Walking with Dinosaurs: A Natural History 0563384492

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Contents I N T R O D U C T I O N

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111

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Previous pages: page 1 Allosaurus, pages 2- 3 Tyrannosaurus '

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B I B L I O G R A P H Y

284

I N D E X

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

285

P I C T U R E

286 C R E D I T S

288

Introduction o

N

PERIOD ON

Earth has gripped the hitman imagination more

than the time of the dinosaurs. For over 150 years dinosaurs have

fascinated scientists and lay people alike - perhaps because these

creatures seem so completely alien to anything currently found

on Earth , and yet they were frighteningly real. Their very size and power tempt us to try to picture them . But how can we imagine such a different world ?

To begin with , visualize the changes in the landscape you would see in front of you if you were to go back in lime: get rid of all the houses and roads, and

then all the fields and fences. That’s just the surface. Now replace grass and

open ground with ferns and low, palm-like cycads. Convert any trees you can

—

plantation-pine types but older species like monkey puzzles - and spread them out over the landscape . Pull the birds out of die air, change the noise die insects make, and turn up the temperature. Finally, place a herd of enormous, loud repules in front of you and watch as groups of alarmingly fast predators stalk them . Phis book attempts a similar mental exercise, conjuring up the * world of the dinosaurs. It is not intended to

see into conifers

not the familiar

be an encyclopedia; it is an experience. Flic trouble is that we are separated from diese prehistoric scenes by a stag-

geringly vast time. Millions and millions of years have passed during which the

opposm

A blast from the

remains of these magnificent creatures have been scattered , eroded , and

past: a dinosaur predator

buried. While mountains ranges have come and gone and oceans have risen

launches himself out from a

up and drained away, a few of tliese remains became locked in die rocks and turned to stone.

group of ancient column pines. He is a carnivore with a basic

body design that did not

All that we know about dinosaurs comes from these scraps of evidence that

change for millions of years: its

have survived die aeons as fossils. It is the paleontologists’ job to interpret the

characteristics were two strong

clues, but for these scientists it is at once a fascinating and frustrating study. To

legs, a long tall, grasping arms, and sharp teeth .

7

WALKING

WITH

INTRODUCTION

D I N O S A U R S

THE TIME OF THEIR LIVES

L

IFE ON EARTH probably began about

the sea already had a nch variety of life, from

4500 million years ago, but for almost

giant carnivorous fish to extensive reefs.

4000 million of those years, life forms

During the latter part of the Paleozoic, land

were largely single-celled creatures, such as

was fully colonized. Small plants became

bacteria and algae. Larger, more complex

trees and then forests, and insects became

animals began to evolve dunng the

hugely successful Millions of years after this

Cambrian period, about 550 million years

the vertebrates crawled onto the land and,

ago. During the so-called 'Cambnan

first as amphibians and then as reptiles

explosion', a blizzard of new shapes and

learned to exploit this harsh environment.

First homlnid

.

forms appeared. Many lasted only a short

V

'

By the end of the Paleozok, 245 million

creatures, such as the arthropods and

the sea. But then they almost all d»ed out at

moMuscs that are stiM with us today. From a

the end of the Permian. This ushered in the

human vlwvpoint the most important

Mesozoic period, which started with a long

development was the appearance of tiny

penod of recovery. Soon the old Paleozoic

animals with primitive backbones, the first

reptiles, called mammal-like reptiles because

vertebrates. This proved a good bask design

they were the ancestors of mammals, began

A female Tyrannosaurus the ultimate

to be replaced by the dinosaurs. For the rest

prehistoric predator, Inspects her nest.

The penod since the Cambrian is divided

of the Mesozoic - 170 million years -

:

MASS EXTINCTION

65 million yean ago

First whales

^

years ago, reptiles ruled on land and fish in

for large size.

*

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ii

'

No matter how large they were, dinosaurs

First ( lowering plants

always appear to have reproduced by

the ancient Paleozoic

dinosaurs were the dominant animals on

when life was dominated by water, the

land. In the seas other giant reptiles took

middle Mesozoic when giant reptiles ruled

over ail the large predator niches. Mammals

Cenozok era opened with a great number of

the world, and the modem Cenozoic when

evolved but remained restricted in numbers;

of smaller animals, such as mammals and

mammals and birds took over. The Paleozoic

birds appeared, and plants transformed

birds. These diversified and some returned to

started with barren land and teeming seas.

completely by evolving flowers - but the

the water, evolving into whales. Gradually,

It took around 100 million years for the first

dinosaurs strode on. Finally, at the end of the

the nch variety of mammals with whkh we

complex oreand . ,s to conquer land. So

Mesozoic, 65 million years ago, another

are familiar today appeared; finally, in the

while the first plants and insects struggled to

extraordinary mass extinction wiped out all

last blink of an eye on this vast time scale,

establish themselves on the hostile ground,

the dinosaurs except the birds. The modem

humans evolved from the apes.

100 million yean ago

laying eggs on the ground.

-

This time spiral charts the

-

evolution of life from the

Cambrian period, when the first complex creatures began

First amphibians

.

to evolve untH the present day

Two of the biggest mass

extinctions in life's history are

200 million years ago

First land plants f irst vertebrates

marked at the beginning and the end of the Mesozok era; 300 millnon years ago

the last brought to an end the age of dinosaurs.

8

S 00 million years ago

400 million years ago

9

WALKING

WITH

I N T R O D U C T I O N

DINOSAURS

interpret iLs behavior. So how can

.

expert eyes a fossil can hold a mass of information. It can reveal ils age the

shape of the animal

to

it was related. But try

to

to

possibly claim

to

know the structure of a

which

Triccratops herd? The answer, of course, is that we can’t, but we do know that

discover how the animals lived -

these animals existed and reproduced, so it seems well worth trying to find out

which it belonged, and the other creatures lake this further -

we

to

.

and the fossil record becomes teasingly elusive. Patterns of footprints, teeth

more about how they might have lived

This book aims

marks, and the configurations of bones can be used as a starting point for

to

help the reader imagine this ancient and alien world

completely by drawing together all the elements of which science is cer-

many stories, but which one is right? The behavior that created these clues does not fossilize, and, therefore, the truth about them will never he

more

known for sure.

have tried

tain and using reasoned speculation To

to

create

to

fill the gaps. There are various ways I

achieve this, both in the text and in the pictures. the stories 1 spent two years talking to scientists and reading pri-

Ultimately, speculating about most dinosaur behavior is unscientific because the theories cannot be tested. A zoologist might spend ten years in

mary and secondary paleontological sources. With the help of a skilled

the field studying a living animal before he or she feels confident enough

of researchers, we slowly focused in on those creatures of which enough was

to

-

team

A WORLD I N M O T I O N The first dinosaurs lived on a huge, crab shaped continent that stretched from pole to po e In the

By the Cetaceous, groups ol unique dinosaurs had started to develop on the different continents derived from the fractured landmark

Even though the giant continent was breaking up, the groat sauropod herds of the |urasi!c could stai walk Irom the northern tip of Africa to Australia

* middle of one vast ocean

Not all dinosaurs were

enormous. These

Leodlynmaura are

TRIASSIC

hypsllophodonllds, a

220 MILLION YEARS AGO

highly successful group P A N G A E A

PANTHALASSA

OCEAN

TETHYS OCEAN

LATE IURASSIC 155 MILLION YEARS AGO

I R A S I A

P A N G A E A

A

EARLY CRETACEOUS 127 MILLION YEARS AGO

LTHOUGH THE GROUND beneath

of herbhrores, many of

whom were no larger than sheep.

TETHYS OCEAN

our feet may feel solid, it is in fact

L A UR A SIA

on the move, at about the same ND W A N A

speed as our fingernails grow. Dunng the

hapless plants and animals that are living on

unimaginably long time that fife has existed

them through different climate zones. So, for

on Earth, this has meant that the continents

instance, during the Cambrian period Australia

have danced across the globe in all sorts of

was in the northern hemisphere, then over

disintegrate. There were no ice-caps, and sea

configurations. In addition to altering the very

millions of years rt drifted through the tropics

levels were sometimes much higher than those

face of the Earth, these movements have an

down to the South Pole and back up to where

of today. Toward the end of the Mesozoic the

enormous effect on the globe's climate

It Is today, f- or life on Earth the ground rules

landmasses began to look more as they do

because o< ihe changes they make in ocean

are constantly changing.

today, but they arc, ol course, still on the move

currents and wind patterns.

The moving continents also carry the

10

At one point in the Cretaceous, sea levels were 200 meters (650 feet ) ubove those of today, and almost every continent was Isolated

The age of the dinosaurs started with one giant continent that slowly began to

TETHYS OCEAN

M I D CRETACEOUS

106 MILLION YEARS AGO G O N D W A N A

and one day they might reform into another giant continent .

Since the lime of the dinosaurs, the shape of the continents has been strongfy influenced by a rapidly opening Atlantic.

11

W A L K I N G

W I T H

I N T R O D U C T I O N

D I N O S A U R S

THE MIGHTY DYNASTY OF DINOSAURS

T

HIS FAMILY TREE illustrates how a

At the beginning of the Triassic the turtle

ttie middle of the Triavs : at first made little

*

the beginning of the Jurassic penod small,

impression, but by the er»d of this era they

-

group of ancestral reptiles from the

line became restricted to a few heavily

hairy, warm blooded mammals had evolved,

Paleozoic era managed to diversify

armored forms and remains so to this day. The

but they were lew in number and were to

and dominate the Mesozoic world. When

ancestors of birds and crocodiles - archosaurs

remain so for the next 130 million years.

reptiles first appeared they formed three main

- did well, but the age really belonged to the

groups distinguished by different types of

massive mammal like reptiles . As the Triassic

blossoming of the archosaurs. From small,

skulls. Today these forms live on in turtles,

progressed, these huge creatures went into

birds, and crocodiles, and mammals. Later the

dinosaurs, the duck billed hadrosaurs, tike

dominated life on Earth. There were two

these Anatoliton, were the most common

major groups - the saunschians and the

herbivores to roam the earth.

omithischians

Significantly, the Triassic saw the

Last flourish: by the end of Die time of the

-

distinguished by the different

structure of their hips. During the lurassk the

the end ll»e duckbill and homed ornilhisician

swift animals they produced large carnivores,

saurlschians, made up of the carnivorous

dinosaurs were by far the most common

decline, but they produced new species that

hefty herbivores and even the delicate flying

theropods, and giant herbivorous sauropods,

herbivores. Then, 65 million years ago, all

marine reptiles evolved as another distinct

were much closer to what we would now call

pterosaurs. They also gave rise to the

were highly successful. Next, through the

these creatures died out, leaving a few small

group, but they left no modem descendants.

a mammal. By

dinosaurs. The arrival of this group around

Cretaceous, the omithisciaru took off, and by

feathered theropods and mammals.

-

PALEOZOIC ERA

TRIASSIC

CRETACEOUS

IURASSIC

250 million years ago

200 million years ago

• CHAPTER

1

CHAPTER 2

•

150 million years ago •CHAPTER 3

65 million years ago

100 million years ago

•CHAPTER

4

•CHAPTER

5

CHAPTER 6

• CER ATOPSIANS

Torosauius

•

Horned dinosaurs PACHYCEPMALOSAURS Domed - headed dinosaurs

• Edmontosaurus • Anatotitan

• Iquanodon

& 5?

Stegosaurus

*

A

*

O

• Muttaburrasaurus • Leaellynasaura

•

IGUANODONTIDS

• Poiacanthus Oiplodocus

• Pclnnosjurus

Brachiosaurus

STEGOSAURS

Ankylosaurus

•

•

ANKYLOSAURS

Armored dinosaurs

•

SAUROPODS

Allosaurus Ormtholesles

•

Eustreptospondylus • •

•Utahraptor

Tyrannosaurus

•

Anurognathus

• • Rhamphorhynchus

ara

• Ornilhochirris

THEROPODS

BIRDS

•Iberomesorms

REPTILES

• Postoiui *i u \

Duck - billed dinosaurs

HYPSILOPHODONTIDS

• Plateosauius

• Coelophysis

HADROSAUR 5

Quet / alcoallui

PTEROSAURS CROCODILES

mosaurus • Opfitha Cr yp ! or I rl ®

• Plateiui •Cynodonl

12

^

'

|

DidrIphodon

•

MAMMALS

13

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

known to help us form a complete picture. For instance, we chose Corlobhysis to

discover clues

feature in Chapter I , not because it is the earliest dinosaur ever found but

cannibalism indicated by Coelophysis, or Tyrannosaurus teeth

because it is a typical early dinosaur, and we know' a lot about it. Because we also wanted to describe dinosaurs’ relationships with the plants and animals

marks in a Tricrratops hip. Where scientific evidence of this

around diem , we were naturally

led to the world ’s

richest fossil beds. Ghost

sort was

lo

animal behavior, such as die incidence ol

available, I incorporated it into the animal

behavior described in the main text ; there arc boxes

Ranch in New Mexico produced hundreds of Coelophysis and , together with

throughout the book which detail some of the best

related beds, provided information that allowed us to add other creatures to its

examples of this evidence, describe major discoveries,

world - herbivores, a range of possible prey and a giant predator. In large , well preserved fossil beds scientists are also far more likely to

and explain some of the assumptions I have made .

-

I

M .

Most of the descriptions of movement , attack , defense and feeding are based on good fossil evidence.

In more speculative areas, such as sociability, parental care, and mating, however. I often had to resort to comparison with modern animals. It is worth remembering

BUILT TO LAST INOSAURS WERE THE first land

grasping hands and specialized ankle- bones,

animals truly to be designed for

but It Is dinosaurs' hips that are most

speed and agility. Their bones were

distinctive. They had five fused sacral

D

^’

-

that dinosaurs were basically large, ground nesting reptiles. Also we know that modern-day crocodiles are related to dinosaurs’ ancestors

strong but light; they had an elegant upright

vertebrae that helped to create a very strong

posture, tails for dynamic balance, and highly

hip. Together with a specialized socket for the

energetic metabolisms. They made other

thigh bone, this gave dinosaurs their

dinosaur was found

i W

animals such as mammals look dumsy.

powerful upright posture. A long tall put their

recently in Argentina in

a

center of balance firmly over the pelvis,

rocks about 228 million

dinosaurs and there is some controversy

allowing them to run on two legs. This also

years old. It was called Eoraptor , or dawn

about how and when dinosaurs evolved. But

freed their front limbs for catching food. All

hunter, by its discoverer, Paul Sereno. If

the most popular current theory has

this was helped by a highly specialized

dinosaurs did all come from animals like

dinosaurs first appearing as small, two-

skeleton. Many of their bones contained air

Eoraptor, they must have evolved very

herbivore Diplodocus as a feeding platform

legged carnivores In the mid-Triassic, around

sacs, like birds, and rn the course of evolution

quickly. Within a few million years, another

235 million years ago with a combination of

they reduced many bones that were not

very drfferent type of dinosaur had appeared

for this, and it is hard to think of anything that could prove it . But given that a

absolutely necessary for structural strength.

-a

For their size, dinosaurs were probably

prosauropod, the forerunner of the giants

surprisingly light

who came to dominate the |urasslc world.

Fast little reptiles existed before the

features that marked them as different - These include an extra hole in the skull,

Fined hip

The earliest -known

and dial birds are their descendants, so dinosaurs could be seen as the missing 3

heavy, four-legged herbivore called a

lonq balancinq tail

link between these two groups. If neither group shows a particular behavior such as live birth - it is unlikely that the dinosaurs did.

Sometimes the stories are just reasoned guesses. For instance, I suggest

that the little insectivorous pterosaur Anurognalhus used the back of the giant lo

hunt insects. There is no evidence

lot of insectivorous birds use large herbivores as feeding platforms nowadays, it is very possible that pterosaurs did the same in the age of the dinosaurs. The structure of the book is intended to help readers imagine that they are

observing dinosaurs from a hide such as those used by present-day naturalists

-

and wild life observers. Each chapter uses die evidence of one of die major fossil beds to help create a picture of a moment in time - usually no more than

Lightweight boiow bones Structurally sound: the skeleton of Codoph rt shows many of

^ the features of the earliest

Grasping hands

dinosaurs, which helped make Hinged ankle bone

14

them so successful on land.

a year in the life of an individual creature

- and is set in a specific place.

Although covering brief periods, the stories arc intended to reflect more

widely the fate of different animal species, hence the decline of Plnrerias in Chapter 1 and the success of Diplodocus in Chapter 2.

W A L K I N G

W I T H

I N T R O D U C T I O N

D I N O S A U R S

The age of the dinosaurs covers a period from about 235 million years ago to about 65 million

years ago, which is

Mesozoic ( meaning ‘ middle life

’) .

most of the

geological era known as the

The era is divided into three periods

Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. In selecting the stories on which

chapter, all of which are set in one of these periods. I have tried

to

- the

base a

HOW NATURE ' S GARDEN GREW

A

T THE BEGINNING of the

which we can still see echoes In the redwood

the shrubby bennettites, and a number ol

Mesozoic, many ot the plant

parks of northern California. Ferns continued

conifer families.

groups that had thrived during the

to be a highly success ! group, covering

^

The dinosaurs would have seen little

previous era (the Paleozoic), such as the

both open and understorey habitats. They

of the colorful, chaotic growth of the

horsetails and dub mosses, were still

appear to have been the closest the

flowering plants we are so used to today.

important, especially in wet areas. But

Mesozoic got to grass. Cycads (of which

This vast group, which now includes

situations and climatic conditions. In the narrative I have used the geological

change was In the air, and primitive, wind-

a few species still exist) and ginkgoes

everything from oak and mahogany

names for extinct mountain ranges and oceans to emphasize lum different the

pollinated conifers were becoming

(whose sole surviving representative is the

trees to cacti and grasses, made a very

widespread. In the course of the Triassic

ginkgo tree) were also common, mostly as

unassuming appearance in the middle of

period they became the dominant trees on

shrubs and trees. There were also several

the Mesozoic. By the end, it had blossomed

the planet, producing many different types

groups of plants that have left no modern

enormously, but ferns and conifers probably

and eventually forming mighty forests of

descendants: these include the seed ferns,

still dominated.

to cover signif-

icant moments in dinosaur history, as well as choosing a variety of geographic

Earth then was from our own time.

In the photographs , its in the text , we tried to get as close as possible to reality. During the research period , we talked to paleobotanists about the flora of the Mesozoic and sought locations across the world where the vegetation is still

similar

to dial era . We found a

unique collection of little ‘lost worlds,’ where

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1->

..

The ihree cubs have started to clamber out of the burrow after their father. The first sits at the entrance, taking in the unfamiliar smells. A

Coelophysis that has been standing motionless among the trees steps down and plucks the cub f rom the entrance . The pinch of the dinosaur's razor-like teeth is the first and last time the cub will feel pain and he squeals with alarm . The male cyn-

j

odont launches himself up the bank , but it is too late . The

Coelophysis accelerates down the riverbank . Even carrying food , be can reach speeds of almost 18 miles per hour and the low-slung cynodont has no hope < » f catching him . Soon the

squeals slop.

V

Meanwhile, die burrow is under siege. Even though the rest of

1

the cynodont family retreated inside after the attack , there were more Coelophysis among the trees and now they are determined to flush out the occupants. The male cvnodonl returns to scatter four or

five large Coelophysis around his burrow. He then backs in , snapping at

the dinosaurs around him. It is a lost cause. As soon as he disappears the

Coelophysis approach the hole and start to scratch away its edges. Several limes during the night the cynodonts try

to chase

the dinosaurs away, hut they keep

coming hack . By morning the tunnel is only half as long as it was. Inside, the cynodonts react to their change in fortune in the only way guaranteed to help them survive. The mother kills and eats her cubs. Though this

may seem strange, it is done efficiently and without delay. At die point when

escape with the

voting

becomes impossible , it is only sensible that the cyn -

odonts should benefit from all that nutrition . Under extreme circumstances like this, the drive to nurture is overtaken by the need to survive. The cynodonts choose the early evening to leave the burrow. The flock of

Coelophysis are surprised by their exit, and although a large female attempts to chase them , a Hiking blow from die male cynodont dissuades her. The other

-

dinosaurs start to dig at the hole again. The attractive smell of mammal inside

'

v

.

OPPOSIU

Coming out fighting :

once they have been discovered by the Coelophysis, the adult

cynodonts know it will be

impossible to rear young In the burrow, so they abandon iL The Coelophysis will continue digging at the hole for as long

will hold the flocks attention for some time , until the burrow turns cold . I lien

as the cynodonts’ scent

they will lose interest .

remains fresh .

NEW

BLOOD

Nearby, in a cvcad thicket, a male Poslosuchus is lying uncomfortablely in the shade of the broad cycad leaves. His mouth is thick with frothy saliva and his usually sleek

brown scales are spattered with blood and dust . He shifts his back legs to reveal a long , deep tear over his giant

thigh muscles. The only thing that could have produced such a wound is the tusk of a hilly grown Placerias. During the dry season , food gets scarce for all the animals, including Poslosuchus. Not only can the herbivores’ horns gore easily, but also their beaks are powerful

enough

to

break bones. This male must have been driven

by hunger to try a bold attack on a herd of Placerias. The wound is several days old and there are signs that it has

become infected . At least with the gathering darkness, the Poslosuchus can expect some relief from the heat , but in

LIFT Evenly matched : two

all other respects his situation is about to gel worse.

Placerias kill a Poslosuchus. The

Poslosuchus are fiercely territorial. In the dry season ,

Postosuchus is fast and

powerful, but once he has lost

males and females must patrol an area of many square

the advantage of surprise, he

miles to ensure their food supply. Female territories tend

would not be wise to attack the

rigorously defended than those of males. Territorial battles can Ire violent , sometimes result-

to be smaller but more

Placerias since these solidly built herbivores can Inflict deep wounds with their cheek horns.

ing in the death of one of the combatants. This protecWhile the fleeing cvnodonts push their way through the horsetails, they

42

tionism extends even to unborn rivals. If an adult of either sex comes across a

startle a resting Peteinosaunis. The little pterosaur flits low over the river, then

nest of Poslosuchus eggs, he or she will devour most of them and

rises up the other side of the valley. Below him stretches the fern scrubland.

they

The scenery has changed radically since the end of ihe rainy season . Instead of

avoid direct contact with adults, but should they wander into more open areas,

the lush fern carpet , only a few dull green and grey patches survive. large

the adults will eat them too.

cannot eat.

Juveniles

destroy those

tend to grow up in dense forests, where they can

areas have been tom up by the Placerias and in the distance , a cloud of dust

A female Poslosuchus, who has been hunting in the river valley, has been

betrays the presence of a feeding herd. In the dry scrubland soil their method of rooting creates so much dust that they are almost bidden from view.

drawn up on to the scrubland in the hope of finding stragglers in the Placerias herds. She is wary since she knows she is in another’s territory. She stalks

Although there seems to be little nutritional value left on die scrubland , many

toward the herd and moves within 50 yards of the grove , where the wounded

of the ferns store water in their roots and this is what the Placerias want .

male is watching her intently. Suddenly, she picks up his scent in the evening 43

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

N E W

B L O O D

breeze. She arches her back and shows her teeth. When he sees this threat pov

. he limps out of the cycads. bellowing and waving his armored tail. While

ture

he comes closer

to

the female, he starts throwing dust

at

her with his forelimbs,

snapping aggressive!).

.

However, she does not yield. She is younger than the wounded male and as a female, slightly

larger. Since he has failed to rear up on his back legs, and she

can smell the wound on his leg, she feels bold. Postosuclms’ back legs are much

longer than the front ones and they frequently rear up in confrontations, revealing their distinctive yellow -striped underbelly and making them look more impressive. Sometimes two individuals will wrestle standing on their back

legs, clawing at each other in a trial of strength. The female rears up, issuing her own threats. The deep wound on die male’s back leg makes him incapable of matching her challenge. He tries

to

arch his back to intimidate the intruder, but tin* confrontation is turning

against him. He backs off and she advances. Then he

turns

and

tains.

He is

limping badly and she pursues him, biting at his back legs. In the last light of the dav he cradles into the denser undergrowth above the river valley. He has lost his territory and it is unlikely that he will be given the chance

to

recover

.

from his wounds His days are numbered.

It is now eight months into the dry season.

A Thirsty Landscape N O V E M B E R

-

LATE

DRY

S E A S O N

The scrubland looks like a baking red desert

with dead fern stumps littered across its surface. The dark green araucaria stand

out

against theii barren surroundings because their long tap

roots

allow them

to get water

from deep in the earth . Despite

When the going gets lough:

Most of the larger animals in the area are concentrated around the dwin-

dling water resources. Down in the valley the river

no

broken up into a series of muddy pools. Many aquatic

longer flows and it has creatures

have left the

area, following the river downstream to the lowland swamps before die flow

lived among the greenery earlier in the year have left eggs that will hatch with

slopped completely. Above the stagnant pool clouds of insects hover and several Peteinosaurus dive back and forth, plucking their victims out of the air.

the arrival of the rains. Also, the dry red earth between the fern slumps is cov -

The water itself is crammed with phytosaurs. Their spiny black backs writhe

eted in snurll holes. Many burrowing invertebrates survive, no matter how high

pools. Occasionally, fights break out and ripple through the crowded reptiles as they jostle for space. The heavy jaws and long, overlapping teeth reveal that most of them are males. Many of

outward appearances, there is still plenty of animal life up here. Insects that

the temperature climbs. Scorpions, sun spiders, and cockroaches all forage at night . They eat spores, eggs, or each other and represent the only active resi4A

dents through the late dry season.

while the dry season drags on,

large areas of the uplands turn to desert. Coelophysis

survive well In these conditions, and here a hungry

young male stalks a whip scorpion that has taken refuge in an old Postosuchus skull.

over each other in the shrunken

45

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

N E W

B L O O D

ilu females appear to liave abandoned the area , perhaps moving downstream

such high numbers and this appears to trigger their mating behavior. The first

dry season in die swamps. However, the males are territorial and will not abandon their home patches, making tension high .

sign of this is increased tension among the males. They vary substantially in

This overcrowding is made worse by the presence of a herd of Placerias.

feet long. Younger males will display and compete vigorously too, but they are

trickles of

Since the ferns disappeared from the scrubland , the herd has been sustained

rarely successful . Displaying involves a male standing with his mouth wide

of flocks of these hungry little

by the* dense growth of horsetails and club mosses along the banks of the

is alive with phytosaurs. Repeatedly, juveniles stumble over the thick mud and

open , showing off his face horns, and liberally spreading his dung in a patch around him . With such a disparity in size , it is very rare for two evenly matched bulls to meet. However, when they do, their horns can inflict terrible wounds. The females, who have smaller horns, are attracted to bulls who can defend

sip at die water's edge, only to end up clamped in a phytosaurs mouth.

a large area filled with their strongly scented dung. Once she has chosen a

*

to sit out the last of die

riverbed . Although the hatchlings are now almost 10 feet long, it is a dangerous time for them . In the heat of the day they need to drink, but the dirty water

The situation with the adult Placerias is completely different . At this time of

year they feed mainly at night . During the day, they sit around with their legs and bellies sunk into the deep mud on the edges of the pool . When they gel loo

size, with the oldest bulls weighing around 2 tons and measuring well over 10

male,

OVERLEAF

Dangerous waters:

late In the dry season the normally solitary Coelophysis congregate around the last water. The presence

carnivores makes it impossible for other creatures to come

down and drink .

a female lets die male cajole her into what is left of die river, where he

mounts her, often

pushing her completely under the water. All this takes place

among the crowded phytosaurs, who pay no attention .

hot , they simply wander into the phvtosanr-iiTested water to cool off.

While the Placerias mate , the forest around

the river is slowly filling with

This is the only time of the year when the Placerias are forced together in *

LITTLE GHOSTS FROM TRIASSIC TIMES

W

and crayfish. Any of these could have been

HEN DINOSAURS FIRST

other. There were so many that large blocks of

appeared, they did not

stone had to be cut out and sent

take over the world. For

museums for investigation. For the last SO

contains a complex

the biggest question surrounding Ghost

millions of years they

years scientists have painstakingly excavated

network of delicate

Ranch - why did all these dinosaurs die

the tangle of bones. Coelophysis was a very

dinosaur skeletons. In

together ? Perhaps the skeletons were

formed only a small part of the reptilian fauna.

One of 28 blocks removed

directly to

from Ghost Ranch. Each

some cases deaning and

prey for Coelophysis . There are also clues to

deposited there over many years, but Edwin

The earliest lossil remains show that they

early dinosaur, and because of this find we

made up about 5 percent of the animals. For

have a huge amount of information about the

palaeontologists Investigating this period,

way it lived . Coelophysis means "hollow form"

they are rare finds and that is why the

and it Is so named because Its bones are paper

discovery made by Edwin Colbert in 1947 is

thin, indicating that it must have been very

so remarkable. At the aptly named Ghost

light. Individuals vary from 2 leet 6 inches to

Ranch in New Mexico, Colbert found the

10 feet long, so the change in body shape

Since 1947, the cliffs of

remolns of a delkate carnivore called

from a young Coelophysis to an old one can

that scientists can even see a glimpse of the

animals dried out by the sun. Colbert believes

Coelophysh. As he and his colleagues dug,

be traced. There are clearly two types of adult,

Ghost Ranch in New Mexico have produced hundreds

sort of Triassic world where dinosaurs

that the Coelophysis were drawn togetlier by

and hundreds of

appeared. The Coelophysis skeletons were

dwindling water resources before dying.

Coelophysis skeletons,

found In the sandstones and mudstones of an

Then, before they could be tom apart by

making it one of the world's

old nverbed. With the bones were the remains

scavengers, a flash flood buried them in mud,

of fish, dams, small crocodile-tike phytosaurs,

preserving them for millions of years.

they uncovered more and more remains

.

a robust form and another more slender form.

Ghost Ranch turned out to be the site of a

These probably represent females and males,

mass death, hundreds of contorted

and although no one can be absolutely sure,

Coelophysrs skeletons wrapped round each

many believe the females had the heavier

46

removing these wafer -thin bones from the rock matrix has

taken scientists decades.

Colbert is convinced that it was a mass death

and that the culprit has left Its mark. In the

rocks, there Is evidence of mud cracks and skeletons because they were the ones

.

only in very dry conditions), and some of the

who had to lay eggs

richest dinosaur finds.

crayfish burrows (something that would occur

The Ghost Ranch site is so well preserved

first

skeletons have curved necks reminiscent of

47

f

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

NEW

Coelophysis. Normally the Iiilie dinosaurs hunt alone or in small groups. However, at the height of the dry se;ison they gather in flocks of several hundred and only then can their numbers can be appreciated . When their popula-

they prey as a flock on larger animals, they open up a new source of food and , after a kill , there is usually enough meat to satisfy them all .

tion becomes denser, their behavior subtly changes. Although there is always

wide bend in the river, beds of dried-up clams mark a large flood plain. ILS sur-

Death mask: the mouth of

aggression between individuals , the flock gradually start to coordinate their

face has been trampled flat by the Placerias herd and the wind has sorted the

Postosuchus with its long

activities, moving as one, and hunting together. They lose interest in small prey

In the ha /e of the afternoon an oven-hot breeze blows up the valley. On one

Trlassk. Yet with his body

safe on the banks, but should a bull be badly wounded , he could become a

yellow fern litter into piles. In the center of the plain sits a wounded male Postosuchus. It is the same creature who was chased off the scrubland several weeks before. He is starving, desperately thirsty, and also an infection that has

riddled with infection and

target . In the extreme circumstances of the late dry season , this makes sense. If

cost him the use of his back legs is clouding over his eyes.

serrated teeth is the most fearsome weapon in the

malnutrition, this male will not be able to hold off an attack

from a flock of Coelophysis.

and instead pursue large animals. Therefore, juvenile Placerias are strangely

BLOOD

all the Coelophysis continued to attack smaller prey, competition would

However, he is still aware enough to see a single Coelophysis standing in

become intolerable , and many would die in the squabble lor food. However, if

front of him . The little dinosaur hops from foot to foot and bobs his head , all

the time keeping an eye on the old predaior. The Postosuchus opens his jaws as a threat but the Coelophysis is unmoved . More Coelophysis appear out of

the forest . Soon between 40 and 50 dinosaurs are flocking round the Postosuchus, snapping and barking with excitement . Shuffling around on his front legs, the big predaior vainly tries to face his tormentors. I Iis immobile tail

and rump present an easy target for the Coelophysis. They dart in and start to bite. Suddenly, the Postosuchus lurches forward, catching a female by the foot.

