523 63 112MB
English Pages 288 [148] Year 1999
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Contents I N T R O D U C T I O N
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111
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Previous pages: page 1 Allosaurus, pages 2- 3 Tyrannosaurus '
t
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
284
I N D E X
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
285
P I C T U R E
286 C R E D I T S
288
Introduction o
N
PERIOD ON
Earth has gripped the hitman imagination more
than the time of the dinosaurs. For over 150 years dinosaurs have
fascinated scientists and lay people alike - perhaps because these
creatures seem so completely alien to anything currently found
on Earth , and yet they were frighteningly real. Their very size and power tempt us to try to picture them . But how can we imagine such a different world ?
To begin with , visualize the changes in the landscape you would see in front of you if you were to go back in lime: get rid of all the houses and roads, and
then all the fields and fences. That’s just the surface. Now replace grass and
open ground with ferns and low, palm-like cycads. Convert any trees you can
—
plantation-pine types but older species like monkey puzzles - and spread them out over the landscape . Pull the birds out of die air, change the noise die insects make, and turn up the temperature. Finally, place a herd of enormous, loud repules in front of you and watch as groups of alarmingly fast predators stalk them . Phis book attempts a similar mental exercise, conjuring up the * world of the dinosaurs. It is not intended to
see into conifers
not the familiar
be an encyclopedia; it is an experience. Flic trouble is that we are separated from diese prehistoric scenes by a stag-
geringly vast time. Millions and millions of years have passed during which the
opposm
A blast from the
remains of these magnificent creatures have been scattered , eroded , and
past: a dinosaur predator
buried. While mountains ranges have come and gone and oceans have risen
launches himself out from a
up and drained away, a few of tliese remains became locked in die rocks and turned to stone.
group of ancient column pines. He is a carnivore with a basic
body design that did not
All that we know about dinosaurs comes from these scraps of evidence that
change for millions of years: its
have survived die aeons as fossils. It is the paleontologists’ job to interpret the
characteristics were two strong
clues, but for these scientists it is at once a fascinating and frustrating study. To
legs, a long tall, grasping arms, and sharp teeth .
7
WALKING
WITH
INTRODUCTION
D I N O S A U R S
THE TIME OF THEIR LIVES
L
IFE ON EARTH probably began about
the sea already had a nch variety of life, from
4500 million years ago, but for almost
giant carnivorous fish to extensive reefs.
4000 million of those years, life forms
During the latter part of the Paleozoic, land
were largely single-celled creatures, such as
was fully colonized. Small plants became
bacteria and algae. Larger, more complex
trees and then forests, and insects became
animals began to evolve dunng the
hugely successful Millions of years after this
Cambrian period, about 550 million years
the vertebrates crawled onto the land and,
ago. During the so-called 'Cambnan
first as amphibians and then as reptiles
explosion', a blizzard of new shapes and
learned to exploit this harsh environment.
First homlnid
.
forms appeared. Many lasted only a short
V
'
By the end of the Paleozok, 245 million
creatures, such as the arthropods and
the sea. But then they almost all d»ed out at
moMuscs that are stiM with us today. From a
the end of the Permian. This ushered in the
human vlwvpoint the most important
Mesozoic period, which started with a long
development was the appearance of tiny
penod of recovery. Soon the old Paleozoic
animals with primitive backbones, the first
reptiles, called mammal-like reptiles because
vertebrates. This proved a good bask design
they were the ancestors of mammals, began
A female Tyrannosaurus the ultimate
to be replaced by the dinosaurs. For the rest
prehistoric predator, Inspects her nest.
The penod since the Cambrian is divided
of the Mesozoic - 170 million years -
:
MASS EXTINCTION
65 million yean ago
First whales
^
years ago, reptiles ruled on land and fish in
for large size.
*
}
L
SBPTafc*
ii
'
No matter how large they were, dinosaurs
First ( lowering plants
always appear to have reproduced by
the ancient Paleozoic
dinosaurs were the dominant animals on
when life was dominated by water, the
land. In the seas other giant reptiles took
middle Mesozoic when giant reptiles ruled
over ail the large predator niches. Mammals
Cenozok era opened with a great number of
the world, and the modem Cenozoic when
evolved but remained restricted in numbers;
of smaller animals, such as mammals and
mammals and birds took over. The Paleozoic
birds appeared, and plants transformed
birds. These diversified and some returned to
started with barren land and teeming seas.
completely by evolving flowers - but the
the water, evolving into whales. Gradually,
It took around 100 million years for the first
dinosaurs strode on. Finally, at the end of the
the nch variety of mammals with whkh we
complex oreand . ,s to conquer land. So
Mesozoic, 65 million years ago, another
are familiar today appeared; finally, in the
while the first plants and insects struggled to
extraordinary mass extinction wiped out all
last blink of an eye on this vast time scale,
establish themselves on the hostile ground,
the dinosaurs except the birds. The modem
humans evolved from the apes.
100 million yean ago
laying eggs on the ground.
-
This time spiral charts the
-
evolution of life from the
Cambrian period, when the first complex creatures began
First amphibians
.
to evolve untH the present day
Two of the biggest mass
extinctions in life's history are
200 million years ago
First land plants f irst vertebrates
marked at the beginning and the end of the Mesozok era; 300 millnon years ago
the last brought to an end the age of dinosaurs.
8
S 00 million years ago
400 million years ago
9
WALKING
WITH
I N T R O D U C T I O N
DINOSAURS
interpret iLs behavior. So how can
.
expert eyes a fossil can hold a mass of information. It can reveal ils age the
shape of the animal
to
it was related. But try
to
to
possibly claim
to
know the structure of a
which
Triccratops herd? The answer, of course, is that we can’t, but we do know that
discover how the animals lived -
these animals existed and reproduced, so it seems well worth trying to find out
which it belonged, and the other creatures lake this further -
we
to
.
and the fossil record becomes teasingly elusive. Patterns of footprints, teeth
more about how they might have lived
This book aims
marks, and the configurations of bones can be used as a starting point for
to
help the reader imagine this ancient and alien world
completely by drawing together all the elements of which science is cer-
many stories, but which one is right? The behavior that created these clues does not fossilize, and, therefore, the truth about them will never he
more
known for sure.
have tried
tain and using reasoned speculation To
to
create
to
fill the gaps. There are various ways I
achieve this, both in the text and in the pictures. the stories 1 spent two years talking to scientists and reading pri-
Ultimately, speculating about most dinosaur behavior is unscientific because the theories cannot be tested. A zoologist might spend ten years in
mary and secondary paleontological sources. With the help of a skilled
the field studying a living animal before he or she feels confident enough
of researchers, we slowly focused in on those creatures of which enough was
to
-
team
A WORLD I N M O T I O N The first dinosaurs lived on a huge, crab shaped continent that stretched from pole to po e In the
By the Cetaceous, groups ol unique dinosaurs had started to develop on the different continents derived from the fractured landmark
Even though the giant continent was breaking up, the groat sauropod herds of the |urasi!c could stai walk Irom the northern tip of Africa to Australia
* middle of one vast ocean
Not all dinosaurs were
enormous. These
Leodlynmaura are
TRIASSIC
hypsllophodonllds, a
220 MILLION YEARS AGO
highly successful group P A N G A E A
PANTHALASSA
OCEAN
TETHYS OCEAN
LATE IURASSIC 155 MILLION YEARS AGO
I R A S I A
P A N G A E A
A
EARLY CRETACEOUS 127 MILLION YEARS AGO
LTHOUGH THE GROUND beneath
of herbhrores, many of
whom were no larger than sheep.
TETHYS OCEAN
our feet may feel solid, it is in fact
L A UR A SIA
on the move, at about the same ND W A N A
speed as our fingernails grow. Dunng the
hapless plants and animals that are living on
unimaginably long time that fife has existed
them through different climate zones. So, for
on Earth, this has meant that the continents
instance, during the Cambrian period Australia
have danced across the globe in all sorts of
was in the northern hemisphere, then over
disintegrate. There were no ice-caps, and sea
configurations. In addition to altering the very
millions of years rt drifted through the tropics
levels were sometimes much higher than those
face of the Earth, these movements have an
down to the South Pole and back up to where
of today. Toward the end of the Mesozoic the
enormous effect on the globe's climate
It Is today, f- or life on Earth the ground rules
landmasses began to look more as they do
because o< ihe changes they make in ocean
are constantly changing.
today, but they arc, ol course, still on the move
currents and wind patterns.
