventive maintenance to avoid any failure during its regular operation and in case of a failure or damage; corrective actions must be carried out. Preventive Maintenance. Cleaning: After installation, it is recommended to observe carefully how clean or dirty the modules are. This allows to identify or to determine the period of time for cleaning. This cleaning can be done with a small dry cloth during a day (producing electricity), or it can be done with a wet cloth on a disconnected system. Because a solar PV system does not have movement, there are minimal maintenance costs but even these diminish over time. This process should be done every three months to avoid particles allocated over the module.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Maintenance Plan

Corrective Maintenance •

To change damaged or broken modules.

•

To replace damaged wires or with some corrosive mark.

•

To replace PV mounting structures physically damaged.

Produced Energy After all the ideas, researches and decisions made during many meeting hours, the team designed an efficient project in terms of solar power generation and consumption. We believe that with the Mihouse prototype it can be demonstrated to the visitors of The Solar Village the state of art in photovoltaic solar technologies that can be integrated as architectural elements in low-income living residential condominiums. For example, the total solar electric PV system consists of 544 Canadian 310 W modules for a total peak power of 168 kW placed on a roof system. This system is connected to the electronic subcomponents that will connect the solar power to the living house and additionally it will charge a 5 4400 Ah storage system. Available roof surfaces for setting solar panels

Since the buildings in the project proposed two clear areas in the roofs with a small declination of 15° (at the equator line), it was decided during the designing process that these would be the surfaces where it would be able to locate the solar modules. Then it was proceeded to calculate those available surfaces (See the following Table).

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 3.4. Available surfaces Roof area (m2) in living Roof area (m2) in living unit type a unit type b 53,83 54,24

Roofs per group of buildings

Roof area per group of buildings (m2)

4

215,32

2

108,48

AREA IN 1 GROUP

323,8

AREA IN 6 GROUPS

1942,8

Source: The Authors.

As seen in the previous table, each group of buildings has an available roof surface area of 323,8 m2. Considering there are 6 groups of buildings that provided 1942,8 m2 of available surface, it was affirmed that it is possible to easily install more than 1000 solar modules with an area of 1,9 m2 each. Then it was compared the estimated energy generated in the roof area to the calculated energy required for the proposal. This enabled us to know if there were enough panels on the roof and if it was needed more or less roof area for positioning more/less panels. Estimated area versus required area for the solar PV system. Sizing the PV system allowed to decide the type, brand and size of solar module that complied with the available space on the roof. The number of living units, modules per-living unit and the total amount of solar modules for the project were considered to define the total required area. In the project, the area considered depended on the module area of 1,92 m2. (See Table 3.5)

56

Living units

148

Modules per living unit

4

Modules per building

24

Total modules/project

544

Area per module (m2)

1,918828

Total area (m2)

1043,84243

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Table 3.5. Estimation of area per living unit module

Source: The Authors.

As seen on the table, these 148 living units have 4 (1,92 m2) modules each, which means that for 544 solar modules it is required a global area of 1043,84 m2. This represents more area available than what Mihouse requires. Solar PV System

After identifying the total energy demand for this proposal, as presented on the last item “Electrical system design”, the following step is to size the solar PV system i.e. panels, inverter, protection, wires, etc. that are detailed as follows. The solar PV grid connected system must accomplish with the entire house demand, according to this, an energy generator should generate at least 2590 W during the maximum peak demand. Standardized, solar modules and inverters can be found in similar values to 3000 W. The solar PV system consists of 2 strings of 6 series connected modules. Multiple modules are wired in series to increase direct current (DC), voltage. The installed capacity for this rooftop system is 3000 W at Standard Test Conditions as it is presented in the following figure, using sketchup software (Figure 3.4)

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.5. Rooftop with the solar PV system

Source: The Authors.

The DC voltage is converted by the inverter and connected to the house with the function of providing enough energy to cover living unit demand and send the energy excesses to the grid, in low demand periods. This fundamental electronic device will be located on the electrical feeder, as it is shown in the following figure. Figure 3.6. Solar grid-connected inverter

58

Source: The Authors.

Electrical Load Study Estimating solar and energy consumption in low income living houses is a hard task. However, some researches and publications show that a person in low-income neighborhoods in Colombia consumes an average of 35 kWh/month, which means that in Mihouse it is required approximately 175 kWh/month. On the other hand, an important Colombian utility showed in a study that a full family would consume 270,4 kWh/month (UPME, 2014). Taking into consideration those very serious reports and the team’s professional considerations, Mihouse decided 134,07 kWh/month as design criteria (UPME 2014). This was also reviewed in June 2015 at: http://www.siel.gov.co/siel/documentos/documentacion/Demanda/Residencial/ Consumo_Final_ Energia.swf

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

For the accessibility of the installation, Mihouse will have an electrical feeder cabinet that can be reached from outside the house for maintenance and repair tasks. There, the inverter, main switch, protections and the control systems are connected technically. Thus, any decathlete or reviewer or jury could check it anytime.

Table 3.6. Energy load requirements per living unit

Hour/day

Total energy (Kwh/day)

Monthly energy (Kwh/ month)

15

5

0,075

2,25

120

15

2

0,06

1,8

LED kitchen

120

15

5

0,075

2,25

1

LED dining room

120

15

3

0,045

1,35

1

LED yard

120

15

2

0,018

0,54

1

LED bedroom 1

120

15

4

0,06

1,8

1

LED bedroom 2

120

15

4

0,06

1,8

1

LED bedroom

120

15

4

0,06

1,8

1

Blender

120

400

0,2

0,08

2,4

1

Washing machine 24 LBS

120

500

0,45

0,225

6,75

Quan.

Load

Voltage (V)

Power

1

LED living room

120

2

LED restroom

1

3

(W)

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Quan.

Load

Voltage (V)

Power (W)

Hour/day

Total energy (Kwh/day)

Monthly energy (Kwh/ month)

1

Freezer 200L

120

137,5

12

1,65

49,5

1

TV led 32’

120

60

3

0,18

5,4

1

Sound system

120

150

4

0,6

18

1

Mobile charger

120

12

3

0,036

1,08

1

Laptop charger

120

65

5

0,325

9,75

1

Microwave

120

770

1

0,77

23,1

1

Iron

120

750

0,2

TOTAL

2964,5

0,15

4,5

4.469

134.07

Source: UPME, 2014.

According to each possible living unit and recommended electrical appliances, the team researched regional and local academic and social publications that reported the way in which energy is used by people living in poverty. That energy assessment gave real data of how each electrical appliance works. After reading those reports, the design changed to be approached to that data. The electrical load for an average family is presented. A highly efficient lighting system that could be replaced by the inhabitants of the house in the future was considered. For instance, LED lighting with less power consumption could be used, but it is not a real commercial light found in a regular store or popular market. In the same way, the freezer, washing machine and the rest of the appliances considered all these important efficiency aspects by working 120V at 60Hz. In this table, a total energy amount of 4469Wh per day is required per/living house (Table 36). Considering that these houses would be developed in Cali, Colombia, it is expected a monthly solar average radiation of 4,3 kWh/m2 and an average of 4,3 Hours of Solar Power each day. So far, a load of 3000 Wp per house is considered, resulting on 12 kWp per building without considering lighting on common areas and other services (water pumps). It can be seen how the loads are distributed. This information was built with the help of software and constitutes an important input for simulating a load curve indicating the energy consumption of the living unit during a regular day (Table 3.7).

