Waste to Profit: Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development 103236906X, 9781032369068

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1 Crop Residue to Fuel, Fertilizer, and Other By-products: An Approach toward Circular Economy
Chapter 2 Cost-effective Sustainable Electrodes for Bioelectrocatalysis toward Electricity Generation
Chapter 3 Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles from Agro-waste: A Sustainable Approach
Chapter 4 Conversion of Waste Plastics into Sustainable Fuel
Chapter 5 Innovations in Sludge-Conversion Techniques
Chapter 6 Scale-up of Microbial Fuel Cells: A Waste-to-Energy Option
Chapter 7 Critical Role of Catalysts in Pyrolysis Reactions
Chapter 8 Engineering Perspectives on the Application of Photosynthetic Algal Microbial Fuel Cells for Simultaneous Wastewater Remediation and Bioelectricity Generation
Chapter 9 Pyrolysis and Steam Gasification of Biomass Waste for Hydrogen Production
Chapter 10 Insight into Current Scenario of Electronic Waste to Nanomaterials Conversion
Chapter 11 Wastewater Treatment Using Nanoadsorbents Derived from Waste Materials
Chapter 12 Environmental Sustainability: An Interdisciplinary Approach
Chapter 13 Environmental Movements and Law in India: A Brief Introduction
Chapter 14 Co-pyrolysis of Biomass with Polymer Waste for the Production of High-quality Biofuel
Chapter 15 Thermal Degradation Behaviors and Kinetics of Pyrolysis
Chapter 16 Techniques for Biodiesel Production from Wastes
Chapter 17 Environmental Impact of Municipal Waste Energy Recovery Plant
Chapter 18 A Comprehensive Review on the Modeling of Biomass Gasification Process for Hydrogen-rich Syngas Generation
Chapter 19 A Comprehensive Review of Bio-catalyst Synthesis, Characterization, and Feedstock Selection for Biodiesel Synthesis Using Different Methods
Chapter 20 A Techno-economic Analysis of Green Hydrogen Production from Agricultural Residues and Municipal Solid Waste through Biomass-steam Gasification Process
Chapter 21 The Energy Potential of Brazilian Organic Waste
Chapter 22 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Bioenergy: Literature Review and Case Study
Chapter 23 Environmental, Social, and Economic Aspects of Waste-to-energy Technologies in Brazil: Gasification and Pyrolysis
Chapter 24 Life Cycle Assessment of Lubricant Oil Plastic Containers in Brazil: Comparing Disposal Scenarios
Chapter 25 Step toward Sustainability: Fuel Production and Hybrid Vehicles
Chapter 26 Microwave Pyrolysis of Composite Fuels with Biomass
Chapter 27 Combustion and Pyrolysis Characteristics of Composite Fuels with Waste-derived and Low-grade Components
Chapter 28 Analysis of Gaseous Anthropogenic Emissions from Coal and Slurry Fuel Combustion and Pyrolysis
Chapter 29 Allothermal Approach for Thermochemical Conversion of Coal-enrichment Waste
Chapter 30 Membrane Technology in Circular Economy: Current Status and Future Projections
Index

Citation preview

Waste to Profit Waste to Profit: Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development gives information about selecting the most suitable technology for waste treatment and energy recovery under different conditions. It contains techno-economic analysis, life cycle assessment, optimization of tools and technologies, including overview of various technologies involved in the treatment of wastes and factors influencing the involved processes. Finally, it explores the environmental, socioeconomic, and sustainability impact of different waste-to-energy systems. Features: • Reviews energy sources and technologies from waste, their environmental interactions, and the relevant global energy policies • Provides overview of waste-to-energy technologies for a sustainable future • Explores physicochemical properties involved in the pertinent process and technologies • Gives a multidisciplinary view about energy conversion and management, planning, controlling, and monitoring processes • Discusses information in transferring the technologies’ industrial level and global level to meet the requirements of different countries This book is aimed at researchers and graduate students in environmental engineering, energy engineering, waste management, waste to energy, and bioenergy.