The moving continents also carry the
10
At one point in the Cretaceous, sea levels were 200 meters (650 feet ) ubove those of today, and almost every continent was Isolated
The age of the dinosaurs started with one giant continent that slowly began to
TETHYS OCEAN
M I D CRETACEOUS
106 MILLION YEARS AGO G O N D W A N A
and one day they might reform into another giant continent .
Since the lime of the dinosaurs, the shape of the continents has been strongfy influenced by a rapidly opening Atlantic.
11
W A L K I N G
W I T H
I N T R O D U C T I O N
D I N O S A U R S
THE MIGHTY DYNASTY OF DINOSAURS
T
HIS FAMILY TREE illustrates how a
At the beginning of the Triassic the turtle
ttie middle of the Triavs : at first made little
*
the beginning of the Jurassic penod small,
impression, but by the er»d of this era they
-
group of ancestral reptiles from the
line became restricted to a few heavily
hairy, warm blooded mammals had evolved,
Paleozoic era managed to diversify
armored forms and remains so to this day. The
but they were lew in number and were to
and dominate the Mesozoic world. When
ancestors of birds and crocodiles - archosaurs
remain so for the next 130 million years.
reptiles first appeared they formed three main
- did well, but the age really belonged to the
groups distinguished by different types of
massive mammal like reptiles . As the Triassic
blossoming of the archosaurs. From small,
skulls. Today these forms live on in turtles,
progressed, these huge creatures went into
birds, and crocodiles, and mammals. Later the
dinosaurs, the duck billed hadrosaurs, tike
dominated life on Earth. There were two
these Anatoliton, were the most common
major groups - the saunschians and the
herbivores to roam the earth.
omithischians
Significantly, the Triassic saw the
Last flourish: by the end of Die time of the
-
distinguished by the different
structure of their hips. During the lurassk the
the end ll»e duckbill and homed ornilhisician
swift animals they produced large carnivores,
saurlschians, made up of the carnivorous
dinosaurs were by far the most common
decline, but they produced new species that
hefty herbivores and even the delicate flying
theropods, and giant herbivorous sauropods,
herbivores. Then, 65 million years ago, all
marine reptiles evolved as another distinct
were much closer to what we would now call
pterosaurs. They also gave rise to the
were highly successful. Next, through the
these creatures died out, leaving a few small
group, but they left no modem descendants.
a mammal. By
dinosaurs. The arrival of this group around
Cretaceous, the omithisciaru took off, and by
feathered theropods and mammals.
-
PALEOZOIC ERA
TRIASSIC
CRETACEOUS
IURASSIC
250 million years ago
200 million years ago
• CHAPTER
1
CHAPTER 2
•
150 million years ago •CHAPTER 3
65 million years ago
100 million years ago
•CHAPTER
4
•CHAPTER
5
CHAPTER 6
• CER ATOPSIANS
Torosauius
•
Horned dinosaurs PACHYCEPMALOSAURS Domed - headed dinosaurs
• Edmontosaurus • Anatotitan
• Iquanodon
& 5?
Stegosaurus
*
A
*
O
• Muttaburrasaurus • Leaellynasaura
•
IGUANODONTIDS
• Poiacanthus Oiplodocus
• Pclnnosjurus
Brachiosaurus
STEGOSAURS
Ankylosaurus
•
•
ANKYLOSAURS
Armored dinosaurs
•
SAUROPODS
Allosaurus Ormtholesles
•
Eustreptospondylus • •
•Utahraptor
Tyrannosaurus
•
Anurognathus
• • Rhamphorhynchus
ara
• Ornilhochirris
THEROPODS
BIRDS
•Iberomesorms
REPTILES
• Postoiui *i u \
Duck - billed dinosaurs
HYPSILOPHODONTIDS
• Plateosauius
• Coelophysis
HADROSAUR 5
Quet / alcoallui
PTEROSAURS CROCODILES
mosaurus • Opfitha Cr yp ! or I rl ®
• Plateiui •Cynodonl
12
^
'
|
DidrIphodon
•
MAMMALS
13
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
known to help us form a complete picture. For instance, we chose Corlobhysis to
discover clues
feature in Chapter I , not because it is the earliest dinosaur ever found but
cannibalism indicated by Coelophysis, or Tyrannosaurus teeth
because it is a typical early dinosaur, and we know' a lot about it. Because we also wanted to describe dinosaurs’ relationships with the plants and animals
marks in a Tricrratops hip. Where scientific evidence of this
around diem , we were naturally
led to the world ’s
richest fossil beds. Ghost
sort was
lo
animal behavior, such as die incidence ol
available, I incorporated it into the animal
behavior described in the main text ; there arc boxes
Ranch in New Mexico produced hundreds of Coelophysis and , together with
throughout the book which detail some of the best
related beds, provided information that allowed us to add other creatures to its
examples of this evidence, describe major discoveries,
world - herbivores, a range of possible prey and a giant predator. In large , well preserved fossil beds scientists are also far more likely to
and explain some of the assumptions I have made .
-
I
M .
Most of the descriptions of movement , attack , defense and feeding are based on good fossil evidence.
In more speculative areas, such as sociability, parental care, and mating, however. I often had to resort to comparison with modern animals. It is worth remembering
BUILT TO LAST INOSAURS WERE THE first land
grasping hands and specialized ankle- bones,
animals truly to be designed for
but It Is dinosaurs' hips that are most
speed and agility. Their bones were
distinctive. They had five fused sacral
D
^’
-
that dinosaurs were basically large, ground nesting reptiles. Also we know that modern-day crocodiles are related to dinosaurs’ ancestors
strong but light; they had an elegant upright
vertebrae that helped to create a very strong
posture, tails for dynamic balance, and highly
hip. Together with a specialized socket for the
energetic metabolisms. They made other
thigh bone, this gave dinosaurs their
dinosaur was found
i W
animals such as mammals look dumsy.
powerful upright posture. A long tall put their
recently in Argentina in
a
center of balance firmly over the pelvis,
rocks about 228 million
dinosaurs and there is some controversy
allowing them to run on two legs. This also
years old. It was called Eoraptor , or dawn
about how and when dinosaurs evolved. But
freed their front limbs for catching food. All
hunter, by its discoverer, Paul Sereno. If
the most popular current theory has
this was helped by a highly specialized
dinosaurs did all come from animals like
dinosaurs first appearing as small, two-
skeleton. Many of their bones contained air
Eoraptor, they must have evolved very
herbivore Diplodocus as a feeding platform
legged carnivores In the mid-Triassic, around
sacs, like birds, and rn the course of evolution
quickly. Within a few million years, another
235 million years ago with a combination of
they reduced many bones that were not
very drfferent type of dinosaur had appeared
for this, and it is hard to think of anything that could prove it . But given that a
absolutely necessary for structural strength.
-a
For their size, dinosaurs were probably
prosauropod, the forerunner of the giants
surprisingly light
who came to dominate the |urasslc world.
Fast little reptiles existed before the
features that marked them as different - These include an extra hole in the skull,
Fined hip
The earliest -known
and dial birds are their descendants, so dinosaurs could be seen as the missing 3
heavy, four-legged herbivore called a
lonq balancinq tail
link between these two groups. If neither group shows a particular behavior such as live birth - it is unlikely that the dinosaurs did.
Sometimes the stories are just reasoned guesses. For instance, I suggest
that the little insectivorous pterosaur Anurognalhus used the back of the giant lo
hunt insects. There is no evidence
lot of insectivorous birds use large herbivores as feeding platforms nowadays, it is very possible that pterosaurs did the same in the age of the dinosaurs. The structure of the book is intended to help readers imagine that they are
observing dinosaurs from a hide such as those used by present-day naturalists
-
and wild life observers. Each chapter uses die evidence of one of die major fossil beds to help create a picture of a moment in time - usually no more than
Lightweight boiow bones Structurally sound: the skeleton of Codoph rt shows many of
^ the features of the earliest
Grasping hands
dinosaurs, which helped make Hinged ankle bone
14
them so successful on land.
a year in the life of an individual creature
- and is set in a specific place.