60

0-1

0,137 0,137

3-4 A M 4- 5 AM 5- 6AM

0,137 0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

Power/hour

Iron

microwave

0,065

1-2 AM 2-3 AM

Charger laptop

Charger cellphone

Sound

TV led 32’

Freezer 200L

Washing ma chine 24 LES

Blender

LED room 3

LED room 2

LED room 1

LED patio

LED dinning

LED kitchen

LED bath

LED living room

Table 3.7. Energy consumption during a regular day

0,202

0,065

0,065

0,065

0,202

0,065

0,065

0,065

0,202 0,105

0,015

6-7 AM

0,137

0,15

0,287

7-8 AM

0

8-9 AM

0,137

0,137

9-10AM

0,15

10-11 AM

0,2

0,25

0,15

0,137

0,015

11-12:00

0,602 0

12-13 H

0,137

0,137

13-14

0

14-15

0,137

0,137

15-16

0

16-17

0,137

17-18 18-19

0,015

19-20

0,015

20-21

0,015

21-22

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,137

0,015 0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

0,015

22-23

0,137

23-24

0,287

0,15

0,15 0,012

0,209

0,06

0,012

0,177

0,06

0,012

0,284

0,06 0,37

0,15

0,77

0,135 0,137 0

Source: The Authors.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Solar system design and simulation Several computer tools to build models, run parametric studies, and analyze results were used. The following is a brief description of the programs used: •

Homer: is an optimizing tool for the design and simulation of renewable energy systems for isolated and grid-tie systems.

•

SketchUp – OpenStudio: The OpenStudio plugin to Google SketchUp streamlines the task of defining 3D geometry for EnergyPlus analysis. OpenStudio also provides an interface for visualizing the output from EnergyPlus.

•

Microsoft Excel: Results from EnergyPlus are downloaded to Excel spreadsheets. The energy analysis process makes extensive use of Excel’s graphical analysis capabilities.

Mihouse supplies 100% clean electricity by photovoltaic panels with high efficiency and reputation in the market, there are 12 photovoltaic modules with an output of 310 W each with a serial connection type with the aim of achieving a greater power and performance. These modules correspond to the Canadian Solar brand Max Power CS6X-305. In addition, Mihouse controls and converts the energy produced from DC to AC every day. This is possible thanks to Inverter StecaGrid 3010, a referenced element highlighted in the market for its high coefficient of maximum performance (98,6 %), see Figure 3.7. Figure 3.7. Panel technical information

62

Source: Canadian Solar catalogue Available on: http://www.get-systems.com/productsfiles/solarcells/ Canadian_Solar-Datasheet-MaxPower-CS6X-P-v5.51en.pdf

Energy production and environmental benefits: Environmental benefits of Mihouse include tons of CO2 saved due to its clean Energy production. Moreover, the functional architectural design allows natural lighting pass through wide windows allowing the fresh wind in the afternoon flow throughout the house, avoiding any air conditioning system and reaching comfortable temperatures.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Electrical Energy Balance Simulation

P0’Because of the high values of solar radiation in Colombia and especially Santiago de Cali, this is an ideal scenery to take advantage of the solar resource. With the solar energy PV system, Mihouse is designed to generate 100 % of electric loads during the night time or during the day, becoming this proposal a sustainable living unit. These special weather features can be analyzed using computational tools as HelioScope. Folsom Labs develops HelioScope, an advanced PV system design tool that integrates system layout and performance modeling. Electricity production using HelioScope

The helioscope software indicates power produced by the solar PV system, in this case 3,6 kW. Moreover, the annual power PV production. Figure 3.8. System metrics

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.9. Monthly Production

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

In the above Figure 3.8, main values of the Energy PV system are described. On the other hand, the following figure shows the monthly production on Mihouse considering all electric loads inside the house. As any electrical system, there are some losses, showed in the Figure 3.9. Figure 3.10. Sources of loss

64

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

Table 3.8. Annual Production

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Annual Production

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Condition Set Figure 3.11. Condition Set

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

66

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 3.12. Components

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope. Figure 3.13. Wiring Zones and field segments

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.14. System Connection.

Source: The Authors with the software HelioScope.

Electrical estimated consumption The methodology applied in Mihouse to estimate its energy production and the behavior of each of its elements allows virtual simulation of the operation and status of items like future projections of the house’s behavior. Mihouse has chosen for this work a software called Homer, or Hybrid Optimization of Mutiple Energy Resources, this program allows to enter the photovoltaic system with functional loads and the inverter chosen for subsequent computation and simulation of major managed system factors such as economic for the best and optimum configuration system. Description of the tools used for the simulations: Homer Energy LLC is a Boulder, Colorado based company incorporated in 2009 to commercialize the Homer® model, which was developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab, a division of the U.S. Department of Energy. Homer Energy’s primary focus is the continuing development, distribution, and support of Homer. The company also provides training, services, and community tools to professionals, researchers, and enthusiasts in the energy industry who desire to analyze and optimize distributed power systems and systems that incorporate high penetrations of renewable energy sources.

68

The Homer Energy principles have been working with economic and engineering optimization of microgrids for over two decades. Homer Energy’s team includes the economist and engineer who originally created the Homer software while at NREL, along with professional managers, analysts and other business professionals with experience in entrepreneurial ventures,

In addition to the Homer software, Homer Energy offers additional services such as webbased and in person training and assistance in the use of Homer. The project also customized the software for novel problems or types of equipment. In addition, it was provided a range of consulting services related to the policies, economics, and technologies of renewable and distributed power.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

power systems, and renewable energy. The project’s collective vision is to empower people around the world with tools, services, and information in order to accelerate the adoption of renewable and distributed energy sources.

Since its release, the Homer software has been downloaded by over 100 000 people in 193 countries. This is a global community of pioneering practitioners in renewable and distributed power. In order to harness the collective wisdom of this group, Homer Energy has also created an online community with discussion forums where users can engage with each other. The following figures show the results of the simulation used with this program. Figure 3.15. Simulation results, cash flow summary.

Source: The Authors with the software Homer.

In this figure, on COST SUMMARY window, a relation between different components is presented. It allows to identify how the individual cost of every single component impact

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

the budget and it can be compared with the cash flow window. In this case, the main cost is due to the PV system, then the converter and finally grid connection. However, a comparison can be done with the values showed down the figure, where the capital costs, replacement, operation and maintenance, fuel (it is applied), and salvage are presented. Figure 3.16. Simulation results, cash flow

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

In 3.14, the cash flow window shows how the first year, the initial capital is applied.

70

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 3.17. Monthly Average Electric Production

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

This figure indicates how the PV system and grid purchases met the demand.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.18. PV Output.

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

As Is presented in figure 3.16. a PV window shows the day time when the PV array produces more electricity (DC), and the color intensity indicate the high values.

72

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 3.19. Primary Load

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

Finally, for a full energy analysis, a new wind allow to plot the AC primary hourly load. More hourly detailed results as presented in Figures. 3.18 and 3.19 can be obtained.

73

74 Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.20. Grid sales

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 3.21. PV power

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

Solar Thermal Design Mihouse decided to use a passive solar water heating system as the proposal to generate hot water in a cost-effective way. This hot water will be used in laundry and cooking as was requested by the solar decathlon SDLAC 2015 contest. The solar water heater main function is to storage heat water produced by the solar vacuum tubes. This can be done between 1-4 days in small house systems. They are built in steel stainless, aluminum, glass fiber reinforced and plastics. The deposit size must be at least 50 liters per square meter of solar panels. In the Mihouse system, the tank size or volume considers 50 -75 l/m2 for using hot water and heating. However, some manufacturers take into consideration 40 l per person and 50 l reserve in single family dwellings, thus Mihouse tank is almost 200-300 l for the entire family, as it is presented in the following calculation: [ 4 person x 40 L ] + 50 L = 210 L

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

It must be said that this thermal system only serves hot water for laundry and showers. No heat air is provided in Mihouse due to location in Cali, Colombia, where the average temperature is 28°C, and a solar thermal system for heating will not be used. Supporting structure, a frame for a flat roof installation is presented in Figure 320, while the solar thermal components are shown in Figure 3.20. Figure 3.22. Frame for a flat roof

Source: The Authors.

76

1. rear pole 2. triangle plate 3. tank bracket

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 3.23. Heater components

4. level bar 5. rear support bar 6. front support bar 7. front pole 8. back box 9. feet Source: The Authors.

This configuration is for flat roofs, but Mihouse will not use rear poles or triangle plates. •

Storage system: Hot water produced by this solar system is delivered to a storage tank. This solar water heater uses a well-insulated storage tank connected to the collector. For low sun or shading, an electrical backup is with the system.