Waste to Profit

Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development

Edited by Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M., Anand Ramanathan, Amaro Olimpio Pereira Junior, Dmitrii O. Glushkov, and M. Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi

Designed cover image: © Shutterstock First edition published 2023 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487–2742 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2023 selection and editorial matter, Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M, Anand Ramanathan, Amaro Olimpio Pereira Junior, Dmitrii O. Glushkov, and M. Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi; individual chapters, the contributors Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www. copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978–750–8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Begum, K. M. Meera Sheriffa, editor. Title: Waste to profit : environmental concerns and sustainable development / edited by Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M., Anand Ramanathan, Amaro Olimpio Pereira, Dmitrii Glushkov, Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi. Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: LCSH: Refuse and refuse disposal—Economic aspects. | Recycling (Waste, etc.)—Economic aspects. | Sustainable development. | Waste products as fuel. | Renewable energy sources. Classification: LCC TD793 .W39 2023 (print) | LCC TD793 (ebook) | DDC 628.4/458—dc23/eng/20230111 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022058801 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022058802 ISBN: 978-1-032-36906-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-36907-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-33441-5 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003334415 Typeset in Times by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents About the Editors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix List of Contributors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi Preface��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xv Chapter 1 Crop Residue to Fuel, Fertilizer, and Other By-products: An Approach toward Circular Economy���������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Subarna Maiti, Himanshu Patel, and Pratyush Maiti Chapter 2 Cost-effective Sustainable Electrodes for Bioelectrocatalysis toward Electricity Generation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 15 Samsudeen Naina Mohamed, Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M., and Vigneshhwaran Ganesan Chapter 3 Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles from Agro-waste: A Sustainable Approach��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27 Muthukumar K., Jayapriya M., Arulmozhi M., Senthilkumar T., and Krithikadevi R. Chapter 4 Conversion of Waste Plastics into Sustainable Fuel��������������������������������������������������� 41 Mohanraj C., Senthilkumar T., Chandrasekar M., and Arulmozhi M. Chapter 5 Innovations in Sludge-Conversion Techniques���������������������������������������������������������� 53 Chithra K. Chapter 6 Scale-up of Microbial Fuel Cells: A Waste-to-Energy Option���������������������������������� 69 Swathi S., Akanksha R., Karthick S., Sumisha A., Karnapa A., and Haribabu K. Chapter 7 Critical Role of Catalysts in Pyrolysis Reactions������������������������������������������������������� 93 Anjana P. Anantharaman Chapter 8 Engineering Perspectives on the Application of Photosynthetic Algal Microbial Fuel Cells for Simultaneous Wastewater Remediation and Bioelectricity Generation������������������������������������������������������������� 103 Baishali Dey, Nageshwari Krishnamoorthy, Rayanee Chaudhuri, Alisha Zaffer, Sivaraman Jayaraman, and Balasubramanian Paramasivan Chapter 9 Pyrolysis and Steam Gasification of Biomass Waste for Hydrogen Production������ 121 Prakash Parthasarathy, Tareq Al-Ansari, Gordon McKay, and K. Sheeba Narayanan v

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Contents

Chapter 10 Insight into Current Scenario of Electronic Waste to Nanomaterials Conversion�������133 Menaka Jha, Sunaina, Sapna Devi, and Nausad Khan Chapter 11 Wastewater Treatment Using Nanoadsorbents Derived from Waste Materials������� 147 Menaka Jha, Sunaina, Arushi Arora, and Kritika Sood Chapter 12 Environmental Sustainability: An Interdisciplinary Approach������������������������������� 165 M. Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi Chapter 13 Environmental Movements and Law in India: A Brief Introduction����������������������� 177 M. Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi and Abinaya R. Chapter 14 Co-pyrolysis of Biomass with Polymer Waste for the Production of High-quality Biofuel����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189 Dineshkumar Muniyappan and Anand Ramanathan Chapter 15 Thermal Degradation Behaviors and Kinetics of Pyrolysis�������������������������������������205 Uthayakumar Azhagu and Anand Ramanathan Chapter 16 Techniques for Biodiesel Production from Wastes�������������������������������������������������� 221 Gopi R. and Anand Ramanathan Chapter 17 Environmental Impact of Municipal Waste Energy Recovery Plant����������������������� 233 Mane Yogesh G. and Anand Ramanathan Chapter 18 A Comprehensive Review on the Modeling of Biomass Gasification Process for Hydrogen-rich Syngas Generation���������������������������������������������������������������������� 241 Kalil Basha Jeelan Basha, Sathishkumar Balasubramani, and Vedharaj Sivasankaralingam Chapter 19 A Comprehensive Review of Bio-catalyst Synthesis, Characterization, and Feedstock Selection for Biodiesel Synthesis Using Different Methods������������������� 261 Babu Dharmalingam, Malinee Sriariyanun, Anand Ramanathan, Santhoshkumar A., Selvakumar Ramalingam, Deepakkumar R., and Kasturi Bhattacharya Chapter 20 A Techno-economic Analysis of Green Hydrogen Production from Agricultural Residues and Municipal Solid Waste through Biomass-steam Gasification Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271 Pon Pavithiran C.K., P. Raman, and D. Sakthivadivel