Although covering brief periods, the stories arc intended to reflect more
widely the fate of different animal species, hence the decline of Plnrerias in Chapter 1 and the success of Diplodocus in Chapter 2.
W A L K I N G
W I T H
I N T R O D U C T I O N
D I N O S A U R S
The age of the dinosaurs covers a period from about 235 million years ago to about 65 million
years ago, which is
Mesozoic ( meaning ‘ middle life
’) .
most of the
geological era known as the
The era is divided into three periods
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. In selecting the stories on which
chapter, all of which are set in one of these periods. I have tried
to
- the
base a
HOW NATURE ' S GARDEN GREW
A
T THE BEGINNING of the
which we can still see echoes In the redwood
the shrubby bennettites, and a number ol
Mesozoic, many ot the plant
parks of northern California. Ferns continued
conifer families.
groups that had thrived during the
to be a highly success ! group, covering
^
The dinosaurs would have seen little
previous era (the Paleozoic), such as the
both open and understorey habitats. They
of the colorful, chaotic growth of the
horsetails and dub mosses, were still
appear to have been the closest the
flowering plants we are so used to today.
important, especially in wet areas. But
Mesozoic got to grass. Cycads (of which
This vast group, which now includes
situations and climatic conditions. In the narrative I have used the geological
change was In the air, and primitive, wind-
a few species still exist) and ginkgoes
everything from oak and mahogany
names for extinct mountain ranges and oceans to emphasize lum different the
pollinated conifers were becoming
(whose sole surviving representative is the
trees to cacti and grasses, made a very
widespread. In the course of the Triassic
ginkgo tree) were also common, mostly as
unassuming appearance in the middle of
period they became the dominant trees on
shrubs and trees. There were also several
the Mesozoic. By the end, it had blossomed
the planet, producing many different types
groups of plants that have left no modern
enormously, but ferns and conifers probably
and eventually forming mighty forests of
descendants: these include the seed ferns,
still dominated.
to cover signif-
icant moments in dinosaur history, as well as choosing a variety of geographic
Earth then was from our own time.
In the photographs , its in the text , we tried to get as close as possible to reality. During the research period , we talked to paleobotanists about the flora of the Mesozoic and sought locations across the world where the vegetation is still
similar
to dial era . We found a
unique collection of little ‘lost worlds,’ where
o*
*
ir
•
*
&
,
'
:
-
1->
..
The ihree cubs have started to clamber out of the burrow after their father. The first sits at the entrance, taking in the unfamiliar smells. A
Coelophysis that has been standing motionless among the trees steps down and plucks the cub f rom the entrance . The pinch of the dinosaur's razor-like teeth is the first and last time the cub will feel pain and he squeals with alarm . The male cyn-
j
odont launches himself up the bank , but it is too late . The
Coelophysis accelerates down the riverbank . Even carrying food , be can reach speeds of almost 18 miles per hour and the low-slung cynodont has no hope < » f catching him . Soon the
squeals slop.
V
Meanwhile, die burrow is under siege. Even though the rest of
1
the cynodont family retreated inside after the attack , there were more Coelophysis among the trees and now they are determined to flush out the occupants. The male cvnodonl returns to scatter four or
five large Coelophysis around his burrow. He then backs in , snapping at
the dinosaurs around him. It is a lost cause. As soon as he disappears the
Coelophysis approach the hole and start to scratch away its edges. Several limes during the night the cynodonts try
to chase
the dinosaurs away, hut they keep
coming hack . By morning the tunnel is only half as long as it was. Inside, the cynodonts react to their change in fortune in the only way guaranteed to help them survive. The mother kills and eats her cubs. Though this
may seem strange, it is done efficiently and without delay. At die point when
escape with the
voting
becomes impossible , it is only sensible that the cyn -
odonts should benefit from all that nutrition . Under extreme circumstances like this, the drive to nurture is overtaken by the need to survive. The cynodonts choose the early evening to leave the burrow. The flock of
Coelophysis are surprised by their exit, and although a large female attempts to chase them , a Hiking blow from die male cynodont dissuades her. The other
-
dinosaurs start to dig at the hole again. The attractive smell of mammal inside
'
v
.
OPPOSIU
Coming out fighting :
once they have been discovered by the Coelophysis, the adult
cynodonts know it will be
impossible to rear young In the burrow, so they abandon iL The Coelophysis will continue digging at the hole for as long
will hold the flocks attention for some time , until the burrow turns cold . I lien
as the cynodonts’ scent
they will lose interest .
remains fresh .
NEW
BLOOD
Nearby, in a cvcad thicket, a male Poslosuchus is lying uncomfortablely in the shade of the broad cycad leaves. His mouth is thick with frothy saliva and his usually sleek
brown scales are spattered with blood and dust . He shifts his back legs to reveal a long , deep tear over his giant
thigh muscles. The only thing that could have produced such a wound is the tusk of a hilly grown Placerias. During the dry season , food gets scarce for all the animals, including Poslosuchus. Not only can the herbivores’ horns gore easily, but also their beaks are powerful
enough
to
break bones. This male must have been driven
by hunger to try a bold attack on a herd of Placerias. The wound is several days old and there are signs that it has
become infected . At least with the gathering darkness, the Poslosuchus can expect some relief from the heat , but in
LIFT Evenly matched : two
all other respects his situation is about to gel worse.
Placerias kill a Poslosuchus. The
Poslosuchus are fiercely territorial. In the dry season ,
Postosuchus is fast and
powerful, but once he has lost
males and females must patrol an area of many square
the advantage of surprise, he
miles to ensure their food supply. Female territories tend
would not be wise to attack the
rigorously defended than those of males. Territorial battles can Ire violent , sometimes result-
to be smaller but more
Placerias since these solidly built herbivores can Inflict deep wounds with their cheek horns.
ing in the death of one of the combatants. This protecWhile the fleeing cvnodonts push their way through the horsetails, they
42
tionism extends even to unborn rivals. If an adult of either sex comes across a
startle a resting Peteinosaunis. The little pterosaur flits low over the river, then
nest of Poslosuchus eggs, he or she will devour most of them and
rises up the other side of the valley. Below him stretches the fern scrubland.
they
The scenery has changed radically since the end of ihe rainy season . Instead of
avoid direct contact with adults, but should they wander into more open areas,
the lush fern carpet , only a few dull green and grey patches survive. large
the adults will eat them too.
cannot eat.
Juveniles
destroy those
tend to grow up in dense forests, where they can
areas have been tom up by the Placerias and in the distance , a cloud of dust
A female Poslosuchus, who has been hunting in the river valley, has been
betrays the presence of a feeding herd. In the dry scrubland soil their method of rooting creates so much dust that they are almost bidden from view.
drawn up on to the scrubland in the hope of finding stragglers in the Placerias herds. She is wary since she knows she is in another’s territory. She stalks
Although there seems to be little nutritional value left on die scrubland , many
toward the herd and moves within 50 yards of the grove , where the wounded
of the ferns store water in their roots and this is what the Placerias want .
male is watching her intently. Suddenly, she picks up his scent in the evening 43
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
N E W
B L O O D
breeze. She arches her back and shows her teeth. When he sees this threat pov
. he limps out of the cycads. bellowing and waving his armored tail. While
ture
he comes closer
to
the female, he starts throwing dust
at
her with his forelimbs,
snapping aggressive!).
.
However, she does not yield. She is younger than the wounded male and as a female, slightly
larger. Since he has failed to rear up on his back legs, and she
can smell the wound on his leg, she feels bold. Postosuclms’ back legs are much
longer than the front ones and they frequently rear up in confrontations, revealing their distinctive yellow -striped underbelly and making them look more impressive. Sometimes two individuals will wrestle standing on their back
legs, clawing at each other in a trial of strength. The female rears up, issuing her own threats. The deep wound on die male’s back leg makes him incapable of matching her challenge. He tries
to
arch his back to intimidate the intruder, but tin* confrontation is turning
against him. He backs off and she advances. Then he
turns
and
tains.