•

Accessibility for maintenance tasks: Roof pathways with permanent anchor points are part of the Mihouse fall protection system. Roof simple anchor points are a vital part of a fall protection system. Fall protection anchor points are installed on the roof to connect lifelines.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 3.9. Electric and Photovoltaic – special chart

Solar PV module: Operational conditions and external influence

Voc: 44,8V Vmp:36,3V Solar string 6 modules series connected V-36.3V6-217.8V Solar Array: 12 modules in 2 strings. Inverter minimum input voltage 125V MPP voltage 270-500 V

The PV modules are installed on the roof, in plane with structural surfaces, although they are easy and safe accessible. PV system accesibility

The string panels, inverters and main distribution panels are installed in appropriate technical cabinets Accessible on the ground floor. The cabinet are suitably for ventilation, maintenance and accessibility to the equipment installed.

Wire type: Centelsa Type PV, XLPE SR 600V 90°C Wiring system design and implementation

Selection criteria of wiring systems in order to withstand the expected external Influences. Isolation, switching and control Means of isolating the PV inverter from the DC side and AC side. Isolation and switching.

Source: authors. 78

Technical Project Manual

As a summary and taking into account additional information of the engineering and construction of the house, the technical project manual of the house is shown below. Project Dimensions:

I.

Gross area (m2): 85,5 m2

II.

Gross volume (m3): 205,2 m3

III.

Surface area (m2): 81 m2

IV.

Net floor area (m2): 67,5 m2

V.

Conditioned volume (m3): 138,6 m

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Energy Efficiency Design Narrative

AC Systems

I.

Heating system: does not apply

II.

Cooling system: does not apply

III.

Refrigerant: does not apply

IV.

Heat recovery ventilation or energy recovery ventilation: does not apply

Domestic Hot Water

I.

System (type, capacity): 150 L

II.

Solar thermal collectors area (m2): 1,53 m2

III.

Storage tanks (capacity): 150 L

Electrical Energy production

I.

PV Modules: Photovoltaic solar panel

II.

PV panels area (m2): 17,46 (m2)

III.

Installed PV power (kWp): 3,6

IV.

Estimated energy production (kWh/año): 1336

V.

Other systems (type): Thermal solar panel

VI.

Other systems installed power (kWp): does not apply

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Energy Consumption I.

Estimated energy consumption (kWh/year): 1463,92

II.

Estimated electrical consumption per conditioned (kWh/año per m2): 1336

III.

Energy use characterization (% of total energy consumption):

IV.

Heating (%): 0 % does not apply

V.

Cooling (%): 0 % does not apply

VI.

Ventilation (%): 0 % does not apply

VII.

Domestic hot water (%): 0 %

VIII.

Lighting (%): 7 %

IX.

Appliances and Devices (%): 93 %

Table 3.10. Characterization of total energy consumption in the competition’s house EQUIPMENT

POWER (W)

CHARACTERIZATION (%)

Blender

370

10

Washer 31 lbs

550

15

Tv led 22´

30,4

6

Phone charger

12

3

Computer all in one

65

4

Microwave oven

800

22

Stove

1000

30

DVD

10

3

Lighting

218

7

TOTAL

10

100

Source: The Authors.

80

Estimated energy balance (kWh/año): 0 Figure 3.24. Energy Balance Simulation

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Energy Balance

Source: The Authors with the software Homer.

In the Figure 3.24 it can be seen a simulation conducted, the annual energy balance will be zero, indicating that the consumption of housing will be supplied by solar photovoltaic renewable source. Estimated CO2 emissions (Tn/year): 0,803

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Figure 3.25. CO2 Emissions Simulation

Source: The Authors with the software HOMER.

The Figure 3.25 shows a software simulation with CO2 emissions that are allowed to be emitted in the environment. List of singular and innovative materials and systems

82

•

Lighting system in kitchen with recycled materials and environmentally friendly.

•

Using LED lighting in different areas of the house.

•

Skylights for daylighting and ventilation inside the housing unit.

•

Design of windows in living and dining room for the use of natural light.

•

Intelligent power distribution network, the power grid is joined to a telecommunication network.

Chapter

4

Innovation

Isabella Tello Gómez1 Andrea María Quintero Osorio2 Fabián Andres Gaviria Cataño 2 Wilson Eduardo Pabón Álvarez2

1 2 3

Students of Environmental Engineering. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. Students of Electrical Engineering. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. Engineering Faculty Staff. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente.

Javier Ernesto Holguín González3 Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón3 Hugo Andrés Macías Ferro3

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

84

Innovation in Engineering and Construction Mihouse prototype to be built at The Solar Village corresponds to the 5th floor of one of the proposed buildings. During the construction, prefab elements are considered, keeping the same material of the structure but making the necessary recalculations. In this way, Mihouse will be assembled during the assigned time. As for its different pieces, they will be assembled preferably with dry connections such as bolts, screws, etc., as it would be in the real building. The prototype will require active collaboration from all team members who will develop synchronized activities to achieve the effective assembly on this huge Lego. As for innovation in engineering, it has a rain collection system to be reused it in irrigation water parks. In addition, the reuse of greywater for toilets allows the reduction in potable water use. The greywater reuse in Mihouse project is a natural, innovative and economic system; because this wastewater coming from the laundry and showers is used for flushing the toilets and watering the gardens. This water is treated by a grease trap system and a wetland system, afterwards it is stored for being used allowing potable water savings.

INNOVATION

Figure 4.1. Lifecycle analysis of materials

Source: The Authors.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

The materials developed at the university for the construction of Mihouse prototype are sustainable and innovators, because during its production the carbon footprint is reduced, and a permeable concrete together with a lightweight concrete are developed, in comparison with the traditional products used for the construction sector (Figure 4.1). Following explains the details of each material and their innovation. Permeable concrete: is a solid material which allows the passage of water in a 100 %, this characteristic is due to its specific design, which has the mechanical properties of a traditional concrete; it also has anti-slip properties, greater surface area, less expansion of the slab and is cheaper by 35 % compared to conventional concrete, these properties make permeable concrete an innovative material in Colombia.

Lightweight Concrete Figure 4.3. Lightweight concrete production process Figure 4.2. Lightweight concrete

Source: The Authors.

Source: The Authors.

Innovation refers to the changes that will be introduced to certain product intended to be useful for increasing productivity and the essential condition that their application is successful commercially. 86

The lightweight concrete, as traditional concrete, is a compound of aggregates, cement and water, with the difference of its low density and lower strength artificial material (Figure 4.2).

INNOVATION

Given this, the innovative product that the Mihouse team has called lightweight concrete stone coal which is used as structural concrete and will be of low density to facilitate handling and reduced weight of the structure without losing its mechanical strength. Also, this product is environmentally friendly because the aggregates are used for manufacturing waste from the paper industry which makes the cost of this material cheaper compared with traditional concrete, both in production and in the installation. Besides, this product has a high thermal insulation power which makes it a necessary building material in warm areas (Figure 4.3) Below in Table 4.1, a comparative table of lightweight concrete with stone coal and traditional structural concrete is presented. Built using lightweight aggregate coal as in the production of Mihouse project by replacing 10 % of the aggregates by Stone Coal, allows to reduce the weight of concrete structure from 47,52 tons until 38,02 tons. This reduction is important for the transportation and installation process of the concrete structure features. Table 4.1. Comparative table of lightweight concrete and structural concrete

Properties/attributes Compressive strenght Thermal isolation Apsortion percentage

Light concrete

Structural concrete

Decrease/ difference

28 MPa

28 Mpa

=

0,4 W/m°C

1,63 W/m°C

1,23 W/m°C

20 %

3%

17 %

Source: The Authors.

Thermal Conductivity The thermal conductivity is an intrinsic property of each material. There is a relationship between the porosity and heat transfer, because this feature provides the energy balance in heat transfer applications, and it is useful for the selection of materials of bioclimatic design strategies and indicates the heat flow from outside to inside the house. In the Table 4.2 different properties between conventional and lightweight concrete are illustrated, showing that the light material has better thermal properties by increasing the thermal comfort (i.e. reducing thermal conductivity). 87

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 4.2. Different properties between conventional lightweight concrete Material

Density kg/m³

Specific heat j/kg ⁰c

Conductivity w/m ⁰c

Capacity mj/m³

Difusivity Mm²/s

Light concrete

1000

1050

0,4

1,05

0,38

Reinforced concrete

2400

1050

1,63

2,52

0,65

Source: The Authors.