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Contents

Chapter 21 The Energy Potential of Brazilian Organic Waste��������������������������������������������������� 287 Luciano Basto Oliveira, Amaro Olímpio Pereira Júnior, Ingrid Roberta de França Soares Alves, Marcelo de Miranda Reis, and Adriana Fiorotti Campos Chapter 22 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Bioenergy: Literature Review and Case Study���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 297 João Gabriel Lassio and Denise Ferreira de Matos Chapter 23 Environmental, Social, and Economic Aspects of Waste-to-energy Technologies in Brazil: Gasification and Pyrolysis�������������������������������������������������� 311 Suani Teixeira Coelho, Luciano Infiesta, and Vanessa Pecora Garcilasso Chapter 24 Life Cycle Assessment of Lubricant Oil Plastic Containers in Brazil: Comparing Disposal Scenarios�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 323 Maria Clara Brandt and Alessandra Magrini Chapter 25 Step toward Sustainability: Fuel Production and Hybrid Vehicles�������������������������� 335 Manoj Eswara Vel S.B., Chandru R., Dhanalakshmi K., Joshua George Stanly, and Anand Ramanathan Chapter 26 Microwave Pyrolysis of Composite Fuels with Biomass����������������������������������������� 349 Dmitrii O. Glushkov, Pavel A. Strizhak, Anatoly S. Shvets, and Ksenia Y. Vershinina Chapter 27 Combustion and Pyrolysis Characteristics of Composite Fuels with Waste-derived and Low-grade Components���������������������������������������������������� 363 Galina S. Nyashina, Pavel A. Strizhak, and Ksenia Y. Vershinina Chapter 28 Analysis of Gaseous Anthropogenic Emissions from Coal and Slurry Fuel Combustion and Pyrolysis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 377 Mark R. Akhmetshin, Galina S. Nyashina, and Pavel A. Strizhak Chapter 29 Allothermal Approach for Thermochemical Conversion of Coal-enrichment Waste�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 389 Roman I. Egorov, Roman I. Taburchinov, Zhenyu Zhao, and Xin Gao Chapter 30 Membrane Technology in Circular Economy: Current Status and Future Projections���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 399 Lukka Thuyavan Yogarathinam, Ahmad Fauzi Ismail, Pei Sean Goh, and Anatharaman Narayanan Index............................................................................................................................................... 411

About the Editors Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M. graduated from Anna University, Chennai. She worked at Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (formerly Madras Refineries Ltd.) in R&D division as “MRL Research Fellow” from 1991 to 1995. She is currently Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India. She has received many best paper awards in international conferences, has been granted two patents, and has published more than 100 articles in renowned international journals (h-index: 28; i-index: 49; citations 2550). Her research interest is in the fields of separation processes, functional materials for water treatment, alternate fuels, and medical applications. She has authored three chemical engineering textbooks – Process Calculations, Elements of Mass Transfer (Part I), and Mass Transfer Theory and Practice – and coauthored A Thermo Economic Approach to Energy from Waste. She has also authored seven book chapters. Under her supervision, she has guided several Ph.D. scholars, postgraduates, and undergraduates. She has contributed research, sponsored, and provided consultancy on projects on sustainable functional materials toward environment and energy applications funded by MHRD, DST-SERB, CSIR, MHRD-SPARC, and DST-BRICS. She has undertaken research collaboration and training at NUS, Singapore, through TEQIP in 2006 and has involved herself in consultancy projects on downstreaming applications in distilleries, dairy industries, Southern Railways, etc., professionally related activities, and administrative responsibilities to serve the community. Anand Ramanathan is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Associate Dean (Research & Consultancy) in Industry & Outreach at National Institute of Technology, Trichy. He is a recipient of the Australian Endeavour Fellow and worked in the area of solar fuels at Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, in 2015. He also serves as Expert Member of the Centre of Excellence in Corrosion and in Corrosion and Surface Engineering. As a recognition of his contributions, he was awarded N.K. Iyengar Memorial Prize in 2009, Outstanding scientist VIRA Award in 2017, Dr. Radhakrishnan Award in 2018, and NITT’s Best Innovator Award in 2022. His area of specialization is Internal Combustion Engines, and it expands to the field of alternative fuels, waste-to-energy conversion technologies, emission control, and fuel cells. He has guided eight Ph.D. and four MS research scholars and is at present guiding six Ph.D. scholars. His research-oriented scholarship has facilitated him to publish more than 60 Science Citation SCI/Scopus Indexed research journals and presented papers in several international conferences besides presenting a paper in Applied Energy (ICAE2018 – Hong Kong), ASME, USA, and SAE International conferences at Detroit, USA. He has been granted four Indian patents in the area of biocatalyst and biofuel. He has visited Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, France, the United States, and Bangladesh for academic collaborations. He has authored 3 books and 11 book chapters in renowned publications. He has received sponsored projects from IEI-India, DST-SERB, DST-YSS, DST-UKERI, DRDO-GTRE, MHRD-SPARC, and DST-BRICS and developed well-equipped Fuels Laboratory in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at NIT, Trichy. He has undertaken Consultancy for Industry and Administrative responsibilities at NITT. Amaro Olimpio Pereira Junior is Economist. He has a Ph.D. in Energy Planning from Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. He has worked as technical advisor in the Energy and Environment Department at Energy Research Company (EPE) in Brazil. He has served as Visiting Professor at the Pierre Mendès-France University in Grenoble, France, and at the University of Texas at Austin, Texas. He has worked as Research Fellow at CIRED (Centre International de Recherche sur l’Environement et Dévélopement) in France. Currently, he is Associated Professor of the Energy Planning Program of the Institute of Graduate Studies in Engineering at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (PPE/COPPE/UFRJ), Researcher at Centro-Clima, Director of the Institute for Strategic ix