He pins her under his front claws and with one bite severs her neck. When he shuffles around again to defend his shoulders, several Coelophysis drag the

female away and start to eat her. The flock are now in a feeding frenzy and will eat anything that bleeds.

The heavy scales on the Postosuchus back and tail mean that for a long *

time the Coelophysis bites have little effect. However, eventually they catch his

soft underbelly and he starts to bleed . While his movements become less and less frequent , the Coelophysis climb onto his body and feast. With their long snouts they are able to wriggle their

heads deep under the Postosuchus’ scales,

eating the armored creature from die inside out. Over die

next few

days they

will clean out the corpse, slicing die toughest hide with their serrated teeth and then picking the bones and scales clean with their nipping front teeth . The Postosuchus’ body will give the flock enough food to last them for two weeks.

51

ii

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

N E W

A Parched Wilderness

short delay in the arrival of the rains is a

IANUARY-

severe test for the resident animals. The

T H E

R A I N S

A R E

L A T E

In such a finely balanced system , even a

dry season has lasted nine months and should have broken two weeks ago, but still there is no sign of rain. It is six

weeks since the old Poslosuclius died , and his bones are now bleached white by the sun . The scrublands are empty except for the few underground insects and

spiders. In the valley there is no longer any standing water, and the river has disappeared. The pools have evaporated and the soft, cooling mud that used to surround them is baked as hard as a rock. Trapped in the center of many or the

pools are the rotting carcasses of numerous phytosaurs , mostly large males who stuck by their territories even when the water dwindled around them . Along the banks of the river large holes have ap|M*ared in the mud , dug by phytosaurs

escaping the drought . Here they are mostly females carrying next season 's eggs. In their burrows they can lie dormant for a number of weeks, but it is only a temporary measure, sooner or later they will need food and moisture. Phytosaurs are not die only animals to perish in large numbers. There are no longer any Placerias in the area . Some of the herd managed to make the

B L O O D

DINOSAUR CANNIBALS

T

HE GHOST RANCH site in New Mexico has turned up hundreds

of Coebphyus skeletons, but two

large adults were of particular

The liny collection o( bones

fust visible beneath the ribcage ol this Coelophytli

turned out to be the

Interest. Crammed inside their body cavities

dislocated remains of a

were collections of smaller Coebphyiis bones.

very young Codophyui it

At first it was suggested that these might be

had just eaten.

embryos, but their little bones were all jumbled up and belonged to animals far too

own young. However, since

large and wdl formed to be unborn. It is now

the fossilized contents of

agreed that this was evidence of the

dinosaur stomachs are rare,

Coelophyvs' last meal.

perhaps it Is surprising that one ol

Cannibalism Is not uncommon among animals. It has been documented in 1 38

different species. When male lions take over a

the few cases to have survived should

be an Instance of cannibalism. Rather than being proof that dinosaurs

pride, they eat all the cubs, Komodo lizards

spent a lot of time eating their own kind, this

such as drought, crocodiles of all ages and

view both eggs and hatchlings as fair game,

could be further evidence that drought

sizes can be forced into close proximity and

and many small mammals commit

caused the mass death of Coefaphyiis at

then cannibalism becomes more common.

infanticide under stress. Some research

Ghost Ranch. Today, adult crocodiles will

This could have happened at Ghost Ranch as

suggests that cannibalism comes so naturally

readily eat smaller ones and, as a result,

the local Coelophyus population succumbed

In certain species that It has to be chemically

youngsters usually grow up far away from

to Triassic drought and the large adults

suppressed in order for them to raise their

their parents. However, in times of crisis,

turned on the young and vulnerable.

long journey north to the coastal swamps, but the drought has claimed hun-

:

dreds in the process. The dty riverbed is littered with their remains , their huge

homed skulls bleached by the sun . The Placerias are specialists in

shadow belongs to a Coclophysis. Unfortunately for the whip scorpion he is

surviving on the dty fern scrublands, but this means they depend heavily on the monsoons. They have

looking for a meal and the whip scorpion will do nicely. The dinosaur strikes at the scorpion , but she pulls back into die skull .

evolved over millions of years to thrive in an envi-

When the Coelophysis explores further a cloud of acid sprays his face . The

regularly every

dinosaur leaps hack , scratching at his snout while his nostrils bum with the

year, but global climate changes have made these increasingly unpredictable. Even a short drought

effect of the scorpion ’s defense. He barks and snorts in irritation but immedi-

ronment where the rains arrive

can rid whole areas of swaggering herds.

In one of the old Placerias skulls a female whip

scorpion has laid her eggs. She stands at die entrance to the ey e socket , protecting them from raiders. When a shadow passes over her she raises her powerful pincers in defense. The

ately returns to the skull , his face pushing in deeper to catch the stubborn prey. I Iis efforts are rewarded with another spray of acid. The dinosaur backs ofT and *

wipes his snout in the dust. He has not come across a whip scorpion before, otherwise he probably would not have bothered , but he persists , eventually evicting the scorpion from its shell and eating her. Alter he has left the foul tasting abdomen that sprayed him , it seems that the meal was hardly worth it . 53

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

N E W

Despite the drought , Coelophysis numbers

are still

*

plenty of dying Placerias and phyiosaurs

to

high. They have had

feed ofT of and have even dug up

Three hundred and six days after the last rain the wind changes and starts

to

south. Gradually tin* humidity builds and

vived so well. Coelophysis are specially adapted to dry conditions. Most animals

huge gray clouds gather over tin- Mogollon

need a lot of water, not only lor nutrition, but also

to

help them excrete poiso-

Waters of Life

blow from the

buried lungfish. However, their varied diet is not the only reason they have sur-

Highlands. Soon the clouds blot

out

FEBRUARY- DRY

the sun and distant lightning flashes

nous nitrogen waste products such as ammonia. However, in dry conditions,

appear on the horizon. The wind becomes stronger, gusting 95 miles per hour,

of water as urine is wasteful. Coelophysis, like all

breaking dried plants, and raising a huge dust storm. A few large raindrops herald a torrential downpour and within minutes water is beginning to run

passing large

amounts

dinosaurs, have developed the ability

to

package their

acid, which is less toxic and requires little water

to

waste

nitrogen in uric

down every dried-out gully or stream. Half an hour after the rain arrives a huge

lx * excreted.

Yet another dry, airless day dawns and still there is no sign of the rains. A small flock of Coelophysis track down an old riverbed and spread out

to

hunt.

wall of silt and momentum

water

sweeps down the riverbed, having gathered volume and

from the highlands. Few of the Cxx*loph\ sis have time to escape,

or them bicker over a dismembered centipede. Further down the bank a lone, immature Coelophysis hides under a cycad. The flock draw nearer. The

land swamps Some of the phyiosaurs are also buried by the silt, but die major-

Red in tooth and claw: an adult

youngster knows he is in danger. Even in less harsh times, adult

ity emerged from their

Coelophysis pauses before

will readily cannibalize smaller individuals. Suddenly the liny dinosaur panics

Two

finishing off one of his own

Coelophysis

and hundreds are swept downstream and buried under

tons

of silt in the low-

.

retreats

when the rain began

to

fall and, as strong

swimmers, survive the Hash flood.

kind. When these dinosaurs

and runs. Immediately, he has two adults after him . The leader strikes and

crowd around the dwindling

flings the youngster into the air by the tail. When he lands, he tries

water resources, cannibalism

his footing, but the jaws of his elder swiftly close on his neck. The young

the floodwater rises toward the entrance, the burrow Is loo high

Coelophysis goes limp and immediately the second adult tries

Despite the large number of Coelophysis in the area, the cynodonts have not been discovered and the pair are breeding again. The female is already

becomes more common.

at

the body. Now the killer has

the

rest

regain

snap and tug

avoid losing his prey

to

of the flock. Several others pursue him. He will have* to light hard

to

to run

for the scrub

to

to

to

keep his prize. Normally by this Lime of year the flocks would have disbanded with the onset of

the mating season right before the rains. Instead it seems that the

burrow. It is accessible only by means of a suspended tree

.

nest

returns to

Several of the females have mated successfully and will wait for the rains

need several of these little

creatures to

satisfy their

development of the eggs inside their bodies for considerable * periods and then

appetites, so the male goes hunting again. Over the next few weeks the river valley fills with

restarting the process once the rains arrive. Females who have

life. Horsetails and ferns reappear from deep

be subjected

to

not

mated may

attacks by the various bands of males, and often become badly

injured in these confrontations. It is hard

to see

the evolutionary advantage of

this behavior, unless it helps weed out weaker individuals.

and, although to

lx*

at

risk.

the burrow' with a slim reptile in his mouth. It is a juvenile Coelophvsis, probablv the most numerous prey available After Fifteen minutes he

early in the wet season. However, he and his partner will

to

root

a new

When the rains slop after

females are becoming more solitary, while the males remain in large bands.

arrive before laying. If the drought is long, they are capable of arresting the

S4

High on a bank above the river the pair of cynodonts has made

wrapped around three tiny eggs in a rough three days, the male heads out to hunt again.

the red earth. Once dormant insects and

B L O O D

TOOLS

A

within

Crustacea

hatch

in the fresh witter, producing an abundance of food and

drawing fish upstream from the lowland swamps. The

S E A S O N

E N D S

I

TJV\ NEW

BLOOD

only creatures that do not return in the same abundance are the Placerias. A small herd re-establishes itself on the scrub-

‘Plateosaurus can exploit

land , but it is only a shadow of what it once was. At the same

tree branches no large

lime, another group of grazing animals increases its numbers to take advantage of the newly vacant niche.

In the river valley the sound of smashing branches heralds the arrival of a herd of Plateosaurus. It is hard to

believe that these creatures are related to Coelophysis. They

animal has touched

before and their huge guts can digest the

have long tails and walk with an upright gait , sometimes on

all fours, but frequently only on their back legs. However,

toughest vegetation.’

the similarity ends there. Some of the adult Plateosaurus measure up to 30 feet in length and weigh up to 4 tons.

To date the Plateosaurus are the largest animals ever to walk on land . At the end of their long necks is a narrow head with a mouth full of ser-

rated teeth designed for cropping the toughest vegetation . PlateosaunLs’ size and reach allow them to graze on ever)'thing from low ferns to tree branches almost 13 feet oil the ground . They also have powerful grasping hands and can

easily pull branches down

to

feed . Their size gives them another advantage.

Any food they eat stays in their guts longer, giving them a chance to extract more nutrients from it . Plateosaurus is perfectly designed for the vegetation of Pangaea .

Throughout the Triassic, die conifers have become the dominant trees and shrubs across the continent. Their leaves are tough and often poisonous, and many species grow

too

tall for existing reptiles like Placerias to graze on .

However, now the dinosaurs have caught up. Plateosaurus can exploit

tree

branches no large animal has touched before and their huge guts can digest the toughest vegetation . F.ven trees taller than 13 feet are not immune. If a Plateosaurus wants leaves out of his reach , he will often pull down the whole tree to gel them.

There are 20 adults and sub-adults in this herd and their destructive

progress through the forest scatters many of the resident animals. A group of Coelophysis flee along the riverbank while a fully grown female Plateosaurus

OPPOSITE

Triassic titans: two

adult Plateosaurus bulldoze their way through a stand o( araucaria. These gentle herbivores are the largest land creatures on the planet and , at

over 4 tons, their sheer size makes them invincible.

57

1( I

WALKING

DINOSAURS

WITH

NEW

blunders out of the undergrowth. Her size and the long claws on her forearms ensure that the Coclophysis will not bother her. Even if ihcrc was a flock,

t

-

j

:

*

•

-

have picked up the smell of a fruiting cycad grove and diey are specialists

past four or five million years, and Plateosaurus also shows dial diey are getting

the river. Plateosaurus herds are

at

length and breadth of Pangaea. Dinosaurs are coming to dominate

meets his match as a

giant

becoming increasingly common

before it falls, thus

bigger. Their light bones and upright gait arc* perfect for living on land and

in the uplands, as are numerous

depriving ground-grazing animals, particularly Placcrias, of the annual harvest .

this continues to give them a huge advantage in the wildernesses of the Triassic.

other species of dinosaurs.

.

-

Postosuchus

Plateosaurus drives him from

,

r

New world order

die land. Their numbers and varieties have been increasing steadily for the

Ui

^

the Plateosaurus and a few wary Cx>elophysis. This scene has echoes

ues across the river and the rest of her herd follow. Their sensitive noses

•V

it

tosaurs, are

across the

v.

-

While the sun sets, the only animals visible along the river, besides the phy-

of them, it is unlikely that the Piateosaums would be threatened. She contin-

plucking this nutritious food from the crown of the

«w.

BLOOD

•

F»> *

tree

I

MILLION

YEARS

AGO

Time of the T tans

n

i

WALKING

WITH

TIME OF

DINOSAURS

T

. It is the

keeps the great trees at bay and artificially maintains huge

late Jurassic and dinosaurs have dominated the land for almost

areas of low scrubland . The Jurassic is distinctive for its herds

HE EARTH

155

Mil . LION YEARS AGO

of giant sauropods, the family name for the largest dinosaurs

break up , with the narrow Tethys Ocean beginning to divide it

that have ever lived . They roam across the plains of

into two landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to

Laurasia and Gondwana in groups of 30 or more ,

the soudi . Although the climate is still dry and seasonal around

devouring any vegetation in their reach and crushing

the Equator, these continents are much wetter toward the

the rest. This is the first time in Eardi 's long

poles. This has allowed the growth of huge conifer forests diat

history that animals have had such a pro-

stretch for thousands of miles. Inside these forests a bewilder-

found effect upon the environment

understory. New insects and

amphibians, including frogs and

salamanders , have appeared . Mammals have evolved full fur Life on the plains: a herd of

Oiplodocus passes a lone bull

Stegosaurus. They are standing In an araucaria forest, which is

kept open like this by the

coats and give birth to live

young, but there are

not many

The forests do not dominate all the moist

Jurassic

land-

destructive grazing of

numerous sauropod herds.

62

Fully grown , these huge glazing machines could weigh over 7fi tons and , from the

tip of their tails to die end of their snouts could measure 45 yards in length . Yet all this bulk had to grow from a hatchling

species and they arc mosdy small insectivorcs.

scapes, however. There is another force at work here, one that

TITANS

A "living fossil" plant : Ginkgo

biloba, or the maidenhair tree ,

60 million years. The vast continent of Pangaea has started to

ing variety of small dinosaurs and pterosaurs inhabit the dense

THE

that could fit inside an egg no bigger than a regulation-size football .

Is the only living descendant of

a large group of trees that thrived during the Mesozok.

I

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS TIME

OF

THE

TITANS

TRIUMPH OF THE DINOSAURS

B

ETWEEN THE TRIASSIC and|urass»c

However, while the era progressed, the world

periods there was a significant mass

became wetter, especially at the higher

extinction. We still do not know what

latitudes, and the giant sauropod dinosaurs took over Sauropods were huge four -legged

caused the loss of so many species on land

herbivores with long necks and tails, and there

believe that this was a key moment in

was something about the late Jurassic that

Amphibians evolved almost 400 million years

dinosaur evolution. Although dinosaurs

suited them. Although Pangaea was breaking

ago, but frogs, with their distinctive hind

up slowly, there were still many large

limbs, and salamanders are advanced forms and did not appear until the Mesozoic era.

they came to dominate every niche on land.

landmasses, and, as a result, animal and plant

After this Trlasslc extinction, although the

communities remained similar across the

dimale, landmasses, and vegetation gradually

globe. However, during this time the first

and conifers came to dominate habitats and

changed, the dinosaurs remained on top.

signs of provincialism appeared. China

dense forests developed. In the higher

developed a unique range of animals, and

northern latitudes redwoods and ginkgos did

transition. In the earty |urassic the global

northern and southern llora began to look

well, and In the south podocarps flourished.

climate was still mostly dry, and the

slightly different .

The equatorial regions continued to be dry

This period represented a time of

prosauropods were the dominant herbivores.

In the steadily moistening climate, ferns

frogs, salamanders, newts, and lizards can be

types, although they never became large trees

traced back to this time. The mammal-like

and were commonly low shrubs. Perhaps the

cynodonts continued into the earty furassrc,

most

and in the sea, but many paleontologists

thrived in the late Triassk, in the early |urassic

bennettites represented a range of plant

and seasonal. Among the plants, the

distinctive species was the short barrel-

but by the end of this period, most mammals

shaped Cycadetxdea. Its rotund stems were

were small, furry insectivores. It is probable

soft and fleshy Inside but were surrounded by

that they also took to the trees to increase

a tough cover of dead leaf scales. It had a ring of cycad- like leaves on tire crown, and around

their foraging range. The Triassic extinction

had killed off all the phytosaurs, and, in their

the top of the stem it carried flower -like

place, crocodiles diversified, not only In

receptacles for insect pollination. This group

freshwater habitats, but also on land and In

became extinct during the late Cretaceous

the sea. Out ol all of these new groups,

after the arrival of flowering plants.

perhaps the most significant were the b»rds.

The lurassic saw the evolution of many

.

Archaeopteryx, the oldest known bird, appears

Insects, such as

this giant lacewtng, learned

to live with predation from pterosaurs and

groups of animals that are alive today Among

in the late lurassic but already has feathers

birds. Fossil lacewlngs have been found with

the Insects, the three largest orders, the

and wings (see page 188)

eyespots that could have distracted attackers.

beetles, wasps, and flies, first appeared. Also,

Meanwhile, the skies belonged to the pterosaurs, a group that had produced

giant Allosaurus, but later to the raptors and

numerous bizarre species. Beneath them the

eventually to the mighty Tyrannosaurus. The

dinosaurs had also diversified and become

predators had to be good because their prey

much larger. The descendants of Coelophyvs

was becoming more difficult to attack. The

had grown Into powerful predators, but a

armored dinosaurs evolved during the

new group of carnivores that would come to

(urassJc, as did the stegosaurs, which used a

dominate the kIWers of the Cretaceous had

range of lethal spines to protect themselves.

appeared. These tetanurans, as they were called, gave rise not only to the birds and the

Then there were the sauropods, which simply became enormous.

Although all sauropods were similar In At this time conifers were the dominant trees.

shape, there were subtle differences between

Redwoods were an early group, and species

them. Brachiosourus, Dlplodocus, Apatosaurus,

similar to these Californian redwoods grew

and Camarasaurus all had their own distinct

large enough to dwarf even the sauropods.

grazing styles and appear to have coexisted

For most of the (urassk, the

Earth's mantle powered this

further , dividing the giant

easily on the Jurassic plains. Their impact on

giant continent of Pangaea

slow drift, which still

continent into northern and

the environment must have been dramatic

almost remained unbroken

continues today, gradually

southern landmasses.

from one pole to another,

creating a wider and wider Atlantic Ocean. The westward arm of the Tcthys

However, plants and animals

remarkable similarities

Ocean made inroads into the

throughout this period.

began to rotate toward the

Pangaea coastline, and the

Increased diversity and

northwest, away from Africa.

continental drift enabled its

provincialism were a feature

Movements deep within ll»e

waters to

but toward the end of the

period, wide cracks opened. In particular, North America

64

spread even

across the globe displayed

of the Cretaceous.

This fossilized or "stone" cone is almost identical to

that produced by modem

species, Many mature

since they would have shaped the vegetation around them like elephants do today. In the seas giant reptiles thrived. The

conifers hold their cones

khthyosaurs declined slightly In diversity while

in their topmost branches,

the plesiosaurs became successful Generally,

an adaptation that could

the Jurassk oceans saw a huge change In

have evolved to avoid dinosaur grazing.

marine life, but that Is discussed In Chapter 3.

65

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

TIME

Babes in the Wood Y E A R

O N E

-

T H E

I N

Sunrise across the vast western plains of

of a dinosaur chorus. Once this was die

.

called the Sundance Sea , w hich stretched hundreds of miles to die north , but

the herds, looking for the weak and vulnerable, are large and powerful preda-

now it is drv , and low thicket and scramble ferns, bcnnctlitcs, and seed ferns

as Allosaurus, which have evolved to prey on these massive animals. Out here in the open the success and grandeur of the dinosaurs is easy to

tors such

cover the plains. Isolated groves of maidenhair, conifers, and cvcads grow, espe-

cial h near the mam seasonal rivers.

s

T

.

superb vies in the United Slates Tanzania,

and China. Most of the animah

in

this chapter

dominated by the giant sauropods, with various species of armored stegosaurs

alongside Along with a range of small .

carnivores, a group of giant predators had

come from the Morrison Formation m the

evolved,

presumably to tackle the enormous

United States (see page 1 OS). one of the most

prey around them . Most of the dinosaurs

studied fossil groups in the world The range

would have had to live on large, open plains

of creatures shown is typical of the late

because of their site Where dense forests developed , a totally different fauna must

o

s

*

*

have existed.

DIPLODOCUS The longest of aH the sauropods. but still lightweight compared to some Length boosted by an extraordinary wtvp-lAe tail Lived m herds of 20 or more, wt»ch contained only adults and subadufts Had large heavy scales on its back, .

x o

*< m

l A U M S U N

P L A I N

and spines running the length of Its body IVIDE Net

©

and several skulls with isolated elements of the

*o

skeleton . Foia species have been identified from

•J

During the late Jurassic western North America was dominated by wide, open plain1

left by the retreat of the Sundance Sea To the far west were the Cordiieran Highlands

later operated by the Rockies.

66

Based on five skeletom without skull

.,

the Wyoming and Colorado Mormon Formation SIZE Up to a maximum of 100 feet ( 30 meters ) long and weighed up to 20 tom. Height at the

see, but there is another side to their story. On the edge of the plains, while the

..

WHEN SIZE WAS IMPORTANT lurasvc world The dinosaur herbivores were

-

Although all the sauropods look similar, their glazing habits are subtly differ ent allowing many different species to live side by side on the plains. Trailing

bed of an ancient , shallow expanse of water

HE FOSSIL EVIDENCE for much of the Jurassic period is poor, but toward the end , there are some

TITANS

Clearly visible among the vegetation are herds of saumpods, long-necked dinosaurs who have dominated this Jurassic landscape for millions of years.

Laurasia is greeted with the hark and chatter

F O R E S T

THE

OF

hip 16 fret (5 meters ) However, larger bones have been found of diplodoods that could have

STEGOSAURUS

Ditr

insects, but OmiLholeites was also an opportunist hunter, who would eat carrion. TIME 155-145 million years ago.

reached 150 feet ( 45 meters) and BO tons. In this

chapter these have been used as the basis for older DiptodoanDIIT Would have selected vegetation that it could strip with its peg like teeth. Since it was mostly a low grazer, ferns must have made up a large part of Its d*et TIMI 155-145 miflwn years ago.

y

ANUROGNATHUS

-

BRACHIOSAURUS The real giant among sauropods, not because of its length or even its height, which was considerable, but because of its sheer bulk. Like a giraffe, n was adapted to feed on high plant material and had dose cropping teeth for rapping food .

-

Although two partial skeletons come from the Mormon m Utah and Colorado, the best known species was Identified from finds in the Tendaguru Beds In Tanzania SIZE About 7S feet (23 meters) long, but weighed 14) to 70 tons and could graze at a height of about 43 feet 0 3 meters ). Its height ot the shoulder was about 20 feet (6 meters). DIET Uke Dtplodocus, probably not choosy, but its diet would have been ^ biased toward confer leaves and fruit. TIME 160-1 SO mdlion years ago. EVIDENCE

^

Small mammals, lizards, and

More than 60 complete and partial skeletons from all over the Morrivon, from Wyoming to New Mexico. SIZE Up to 40 feet 0 2 meters) long, with a weight of around 3 tons. OUT Moat, and lots of iL TIME 150-145 mdllon years ago. EVIDENCE

Large herbivore with highly characteristic plates that ran down its back and probably flushed when It wanted to display. Its main defense was four fearsome spikes on the end of its tall. EVIDENCE Numerous finds of three species, including complete skeletons and juveniles in the Mormon Formation . SIZE Maximum length about 43 feet (13 meters ) and weighed about 7 tons. Height at the hip Including the plates, almost 23 feet (7 meters ).

ORNITHOLESTES 1

A tiny pterosaur with a short head and pin like teeth for catching Insects. Alllsough it

rnr

.

DIET A

low browser, but the strong beak allowed

It to tackle even the toughest plants. TIME 160-145 million years ago. ALLOSAURUS The lion of the|urassic, the largest and most common carnivore found in the Morrison . A swift hunter with long, grappling hook Mce daws on the end of Its arms, it would regularly have attacked sauropods.

-

-

belonged to the long tailed pterosaur group, Its tail was comparatively short , allowing ft more maneuverability lor hunting EVIDENCE Only one skeleton has been found In the Solnhofen limestone of Bavaria. For the purposes of this chapter, it has been moved to the west. SIZE Although Anurognathui had a wingspan of 20 Inches (50 centimeters ) Its body was only 3'/J In (9 centimeters ) long. It cannot have weighed more than perhaps '/> oz (a lew grams) . DIET A range of insects, although some , such as the dragonflies, mighl have been loo big for it. TIME 155-145 million yean ago.

.

W

^

'j

A small, active carnivore with long, grasping

hands but a small head and conical teeth . Usually feeding on smaller animals and carrion, it was suited to hunting among dense vegetation. EVIDINCE A skull and associated skeleton found In the Wyoming Morrison . SIZE Around 6 feet 6 Inches (2 meters ) long and weighed about 90 pounds ( 40 kilograms ) .

.

67

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

land climbs

T I M E

lo

the Cordillcran Highlands, de nser forests of maidenhair and

the scales have grown long and narrow, allowing him

smaller herbivorous dinosaurs. Rarely more than b feet long, they are often

This technique is primarily designed

fast-moving bipeds mostly living ofT the new growth in the understory. Large

larger predators, but he also uses it

Omitholestes, showing off her

dense vegetation. Here the emphasis is on speed and agility, not power.

display scales, is a common

predator in the Cordilleran

.

to

to pufT up

during display.

make him look more formidable

to

head decoration Hashing in

a

to

ray of light that has filtered down from the

On the edge of the green forests, the morning sun reveals an elegant

canopy 70 yards above. The edge of the forest is a dangerous place* since the

night of sleep. He is a little dinosaur,

larger of the plains predators could easily spot him. However, experience and

forests She is only about

Omitholestes grooming himself after

6 feet long and lives mostly off

only about 8 feel long, and most of that is tail. A hungry predator with a small

his nose have drawn him here in anticipation of a feast. He scampers along die

head full of conical teeth, usually he is found hunting small lizards and mam-

trunk into the shadows and waits, tucking up beside his body his Hexible arms,

mals among the ferns deep in the forest. His most distinctive quality is his

with their long grasping talons.

mammals and lizards, but she can also be a menace to baby

dinosaurs.

a

T I T A N S

impress potential males. He stands on the fallen trunk of a giant tree, sniffing the air, his bright blue

' are rare since it would lie didicnlt for them to operate among such

predators

THE

body’s decorative scales. Down the back of his head and across his shoulders

conifers take over. Here insects, mammals, and amphibians thrive, as do the

Cold - eyed killer this female

O F

Relow him the forest Hoor is almost completely clear of plants. Six months

ago die nearby river Hooded the forest edges, dumping

ground. The

mature

tons

of silt over the

redwoods have survived unscathed, by pushing up

roots

through the suflbeaung layer of mud. However, it will be some time before all the understory plants have re-established themselves. The Omitholestes

watches this apparently lifeless scene with expectation. Suddenly, on top of the* silt , in the middle of a large clear patch, the thin

layer of redwood leaves starts soon diere are several areas out

to

.

move At first it is only in one liny spot, but

twitching. A host of uny animals is struggling lo dig

of the ground. Eventually, the needles pan and a head on the end of a thin

neck stretches up for its first breath of clean air. This is what the Omitholestes

has been waiting for. He pounces off his trunk and darts toward the hapless creature. His

talons Hick

out

and grab his prey by the head. With one powerful

pulls the whole animal out of the ground. It is a tiny Diplodocus, hatched from an egg laid by one of die longest and most elegant of the sauropocLs. Even with the comparatively short neck and tail tug, he

of a newborn, he is already 3 feet long. His green and brown dappled body still

has egg membrane stuck no way of

to

it, but his fight for survival is already over. He has

protecting himself against die Omitholestes, who swifdy kills him

with a bite to die neck.

69

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

TIME

However, the hatchling’s sacrifice is pan of a survival strategy for the

species. While the little predator

starts to

feed on a substantial meal of

sauropodlet , the victim’s brood are unearthing themselves across the clearing. Soon nearly 100 sauropodlets fill the forest floor. This glut of food is more than a dozen Ornitholestes could handle. Even

though more carnivores will be

on

the edges of the forests. The

were

recent

flood

meant

ing and laid about one hundred large, round, hard-shelled eggs. Then she abandoned them and rejoined her herd.

Sauropodlets grow' inside the eggs, their necks and tails bent

to

fit , until

forest edges will ensure that the predators are heavily outnumbered by liny

soft silt

to

gain their freedom. Unfortunately, they are

not

built to burrow and

of the ground on the

many fail in this first crucial endeavor. Sometimes, if the subsoil in which they

same day and, despite each one being vulnerable, local predators will probably

perish. This is why the mother ’s choice of laying site is so important. Once the hatchlings have dug themselves out they have to seek a safer environment. Their short ungainly legs do not

claim only about a quarter of them. T hree months ago a herd of Diplodocus laid their eggs here. Though

Diplodocus predominantly feed on the plains, they lay their eggs in open areas

TITANS

perfect for laying. Each huge adult female found herself a suitable clear-

there is no room left. At hatching time they have to wriggle through 3 feet of

out

THE

that ground conditions

drawn here by the smell, synchronized hatchings taking place all along the

Diplodocus. Nearly 2.000 sauropodlets will wriggle

OF

are buried has dried out, the whole nest may

.

allow them

to

run fast, and in the open clearings they are very exposed. Escape to danger: for baby Diplodocus, the effort of digging themselves out of the hole in which their mother laid them is exhausting. Many

newly hatched youngsters sit around the clearing recovering from their exertions. However,

this is a dangerous lime for them since there are plenty of

hungry Ornitholestes looking for an easy meal.

71

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

TIME OF THE

.

However, they are born with

111

instinctive desire to seek cover and this, con-

pled with an apparent preference for running uphill, is usually enough

to

ensure that they head for the denser parLs of the forest . They still have egg yolk

in their stomachs, which provides the nourishment and enables them on the* move

of king fern form a dense green canopy over her head. Then she picks up a

life in the * dense under-

familiar

shoots and hiding from

able odor of a predator. Zigzagging through the ferns, another

any encroaching predators under the* thick layers of

Ornitholestes is hunting for sauropodlets. He can smell his prey,

to

story, grazing on new green

.

fern fronds

the inner forest is he >mc\ While there, they stack

weight on at the

pounds

a

astonishing

rate

of more than 5

day. By the end of the first year they will

have tripled in length and may weigh close

. This means

ton

to

half a

that they quickly become large by

‘By the end of the first

reacts to

the predator in a completely different way. When she

year Diplodocus will have tripled in length and may weigh close

smells him she crouches down and freezes. She flattens her head and neck

to

the ground, her dappled back giving her perfect

to

to half a ton.’

teach her such

.