Some of the consequences left by the process of urbanization and industrialization is the increase of heat islands, such effect is due to the loss of green areas, storage facilities of carbon gases, impermeability of soils and heat buildup constructions generating heat islands. The growth of urban city develops significant changes in nature affecting global climate change, 60 % of emissions generated in the city come from transportation and construction, and 40 % come from the industrial sector. It is established that the increase of the civilian population in urban areas and factors necessary for the development of a community such as business, transportation, consumption of food, entertainment, among others, have generated thermal, acoustic comfort and relative humidity altered, reducing the thermal comfort of homes. The Mihouse project aims to build homes with the highest standards of quality, with architectural design and materials that permit low thermal and acoustic conductivity. The thermal capacity is the heat that can store material in its interior, the light being a low density material, has a specific heat capacity of 220,500 J / m°C.

88

12.5 % compared to the concrete Traditional representing 252,000 J / m°C. Thermal inertia is a property that has the specific inert material, such a characteristic is to store all the heat absorbed during the day and released in the evening hours, this behavior affects the thermal comfort of the housing. According to the climatic conditions of the city of Santiago de Cali, being a tropical city where the ambient temperature is 25° C with peak temperatures of 34° C, it is important to find a balance between thermal comfort and materials of the construction, to increase the correlation between the above conditions, a lightweight material designed with a thermal capacity 12,5 % lower than the traditional material, allowing the thermal comfort is suitable for housing.

As for innovation in engineering, the Mihouse project proposes a rainwater collection system to reuse in irrigation for green areas and crop production. In addition, the reuse of greywater, coming from the washing machine, laundry and showers, and toilet flushing. The greywater reuse system in Mihouse project is a natural, innovative and economic system that allow the reduction of consumption of drinking water.

INNOVATION

Water Use Reduction

The projected system of rainwater collection has an innovative way to exploit the resource because it operates under an integrated model where each of its parts allow us to mitigate different types of environmental problems. For example, there is a minimum treatment costs associated with the first flush interceptor which retains an important amount of the polluting material. This rainwater exploitation system allows us to use the rainwater and to reduce drinking water consumption, because the stored volume is used for non-potable uses such as household cleaning, watering.

Innovation in Energy Efficiency 51 proposal had to be since the beginning an energy efficient, comfortable low-income home. This fact challenged us since we understood that an extremely energy efficient home, required highly efficient solar cell modules and lighting systems and modern low-consuming appliances. However, this was obtained by following an organized methodology for designing and selecting economic photovoltaic solar modules with higher power ratios, less area than similar modules and more efficient electronic technologies to convert and adequate the DC signal from the panels to the house, producing higher energy values in the useful area. We can say that Mihouse solar photovoltaic system was designed for meeting the energy demand and to produce surplus energy that could maintain charged batteries. From the consumer’s side, it was previewed the use of Led lights, high efficient microwaves, and low consumption appliances without reducing the families’ comfort represented on items such as the internet connection, Led TVs or sound systems. We also incorporated in Mihouse project the usage of grid interactive inverters, charge controllers and batteries. It means that this system will use its own produced electricity but additionally, it will also be able of selling the surplus (excess) energy to the city’s grid at a reasonable price, making the system sustainable during the time. Subsequently, this urban complex will be ready to sell energy to the national grid as soon as the new Colombian Renewable Energies Law (1715 May 2014) announces the trading price. This law promotes the

89

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

installation and integration of renewable energies into the electrical network of the National Regulator Commission (CREG). After all the ideas, researches and decisions taken during many meeting hours, Mihouse team designed an efficient project in terms of solar power generation and consumption. It is believed that with Mihouse prototype we can demonstrate to The Solar Village visitors the state of art in photovoltaic solar technologies that can be integrated as architectural elements in low income living units. For example, the total solar electric PV system consists of 544 Canadian 310-watt panels for a total peak power of 168kW placed on a roof system. This system is connected to the electronic subcomponents that will connect the solar power to the living unit. This system is large enough to supply the living unit with enough power during daytime for three days without sunlight.

Innovation Through Energy Efficiency. The proposed energy efficiency should have as its main focus the social sector, for that reason it should be evaluated at technically and financially processes to implement. It will be established target energy saving strategies, such as the selection of high efficiency PV modules, cost-benefit systems, energy efficient lighting, the use of new technologies, and finally the selection of equipment (electrical) with low power consumption. Figure 4.4. Energy Efficiency strategies for sustainable social housing in developing countries

Lighting technology and utilization of solar radiation

of photovoltaic equipment as panel investors

of electrical equipment

Implementation of control of step sensors 90 Source: The Authors.

•

Energy saving.

•

Reduction of the emission of greenhouse gases.

•

Savings on energy bills.

•

Protection of human beings, flora, fauna, property and the environment.

•

Rational use of energy using equipment without oversizing the system

INNOVATION

Benefits of efficient selection of components of the electrical and photovoltaic system equipment.

Figure 4.5. Efficient selection of photovoltaic equipment

Solar Photovoltaic module Electric Distribution Network MT bT

Protections cc

Meter module

Inverter Protections CA

Source: The Authors.

Benefits of deployment of control sensors step.

•

Energy saving.

•

Reduction of the emission of greenhouse gases.

•

Savings on energy bills.

•

Efficient use of new technologies.

•

Easy to implement.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

•

Easy maintenance.

•

Relatively cheap.

•

Protection of human beings, flora, fauna, property and the environment.

•

Facilitates quality of life of the inhabitants, by not about turning on or off the light.

Use of Natural Light To increase energy efficiency and reduce power consumption, sun radiation is used to illuminate naturally, which is available throughout the day directly or through the sky. Using this source of natural and clean energy, needs the following criteria to be applied: •

Large windows. They allow daylight by diffusion and reflection of sunlight into the interior and must be taken into account during building design unless the living unit is permanently in zones with very high temperatures, thus direct sunlight would create high interior temperatures.

•

Avoid direct sunlight on the work planes.

•

It is considered and analyzed the potential of natural light resource, which helps to coordinate design between natural and artificial lighting devices, according to the sun schedule. On the other hand, the equipment selection to control artificial and natural lighting could be an efficient strategy for saving and to reduce air conditioning systems.

•

Resource of natural outside light, both in their levels of radiation and its duration periods has to be clear.

•

Interior lighting should consider also the following objectives: To maximize light transmission through window glass. It is measured per unit area of window. To check the clarity contrast, especially between windows and walls. To minimize veiling glare on work surfaces, resulting from direct sun light in the upper windows. To minimize the daytime heat during sunny days, using eaves or umbrellas.

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Mihouse project increase and promotes the use of Led lights that are brighter and consume up to 90 percent less energy than conventional lighting methods. The reason why the process is efficient, is because light is produced by the electric current passing, so the energy is not too wasted as heat. Normally, incandescent bulbs have a 10 lumen per watt (lm/W), efficiency while Led have 90-110 lm/W, which is obviously more efficient than incandescent or fluorescent. They also work for more than 10   000 thousand hours, which make them cheaper in long term and reduce environmental contamination because they do not use gas. Finally, they are made by electronic devices easy to replace and reuse.