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About the Editors

Development of the Energy Sector – ILUMINA and Member of the permanent technical committee at LIFE. He has experience in energy and environmental modeling, besides working in the areas of regulation of energy sectors, integration of new technologies, and different energy sources on issues related to climate change. He is author of books, book chapters, and several papers in international journals. Dmitrii O. Glushkov has a Ph.D. in Physical and Mathematical Sciences. He is Associate Professor at the National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia, and has 11 years of research and teaching experience. He is a specialist in combustion theory. His fields of research are combustion processes of composite solid propellants and gel fuels, co-combustion of solid fossil fuels and municipal solid waste, microexplosion of composite fuels, and hot spot ignition. Dr. Glushkov is the head of more than ten major research projects. The main scientific results of over the past 5 years have been published in more than 25 highly rated journals and three monographs. M. Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi, Associate Professor of English, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, India, has 22 years of teaching experience, including her service at University of Madras, Chennai, and Mother Teresa Women’s University, India. She has won the Travel Grant Award to present paper in North East Modern Language Association, USA. She has authored a book and several research articles and has won Best Presentation and Best Paper Awards. Currently, she is specializing in Environmental Humanities.

Contributors Santhoshkumar A. Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Tamil Nadu, India Sumisha A. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India Karnapa A. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India Mark R. Akhmetshin National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, 30, Lenin Avenue, Tomsk, Russia Tareq Al-Ansari Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar Ingrid Roberta de França Soares Alves Military Institute of Engineering – IME, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Anjana P. Anantharaman Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Tamil Nadu, India Arushi Arora Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, India Uthayakumar Azhagu Bioenergy Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Sathishkumar Balasubramani Clean Combustion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

Kalil Basha Jeelan Basha Clean Combustion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Kasturi Bhattacharya Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Maria Clara Brandt Energy Planning Programme – COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Mohanraj C. Department of Mechanical Engineering, M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Karur, Tamil Nadu, India Adriana Fiorotti Campos Federal University of Espírito Santo – UFES, Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil Rayanee Chaudhuri Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India Suani Teixeira Coelho Research Group on Bioenergy (GBIO), Institute of Energy and Environment (IEE), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil Sakthivadivel D. School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Sapna Devi Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, India Baishali Dey Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India xi

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Babu Dharmalingam King Mongkut’s University of Technology, North Bangkok, Bang Sue, Bangkok, Thailand Roman I. Egorov National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Mane Yogesh G. Thermal Engineering Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Vigneshhwaran Ganesan Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Xin Gao School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China National Engineering Research Center of Distillation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, China

Contributors

Sivaraman Jayaraman Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India Menaka Jha Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, India Amaro Olímpio Pereira Júnior Energy Planning Programme – COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Chithra K. Department of Chemical Engineering, A.C. Tech, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Dhanalakshmi K. Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Haribabu K. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India

Vanessa Pecora Garcilasso Research Group on Bioenergy (GBIO), Institute of Energy and Environment (IEE), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil

Muthukumar K. Department of Petrochemical Technology, University College of Engineering (BIT Campus), Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

Dmitrii O. Glushkov National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia

Sheeba Narayanan K. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

Pei Sean Goh Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia Luciano Infiesta Carbogas LTDA, São Paulo, Brazil Ahmad Fauzi Ismail Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Pon Pavithiran C.K. School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Nausad Khan Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, India Nageshwari Krishnamoorthy Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India

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Contributors

João Gabriel Lassio Energy Planning Program, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Angkayarkan Vinayakaselvi M. Department of English, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Arulmozhi M. Department of Petrochemical Technology, University College of Engineering, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Chandrasekar M. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Jayapriya M. Department of Petrochemical Technology, University College of Engineering, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Alessandra Magrini Energy Planning Programme – COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Pratyush Maiti CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India Subarna Maiti CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India