He is
limping badly and she pursues him, biting at his back legs. In the last light of the dav he cradles into the denser undergrowth above the river valley. He has lost his territory and it is unlikely that he will be given the chance
to
recover
.
from his wounds His days are numbered.
It is now eight months into the dry season.
A Thirsty Landscape N O V E M B E R
-
LATE
DRY
S E A S O N
The scrubland looks like a baking red desert
with dead fern stumps littered across its surface. The dark green araucaria stand
out
against theii barren surroundings because their long tap
roots
allow them
to get water
from deep in the earth . Despite
When the going gets lough:
Most of the larger animals in the area are concentrated around the dwin-
dling water resources. Down in the valley the river
no
broken up into a series of muddy pools. Many aquatic
longer flows and it has creatures
have left the
area, following the river downstream to the lowland swamps before die flow
lived among the greenery earlier in the year have left eggs that will hatch with
slopped completely. Above the stagnant pool clouds of insects hover and several Peteinosaurus dive back and forth, plucking their victims out of the air.
the arrival of the rains. Also, the dry red earth between the fern slumps is cov -
The water itself is crammed with phytosaurs. Their spiny black backs writhe
eted in snurll holes. Many burrowing invertebrates survive, no matter how high
pools. Occasionally, fights break out and ripple through the crowded reptiles as they jostle for space. The heavy jaws and long, overlapping teeth reveal that most of them are males. Many of
outward appearances, there is still plenty of animal life up here. Insects that
the temperature climbs. Scorpions, sun spiders, and cockroaches all forage at night . They eat spores, eggs, or each other and represent the only active resi4A
dents through the late dry season.
while the dry season drags on,
large areas of the uplands turn to desert. Coelophysis
survive well In these conditions, and here a hungry
young male stalks a whip scorpion that has taken refuge in an old Postosuchus skull.
over each other in the shrunken
45
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
N E W
B L O O D
ilu females appear to liave abandoned the area , perhaps moving downstream
such high numbers and this appears to trigger their mating behavior. The first
dry season in die swamps. However, the males are territorial and will not abandon their home patches, making tension high .
sign of this is increased tension among the males. They vary substantially in
This overcrowding is made worse by the presence of a herd of Placerias.
feet long. Younger males will display and compete vigorously too, but they are
trickles of
Since the ferns disappeared from the scrubland , the herd has been sustained
rarely successful . Displaying involves a male standing with his mouth wide
of flocks of these hungry little
by the* dense growth of horsetails and club mosses along the banks of the
is alive with phytosaurs. Repeatedly, juveniles stumble over the thick mud and
open , showing off his face horns, and liberally spreading his dung in a patch around him . With such a disparity in size , it is very rare for two evenly matched bulls to meet. However, when they do, their horns can inflict terrible wounds. The females, who have smaller horns, are attracted to bulls who can defend
sip at die water's edge, only to end up clamped in a phytosaurs mouth.
a large area filled with their strongly scented dung. Once she has chosen a
*
to sit out the last of die
riverbed . Although the hatchlings are now almost 10 feet long, it is a dangerous time for them . In the heat of the day they need to drink, but the dirty water
The situation with the adult Placerias is completely different . At this time of
year they feed mainly at night . During the day, they sit around with their legs and bellies sunk into the deep mud on the edges of the pool . When they gel loo
size, with the oldest bulls weighing around 2 tons and measuring well over 10
male,
OVERLEAF
Dangerous waters:
late In the dry season the normally solitary Coelophysis congregate around the last water. The presence
carnivores makes it impossible for other creatures to come
down and drink .
a female lets die male cajole her into what is left of die river, where he
mounts her, often
pushing her completely under the water. All this takes place
among the crowded phytosaurs, who pay no attention .
hot , they simply wander into the phvtosanr-iiTested water to cool off.
While the Placerias mate , the forest around
the river is slowly filling with
This is the only time of the year when the Placerias are forced together in *
LITTLE GHOSTS FROM TRIASSIC TIMES
W
and crayfish. Any of these could have been
HEN DINOSAURS FIRST
other. There were so many that large blocks of
appeared, they did not
stone had to be cut out and sent
take over the world. For
museums for investigation. For the last SO
contains a complex
the biggest question surrounding Ghost
millions of years they
years scientists have painstakingly excavated
network of delicate
Ranch - why did all these dinosaurs die
the tangle of bones. Coelophysis was a very
dinosaur skeletons. In
together ? Perhaps the skeletons were
formed only a small part of the reptilian fauna.
One of 28 blocks removed
directly to
from Ghost Ranch. Each
some cases deaning and
prey for Coelophysis . There are also clues to
deposited there over many years, but Edwin
The earliest lossil remains show that they
early dinosaur, and because of this find we
made up about 5 percent of the animals. For
have a huge amount of information about the
palaeontologists Investigating this period,
way it lived . Coelophysis means "hollow form"
they are rare finds and that is why the
and it Is so named because Its bones are paper
discovery made by Edwin Colbert in 1947 is
thin, indicating that it must have been very
so remarkable. At the aptly named Ghost
light. Individuals vary from 2 leet 6 inches to
Ranch in New Mexico, Colbert found the
10 feet long, so the change in body shape
Since 1947, the cliffs of
remolns of a delkate carnivore called
from a young Coelophysis to an old one can
that scientists can even see a glimpse of the
animals dried out by the sun. Colbert believes
Coelophysh. As he and his colleagues dug,
be traced. There are clearly two types of adult,
Ghost Ranch in New Mexico have produced hundreds
sort of Triassic world where dinosaurs
that the Coelophysis were drawn togetlier by
and hundreds of
appeared. The Coelophysis skeletons were
dwindling water resources before dying.
Coelophysis skeletons,
found In the sandstones and mudstones of an
Then, before they could be tom apart by
making it one of the world's
old nverbed. With the bones were the remains
scavengers, a flash flood buried them in mud,
of fish, dams, small crocodile-tike phytosaurs,
preserving them for millions of years.
they uncovered more and more remains
.
a robust form and another more slender form.
Ghost Ranch turned out to be the site of a
These probably represent females and males,
mass death, hundreds of contorted
and although no one can be absolutely sure,
Coelophysrs skeletons wrapped round each
many believe the females had the heavier
46
removing these wafer -thin bones from the rock matrix has
taken scientists decades.
Colbert is convinced that it was a mass death
and that the culprit has left Its mark. In the
rocks, there Is evidence of mud cracks and skeletons because they were the ones
.
only in very dry conditions), and some of the
who had to lay eggs
richest dinosaur finds.
crayfish burrows (something that would occur
The Ghost Ranch site is so well preserved
first
skeletons have curved necks reminiscent of
47
f
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
NEW
Coelophysis. Normally the Iiilie dinosaurs hunt alone or in small groups. However, at the height of the dry se;ison they gather in flocks of several hundred and only then can their numbers can be appreciated . When their popula-
they prey as a flock on larger animals, they open up a new source of food and , after a kill , there is usually enough meat to satisfy them all .
tion becomes denser, their behavior subtly changes. Although there is always
wide bend in the river, beds of dried-up clams mark a large flood plain. ILS sur-
Death mask: the mouth of
aggression between individuals , the flock gradually start to coordinate their
face has been trampled flat by the Placerias herd and the wind has sorted the
Postosuchus with its long
activities, moving as one, and hunting together. They lose interest in small prey
In the ha /e of the afternoon an oven-hot breeze blows up the valley. On one
Trlassk. Yet with his body
safe on the banks, but should a bull be badly wounded , he could become a
yellow fern litter into piles. In the center of the plain sits a wounded male Postosuchus. It is the same creature who was chased off the scrubland several weeks before. He is starving, desperately thirsty, and also an infection that has
riddled with infection and
target . In the extreme circumstances of the late dry season , this makes sense. If
cost him the use of his back legs is clouding over his eyes.
serrated teeth is the most fearsome weapon in the
malnutrition, this male will not be able to hold off an attack
from a flock of Coelophysis.
and instead pursue large animals. Therefore, juvenile Placerias are strangely
BLOOD
all the Coelophysis continued to attack smaller prey, competition would
However, he is still aware enough to see a single Coelophysis standing in
become intolerable , and many would die in the squabble lor food. However, if
front of him . The little dinosaur hops from foot to foot and bobs his head , all
the time keeping an eye on the old predaior. The Postosuchus opens his jaws as a threat but the Coelophysis is unmoved . More Coelophysis appear out of
the forest . Soon between 40 and 50 dinosaurs are flocking round the Postosuchus, snapping and barking with excitement . Shuffling around on his front legs, the big predaior vainly tries to face his tormentors. I Iis immobile tail
and rump present an easy target for the Coelophysis. They dart in and start to bite. Suddenly, the Postosuchus lurches forward, catching a female by the foot.