INNOVATION

Use of Led Lighting

The main objective of Mihouse equipment is to properly selected home appliances, which should take into account the clear need for what is needed in each area or workspace, select the rating label for energy-efficient appliances among the items of class A and B because they generate savings around 45 % and 25 % according to the following figure. Figure 4.6. Energy rating label

Source: Etiquetado energético Colombia Available on: http://www.etiquetaenergetica.gov.co

Another feature of the H2O innovation system is that has been inspired by the global movement “Liter of Light” which aims to be an environmentally and economically sustainable light source for low-income housing. The correct selection of luminaires with LED technology or

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

automation dimerization, since the selection of the light source depend on various features such as: Led Brand recognized lifetime of the luminaire, light output, efficiency above 90 %, temperature color, and issues guarantees. Benefits of using luminaires with LED technology. • Energy saving. • Reduction of the emission of greenhouse gases. • Better color reproduction and visual comfort. • Low maintenance. • Protection of human beings, flora, fauna, property and the environment. •Ecological at the end of its life (aluminum, plastic and glass, easily separable and recyclable). The following figure shows a comparison between incandescent and LED technology, financially and technically. Figure 4.7. Comparative between incandescent and LED lightning

Source: Viribright. Available on: https://www.viribright.com/lumen-output-comparing-led-vs-cfl-vsincandescent-wattage 94

It is essential to analyze and understand this table in order to select an efficient light source. And that this should ensure a lower consumption, less environmental impact, lower cost over time, better color rendering index.

INNOVATION

Reducing power and maintaining, or improving light output, are the two main factors to achieve lower consumption. An incandescent bulb with a power of 100 (W) and a flow of 1 650 (Lm), can now be replaced by a bulb Led lamp 22 (W) and a flow of 1 760 (Lm), a saving of 78 W. A house with led lighting will save enough energy and, obviously, enough money, making a more efficient home system, as shown in table 4.3 Currently stratum 1 and 2 in Colombia are sectors which are subsidized by the stratum 3, 4, 5, 6, which means that the more you save in the home the more you benefit the poor. It is very important in the selection of light sources the issue of security, efficiency, color temperature, since these largely determine the energy and cost savings. Table 4.3. Comparison of Consumption Among incandescent lighting and LED lighting

Total energy kWh/ dia

Monthly energy KWh

Quantity

Charge

Voltage V

Power W

Daily hours

1

Led luminaire room

120

10

5

0,05

1,5

2

Led luminaire bathroom

120

10

2

0,04

1,2

1

Led luminaire kitchen

120

10

5

0,05

1,5

1

Led luminaire dining room

120

10

3

0,03

0,9

1

Led luminaire yard

120

10

2

0,018

0,54

1

Led luminaire bedroom 1

120

10

4

0,04

1,2

1

Led luminaire bedroom 2

120

10

4

0,04

1,2

1

Led luminaire bedroom 3

120

10

4

0,04

1,2

1

Blender

120

370

0.2

0,074

2,22

1

Washing machine 31 LBS

120

125,6

1

0,1256

3,768

1

Fridge 222L

120

100

12

1.2

36

1

TV led 22’

120

30,4

3

0,0912

2,736

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Quantity

Charge

Voltage V

Daily hours

Power W

Total energy kWh/ dia

Monthly energy KWh

1

Stereo

120

4

0

0

1

Phone charger

120

12

3

0,036

1,08

1

Laptop charger

120

65

6

0,39

11,7

1

Microwave

120

800

1

0,8

24

1

Stove

120

1 000

1

1

30

1

Grildde

120

0.2

0

0

4 0248

120,744

$ / kWh

300

2 583

36223,2

Bill Source: The Authors.

Aesthetics plays an important role and should be accompanied by adequate levels of average illumination (lx), high levels overall uniformity which foster uniform illumination in all relevant areas of the illuminated space, low glare (UGR) that result to reduce loss of visual perception by absence or excess lighting and other factors according to regulatory guidelines and / or regulatory Retilap (technical Regulation of lighting and lighting). Table 410.1 UGR index and maximum illuminance levels due to different areas and activities Source for UGR, UNE EN 12464-1 2003.

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INNOVATION

Figure 4.8. Benefits of good lighting in each scene

Lower power consumption Improved safety in electric part

Better visual comfort

Best color renderin index

Lower enviromental impact Lower cost overtime

Source: The Authors.

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Chapter

5

Sustainability

Daniel Mauricio González Naranjo1

Juan Pablo Trujillo Chaparro1

Alejandro Beltrán Márquez1

María Camila Calle Mena1

Eliana Melissa Morales Rivera1

Nicolás Noreña Leal1

Isabella Tello Gómez1

Javier Ernesto Holguín González2

Javier Eduardo López Giraldo1

Yuri Ulianov López Castrillón2

Jeffer Steven Mosquera Castillo1

1 2

Students of Environmental Engineering. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente. Engineering Faculty Staff. Universidad Autónoma de Occidente.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

100

Introduction The construction sector is probably one of the human activities with the highest demand for natural resources and energy (Bakens, 2003; cited by Rodríguez & Fernández, 2010).This sector employs approximately half of the resources that the humankind consumes from nature and it is considered that 25% of waste materials come from construction and demolition (Alarcón, 2005; cited by Rodríguez & Fernández, 2010) and more than 70% of worldwide energy moves around this sector (Oteiza & Tenorio, 2007; cited by Rodríguez & Fernández, 2010). Considering that sustainable development and climate change have become two new challenges for the humankind. Having synergies and mutual interdependences, measures focused on the construction sector drive to sustainability positively and affect the mitigation and adaptation to this climate change (Rodríguez & Fernández, 2010). Mihouse is a dynamic and sustainable solution for real neighborhood conditions in Cali, Colombia, with possibilities to be adapted anywhere. The team’s main goal is to offer an innovative neighborhood with high affordability conditions through a high density of 128 living units that can expand soon for productive purposes. Its design includes a generous green environment offering a comfortable living unit, flexible, progressive and productive along the time. Considering sustainable principles, an integrated water management plan has been designed, in which rainwater harvesting allows us to consume less potable water and reusing it for cleaning bathrooms among others. For the integrated solid waste management, the creation of a small company to manage the community’s residues is proposed. Furthermore, Mihouse takes advantage of the Sun as a free energy source using a solar photovoltaic gridconnected system with storage capacity, that will produce and use its own electrical energy as well as being able to sell the excess of captured energy to the grid, making the system sustainable during the time. This project is focused on achieving a balance between the three pillars of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental benefits). The environmental component is present in all these activities, plans and processes carried out in the Mihouse urbanization. Regarding the social and economic aspects, the Mihouse project is oriented towards guaranteeing food security and to generate job opportunities through the production, management and marketing of crops cultivated in the garden areas. Moreover, the transformation of organic solid wastes into compost considered in the urbanization, which can be marketed in the area and used as fertilizer in gardens, allows us to have other job opportunities for the inhabitants in this urbanization. The use of solar panels, the reuse

SUSTAINABILITY

of greywater and the exploitation of rainwater, allow us to have huge savings in economic terms, because we use solar energy as alternative source of energy instead of the grid and we use treated greywater and rainwater instead of using drinking water for flushing the toilets or watering the green areas and gardens. With the examples mentioned before, it is evident that Mihouse aims to make a positive and lasting impact on a city which needs to consider a different paradigm regarding sustainable construction of social housing. This approach allows us the preservation of natural resources in compliance with the three pillars of sustainable development mentioned before. Moreover, the Mihouse project considers key aspects stated in the new legislation in Colombia for sustainable construction and for saving water and energy in buildings, the Resolución 0549 de 2015. Thus, Mihouse will be the first step to achieve sustainable construction in social housing projects in Colombia. Mihouse proposal looks highly attractive for the industrial sector, responding to specific problems of the social and economic context and especially to tropical environments and climatic conditions.