In the silt -covered clearing the morning wears on

successful survival tactics Even though the Ornitholestes is a forest hunter,

and two more Ornitholestes appear. After the first

relying on scent as much as on sight, and the sauropodlet still carries the aroma of her egg membranes, he passes her by. This is the environment in

eat

the sauropodlets. Instead cannot

hunting practice, or simply a form of play. At the far comer of the clearing a female sauropodlet climbs free of the

which such a vulnerable creature can survive. She remains motionless for a few minutes more before scrambling up and continuing deeper into the foresL This upland Laurasian forest is the nursery for the giant sauropod herds of

the plains. When they are small the sauropodlets exploit the lowest ground level vegetation in the forest . Here there is plenty of food including liverworts,

coniines of her egg. She sits momentarily, recovering from the effort, redwood

club mosses, moss, fungus, and

needles and silt plastered on her dappled skin . Her appearance is unusual because her pigmented skin is darker than the rest of her brood. Suddenly, as

There are also larger ferns, such as the king fern, that have highly nutritious

a

number of delicate species of small ferns.

An Ornitholestes looks up from his kill , stretches out his arms, and runs after

sauropodlet will have to learn quickly what is and is not good to eat if she is to gain die weight as fast as she needs to. While she progresses further into die forest and the yolk in her stomach is used up, she begins to pick at the

her. While he closes in on her, two more hatchlings cross his path. He stalls and

plants around her, starling a lifetime obsession with feeding.

if she heard a gun shot, she trundles off toward the dark side of the clearing.

partially 72

Now that she is under the cover of ferns, the sauropodlet

behavior is innate since there is no parent there

why they continue the slaughter. Perhaps it is useful

obsession with eating.

ence of a hatchling.

predators like Oi nitholesies.

consume all the carcasses, and it is hard to explain

hatch, they start a lifelong

and watches, looking for shaking fronds that will betray the pres-

camouflage against the tangle of moss and dead fronds. This

they kill them and leave the bodies. They

the first year. Soon alter they

the same smell she encountered in the clearing, the unmistak-

forest standards and impervious to the attentions of

few, they no longer

about half a ton in weight in

scent ,

but he cannot pinpoint her among the dense foliage. He stops

1 first For the three years of the sauropodlets lives,

phenomenal rate, putting on

Following her most basic instincts, the sauropodlet travels uphill, away from

for several days, pushing deeper into the upland forests until they

.

Diplodocus have to grow at a

and has reached the first scrappy ferns on the edges of the flood area.

light. She stands only about one foot ofT the ground and soon the huge fronds

find a safe place Eventually, they will settle* down

Eating for the future : baby

the time lie looks up, his original target, the dark female, is out of the clearing

stay

to

turns,

T I T A N S

stems. The

catching one of die pair with his claws. It is a quick kill, buL by 73

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS TIME

Out on the

Absent Parents Y E A R

O N E - O N

T H E

plains, the sauropodlet 's mother

is already almost 60 miles away from her

hatchling’s struggle for survival. She is part of

P L A I N S

a

herd of adult Diplodocus grazing on cycads

in the hot |urassic sun. Of all the sauropods, Diplodocus are perhaps the

elegant. F.ven the oldest animals weigh only about 25

tons, half as

bulkier species such as Brachiosaurus. Yet they can grow

Brachiosaurus, about 130-150 feet . This is partly due

to be to

most

much ;LS the

twice as long as a

an

extraordinarily

long, flexible tail , which for the last 10-13 feel is a long, thin whip.

Diplodocus sounds

to

are also

unique because they produce a distinctive range of

communicate with each other while they continue feeding, even

with their heads buried deep in ferns. The strangest of these sounds is a low-

frequency rumble that travels through the ground and is sensed by other Diplodocus through their feet. This is a way of keeping the herd together. Even if he cannot see them, since each member can feel the others rumbling nearby,

he feels reassured. The pitch is

too

low for

most creatures to

hear, but close

the herd die rumbles make sand skip across stones and plants vibrate.

to

OF

THE

TITANS

The deepest and strongest rumbles come from the females, who dominate

Diplodocus herds. They are larger than the males and. because size matters in a

predatorial world, they tend to live longer. This particular herd contains one

gigantic old female. She is by far the longest creature there and must be at least 100 years old. Many of the spines that run down her back are broken or

twisted, and her flanks are crisscrossed with scars from decades of predator

attacks, but her sheer size makes her almost invincible. Except for the occational wandering male, all Diplodocus live in herds, bound together by the need for protection, barge, old females are an extraordinary

asset,

providing

security for many other smaller Diplodocus. There are 40 sauropods in this herd and

most are

subadults ranging from 6

to

15 years old. There are no

really young animals. When Lhe herd is on the move, the smaller animals lend to

follow the larger females, walking under their long tails, for protection. The old female has led the herd to the cycad grove, where diey are feeding.

Besides die low rumbles, there are other sounds, a range of audible snorts that get

deeper die larger the animal is, and the constant eerie swish and crack of

their tails.

O n t h e move: the lead

members of a Diplodocus herd

approach a cycad grove. The trees are

just starting to flush

with new growth, and the giant herbivores will tear the

grove apart to get at the fresh, new leaves.

WALKING WITH

DINOSAURS TIME

DIPLODOCUS MAKE OVER

T

devices. Similar

to

head is buried in vegetation 30 sards awav. With a gentle Hick of the base the

its long, snake-like tail along the

thin (aid of the tail can lx* accelerated so hist that it whistles through the air

ground. Its skin is smooth with

small wrinkles, like an elephant's, and its neck

and produces a supersonic crack. If several members of a herd perform the

curves up to crop the trees. However, as a

same trick, the noise can lx* considerable, and this is the first line of defense

revolt of a number of finds, this picture has

when they are threatened by predators. Although they avoid making direct

changed. Now it is believed that massive

ligaments down Diplodocus! back helped hold Its long body horizontal, Irke a

vertebrae did not

contact

with attackers, the aggressive cracking is often enough

but the

most

to scare

off all

determined. The tails also maintain a tactile communication

within the herd, constantly exploring the backs of other members. In fact, it

articulate much, therefore it could move its head around only in long, sweeping curves.

often appears that the more tails an individual can feel, the calmer he is. If a

Thrs gave it a wide feeding arc, but would

Diplodocus begins to feel isolated, he will swish his tail or snort

have made it impossible for it to bring Its

tion before he bothers to lift his head from feeding.

head around more than 90 degrees. At the

For many yejrs the Drphdocui skeleton in

end of the long neck, the head was

move ut supersonic speeds and probably

orlentaled downward for grazing.

produce a crack similar to a bullwhip, but

Museum in London showed the dinosaur

2,000 Ume5 louder. Pathological damage has

dragging its tall along the ground. Recently

1980s it was pointed out that this

been found m the bones at the base of the

it has been reset with Its tail held aloft.

appendage bore an uncanny resemblance to

tail, suggesting it was heavily stressed by

A background

lh« main hall of the Natural History

to

-

to attract atten

all this snorting, rumbling, swishing, and cracking is

.

another noise, the deep gurgle and grind of active stomachs The Diplodocus’

.

gut is one of the secrets of its success Indeed, all

having this huge food processor, which allows them

satiropods benefit from to

feed and

extract

nutri-

unpalatable food imaginable. The stomach of a

repeated movmenl. It is unlikely that

those of the armored dinosaurs. They were

ents

but flexible, and the end tapered to a long

Diplodocus used its tail to whip predators,

more like the skin structures that run down

thin tip. Some 40-50 small vertebrae

because that action would cause it too much

the back of a modem iguana. The flat scales

Diplodocus can hold over a half a ton of vegetation. In addition, it contains sev -

continued for about 12 feet with no obvious

damage. However, they could have used it to

across the surface of Diplodocus' back were

eral pounds of stones, used

function. The last 6 feet 6 inches (2 meters)

threaten, or lor courtship or communication.

actually humps about 4 inches (10 cen-

digestive activity is audible outside the animal and adds a particular character

a

bullwhip. The base was heavily muscled

of this massive creature's tail was only 1V*

TITANS

the rumbling, the tail carries on a conversation while the

ol Diplodocus shows it dragging

The tail was held aloft, and in the late

THE

Diplodocus use their whip-like tails as highly sophisticated communication

HE OLD AND FAMILIAR image

suspension bridge. Its neck

OF

The final part of the transformation of

timeters) long, and down the midline of Its

inches ( 32 millimeters) across and weighed

Diplodocus Involves Its skin. Faint traces in the

back ran spines up to 7 inches (18 cen -

about 5 pounds (2 kilograms) . Computer

rock around the best -preserved skeletons

timeters) high. The "new look" is more like a

studies have shown that fl the sauropod

suggest that their backs were covered in skin

medieval dragon than a lizard, but It b

swished the base of Its tall, the far end would

spines. These were not made ol bone, like

unmistakably reptilian.

to

from some of the

most

to

digest the food and grind it down further. This

the sound of a Diplodocus herd. This herd has been attracted

Cycads are unattractive plants

to

to

the cycad grove by the Hush of new leaves.

the majority of grazing animals since their

bark is as lough as armor, their leaves are thick and spiny, and they produce

poisons to make themselves even more unpalatable. However, their new leaves

\

are soft and more easily grazed. These grow from a central crown on lop of die

Iratr Diplodocus balanced Hi enormously long body over Its legs like a suspension bridge. Tall spines on its vertebrae

plant and are protected by a ring of older leaves around the outside. However, the Diplodocus reach over with their long necks and pluck at the crown within. with their peg-like teeth, they strip upward,

provided altachmenl points, and huge ligaments running

Securing each long leaf

down its back helped take the strain of the nock and tail.

removing and swallowing all the soft new growth. The older spiny leaves have

stem

little effect because the Diplodocus * soft nostrils are placed well 76

out

of the way 77

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

TIME OF THE on top of their heads. Cycads have evolved to overcome this threat

by growing tlieii flush of

quickly, and they are less likely to be discovered by a grazing animal during new leaves

their vulnerable period. Unfortunately this grove of cycads has been unsuccessful and

the Diplodocus are feasting.

their activity, not ev en registering the hundreds of tiny sharp claws that cling to

their thick hides.

Through the afternoon the herd works their way into the grove, destroying two and a

way through the grove, disturbing clouds of insects. Lcafhoppers, shield bugs, sawflics,

tors start to

understory and are temporarily evicted by the

midable wall of Ilesh

predators large enough

Silting

-

huge herbi

only about one and a half feel and a liny mouth less than an inch long full of needle-like teeth, they are voracious insect eaters. Anurognalhus use the

Diplodocus ’ backs as hunting platforms and spend the entire day swooping back and forth after the prey Hushed

out

by the destructive feeding of their

giant traveling companions.

attack a fully grown adult .

lay eggs. Otherwise they feed,

to

sun

drops lower and the shadows lengthen, no large

predators appear. Instead, a small group of Coclurus stalk in among the feed-

far

too

mate,

fight, and grow up on the

destruction the herd produces, but when these sleek little

call

ous place for the Coelurus. Wlien they try to

escape, they run into the path of

Anurognalhus line up in rows along their necks,

Coelurus is caught when a huge

bickering and snapping at each other for the best position. Along with insects,

Diplodocus neck sweeps toward him

Anurognalhus will eat the Diplodocus’ dead skin scales, parasites, and even its

out

are feeding on low ferns, the

.

blood if it is wounded It is hard

to

-

see what the herbivores get out of this rela

. except removal of the occational parasite. The Anurognalhus can fre

tionship

quently make wounds worse, and

-

most

adult Diplodocus are covered in

pterosaur droppings. However, the giant herbivores seem utterly oblivious to

creatures

the

crawl

. He starts a long hollow alarm call. Other members of the herd hear the and wave their tails in agitation .

meat

neck and tail in defense. The first

to

to

deeper into the grove, one of the subadult Diplodocus picks up the smell of

back. When the Diplodocus

be seen Hitting from back

.

hunt in groups However, they are

after Anurognalhus, or other inscctivorcs or herbivores attracted

the huge female, who is swinging her

creatures can

to

small to threaten even the youngest Diplodocus. They are probably

Diplodocus spines. In any herd or sauropods, (locks of these tiny blue and green

78

Today, when the

The grove suddenly becomes a danger-

Anurognalhus spend their entire lives on the backs of sauropods, leaving

only

bring down young Diplodocus, but none would

especially since they often join together

wants.

some of the most formidable

stop a determined sauropod.

to

companion of the Diplodocus

vores are up to a dozen pterosaurs called Anurognalhus. With a wingspan of

However, none of these will

all potential assailants. On these plains there are many

ing giants. They are about 6 feel long and effective hunters of small reptiles,

Forbidden fruit: cycads use

.

to

herd’s passage. This is exactly what a small on the back of each one of these

poisons to protect their fruit

appear from the cool places they have been hiding, avoiding the

hottest part of die midday sun. This is a daily ritual and the Diplodocus are well

and thrips all live among the cycads and fern

spines, thick cuticles, and even

hall acres of cycads in four hours. When evening approaches, preda-

prepared. The larger of them feed on the edges of the herd, presenting a for-

When they feed, the herd smashes their

defenses of any plant, armor,

T I T A N S

of the evening gloom. The blow

sends him tumbling back into the

cycads and he is killed instantly. The other Coelurus

scatter

into the under-

growth, leaving the herd calling

rest -

Strange traveling companion the tiny pterosaur

Anurognalhus spends most of its life on a Diplodocus back, 1

feeding off the Insects the giant dinosaur disturbs

while grazing.

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS T I M E

lessly. By nightfall they are calmer. Some sleep where they stand, and others

these huge creatures prevents die growth of all but a few

continue to feed in die moonlight. The plains can be as dangerous at night as

-

.

lucky

sound of cracking wood and tearing leaves continues in the darkness.

to

survive this long. In somg •fas toin < much mjjjzmg h

^

ing and dry weather ha'

finished with one tree, they move onto the next, frequently crushing underfoot

oosened the topsoil, creating di

r

an ml dimes. It

-

However, dp effect of theh rds is not all bad. Besides

they also

fertilize course oMwar.

DINOSAUR DUNG

the pl

^ ^

fi

dun dng

^ ^* ^

foi die plants, buf

7,

ents

tons

)

of

duiwfl

iutri-

^

for die insects.

ryp - of beetle lives on s ® ropod dung.

( )

MONG THE MATERIAL left

have been discovered all over the

behind by dinosaurs are items

world. In Yorkshire a collection of

we would not expect to find

small pellets has been found, each

deduction of the cycad grove. Eventually, the old

after so long, such as coprolites,

measuring just under V, inch (1

feiflale takes

ground

^

If takes the herd only three days to complete the

or fossilized dung. This might seem merely

centimeter) across and containing diced

amusing until you consider how much a

bennetilte leaves. The clue that they might

modem zoologist can tell about an owl from

have belonged to a dinosaur is in their

its pellets- The dinosaurs must have

volume. There is over 10 square feet (a

produced a lot of waste but, as with most

square meter) of them.

\ found In Montana and believed to belong to

In Montana, near a collection ol large

.

would have started to decompose, then It

paleontologists have discovered bulky

could have been trampled, eroded, dried

coprolites containing plenty of woody conifer

hatched, the young would have fed on this

out, or even eaten. Nevertheless, coprolltes

debris, which suggests that these dinosaurs

material. Durtg beelles do the same today on

were used to a tough diet. Even more

the plains ot Africa, where they play a vital

interesting are the short columns of dung

role in recycling the tons of waste dropped

found m the sediment nearby. These were

every year. The Montana coprolites prove

left by dung beetles, who would have carried away pieces of dung and buried them In tunnels with their eggs. When the eggs

ules anl

is highly unlikely that lbere is any

close

essential task lor the dinosaur herds

genetic link f

^

ecosystem on the plains of Africa, clearing the

.

tons of dung dropped by large mammals

There Is evidence that similar beetles first

tween the old female

and tli # &maller

Diplodocus. Rai , the whole herd is a marriage of convenience. The yount. s m join the herd whcnl ey are about five or six yeas old and too large to |

^

^

the forest. They beiiefii

I

they are smalle

urale for food with the

ipii

the protection of the

^^ unrelated younwd

Findings like this are part of a trend around fossil finds. Once they would have

immediately

priifW ptMiiion. Although this might look like a

among paleontologists to study the areas Dung beetles are an essential part of the

a young female follow

two

illwrotipnf her rear and they, meanwhile, jostle

about what dinosaurs ale.

that early dung beetles carried out the same

.

start to move on

id. TlA old female’s tail constantly explores this

Maknoura can tell palaeontologists a lot

Cretaceous herbivores called Maiasaura,

£ l

dynamic arrangements. Sometimes,

when there is a lot of food, creches will

already slightly larger and one female is noticeably darker in color dian the others. In her three years of life she has increased her length tenfold and now weighs a little under 3

tons.

She is large for her age, a sign that she has done

well in the forest. Her body shape has changed with the increase in size. Her

.

neck and tail are much longer and her legs are comparatively thinner The small homy plates that will eventually cover her back are beginning

to

appear

and a line of small spines has developed down her back. Her method of feeding has also changed. Instead of nibbling selectively new

at

growth, she now feeds in bulk, like an adult Diplodocus. Her neck has

groups that can quickly clear all the

uses these to strip low fronds. Occasionally, she will rock back on her hind legs,

. However.

TITANS

There is roughly an even mix of males and females, but the latter are

grown enormously and she has developed peg-like teeth. Most of the time she

trees

THE

when targeted by predators, which they often are, so many are killed that a creche can dwindle to almost nothing.

join together, forming huge grazing vegetation between the

OF

plant the base of her tail on the ground, lift her head 20 feet into the air, and graze on leaves. She tends

because her teeth

cannot

to

avoid conifers, either because of die

cope easily with the woody branches. Most

taste or mature

.

conifers lose their lower branches naturally and escape dinosaur grazing On

the other hand, sapling maidenhair

trees

offer more attractive foliage and,

despite their high toxin content, they are a favorite with the young sauropods. Heads down: a juvenile

Increasingly, the dark female and her creche

Diplodocus strips the leaves

mates

stick

to more

open areas.

Their bulk prevents them from exploiting areas of new growth where the trees

off newty sprouted horsetail

together. They are developing some of die range of noises of the

ferns. Meadows of these

are too close

plants grow around the rivers

adult herd, but they do not yet have the bodies for the rumbling and tail crack-

in the forest and are a favorite

ing.

feeding ground for the young

Tlie creche’s feeding fills the clearing with dust and spores while they slowly

herbivores.

and methodically strip the entire area of fern fronds. Flitting from one sunlit back

to

another are several Anurognathus, frantically harvesung the feast of

forest insects thrown up by this activity. Some of them already have mouths

crammed with food. These are young Anurognathus, some with wingspans

/L 82

of as little as one foot long, and they have been living with the creche

for only a few weeks. However, every day their numbers increase. Like the

:: 83

W A L K I N G

WITH

DINOSAURS

sauropocUcts, they hatch on the* forest fringes. Then some will then ll\ to the plains and look for host herds, and others will spend their first few weeks searching the clearings on the edge of the forest for creches. There are almost always too many pterosaurs for the number of juvenile Diplodocus and competition between these little creatures is fierce. Once established with a suitable

host, the Anurognalhus will transfer with tin* creche

the open plains.

to

However, the relationship is never close. Anurognalhus are always willing

to

abandon one back for another. Tlie dark female’s feeding takes her right

to

the edge of the clearing where

she disturbs an Omitholestes. Much has changed since three years ago when this

creature terror

-

ized the sauropodlets. The herbivore is now huge

compared

to

the slim little predator, and tinder

normal circumstances the Omitholestes would have avoided the clearing altogether. However, this is a female and she is guarding her buried nest

since the movements of the creche could

accidentally crush her brood. She snaps

at

the

Diplodocus and puffs up her long scales. What she lacks in size she makes up for in aggression.

The startled herbivore rocks back on Changing roles: juvenile

Diplodocus grow so fast that by the time they are three years

to

her hind

legs and pulls her head away from the confrontation. From her considerable height, she watches the antics of the little animal below. The Omitholestes is

old, once - formidable predators,

lucky because while as the Diplodocus rears up. the creche starts to move

such as Omitholestes, are no

of the clearing. When the predator backs off a little, the dark female

longer a threat.

onto

all fours, and

turns to

follow the others away

trees

the light-colored plates running down his back label him as an animal from the

like this magnificent bull, have

plains. He has wandered up the river valley in search of lush vegetation. His scent signals to the creche that he is a herbivore and therefore likely

to

be a threat. However, they will

not

not

know from experience that a

shallow valley

innocent animals if he feels stressed. A careful look at a Stegosaurus reveals

and joins a larger river. While they crop the horsetails, the further down, the

why other animals learn to give him a wide berth. IIis neck is heavily armored and down his back runs a series of huge plates, but the real cause for concern

the plains, where it starts to meander, creating

is at the end of his tail, four spines each a yard long. The tail itself is fairly short

stream

leads steeply down

river leads out of the forest

onto

wide open marsh) areas. Here, rising

out

two

stream,

to a

of a dense stand of horsetail is the

very thick skin. To protect their

necks they have rows of

Stegosaurus can be very aggressive in defense and will frequently damage quite

creche continues to move down the bank. Only a mile or

84

Strong features: Stegosaurus,

plucking

vegetation while they go. The

under the

returns

from the Omitholestes’ nest.

The group of young sauropods follow the path of a small at

out

distinctive bulk of a Stegosaurus. His 40-fool-long, 7-ton, dark brown body and

pebble-like bones held In an impregnable sheet .

and muscular, and the Stegosaurus can use these spines very effectively. 85

W I T H

W A L K I N G

D I N O S A U R S

TIME OF

Although his limbs are vast

not

designed for speed, they do allow him

to turn

his

body rapidly, presenting his lethal spines to anything that surprises him.

When the creche filters

out onto

the marshy flood-plain, the Stegosaurus

pays little attention. He is busy working his wav through a tough bennetlite stem ,

and in any case, he is used

to

feeding in the company of sauropods.

I lowever, his sensitive nose soon picks up a smell that

brain. Since the creche started

to move

sets

off alarm bi lls in his

down the river valley, they have unwit-

tingly attracted the attention of a predator. A subadult bull Allosaums has been stalking the Diplodocus for the past hour. He is 30 feel long and could easily

kill a juvenile, but he has been warv of attacking the whole creche in case they

panic. If that happened in the closed environment of the forest, he could he injured or crushed. However, in this open marshy area he has grown bolder and is gradually moving nearer.

Allosaurus are die

titans, they are also the largest predators ever

I

armor, but they were in a strange position,

very bizarre dinosaur dug up in

too high on the back to be effective. Close

Colorado. It was a large, tour -legged

examination also revealed that they were

board ? All have been

herbivore with a small head, a line of

made of thin honey-combed bone full of

suggested as an

plates running down its back, and four long

blood vessels, the last type of structure

explanation for the

spikes on Its tall He called it Stegosaurus. .

Stegosaurus was the largest of a group of

grown as a means of defense. Another theory arose, suggesting that they helped control

Defensive armor, heat exchanger, or display

terrifying

turn of

speed. They to

stegosaurs' plates.

Although they might have

performed all three roles, it is now

strong

animal, the creature can die quickly of shock and blood loss.

Unfortunately for this Allosaums, once the Stegosaurus picks up his he loses die element of surprise. The large herbivore embarks on a

pre-programmed

set

of defense maneuveres. First he bel-

Jurassic. They all had spiny tails, but none

plates quickJy. The blood running through

seem to have had plates as large as Marsh's

them would then help raise its temperature.

suggested another role for the plates -

scans for the attacker. His sense of

creature. From the beginning it was clear

During the hotter part of the day, a breeze

display. With such a rich blood supply, they

that the tail was a powerful weapon of

through the plates would cool the dinosaur,

could have been flushed at will. Therefore

smell is lietier dian his eyesight, and

defense, but the plates were more of a

performing a similar function to an

during sexual display, they could have been

puzzle. At first it was assumed that they were

elephant 's ears today.

used to advertise. They might also have been

some time until the

important in defense, but not as armor.

makes himself more obvious.

lows, pounds his front feet, and swings his tail vigorously. Then he

diis

movement

will continue for

predator

Stegosaurus could flush its plates, and

However, this time he spots the

accentuate its size. If this made the predator

Allosaums in the open, behind

stop and think, the spiked tail would quickJy

die creche. Immediately his plates

A flattened Stegoiavrus from the Morrison

Formation. This display dearly shows the animal 's distinctive throat armor, back

plates, and tall spikes.

to

show signs of weakening. If several Allosaums adopt this tactic with a single

Stegosaurus could face the sun and warm its

make up its mind.

grappling

their prey with their teeth , and then back off, wailing for the victim

from the United States to China during the

When a predator approached, the

-

prey like Diplodocus, they will frequently attack,

body temperature. On cold mornings the

Recently, scientist Ken Carpenter has

evolve. Allosaurus are ambush

use their three clawed hands like

armored herbrvores that spread all the way

thought that they were for display.

to

prey, while their powerful jaws and serrated teeth deliver

the killer blows. With

m

constant

hunters. They prefer not having to chase food down, even though they have a

tear N 1877 CHARLES Marsh described a

successful carnivore on the plains, a

menace to the Diplodocus herds, whether in groups or singly. In this time of

hooks to hold on

HOW THE STEGOSAURUS GOT HIS PLATES

most

flush a deep red-brown and lie turns giving

the Allosaums the full benefit of his display. The Stegosaurus’ general attitude of alarm disturbs the creche and they start

to move

around and swing their tails. The predator

scent

THE

TITANS

Stalemate: a bull Allosaurus (aces

a 7 - ton Stegosaurus.

When confronted with a

predator, the Stegosaurus goes through an aggressive pattern of defense, bellowing, flushing

his plates, and swiping his lethal tail from side to side. Despite his hunger, the

Allosaurus is unlikely to attack.

WALKING

WITH DINOSAURS T I M E

knows from experience that il nould hr dingenjus to attempt an anark mih a

bdKgerent Stegosaurus ncarbv . Hr avoids the marshv area and heads down the mrr. The Stegosaurus

aggTr"ivc

state lasts for ^ » me time butv * '> :\ as thr scent

of Allosaurus dears from his nose, his plates return to their normal color. The to calm down ,

Diplodocus are quicker

espccialh once the Stegosaurus alarm

calls cease. On the plains these two species frrqumth grazr together not onh ,

because lhc\ crop the

vegetation in

different wavs. but also because their

senses complement one another, allowing them both to pick up predator*

quicker than either would do alone. With the disturbance oscr. the cieche continues feeding in the

Although they might return

to

marshy

area.

the clearings occasionally from now on thev will

lend toward areas like this, and inevitabh that will lead them onto the pLura.

iiig flames. Few sauropodlcls will survive , and those that do

will be easy pickings for the predators. A fire like this comes

along only once in every few hundred years , but when it does, il can wipe out whole generations of animals. When the conflagration reaches the edge of the forest , it

O F

THE

T I T A N S

‘ Brachiosaurus have

sharp, chisel-like teeth for nipping off cones,

starts smaller wild fires

among the open scrub , but the drought has left the vegetation here sparse and these blazes

fruit, and new growth

quickly burn themselves out . The creche pick up the smell of smoke early and are finally driven out of the forest and onto

from a height no other

the plains. They are followed by a pair of huge Brachiosaunis.

sauropod can reach.’

Even by

Jurassic

standards, these are gigantic dinosaurs ,

dwarfing the Diplodocus. They are only about 70 feet long , but they are enormously heavy, weighing over 70 tons , more than twice as

much as other sauropods. Their upright stance and elevated necks mean that The creche is smaller now Several attacks b* lone predators have reduced their number bv

A New Home YEA

*

FOUR- THE

FOREST

a third. Thev are rno^dv feeding on the forrsi

EDGE

edge, and this exposes them to attack bv larger predators without giving them the

advantages of being

pan of an adult herd. There has been a panicularfv 1

they can graze at heights of almost 43 feet . They have evolved as specialist tree feeders and their strategy is different to that of the Diplodocus. They do not

strip leaves and rarely touch low-lying vegetation . Instead , they have

sharp chisel-like teeth for nipping off cones, fruit , and new growth from a height no other sauropod can reach . They feed along die forest edges, seek,

ng.

ing out the trees in fruit and cropping all but the tallesL branches. Although

drs period and the plains' vegetation is suffering from drought. Therefore, the

they can cause considerable damage because of their sheer bulk , they only push trees over if they have grown too tall . This makes sense because they are

members of the creche have remained in the open to seek out the aduli herds. \ lightning

Morm to

the south starts a fire in the Cordilleran Highlands.

Fires are not uncommon in this area, hut it quicklv becomes apparent that this

-

adapted to cope with food at tree height . While the two Brachiosaurus pull away from the burning forest , the Titanic harvesters:

going to be a big one. In tinder drv conditions, warm 'outherh winds fan and drive die fire north A firestorm stairs among the coniiery and within a

walk , the pair head for a small knot of araucaria 8 miles from the main

searching the top branches of

of burning vegetation spawn a thousand m re fires.

forest . There are other ways in which these animals are different from

araucaria trees for their

is

tew hours floating ,

pieces

-

Soon a 60 mik stretch of forest

i>

an inferno , completeh incinerating the

understorv . Huge columns of fire leap up through the canopv Thousands ot belore die :

sensitive '

dinosaur noses pick up the scent ot smoke long

them but nunv will pe rish cither because thev flee in ,

the v%Tong direction or became thev are not fast cnmigh to outrun the advanc-

members of the creche amble aside to let diem dirough . Widi a very stalely

Diplodocus. They are mostly solitary, occasionally forming small groups , but not for protection since their sheer size leaves them with little to worry about , even

from the largest predator. Despite this bulk , they make little

OVERLEAF

this pair of Brachiosaurus are

nutritious cones. Although

some of the trees can grow too high even for these giants, the dinosaurs can always flatten them , like they have done with

noise . Without other herd members to “ talk " to , they call only to attract a

the tree on the left hand side

mate.

of the picture.

-

91

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

TIME OF

With their long strides, the pair quickly remove themselves from the burning forest, their ponderous footsteps shaking the ground as they move. The

year or

. Their best chance of survival now

two

lies in finding an adult herd

over die

ally stopping at nightfall bv a shallow river to drink. Along the distant horizon a

die morning sun start

line ol orange flames marks the destruction ol their previous habitat. The

burning hangs in the air and mixed with it is the faint

-

to

join on the plains.

creche heads oil in the same direction, but they are more confused and panicked by the fire. They wander much further titan die Brachiosaurus, eventu-

lorest will recover and. despite the enormous heal, many of the largest trees will survive, hut there will IK little lor the Diplodocus to feed on for another

THE TITANS

Bv first light the fire has moved to the north and a dark pall of smoke hangs

smouldering forest. The creche has remained b\ the river and with to

feed on some new growth of horsetails. The smell of scent

of scorched

.

carcasses. Ml through the night this has attracted many predators looking to

scavenge an easy meal

.

GIANTS AMONG DINOSAURS

S

AUROPODS WIRE TRULY

Supenaurm, suggest a creature more than

have attempted to calculate its size. It Is

very difficult to attack, and a giant herbivore

enormous even by dinosaur

120 feet ( 36 meters) long. In South Amenca a

possible that it was almost 200 feet (60

could have a long gut enabling It to digest

standards. Most other large

collection of huge back bones suggests that

meters) long, stood 30 feet (9 meters) at the

any food it wanted. Most experts agree that

herbivores, vuch as Tmerotopi and

the titanosaunds were not small They were

hip and weighed almost 150 tons. This is

sauropods fermented their food since they

Iguonodon, might have weighed as much as

wider bodied than their ancestors, so

certainly longer than, and almost as heavy as

had no chewing teeth to break it (town.

two or three elephants, but a single

Argerrtinaiaurui might have been only slightly

a blue whale.