He pins her under his front claws and with one bite severs her neck. When he shuffles around again to defend his shoulders, several Coelophysis drag the
female away and start to eat her. The flock are now in a feeding frenzy and will eat anything that bleeds.
The heavy scales on the Postosuchus back and tail mean that for a long *
time the Coelophysis bites have little effect. However, eventually they catch his
soft underbelly and he starts to bleed . While his movements become less and less frequent , the Coelophysis climb onto his body and feast. With their long snouts they are able to wriggle their
heads deep under the Postosuchus’ scales,
eating the armored creature from die inside out. Over die
next few
days they
will clean out the corpse, slicing die toughest hide with their serrated teeth and then picking the bones and scales clean with their nipping front teeth . The Postosuchus’ body will give the flock enough food to last them for two weeks.
51
ii
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
N E W
A Parched Wilderness
short delay in the arrival of the rains is a
IANUARY-
severe test for the resident animals. The
T H E
R A I N S
A R E
L A T E
In such a finely balanced system , even a
dry season has lasted nine months and should have broken two weeks ago, but still there is no sign of rain. It is six
weeks since the old Poslosuclius died , and his bones are now bleached white by the sun . The scrublands are empty except for the few underground insects and
spiders. In the valley there is no longer any standing water, and the river has disappeared. The pools have evaporated and the soft, cooling mud that used to surround them is baked as hard as a rock. Trapped in the center of many or the
pools are the rotting carcasses of numerous phytosaurs , mostly large males who stuck by their territories even when the water dwindled around them . Along the banks of the river large holes have ap|M*ared in the mud , dug by phytosaurs
escaping the drought . Here they are mostly females carrying next season 's eggs. In their burrows they can lie dormant for a number of weeks, but it is only a temporary measure, sooner or later they will need food and moisture. Phytosaurs are not die only animals to perish in large numbers. There are no longer any Placerias in the area . Some of the herd managed to make the
B L O O D
DINOSAUR CANNIBALS
T
HE GHOST RANCH site in New Mexico has turned up hundreds
of Coebphyus skeletons, but two
large adults were of particular
The liny collection o( bones
fust visible beneath the ribcage ol this Coelophytli
turned out to be the
Interest. Crammed inside their body cavities
dislocated remains of a
were collections of smaller Coebphyiis bones.
very young Codophyui it
At first it was suggested that these might be
had just eaten.
embryos, but their little bones were all jumbled up and belonged to animals far too
own young. However, since
large and wdl formed to be unborn. It is now
the fossilized contents of
agreed that this was evidence of the
dinosaur stomachs are rare,
Coelophyvs' last meal.
perhaps it Is surprising that one ol
Cannibalism Is not uncommon among animals. It has been documented in 1 38
different species. When male lions take over a
the few cases to have survived should
be an Instance of cannibalism. Rather than being proof that dinosaurs
pride, they eat all the cubs, Komodo lizards
spent a lot of time eating their own kind, this
such as drought, crocodiles of all ages and
view both eggs and hatchlings as fair game,
could be further evidence that drought
sizes can be forced into close proximity and
and many small mammals commit
caused the mass death of Coefaphyiis at
then cannibalism becomes more common.
infanticide under stress. Some research
Ghost Ranch. Today, adult crocodiles will
This could have happened at Ghost Ranch as
suggests that cannibalism comes so naturally
readily eat smaller ones and, as a result,
the local Coelophyus population succumbed
In certain species that It has to be chemically
youngsters usually grow up far away from
to Triassic drought and the large adults
suppressed in order for them to raise their
their parents. However, in times of crisis,
turned on the young and vulnerable.
long journey north to the coastal swamps, but the drought has claimed hun-
:
dreds in the process. The dty riverbed is littered with their remains , their huge
homed skulls bleached by the sun . The Placerias are specialists in
shadow belongs to a Coclophysis. Unfortunately for the whip scorpion he is
surviving on the dty fern scrublands, but this means they depend heavily on the monsoons. They have
looking for a meal and the whip scorpion will do nicely. The dinosaur strikes at the scorpion , but she pulls back into die skull .
evolved over millions of years to thrive in an envi-
When the Coelophysis explores further a cloud of acid sprays his face . The
regularly every
dinosaur leaps hack , scratching at his snout while his nostrils bum with the
year, but global climate changes have made these increasingly unpredictable. Even a short drought
effect of the scorpion ’s defense. He barks and snorts in irritation but immedi-
ronment where the rains arrive
can rid whole areas of swaggering herds.
In one of the old Placerias skulls a female whip
scorpion has laid her eggs. She stands at die entrance to the ey e socket , protecting them from raiders. When a shadow passes over her she raises her powerful pincers in defense. The
ately returns to the skull , his face pushing in deeper to catch the stubborn prey. I Iis efforts are rewarded with another spray of acid. The dinosaur backs ofT and *
wipes his snout in the dust. He has not come across a whip scorpion before, otherwise he probably would not have bothered , but he persists , eventually evicting the scorpion from its shell and eating her. Alter he has left the foul tasting abdomen that sprayed him , it seems that the meal was hardly worth it . 53
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
N E W
Despite the drought , Coelophysis numbers
are still
*
plenty of dying Placerias and phyiosaurs
to
high. They have had
feed ofT of and have even dug up
Three hundred and six days after the last rain the wind changes and starts
to
south. Gradually tin* humidity builds and
vived so well. Coelophysis are specially adapted to dry conditions. Most animals
huge gray clouds gather over tin- Mogollon
need a lot of water, not only lor nutrition, but also
to
help them excrete poiso-
Waters of Life
blow from the
buried lungfish. However, their varied diet is not the only reason they have sur-
Highlands. Soon the clouds blot
out
FEBRUARY- DRY
the sun and distant lightning flashes
nous nitrogen waste products such as ammonia. However, in dry conditions,
appear on the horizon. The wind becomes stronger, gusting 95 miles per hour,
of water as urine is wasteful. Coelophysis, like all
breaking dried plants, and raising a huge dust storm. A few large raindrops herald a torrential downpour and within minutes water is beginning to run
passing large
amounts
dinosaurs, have developed the ability
to
package their
acid, which is less toxic and requires little water
to
waste
nitrogen in uric
down every dried-out gully or stream. Half an hour after the rain arrives a huge
lx * excreted.