Water Strategies General context: the hydraulic system is an integrated system that has been designed keeping in mind the effective use of available space and the reduction of the length of pipes. Additionally, in order to prevent heat loss when water passes through the pipes, the location of the solar water heater is as close as possible to the utilities. Also, the location of the tanks considers that it is more feasible to locate them under ground because they do not have any visual and spatial hindrance. Solar context: considering that the house in the urban context is the transposition of the prototype into the structure of a building, some aspects will be similar to the mentioned before, such as the length of the pipes and the solar water heater location as close as possible to profits. It is known that at the urban level there are two types of buildings, the first one where the top floor varies the type of apartment, and the second one is a building where the apartment is like the prototype, which has 3 roofs and another building with a smaller apartment. So far it has been planned to have a total of 128 apartments, for a total of 30 buildings, 22 of which have 4 stories and 8 have 5 stories, where systems for the reuse of greywater and rainwater are set, this is described in section Plumbing System. 101

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Strategies for Reducing Water Consumption One goal of the project Mihouse is to propose a sustainable water management. In order to ensure a reduction of water consumption. The following strategies for the prototype and urban areas were set: Recycling, reuse. It is very important that the design of the apartments and residential buildings integrate significant savings in the consumption of drinking water, a resource that is indispensable although its availability is depleted over time. This is the reason why the project Mihouse seeks alternatives to allow the recycling and reuse of water, in order to avoid excessive consumption of this resource. Considering this approach, we can generate economic savings. Reuse of rainwater. The efficient use of rainwater as an alternative for ornamental purposes, and maintenance of green areas, represents in terms of the sustainability of resources, significant savings related to the cost of water service, and environmental protection. The rainwater is collected through pipes on each building, making their own use and storage in elevated tanks located on the top floors of the buildings, in order to re-use this resource for irrigation of green areas. In general terms, the rainwater system consists of a rainwater collection and conveyance system composed of channels that transport water to the elevated storage tanks located on the roof, where it is taken to use it to irrigate green areas, washing floors, and so on. Greywater reuse system. Urban Context: In this project you can see a greywater treatment system for the entire residential condo that allows us the reuse of greywater from showers, laundry (washing machine and laundry) and sink for toilets flushing in each apartment. The greywater system is based on the accumulation of water from the second cycle of the washing machine. We do not propose to use the water from the first cycle of the washing machine because it has a higher level of dirt. For the greywater management, we propose to have two collection tanks located underground at the green areas. For the greywater treatment, a train based on grease trap, followed by a tank where the coagulation and flocculation is performed, is pro- posed; then, the water distribution is performed by pumps, in this way the treated water is transported to each apartment.

102

Wastewater management. Urban Context: In order to evacuate the wastewater that has been used for working tasks, personal care and hygiene, the Mihouse project proposes a separation

SUSTAINABILITY

of the wastewater and the greywater for each apartment on the entire housing complex. The discharges of wastewater coming from the toilets and dishwasher are interconnected in a horizontal pipe which distributes them to an outer inspection box to be finally delivered to the municipal public sewer. Cali has a domestic Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) called Cañaveralejo, which is administered by the Emcali company. This WWTP is located at the east side of the city, it has an advanced primary treatment and it is in the process of optimizing the system by achieving secondary treatment. Due to the existence of WWTP Cañaveralejo Cali, we do not consider any kind of treatment for the wastewater in this project. The system only provides the connection to the municipal sewer network. Incentive for the Use of Water Saving Accessories and Equipment The following types of water saving devices or accessories that should be implemented on the project Mihouse at the urban level and at the prototype has been identified in the market: Lavatory faucets or valves, shower valves, water-flush toilets with double discharge, among others, that help to reduce water consumption. By installing such devices, the water consumption is reduced, saving this resource.

Water Cycle Catchment

Drinking Water: Initially, the Cauca’s river water is collected and treated in Puerto Mallarino’s Drinking Water plant. Then this water is distributed to different areas of Santiago de Cali, including the area where the Mihouse project is planned. Rainwater: Santiago de Cali has abundant rainfall through the year. This water availability is exploited by the effective areas of the roofs in the buildings, which allow us to capture this valuable resource. Distribution and use

Drinking water: Once the water is supplied to the residential complex, through the connections with the main network of the aqueduct, it is distributed to each of the apartments through a pumping system. Rainwater: The rainwater collected by the roofs in each block is transported through gutters and downspouts, which finally is conducted into two storage tanks. The rainwater stored will be used to irrigate the green areas.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Reuse

Water from sinks, washing machines and showers (greywater) is reused. These waters will be collected in a storage tank for each apartment and by a pumping system it will be sent to flush toilets. Outputs

Wastewater: Drinking water that has been used in activities such as dish washing and toilets flushing cannot be reused. Therefore, it is discharged directly to the municipal sewer system. This sewer system transports wastewater until the wastewater treatment plant, called Cañaveralejo, where after treatment the water is reincorporated into the Cauca river. Evapotranspiration and infiltration: Rainwater captured and irrigated to green areas is used by the vegetation for their metabolic processes and subsequently transpire water in vapor form. There is also a direct evaporation from the surface. Therefore, water vapor is transported into the atmosphere and by weather processes it is precipitated again in the area. Solid Waste Management

In general terms, within the concept of sustainability it is also necessary to include the management of solid wastes in the Mihouse project. We propose to have two approaches, the first one cultural, which aims to raise awareness and educate the people who live in the apartment, and the second one, technical, to develop a proper disposal of solid wastes. Within the framework of sustainable housing projection of the Mihouse team, we considered the solid wastes that will be generated by the inhabitants of the residential condo as well as those generated during the construction of the prototype house. The solid wastes that will be generated are made up of different types such as: organic, recyclable and ordinary. Their proper management involves separation at source, storage and reuse. Culturally, the participation of citizens is a key element in the solid waste management, therefore a training should be offered in order to achieve careful and conscientious people, who are responsible for the separation of solid wastes at the source. Considering the mentioned above, in the sustainable residential condo it is going to be a technical solid waste storage unit (TSU in English or UTR in Spanish), also there are going to be two areas for the reuse of biowaste (food waste and pruning), processed through composting. We consider this residential composting process as an important element within the innovation proposals of the Mihouse team.

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In order to develop what is mentioned above, the urbanization area will have 8,64 square meters for the reuse of bio-waste 2,4 * 3,6 m) and 12 square meters for the technical storage

Figure 5.1. Location of the TSU and waste use areas

SUSTAINABILITY

unit. In the Figure 5.1. the location of the TSU and the area for the reuse of bio-waste are shown.

Source: The Authors.

The sustainable residential condo will have a total of 128 apartments, distributed in 22 blocks of 4 floors and 8 blocks of 5 floors. In the following table an estimation of the amount of waste generated is presented (Table 5.1). The use of bio-waste is carried out through two composting autonomous units of 3000 liters, reference SAC-3000, given by the company Earthgreen (considering that 100 % of the population does separation at source). The result of the composting process is an organic fertilizer for the soil, which improves soil characteristics and increases crop yields. The autonomous composting units proposed for this project have the advantage of not requiring neither dumping processes as is commonly needed, nor chemical or bacterial addition and also it has not odor nor leachate generation. These aspects allow us to have vectors control such as flies and rodents. It has been calculated that in a term of approximately 25 to 30 days we can be obtain compost ready to be used in gardens or to be marketed. According to Earthgreen, for each kilogram of organic solid waste separated and taken for composting, it is obtained about 0,4 to 0,5 kilograms of useful compost for parks, gardens,

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

orchards and marketing as an amendment or organic fertilizer. This product has market values ranging between $ 120000 - 180000 / ton, which may represent an income for inhabitants of the houses, and thus we can reduce the solid wastes to be delivered to final disposal. Moreover, in the Mihouse project it is proposed an area where the garden compost resulting from this process is used. In these gardens, it is proposed the development of organic gardens where residents can develop crop production and learning and marketing of farmed products. Moreover, recyclable solid wastes (paper, plastic, cardboard and so on) will have a significant advantage to improve the quality of life for residents, as these materials have two main objectives; the first one is the use of solid wastes for the creation of crafts and objects encouraging innovative business creation and social inclusion. The second one will be the marketing of solid wastes to local authorities responsible. The budget earned will be invested in recreational areas of urbanization, road construction for cycling, community gardens, food network, among others. Table 5.1. Estimation of the amount of waste generated in the residential condo Variable

Value

Total population of the residential condo (Habitants)

640

Number of apartments

128

Number of people per apartment

5

Socioeconomic stratum

1 and 2

Ppc (kg/hab.Day)1

0,35

Specific weight (kg/m3)

250

Solid wastes generation (kg/day)

179,2

Solid wastes volume (m3)

1,67 Source: The Authors.