Estimates about the size of their stomachs

Hrachiounjn / i would tip

the balance against

15 or 20 elephants. Their long neck and tail

design was supremely successtul Sauropods

.

shorter than a large Dqikxkxuy but could

With all these finds, the most obvious

have weighed a staggenng 100 tons.

This still does not claim the prize of largest

*

vary, but it is possible that the larger animals

question that emerges ts “ why ?" For marine

could hold half a ton of vegetation in their

creatures, such as whales, weight Is less

stomachs. All this was ground down and

important than it Is lor land animals, and as

mixed up with the help of stomach stones.

f

evolved some time in the earty (urassic,

dinosaur ever found. That belongs to a very

dominated the late |urasstc, and continued

mysterious find indeed. In 1878 Edward Cope

long as the waters are nch In knll, there rs no

until the end of the dinosaurs as a group

described a 5- foot (1.5-meter) portion of a

problem with size However, sauropods had to

highly polished stones that have been found

stones in their stomachs to help digest tough

known as titanosaurlds. Even paleontologists

have legs and a skeleton strong enough to

with sauropod fossils. Sauropods may also

vegetation, just as some birds do today

large they grew There rs

vertebra from the Jurassic sediments at Green Park in Colorado. The complete bone could

support tons of flesh, and they also had to

have grown so large simply because they were

a history of tantalizing pieces of skeleton and

have been about 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 meters)

feed on land off fairly poor-quality plant food.

the first land animals to be able to. With the

The Jurassic plains were not dominated by

single bones that suggest gigantic creatures

high. Unfortunately, it Is not possible to check

efficient upright stance of the dinosaur

one plant like grass. There was probably a

slid only dimly described These finds Jostle to

because it has been lost Cope named the find

solve this mystery entirely. Certainty, there are

adapted with four column-like legs, huge

great mixture of vegetation. To exploit a

become the biggest dinosaurs ever and have

AmpItKorhai frogilhmuy and modem scientists

many advantages to being big since giants are

weights could be supported.

variety of different tough plants at different

cannot be sure how

.

Perhaps no one will ever know enough to

been given evocative names, such as

However, none of these points really

Ult / asaurui and Senmowurus- However, since

sauropods probably grew

throughout their lives, It Is possible that

/

*

versions of well - known species The complete skeleton of Diplodocus shows It to be about 80 feet (25 meters ) long, but two bones, a shoulder - blade and neck vertebra, from a similar animal called

94

Evldence for this has come from collections of

skeleton on display In the

apply to animals that are already big

waste too much energy moving around to

Humboldt Museum In

Sauropods originally must have been smaller,

find suitable food. A longer neck would have

Berlin could have belonged

and gradually evolved longer necks, longer

made a wide area of grazing available to a

to a dinosaur that weighed

tails, and bulkier bodies. Something along the

static

almost 70 tons. It Is

way must have rewarded each step up In size.

their way methodically across miles and mies

This Is probably a function of how they

of vast country, their shape being ideal for

interacted with the environment around

coping with unpredictable and very poor-

them, and here lies the real key to their

quality vegetation.

size, and weak Jaws, given the

^

teeth were very

\ v5

£f « «
halopods, a group

survive today, and one, the

column pine, grows wild only around New Caledonia

the final chamber of the shell

and the short -necked pliosaurs. Both

.

PANTHALASSA

OCfAN

Belemnites were built for

speed and probably lived in shoals. While reptiles had been

the dominant Irle form on land since the Carboniferous

penod, comparatively they With the break-up of

were newcomers in the

lay In tropical or sub -

effectively became Island

water

Pangaea, the ancient

continents, while Europe

tropical zones, and there

coastlines began to change

was a collection ol small

was no Icecap at either pole

rapidly. This was due not

islands, some of them very

to restrict the movements of

only to the movement of

low - lying. Warm currents

marine or land animals.

are typical filler - feeding

evolved by the late jurassic into a range of

been around since before the time of the

land, but also to a rise in sea

ran around the Equator, but

Through these extensive

echinoderms. They

predators. The dofphln- like Ichthyosaurs,

dinosaurs, but during the |urasslc true crabs

levels. Huge areas that we

what remained of the vast

seas large fish and reptiles

belong to a group of

pursuit predators who preferred the open

and lobsters made their first appearance.

know as land today were

landmass of Pangaea slIN

could roam freely around

animals that has thrived

Both predatory groups developed powerful

flooded, especially In Europe

diverted them toward the

the globe.

water, continued to flourish, but were not as

on the sea floor since

and Asia. Siberia and China

poles. Consequently, most

114

Mesozoic seas. After first

entering the ocean sometime Feather stars like these

the Cambrian era.

in the Triassic, they had

Some Crustacea, such as the crayfish, had

diverse as they had been in the late Triassic.

.

Sea-going crocodiles were also common

claws for snipping open the lough shells ol their molluscan prey

115

ft

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

A

The Gathering Begins I U N E- THE

C O R A L

N U R S E R I E S

Ai the southern end of die long seaway

that connects the Tethys and Boreal oceans lies a wide expanse of shallow

epicontinental sea dotted with thousands of islands. From a pterosaur’s view, each lonely spot of green land is framed by

pale coral reefs and divided by deeper tracks of blue. Occasionally, rivers spill off the larger islands, pushing wide silt fans into the azure waters. Millions of years ago this whole area used to I K * dry plains with the occasional upland . While the sea rose , the uplands became large islands cut off from the conti nents to the east and west , and when these flooded ,

-

they formed groups of tiny

MONSTERS FROM THE DEEP

T

HE SHALLOW EPICONTINENTAL

were twice as long as those of Tyrannosaurus.

manne creatures. Where the

bottom was covered In thick mud, any

animals that died above floated down, EVIDINCI

good chance of "surviving" as a fossil. In the

ranging in age from juveniles to adults. Remains have been found In Europe and Argentina. size Around 16 feet (5 meters) long, with a skull

late Jurassic a large island stretched from London across the English Channel and into

Several beautifully preserved skeletons

3 feet (1 meter) long.

rich in life and the sea floor was made up of

ACE

165-150 million years ago.

Tethys, and here lies one such group of islands, the Vindelicischs. In some

deep mud. This now forms the Oxford Clay (see page 131), which stretches like a sash

in this chapter have been found fossilized In

rich water from die ocean makes conditions perfect for marine life.

this formation and many have also been

Cryptoclidus are lone marine hunters liv ing off a diet of fish and squid , and although a dozen or so are around the island , they interact only during the While the sun begins to strike the coral directly, the female Cryptoclidus

wakes and , with a couple of cumbersome movements, launches herself off the shelf into the cool sea. Once in her element , she glides effortlessly. Like all plesiosaurs, she propels herself with four large flipper s that move like underwater '

wings

to

CRYPTOCLIDUS

Medium- sized plesiosaur with a slightly

BOREAL OCEAN

-

vlndelicncn Islands

TETHYS OCEAN

The Vindelicischs wore a group of islands on the edges of the Tethys Ocean. To the east

help her fly thiough the water. While she pushes down with the front

carnivore. Given the maritime environment In

flattened skull and upward facing eyes. Us long,

which it was found, it could have been a

slender teeth may have been used for piercing

beachcomber, as well as an active carnivore.

squid, but could also have helped sift burrowing animals out of the mud. tvioiNct Several complete skeletons, including luvemles. Most have been found in England and northern France, but there are also reports of finds in Russia and South America. size Maximum length of 26 leet (8 meters) with a 2-loot (60-centimeter) skull. Possibly weighed as much as 8 tons. DIET Fish and squid. ACE 165-1 SO million years ago.

EVIDENCE

Based on a single skeleton found In

the Oxford Clay, north of Oxford. This was

probably a carcass that had drifted out to sea. SIZE Around 16 feet (5 meters) long and weighed about half a ton. OUT Carnivore and scavenger. ACE 165-160 million years ago. RHAMPHORHYNCHUS

A common marine pterosaur of the late Jurassic. The shape and onentatlon of Its teeth suggest It

A very common ichthyosaur in the late Jurassic.

could have fished by flying low over water and scooping out prey. ( VIDINCI Range of skeletons bom the Oxford Clay and Solnhofen in Germany: also Tanzania. SIZE Wingspan of almost 6 feet (2 meters); skull of 8 Inches (20 centimeters). Including tall, total body length was

It had the largest eyes of any vertebrate, which

about 3 feet (1 meter ).

helped It hunt for squid at night or at great

OUT

lay Siberia, to the west the opening Atlantic . The current ran predominantly north from

LIOPLTURODON

the warm Tethys to the colder Boreal Ocean .

mating season .

4

EUSTREPTOSPONDYLUS

Not much is known about this European

reached a level that would cause her to overheat.

predators large enough to threaten her. Another Cryptoclidus is basking on the shelf about 50 yards away, but the two show no interest in each other.

.: !!

found elsewhere in the world

rise and fall against the coral beneath . She is asleep. It is early in the day and

She has probably been here all night , safe on an island where there are no

long, bopfeurodon’ s weight is difficult to estimate, but It may have been 150 tons. DIIT Anything else in the ocean. Act 165-150 million years ago.

.

almost stagnant , but around die Vindelicischs die upwelling of cooler, oxygen-

not

with a skull an incredible 16 feet (5 meters)

across the center of England All the animals

the end of a long neck her small head protrudes over die glittering waves dial

116

.

became buried in the sediment, and stood a

islands. To the south a continental shelf falls off into the deeper waters of the

plesiosaur suns herself on a warm coral shelf. She is a Cryptoclidus, about 22 feel long, and her four elegant flippers lie spread out on the rocks. At

Complete skeletons and several fragments, found mostly in England und France, but also possibly in Chile, size Adult length of about 80 feet (25 meters)

IVIOINCI

Fish and squkf

On the co«ist of one of the smaller, nameless islands a sleek brown

the distinctive rosette at the front of Its snout

preserving the skeletons of

OUT

parts of the epicontinental sea there are so few currents that the waters are

size of the largest modern whales. The teeth kn

\v

seas have often proved ideal for

Belgium. Just off Its coast the waters were

the temperatures have

SEA

CRUEL

OPHTHALMOSAURUS

^

11

depth . Its snout was long and thin, perfect for

An enormous predator, the only Mesozoic

ACE

snapping after fast, maneuverable prey.

manne reptile that comes dose to matching the

years ago.

170-145 million

^

r

-

pair, ( he hack ones an raised by the water, and then when site pushes the hack pair down the front ones rise. Gently repeating this cycle , she moves above the coral meadows in search or prey. Each flipper has powerful muscle attachments and is capable of working together or independently. This means dial the Crvptoclidus can use just one flipper to make herself turn very fast, or all four together if she wants a hurst of speed .

A

CRUEL

OPPOSITE

Settled on the

SEA

seabed: a curious young

Cryptoclidus comes to inspect

an empty ammonite shell. Cryptoclidus teeth are long and thin, best suited to

catching slippery prey such as fish and squid . They rarely

About a mile from the island she encounters a massive Perisphinctes

methodically working his way over a coral meadow. Perisphinctes are

attack ammonites because their spiral shells are too thick.

ammonites, a common group of shelled marine mollusks, and this is one of the

-

largest in the area , witli a heavily armored , coiled shell measuring about a yard

-

s

across. He is a predator, and issuing from the end of his shell are several power

ful pink tentacles that regularly pluck small animals off the coral and pass them back to his crushing jaws. While the bright Jurassic sun filters down through

the water, the ammonite picks out the magnificent red and white stripes that

wrap around his shell . He has built this beautiful structure chamber by cham ber as he has grown. Now his soft body occupies only the last , largest chamber

of the whorl and the vacated sections are filled with air for buoyancy. Although out of the water he

weighs around 220 pounds , here he hangs weighLlessly

.

above die coral Under his tentacles lie a small siphon which he can point in

any direction and through which he can jet water, enabling him to move around in search of prey.

A sweep of the Cryptoclidus’ flipper sends the Perisphinctes tumbling away from the coral and she turns to inspect his defenses. He has withdrawn within his shell and pulled shut the hood that covers die end . The Cryptoclidus knows

her teeth are not strong enough

to

break in , so alter nudging him a couple of

rimes, she moves on , searching for softer prey. There is no shortage of food for either animal . Beneath the Perisphinctes is a bewildering array of marine life. The sea here is perhaps richer and more

varied than it has ever been in Earth 's history. Besides die uny organisms that

actually build the coral meadow, it supports other filter feeders, such as oysters, clams, and sea lilies. Sponges sprout from the coral , forming large , plate like

-

structures and tall , elegant baskets. Among these crawl shrimps , crabs, snails, 119

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

A

and predatory worms. Above them swim numerous species of fish , rays, sharks,

stops because there is not enough light to support growth . It also does not sur-

and squid . Although each of its inhabitants occupies only a tiny patch of coral , diis reef stretches for hundreds of miles , forming a complete patchwork across

vive near islands where the silt run-ofT from rivers can smother it .

the shallow sea. It varies in form depending on the depth of the water, from shallow meadows to deep sponge banks witli massive flat reefs built by bacteria .

Disappearing into die blue gloom , hundreds of their coiled shapes float suspended in die water, occasionally bobbing after prey with their tentacles. A

The only areas without coral are those where the

shoal of squid slip among the ammonites. Although both these animals are

water

drops below about 250 feet and the coral

Above the Perisphinctes other ammonites feed nearer the surface.

in these rich seas is completely different. Unlike the ammonites, the squid have no protective shells and are always on die move. Their soft

LIVING FOSSILS

f,

T

bodies form the staple diet of many large predators and

HE IDEA THAT dotted around

‘When the Cryptoclidus

their speed is their only chance of escape.

our modem world there are a

Several yards below, the squid are being stalked by the

1

few animals that have managed to survive since prehistoric times

and escape extinction is extremely attractive.

However, this is an inaccurate concept, since

Ammonite* died out at the same time as the

no individual species lasts more than a few

dinosaurs. Today their nearest relatives are

million years. It b the families or groups of

the rare Naulilus found in the Pacific.

.

animals that keep producing new species, Once a year horseshoe crabs reproduce by

plan and therefore giving the impression that

gathering on beaches and laying their eggs in

they are ancient.

the sand. This group of animals is over 400

With the exception of jellyfish and corals,

million years old.

shoal, she halts and

tion herself direcdy below the shoal. Despite her size , the

prepares for attack. Her

squid are oblivious

to her

presence. Her molded brown

below. /Also , of her 22-foot body, more than 6.5 are feet, and this is where it comes into its own . These plankton rich waters enable her to approach her prey while her

which are much older, most major groups of

comes up under the squid

Cryptoclidus. She is about to use the ambush technique for which she is designed , gliding across the coral to posi-

back is a perfect camouflage against the coral meadow

each one varying only minutely from a basic

large body remains a crucial 6 feet out of sight . When she comes up under the squid shoal , she halls and prepares

eyes are located on top of

her head, which helps her to keep her prey in view.’

animals can trace their origins back to the

a primitive neural chord. If we wind forward

those left behind once a large and diverse

Cambrian period 550 million years ago

in lime, creatures with a striking similarity to

group is driven to extinction. CoekKanihs,

when, during the Cambrian explosion,

animals that are alive today start to be found

discovered in the early twentieth century off

hundreds of new animal designs evolved.

in the fossil record. Horseshoe crabs appear

the coast of Africa, are the only species alive

Worms, sponges, crustaceans, mollusks, and,

430 million years ago from the group that

today from a group of lobe- finned fish that

even our own group, the animals with

also gave rise to spiders. Lungfish first

were extremely common 300 million years

backbones, called echinoderms, appeared

evolved 400 million years ago, sharks 300

ago The ginkgo, or maidenhair tree, is the

then. However, humans could not be classed

million years ago, and sturgeons 200 million

only representative left of a group of

as living fossils and bear little resemblance to

years ago. Evolution flows through time,

that used to forest the Mesozoic. After the

her attack posture.

the tiny fish- like creatures that first developed

creating ar>d losing species

ammonites were cleared out of the sea 65

Suddenly die shoal turn and start toward her. This is what die Cryptoclidus was wailing for. Squid move backward through the water and have a blind side

.

Perhaps the only creatures that can such as horseshoe crabs comes from tracks the creature made before dying.

120

genuinely be described as "living fossils" are

trees

million years ago, a related group of mollusks somehow survived, and descendants called Nautilus can still be found in the Pacific

fossils like this. It even shows the last

SEA

mollusks and both use jets of water to propel themselves, their approach to life

v

Hard evidence of the antiquity of creatures

CRUEL

for attack. I ler eyes are located on top of her head , which

helps her keep her prey in view. Slowly she starts to rise, her back flippers positioning her while her front flippers lift in readiness for a powerful downward stroke. When she moves toward the squid , her back flippers also rise . This is

behind and below. The Cryptoclidus is ideally positioned . She drives dowti both pairs of flippers and shoots forward . While she meets the oncoming shoal

i

her head darts from side to side, snapping at the squid . At the same lime the 121

W A L K I N G

WITH

DINOSAURS

shoal

scatter

encounter

in all directions, filling the

lasts only a few

moments, but as

water

with clouds of ink. The

the Cryptoclidus bursts free of the

inky curtains, she has three squid skewered on her long, pin-like teeth. She rises

to

the surface and lifts her head out of the water

to

Hick the squid

essential if she is

to

continue hunting. Like all reptiles, she

is an air breather and if she wants to

to

dive deep she hits

compensate for the buoyancy. The stones weigh her

down and stop her having

to

struggle against her

into her mouth before taking a gasp of air. While she does, she watches a

natural tendency to float. Once the stone ballast

Cryptoclidus, like most

pterosaur glide close to the water. It is not unknown for Cryptoclidus to pluck

is on board, she

plesiosaurs, uses speed and

pterosaurs from the air while

Ambush predator: this

surprise to catch her prey. Her head Is on the end ot a long

they arc fishing, but this lime the flyer steers well

clear of the predator and soon she slips back below the surface. Before posi-

returns to

gliding across the

coral in search of squid and fish. While she scans the yards of water above

neck, which means that her

tioning herself for a new ambush, she dives to the bottom and digs her mouth

her, she spots a new shape slipping through

large body and flippers may

into a patch of soft sand and pebbles. Then, pulling it out again, she swims for-

the rays of sunlight filtering down from the surface. It is another reptile, a little

ward with sand streaming out between her teeth. Soon all she has in her mouth

smaller than she is but far too large

not be visible to a fish when

her comparatively small head is ready to strike .

.

is a collection of stones, which she swallows Though odd. this behavior is

to

be prey. When she

turns to

I

look, more

of these creatures appear out of the depths. Soon the sea above is full of these

reptiles, hundreds spreading across the shallow coral. The Cryptoclidus

turns

and gives up her hunt. She has encountered the annual arrival of the

Ophihalmosaums and knows it is pointless to linger. Ophthalmosaums are beautifully streamlined marine reptiles. The origin of their group, the ichthyosaurs, lies somewhere back in the early Triassic period, even before the dinosaurs evolved. While other reptilian predators chased prey

with paddle-like limbs, the ichthyosaurs developed long, fish-like bodies, sleek

fins, and powerful crescent tails. The easy side-to-side beat of these tails allowed

them

to

cruise effordessly through the Mesozoic seas, becoming top predators

long before animals like Cryptoclidus appeared. Now, although their glory days

competition from other reptiles, they are still extraordinarily successful, which becomes obvious at this time of year. are over and they face suffer

Cutting through the blue waters, the Ophthalmosaums nice over the coral,

exploring the reef while giving the retreating Cryptoclidus a wide berth. At regular intervals they steer up to the surface, lake a breath, then return to the coral, streaming bubbles behind them. Ophthalmosaums usually live in small

pods of unrelated individuals, hunting fish and squid in the deep waters of the Tcthys. Their distinctively large eyes are a special adaptation

to

help them spot

depth or at night. However, during early summer, females break away from their pods and migrate for hundreds of miles, gathering in die shallow

prey

122

at

123

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS A

give birth. Cher tiie space of a few days die

waters

around the Vindelicischs

area

around the island will see

to

die arrival of well over

10,(MX)

.

Ophthalmosaums, each heavily pregnant with pups It is another adaptation to marine life that ichthyosaurs do not lay eggs. Instead they give birth to live young at sea. The need

to

crawl out of die

water

every year and bury eggs, as

turtles do, must have prevented the ichthyosaurs’ ancestors from exploiting

the

water

C R U E L

SEA

fully. However, once they evolved live birth, they no longer needed

their limbs, and were free to take on their present sleek, fish-like shapes. Several weeks before converging on the Vindelicischs, the female

Ophlhalmosaurus conceive and hatch tiny eggs within their birth canals. Then, as the mothers-to-be continue to hunt and feed, their babies grow inside them,

supplied with food and oxygen through the mothers’ blood supply. Eventually, the pups become

too

large

to

remain inside their

mothers, and this stimulates the females

to

swim

to

shallow waters and give birth. Also, the pups are now

large enough

to

survive on their own. Having given

birdi, die mothers abandon die young to fend for diemselves, and dial is why the pups gather above the coral. Although they are large,

at

a foot and a half

long, the newborn pups are still vulnerable

to a

number of predators in open waters. They would also starve

trying to chase fast, ocean-going squid and fish.

However, among the coral and seaweed of the epi-

lifT

Mother's day: in mid-|une

female Ophlhalmosaurus

arrive from the Tcthys to have their pups in the seas around the Vindelicischs. Each of these females is carrying several young and will give birth in the shallow waters so

that their babies can seek protection among the coral. The mothers themselves will leave the area the moment

the pups are bom.

continental sea, there are plenty of places to hide and no shortage of slow-moving food for diem to eat.

Having arrived in the vicinity of the Vindelicischs, the Ophthalmosaums will give birth as soon as possible. Despite the abundance of food, the adults find it

adapted for the sundrenched waters. Their hunting technique relies on

hard

to

fish here. They are

not

speed and endurance, best in open areas of deep water

where there is plenty of room for pursuit.

These shallow

waters

cramp their style. Packed into

this comparatively small area, they also find it harder to

escape large predators. While the sun drops

-

toward die horizon, the still w aters around die island are alive with coundess cut

Ophdialmosaums. Their fins

through the surface as they chase squid, occasion125

4T

m

m

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

A

C R U E L

SEA

ally leaping out of tlu* water in pursuit. The island is typical of tlie Vindelicisch group. This whole area is regularly

hit by violent winter

storms

that roll in from the

east

and, since

Vindelicischs are low-lying, they have become accustomed

to

most

of the

being flooded.

Having been isolated for millions of years, the islands have developed a unique range of plants and animals that can cope with periodic flooding. The

MESOZOIC MARINE MONSfERS

F

OR MORE THAN a century

moment of birth being caught in stone, but

themselves from predators through sheer

paleontologists have been finding

rather the unfortunate consequences of a

force of numbers. At what point ichthyosaurs

fossilized ichthyosaurs with tiny

mother dying In the process of giving birth

gave up laying eggs is not known, but It does

embryos preserved within them .

and the baby then being partially expelled

explain how they managed to evolve such

-

Over the years almost a hundred have been

after the build up of gases during decay.

sleek, flsh -like forms. Without the need to

Idenlitied, most Irom one site near

From the Hoizmaden finds we know that

crawl back on to land to lay, they could

Hoizmaden in southern Germany Here the

ichthyosaurs were born tail first, like modem

afford to let their limbs and body become

|urassic ichthyosaurs have been exquisitely

whales, because they are air- breathing

completely aquatic.

podocarp. These small trees are found nowhere else in the world and have spe-

preserved in what were deep silt layers at the

animals. If they were bom mouth first, they

cially -thickened trunks that resist the effects of Hood. They

bottom of the seabed. Most fossils contained

would have drowned.

most

obvious greenery is provided by groves of column pine, but in between the thin trunks of the conifers most of the island is covered in dense thickets of stunted

‘In a few thousand years

this island will probably

fossils, and their hefty skeletons might have

feet high and are well over 2( H) years old. The insect popula-

thought that these were examples of

offspring. In fact, there is some evidence that

been designed to help them drag themselves

cannibalism because this was easier to accept

ichthyosaurs were also cannibalistic Because

on land. However, all four of their limbs were

than the thought that such early marine

of the large number of mothers and embryos

dedicated paddles (turtles have retained

reptiles had evolved live birth. However, all

found at Hoizmaden, it has even been

stumpy hind limbs for digging hofes to lay

the embryos were found inside the body

suggested that this must have been some

eggs) and no plesiosaur or pliosaur eggs

cavity, not the stomach, and their skeletons

kind of birthing area, where generations ol

have been discovered- Also, the truly gigantic

were in perfect shape, rather than jumbled

ichthyosaurs came to give birth, protecting

pliosaurs, which could have weighed marry

levels aie rising steadily, in a

few thousand years this island will probably disappear perma-

nently beneath the waves, and with it , the unique ecosystem. Many of the larger animals here are not so unusual. The

unique ecosystem.’

been found in the plesiosaur or pliosaur

any dose bond between mother and

tures. Unfortunately, because sea

and with it will go its

It is unlikely that these live births led to

T

live birth is less clear. No embryo has ever

many as twelve. For a long lime it was

scavenges the mud-flats in search of stranded marine crea-

beneath the waves,

between one and four embryos, and some as

In other marine reptiles the question of

grow extremelv slowly and there are some that are only 6-9 tion is also unusual, including a large predatory beetle that

disappear permanently

.

up as if haH - digested. Scientists now agree

tons, would have faced a major problem

that Ichthyosaurs must have given birth to

climbing out of the water and hauling

This beautiful German fossil shows an

live young, and there are even fossils of

themselves up a beach. Today no one knows

island supports a large colon) of Rliamphorhynchus, red-

Ichthyosaur apparently at the moment of

embryos half out of their mother's birth

Wrth. This Is irrefutable proof that at least

how other marine reptiles reproduced, but

faced marine pterosaurs that are common along the Teihys

canal. These are not examples of the

one Mesozoic reptile developed live birth.

we know that live birth is possible.

coastline. The adults live entirely on fish from the sea, but the

younger animals will also prey on insects on land. These

smaller islands in the group are an ideal habitat for pterosaurs because they are

usually safe from large predators. In the evening light hundreds of

Rliamphorhynchus gather along the old coral ledges

to roost

in large bicker-

ing groups. They crawl all over the rocks looking for suitable sites and signaling

aggressively

to

each other with their stiff little tails. At this lime of year the

females in the colony arc getting read) small

nests

to

lay. They will soon start constructing

made of anything from leaf litter

to

seaweed. Although in

most

.

areas Rliamphorhynchus lav eggs all vear on this island there is a definite nest-

ing season and this is connected to another unique feature of the island. Every

year on one particular night , when the tides are high and the moon is lull. 126

I 127

Si:

A

thousands of horseshoe crabs crawl up on to its beaches to mate and lay their eggs. For a few days the beaches themselves become an abundant source of

protein , as millions of tiny, pearly green eggs develop just below the sand . This is an important source of food for the hatchling pterosaurs.

While the sun finally sets, the calm water becomes thick and dark. Along the beaches two large, clumsy shapes rise out of the shallows and draw them -

OPPOSITE

CRUEL

SEA

Colonial life: several

Rhamphorhynchus colonies

are found around the edges of the island . These are colorful and noisy places, especially as

the adults come and go on

fishing trips.

selves uncomfortably on to the sand . The Cryptoclidus arc preparing to spend the night out of the water. With their huge flippers they have to strain and twist to

drag themselves clear of the water. However, this effort is worth it for a safe

night’s sleep. Somewhere out in the dark waters are bigger predators, such as

-

die fearsome Liopleurodon that can devour even a 22 foot-long Cryptoclidus.

High and dry: a male

Cryptoclidus hauls himself on to the beach for the night.

Although his four flippers enable him to move swiftly and elegantly under water, on

land they are cumbersome.

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

A

Danger from the Deep IULY

-

T I M E

T O

G R O W

CRUEL

SEA

It is a breathlessly hoi day on the small island . There is no wind and the tall

THE LAND OF SEA DRAGONS

thin conifers at the far end of the

A

island twist and contort in the heat ha / e. Most of the Rhainphorhvnchus have taken cover under the podocarps, except for those tending the more exposed nests. A number of the inexperi

enced mothers have built badly, placing their piles of vegetation

loo

-

near the

open on dark rocks. With temperatures well into the l ()0s even in the shade , their tiny clutches of eggs are in danger of overheating . Without

water or in the

cloud cover, many of these mothers will be unable to stand the heal and will soon abandon their nests.

On the coral headland several pterosaurs suddenly whistle in alarm . About

100 yards out. bobbing through the water, the grotesque head of a

Eustreptospondylus has appeared . This is the largest dinosaur predator on die

LTHOUGH BRITAIN DOES not

The first illustration of a plesiosaur bone

being exposed by the sea. Collecting In the

have the vast dinosaur beds ot

was made in 1604, and while the new study

1820s was so popular that many locals made

tt»e US, in one revp«t it Is rich

of natural sciences grew, collections of these

a living out of finding and selling fossils. One

in finds. Stretching from the

fossils were made. In 1 706 Ihe Ashmolean

of them, Mary Annmg, found her first fossil

Yorkshire coast near Whitby across central

Museum in Oxlord even published a

when she was 11 years old and went on to

England and down to Dorset, together with

handbook for their Identification. At the time

discover some of the finest marine reptile

patches in south Wales, are the exposed

most

remains of |urassic seabeds known as the

of prehistory and thought the finds were

dinosaur remains were correctly Identified

Oxford Clay. The ichthyosaur and plesiosaur

fossifized fish bones. In 1719 the first

and science acknowledged their role in

skeletons in this formation have been studied

complete khthyosaur was found and

evolution, the general public was already

in Britain for over 300 years.

identified as an extinct dolphin or crocodile

familiar with "sea dragons" from prehistory.

killed in the Flood. It was not until the early

At the end of the nineteenth century brick

nineteenth century that these creatures were

pits were opened up around Peterborough,

acknowledged as fish-like reptiles.

cutting into late |urassk seabeds. Once

Most of the first attempts at reconstructing

what fife might have looked like before the Flood" were dominated by vivid drawings of monstrous creatures which were simply described as sea dragons.

people believed in the biblical version

skeletons ever to be displayed. By the time

"

In Lyme Regis in Dorset earfy |urasslc

again, manne reptiles

seabeds form soft cliffs and are constantly

are found every year.

tumbled out and more

Vindelicischs and he has developed the ability to swim in order to island - hop in

search of food. Beneath the waves his back legs paddle quickly as his tail helps

him stay upright and on course. Because of the dangers of marine predators he has no desire to be in the water longer than necessary , and the draw of the island is too much for him to resist. Except for other Eustreptospondylus, he will face little competition for all the small pterosaurs, lizards, and mammals

that live on the Vindelicischs , and there is always a plentiful supply of marine Fossil marine reptiles were so common In

up on the shore. Despite his size , Eustreptospondylus is primarily a scavenger and will eat anything he finds on the

creatures washed

Britain that their existence svas well known long before anyone had heard of their terrestrial cousins. The name "ichthyosaur"

beach , from jellyfish , sharks, and fish to the odd stranded

was coined 20 years before "dinosaur.'’

marine reptile. The Eustreptospondylus strikes for shore . This to sink low in the waves. When he reaches a shal-

extending the long dark talons on the end and shaking vigorously. His tail flicks from side to side. It is badly deformed with a heavy callus bending it in

\

low, white-sand bay he draws himself out and

die middle, probably a souvenir of an attack by a marine predator. In die hot

'

pauses on the beach

has been a long swim and his head is beginning

to

recover. He is about lb

feet long and as he looks around the water streams off his gray, blotchy flanks. He stretches his

.

amis

up. He barks as if to greet his new residence and starts to move around the bay toward die headland , scanning the beach litter for anything edible.

sun he quickly dries and warms

131

% m

i

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

A

C R U E L

SEA

.

baby. The mother paddles slowly to the surface for air then hangs motionless as her body readies itself for birth. She twitches and a small cloud of red drifts away from her cloaca. This is followed by the tiny limp tail of the baby. For a moment

she remains like this, then convulses again and

turns to

dive down

to

the coral. When she does, she leaves behind a large plume of blood and a startled baby Ophthalmosaurus. Immediately, the little female heads for the surface

to

take her first breath of air. She is an only pup. but her mother will no

longer play any part in protecting her. Instead the adults will soon join the long list of predators that would be quite happy

to eat

the young Ophthalmosaurus.