Yet another dry, airless day dawns and still there is no sign of the rains. A small flock of Coelophysis track down an old riverbed and spread out
to
hunt.
wall of silt and momentum
water
sweeps down the riverbed, having gathered volume and
from the highlands. Few of the Cxx*loph\ sis have time to escape,
or them bicker over a dismembered centipede. Further down the bank a lone, immature Coelophysis hides under a cycad. The flock draw nearer. The
land swamps Some of the phyiosaurs are also buried by the silt, but die major-
Red in tooth and claw: an adult
youngster knows he is in danger. Even in less harsh times, adult
ity emerged from their
Coelophysis pauses before
will readily cannibalize smaller individuals. Suddenly the liny dinosaur panics
Two
finishing off one of his own
Coelophysis
and hundreds are swept downstream and buried under
tons
of silt in the low-
.
retreats
when the rain began
to
fall and, as strong
swimmers, survive the Hash flood.
kind. When these dinosaurs
and runs. Immediately, he has two adults after him . The leader strikes and
crowd around the dwindling
flings the youngster into the air by the tail. When he lands, he tries
water resources, cannibalism
his footing, but the jaws of his elder swiftly close on his neck. The young
the floodwater rises toward the entrance, the burrow Is loo high
Coelophysis goes limp and immediately the second adult tries
Despite the large number of Coelophysis in the area, the cynodonts have not been discovered and the pair are breeding again. The female is already
becomes more common.
at
the body. Now the killer has
the
rest
regain
snap and tug
avoid losing his prey
to
of the flock. Several others pursue him. He will have* to light hard
to
to run
for the scrub
to
to
to
keep his prize. Normally by this Lime of year the flocks would have disbanded with the onset of
the mating season right before the rains. Instead it seems that the
burrow. It is accessible only by means of a suspended tree
.
nest
returns to
Several of the females have mated successfully and will wait for the rains
need several of these little
creatures to
satisfy their
development of the eggs inside their bodies for considerable * periods and then
appetites, so the male goes hunting again. Over the next few weeks the river valley fills with
restarting the process once the rains arrive. Females who have
life. Horsetails and ferns reappear from deep
be subjected
to
not
mated may
attacks by the various bands of males, and often become badly
injured in these confrontations. It is hard
to see
the evolutionary advantage of
this behavior, unless it helps weed out weaker individuals.
and, although to
lx*
at
risk.
the burrow' with a slim reptile in his mouth. It is a juvenile Coelophvsis, probablv the most numerous prey available After Fifteen minutes he
early in the wet season. However, he and his partner will
to
root
a new
When the rains slop after
females are becoming more solitary, while the males remain in large bands.
arrive before laying. If the drought is long, they are capable of arresting the
S4
High on a bank above the river the pair of cynodonts has made
wrapped around three tiny eggs in a rough three days, the male heads out to hunt again.
the red earth. Once dormant insects and
B L O O D
TOOLS
A
within
Crustacea
hatch
in the fresh witter, producing an abundance of food and
drawing fish upstream from the lowland swamps. The
S E A S O N
E N D S
I
TJV\ NEW
BLOOD
only creatures that do not return in the same abundance are the Placerias. A small herd re-establishes itself on the scrub-
‘Plateosaurus can exploit
land , but it is only a shadow of what it once was. At the same
tree branches no large
lime, another group of grazing animals increases its numbers to take advantage of the newly vacant niche.
In the river valley the sound of smashing branches heralds the arrival of a herd of Plateosaurus. It is hard to
believe that these creatures are related to Coelophysis. They
animal has touched
before and their huge guts can digest the
have long tails and walk with an upright gait , sometimes on
all fours, but frequently only on their back legs. However,
toughest vegetation.’
the similarity ends there. Some of the adult Plateosaurus measure up to 30 feet in length and weigh up to 4 tons.
To date the Plateosaurus are the largest animals ever to walk on land . At the end of their long necks is a narrow head with a mouth full of ser-
rated teeth designed for cropping the toughest vegetation . PlateosaunLs’ size and reach allow them to graze on ever)'thing from low ferns to tree branches almost 13 feet oil the ground . They also have powerful grasping hands and can
easily pull branches down
to
feed . Their size gives them another advantage.
Any food they eat stays in their guts longer, giving them a chance to extract more nutrients from it . Plateosaurus is perfectly designed for the vegetation of Pangaea .
Throughout the Triassic, die conifers have become the dominant trees and shrubs across the continent. Their leaves are tough and often poisonous, and many species grow
too
tall for existing reptiles like Placerias to graze on .
However, now the dinosaurs have caught up. Plateosaurus can exploit
tree
branches no large animal has touched before and their huge guts can digest the toughest vegetation . F.ven trees taller than 13 feet are not immune. If a Plateosaurus wants leaves out of his reach , he will often pull down the whole tree to gel them.
There are 20 adults and sub-adults in this herd and their destructive
progress through the forest scatters many of the resident animals. A group of Coelophysis flee along the riverbank while a fully grown female Plateosaurus
OPPOSITE
Triassic titans: two
adult Plateosaurus bulldoze their way through a stand o( araucaria. These gentle herbivores are the largest land creatures on the planet and , at
over 4 tons, their sheer size makes them invincible.
57
1( I
WALKING
DINOSAURS
WITH
NEW
blunders out of the undergrowth. Her size and the long claws on her forearms ensure that the Coclophysis will not bother her. Even if ihcrc was a flock,
t
-
j
:
*
•
-
have picked up the smell of a fruiting cycad grove and diey are specialists
past four or five million years, and Plateosaurus also shows dial diey are getting
the river. Plateosaurus herds are
at
length and breadth of Pangaea. Dinosaurs are coming to dominate
meets his match as a
giant
becoming increasingly common
before it falls, thus
bigger. Their light bones and upright gait arc* perfect for living on land and
in the uplands, as are numerous
depriving ground-grazing animals, particularly Placcrias, of the annual harvest .
this continues to give them a huge advantage in the wildernesses of the Triassic.
other species of dinosaurs.
.
-
Postosuchus
Plateosaurus drives him from
,
r
New world order
die land. Their numbers and varieties have been increasing steadily for the
Ui
^
the Plateosaurus and a few wary Cx>elophysis. This scene has echoes
ues across the river and the rest of her herd follow. Their sensitive noses
•V
it
tosaurs, are
across the
v.
-
While the sun sets, the only animals visible along the river, besides the phy-
of them, it is unlikely that the Piateosaums would be threatened. She contin-
plucking this nutritious food from the crown of the
«w.
BLOOD
•
F»> *
tree
I
MILLION
YEARS
AGO
Time of the T tans
n
i
WALKING
WITH
TIME OF
DINOSAURS
T
. It is the
keeps the great trees at bay and artificially maintains huge
late Jurassic and dinosaurs have dominated the land for almost
areas of low scrubland . The Jurassic is distinctive for its herds
HE EARTH
155
Mil . LION YEARS AGO
of giant sauropods, the family name for the largest dinosaurs
break up , with the narrow Tethys Ocean beginning to divide it
that have ever lived . They roam across the plains of
into two landmasses, Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to
Laurasia and Gondwana in groups of 30 or more ,
the soudi . Although the climate is still dry and seasonal around
devouring any vegetation in their reach and crushing
the Equator, these continents are much wetter toward the
the rest. This is the first time in Eardi 's long
poles. This has allowed the growth of huge conifer forests diat
history that animals have had such a pro-
stretch for thousands of miles. Inside these forests a bewilder-
found effect upon the environment
understory. New insects and
amphibians, including frogs and
salamanders , have appeared . Mammals have evolved full fur Life on the plains: a herd of
Oiplodocus passes a lone bull
Stegosaurus. They are standing In an araucaria forest, which is
kept open like this by the
coats and give birth to live
young, but there are
not many
The forests do not dominate all the moist
Jurassic
land-
destructive grazing of
numerous sauropod herds.
62
Fully grown , these huge glazing machines could weigh over 7fi tons and , from the
tip of their tails to die end of their snouts could measure 45 yards in length . Yet all this bulk had to grow from a hatchling
species and they arc mosdy small insectivorcs.
scapes, however. There is another force at work here, one that
TITANS
A "living fossil" plant : Ginkgo
biloba, or the maidenhair tree ,
60 million years. The vast continent of Pangaea has started to
ing variety of small dinosaurs and pterosaurs inhabit the dense
THE
that could fit inside an egg no bigger than a regulation-size football .
Is the only living descendant of
a large group of trees that thrived during the Mesozok.
I
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS TIME
OF
THE
TITANS
TRIUMPH OF THE DINOSAURS
B
ETWEEN THE TRIASSIC and|urass»c
However, while the era progressed, the world
periods there was a significant mass
became wetter, especially at the higher
extinction. We still do not know what
latitudes, and the giant sauropod dinosaurs took over Sauropods were huge four -legged
caused the loss of so many species on land
herbivores with long necks and tails, and there
believe that this was a key moment in
was something about the late Jurassic that
Amphibians evolved almost 400 million years
dinosaur evolution. Although dinosaurs
suited them. Although Pangaea was breaking
ago, but frogs, with their distinctive hind
up slowly, there were still many large
limbs, and salamanders are advanced forms and did not appear until the Mesozoic era.
they came to dominate every niche on land.
landmasses, and, as a result, animal and plant
After this Trlasslc extinction, although the
communities remained similar across the
dimale, landmasses, and vegetation gradually
globe. However, during this time the first
and conifers came to dominate habitats and
changed, the dinosaurs remained on top.
signs of provincialism appeared. China
dense forests developed. In the higher
developed a unique range of animals, and
northern latitudes redwoods and ginkgos did
transition. In the earty |urassic the global
northern and southern llora began to look
well, and In the south podocarps flourished.
climate was still mostly dry, and the
slightly different .