Mihouse Proposal Economic Benefits. GreyWater Reuse and Rainwater, Groundwater and Solid Waste Exploitation 106

In the months of August and September 2015, Cali has been confronted with a problem of water scarcity, especially in Cali and Melendez rivers, due to strong intensity of climatological

SUSTAINABILITY

phenomenon “El Niño”, which caused climate change. This has caused restrictions on the continued supply of drinking water in the neighborhoods located in the mountainous areas of the city, affecting almost 25 % of the citizens in Cali. Considering the above, the use of alternative water sources is necessary, such as the reuse of greywater or rainwater and groundwater exploitation, for the development of domestic cleaning activities and irrigation of green areas. The following section provides an evaluation of the economic benefits of the Mihouse proposal, considering an integrated management of water resources and integrated management of solid waste.

Rainwater Mihouse project has 960 m2 of parkland and gardens, parks, etc., which require two liters of water per square meter, ie 1920 liters per day of water are needed to irrigate these areas. Usually for the irrigation of green areas is used in an inappropriate manner drinking water. This is a mistake, because the plants, trees and grass do not require excellent water quality as it is potable water, however, quality standards as presented by rainwater or groundwater, are enough to the water requirements of plants. Considering this, Mihouse project proposes the use of two alternative sources of irrigation water for green areas, rainwater and groundwater. The use of these two alternative irrigation water results in a cost savings for residential complex, by reducing the consumption of drinking water and environmental benefits to make rational use of water resource, according with water quality required for each type of activity. The system of rainwater and groundwater exploitation, designed for Mihouse Project, propose a saving of 100 % of the amount of water required for irrigation of green areas, considering the use of rainwater with 12,43% of the total required and the use of groundwater with 87,57% remaining. In addition, it should be noted that the unit cost for using drinking water is 1 41.71 pesos / m3, while the unit cost for using groundwater is 6.65 pesos / m3 and the use of rainwater would have no associated cost. A cost-benefit analysis can observe that implementing the system of rainwater and groundwater exploitation in the project Mihouse will achieve annual savings of $ 974 513 for the concept of irrigation of green areas. Below in Table 5.2 is presented projected values when the system is implemented.

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 5.2. Cost savings Mihouse complex, using the rainwater and groundwater exploitation system

Residential Complex without exploitation (100% water)

Mihouse Residential Complex with exploitation (Rainwater, 12,43 %) of the total required using potable water)

Mihouse Residential Complex with exploitation (Groundwater, 87,57% of the total required using potable water)

Consumption for irrigation (m3 / day)

1,92

0,239

1,681

Monthly consumption (m3)

57,6

7,16

50,44

Tariff ($/m3)

1415,71*

0

6,65**

Monthly Cost ($)

81,545

0

335,4

Anual cost ($)

978 539

0

4,025

Annual savings ($)

-

974 513

Source: The Authors using the information from (*): Emcali Tariff adjusted to consumption levels over 20m3, from February 2015 and (**) Rate adjusted by the Dagma, according to Resolution No. 950 of 2013.

Greywater For the management of greywater will be built two underground collection tanks, located in the green areas. For the treatment of greywater, is proposed a treatment train comprising a grease trap, followed by a tank where the coagulation and flocculation is performed; then the distribution of treated water is performed by pumps, bringing the treated water on each apartment. 108

SUSTAINABILITY

Currently the neighborhood El Paraiso is supplied by the municipal company of Cali, Emcali, which handles a flat rate of $ 1145,71 per m3 (Emcali, 2015) for a strata 2 sewer From this value and the calculated values of water production on each apartment and urban levels, which can be seen in Table 5.3. The Mihouse project viability on saving resources is demonstrated as well as the viability of the project based on a saving resources. Table 5.3. Mihouse project viability on saving resources

m3 of greywater produced in property

m3 / day of greywater produced at the urban level

0,405 m3/day

56,7 m3/day

12,15 m3/month

1701 m3/month Source: The Authors.

That is, assuming five inhabitants by house in the neighborhood Paradise would save the following in pesos (Table 5.4) considering the rate mentioned and the production of greywater in the home and urban level: Table 5.4. Savings in pesos of Housing and Urbanization Savings per house

Saving urban level

Monthly savings in COP

$13 920

$1 948 853

Anual savings in COP

$167 044

23 386 236

Source: The Authors.

Solid waste Considering the number of inhabitants and the number of apartments of the project (128 apartments), in Table 5.5 is shown the quantity of waste that will be generated by the residential unit. 109

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 5.5. Waste quantity generated by the residential unit

Stratum (%) Category

1

2

% Average

Waste quantity (kg)

Waste type

Waste type per %

116,27

Organic

0,65

8,96

recyclable

0,05

17,74

recyclable

0,10

5,51

recyclable

0,03

30,71

Ordinary

0,17

Food

61,3

61,9

0,616

Garden

4,31

2,26

0,033

Paper

2,75

3,13

0,029

paperboard

1,87

2,25

0,021

Bags and Packaging

6,72

7,08

0,069

Blown plastic

2,86

3,14

0,030

metallics

0,94

1

0,010

glass

2,19

2,02

0,021

Rubber & Leather

1,56

1,38

0,015

Cloth

2,82

2,28

0,026

Wood

0,68

0,93

0,008

Ceramics

0,99

2,18

0,016

Bones

0,32

0,31

0,003

Hygienics

8,3

8,91

0,086

Others

2,38

1,24

0,018

Total

1

179,20

Source: The Authors.

Mihouse proposes the use of different types of solid waste management strategies for its valorization. Below in Table 5.6 quantity values (weights) of the solid wastes to be utilized are:

110

Waste type

Waste type per %

Waste quantity per day (Kg/ day)

Organic waste

0,65

110,38

-

Paper and paperboard

0,05

8,96

250

Bags and Packaging Blown plastic

0,10

17,74

Metallics

0,010

Glass

0,021

SUSTAINABILITY

Table 5.6. Quantity and valorization of waste to be exploited

Waste valorization Exploitation value ($) ($/day)

Exploitation value ($/ month)

2240

67200

300

5322

159660

1,79

200

358,4

10752

3,76

80

Total

301,06

9031

8221,45

246643

Source: The Authors.

Given the results in Table 5.6, it appears that a month can make a profit of $ 246 643 by making recycling inorganic waste such as paper and paperboard, bags and packaging, plastic, metal. Type organic waste will be utilized by the composting process, with two composters 3 000 liters reference SAC-3000 Earthgreen Company. According to Earthgreen per kilogram of separated and taken to composting organic waste, is obtained from 0,4 to 0,5 kilograms of useful compost as fertilizer for parks, gardens, orchards and marketing as an amendment or organic fertilizer, with market values ranging between $ 120 000 to 180 000 / ton.glass. Through the use of solid organic waste, it is estimated to stop disposal production of approximately 6,54 tons / month and can also reduce the rate of cleanliness of a 25-35 % additional to the reduction achieved with the use of recyclable waste.

111

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Materials Sustainability is about meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs; the term linked to the action of man in relation to its surroundings; then the sustainability of the main products that are part of Mihouse project:

Lightweight Concrete with Addition of Stone Coal (PC) The challenge of this prototype is to ensure that the implications of their activity in the city and the environment are positive and contribute to sustainable development of the project. Mihouse sustainability can only serve this cause if they help to develop interdisciplinary skills, raising awareness to green thinking in the local community, preserve ecosystems and economize resources In this way, the project goal is became in the formalization and structuring of future to ensure the discernment of green thinking and social awareness of the rule of the 3 Rs, leaving the targets related to increasing production to companies only profit regardless basic needs and sustainable behavior. Only a permanent and argued growth identified in the needs of continuous improvement, regardless of the size of its scope, and university projects, growth can guarantee positive contributions to the industry. The exploitation of non-renewable aggregate generates an imbalance of socio-environmental sustainability, this is because the building products such as concrete, asphalt, bases and subbases, represent a fundamental part of the regional economy, however, as it was mentioned before there are several environmental impacts to take into consideration. The forecast growth for this industry during 2005 showed an increase of 21,6 % in production of stone aggregates. Also, the concession area for mining operations now amounts to 5 % of the national territory, which represents consumption of 5,71 million Colombian hectares in the mining sector. According to the Asociación Colombiana de Productores de Agregados Petreos for 2015 4,3 million tons would be exploited to replace 10 % of traditional aggregates stone coal residue of paper industry, representing a reduction of 430 thousand tons of aggregates.