.

Fortunately for this pup her mother quickly leaves the birthing area and heads the deep water

rejoin a pod. After filling her lungs, the baby dives dowm

back out

to

to

to

hide among the corals. She is

only about a foot and a half long and can easily use the caves and weeds as cover. However, even when she is sheltered among the rocks, she is not entirely

0

X

safe. The birth of so many ichthyosaurs has attracted the local population of

hybodont sharks. These predators are now patrolling the coral in large numbers, their yellow - tipped fins visible on the surface as they circle the birthing A decaying feast: a scavenging

Eustreptospondylus cleans out the inside of a turtle shell. Even

The whistling alarm calls spread through the Rhamphorhynchus colony.

Several adulLs circle around the predator’s head, flapping and screeching

to

though the carcass was

distract him. He snaps occasionally, but he is not listening to them because he

probably rotting by the time he

has caught the

picked up its scent, he will still

whistling, he stalks past the headland that holds many pterosaur

eat every bit of It.

steps

scent

of food in the air and he is hungry. To a crescendo of

gingerly dowm ( he rocks

to a

nests

and

small cove on the other side. He is already

drooling. There, in the middle of the beach, is the decaying body of

a

Hide and seek: baby

Ophthalmosaurus are quick and highly maneuverable.

With a beak full of sharp teeth, they hunt a range of small prey in the cracks and crevices of the corals.

huge

turtle. The Eusireplospondylus bends down and pushes his head into the halfempty shell. With a tug he draws out a large blob of meat and starts

to

feast.

No more than 200 yards from where the Eustreptospondylus is feeding, the last few mother Ophthalmosaurus are giving birth just below' the surface of the water.

One slows down and stops cruising over die reef. I lei body convulses a

couple of times as her abdomen prepares

to

push

out the

large occupant .

Visible beneath the pale skin of her underbelly is the writhing form of the 132

133

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

A

Ophihalmosaums. Allhough they would not touch a large mother, they frequently take the pups before they can even draw their first breath. Nearby, in the slightly

deeper

mother is giving birth, but it is

not

water

just beyond the reef shell, another

going well. Her body convulses repeatedly

Watching her struggle from below is a fully grown male Liopleurodon, all four flippers raised in attack posture. He is 80 feet long and weighs almost 150

. Each flipper

tons

measures more than 10 feet and at the end of his huge

mouth he carries a crown of dagger-like teeth for impaling prey. He could have

CRUEL

OVIRLIAF Out

SEA

of the deep blue:

a giant male Liopleurodon

launches an attack on an

Ophthalmosaums. The

ichthyosaur is more than

but there is no sign of the small tail. Idle baby is stuck further up the birth canal. The mother returns to the surface for air and her body is hit by another

been drawn

because he has a highly sophisticated method of smelling and tracing prey in

wave of muscular contractions. She is releasing blood now, but is still unable to

massive flippers, the

the water.

Liopleurodon can produce a

give birth. She is clearly exhausted, and again she returns to the surface.

to

the birthing Ophthalmosaums from as far as 150 yards away

He raises his massive head slowly and then drives his flippers down. When

he lurches forward, ammonites are

sent

tumbling through die

water

10 feet long, yet it Is dwarfed

by the predator. Using his four

terrifying turn of speed In pursuit of prey.

and fish

arc dragged off the coral in his wake. His moudi opens and snaps firmly shut

THE FOUR - FLIPPER PROBLEM

around the mid-portion of the struggling Ophthalmosaums. The power of the attack carries both his head and his prey clean

hang for a

moment

out

of the water, where they

.

before he brings both down with explosive force Among

all the spray and blood, bis victim dies instantly, her body punctured by his

IV

^

terrifying echo

1

repeatedly biting and shaking it. Eventually it breaks into three pieces and, „

grasping the front portion, he rises

from the past this complete

o

lloplfurodon skeleton dearly shows the

NE LOOK AT a plesiosaur

distincllve features of the pllosaurs. Note

have had a unique method of

its body into a reinforced bo«.

both flippers together if it was able to "porpoise," movrng up through the water on

the power stroke, gliding down on the

equivalent Although many marine creatures

water

have flippers, none have two equally

turtles do today. However, more recently it

passive return, and producing a characteristic

powerful pairs as these marine reptiles did.

was realized that plesiosaurs could not raise

undulating motion through the water.

their flippers as high as these creatures, and

to

the back of his

tion repeating the process. Meanwhile, the Ophthalmosaums' elegant crescent

speed However, the reptile might have used

the way the dippers of penguins and

the surface, flicking it

gaping pink throat and swallowing. He

the plates on the underside that help turn

swimming that has no modem

to

even rate, but it would not allow for bursts ol

skeleton shows that they must

Figuring out how these limbs work has

long teeth and her back broken. He adjusts her limp corpse in his moudi,

Plesiosaur skeletons support this theory.

returns

and picks up the second por-

tail quickly sinks, passing the coral wall and dropping 100 yards

.

of the sea The Liopleurodon

turns to

to

the bottom

chase it, but then decides to let it go.

While lie resumes his hunt, he slides through the from side

to

water,

moving his head

help him detect potential prey. His huge flippers displace with each stroke that they only have to move slightly to propel

side

to

tested scientists since the early part of the

the sea lion was suggested as the nearest

The flippers were attached to a rigid body

so much water

twentieth century. The first detailed study

equivalent because it moves through the

whose backbone was curved like an archer's

him forward at cruising speed. Only when he is ambushing prey do these flip-

suggested that they rowed through the

water in a sort of backward rowing way

bow an d held in position by reinforced nbs.

water, using their tapered ( Uppers like oars.

It was also noted that plesiosaurs had very

-

This would Iwve allowed the body to absorb

pers beat together. Like all Liopleurodon, this male is beautifully bi-colored, with black mark-

However, this would have made them poor

strong muscles for pulling their flippers

the stresses of a double stroke and might

swimmers who would have also found it

down, but relatively weak ones for the return

even have enabled plesiosaurs to use each

difllcult todrve . In the 1970s American

stroke. This suggested that while one pair ol

dipper independently. If so, they could have

palaeontologist fane Robinson studied the muscle attachments of the flippers and

limbs was pushed down, the second moved

cruised comfortably, turned quickly, and

no longer as risible as they once were. His

up passively, setting up an alternating stroke

accelerated with ease. Considering how long

deep scars from frequent

concluded that they worked like underwater

cycle between the two pairs. This cycle

they prospered in the oceans, the system

wings, powering the reptiles through

would have propelled lire plesiosaurs at an

must have been productive.

marine creatures capable of inflicting such wounds. .Also, he Inis collected the

134

the

ings on lop and white underneath. However, he is old and these patterns are encounters

flippers and head arc covered in

with other Liopleurodon, the only

usual range of “squatters” during his decades at sea. Along his ridged back bry 135

W A L K I N G

WITH

DINOSAURS

A

ozoans. anemones, seaweed , and even corals grow, and among them lampreys, leeches, and shrimps Iced . His eyes are encrusted with lice , but this docs not tations of worms in their nostrils and ears. These ailments can compromise

unlike adults , they have prominent teeth . Fully grown Ophthalmosaunis have

long , thin , elegant snouts ideal for snapping at small , soft prey while swimming

tively starving them

at

presents the pups with much more varied food , which their short-toothed jaw

Liopleurodon continues to hunt . A hundred yards below, by the coral wall , the

is better able to deal with . Those pups who have survived the first hazardous

provide a bounty for numerous bottom-dwelling crea-

weeks of life have done well on their seafood diet, doubling in size in a month .

tures. In particular, within an hour of the tail reaching the seabed , the first hag

-

Under a huge, spreading fan coral a male pup is tormenting a small

fish slithers out of the gloom . Eyeless and colorless, these scavengers have been

ammonite. Somehow he has succeeded in cornering the shelled creature so

trawling the deep sea for carrion since the very first fish evolved and they are

that it cannot escape into the open water where the pup would not dare put up

still as successful as they were more than 200 million years earlier. As long

a sustained chase. However, the ammonite has drawn in the hood dial covers

as there are messy predators like Liopleurodon in the waters above, these

Ophthalmosaurus with an impenetrable defense . He tries butting up against the rock and nibbling at the

A Precarious Home A

speed . Teeth would add weight and offer more resistance . However, the reef

While the light from above gradually fades with the coming of night , the

scavengers will continue to thrive.

-

.

their ability to hunt, and in the worst cases stop them catching anything, effec

remnants of his last meal

S E P T E M B E R

enjoy the wide expanses of their parents’ domain. However, they have adaptations to help them survive among the rocks. They are more

mottled than their parents, which helps them hide against the coral , and

to death .

R A C E

F O R

L I F E

SEA

sters will live to

concern him . However, all Liopleurodon occasionally suffer from heavy infes-

-

CRUEL

the opening

or its shell

and presents the

voting

At first light the female Cryplodidus is woken

Drawing up the defenses: an

by the scent of dinosaur. She has attracted

ammonite pulls its hood over

the unwanted attention of the hungry

Eustreptospondylus 100 yards down the beach . When she lifts her head , the predator runs forward. The Cryplodidus is larger and bulkier than the dinosaur and he would probably not attack unless she were visibly weakened through injury or disease . However, she reacts with alarm and drags herself back into the water as quickly its her flippers can manage. The predator slows even before he reaches the place where she has been sleeping. Then he stalks forward and sniffs the depression she lias left behind in the sand. Meanwhile, the Cryplodidus is gliding through a shoal of ammonites far out to sea .

the opening In its shell as a baby Ophthalmosaurus

approaches. Behind the hood lie a pair of calcified plates that

can be drawn together, providing an almost

impenetrable barrier to attack.

The waters around the Vindclicischs are now completely free of birthing

Ophthalmosaurus. The mothers have returned to deeper water, but they have left the reefs full of their pups. With the danger from sharks, marine crocodiles, and the occasional Cryplodidus, only a small proportion of these young138

139

W A L K I N G

WITH

DINOSAURS

A

closed hood. Each lime, the ammonite simply bounces around die coral and floats back upright. Eventually, the pup

turns

and darts up

to

the surface for a

The Vindelicisch island chain is split in die middle by a long, deep

channel that runs up from the Tethys for about 100 miles. Here, within a few

breath. On his return he finds the ammonite slowly squirting itself away from

Ophthalmosaurus grow, the caverns and tunnels of the coral

its coral prison. He snaps hold of one of its tentacles. The ammonite immedi-

reefs decorate the rim of this channel, but at the bottom of the abyss there is

are an ideal place for them to

ately

inside its shell and draws its hood back. The pup, however, does

hide from predators ' eyes.

nothing but a diick layer of mud full of creatures such as hagfish, which survive

not

let go and thrashes as the ammonite attempts to free iLs appendage. Finally,

on die rain of dead animals from the sunlit waters above. This was die route

die coral with a small tentacle

favored by the Ophthalmosaurus as they arrived to give birth, and now’ it brings

Within a few months, however,

they are large enough to survive in the open water.

the ammonite jerks free and die pup

dangling from his mouth.

returns to

SEA

water

Sheltering sky: while the baby

retracts

CRUEL

hundred yards, the depth drops from about 50 yards

to

almost a mile. Coral

other ocean-going creatures high up into the shallow seas. The channel runs close to the island, and on its eastern side

large ocean breakers crash

against the coral outcrops. Standing on these rocks, a Eusueptospondylus stalks among die spray looking for dead fish. He stops smashed ammonite and foolishly

to sniff a

turns

his

back on the ocean. Suddenly, a bow wave

sweeps through the dark blue

water

toward

the dinosaur. While it explodes, the mouth of a

huge Liopleurodon erupLs out of the

and clamps on

to

water

the Eustreptospondylus'

tail. The dinosaur dirashes around, scream-

ing in terror, but its fate is sealed. Effortlessly, the huge marine predator slides back into the water, dragging the luckless scavenger

to

his doom. Only a few minutes later the Liopleurodon resurfaces off

shore and there is no sign of the dinosaur. His wide flippers hold him steady in the

water as

he scans the surface. Because of his bulk it is often difficult

appreciate him in his entirety under

water.

However, on die surface die

to

Terror from the deep: a moment of carelessness and a

Eustreptospondylus is plucked screaming from the coral by a

giant Liopleurodon.

true

size and powrer of this predator become apparent. His black and white head is

almost 13 feet long, with a mouth only 3 feet shorter. At the end of his

snout

his ring of crown tusks are so long that they overlap. These tusks mean that even if he does not grasp his prey

cleanly, a glancing blow is enough

to

disem-

bowel it. This fearsome structure is held up by a massive neck suong enough

to

wield die head like a precision weapon. 140

141

WALKING

OPPOSITE

WITH

In the shadow of a

killer this male Liopleurodon

DINOSAURS

After a moment the giant predator slips back under the water, moving

seas. At 80 feet long, he is the

slowly over the coral until he spots the bright red and white swirls of a Perisphincles. I Ie twists his head to one side and plucks the huge mollusk from

largest and most powerful of

the reef . Manipulating it to the back of his month , he suddenly tenses his jaw

predators. The only threat he

muscles , producing a cloud of shell fragments. He releases the Perisphincles

is unrivaled In these ( urassic

faces Is a confrontation with another male of his kind .

-

and inspects his work. With another snap of his jaws , the giant ammonite disap

pears into the I .iopleurodon ’s throat and he heads ofT, leaving the shattered

pieces of shell still settling on the coral below. On the surface a pterosaur flock is oblivious to all this. They have been fish-

ing and are returning to their roost on the island . Kach pterosaur catches only one fish at a time. Despite a wingspan of almost 6.5 feet , their bodies are less

than one foot long and can hold only a small amount of food . On the low-lying

island the Rhamphorhynchus nests are empty. Within the last few days, all the

eggs have hatched. Each tiny pterosaur has immediately started flapping its wings and attempted to fly. For a while the yolk left in their stomachs has nourished them , but now they need food and they arc still not strong enough to fish for themselves. However, the sea is about to produce enough food for all of

them , which is why they have all been bom at precisely this time. Down on the

-

beach , in the late evening light , two small , dome shaped creatures, one riding

on the other’s back , shuffle out of the surf onto the land . They are the first of

thousands of pairs of horseshoe crabs crawling toward the island , preparing to mate on its white sands.

The tide is now at its highest, and as the full moon rises, the two long beaches on the southern and eastern sides of the island fill with copulating crabs. The few Cryploclidus waiting out the night on the sand find themselves surrounded by one of life’s oldest spectacles. Horseshoe crabs are not true

crabs. They are more like marine scorpions and are ancient creatures with ancestors going back 200 million years. They, or animals like them , have

probably been visiting beaches near here since before this land was flooded . Once a year at the full moon they must have drawn up on to the waterline of long-forgotten coasts that existed before the giant continent Pangaea formed. T hey survived the great killing before the dinosaurs emerged and have been 142

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

A

unaffected by ihc age of ihe reptiles. The mating ritual continues, an un-

stoppable primeval urge driven by the waxing and waning of the moon.

Ophthalmosaurus

The Gryptoclidus have no desire to eat these creatures, so they shift up the

start

to

flee the reefs.

These nurseries have now served their pur-

O C T O B E R

-

A

pose. Many of the pups are three

moonlight the smooth sand is covered with glinting domes stretching from

times the length they were when they were born. The hybodont sharks still

lays several hundred pearly eggs. The males fertilize these, release their partners, and return to the sea . Since more and more horseshoes arrive, the sand becomes too full with eggs and the females start

to

dig up each other's nests.

By morning, most of the horseshoe crabs have returned two litter

to

the sea. One or

tin* beach, exhausted or stranded after their night ’s exercise. Some

the baby Rhamphorhynchus, who swarm over the beach hunting for food.

patrol the coral, but the Ophthalmosaurus are now strong enough swimmers to

escape them. They are leaving die shallow

waters just

in time because this is

the beginning of the storm season. Although the passing of the Jurassic seasons ern landmass of Iaurasia becomes colder. I he Tethys Ocean next to it remains warm all year, while the winter takes hold in the east . The temperature difference between the two

While a

stream

is enough to generate stupendous storms.

high- tide mark . There are also thousands more eggs right beneath the surface,

The thudding of distant thunder becomes audible and the tranquil sea

and some pterosaurs scoop the sand in search of these.

dull gray. This is the sort of storm that has shaped the Vindelicischs. Plants and of the

podocarps. where he has been hunting lizards. He ignores the horseshoe

animals that cannot survive this onslaught do

Gryptoclidus head for deeper

water

stall to

not

pile up on the horizon. turns a

inhabit these islands. The

and the Rhamphorhynchus settle on the

crabs, since they have little meat on them, and instead strides along the beach,

trunks of the column pine and podocarps. The pterosaurs are particularly vul-

snapping up the pterosaurs. Many are able

nerable

to

fly away, but a large proportion

are still too immature and cannot crawl fast

to

the high winds. Their light-framed bodies do not survive long aloft

in 60-mile-an-hour

storms

long before the

chance is to cling on

to

predator is swallowing whole mouthfuls of spindly little bodies. Before the sun has fully risen, he has gorged himself, and still the beach is crawling

The waves begin

enough

to

escape. It is

not

the

to

Juveniles tend to have a more varied diet than the adults.

ride higher up the

beach, and white spume gathers over the shallower corals. Already the

has

water

up from the bottom. Even though it is mid-

fly and

afternoon when the storm hits, the clouds

.

have made it as dark as twilight. The rain

Not until they are fully grown will they become specialists at fishing. This

column pine bark for insects.

.

The crab eggs give the surviving Rhamphorhynchus just feed. While youngsters they will have a varied diet of insects and seafood

Rhamphorhynchus probes the

trees

turned opaque widi silt and the sand drawn to

Nursery food: a young

and their only

with young pterosaurs. what they need, a boost of easy protein while they learn

e0 *'

of Ophthalmosaurus pups head over the coral walls and

down into the deep-water channel, the clouds

out

S E A S O N

four

to

They feast on the exposed crab eggs that have formed a gelatinous line at the

All the activity on the beach draws the Euslreptospondylus

N E W

is marked only by small variations in temperature, the center of the huge east-

are upturned and hopelessly wave their ridged tails in the air. Dawn also brings out

SEA

The Storms Arrive

beach, their large flippers sending the crabs skittling in all directions. In the one headland to another. On the waterline each female crab digs a hole and

I ’

Around the middle of October the young

CRUEL

swipes at the pterosaurs huddled on liie

tree

avoids competition between adults and young on the small island, and prevents

trunks and the waves ride up between the

the adults preying on the young, which occurs in other reptilian species.

podocarps, tearing the ferns and club

moss 145

A

and draping them over the lower branches. At the highest point on die island the Eustreptospondylus squats down close rises. He has sal out

storms

-

low lying island on which

to

die rocks as the howl of die winds

.

like this before and although this is a dangerously

he knows better than

to stay,

to

take

to the water

in

at sea

the waves roll across the coral, plucking

Most of diose attached

to

SEA

Underwater (light: a

Cryptoclidus dives to the sea floor to pick up stones, which

he uses for ballast. In the background a second glides to

the surface for a breath of air.

search of a larger refuge. Out

OPPOSITE

CRUEL

at

the sea

.

creatures

During the storm, both seek

shelter In deeper waters.

rocks can resist the physical effects of die waves, but

with all the sand that is being moved around, many will have been buried

by the time the

storm

is over. Some of the larger ammonites, such as

Perisphinctes, cling to the rocks, but the others ride the jetting frantically to hold themselves in place.

waves back and forth,

.

S

It is a bad storm and it continues to pound the shallow' sea for three days

By die unie it finishes and the sun once again warms the land, the small island

i

is a mess. Except for a patch about half a mile square in the middle, the sea has

understory away, piling it up in large rotting heaps. The lower parts of the trees are festooned srilh a mixture of fern, seaweed, and the occaswept the entire

tional piece of coral. Along the lop of the beaches dead pterosaurs lie crum-

pled up with smashed ammonites and stranded fish. The Eustreptospondylus shakes himself and basks in the tropical sun. Soon the gentle breeze, which is draw's a pungent smell from the beach to the south. The Eustreptospondylus picks his way across die battered island, lured

all that remains of the

storm,

by the promise of carrion. When he reaches the coast , he finds plenty of small animals lying up and down the beach, but there is another smell in the air. He heads once again for the cove where he found the rotting turtle, and while he crosses

the headland, the source of the new odor becomes apparent .

Lying with his tail just in the

water

OVERLEAF

and his head and front flipper tangled

Flash point:

Eustreptospondylus are solitary

among die podocarps is the male Liopleurodon. From his position about 150

scavengers, surviving by

yards away the Eustreptospondylus can hear his desperately labored breathing.

swimming between small

Occasionally

a deep bellow of pain rolls out of the giant ’s mouth as his lungs

are crushed under the weight of his own

body. He swings his head and tries

to

Islands for food. However, the

huge Liopleurodon corpse on the beach has drawn several of them to the same island and,

shift his flipper Mature podocarps shatter like twigs, but the Liopleurodon is

despite the plentiful food,

stuck. At some point during die

fights are frequent.

storm

he

must

have become confused and

147

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

A

out of the water quick!) . They are exhausted after the long swim and would not

usually dare to challenge the incumbent scavenger, but with a mountain of flesh stretching across the whole beach die usual hierarchy before a carcass is

irrelevant and the first dinosaur ignores the intruders. While he pulls at the head , die odier two tear at the rear flippers.

Large, stranded reptiles are not unusual , especially after a big storm . However, to have such a giant creature on a small island is rare , and the delicate balance of its inhabitants may be affected for some lime. Within days, there could be as many as 50 Eustreptospondylus crowded around the corpse. They will stay there, fighting, eating, and mating, for as long as the food lasts , which could be six months. Worse still , when the meat runs out , the

Eustreptospondylus will probably strip the island of everything they can catch before another scent tempts them off.

BN evening there are seven Eustreptospondylus standing or sitting around the corpse . They have gorged

themselves and this hits made them lethargic. On a

*•

nearby headland the female Gryptoclidus draws T h e e n d I t nigh: a giant bull

ended up stranded. Now he is too heavy to crawl back into the sea and he has a

herself out of the water for the night . She raises her

Liopleurodon lies stranded on

short time to live. Not only are his lungs collapsing under the pressure, but in

head and sniffs the breeze. Her island is cloaked in

the warmth of the sun his bodv temperature is soaring.

unfamiliar smells: decav rising from the corpse , the

the beach after the storm .

Nothing will touch him while he still lives, but after his

weight crushes his lungs, the

Eustreptospondylus will tear him to pieces .

Another bellow tears from his lungs and he starts

to

bleed from the comer

predators, and ,

.

most of all the smell of

of his mouth . The Eustreptospondyius creeps forward slowly. He can smell that

blood . For a while, the lure of the I .ioplcurodon will keep her safe from

the huge creature is dving, but it is still capable of crushing him or tearing him

attack , but sooner or later the scavengers will have to hunt again .

in half should lie be foolish enough to get too close to those mighty jaws. The

Ironically, the Gryptoclidus salvation Ls likely

dinosaur holds back , waiting for the giant to die , intoxicated by the stench of

large number of Eustreptospondylus would not be able to shelter here

150 tons of meat.

and would either be swept away or have to swim for safety elsewhere. With

Despite the Lio pieu rodon’s terrible condition , it is four more hours before his head crashes to the ground for the last time. As the patient

several months of winter to go, another storm is almost guaranteed. This

Eustreptospondylus edges forward , he notices two scarred gray faces bobbing through the waves toward the cove, more of his own kind drawn by the

where animals such

scent of death . By now this huge carcass is probably attracting every

and wait for the storm clouds to gather once more in the east.

EiLstreptospondylus in the Vinclclicischs. The two new arrivals draw themselves 150

UIUSIN odor of the

*

to be another storm . Such

^

a I

will probablv refloat the I .ioplcurodon carcass and return it to the sea, its

the hagfish will be Lite eventual winners again . For now

the Grvptoclidus must simph steer clear of the unwelcome \ isitors to her island

CRUEL

SEA

, ath Bene , 3 1 2 7

A

M I L L I O N

YEARS

AGO

Giant's M Wings \

1J

*

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

T

_7

HE EARTH 1 ‘'

.

MILLION YEARS AGO

Tile

At the same time, the destroyers of so much

Cretaceous period has taken over from the Jurassic and the

Jurassic

world’s continents are on the move. From Laurasia tight down

and their place has been taken by smaller herbivores. In

through Gondwana a new ocean is opening up slowly, cleaving

particular, the ornithischian dinosaurs, that until now' had

.

flora , die massive sauropods, are in decline

;

what will become South America from its giant partner, Africa.

been relatively unsuccessful , have come to dominate the

Sea levels are high and the

plant-eating populations and move in

OIK

e-great landmass of Pangaea is

unrecognizable. The climate is becoming wetter and , along widi the isolation of continents, a huge number of new plants

vast

herds across

the lush Cretaceous landscape.

Other reptiles are changing

loo.

The old , “ long- tailed ”

Although flowering plants evolved during the early

and animals are appearing.

pterosaurs have disappeared , replaced by dying leviathans,

Cretaceous, conifers continued

to dominate the landscape for

The most significant newcomer is not another type of

some of which have wingspans of up to 38 feet. These huge

dinosaur. Instead , for the first time on earth , dowers have

gliding monsters are the pinnacles of pterosaur evolution , and

started to bloom . For millions of years plants have defended

as a group they have never been so diverse. However, formerly

millions of years.

X

:: '

:: King of the sky: a giant

Ornithochelrus soars effortlessly through the air. suspended by the warmth of a late evening thermal Sometimes he can .

themselves against grazing animals in as many ways as possible.

the sole masters of the air, they now have to make room for

Now dowering plants have adopted a new sU ategy. They grow

competitors, birds, a new' group of feathered dinosaurs, which

fast , reproduce fast , and recover faster after being eaten . In

is quickly proving itself to be more adaptable than the

essence , plants have found a new way to live with herbivores.

pterosaur group.

'

::

travel for over 30 miles with a

single wingbeat .

154

155

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

BENEATH

A

G I A N T ' S

W I N G S

WORLDS APART N THE EARLY Cretaceous period the

redwoods and cedars became more common

plants. The Impact of this group on both

movement ol the continents radically

and a new conrfer group, the pines, thrived.

plants and animals cannot be overestimated

remodeled He on Earth. Driven by

To the south the ancient podocarps and

( see The Arrival of Flower Power, page 182).

movements deep in the Earth's mantle, a

araucaria continued to do well and excluded

The advent of flowers is probably the single

other types of conifer.

most important evolutionary event of the

I

volcanic ridge that ran down between Europe and North America, South America and

With the changing shape of the continents

Mesozoic era. However, their initial

Africa, and around between Africa and

global weather also changed. The world

appearance as small shrubs in the Laurasian

Australia started to unzip the old landmasses.

became welter. The moist polar climates

All this activity in the crust periodically pushed

north. Stegosaurs declined, but their distant

omithomimids, fast -running omnivores, also

ornilhischian cousins became incredibly

appeared at about this time. The only group

successful and went on to dominate the

who suffered from this fragmented world

Hungry br iuly

Cretaceous herbivores. First there were the

were the giant sauropods, who went into

starfish are active

iguanodonllds, such as Iguonodon, which

sharp decline, except in South America.

gave rise to the duck- billed dinosaurs, then

.

I

f

predators that specialize In

In the warm seas, the Jurassic plesiosaurs

eating mollusks

.

the armored dinosaurs, such as Pofocanthus,

disappeared, and different species evolved.

marshes gave little indication of their later

such as oysters They pry open their victims'

and finally the homed dinosaurs which,

These new, four - flippered marine reptiles

shells, slip their stomachs inside, and digest

spread and the ocean currents running

success. It was not until the late Cretaceous

looked very similar to the old, except that

the creature where it lies.

up sea levels and allowed the Tethys Ocean to

through the Tethys brought a mosaic of wet

period that they began to dominate the

although non-existent at the beginning of the Cretaceous, formed vast herds by the end of

some took the long necks to even greater

flood land to both the east and west, finally

microclimates to previously dry equatorial

planet's flora.

this era. Among the carnivores, the allosaurs

extremes, with the elasmosaurs having as

had powerful claws to snip them open. Starfish

Isolating Laurasia to the north and Gondwana

regions. This led to a decline in some plants,

started to die out, but were replaced by a

many as 70 vertebrae in their neck. In the sea

used their arms to force the shells apart and

to the south. In all these new lands the

such as the cycads, but a boom In those that

of

variety of new designs The dromaeosaurs, or

specialized predators appeared to take

inserted their stomachs to digest the

animals and plants diversified and took on

thrived in marshy, damp environments. In

appeared during the early Cretaceous. The

raptors, were small, active hunters, while later

advantage of the abundance of sedentary

inhabitant within. Finally, marine snails

local charactenstlcs. In particular, the

particular, the early Cretaceous saw the

evolution of flowers was paralleled by the

the tyrannosaurlds evolved as giant meat -

bivalves, the mollusks that took sanctuary

developed the ability to drill small holes

north/ south divide was strong. In Laurasia the

emergence for the first time of flowering

success of one of today's largest groups of

eaten. The ostrich-like dinosaurs, or

between two hard shells. Crabs and lobsters

through the shells and lick out the insides. It is

Insects were finding new and varied ways preying on plants.

Aphids and leaf miners

insects, the hymenopterans ( bees and wasps).

not

Elsewhere, the feathered dinosaurs had

Above all this, the early Cretaceous was

evolved Into birds and spread across the

the heyday of the pterosaurs. The older, long -

globe. They appear initially to have thnved

tailed species died out and many developed

around lakes, and probably did well in dense

into huge gliders. Some of these had

forests. The bird's wing, made up of separate

wingspans in excess of 33 feel (10 meters)

feathers, was more resistant to damage by

and were specifically designed to gain lift

twigs and branches than the stretched skin

from the smallest of air movements. What is

of the pterosaur's wing.

most

Among the dinosaurs there was a radical

extraordinary about these gigantic

pterosaurs is not how they flew but how they

change in dominant groups, especially in the wasps arc part of a group of insects, Hymenoptcra,

with Asia. A rise in sea level

surprising that bivalves learned to burrow

managed to stay on the ground, especially if It was windy. Their wings were feeding

Fossils from Brazil show that the pterosaur

whose development appears

platforms which held aloft a small body and a

Taptjara had a sail-like head crest three to

to have been closely

large head. Palaeontological finds suggest

four times taller than its skull

related to the evolution

that most of the pterosaurs, large and small,

of flowering plants .

were manne species with a number of novel

The continents unravel:

thot ran dosvn between

during the Cretaceous period

Europe and North America

split the North American

the world major landmasses

Africa and South America,

continent In hall and

continued to subdivide Into

and around the southern-

allowed the Tethys Ocean

Conifers dominated the age ol

combs on Its beak to filter feed, like modem

smaller continents. This

most tip ol South Alrka.

to separate the northern

the reptiles, but it was not until

day flamingos. However, this may just be bias

break - up was driven by

Over millions ol years this

and southern continents.

the Cretaceous that the pine

in the fossil record because delicate fossils are

movement deep within the

movement opened the

This division led to the

family evolved. While many

almost always found around lakes and seas,

Earth’s mantle, which

Atlantic Ocean, Isolated

evolution of subtly

species died out with the

rather than in uplands that were subject to

weakened the crust and

Antarctica, and drove India

different flora and fauna in

success of flowering plants

created a volcanic ridge

north on a collision course

the two hemispheres.

pines continued to flourish.