Samsudeen Naina Mohamed Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Dineshkumar Muniyappan Bioenergy Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Anatharaman Narayanan Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, India Galina S. Nyashina National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Luciano Basto Oliveira Energy Planning Programme – COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Raman P. Energy Efficiency and Environment P. Ltd., New Delhi, India Balasubramanian Paramasivan Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India Prakash Parthasarathy Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar Himanshu Patel CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India Abinaya R. Department of English, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

Denise Ferreira de Matos Brazilian Electric Power Research Center, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Akanksha R. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India

Gordon McKay Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar

Chandru R. Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

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Deepakkumar R. Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore Tamil Nadu, India Gopi R. Fuels Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Krithikadevi R. Centre for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, UAE Selvakumar Ramalingam Bharath Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Anand Ramanathan Bioenergy Laboratory, Fuels Laboratory, Thermal Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Marcelo de Miranda Reis Military Institute of Engineering – IME, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Karthick S. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India Sunaina Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, India

Contributors

Combustion and Emission Studies, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India Kritika Sood Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, India Malinee Sriariyanun King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bang Sue, Bangkok, Thailand Joshua George Stanly Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Pavel A. Strizhak National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Senthilkumar T. Department of Automobile Engineering, University College of Engineering, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Roman I. Taburchinov National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia Ksenia Y. Vershinina National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia

Swathi S. Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India

Lukka Thuyavan Yogarathinam Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

Manoj Eswara Vel S.B. Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

Alisha Zaffer Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha, India

Anatoly S. Shvets National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia

Zhenyu Zhao School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China National Engineering Research Center of Distillation Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, China

Vedharaj Sivasankaralingam Clean Combustion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering; Centre for

Preface Globally, developing nations have waste management systems that tremendously need development in order to meet engineering demands as well as health and safety requirements. A waste to profit facility is one of the most difficult public projects which could be of prime importance for a community to undertake toward Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It requires the expertise of scientists, researchers, in-house staff, and consultants, as well as the active participation of community decision-makers and the general public for its implementation. This book gives information and tools in selecting the most suitable technology for waste treatment and energy recovery under different conditions. This book deals with techno-economic analysis, life cycle assessment, and optimization of tools and technologies toward waste to wealth. In addition, the book presents an overview of various technologies involved in the treatment of wastes and factors influencing the processes for better understanding. Finally, the book discusses the environmental, socioeconomic, and sustainability of the waste-to-energy systems covering few of the geographic locations. The book helps to identify the various parameters influencing the treatment processes of waste resources. The technologies are needed for all types of scenarios to provide an efficient state of art in reducing and reusing the wastes, to address the problems associated with waste management, issues concerned with policies of management, and waste-to-energy initiatives. It includes the global problems and their case studies to make involvement in industrial and municipal management. It is helpful to assess the environmental degradation of various streams, production methods of biofuel, and select the suitable eco-friendly processes among different alternatives. This book provides inputs for readers to help understand the fundamental science behind the water treatment, renewable biofuel production, particularly thermochemical and biochemical conversion processes, which could lead to environmental impacts associated with more value-added products. Editorial Team

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Crop Residue to Fuel, Fertilizer, and Other By-products An Approach toward Circular Economy Subarna Maiti, Himanshu Patel, and Pratyush Maiti

CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Selection and Characterization of Ideal Crop Residue.............................................................. 3 1.3 Thermochemical Conversion for Energy and Value-added Products....................................... 4 1.3.1 Solar Gasification...........................................................................................................4 1.3.1.1 Experimental Setup........................................................................................4 1.3.1.2 Experimental Outcome................................................................................... 5 1.3.2 Pyrolysis........................................................................................................................6 1.3.2.1 Experimental Setup........................................................................................6 1.3.2.2 Experimental Outcome................................................................................... 7 1.3.3 Synthesis of Value-added Products from Process Residue...........................................9 1.3.3.1 Experimental Setup........................................................................................9 1.3.3.2 Experimental Outcome................................................................................. 10 1.4 Techno-economic Analysis..................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 12 Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................. 13 References......................................................................................................................................... 13

1.1 INTRODUCTION The global energy and food demand are rising at an unprecedented rate due to the ever-increasing human population. The demand must be satisfied by preserving ecological resources of the planet. Energy is crucial to drive global socioeconomic growth, and energy consumption is expected to grow at an average rate of 1.2% per year till 2040 (BP Energy Outlook 2019). In 2019, more than 75% of primary energy comes from fossil fuels, which makes the energy sector responsible for 72% greenhouse gases emissions (GHGs). Resultantly, the global energy sector is dealing with a dual challenge: increasing energy demand and reducing carbon emissions. These challenges can be addressed by increasing our dependence on renewable and carbon-neutral energy sources. Being the second largest country by population and fifth largest economy in the world, India’s share in total global primary energy consumption is expected to double by 2040. Worldwide food demand is expected to rise by 59–98% by 2050. The rise in food demand will significantly increase global fertilizer demand (Tian et al. 2021). Along with nitrogen and phosphorous, potassium is one of the critical plant nutrients. Although potassium is one of the most DOI: 10.1201/9781003334415-1 1