112

The population growth of the major cities of Colombia, predicts an increase of 5 % regarding the use of building materials between the years 2014 and 2015.

The calculation of the ecological footprint is used to estimate the environmental impact of the construction and use of sustainable housing developed by the Mihouse group. For its calculation the most important construction materials were considered, such as tables or rings and motherboards, which are manufactured with restressed concrete, pipes made from PVC plastic and photovoltaic solar panels made of silicon.

SUSTAINABILITY

Calculation of Ecological Footprint

Besides, according to each stage of the life cycle of the project outputs, the following assumptions were made: •

At the stage of production and transportation of some building materials only the finished product is considered until its final disposal and not from the obtaining of natural resources that supply the raw material of this.

•

In the construction phase no indirect impacts associated with transport and feeding of the assembly personnel will be considered.

•

The maintenance phase of housing will not be taken into consideration as it will be a prototype.

For the calculation of emissions generated using the materials at each stage of the life cycle consumption data, was considered, such as expenditure on energy, water and transport. Additionally, CO2 emission factors were considered for the transport of materials and data footprint developed by the doctoral thesis of researcher Solís Guzmán (2010); later the calculation of the ecological footprint was conducted.

Life Cycle Stage Analysis Making of materials

The calculation of the ecological footprint generated in the construction phase of the materials used in the prototype can be seen in the following table:

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Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 5.7. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated in the construction phase Material

Light concrete

Light concrete

He (ha)

Quantity (ton)

Cement

1,5

0,15

Sand

4,7

0

Stone coal

1,7

0

Gravel

1,7

0

Water

0,9

0

Iron

4,5

4,95

PVC

0,0704

0,27

Solar Panel

0,222

1,51

TOTAL H.E

6,88

Source: The Authors. For the calculation of the Ecological Footprint a value of 0,1 ha / year of one ton of cement was considered; 1,1 ha / year and ton of iron and 3,8 ha / year and a ton of plastic for the case of PVC. In the case of the construction of the solar panel a study by N. Stylos C. Koroneos in 2013 was taken as reference, in this a value of 6,31 g CO2 / KWh consumed for their production is presented. In the case of sand and gravel only the emissions generated by transport from Cauca river are taken into account, this river is located in the limits of the municipality of Candelaria and Cali, in the place known as Juanchito until the LV structures in concrete company SA. In the case of water consumption for the production of concrete the CO2 emission is zero, because the water is drawn from underground wells located in the area of precast company. Transportation. At this stage transport was considered from the production of material to LV Structures; the production companies are Argos (cement), Sidoc (iron), Pavco (pipelines), Rio Cauca (fine aggregate), Rocales (coarse aggregate). Then it is transported to Univalle from LV structures. Additionally, emission factors in distance traveled and tree 2 CO2 absorption factor of 5,21 ton of CO2 / ha of trees were considered. In the case of water transportation CO2 emission calculation is not considered because the water used for the manufacture of concrete is drawn from the underground wells in the area of LV concrete structures.

114

Construction material

Light Weight Concrete

Cement Sand

Starting point

Arrival

Distance

Point

Traveled (km)

Argos

CO2 emission factor (kg/km)

CO2 emission (kg)

13,5

6,75

9,7

4,85

Río Cauca (Juanchito)

Stone coal

Propal Yumbo

Gravel

Rocales

LV Estructuras en concreto S.A.

Water

He (ha)

SUSTAINABILITY

Table 5.8 Calculation of the ecological footprint generated by transporting supplies and raw materials

0,5

0,0013 0,00093

0,00083

8,7

4,35

8,2

4,1

0,00078

3,1

0,0006

4,35

0,00084

N/A

Iron

SIDOC

PVC

PAVCO

Solar Panel

Singapur internacional Airport

LV Concret structures S.A.

6,2 0,5

8,7

Alfonso Bonilla Aragón Airport HE TOTAL

NA

3080

0,59

0,5945

Source: The Authors.

To calculate CO2 emission an emission factor for trucks of 0,5 kg 0,5 kg CO2/km was considered, and distance traveled provided by Google Maps taking into account the starting point and arrival shown in Table 5.8. With this information the calculation of emission is done as follows:

115

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

(15) Where:E: Carbon Dioxide Emission FE: Emission factor for distance D: distance traveled It should be noted that the transport of stone coal materials provided by Propal and of iron provided by Sidoc, transport of these is considered only from these companies to LV concrete structures. Additionally, a carbon footprint calculator was used for calculating CO2 emissions due to transport of solar panels. Construction. Construction waste will be generated in a large percentage in LV Concrete Structures and will be transported to the Palmira city dump located in Coronado neighborhood. Based on this information it is considered that CO2 emissions will be generated by transporting of this waste to the disposal site, and another issue due to the disposal of these wastes on this site. Below, in the next table calculating CO2 emissions generated by the transportation of waste is shown. Table 5.9. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated by transporting construction waste

Starting point

LV Concrete Structures S.A.

Arrival point

Palmira Dump

Traveled distance (km)

24,1

CO2 emission factor (kg/km)

0,5

TOTAL HE

Emission CO2 (kg/d)

12,05

He (ha)

0,0023

0,0023 Source: The Authors.

116

Use. In this phase house transport data from Valle University to San Buenaventura University will be considered as well as maintenance of the prototype for academic purposes. Moreover, the determination of the emission of water consumption and solid waste generation is

Table 5.10. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated using the prototype

Starting point

Universidad del Valle

Arrival point

Universidad San Buenaventura

Traveled distance (km)

6

CO2 emission factor (kg/km)

0,5

Emission CO2 (kg/d)

3

SUSTAINABILITY

discarded because no food will be consumed in the house nor any service will be provide (Table 5.10).

He (ha)

0,00057

Source: The Authors.

Demolition. Since this prototype will be used for academic activities for a period of approximately 40 years, once this time is over it will be demolished and disposed in the dump of Cali on 50th street, because of this transport emission is also considered (Table 5.11). Table 5.11. Calculation of the ecological footprint generated by the use of the demolition of prototype CO2 Starting point

Arrival point

Emission

Traveled distance (km)

Factor (kg/

Emission CO2 (kg/d)

He (ha)

Km) Universidad San Buenaventura

Dump of Cali (50th 9,3 street)

0,5

4,65

0,00089

Source: The Authors.

Calculation of total HW. Considering the ecological footprint values calculated above the sum of these is done, thus obtaining the total footprint of the materials based on the life cycle of each one (Table 5.12).

117

Water and Energy Engineering for Sustainable Buildings: MIHOUSE Project.

Table 5.12. Calculation of the ecological footprint of building materials associated with the life cycle analysis CV phase

He (ha)

Making of materials

6,88

Transport

0,5945

Construction

0,0023

Use

0,00057

Demolition

0,00089

Total he

7,48 Source: The Authors.

Solar Facilities Solar energy avoid the production of Greenhouse gases (GHG), reduces CO2 emissions and the excessive consumption and burn of fossil fuels. According to that, here is presented a calculation of Mihouse CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions: For Colombia, each kWh generated produces almost 120 g of CO2 Table 5.13. CO2 Emission FACTOR per kWh Country

118

Emission factor generation [gCO2/kwh]

China

764

Usa

542

Bolivia

498

Mexico

467

Chile

375

Spain

361

Ecuador

354

Argentina

343

Panamá

300

Perú

135

Colombia

120

Brazil

81 Source: IEA. (2011).

Table 5.14. Emission per Technology Technology

SUSTAINABILITY

Between different solar energy technologies or cell types, CO2 emission change as it is presented on the following table:

CO2 g emissions per kwh

Polycrystalline silice

37

Monocrystalline silice

45

Thin film (cdte)

12 – 19

Source: Erik A. Alsema., Mariska J. de Wild-Scholten. (2006).

119

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