's

156

.

feeding techniques, including one that used

.

-

erosion. Again, the lack of finds does not

prove that a creature did not exist

157

ft:

i

I

WALKING

W I T H

DINOSAURS

BENEATH

A Long Journey Starts T H E

T I P

O F

On ilic northern coast of Borborema a

a constant dull booming as

huge granite outcrop juts

been carved out beneath.

out

into the*

deep blue of the ocean. Rain and thou-

B O R B O R E M A

sands of years of pounding waves have

carved this dark rock into a series of spectacular pinnacles. From a distance

they

art *

clearly visible, bristling

at

the end of a long headland, but close

up they are even more impressive. Hundreds of small pinnacles are mounted on taller outcrops and these in turn build to the highest peaks, towering almost 2( H) feet into the air. Here and there among the rocks large blowholes

periodically send spouts of water up among the pinnacles and the waves make

S

most

fossil finds have been made in

North America and Europe, but new

digs on other continents are now

challenging this emphasis. Sauropods were

carnivores that could dwarf Tyrannosaurus.

about 11 feet (3.5 meters). Omithocherrui '

Evidence about the creatures in this chapter

weight h difficult to calculate, but he was almost certainty extremely light for his sIze, around 220

comes mainly from the Americas and Europe,

but each represents a group which appeared and became successful in the early Cretaceous.

once thought to have virtually disappeared by

the early part of the Cretaceous penod, but

the

water.

recent work has shown that they continued

wings. When he draws nearer, it is clear that he is an Omithocheirus, light gray on top

with

a

black , flecked pattern breaking up his outline. His long yellow

beak has a wide, keel-like crest

at

the end. However, the most distinctive thing

about Omithocheirus is his size. He is the largest pterosaur in the world, measuring 38 feel from wing tip to wing tip, a true giant of the air.

TAPEJARA

has demonstrated how successful the early

migrate huge distances. Their long, keeled beak could pluck fish from the water during flights EVIDENCE

Cantabria EARLY ATLANTIC

TE THYS OCEAN

Borborema

The Omithocheirus migrated across the Atlantic to Appalachia, and then followed the coastline to reach Cornubia ( now Cornwall) and Cantabria ( now Iberia).

158

rviofNCf

Herd- dwelling herbivore found on almost every continent, but the largest, distinguished by long fours, but could run on two legs W necessary

,

Numerous bone and footprint finds

Irom Mongolia to the American Midwest. The Very large marine pterosaurs probably able to

CornLibia

ICUANODON

i viDENCt

birds were, and Afnca may yet reveal large

A P P A L A C H I A

'r*

thumb spikes, thrived in Europe. Walked on all

to thrive in South America. Research In Chtna

Numerous fragmentary finds In Europe

Medium- sized Cretaceous pterosaur with a huge

and South America, mostly the Santana Formation In Brazil. Different finds were initially identified as separate species, leading to some confusion about the naming of giant pterosaurs Many names have been suggested, but

Santana Formation in Brazil.

Omithocheirus (the name given to the earliest

SIZE

find) seems likely to prevail. The huge size

with a body around 3 feet (1 meter) long.

attributed to the pterosaur is based on several

Although the head was only 12 inches ( 30 centimeters) long, with lire crest on top It was three times that length.

.

wing-digit fragments found in the Santana Formation and Europe SIZL A maximum wingspan of 40 feet (12 meters), but a total body length of only

display crest on its head. Tape/ aro lived on the edge of likes and Inland seas, and was probably a slow flier, not traveling large dlslances. tvioiNCE Beautifully preserved skelelons in the Wingspan ol around 17 feet (5 meters),

Mostly fish. TIME 120-110 mdlllon years ago.

DIET

WINGS

waves, slipping from one swell to another with no perceptible movement of his

,

Mostly fish and squid. TIMI About 125-110 million years ago.

S

A pterosaur appears, gliding effortlessly on the updraft from the

pounds ( 100 kilograms) is possible . His head was about 5 feet (1 5 meters ) long and when standing on all fours he would have been oil T

'

It is late afternoon and the warm winter sun throws an orange light across

about 10 feet ( 3 meters) tall ORNITHOCHEIRUS

GIANT

they rush along the tunnels and caves that have

THE SECOND FLOWERING OF DINOSAURS INCE THE NINETEENTH century,

A

best -known species, Iguanodon bernissartemJs, was identified from several skeletons found in a coal mine near Bemissart in Belgium. SIZE The largest species grew to over 30 feet (10 meters) long, standing10 feel (almost 3 meters) at the hip and weighing about 7 tons. DIET Ate most large plants, like cycads, conifers, or ferns, and could browse on vegetation up to 16 feet (5 meters) off the ground. TIME

132-100 million years ago.

UTAHRAPTOR

Possibly Ihe largest of the dromaeosaurs, a qroup of raptors distinguished by a vicious sickle claw on each foot A very successful carnivore that probably hunted in packs.

ft

One find In Dalton Wells Quarry near

Moab, Utah, but smcc America and Europe were close together during the Cretaceous, it seens

likely that Utahraptor would have been found on both continents - New evidence from South America suggests the raptors might have grown even larger than was previously believed. SIZE About 21 feet (6.5 meters) long It stood 6 feet 6 inches (2 meters) tall. An adull would have weighed almost a ton, and the toe claw was about 12 inches ( 30 centimeters) long. DIET Probably specialized In attacking large herbivores. TIME 112-100 million years ago.

.

SIZE

A heavily armored herbivore with a thickened

plate over its hips, spines running down the side of its body, and long spikes over its shoulders. Although probably solitary animals, they frequently grazed with Iguanodon herds. EVIDENCE Three fragmentary skeletons and many armor plates have been found In southern England, particularly on the Isle of WlghL

About 13 feet ( 4 meters) In length and 3 feet

y

(one meter) high at the hip, this relatively small

herbivore could still weigh up to a ton. Dirt Probably not choosy, but perfers ground vegetation. TIMI 1 32-112 million years ago, IBEROMESORNIS

A small bird that retained the dinosaur features of teeth In its beak and a daw on its wing. This feathered, strong flier may have lived in forests. EVIDENCE

-

A well preserved skeleton found in lake

deposits in Las Hoyas, Spain. SIZE

POLACANTHUS

H

A wingspan of about 8 inches (20 centimetres)

and vmghing perhaps 1 -2 ounces (a few tern of a gram), approximately the size of a goldfinch. DIET Omnivorous, feeding on any high-energy food it was big enough to tackle. The fact that remains were found in lake deposits suggests that aquatic crustaceans

may have formed part of Its dleL TIME 115 million years ago

u

r

> 159

.

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

B E N E A T H

When he reaches the outcrop, the air

currents

rise and sweep over the

rocks. Suddenly the pinnacles erupt into life. They are home

Tapejara, an

lo a

colony of

species of marine pterosaur. Although Tapejara are not dwarfed by the Omithocheirus while he sails over them. He

ornate

small, they arc

poses no threat, having a diet of nothing hut fish, hut Tapejara are excitable

and his presence makes them nervous. Just behind the oulcrop there is a wide open shelf area. Here the Omithocheirus stalls his flight and hangs in the air

before dropping clumsily on

to

his feet . For a

moment

A

G I A N T'S

W I N G S

he is an ungainly heap

of limbs and membranes, then he contracts his wings and flips his long wing

fingers over his back

to

adopt

light blue eyes, he looks back

a more comfortable sitting

at

position. With his

the chaos he has caused among the Tapejara

and leLs out a series of loud throaty clicks. Omithocheirus is a wanderer. His kind can be found in every comer of the

globe from north-eastern Laurasia

to

south-western Gondwana. Some have

even been spotted in the middle of the Panthalassa Ocean,

although they prefer

to stay near

land in case they

. Like all giant pterosaurs, Omilhochcims

encounter storms

is a

master

of the air currents. Although he can flap, his

whole body is designed

enabling him

to stay

exploit

LEU

Unwelcome visitor an

old male Omithocheirus

glides over a Tapejara colony on the northern coast of

of the air

Borborema, Although he

aloft with little efTort . Despite his size,

means them no harm, his

lo

contours

he weighs under 220 pounds. Most of his bones are no

sheer size causes panic and a

flurry of red display crests.

more than paper-thin tubes designed for maximum

strength and minimum weight . Some are even filled with

I1

air. His wing membranes cover an area of nearly 200 square

feet and arc filled with tiny muscle fibers that help him con-

trol their shape in flight . All this gives him an incredible

.

lift He does his best most of

avoid flapping at all and spends

to

his life hunting for warm air rising off the land.

Then, with the help of these “thermals,” he can soar, cir-

cling slowly upward

to

heights of over four miles. At diis

altitude he can glide without using any energy for almost 50

miles in search of other thermals. Below the resting Omithocheirus, the Tapejara are

calming down. This colony has about 1,000 members and it is mostly the males die giant pterosaur can see silting on

die pinnacles. Fully grown Tapejara have a wingspan of

about 16 feet. They live mainly on fish and, although the) often catch food

. they specialize in

at sea

combing the

nearby lagoons for washed-up carrion. What makes this 161

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

pterosaur

BENEATH

A

G I A N T'S

W I N G S

unique is iLs spectacular head crest lu the male a hard sail of bone ,

and keratin rises up almost a yard from the front of his beak, and in hill mating

colors it is flushed with black and red. 1 lie

crest

is so large that it has a pro-

.

found effect on the way Tapejara behave They are very slow fliers and when

the wind stai Ls

to gust,

the whole colony

turn

toward it

to

stop being caught in

the crosswinds. Although the immensity of these comes to mating and

crests

may seem like a handicap, when it

display it is clear that si /e

. This is the Tapejara’s

matters

breeding season and each male is lighting to occupy the flat top of a pinnacle, w here he shows off by waving and bucking his head. The taller the pinnacle, the more sought-after the site lx*cause the fenudes flv over the outcrop looking

.

for a mate, and the more obvious the male is, the better his chances There is

relentless competition between the males for these little theaters of display. The older and youngest Tapejara frequently have to make do with sites close to blowholes and near the waves. Not only are they nearly invisible if ) the females

here, but also they may be swept away by a wave in mid-display.

*

The Borborema granite is an extraordinary sight as the females circle before sunset . The whole outcrop is a frenzy of exhibitionism. Kach dark pin-

nacle is adorned with a black Tapejara flashing his brilliant

crest

and issuing

piercing calls clearly audible above the booming of the waves beneath. The females are in no hum

to

play while keeping an eye

choose their prospective mates, who continue out

for competitors who may try

to

to dis-

knock them ofT

their chosen pinnacle. This spectacle continues for about an hour, until sunset draws a curtain on the proceedings. Tapejara are creatures of the day, and they do

not

function

who spend

most

in a

wrorld without color. When darkness arrives, the females,

.

Face - off: two male Tapejara

ing through the colony.

size each other up across the

of this time of year feeding, land further dow n the clifT away

In the morning light , the male Omilhocheims grooms himself, running his

their hard-won pinna-

fearsome-looking teeth delicately through the light gray fur on his belly. He

from the display area. Meanwhile , the males sit light

on

cles. Then the whole colony goes quiet.

has been heading north along the coast of Gondw'ana for days and will use the

Borborema rock. Each male

fights to occupy the top of one of the pinnacles on the

outcrop. Although the confrontations are loud and

Twelve hours later, when the sun rises once more, hundreds of green eyes

granite outcrop as a thermal springboard while he continues toward the Tethys

aggressive, there Is hardly

open and spot the red ( rests of their competitors. The male Tapejara instantly

Ocean. His usually aimless wanderings are becoming directional as the mating

ever any

start

displaying again. It will be a while before the females take

the males react instinctively 162

his crest and those around him respond. Soon waves of red flashes are sweep-

to

to

the air, but

the sight of the colors. One male starts bucking

season

approaches. Omithocheirus may roam the planet

only on the island of Cantabria, about 1,860 miles

to

at

will, but they male

physical contact

between the rivals.

the north of Borborema. 163

;

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

BENEATH

activity and those animals, such as

ductive peak , but still he is driven back once every two years to do battle with

frogs, snakes, and certain mammals,

other males for his right to mate. Although there are no outward signs, over

which take to the air onfy

the last few weeks his body has been getting ready for this. Soon he will also dis

-

occasionally in order to move from tree to

play his bright mating colors, most noticeably his beak crest will flush red . He waits, watching the Tapejara’s extravagant mating displays, while the morning sun climbs higher in the sky and the thermals around the outcrop

tree, lend to glide. Full- time fliers, such as

birds, insects, and bats are more usually

flapping fliers, capable of powered ( light. It

may seem strange that pterosaurs should first

have evolved as small flapping fliers and,

grow stronger. About mid-morning he rocks back on his legs and opens his

millions of years later, have developed Into

wings

giant gliders.The explanation is that theirs

by

extending

his

arms

long wing fingers. In almost the same

was a sort of gliding that we can hardly

and

flicking

movement

out

his

he leans into

the breeze and jumps off the granite shelf. Conditions are per-

imagine today. Giant pterosaurs could still fly OrnJthochei / ui had a wingspan of nearly

anywhere they wanted. They simply

is either pushed up by a hill or clilf, or

abandoned the need to flap. The nearest

generated by the beat of the sun as a thermal

modem equivalent is probably something

updralt over sun-lacing slopes or dark

which to catch the lifting air currents. This,

like the stork, but this still does not come

patches ol ground. Pterosaurs might

together with their lightweight bodies,

anywhere near what an animal such as

deliberately have looked for cumulus clouds,

made them consummate gliders.

Ornithocheirus achieved.

which are a sure sign ol a thermal updraft, and then could have soared to heights of

40 feel ( 12 meters ), so had almost 200 square feet ( 20 square meters) with

suggested that taking off and landing could

fect . He immediately starts to climb, leaving the screeching

Tapejara far below as he banks into a light circle and soars higher. In the distance further clown the coast other large pterosaurs are also lifting off. Eventually, as the rising air weak ens, the Omiihocheims peels off and starts to glide north again .

Over water there are no thermals, but the giant pterosaurs

wing - loading, the ratio of the wing area to

3 miles (5 kilometers), enabling them to fly

be a problem and that pterosaurs would

the weight of the animal. Ornithocheirus had

for more than 30 miles ( 50 kilometers)

have had to leap off cliffs to become

the wing area of a small airplane, yet because

without flapping their wings once. Even over

airborne. However, with the lift their huge

of its hollosv bones and liny trunk, it

water, an expenenced glider can use the

wings could give ( hem, a light bree2e would

island-hop or glide all the way across from a high coastal ther-

probably weighed less than a human. The

dynamics of the air above the waves to

have been enough for them to take off .

mal , he will use what the water has to offer. He can get lift by

best gliding aircraft design can travel forward

remain airborne with little effort . It has been

Despite all they sacrificed to be

can still cross open seas. If the Ornithocheirus cannot

‘On a good day an

Ornithocheirus may

fly for 300 miles after flapping his wings

7;

only once to become

>1

airborne.’

lightweight, they maintained large heads and

pterosaurs probably did considerably better

long, strong legs. Their big beaks were often

can exploit “ground effect ," compressing a cushion of air in front of and below

than that . Coupled with this ability to fall

on the end of long necks and were probably

him to help keep himself aloft . He can also take advantage of the wind gradi-

slowly, they would also have been able to

essential if they were to catch food, especially

capture any rising air and rise very fast. If you

fish, on the wing. The legs were obviously

ents over the

know what you are looking for, it Is possible

used for walking but might also have allowed

closer they are to the surface. An Ornithocheirus flying near the surface can

to find rising air all across the countryside. It

them to leap and become airborne with a

rise into the faster air and the increasing lift will drive him still higher until he

few lazy flaps if there was no wind. Neither before nor since has Earth seen such

Cretaceous the short tailed pterosaurs took

-

consummate gliders, creatures that viewed

over from the long tailed varieties, and the

the world around them in terms o< moving

shape of their wings changed. They also

started to grow much larger

164

air masses that took them, like elevators and conveyor belts, anywhere they wanted to go.

if . 1

riding the windward side of waves and , by remaining very low,

1 3 feet ( 4 meters) for every yard it (alls. Giant

The new model: at the beginning of the

W I N G S

Cantabria , he has probably revisited it about 20 times. He is well past his repro-

LIGHT IS A HIGHLY specialized

Gliding ability depends on a feature called

G I A N T'S

This male is old , about 40 , and after spending the first year of his life on

GREAT GIANT GLIDERS

F

A

ocean. Friction with the water means wind speeds are lower the

loses momentum . Then he glides clown at an angle to llie wind , building up

speed and ready to repeat the entire process. M \ this means that on a good day an Ornithocheirus may fly for 300 miles after flapping his wings only once to become airborne.

165

WALKING WITH

DINOSAURS

BENEATH

Shelter from the Storm T H E

C O A S T

O F

A P P A L A C H I A

A

GIANT' S

WINGS

11 is a blisteringly hot clay and the

Snap shot: an Omiihocheirus

Omiihocheirus is fishing off shore,

beak plucks a fish from the water. The keel crests at the

tip

lit * Hies low over the waves, looking

help guide the beak through

for flashes of silver or surface distur-

the water, preventing twisting while the pterosaur strikes.

bance. He holds his long beak right above the water and when he sees some-

thing he dips it in quickly, snapping it shut the moment it makes contact with

prey. In this way he traps fish with his long, sharp teeth and then, with a flick of his head, throws them into his throat pouch, where he even before tant

they gel

to

starts to

digest them

his stomach. The keel-like crests on his beak are impor-

because they help keep it moving straight ahead when he dips it into the

water.

In such a delicateh balanced hunter, a force working sideways, against

the direction of flight , can be extremely dangerous, either tipping him into the water or

damaging his neck.

The Omiihocheirus makes contact with a squid. While he clips it water,

out

of the

.

its tentacles writhe and it blushes a deep red Then, in a blink, it is gone,

adding

to

and starts

the fish soup in the pterosaur ’s pouch . He to

turns

flap. The extra weight of fish has upset his usual effort less gliding.

While he manages a long slow' climb

to

the nearby cliffs, it is also cleat that the

heat is affecting him. His wings are paler than usual, indicating that he - has

beak

reduced the blood supply

tree

exposed

to

creatures.

to

his membranes. Willi so much surface area

the sun. overheating is one of the biggest problems for these huge

Reducing the amount of blood flowing through the wings helps, as

. He is nervous since

crests

the area behind the cliff is dense cycad and

fem forest and could be hiding all sorts of predators. From somewhere

beyond the forest he picks tip the distant nimble of a giant herd of herbivores. At the far end of the beach a river spills out, and where it

meets

the sea, the

does his fine pale fur. The air sacs throughout his body also help him lose heat

swirling currents have dragged the sand out into a long spit . On either side the

from his internal organs. However, when temperatures are high, he cannot fly

cycads give way

or fish for extended water on

periods without seeking shade. Smaller pterosaurs splash

their wings and quickly cool down, but this is more difficult for the

He lands

at

the end of a long bay on top of the heavily eroded sandstone

cliffs. After he has slowed liis wings, he gently wafts his giant wing lingers create a

to

low thicket fern and lush riverhank plants. While the

OmithocheiriLs watches from its elevated position, a single adult Iguanodon strides out of die ferns onto the beach. She weighs about six

tons and

is 22 feet

long, a fine example of an extraordinarily successful group of animals. The

cumbersome Omiihocheirus.

to

cooling breeze around his body. He is on the southernmost tip of

Appalachia, several hundred miles nearer his breeding ground than Borborema. Dark red mating colors are just beginning to stain the rim of his 166

m

toward the shore

brown and white stripes down her back mark her as an Appalachian

Iguanodon, hut her relatives can I K* found on most continents and sometimes in herds of thousands. She

tm ns

and rocks back on her hind legs, rising to her full height of about

16 feel off the ground. She calls and then heads toward the river. Soon the rest 167

BENEATH

of the herd appear from the forest edge. One by one they file out on to die

-

beach . Walking slowly on all fours, diey vary considerably in size from 6 foot-

long yearlings to old males almost 16 feet in length . The juveniles try to keep up with the adults by trotting around on two legs. All Iguanodon are capable of walking on two legs, but the adults do this only when fleeing. Unlike the

young, diey spend

most of their time on all fours,

A

G I A N T ' S

orposru

WINGS

In the late evening

light an Appalachian Iguanodon stops (or a drink. This Is a fully grown female and her long, defensive thumb

spikes are clearly visible.

grazing. Some of die larger

animals have detached themselves from die main herd and wander alone as outriders. Perhaps they are diere to give the herd early warning of danger, or

perhaps because they are less vulnerable than the smaller animals and do not need the protection of the herd , they can get a better choice of plants by forag-

ing away from the others. Soon the single file becomes a mass of white-and-

-

brown striped bodies gendy rocking from side to side as they walk. The herd is using the beach because the river is at its shallowest here, and on the other side lies a large expanse of lush grazing. When more animals

cross, the estuary is increasingly churned up and the sand starts to liquefy.

Soon the smaller animals are in trouble since they do not have the strength to

pull dieir legs out of the quicksand. Though die bray of worried juveniles fills

i

the air, the adults continue walking, dragging their limbs through the sticky

1

mud , seemingly oblivious to the mounting number of drowning youngsters. It

takes about an hour for the whole herd to cross, and by the end. a dozen

young Iguanodon have lost their struggle with the sand. While the llow of the

-

river smoothes over the beach , it obliterates all the evidence of the herd ’s pass

ing and the youngsters are slowly buried. The rest of die herd head for die lush flood-plain vegetation . Iguanodon

are extraordinarily adaptable herbivores, which pardy explains their success.

They have a wide, homy beak that can crop low plants or pick at higher shrubs and trees. Unlike other dinosaurs , they have evolved batteries of teeth at the The herd thunder by:

back of their mouths , which allow them to chew. Chewing means the plant

ovmilAf

food is processed before it goes into the stomach and this speeds up the whole

beach in search of new

process of digesdon. Iguanodon hands are also a miracle of adaptability. The middle three digits are wrapped logedicr by a fleshy pad and provide a strong , load-bearing base to die front limbs. This is especially important in this species

grazing . When moving slowly,

Iguanodon move along the

adults usually walk on all fours, but if they need to hurry, they

can rise up on two legs.

169

=_ — ==E

W A L K I N G

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

BENEATH

because they spend so much time walking on all fours. Their litile finger is held ofT die ground and is highly flexible, helping them grasp food. Finally there is the thumb, which has evolved into a long spike that can become a fearsome weapon in defense.

The herd will have a profound effect on the Hood plain , eating or crushing most of the available

plants. In fact , there are clear signs that this herd , or one

A

G I A N T'S W I N G S

like it, has been here before. The plain is dominated by a shrub called Protoanihus, which is distinctive because from its stems hang small , white flow ers. Flowers and flowrering plants have recently evolved and are widespread

only in the equatorial regions. However, in a short time they have proved extremely successful , especially in lush lowland areas. Their secret is not some new poison or extra spines to make them unpalatable to dinosaurs. Instead ,

they seem to thrive on being grazed. Protoanthus produces

T O CHEW OR N O T T O CHEW

E

VER SINCE ANIMALS first crawled

Running along the length of the skull was a

out of the sea and onto the land ,

hinge, which allowed the upper jaw to flex

plants have been a difficult source

Checking with the wear patterns on the

of food , especially when compared

teeth, Norman suggested that Iguanodon

many seeds, each with enough nutrients to give the seedling an early boost . That means that if grazing flattens an area , Protoanthus is often the first plant to reappear. Even if substantial parts of a Protoanthus shrub are eaten or dam aged , it can still grow back from different poinLs on the plant ,

to meat. Vegetation was full of indigestible

chewed by pushing its lower jaw up inside Its

cellulose, frequently protected by armored

upper jaw, wh*ch then flexed outward to

recovering betLer than other plants. Finally, it grows fast and is

bark or spines, and could often produce a

allow the teeth to grind together. Watching

quick

range of poisons to deter the herbivore. Over millions of years animals have had to show

an Iguanodon Idly chewing on its food, you would have seen the bottom jaw moving

endless adaptations and innovations to

In order to chew, Iguanodon must have had

overcome these plant defenses. Eventually

some kind of cheek, otherwise the food would have fallen out the sides of their mouths. This baffled scientists for years because no modem reptiles have cheeks

their guts had to become complex

processors, extracting nutrients from fairly

to

produce seeds. Protoanthus have found a unique way

to live with the

impact of herbivorous dinosaurs, and wher-

rhythmically up and down, and the sides of

ever these appear in large herds , you are likely to find plants

its head gently expanding and contracting.

such as Protoanthus. Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of

Although there are many theories about why

this plant is also the most obvious, the color of its flowers. In a

the omithopods were so successful in the

‘In a world dominated

the greens and browns

of ferns, conifers, and

cycads, the pale white blooms of Protoanthus

light up the landscape.’

Cretaceous, it Is highly probable that their

world dominated by the greens and browTis of ferns, conifers,

of the side of the mouth. Crocodiles, lizards,

secret was as mundane as they

and cycads the pale while blooms of Protoanihus light up the landscape.

stomachs were vast stone containing

and turtles, for example, have no facial

learned to chew their

fermentation tanks, but they (fid nothing to

muscles. Mammals are unique in having such

food welL

help prepare the food for digestion .

expressive muscular faces, of which cheeks

haze of white Protoanthus. Insects are ihick in the air. attracted to die pollen

are an integral part. However, the Iguanodon

on the flowers, and angry clouds of them rise and fall as the giant reptiles work

skull shows that its teeth were set on the

their way from plant to plant. To the Ornithocheirus, sitting on the clilT a mile

unpromising material. Sauropods, the giants

of the ) urassic, succeeded because their

-

In the early Cretaceous the omithopods,

the group of dinosaurs that included

-

inside of the jawbone, leaving room for

further. They learned to chew. An Iguanodon

some sort of cheek, even if it was just

away, the mass of striped dinosaurs seems

skull shows a beak at the front for cropping

skin drawn between the jaws.

watches the herd while he strums his enormous wings to cool down.

The second problem was the gnnding

similar to that of a modem-day grazing

movement of the jaw. In mammals the

mammal, such as a horse.

lower jaw Is free to move from side to side,

Although this may sound obvious, for

many years the question of how dinosaurs

enabling them to chew. Dinosaur jaws could

move only up and down . A careful study of

chewed baffled scientists. In order to chew

the Iguanodon head by paleontologist David

you need cheeks, otherwise the food falls out

Norman revealed how the herbivore coped .

to float

on a sea of white froth . He

On careful examination another type of dinosaur is risible mixed in with

the Iguanodon . There are only a few of them and they are smaller than the Beautifully preserved skulls have

allowed scientists to recreate the way Iguanodon jaws must have moved to enable

them to slice up their food.

Iguanodon and heavily armored. These are Polacanthus, and almost every centimeter of their backs is covered in huge thick spines, except for an area over the rump, which is one solid bony plate. Even the tail has spines running down either side of it . All this makes Polacanthus a formidable prospect for any

172

I

I

The Iguanodon herd fan out onto the flood plain to graze . Before them is a

Iguanodon, took food processing a stage

and ranks of teeth at the back for sheanng,

by

173

WALKING

W I T H

D I N O S A U R S

BENEATH

A

G I A N T

'S WINGS

£

predator and explains win iliev are principalis solitary. However, it does explain why they are frequently seen mingling with Iguanodon herds. The

AN OLD FRIEND OF PALEONTOLOGISTS

W

ITH THE ARRIVAL ol

CY

not two

species pay little attention to each other and it is difficult to understand what advantage the association has for both animals. One theory maintains that

the now millennium,

Iguanodon will have Its own celebration. It is 175

together they are better at spotting predators because their senses complement

years old. This early Cretaceous herbivore has

a special place m the history of

each another. An Iguanodon can rise on his hind legs and has good eyesight

palaeontology since It was only the second

and hearing. A Polacanthus, on the other hand, stands low to die ground, and

Eating alone: a Polacanthus

has an exceptional sense of smell. Often they can sniff out predators that are

grazes on the edge of the river.

dinosaur to be named, tn 1825 surgeon Dr.

The first reconstruction of Iguanodon, by

surgeon Gideon Mantell, was based on

Gideon Mantel! identified teeth found in

hidden from the Iguanodon in the undergrowth .

the skeleton of a modem llzaid.

waste rubble in Sussex, England, as

\

Mantell placed the thumb

belonging to a new species of reptile. It

spike on the nose, like a

looked as if they came from some giant lizard

rhino hom

^

(

like an iguana. Mantell called their owner

Iguanodon, or "iguana tooth," 16 years before the term dinosaur was even invented.

Iguanodon became famous as a pre-Flood

*

monster and in 1851 had pnde of place In

the Great Crystal Palace Exhibition.

In 1878 an extraordinary discovery down

Alter several skeletons were found down a coal mine In Belgium in 1878, Iguanodon s 1

The brick model still exists in London and

a coal mine In Bernissart, Belgium, produced

look was revived. The scientist reposed him

shows the rrmlts of scientific knowledge at

more than 30 fully articulated Iguanodon

in an upright stance, but to do this the tail

the lime. What was later proved to be

skeletons. It took three years to remove 130

had to be dislocated

Iguanodon' s thumb spike was placed on its

tons of fossil material from the mine. Work by

nose like a rhinoceros horn and the creature

the paleontologist Louis Dollo completely

placed the spikes on \guanodon's thumbs and

is posed as a heavy quadruped.

changed the Crystal Palace look. Dollo

made rt into a giant biped. This became the classic image of Iguanodon for most of the twentieth century, standing upright next to

The first bit of Iguanodon found was Its tooth in 1825 Gideon Mantell identified lls simi

-

its favorite conifer, giving artists the thumbs-

larity to a modern-day iguana, hence the

up with its spikes. However, in fact, Dollo

name "iguana tooth."

had broken Iguanodon' s tail in order to get it to stand like this.

In the 19705 Iguanodon went through

another makeover and is now reconstructed into something between a four -legged and a

-

two legged creature. Us spine is believed to

have been held parallel to the ground, and

although It was capable of moving around

.

During the Great Exhibition of 1851 In

on two legs, while It walked and grazed It

London, dinosaurs were the star attraction,

would have been on all fours. This Is a unique

with several life-size models being built for the occasion.

form of locomotion that has no modern counter parL

These armored dinosaurs have

.

a formidable array of defenses

Hk.

BENEATH

accessible from the land , an ideal spot for sitting

A

GIANT'S

WINGS

out

a storm. Right after sunset the storm rolls in from the east ,

pushing giant waves before it . Rain hammers down on the cliff and torrents of water sweep over the sand stone. Tlie Ornilhoc heir us ducks his head and

clings

on in the darkness, his wing lingers drawn down tight

over his back. While the wind and rain scour the cliff, the pterosaur is quickly soaked and the fine gray fur

across his back and wings becomes sodden . Although

the min is warm , with all the wind his body tempera -

drops and he faces the opposite problem to the one he had a few hours before . Once again he controls the blood flow to his wings, this time to reduce heat ture

loss, and he twitches his massive flight muscles rapidly,

T»

which helps maintain a core body heat . He is shivering, and just audible over the rage of the storm is the sound of his beak chattering.