The equatorial regions continued to be dry
This period represented a time of
prosauropods were the dominant herbivores.
In the steadily moistening climate, ferns
frogs, salamanders, newts, and lizards can be
types, although they never became large trees
traced back to this time. The mammal-like
and were commonly low shrubs. Perhaps the
cynodonts continued into the earty furassrc,
most
and in the sea, but many paleontologists
thrived in the late Triassk, in the early |urassic
bennettites represented a range of plant
and seasonal. Among the plants, the
distinctive species was the short barrel-
but by the end of this period, most mammals
shaped Cycadetxdea. Its rotund stems were
were small, furry insectivores. It is probable
soft and fleshy Inside but were surrounded by
that they also took to the trees to increase
a tough cover of dead leaf scales. It had a ring of cycad- like leaves on tire crown, and around
their foraging range. The Triassic extinction
had killed off all the phytosaurs, and, in their
the top of the stem it carried flower -like
place, crocodiles diversified, not only In
receptacles for insect pollination. This group
freshwater habitats, but also on land and In
became extinct during the late Cretaceous
the sea. Out ol all of these new groups,
after the arrival of flowering plants.
perhaps the most significant were the b»rds.
The lurassic saw the evolution of many
.
Archaeopteryx, the oldest known bird, appears
Insects, such as
this giant lacewtng, learned
to live with predation from pterosaurs and
groups of animals that are alive today Among
in the late lurassic but already has feathers
birds. Fossil lacewlngs have been found with
the Insects, the three largest orders, the
and wings (see page 188)
eyespots that could have distracted attackers.
beetles, wasps, and flies, first appeared. Also,
Meanwhile, the skies belonged to the pterosaurs, a group that had produced
giant Allosaurus, but later to the raptors and
numerous bizarre species. Beneath them the
eventually to the mighty Tyrannosaurus. The
dinosaurs had also diversified and become
predators had to be good because their prey
much larger. The descendants of Coelophyvs
was becoming more difficult to attack. The
had grown Into powerful predators, but a
armored dinosaurs evolved during the
new group of carnivores that would come to
(urassJc, as did the stegosaurs, which used a
dominate the kIWers of the Cretaceous had
range of lethal spines to protect themselves.
appeared. These tetanurans, as they were called, gave rise not only to the birds and the
Then there were the sauropods, which simply became enormous.
Although all sauropods were similar In At this time conifers were the dominant trees.
shape, there were subtle differences between
Redwoods were an early group, and species
them. Brachiosourus, Dlplodocus, Apatosaurus,
similar to these Californian redwoods grew
and Camarasaurus all had their own distinct
large enough to dwarf even the sauropods.
grazing styles and appear to have coexisted
For most of the (urassk, the
Earth's mantle powered this
further , dividing the giant
easily on the Jurassic plains. Their impact on
giant continent of Pangaea
slow drift, which still
continent into northern and
the environment must have been dramatic
almost remained unbroken
continues today, gradually
southern landmasses.
from one pole to another,
creating a wider and wider Atlantic Ocean. The westward arm of the Tcthys
However, plants and animals
remarkable similarities
Ocean made inroads into the
throughout this period.
began to rotate toward the
Pangaea coastline, and the
Increased diversity and
northwest, away from Africa.
continental drift enabled its
provincialism were a feature
Movements deep within ll»e
waters to
but toward the end of the
period, wide cracks opened. In particular, North America
64
spread even
across the globe displayed
of the Cretaceous.
This fossilized or "stone" cone is almost identical to
that produced by modem
species, Many mature
since they would have shaped the vegetation around them like elephants do today. In the seas giant reptiles thrived. The
conifers hold their cones
khthyosaurs declined slightly In diversity while
in their topmost branches,
the plesiosaurs became successful Generally,
an adaptation that could
the Jurassk oceans saw a huge change In
have evolved to avoid dinosaur grazing.
marine life, but that Is discussed In Chapter 3.
65
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
TIME
Babes in the Wood Y E A R
O N E
-
T H E
I N
Sunrise across the vast western plains of
of a dinosaur chorus. Once this was die
.
called the Sundance Sea , w hich stretched hundreds of miles to die north , but
the herds, looking for the weak and vulnerable, are large and powerful preda-
now it is drv , and low thicket and scramble ferns, bcnnctlitcs, and seed ferns
as Allosaurus, which have evolved to prey on these massive animals. Out here in the open the success and grandeur of the dinosaurs is easy to
tors such
cover the plains. Isolated groves of maidenhair, conifers, and cvcads grow, espe-
cial h near the mam seasonal rivers.
s
T
.
superb vies in the United Slates Tanzania,
and China. Most of the animah
in
this chapter
dominated by the giant sauropods, with various species of armored stegosaurs
alongside Along with a range of small .
carnivores, a group of giant predators had
come from the Morrison Formation m the
evolved,
presumably to tackle the enormous
United States (see page 1 OS). one of the most
prey around them . Most of the dinosaurs
studied fossil groups in the world The range
would have had to live on large, open plains
of creatures shown is typical of the late
because of their site Where dense forests developed , a totally different fauna must
o
s
*
*
have existed.
DIPLODOCUS The longest of aH the sauropods. but still lightweight compared to some Length boosted by an extraordinary wtvp-lAe tail Lived m herds of 20 or more, wt»ch contained only adults and subadufts Had large heavy scales on its back, .
x o
*< m
l A U M S U N
P L A I N
and spines running the length of Its body IVIDE Net
©
and several skulls with isolated elements of the
*o
skeleton . Foia species have been identified from
•J
During the late Jurassic western North America was dominated by wide, open plain1
left by the retreat of the Sundance Sea To the far west were the Cordiieran Highlands
later operated by the Rockies.
66
Based on five skeletom without skull
.,
the Wyoming and Colorado Mormon Formation SIZE Up to a maximum of 100 feet ( 30 meters ) long and weighed up to 20 tom. Height at the
see, but there is another side to their story. On the edge of the plains, while the
..
WHEN SIZE WAS IMPORTANT lurasvc world The dinosaur herbivores were
-
Although all the sauropods look similar, their glazing habits are subtly differ ent allowing many different species to live side by side on the plains. Trailing
bed of an ancient , shallow expanse of water
HE FOSSIL EVIDENCE for much of the Jurassic period is poor, but toward the end , there are some
TITANS
Clearly visible among the vegetation are herds of saumpods, long-necked dinosaurs who have dominated this Jurassic landscape for millions of years.
Laurasia is greeted with the hark and chatter
F O R E S T
THE
OF
hip 16 fret (5 meters ) However, larger bones have been found of diplodoods that could have
STEGOSAURUS
Ditr
insects, but OmiLholeites was also an opportunist hunter, who would eat carrion. TIME 155-145 million years ago.
reached 150 feet ( 45 meters) and BO tons. In this
chapter these have been used as the basis for older DiptodoanDIIT Would have selected vegetation that it could strip with its peg like teeth. Since it was mostly a low grazer, ferns must have made up a large part of Its d*et TIMI 155-145 miflwn years ago.
y
ANUROGNATHUS
-
BRACHIOSAURUS The real giant among sauropods, not because of its length or even its height, which was considerable, but because of its sheer bulk. Like a giraffe, n was adapted to feed on high plant material and had dose cropping teeth for rapping food .