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abundant elements in the earth’s crust, most of it is not plant-available (Zörb, Senbayram, and Peiter 2014). Therefore, crops need to be supplied with potassium as fertilizer. No wonder more than 95% of global production of potash chemicals is utilized as fertilizer. Although fertilizer demand is almost universal, only six countries supply 85% of the total global market. Being an agricultural country, India requires significant amount of potash fertilizer. Due to the absence of commercially exploitable potash reserves, India imports the entire demand. To balance non-uniform distribution of conventional potash reserves, secondary sources of potash need to be explored. On the other hand, in many developing countries, surplus crop residues are allowed to decay naturally or burned to clear the field for the next cultivation cycle. Apart from energy loss, uncontrolled burning adversely affects soil fertility and human health. Technologies like thermochemical conversion has the potential to harness energy from these surplus crop residues. Though biofuels derived via thermochemical conversion are more or less comparable to fossil fuels, their production as a single source of revenue remain economically non-feasible compared to their fossil rivals. Biorefinery approach, considering the recovery of numerous products from a single biomass source, can significantly improve the cost-competitiveness of biofuels (Ghosh et al. 2015). The chapter reports the biorefinery approaches based on two thermochemical processes: (i) solar gasification and (ii) slow co-pyrolysis. The outline of the chapter is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Nonfodder crop residue (i.e., empty cotton boll) was selected as a feedstock. The solar gasification-based approach involved syngas synthesis and co-production of potash fertilizer from the residual ash. However, slow co-pyrolysis-based approach considered the synthesis of bio-oil, potash fertilizer from biochar and activated carbon from spent biochar left after potash recovery. Application of bio-oil as an alternative fuel in spark-ignition engine was tested. As a part of the potassium recovery process, water leaching of residual ash (left after solar gasification) and biochar (left after slow co-pyrolysis) was optimized. For the synthesis of potash fertilizer from the leachate, a method of selective precipitation using tartaric acid was adopted. The spent biochar left after potassium recovery was utilized as a source of activated carbon and CO2 adsorption capacity of derived activated carbon was tested. Techno-economics of biorefinery approaches based on thermochemical conversions to energy and value-added products were evaluated and compared. However, the detailed experimental results are reported elsewhere (Müller et al. 2018; Patel, Mangukiya et al. 2020; Patel

FIGURE 1.1  Outline of the chapter.

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et al. 2019; Patel, Müller et al. 2020; Patel, Maiti, and Maiti 2022). The chapter highlights only the critical features of the study.

1.2  SELECTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF IDEAL CROP RESIDUE Based on three key criteria – (i) availability, (ii) avoidance of “food vs. fuel” conflict, and (iii) potassium content – empty cotton boll was selected as a renewable source of energy and potash from a large pool of crop residues available. In India, the total annual production of surplus cotton boll is estimated to be ~29.7 Mton, equivalent to the total energy potential of ~456 PJ/a and potash potential of ~0.32 Mton/a (in terms of K 2O). Table 1.1 describes complete characterization of empty cotton boll. TABLE 1.1 Characterization of Empty Cotton Boll Unit

Empty Cotton Boll

Bulk density (unprocessed)

kg/m3

250

Elemental analysis C H N S O (by difference)

wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%

46.63 5.88 1.02 0.49 45.98

Proximate analysis Ash content Moisture content Volatile matter content Fixed carbon (by difference)

wt% wt% wt% wt%

5.46 9.29 64.99 20.26

MJ/kg MJ/kg

15.57 14.29

Fiber composition Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin

wt% wt% wt%

3.00 53.98 21.07

Ash composition (wt% of ash) Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 K 2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 Others

wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%

6.17 4.87 3.66 6.62 45.24 8.59 0.19 1.77 22.89

Calorific values HHV LHV

Ash fusion testing Initial deformation Softening Hemispherical Fluid

°C °C °C °C

601 609 627 635

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1.3 THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION FOR ENERGY AND VALUE-ADDED PRODUCTS 1.3.1  Solar Gasification As gasification is an endothermic process, it requires an external heat source to run the process. In solar gasification, concentrated solar radiation is used as a heat source to drive the process. Solar gasification offers several advantages over conventional gasification. 1.3.1.1  Experimental Setup Figure 1.2 portrays a setup of solar gasification. A high-flux solar simulator with an assembly of ten Xenon arc lamps, each close-coupled to an ellipsoidal concentrator, was used for the experiments. The setup is at Solar Technology Laboratory, Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland, and the investigation was conducted at the Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich. In terms of radiative heat transfer characteristics, the high-flux solar simulator is equivalent to a highly concentrated solar system. Several xenon arc lamps and mechanical shutters could control solar