By morning the storm has blown

LIFT

out and a cool

breeze wafts in off the sea. After such a violent night , the huge pterosaur is cold and bruised. While the sun rises over the sea, he opens his wings to welcome it ,

desperately accepting any warmth in its thin early rays. Fortunately, the sun strengthens rapidly, warming the

Dangerous games: a

young Iguanodon plays with a Polacanthus. These two species

seem to have a great tolerance

tor each other, which could be based on mutual protection. Iguanodon have good vision and Polacanthus a superb

sense of smell.

rocks around him . Soon he relaxes and starts to groom represent serious danger. Tropical downpours and high winds can knock

himself, repairing the storm damage. It is clear from his movements that the

pterosaurs out of the sky and even on the ground they need to seek shelter

old pterosaur is suffering from arthritis. Having become so cold in the night ,

from these conditions. The Ornithocheirus defecates the remains of his morn-

his huge finger joints must ache badly. He inspects each wing closely and

ing catch , flicks his wings out , and leaps into the sticky air. Ho drifts along the

runs his long beak over their surface like a rake . Like most large pterosaurs, he

cliff edge, his huge wings lifted by the tiny breeze rising from the waves below. After a few minutes, he finds what he is looking for, a long overhang in the

almost certainly has parasites hanging on to his wings. One in particular, called

sandstone rocks. It is high enough to be clear of the waves but not easily 176

Saurophlhirus, lives only on pterosaur wings. Saurophthirus is a colorless little insect about an inch long. It has no wings, long legs with hooks on the end . 177

i

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

BENEATH

A

study fossilized insects from llw

explained in only one way. It must have been

surface as it probps the sparsely haired bat 's

a pterosaur parasite.

wing for blood vessels to drain. It does not

Mesozoic, there is little doubt

that the giant reptiles were

This 1-Inch (2-5-centlmeter) - long

G I A N T'S

W I N G S

and sharp sucking moulhparis. Its entire life is spent hooked on to a pterosaur,

PARASITES ON THE WING MONO SCIENTISTS WHO

A

-

venture near the hairier parts of the bat

creature comes from the Cretaceous rocks of

because its legs are too long and would

plagued with mites, ticks, and all sorts of

Transbaikalia in eastern Russia and has been

become tangled up in the hairs.

biting creatures. Despite the dinosaurs'

called Saurophthirus. It has no wings, long

tough, scaly skin, these parasites regularly

drilling the wing membrane for blood vessels. It is important for

keep himself well groomed, because large populations of Snurophthirus can seriously weaken him and impede his ability to fly. Even Omithot heirus

to

worse, badly infested pterosaurs are

rarely picked as mates during breeding dis-

The wing of a pterosaur would have

plays. By running his teeth through his fur he can break the legs of these para-

legs ending in hooks, a long proboscis, and a

offered exactly the same opportunities to

sites and, although he will never eliminate them, this keeps the numbers down.

sought out the soft spots around their eyes,

soft body that could have been distended for

Saurophlhirvs. There would have been very

In their ears, and between their scales in

fluid feeding. For an insect, all these are

little fur and an enormous expanse of skin

order to extract the blood on which they fed.

adaptations to a parasitic way of life.

filled with blood vessels. If this link is correct,

Unlortunately, short of finding a mite

Although not related, Saurophthirus also

then It is highly likely that grooming to get

fossilized in dinosaur skin, it is difficult to

bears an uncanny resemblance to the

rid of these unwanted parasites was an

prove the link. However, from an old lake

modem nycteribiid parasite that specializes

important part of pterosaur behavior.

bed in Russia comes one fossilized insect

in

whose odd physical appearance can be

long legs help it remain steady on a moving

Methodical grooming occupies the old male until mid-morning, by which time the sun’s heat is driving invisible thermals high into the air all along the

. The sight of large numbers of pterosaurs soaring above him tempts the Omithocheirus off the cliff and into the warm air. Immediately he starts to rise*. coast

Dipping one wing, he

feeding on bat wings. This little creature's

he is ready

to

turns

his flight path into a tight spiral upward and soon

continue his migration toward his breeding ground.

Cornubia is like a massive fortress in the middle of the Tethys. All along its western coast,

sheer cliffs rise

out

1

of the

ocean, sometimes as high as 1,300 feet. The

The Time is Near

waves that batter these cliffs have to run the

gauntlet of hundreds of jagged black rocks,

T H E

I S L A N D

O F

b

>

C O R N U B I A

and the waters of the Tethys are churned up

'

into a thick froth.

Despite its forbidding appearance, Comubia is a sanctuary for migrating giant pterosaurs. Its warm black cliffs insect has been found. In form It Is similar to a common type of bat flea, but there were no bats In the Cretaceous, only

hairy pterosaurs.

create

huge thermals that give the

—hop between continents. Thousands crowd onto

pterosaurs a lift as they island

its ledges and fish in iLs violent

Toward the

.

waters

center of die island is a

su ing of dark, freshwater lakes from

which die pterosaurs dliuk. From his position high on a coastal dienmal, the Pterosaurs, especially the large ones, woukf

have found it difficult to fly in the rain. While

old Omilhocheirus can see them and he slowly

starts to

descend. His migra-

grounded, thry might have spent time

tion is almost complete. Cornubia is only a few hundred miles from Cantabria

grooming, since flight, and possibly success at mating, depended on their delicate wings

and his body is preparing to breed. The crests on the end of his beak are bright

being in perfect condition.

red and inside he is weighed down by the growth of his testes. He needs to feed these changes, and one way

to

do diis without expending too much energy is 179

W A L K I N G

W I T H

DINOSAURS

to get other pterosaurs to do the

hunting for him .

Below him the lakes are well slocked and a number of smaller pterosaurs

are busy fishing, in particular groups of juvenile Omithocheinis. When they skim above the glassy lake , the old male slows his descent . One of the young

Ornilhocheims strikes the water with her beak and then flaps quickly to rise

up. In her mouth is the silvery glint of a fish . The male tucks his wings slightly and drops toward the laden pterosaur as she heads for the shore. Showing remarkable agility for his size , the male sweeps in front of the surprised juvenile , issuing a series of aggressive hisses. She drops the wriggling fish on the

beach and the male swiftly claims his prize. He will spend most of the dav

doing this and , although bullying smaller pterosaurs consumes energy, he has a much higher success rate than if he were fishing alone.

Being cut off from the marine environment by the cliffs, these lakes have

developed unique residents. In particular, they are dominated by large , predator)' turtles. Most of the time these unlikely killers litter the beaches, sunning themselves, and seem somewhat slow and cumbersome compared to other

aquatic predators. However, in the dark waters of the lakes thev are highly effective ambush hunters and only a few fish escape their powerful jaws. The island itself is big enough to support large numbers of dinosaurs. In its

uplands there are thick forests of Huon pine and cycad . Huon trees have an unusual way of colonizing new

'

areas. Low branches grow from

m '

.

graze. They arc a different species to the ones in Appalachia. They have deep

Rogue male: even on their own

the ground , roots sprout down

green scales and are less bulky around the neck , but fully grown they arc larger,

Iguanodon are capable of

into the earth . Over many years

weighing about 7 tons. Most noticeably, they have more powerful forearms

most predators. A male like

equipped with longer thumb spikes.

this one can weigh more than

the trunk and , where they touch

a new tree is established and

.

then reproduces itself in the same

These herbivores need to IK strong because this island has large and power-

way. On Comubia some of these

ful predators. In particular, Utahraptors stalk the Iguanodon herds on

forests are very old , and in some places one original tree and its clones

Comubia. As a group, the raptors are successful carnivores, with different

cover whole hillsides. The lowland areas are filled with ferns , bennettites, and

species spread through Laurasia and Gondwana. Most hunt in packs , but this is

large patches of flowers. Through these meadows small herds of Iguanodon

less common among the larger animals. Unfortunately for the prey here .

*

protecting themselves against

7 tons and rear up to a height of 16 feet .

181

W A L K I N G

W I T H

BENEATH

D I N O S A U R S

A

G I A N T' S

W I N G S

Utahraptors arc large, about 19 feet long, and they hunt in packs. *

THE ARRIVAL OF FLOWER POWER

T

About a mile from the lake where Lite old Orniiliocheirus is bullying for bis capable of sprouting and forming a new

angiosperms, dominate nearly

plant. From this innovation blossomed a set

every habllat on Earth. From

of characteristics that transformed the

palms and cactus lo beech and

world's vegetation.

they shape the green landscape we see. Yet,

quicker to colonize areas that had, been

lor most of the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs lived

cleared of other plants. They grew lo seed

a green and brown world with no flowers

.

at all and

.

During the jurasslc period, the sauropods

developed mass grazing to a new level.

to have been an observant botanist lo spot

.

in

a world full of established coniters, ferns,

This 140- mllllon- year -old fossil, found by American and Chinese scientists in Nanjing,

Uiahraplors make slow progress toward

Utahraptors are truly beautiful predators. They are covered in a well-

started to contnbute to the flowers' success

tlowering plants did appear, you would need

two

their quarry.

damage. Then a number of outside factors

However, in the early Cretaceous, even when

one They evolved as small marginal shrubs

the Iguanodon, in deep shadow,

faster and recovered more readily from

they certainly never saw any grass.

Iguanodon are idly plucking saplings from between the bare rocks. It is late afternoon and the long shadows thrown by the rocks hide danger. Right below

For whatever reason, angiosperms were

oak, Irom heather moors to wide grasslands,

in

supper, a low outcrop of granite backs up against the Huon forest. A herd of

ODAY FLOWERING PLANTS, or

Herds moved through an area, churning the ground with their feet and decimating the

.

defined black and yellow pattern with a pale cream underbelly Their sleek,

well-muscled bodies are held in perfect balance by a small, highly mobile tail that constantly adjusts and readjusts as the animal slinks forward. Each

Utahraptor weighs almost a ton, and if they surprise an Iguanodon , the Iguanodon will be lucky to escape. Their heads hardly move when they walk

and cycads - The first flowers were not only

is the oldest known flower. The blooms are

vegetation. This "dinolurbation" would have

small, they probably had no scent or color.

small and likely to bo wind-pollinated.

left behind ideal environments for flowers to

and their eyes remain locked on the prey ahead. Their forearms are tucke d tip

The mystery Is why this rather unassuming

Insect - attracting flowers evolved only later.

exploit . In the early Cretaceous the climate

high, with their long grappling fingers held against their ribs. Each step reveals

over most of the Earth's land surface became

new group of plants eventually took off with

by insects, or contracting a fungal infection.

moister, and in many areas lush vegetation

others to extinction. The scientific

The male pollen can only fertilize such a

developed. Competition for light became

definition of an angiosperm

plant by landing in the right place and

more Intense, whkh also suited flowenng

growing a tube into the ovule down which

plants.

such vigor that they drove so many

Is that it has covered ovules.

This means that the lemale

reproductive parts are

the sperm can pass. The seed that then forms

Finally, as the Cretaceous progressed,

has its own food supply and when dropped is

flowers developed a closer relationship with insects. With their protected ovules, they

covered by special tissue

a flash of the long, black claw on the second

toe,

predators.

5

These raptors have obviously spent some lime working their way around

this position because the

rest

of their pack is still on the edge of the forest.

They are both females, and female Utahraptors do most of the hunting. Somewhere nearby will be a dominant male, but he will rarely hunt. If a kill is

needed to ensure that the pollen grain

first Mesozok varieties, however, some

reached the right place. Insects already

made, he will claim his share and save his energy for the challenges that come

species, including magnolia (illustrated

visited flowers to eat the pollen and then

from other males. The two stalking Utahraptors reach the edge of the outcrop

carried the excess from one plant to another.

unnoticed. The Iguanodon arc slowly moving away from the predators and the

Ihclr lineage back to the time of : hc dinosaurs

Flowers started to produce nectar to attract insects, who became regular visitors. When

distance the raptors will have

flowers developed color and scent to make

Utahraptors do

themselves even more attractive, Insects such as bees came to specialize in feeding on nectar. This process, called co-evolution,

benefited both organisms. With so much

working in their favor It Is not surprising that flowering plants were so successlul.

v

to

Modem flowers are very different from the

below) and drimys (a flowering evergreen),

Kh

distinctive of this group of

not

to

sprint once they arc in the open is increasing.

usually pursue their prey for any distance and the

Iguanodon could soon outpace them, running on their long back legs. It is time

.

to attack

The larger female springs silently onto die outcrop and heads for the herd.

She has chosen her victim, a sturdy subadult on the edge of the group. She is

spotted immediately and the Iguanodon

start

their screeching bellows of

alarm. The rest of the Utahraptor pack appear from the forest, but die herd is 183

WITH

W A L K I N G

OPPOSiTf

Elegant killer a

Utahraptor stops for a drink. He is constantly alert and the

DINOSAURS

already striding away toward a large meadow of while Protoanthus. Most of the

Utahraplors are out of the chase before il even starts, but the lead female man-

midday sun betrays the tools

ages to gain on the Iguanodon before lie can get into his stride. She leaps.

of his trade, his slckle - llke toe

While she travels through the air, her long fingers, tipped with hook-like daws,

claw and long, grappling

spread out . Her legs come forward, and as she lands on the Iguanodons rump, she tries to drive her lethal hind claws into his flank. However, die leap was mis-

hands. This species is the

largest of the raptors, standing

.

almost 7 feet high

timed. Her feet fail

to

find their target and, although the Iguanodon stumbles

.

when she lands on him. he remains on his feet While her claws rake across his

back, his bellows turn into an ear-splitting scream. 1 Ie rears and bucks in a panicked frenzy. The predator loses her grip and tumbles

to

the ground. She

instantly springs up again, but she is in a dangerous position, right in front of the Iguanodon. He rises up and knocks her back down with one forearm, then ,

swinging the other across, drives a thumb spike deep into her shoulder. The

Utahraptor breaks free and scrabbles away, one arm dangling uselessly. The Iguanodon

turns to

catch up with the

rest

of the herd, and continues

his deafening alarm screams. The second stalking Utahraptor is too far behind to

take advantage of tin* work started by her pack mate and the predators aban-

don the chase. The injured female pauses on the forest edge. She is badly wounded but still stands a chance of recovery. The pack will continue kills and if there is enough food

though she may be

too

weak

to

to

go around she will be able

to

make

to eat even

hunt . Attacking big prey is always dangerous

and most of the older females carry a number of healed wounds.

Utahraplors live in a unde variety of environments and adapt their hunting techniques accordingly. On the wide open plains of northern Appalachia they always hunt in large packs, but among the hill forests to the west they are frequently solitary. In Cornubia they usually live in small packs. If they hunt alone their success

rale

is as low

its

15 percent. As a pair this

three attacks ending in a kill. After that it docs there are in the pack since they fail

most

not

rale

doubles

to one

in

seem to matter how many

of the lime. Members of a pack also

specialize. Some of the smaller animals pursue the prey but are rarely the first to attack . The larger individuals concentrate on ambush and

appear

to

leaping on the prey. If the prey is small enough they may approach from am 184

W A L K I N G

W I T H

BENEATH

D I N O S A U R S

angle, but with Iguanodon they never attack from the front . In one other respect

Ulahraplors

are

unique. They willingly attack healthy prey, even large

giant herbivore bucks and reels, screeching in pain. In doing so she stumbles

males, not just the young or w eak like other predators do. The Utahraptor pack reforms and the members greet one another with what looks like a formal dance. In facl, it is a sophisticated visual “language"

Although this attack has failed, the panic caused is enough

to

send several

of the younger Iguanodon running off into the darkness. A young male breaks

approach others with their heads down and their ringed tails flitting furiously

away from the group right past a waiting raptor, which leaps on

to

side. The more dominant animals stand upright and greet others

by spreading out their arms and claws and waving them up and down. There is little noise and every member seems

‘Utahraptors willingly

dominant male is still nowhere About a mile away,

attack healthy prey, even

large males, and do not appear to select the young or weak like other

at

to

to

know her place. The

the far end of the Protoanthus

moments

appears out of the darkness and latches on

the herbivore’s other side. The

back arc soon

too

two

to

a second

Utahraptor

large predators tearing, kicking, and biting his

much for the young Iguanodon. Unable

to

dislodge them,

his back legs crumple, exposing his belly, and the predators are quick

ing. Meanwhile the Utahraptors have

cerate

not

given up on the

his

duces a loud and furious defense, but within

weight and shock of these

be seen.

to

haunches, kicking her claws deep into his side. Like before, the attack pro-

meadow, the fleeing Iguanodon slow down and resume feed-

to

evis-

him.

off after

More of the Utahraptor pack appear when it becomes clear from the noise

the herd. When the lead raptors reach the Protoanthus

that the Iguanodon is dying. While the herbivore gasps his last breath, they

shrubs, they fan out , sinking down among the flowers to hide.

settle down

hunt . After a flurry of displays, one by one they

To the

west

the sun begins

to

trot

sink belowr the horizon.

Although the Iguanodon herd continue

to

feed, they bunch

two

to

feast with much squabbling and displaying

hours after sunset, one of the large female

Utahraptors rises up from her crouching position about GO yards from the herd. She starts to run toward the nearest Iguanodon and issues a series of short barks. She is not trying to catch her prey offguard. About 20

establish who gets the choice parts.

Morning reveals a gory

scene. All the

Utahraptors

will remain around die dead Iguanodon for a few days,

warding off any other predators attracted by the smell. Each one will

eat

its fill, and by die

time they leave, there will be very little left.

Nearby, the

waters

of the lake are still,

yards away, she stops and continues her loud display. The Iguanodon become nervous. They mill around, stomping their front legs and bellowing at the

reflecting die golden clouds above. On a small

predator. She holds her ground and soon other Utahraptors appear, again

island in die center the Ornithocheirus

stopping short of the herd and doing their best the moment it is impossible for them

to

are resting by the corpse, covered in blood. The pack

closer together.

About

to

to intimidate

the herbivores. At

attack any single member of this tight-

knit group without risk of being injured by another. Their aim is

to

keep push-

ing the herd until it breaks up in the darkness and one of them is isolated.

The night wears on and for a w hile it appears as if the pack ’s tactics will fail. 186

into another Iguanodon and sends the raptor tumbling off her back.

that reinforces the dominance hierarchy within the group. The lower orders from side

predators do.’

Suddenly, one raplor seizes her chance at the back of ihe herd and leaps on a female Iguanodon, successfully digging her hind claws into her Hank . The

^

shifts uncomfortably in his sleep. The

day warms and huge dark shapes start pull themselves out of the

water.

to

The Ornithocheirus sud-

denlv finds himself sharing his island with numerous big black

w

tur -

tles. He tries waddling away from them, hut soon he is surrounded. The

A

G I A N T ' S

W I N G S

W A L K I N G

W I T H

BENEATH

D I N O S A U R S

day is not yet warm enough for him to soar, therefore he takes off and flaps his

attacked by a half a dozen of these aggressive little animals. His presence has

turtle-free piece of shore. He lands awkwardly and , after closing

clearly upset them , and despite the enormous size difference, they are attempt-

way slowly

to a

G I A N T'S

W I N G S

ing to chase him away.

his wings, turns to take a drink .

-

Close behind him is a dense patch of pines. Between their trunks an under

On the edge of the forest several others of these small creatures sit on

story of cycads and ferns twist up through the branches, creating an impenetra-

branches, calling to each other with high-pitched , rasping whistles. These are

ble barrier. Alter the Omilhocheirus lands an unfamiliar chatter starts up deep

not pterosaurs. Their

in the forest. He ignores these sounds until suddenly a tiny, brightly colored

have taken to the air and , for the first lime, are challenging the supremacy of

flies out of the thicket and dive-bombs him. It is followed by a second

the pterosaurs. They are members of a new group of animals, birds, which have

creature

A

and a third , and before the old male can take evasive action , he is being

their

TOOLS

flight is far

loo

fast and erratic. They are dinosaurs that

back in the Jurassic but have started to blossom in the Cretaceous.

THE ORIGIN OF BIRDS HERE CAN BE FEW subjects in

seemed obvious. He noted rvo fewer than 35

clovely related to birds were the dromaeosaurs

draw their wings In during the upward stroke

dinosaur wishbones among fossils, which

paleontology that have attracted

features that the two groups shared, including

or raptors that first appeared In the mid -

and to push them out on the downward

further endorsed the dinosaurians’ views.

as much controversy as the origin

their lightweight bones, bipedal stance, three-

Cretaceous period. Archaeopteryx existed

stroke, therefore helping to attain more lift.

However, by the 1990s, the arguments were

of birds. In 1861, a beautiful fossil

fingered hand/ wing, and hinged ankles.

millions of years earlier, in the late Jurassic .

The carnivorous dinosaurs probably used the

as alive as ever, with embryological studies

For decades scientists actively looked

same technique to tuck their long hands up

contradicting the relationship between birds and dinosaurs.

T

of what looked like a half -bird/half -dinosaur

However, even in Huxley's time, some people

was dug up in Germany. About the size of a

believed that this was an example of

elsewhere for possible ancestors for the birds.

against their bodies when they were running

magpie, it had the wings and feathers of a

convergence, two different creatures evolving

Theories that they descended from pterosaurs,

and then flick them out to catch prey.

bird but the teeth and tail of a reptile. It was

independently to look the same. Besides,

crocodiles, mammals, and lizards were all

called Archaeopteryx and was the first of seven

dinosaurs were believed to be cold-blooded

similar fossils that have now been found. Eight

s,

Behind all these arguments lay feathers,

it:

'

During the 1970s, the idea of warm-

an extraordinary complex adaptation for

proposed, but the only tenable Idea was that

blooded dinosaurs became widely accepted

flight that Is unique to birds. Before their

reptiles, and powered flight (as opposed to

they evolved from some still unknown reptile

( see A Hot -blooded Dispute, page 104) and

appearance on Archoeapteryx, there was little

years later Thomas Huxley suggested that

gliding) requires the highly energetic

that existed around the time dinosaurs

paleontologists also started to find small

evidence of them and little reason to suppose

birds had evolved directly from dinosaurs and

metabolism of a warm-blooded creature.

appeared. Then, in the late 1960s, |ohn

they existed earlier than this find. What would

this is when the arguments started, since

Then it was pointed out that dinosaurs'

Ostrom's study of the raptor Deinonychus gave

any animal do with a protofeather ? It had

some paleontologists supported and some

"wishbones," which play an important part in

fresh hope to the dinosaurians. He revisited

long been suggested that feathers could have

vigorously opposed Huxley's view. The two

flapping flight, had disappeared in the course

and extended Huxley's arguments and

first appeared as insulation for small, warm-

camps have been labeled the dinosaurians,

of evolution and that birds could not have

systematically analyzed the characteristics

blooded carnivorous dinosaurs, and this view

who maintain that birds are the living

"reinvented" them. To add further doubt,

shared by dinosaurs and birds, characteristics

seems to be supported by the Chinese finds,

survivors of dinosaurs, and avians, who believe

although Archaeopteryx was a pretty good

such as the half -moon wrist bone that allowed

particularly Sirrosauropteryx , a small dinosaur

both raptors and birds to swivel their "hands"

covered In what look like primitive shaggy

sideways. In Might, birds use thts ability to

feathers. Previous imprints of dinosaur skin

In the uniqueness of this exceptional group of

animals. A number of remarkable finds In

"missing link" between dinosaurs and modem

.

birds, It was too old The dinosaurs most

showed flat, pavement -like scales. Sadly, It is

China in the 1990s have provided the most

conclusive evidence so far In support of the

A beautifully preserved Archaeopteryx from the

dinosaurians, who now gleefully call birds

Solnhofen limestone in Germany. Since It was

"small, feathered, short - tailed dinosaurs."

first discovered In 1861, this half - dinosaur /

When Huxley first suggested that birds

were descended directly from dinosaurs, it

188

half -bird has been seen as the archetypal "missing

link"

between the two groups

A young hoatrin clings to a twig. This species is

rare for soft tissue to be fossilized and this area

unique among birds because the young still

of study Is fraught with misinterpretation.

have a claw halfway down the wing. This could be a throwback to an ancestral state, before the creature's "arms" developed Into wings.

However, the evidence for feathered dinosaurs is now as strong as that for furry pterosaurs, and most experts have accepted the latter.

189

WALKING

onrosiTi

WITH

Home maintenance:

an Iberomesomis attends to

its nest . This strong, agile little

DINOSAURS

Their stales have developed into “ feathers,” long, flattened

structures

central spine rimmed by thousands of liny branches that lock together

with a

to

form

flier lives in dense forests He

a sort of double blade. Feathers are a highly

is covered in specialized scales

rough, downy scales that cover some other small carnivores, and are the key

.

called feathers, which are essential for flight and for

to

bird llight. They are very light , yet when layered together, give the bird a large

-

keeping him warm. They are

surface area which can I K finely adjusted

also brightly colored for

strong, so that if

display purposes.

specialized adaptation of the *

to create

maximum lift. They are also

they are hit bv branches or twigs, they do not

tear, instead

they

can be gr< M )ined back into place. All this allows the little birds to live happily in

dense thickets like the one behind the Omilhochcinis. They have even taken

laying their eggs in the

keeping them snugly supported by small collections of twigs, moss, and leaves. These aerial nests are safe front attack by to

trees,

other small dinosaurs. These particular birds are called Iberomesomis and they are small com-

pared

to

their dinosaur cousins, only about 3 or 4 inches long. They are also

beautiful!) patterned, like tiny jewels against the dull green conifers. Their bodies are blue and they have white heads and red-tipped wings. When they

fly, they flash deep purple under their wings. They are attacking the Ornithocheirus because he is a threat

to

their

nests,

which sit high in the

branches only a few yards away. Their boldness against such a huge enemy must

be based on their confidence as fliers. Despite the pterosaur’s attempts

to

snap at them with his fearsome beak , he never really comes close. When more

Iberomesomis scuff him. they draw blood widi their long, sharp claws. He is

forced to flee by creatures less than one hundredth his size. The Ornithocheirus takes off, but his progress across the lake is slow. It is still early in the morning and there are no thermals. Fortunately, he finds a head wind and manages

birds continue

to

to

rise away from his dazzling little

attack him, even as he pulls away from the lake. He heads for

the southern cliffs to wait for the first of the morning thermals

the island. He is in full breeding colors and should be

ready

. The

tormentors

to compete

at

to

take him off

his physical peak,

with other males in a long and arduous mating ritual.

However, his age and arthritis are taking their toll, and although there are few

outward signs of decline, he is far from ready for the future. 190

W I T H

W A L K I N G

D I N O S A U R S

BENEATH

On a long, open beach on the north coast

HAIRY DEVILS

of Cantabria stands a lone rock . Jutting

E

many doubted the conclusions drawn from

wing membranes, tails, or faces, simdar to

scientists recognized that pterosaurs

the find. It was not until 1970 that a fossil

the pattern found nowadays in bats. The

must have been very different

discovery finally convinced most

hairs were thick and short, / 'A inch (S - 10

flow of the lide for generations. Once a year

creatures from dinosaurs. None of

palaeontologists that pterosaurs were

millimeters) long. They would not have been

it performs a unique task. It lies in the center of the Omilhocheirus’ breeding

the arguments for claiming that dinosaurs

covered In fur. Russian scientist A.G. Sharov

like mammalian hair because, like feathers,

were cold-blooded applied il the reptile

found a pterosaur in Kazakhstan, which he

they evolved from scales, but they did

indulged in the highly energetic activity of

called Sordes plbst /s, or "hairy devil," because

perform the same function, stopping heat

from all over the globe. Then the rock is dwarfed , and it becomes a black

Happing flight. The pterosaurs' tiny bird-like

preserved will) the skeleton were thick lulls

loss. This was proof that pterosaurs must

pebble swamped by a sea of flapping gray wings. This is one of the most spec-

bones clearly suggested that they were

of hair. It is now accepted that pterosaurs

have been warm-blooded. Why else would

svarm -blooded animals (see The Origin of

had hair over their bodies but not on their

they have needed insulation?

tacular displays in nature. A beach nvo miles long and a half a mile wide plays

of the sand , it has resisted the ebb and

site and acts

its

W I N G S

T H E

B E A C H E S

O F

C A N T A B R I A

a focal point when thousands of these huge pterosaurs sail in

host to the largest pterosaurs in the world .

.

Birds, page 188) In the 1920s close

flie males arrive first to stake out their territories. F.ach needs enough

examination of a beautifully preserved pterosaur skeleton from Solnhofen In

Germany revealed a pattern of hollows and

stripes on the stone next to the fossil. These were interpreted as being the Imprints left by

hair follicles and tufts of hair. The idea that

anything other than mammals had hair was

power of his wingbeat. Aggression and competition are intense, and as the beach fills up, vicious fights break out between the rivals. The biggest risk in these contests is that males will use their sharp, fish -catching teeth to tear an opponent ’s wing. Several days of

space

to

display his red beak

crests and show off the

controversial and, because this sort of soft

this establishes a brutal order, where the most powerful males occupy the

tissue preservation can be confused with

largest sites toward the center of the beach . The old male arrives late. There are already a mile and a half of squabbling

.

such other phenomena as crystal formation

For decades, scientists argued about whether or not pterosaurs were furry. Then , in 1970, this fossil, called Sordrs PILOJUS, was found with what looked like tufts of hair over its body In a

pattern similar to that found on bats.

G I A N T' S

The Battle to Mate

VEN IN THE NINETEENTH century,

out

A

flA

!

Omithocheirus below him, llie world’s entire male breeding population . He

slowly descends toward the beach and aims for the center of the group, hoping to land and

carve out a choice display area for himself. When he glides low

over the other males, he is met by a forest of clacking red beaks. It will

not

be

an easy task. In flight his delicate wings are fully exposed to his rivals’ sharp On close inspection the hair appears obvious, but many other factors, such as

leedi . He needs to be on the ground with his wings safely packed away if he is

bacterial activity, might have left similar -

to

looking traces in the lossil find .

fight his comer successfully. He continues to search in vain for a space to

.

land , slowly losing height all the lime. He beats his wings to rise up but as he does , another male clamps his teeth over the old pterosaur ’s wing tip. He flaps

frantically, tearing his wing membrane in his struggle

to free himself . More

beaks snap at him and chaos breaks out among the overexcited pterosaurs. *

Tlie old male lands and manages to close his wings, but he is already badly

wounded . Two others continue to attack him , striking at his long wing fingers.

He tries to fight back , but he is on the defensive. Soon , bleeding and 192

lorn ,

he is 193


e lurking nearby. Occasionally, some of die clan drink from the river’s edge. It is probably the noise of their lapping and splashing that attracts the attention of a Koolasuchus lying at the Ixntom of the river.

and he returns to the

Although the amphibian would be lucky to catch a fully grown lx^aellynasaura,

protection of an adult.

a juvenile is a different matter.

O F

THE

While she moves into the shallows, ihe koolasuchus not only senses their

-

vibrations but also, with her all around vision , she sees the clan on the bank.

Despite her size , her head and body are almost flat, allowing her to move

through a mere

two feet of water and remain invisible from the bank.

point the bank drops steeply down

to the river’s

At this

edge. When one young

Leaellynasaura drinks, he does not realize he is only one jaw length away from die huge amphibian .

The Koolasuchus lunges and the clan scatters, but it is too late for the youngster to turn and run . Instead he leaps upward, a move he has practiced

in play. When the Koolasuchus snaps her mouth shut, he lands on top of her

head , tumbles off to one side , and stumbles back up the bank . Out of the water the Koolasuchus cannot move her head fast enough for a second snap and instead stops where she is, watching the repeating dinosaur. Meanwhile, the

.

rest of the clan returns The juvenile hoots with distress, but the adults

recog-

-

nize that the threat is not serious and start to taunt the Koolasuchus. The frus

trated amphibian retreats into the water, but not before she has been pelted with mud and pebbles by the clan . The days are still warm and long, but there

are a few signs that die year is progressing

The Last Flourish F E B R U A R Y - L A T E

S U M M E

toward autumn . The female podocarps are

developing their distinctive red Trim" and many ferns are heavy widi spores. Among the dinosaurs, the young are gaining weight and keeping pace with the adult groups. On the edge of the flood plain a dwarf allosaur has brought

down an old male Muttaburrasaums. The rest of the herd continue grazing

nearby, apparently unconcerned . It is difficult to judge why the predator has been successful this time. The old bull could have been wounded or ill , but it is

a big kill for the allosaur and lie will not be able to eat it all himself . Out of the fern thicket , another allosaur approaches, drawn by die smell of a fresh kill . He is smaller and advances with head lowered. This could be a

submissive pose , but it also puts him in a good position to retreat should the larger allosaur react badly to his approach . In fact, a bad reaction is almost 231

guaranteed . Allosaurs are lone hunters and do

not

willingly give up kills. The

larger predator stops feeding and freezes in an aggressive pose , letting out a low hiss. The interloper continues to advance, presenting the first with a

dilemma. There is far more meat here than he can eat and more carnivores

-

are bound to arrive soon . Does he waste time and energy fighting off the new

comer, or does he eat his fill and leave? He obviously decides on the less

a predator or a pack of mammals, but by other Leaellynasaura. The sentry has

spotted a rival group grazing nearby and the entire clan responds aggressively. Adults of both sexes advance through the ferns, bobbing and hooting threat-

eningly. The intruders hoot back and chatter, but do

not retreat. The

assault

party moves nearer, still bobbing and jumping. When they are close enough

.

they flick litter in the direction of the other clan . However, die newcomers are

WALKING

WITH

SPIRITS

DINOSAURS

Winter 's First Bite M A R C H - E A R L Y

A U T U M N

Shortly after another heavy downpour, die sun finally slips beneath the walls of the rift

valley toward the west . In die dim gray light the forest shivers. There will be no steam

baths for the animals for many months to come. From now on the nigliLs will

rapidly become longer. Soon complete darkness will blanket the clan 's home . There Ls a chill in the air and the character of the forest seems to be changing.

Pterosaurs are already filing back from the darkening south and many bird

species are following. At die first sign of sunset , die Muttaburrasaurus herd Incomes agitated and start

a twilight call . Their loud , low bellows echo across the forest and are

OF

THE

SILENT

FOREST

answered by other distant herds. After a summer dispersed among the rich

polar feeding grounds, thousands of Muttaburrasaurus will come together, drawn by the urge to migrate north once more, chasing the dwindling sun .

Ironically, given that its population is rapidly diminishing, this is probably the noisiest time of year in the forest . A clan of Leaellynasaura , feeding on the forest edge , is forced into the open by a group of Muttaburrasaurus.

Immediately, one Leaellynasaura darts for a high vantage point

to act as sentry,

but the herd is causing a lot of disturbance, and the noise of its calling deprives

him of the use of one of his senses. This is unfortunate, since slowly creeping toward them through the podocarp scrub is an allosaur. Still worse, the movement of the herd is

pushing the Leaellynasaura toward her. When they come closer, die allosaur slowly flexes her claws and shifts from leg to leg. Oblivious to the danger, the sentry tumbles off his perch again and die clan breaks

up , intending to run through the herd to the safely of the forest. Right at this moment the predator strikes. She is

on open ground , the Leaellynasaura have no warning

LIFT

When the days start to

shorten, a small family group

of Muttaburrasaurus begins the long trek north, leaving behind a forest that will soon be in 24- hour darkness.

and their attention is on the herd . A supreme killer like

the allosaur does not need any more help than this. Her

jaw closes on a male subadult before he even sees her and , with one flick of her neck , she breaks his back . The allosaur stands over the body of her victim with a strip of Leaellynasaura skin hanging from her teeth . The effort of her attack hardly registers in her breadiing.

She bends down and nudges the carcass. Then , placing

her foot firmly on the rib cage, she locks her jawr around

the Leallynasaura ’s hip and tears of!a leg. Lifting her head she throws the leg to the back of her throat to

swallow it whole.

Not far away, in die sanctuary of the forest, the clan is soon restored to calm . While they regroup , a senuy takes

up his post on a nearby podocarp trunk. 237

Ambush in the forest: the allosaur is a very effective ambush predator. Even

though the Leaellynasaura

are faster, rf he can get close enough , they stand no chance. One bite of his jaws

can break their backs .

238

W A L K I N G

W I T H

SPIRITS

DINOSAURS

Darkness Descends A P R I L- W I N T E R

Every day twilight comes earlier. A wintry silence settles across the plain . Even at its height , the weak gray sunlight barely pene-

A R R I V E S

trates to the

gloom of the forest floor. The

Leaellynasaura are still busy. Although most of the ferns have turned woody and brown , there is plenty of rotting fruit and fungus. The clan is also adept at digging for

roots and

rhizomes.

waits. Probably driven by the fading light , she is leaving the river Cold comfort : a female

Leaellynasaura breaks the Ice on a pond with her beak . Even

to return

the forest . Just as it was in the spring, this is a hazardous

expedition , taking her

out of her element.

However, the larger summer resi-

dents have long since left . She pulls her black glossy body out of the water,

In winter, temperatures this

struggles up the bank, and trundles into the forest. The clan is nowhere near

low are rare in the forest and

they put the little herbivores

and she reaches the pond within an hour, unmolested. Then she works her way

under enormous stress.

along its muddy hanks

to

THE

SILENT

FOREST

The weeks pass and cold has gripped the forest. There have been warm

periods during the long polar night , but now frost covers the leaves in even the deepest parts of the forest . The mammals, so common in the summer, are nowhere to be seen since they have retreated into their burrows.

:

Outside, the clan of Leaellynasaura remains active in the darkness, their

keen eyes picking out what food the forest has to offer. They do not possess the mammals’ ability to hibernate , but as the temperature continues to drop, they

During this damp period , die Koolasuchus rises to the edge of the river and to her dark cave in

O F

find her cave. The entrance has become overgrown

during the summer, but she recognizes the smell and pushes her way through the ferns.

Once inside, she settles among the moist litter

and prepares for hibernation . The sky begins to clear just as the sun sets for one final time behind the western

horizon , turning the evening clouds red .

Most of the clan slop feeding. The clear skies mean that , for the first time this year, the temperature drops toward freezing. The Leaellynasaura huddle in groups, sharing each other’s body warmth. It is dark and still among the dormant trees. High above, the sky is alive with curtains of greens and purples that whip and roll across the polar night.

They are the Southern Lights, visible again for the first time in months.

behave strangely. They gather into a huddle , wrapping their long legs and necks around each other. Then slowly they all slop moving. The low temperatures have forced them into a stale of torpor. Like hibernation , torpor

start to

F-

saves precious energy, but it is a short-term response and may happen several limes in the course

or

the winter. When temperatures rise again , the

Leaellynasaura quickly revive and break into activity. Sunrise, and a watery bine light spills across a silent landscape. Spring is returning to the

polar forest. Beneath the open canopy and

Turning Full Circle T H E

R E T U R N

O F

S P R I N G

the spreading tree ferns, a dark brown pond

fringed with ice gently steams in the cold morning air. The sunlight reveals the frozen body of a small green and brown dinosaur on its banks. It is the dominant female

Leaellynasaura. Her perfectly preserved body suggests that she

died of exposure during a severe cold snap.

In the center of the pond , the brown water parts to reveal a huge battened head with vacant black eyes. The head waits motionless, watching the bank lor movement , then

slips toward the dead Leaellynasaura . The water surface

hardly registers the smooth

movement . The Koolasuchus has woken

early tills

year and is in need of food. She rises out of the pond and damps ahold of the lifeless body. Slowly she drags her prize into die water. Nearby the

rest of

the clan are scraping the last morsels of winter food

from the forest floor before the new growth of spring. Another Leaellynasaura

lias replaced the dominant female in the hierarchy and the males are begin-

-

ning to fight. Tlie year lias come full circle and it is the mating season again . 241

:

MILLION

YEARS

AGO

Death of a Dynasty

WALKING

WITH

DINOSAURS

T

DEATH

65

The

species of pterosaurs remain , and the explosion of flowers has

Earth 's Mesozoic era is drawing to a close and most of die huge

driven many species of fern and cycad to extinction . Through

HE EARTH

MILLION YEARS AGO .

180 million years the world has been warm , with no ice-caps

and littie change between die seasons. However, this long

to survive the recent eruption

are mature araucaria trees,

to

graze on the soft flowering vegetation , and different preda-

some than Tyrannosaurus, the king of the dinosaurs.

groups

appeared to

eat them . None of these is more fear-

However, there are major environmental changes on the way, and events are conspiring to sub-

to a moist

green place full of flowering

jeet life on Earth to its biggest

tinction . Subtle alterations

groups that have steadily increased in number and variety, as

in the world ’s atmosphere

have the ubiquitous insects. However, there have also been

and a catastrophe plummet-

losers. Gone arc the ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs in the oceans,

ing down from outer space is

with the ammonites in sharp decline. Only one or two giant

about to bring this last age

whose branches are too high for the dinosaurs to reach .

LEJ

lest

since die massive Permian ex-

plants. This has favored the small mammals and birds, two Scene of desolation: with the

search of food. The only plants

no signs of decline. Vast herds of new herbivores have evolved

successful. For much of the

epoch has witnessed massive changes among all its living crea-

The landscape has transformed from a dry world dominated

Torosaurus cross an ash field in

all of this, dinosaurs have remained hugely successful and show

tors have

of animals.

background , a family of

DYNASTY

of the Mesozoic, flowering

period of apparent stability has been decepdve. The same

tures, including the evolution of most of the modern

volcano still smouldering in the

A

Glorious blooms: at the end

old landmasses are now divided up into smaller continents. For

by conifer forests

OF

of the giant repules to an

plants have become hugely

Cretaceous they have grown

no larger than shrubs, but now there are several varieties of flowering trees

forming dense forests.

WALKING

WITH

DEATH

DINOSAURS

A

OF

DYNASTY

DINOSAURS FOR EVER

E

VEN BEFORE ANY disaster struck, the

altered, the weather beeante more

end of the Cretaceous was a time of

unpredictable, making it more difficult for

change. Globally, temperatures started

these vast creatures. The loss of warm, shallow

to fall Thrs did not lead to the formation of

seas also robbed them of their favorite

icecaps, but life at the proles was hit hard and

hunting grounds. From then on, the group

the lush polar forests, which had been rich

was doomed.

enough to leave behind coal deprosits, died out, to bo replaced by more open habitats. At

the same time, sea levels were falling and this led to the loss of the epicontinental seas.

Toward the end ol this period, pterosaurs

In the water, other reptiles were in decline

no shortage of dinosaurs. In western North

flowers had evolved, as had Lhe first social

America the herbivores included armored

bees and ants. However, most flowers still

ankylosaurs, ostrich- like omlthomlmlds, and

relied on wind or general insect feeding for

dome- headed pachycephalosaurs, but the

pollination. A few flowering plants had

duck-billed hadrosaurs were by far the most

developed into trees, and in the south the

successful. During the late Cretaceous,

southern beech did well. Around the Equator

numbers of homed dinosaurs Increased to

palms grew in large numbers. In most places

make them the second largest group of

conifers continued to dominate the upper-

grazers. They were hunted by small

story, pines and redwoods to the north and

carnivores, such as raptors, and considerably

podocarps and Araucaria to the south. In the

larger ones, such as Tyrannosaurus. Another

colder temperatures pines did particularly well

curious predator was Troodon. With its

most successful group of dinosaurs There are

grasping hands and large eyes, it was

many superb fossils ol these animals.

,

Snakes appeared toward die end of tie age of dinosaurs and are, therefore, a relatively

theory behind their lack of legs suggests they originally lost them adapting to aquatic life .

recent group of reptiles. One

went into decline. The only forms that

khthyosaurs had already died out and

plesiosaurs and the sea lizards, mosasaurs, were also going. Other marine creatures were

suffering. Reef -forming clams, squld-kke belemnites, and even the ever-present

survived were the huge, toothless species that

divers. However, it was not competition with

specialized in fishing. Birds continued to thrive

birds that finished off the pterosaurs. Instead,

and diversify. Among the new species were

as temperatures across the world dropped

flightless marine lorms, similar to modern

expense ol cycads and lerns. Insect - specillc

at

ammonites were disappearing.

do today.

On land, flowers became the dominant

Animal populations varied enormously

type of plant, representing 50-80 percent of

from one continent to another, but there was

all species. This success was mostly at the

and the sea currents around continents

high latitudes and altitudes, which they still

Palms were among the earliest flowering

.

Sixty- five million years ago

Antarctica settled over the

to Europe, Africa to Europe

the world’s continents had started to take on a modem

South Pole. India continued

and South and North

north on a collision course

America to each other.

configuration. The Atlantic

with Asia. The inland seaway

Despite thh there was a

Ocean had almost completely

that had split the North

separated the New Worfd

American landmass ( or so

continents to tendency develop their own endemic

from the Old World. The

many millions ol years

range of plants and animals

giant southern conUnent of

Places such as Australia and

Condwana broke up as

retreated. Sea levels rose and fell, with land bridges

Australia moved north and

occasionally connecting Asia

246

plants to grow as trees. With their spreading crown of leaves and tough stems, they look

like cycads. but the similarity b superficial.

most likely prey were mammals, whose

.

numbers were rising rapidly One species to

.

The southern continents of South America,

Africa, Madagascar, Australia, India, and

emerge as this time was the

Antarctica were all separate, but shared a

marsupial Dtdelphodon, related to

common drfference from the north. The

the modern-day opossum.

trtanosaurids, or southern sauropods, were the dominant herbivores and the predators

creatures also occurred in Asia

belonged to a group known as the abelrsaurs.

because the two continents were

Tyrannosaurus never seemed to have ventured

periodically joined by a land bridge

south, even though there is evidence of a

at the Bering Straits. However, dry

North/ South American land bridge. Perhaps

central Asia appears to have had a

this is because some abelisaurs grew as large

unique mixture of small bipedal

and fearsome as Tyrannosaurus . Unfortunately,

dinosaurs and birds. During this

the fossil record for this period on these

time, Europe was a collection of

southern continents remains poor, so it Is

large islands, and in the mid-

difficult to construct a complete global

Cretaceous also shared marry

picture. However, there was no sign that

dinosaurs with America. However, as the

dinosaurs were about

Atlantic opened up, it became isolated,

ol the planet.

to

disappear off the face

developing its own raptors, duck -bills, and armored dinosaurs. Some islands showed

Moths belong

signs of this isolation by protecting animals

to one of

The evolution and success of many insects

that were extinct elsewhere and developing

most common

seems to parallel the increasing complexity of

dwarf species. Fossil finds of southern

groups of today's insects,

Condwana predators and herbivores in Sprain

called Lepidoptera. Over time,

( or

Madagascar remain unique to the present day.

the duck -bills or hadrosaurs were by lar the

potentially a specialist night hunter and Its

Many of these American

>

For the last few million years of the Mesozoic

flowers. Late Cretaceous fossils show fused

petals and funnel- shaped flowers, which would have depended on insects pollinating them

and France also suggest that land bridges with

Afnca might have opened.

most

the

have become specially

adapted to feed on (lowers

WALKING

WITH

DEATH

DINOSAURS

A Fading Paradise S E V E N

M O N T H S

T O

I M P A C T

11 is the

wet

season on the eastern

coast

of

the Pierre Seaway. It is typical of this time of

lie over the low plains for several days, trapped in the still aii between the mountains and the shallow sea. The forests here are unique, with trees covered in plants that absorb moisture front the air. The trunks of die giant araucaria arc swathed with light green lichen

covering and softening their craggy bark.

Dense layers of moss also hang from the branches of the southern beech , and the low shrubs, such as magnolia and bay. drip with long clumps of moss.

In marshy areas the layers of green dressing are even thicker, making the huge

VIDENCE FOR ALL the animals In

TYRANNOSAURUS

TOROSAURUS

ol them represent the largest or most

The top predator on its continent, Tyrannoiaurui

This large, sociable herbivore was typical of the

decorative of their group. In the past this has

had longer teeth and a larger head than any

horned dinosaurs, with a powerful beak lor

been used as evidence that the dinosaurs

other terrestrial carnivore, yet it also had a short body and short arms.

three horns on Us face. Its unique characteristic was the largest of all display crests. EVIDENCE Seven partial skulls and several pieces of skeleton from Alberta to New Mexico. SIZE Almost 25 feet (8 meters) in Irnglh, with a skull (Including crest) of over 6 feet 6 Inches (2 meters). Weighed around 7 tons

E

this chapter comes from the Hell

Creek Formation in the western

United Slates (see page 277),

—-

or from associated fossil beds. All of them seem to have flourished right up until live

sudden disappearance of the dinosaur. Many

became too big and lumbenng to survive and that is why they died ouL However, this

Is to forget the giant sauropods and the fact that dinosaurs reinvented themselves several

the whole area looks as if it is covered in a thick , green blanket, which is why it

times during their long history. There is no

obvious reason why these should have been

is called the Blanket Forest .

the last of the dinosaurs. Instead, being so

However, this beautiful forest is under threat . Only a few hundred miles the north, where the plains open seawTiv

out ,

to

large and well-preserved, it is not surprising

the blanket is completely absent . Each

that the Hell Creek dinosaurs are some of the

is slowly retreating further south , and with it go the fogs. The

range of the Blanket Forest has shrunk

to

most famous

.

viDtNCE

Over 20 individuals have been found,

of them in recent years. Only three complete skulls are known, but remains have been discovered all the way from Alberta to New Mexico. SIZE About 45 feet (14 meters) long and could have weighed up to 5 tons. Its mouth had a gape of over 3 feet ( 1 meter ) and could probably remove as much as 150 pounds (70 kgs) of meat In one bite. DIET A top predator, exclusively carnivorous. TIME 67-65 million years ago. most

even more bleak bv its mountainous neighbors. Dominating the uplands is a

series of snow-capped volcanoes, which are dolled every few miles down the

length of the range . They are young and active, and in several places long black tongues of old lava reach into the forest . Many of the volcanoes have con-

plumes of smoke and ash drifting from their peaks, and the sulfur fre-

coverings altogether. Although the region supports At the tear at

forest ’s

creatures are

a

o

edge on some raised ground, a pair of female Ankylosaunis

rare.

Very strong beaks allowed it to tackle the

toughest of vegetation, even small branches. TIM ( 67-65 million years ago. ANATOTITAN

Z at

Anatotilan was closely related to Edmontoiaurus,

-1

some of the largest hadrosaurs, or duck billed

>

dinosaurs, ever to have lived.

2

ml

--

wide variety of animals

life under the blanket , many are now endangered.

the moss and lichen. Although

DIET


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live btrlh. irhthvrrs -uirs 124 125 , 127 , I 12 - 1 living Iniiili 120 h l* lr sll 4 115

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lunghnh 31 . >2 37, 120 1 imr Rrgin, Dorvrt Juravsii sraltcrls 111

magoolia 1H2 80. 221 m mlrnh tJi nee 17 6 7 120

.

iiuniiu ils

216. 260'

P.uillialassa ( )i ran 2* 1. 22. I I I l'iiiiiuiumL>l - bu \ 218 260 pa / a'llr-s I 77 . 178 . I 7 / 1 marine 135. I 3K / ‘mspluortrs I 10. | 12 I’mnian extinction 8 22 . 2 S, 280 l\‘. i" OuiurHS 25 , > 6 7—K 3 * 1, 45 ' Pi nlinitiugh |ur .i :i sr . ilicih 131 " 24 25 Prinfird 11 . I- M. Vrizuna ph\ nipl.iiikiun. mid-Crrt.umm 202 plivlusjuns 31.43-6 52 luassic rxLnw lion 65 I'lrirr Seaway 248. 249. 270 pine l.iiinh 1 aria, nnii primtl 157 I ' i ma., 25 25-31. 42-3. 42 - 1 40- 7 . 32. 57 platotlunii 23 plain adaptation In herbivorous grazing 77—**. 171 plant evitlerxc , ntrlrot iinjkicl 277 / V, Iniwurm 25 46. 57-«, 1«- plr-tiosanTs II i, 115 , I SI . 202 live bittli or egg-laving 127 ( impulsion throngll wain 134 •jr alio O' lfSurlidlli plwaitr 113. 115 live hull) or egg l.ntng 127 .

cvi 1I1 ill MI

*

8 12. 3-1

bu- Ciriaeeoiei 221. 225. 217 , 252. 25 i. 2t 47 Manlrll ( iKk-nil, Igunu Ion 174

.

.

< 1111 otkilcs I 15 marine lilc 8 114- 15.120 127 154

inannr

Tiussic jirniid 23 |nr,i lr | >TII IMiplnuivrlrisi podix aip 203 231 . 214

.

f\sLirimJhui 159. 173. 175. 76- 7 pnl.li I Ml si llil«b—C lelai etlUs 203, 2' I I puliu ( liiiusauis 205. 208- 9 Muium/ W, 2 I. 29. UJ I . 42 1. 13- 1. 51). 51 , 5 A 9 pnis.uuiipi «i 14, 221 ur aim ISnlfsiifiNiHS / V-v'/ sanfAui 178 prnvmr lalisni 64 . 156. 202, 216

TIIIIVMI |K Iinti *

Mcstu 1 in Marine Revulinion 111- 15 liielcui ini |U( I . Hell ( 11 ek b ) l nut Ion 277

,

31 . ' millipedes 21

nH' t ( |>i& iiii

-

'

Mugnllon I hghl.mtLs 24

molluscs I 5“

Mangufiii. ilinovinr mg linds 220-1

.

pipms itirs 37. .38

Mimana \ Unasanrn finds 80 221 Ins -.rlur egg' 220 McHTisntt Fiirmiiliou. I' nited Stairs 66 7 I 0R

( lelau- ous

jimf lig l iwiihiium , 'Miiiih Run a 101 |m i"l< mailin' lllc I 12- 13 11 4- 15 , 1 Ilk 29 117 1 UM 131 I IK- 51 . I »i » >l film 228 265 fur asm 1‘aik jiitavsK jx-nml 12. 13 1.2-3 rfin onlmmial sras III 15 117 » abeds . Britain 117 . 131 IIllllliph nl ilninvauis 64 5

hloodrd 192 aim Anuinpiiilli in. / ///iilBi/s/imAriir /im

WJlTn

u

Inrli

1 ' iraivn period 112. Ill

.

( tel 11 roll

Vm|mg. oldrsl knoivil llotsrr IN2 \ uvtilus 115. 120 in-si . fiMstli /rd 220-1 \ rss'Zraland (rm 201 'vrnman. David /gr in ivlmi lira I 172 millin'.mi' 23

.

.

irairgisis - 220

- 291)

.

O/td/Wuiin/ juimi 110- 11. 117. 123-6. / 24- 4. 132-3 Ill 134-5 , / >6- 7, 138-9. 140 uimlluwluans 13.23 . 155 LSI 138. i I. MM Ill k 104 IOS 11 167 175- 7, 179-81). 188 189 191) |U3 7 / M I9fl Wing p-lll Ifrl

._ .

. *

-

11

.

u ii / m

()

>

. 1 ,. b oallllK .

.

'

.

I 5n. 200 . 202 , 246

281

Snrnii. Paul, htmpha find 11 ' I1.11L' 115 I . Vl. I 13 Miami A ( > Sonin fiilusm 192 Sdxiian Iiapx. Iimuabun 28

.

.

,

.

.

S.' u iiiuiufrl iw 189 'i »11 ti ur pirM naOtin 192

-

"

Sulllllnlnl. ( •rinuin Altk / lmptmx 1K8 pamv .iiir 'krlrion 192

.

'

V-T /n pilmsai 192 Simili Pnie wr |Kibn lureM. nud-( -irL icnoii ipiilm. Tiiavtu pmml 22 i|)( ingr 111. Oil 121-2

.

.

MJIIIII

slailull 11 1. / 57

.

.buny plaic .

nlcgosani 65

.

O- / 67 85-7. SS- 0. 97,

Sug

in 1 / u 1 /1

-v

Slsir/f / ndtm 225

.

sium nl) slimes,

ihuc-iiion 77. 95

Mr / rlrrlu R.ing( v \ mir,illn 205, 20H- 9 SllUgCOIIs 115 Siinrbnrr Sea 108 Si. /A-rifiiini 1 91

Irfirjani / 46. 158. 160. / 69- / . 161— 3 / 63 lelrovts 111 15 Trnd.iguru llrd», Tim /ama 66 ,

.

.

iri 111111.111s

65

.

.

-.

I il s > Ocean 22 rjZfi 4 117 154i ihrra|xi< h 265

TTtlluiUmtlnr 23.84

.

ilur. rum Ids 94 202 ' WI 242 - 1. 249 2M- 9. 291 . 2 b2 I I MIUZIBI rirsLs 260 tia rl isMl 111 80, 101.221

.

.lviikalia '

.

,

Kiissi.c plmrsaur pai.csllr 178 ' tree (mis 203

I raii

2S , 64 , 65 | rim, I 12- 13, 20- 5* 1 Tnmrthfn 260 , 277

friassir Trui'Mc

rximclion

260

iirrk vonrluar 272 Iknutim 247 egg- Molilalia 220 73 /min isauiusB- 9. 249. 232 1 . 255. 25o- 7. 261. 262 1. 26441.265. 21 /3. 278. 270-7, 278-9. 2W 281-2 272 healed (rat lUJrs 272 Hell ( reek finds 277

ctiui

Vu lun

fuimalHil) . Brazil 158

hiam 13 inr also sanmpods; iherapcxti

vaiiitsc

.

l< riling iet|iiiinnnils 265

irillsi nxl' 65 n-| Miles ilivniifx anon 12 13 III 1«/)/ „r - vnr / iu 117 . 12fi. 130.128. 129 . | 12. Ill / / 1 Ru Ii . Thomas and I'ai IHinit.iin ( cur i Vi av .iliims 209 Sonili Pole leh, I lamia 211 Ruliinviii. Jane . (lip|ieis 13-1 Mmlana

K » >. 272

86

l ull lonipnnls. rracr lossil 101 Itohtafrtm 159 , IH3- 1 . IS" . 186 7

-

'

'

liiplun 181 183. 18)1 265 iff also ( Uihmjiloi rrrum-d tredi ihnajimh 265

. .

nnunviin s

A

'

jver mil 15 1 .

rxlini lion ihnmr-s

QUJCJII, oallets 270- 1.272. 273 i

.

sea

clev!

ITS , 179 parasites 177. 178. 179

\ annntius 213

'

.

giiiniuing

Ifunaurui. Imullzed milirvo 221 MmLaliuira. Queensland. MnJlnhiinasiiiinn find 205. 218 MuHJmnaimnm 'M , 216-17. 217. 218. 218-9, 228. 220. 231-2. 212- 1 283-4. 234-5. 236- 7

.

period I 35 157 , 164

decline 246 270 mlimitin of flighr 164

1 86

.

1111 mill' whip M urpron 32. 53

.

'

/

.

.

,

. .

.

.

9,

.23

.

motlrs 247

and ewdulmn ul llmiris 182 246—7

k Mrail gt'i - 220

113 Lfiftrumdim 147. 1.50

/

'

.

-

Irptlnpicra 217. 273

v/z c niiim ' ^ 202 moauviui

igu iundunilds 157 msec 1 25. 57 65.78 195 156 tiding IIH- S 227-H 228 229

.

M

I’iilcii / im nil 8 palms 202 247 r iliiM RIMM . Texas . Irate fossils 101 Piuig 11 .1. Illr ikup III 10- 11 Tllastlf |HTtl » l 22 |ur i ir prnixl 62. 51. Ill ( n l" 11 < (>ii p< mill I 54 . 156 200. 205. 205 . 208

.

vsela

.

121)

al10 lyiirlhiiasaum

anhrnis 272 chewing 160. 172

»n i M9. 254. 2( i7 rgg lu Ih , impnilance ul llix bless 234 ' i lasmosjuis I 37 Lamp!< •’ 1 I rpM rniinvrnial vr.rs I l 'Z 111 I In, 117 . 270 / iitllmnipkodon 38 / uslmpuipamdflm 6, 7, 117. 130-2 Ml 111 144 I 17. I IN- 9 I - 0- 1 miluliun ami ihr Uinv .il ul s|ienr 8 9 12- 13 11

him n /

, 1 limb 127

i / n irin Mi OfiAlh /gunmeioi, 157 . 159 1157-9, 170- 1

-

.

;

'

v

do nigh) 1 nniiiiunis and 1 inniliahviu 53 157 . 21 1 202 217 219 dmk - lull dll < 11' vis 264) vr alio A nahslllmic hdisK / nlaiauius iliuig IxTtlrs SO dung liwsili /rd 80 dwail jllin.nn 205 207 211 21 3- 16. 2 / fV 217 219

.

' 249 277.281

Hol * llumei . |- n k . Mmasautu voting 221 In ise,line crabs 120 129. I 12. 144 lluinlioldl musrvim. IW 1I111 Boohmsaams 94- 5 llunn pine 180 llnxlrv Tluinus, nngin ul bird * 188 hyl> don ' tiaik I i l * i 145 * 1.1 156 157 hyme impti hvpsilc|ihiidnnis 207. 209 mei|pn. Cai in iin /

.

atlmfihsus 53 34

.

huaizin iso

1 - 3.

liisutll .sl

( ‘ nurd Stair

llaiinin Am 18!) is

I I . 21 16- 7 S 3

247. 219

hips , upnghi pi MU 11 r I I

/ hin m. Ii

)

Majuxiiuni

I Its can h i |»s 281

-

-

K

aui \

i>

IIr 11 < reel Formation

—

.

vini

duluig lliglil 161 ( vndwana 156 gi 11 / irniiiiiuomui 272 ( iinii 4 \ hdaluiii. 1851 . /pmn.irfiv skrl < lun 171 C > rrrn 1’ lb . ( nlnrado * 14 ( Mill < d Mevir 11. cunicl ! / • '/ /• 11 65 i wads 17 . 77—8 Oil BO , 8 | Ihfilod' vus Irrtllllg mwalimis 25. 3' 3-4 , 34 > 3.1' * , -til. 4 1 . 35.65 Tfirtnaxodon 25 li

.

M

gnikgn 17. til. 120

K

-

''

.lit - laRamil No. Mi

gianr

I 15

also iK iri /uui hui < lU iai ra I 15 ' fn // / ulin 116. 1 1 7 / IS I I i/r

.

also trasli *vsilkrlrlal rli--r .ivr and ln|in \ 272 ' hug' 1Is ( Iiclow ) I > i llelmul Nl ivi h ivnisr lie Naalvsaminliiilg f ill I’nl.ioninlogie und Ilislnnsi lie ( eolngie Muni hen ; 127 Naiural Union Museum London ; 131 left ) Lwniispicrc fmin Tliornas Hawkins ( iimil Vu Ihaflom , I S 10 ill m l( lilh ) o\iniT \ n Imlory of /mu/ ' wfiragnn \ In SR Ilnw < . I Sharpe and II S lorrens National Musenin ol Wales IOS| p 23, ( nghi ) Planet F trill Phil ( liapinan I 14 Insiiiiu und Museum lur Ceologic und l‘al.ioni < lo" ie drr Lmvrrsiiai I iihingt-ii: I 33 Anclra Iondon I ) Dixon ; 150 Dr D M. Mai nil I 3 t *-7 NIII’A Mlx -it Naidi ; 157 ( ( enter ) Oxford Stirilldit Fdms M Y ( hap| wll. ( right ) Plane I Fanil 1 Ranine Mac km non lid ( hclnw ) Natural Mixture Museum London; 172 ( Imvei light Lliisiitut Koval ties Si u n< rs Naim files de llelgirpu . Ill nssels ( l)e|x,u It uienl < !< I alrontologie ) . 171 alxtve ( eulei ) Nalinal Ilislon ’ Page I ' t page 1>< M BBC Worldwide 1999

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IIIIII '

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