FIGURE 1.2  Solar gasification experimental setup at Solar Technology Laboratory, Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland. Tabsorber: temperature of upper cavity, Ttop: temperature of lower cavity above packed bed, T: thermocouple, 1: deflection mirror, 2: mechanical shutter, 3: high-flux solar simulator, 4: packed bed solar reactor, 5: mass flow controllers, 6: peristaltic pump, 7: heater, 8: tar cracker, 9: condensation tube, 10: scrubber, and 11: gas filter.

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radiative power input. The incoming solar radiation was deflected down toward the top of the solar reactor using a deflection mirror. The reactor was comprised of two cavities: the upper cavity acted as an absorber of the incoming solar reactor, and the lower cavity worked as a reaction chamber. The upper cavity was purged with argon, and the lower cavity was purged with a mixture of argon and steam. Gas formed during gasification was directed toward an electric-heated tar cracker, a condensation tube to condense evaporated minerals, a wet scrubber to cool down hot gases to ambient temperature, and a solid particle filter (0.2 μm). The molar flow rate of gaseous species was determined by purging N2 as a tracer. Infrared detectors and gas chromatography analyzed gas composition. 1.3.1.2  Experimental Outcome Process operating conditions, experimental results, and performance indicators for solar gasification of empty cotton boll are listed in Table 1.2. Due to the lower bulk density of feedstock, only 160–347 g of CB was solar steam gasified. The steam injection was started once the Tbottom reached 100 °C. Gasification time denotes the time between the start of steam injection and the moment syngas production stops. Almost 2.3–8.2 g carbon-free ash was collected. The variables which indicate the overall performance of the solar gasification process can be defined as follows. Carbon conversion indicates the initial amount of total carbon available in feedstock that has been converted during the process:

Carbon conversion =

mass of carbon in feedstock - mass of caron in ash (1.1) mass of carbon in feedstock

Carbon gas yield indicates the initial molar amount of carbon available in feedstock which has been converted to CH4, CO, and CO2:

Carbon gas yield =

nCH4 + nCO + nCO2 moles of carbon in feedstock

(1.2)

TABLE 1.2 Operating Conditions, Results, and Performance Indicators of Solar Gasification of Empty Cotton Boll Parameter Tabsorber, °C Ttop, °C Gasification time, min Feedstock weight, g nH2O, mol nH2, mol nCO, mol nCO2, mol nCH4, mol Ash collected, g Performance indicators Carbon conversion, % Carbon gas yield, % ηsolar-to-fuel, % Energetic upgrade factor

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

Experiment 3

Experiment 4

1284 1112 73 184 8.73 6.18 4.26 1.69 0.39 3.0

1276 1266 70 166 7.24 5.01 3.56 1.38 0.35 2.3

1251 1239 115 347 20.46 10.96 7.31 2.75 0.78 8.2

1087 947 78 160 13.35 5.07 2.42 1.71 0.38 4.3

100.0 99.8 14.0

100.0 96.8 11.4

100.0 95.2 15.0

99.9 85.6 13.6

1.07

0.99

1.02

0.92

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where ni denotes the molar amount of i gas species formed during the conversion (i = CH4, CO, and CO2); solar-to-fuel efficiency (ηsolar-to-fuel) can be defined as the ratio of syngas heating value to solar radiative energy input and feedstock heating value:

hSolar-to-fuel =

msyn × LHVsyn total solar radiatve energy input + mfeedstock × LHVfeedstock

(1.3)

The energetic upgrade factor is the ratio of products’ heating value (i.e., syngas) to the heating value of the feedstock:

Energetic upgrade factor =

msyn × LHVsyn mfeedstock × LHVfeedstock

(1.4)

Gasification of empty cotton boll was carried out at different gasification temperatures (Ttop). H2 and CO were the leading constituents in the syngas composition, which was consistent for all four runs. Their cumulative molar composition ranged within 8.57–18.27. Molar ratio of H2:CO, CH4:CO, and CO2:CO decreased at higher Ttop. Carbon conversion of almost 100% was achieved for all gasification runs. Carbon gas yield improved significantly at elevated Ttop. In contrast, solar-to-fuel efficiency suffered at higher Ttop, presumably because of the competitive effects of enhanced gasification rates versus higher heat loss at elevated Ttop. The highest solar-tofuel efficiency of 15% was achieved at Ttop of 1239 °C. Energetic upgrade factor improved significantly at higher Ttop. An energetic upgrade factor higher than unity indicates more heating value of the product stream than the heating value of the feedstock. For conventional autothermal gasification, this value ranges within 0.7–0.8. A significant fraction of feedstock undergoes combustion to reach the desired temperature. The energetic upgrade factor was below unity for Ttop < 1100 °C. The net heating value of solar syngas was 10.34–10.94 MJ/m3, which was significantly higher than that of the syngas produced via autothermal gasification due to avoidance of combustion. For instance, autothermal gasification of Jatropha shell, legume straw, rice husk, and wood chip generated syngas with a net calorific value of 5.2, 5.9, 6.5, and 8.8 MJ/m3, respectively (Maiti et al. 2014; Cao et al. 2019).

1.3.2  Pyrolysis 1.3.2.1  Experimental Setup Figure 1.3 indicates the process flow diagram for slow co-pyrolysis. Empty cotton boll and plastic waste (19:1 w/w) were slowly co-pyrolyzed in a fixed bed pilot-scale reactor in N2 atmosphere at 500 °C, at a heating rate of 10 °C/min. Institute dry waste consisting of laboratory and packaging waste was considered plastic waste. The waste was comprised of various plastics; however, it is difficult to calculate the exact mass fraction of each plastic species available in the waste. The electrically heated furnace heated the cylindrical pyrolysis reactor until the flow of volatiles stopped (~60 min after reaching 500 °C) and the reactor cooled down naturally. Three Pt-Pt-Rh-type thermocouples were placed across the length of the reactor. The reactor temperature and heating rate were controlled using a microprocessor PID controller. Pyrolysis vapor coming out of the reactor was condensed (5 ± 5 °C) using two shell and tube condensers (connected in series) in a countercurrent manner. The composition of non-condensable gases was analyzed using non-dispersive infrared and gas chromatography. At the end of the experiment, the weight of solid residue left inside the reactor per unit amount of feedstock was considered char yield. The char was used as a source of potash fertilizer and activated carbon. The raw bio-oil yield was determined from the weight difference between the final and initial weight of the raw bio-oil-collecting vessel. Raw bio-oil contained a significant amount of water, which was removed via liquid–liquid extraction using ethyl acetate (bio-oil:ethyl acetate = 1:4 v/v). Upon mixing, aqueous and organic fractions of raw bio-oil got separated. Further,

Crop Residue to Fuel, Fertilizer, and Other By-products

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FIGURE 1.3  Process flow diagram for slow pyrolysis of empty cotton boll and plastic waste. T: thermocouple, 1: electrically heated furnace, 2: fixed bed pilot-scale reactor, 3: reactor outlet, 4: shell and tube glass condensers, 5: bio-oil-collecting vessel, 6: bio-oil upgradation unit, 7: bio-oil gasoline blending unit, and 8: four-stroke single-cylinder variable compression ratio gasoline engine.

the ethyl acetate mixture and bio-oil organic fraction were subjected to evaporation at 39 °C and 210 torr (absolute). Recovered ethyl acetate could be reused and the organic fraction was dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered, and labeled as bio-oil. Without using any surfactant, bio-oil was blended with commercial gasoline in the range of 10–30% (v/v) bio-oil in gasoline. This bio-oil + gasoline blends were used as an alternative fuel in four-stroke single-cylinder gasoline engine. The effect of engine-operating variables (compression ratio, engine load, and blend proportion) on engine performance variables (brake thermal efficiency and brake-specific fuel consumption) and engine emissions (CO, CO2, unburnt hydrocarbon and NOx) was studied. 1.3.2.2  Experimental Outcome Pyrolysis of 15 kg feedstock at 500 °C yielded 5.59 kg of raw bio-oil, 5.81 kg of biochar, and 3.12 kg of non-condensable gases. Upon water removal, 1.67 kg of water-free bio-oil was obtained. Carbon conversion yield, non-condensable gas, and bio-oil composition are presented in Table  1.3. The majority of total carbon available in feedstock was converted into biochar. Only 15.34% of total carbon in feedstock was transformed into bio-oil. CO and CO2 were the dominating species in the non-condensable gases. GC-MS analysis indicated phenols were significantly available in bio-oil. Table 1.4 highlights essential fuel properties of gasoline and bio-oil relevant to engine performance study. Usually, bio-oils are acidic. Comparatively, present bio-oil pH was almost neutral due to relatively lower organic acids in bio-oil. Bio-oil was denser and more viscous than gasoline. However, its dynamic viscosity was well below the acceptable upper limit as fuel. Bio-oil stability study indicated that change in bio-oil dynamic viscosity was