-
Although two partial skeletons come from the Mormon m Utah and Colorado, the best known species was Identified from finds in the Tendaguru Beds In Tanzania SIZE About 7S feet (23 meters) long, but weighed 14) to 70 tons and could graze at a height of about 43 feet 0 3 meters ). Its height ot the shoulder was about 20 feet (6 meters). DIET Uke Dtplodocus, probably not choosy, but its diet would have been ^ biased toward confer leaves and fruit. TIME 160-1 SO mdlion years ago. EVIDENCE
^
Small mammals, lizards, and
More than 60 complete and partial skeletons from all over the Morrivon, from Wyoming to New Mexico. SIZE Up to 40 feet 0 2 meters) long, with a weight of around 3 tons. OUT Moat, and lots of iL TIME 150-145 mdllon years ago. EVIDENCE
Large herbivore with highly characteristic plates that ran down its back and probably flushed when It wanted to display. Its main defense was four fearsome spikes on the end of its tall. EVIDENCE Numerous finds of three species, including complete skeletons and juveniles in the Mormon Formation . SIZE Maximum length about 43 feet (13 meters ) and weighed about 7 tons. Height at the hip Including the plates, almost 23 feet (7 meters ).
ORNITHOLESTES 1
A tiny pterosaur with a short head and pin like teeth for catching Insects. Alllsough it
rnr
.
DIET A
low browser, but the strong beak allowed
It to tackle even the toughest plants. TIME 160-145 million years ago. ALLOSAURUS The lion of the|urassic, the largest and most common carnivore found in the Morrison . A swift hunter with long, grappling hook Mce daws on the end of Its arms, it would regularly have attacked sauropods.
-
-
belonged to the long tailed pterosaur group, Its tail was comparatively short , allowing ft more maneuverability lor hunting EVIDENCE Only one skeleton has been found In the Solnhofen limestone of Bavaria. For the purposes of this chapter, it has been moved to the west. SIZE Although Anurognathui had a wingspan of 20 Inches (50 centimeters ) Its body was only 3'/J In (9 centimeters ) long. It cannot have weighed more than perhaps '/> oz (a lew grams) . DIET A range of insects, although some , such as the dragonflies, mighl have been loo big for it. TIME 155-145 million yean ago.
.
W
^
'j
A small, active carnivore with long, grasping
hands but a small head and conical teeth . Usually feeding on smaller animals and carrion, it was suited to hunting among dense vegetation. EVIDINCE A skull and associated skeleton found In the Wyoming Morrison . SIZE Around 6 feet 6 Inches (2 meters ) long and weighed about 90 pounds ( 40 kilograms ) .
.
67
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
land climbs
T I M E
lo
the Cordillcran Highlands, de nser forests of maidenhair and
the scales have grown long and narrow, allowing him
smaller herbivorous dinosaurs. Rarely more than b feet long, they are often
This technique is primarily designed
fast-moving bipeds mostly living ofT the new growth in the understory. Large
larger predators, but he also uses it
Omitholestes, showing off her
dense vegetation. Here the emphasis is on speed and agility, not power.
display scales, is a common
predator in the Cordilleran
.
to
to pufT up
during display.
make him look more formidable
to
head decoration Hashing in
a
to
ray of light that has filtered down from the
On the edge of the green forests, the morning sun reveals an elegant
canopy 70 yards above. The edge of the forest is a dangerous place* since the
night of sleep. He is a little dinosaur,
larger of the plains predators could easily spot him. However, experience and
forests She is only about
Omitholestes grooming himself after
6 feet long and lives mostly off
only about 8 feel long, and most of that is tail. A hungry predator with a small
his nose have drawn him here in anticipation of a feast. He scampers along die
head full of conical teeth, usually he is found hunting small lizards and mam-
trunk into the shadows and waits, tucking up beside his body his Hexible arms,
mals among the ferns deep in the forest. His most distinctive quality is his
with their long grasping talons.
mammals and lizards, but she can also be a menace to baby
dinosaurs.
a
T I T A N S
impress potential males. He stands on the fallen trunk of a giant tree, sniffing the air, his bright blue
' are rare since it would lie didicnlt for them to operate among such
predators
THE
body’s decorative scales. Down the back of his head and across his shoulders
conifers take over. Here insects, mammals, and amphibians thrive, as do the
Cold - eyed killer this female
O F
Relow him the forest Hoor is almost completely clear of plants. Six months
ago die nearby river Hooded the forest edges, dumping
ground. The
mature
tons
of silt over the
redwoods have survived unscathed, by pushing up
roots
through the suflbeaung layer of mud. However, it will be some time before all the understory plants have re-established themselves. The Omitholestes
watches this apparently lifeless scene with expectation. Suddenly, on top of the* silt , in the middle of a large clear patch, the thin
layer of redwood leaves starts soon diere are several areas out
to
.
move At first it is only in one liny spot, but
twitching. A host of uny animals is struggling lo dig
of the ground. Eventually, the needles pan and a head on the end of a thin
neck stretches up for its first breath of clean air. This is what the Omitholestes
has been waiting for. He pounces off his trunk and darts toward the hapless creature. His
talons Hick
out
and grab his prey by the head. With one powerful
pulls the whole animal out of the ground. It is a tiny Diplodocus, hatched from an egg laid by one of die longest and most elegant of the sauropocLs. Even with the comparatively short neck and tail tug, he
of a newborn, he is already 3 feet long. His green and brown dappled body still
has egg membrane stuck no way of
to
it, but his fight for survival is already over. He has
protecting himself against die Omitholestes, who swifdy kills him
with a bite to die neck.
69
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
TIME
However, the hatchling’s sacrifice is pan of a survival strategy for the
species. While the little predator
starts to
feed on a substantial meal of
sauropodlet , the victim’s brood are unearthing themselves across the clearing. Soon nearly 100 sauropodlets fill the forest floor. This glut of food is more than a dozen Ornitholestes could handle. Even
though more carnivores will be
on
the edges of the forests. The
were
recent
flood
meant
ing and laid about one hundred large, round, hard-shelled eggs. Then she abandoned them and rejoined her herd.
Sauropodlets grow' inside the eggs, their necks and tails bent
to
fit , until
forest edges will ensure that the predators are heavily outnumbered by liny
soft silt
to
gain their freedom. Unfortunately, they are
not
built to burrow and
of the ground on the
many fail in this first crucial endeavor. Sometimes, if the subsoil in which they
same day and, despite each one being vulnerable, local predators will probably
perish. This is why the mother ’s choice of laying site is so important. Once the hatchlings have dug themselves out they have to seek a safer environment. Their short ungainly legs do not
claim only about a quarter of them. T hree months ago a herd of Diplodocus laid their eggs here. Though
Diplodocus predominantly feed on the plains, they lay their eggs in open areas
TITANS
perfect for laying. Each huge adult female found herself a suitable clear-
there is no room left. At hatching time they have to wriggle through 3 feet of
out
THE
that ground conditions
drawn here by the smell, synchronized hatchings taking place all along the
Diplodocus. Nearly 2.000 sauropodlets will wriggle
OF
are buried has dried out, the whole nest may
.
allow them
to
run fast, and in the open clearings they are very exposed. Escape to danger: for baby Diplodocus, the effort of digging themselves out of the hole in which their mother laid them is exhausting. Many
newly hatched youngsters sit around the clearing recovering from their exertions. However,
this is a dangerous lime for them since there are plenty of
hungry Ornitholestes looking for an easy meal.
71
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
TIME OF THE
.
However, they are born with
111
instinctive desire to seek cover and this, con-
pled with an apparent preference for running uphill, is usually enough
to
ensure that they head for the denser parLs of the forest . They still have egg yolk
in their stomachs, which provides the nourishment and enables them on the* move
of king fern form a dense green canopy over her head. Then she picks up a
life in the * dense under-
familiar
shoots and hiding from
able odor of a predator. Zigzagging through the ferns, another
any encroaching predators under the* thick layers of
Ornitholestes is hunting for sauropodlets. He can smell his prey,
to
story, grazing on new green
.
fern fronds
the inner forest is he >mc\ While there, they stack
weight on at the
pounds
a
astonishing
rate
of more than 5
day. By the end of the first year they will
have tripled in length and may weigh close
. This means
ton
to
half a
that they quickly become large by
‘By the end of the first
reacts to
the predator in a completely different way. When she
year Diplodocus will have tripled in length and may weigh close
smells him she crouches down and freezes. She flattens her head and neck
to
the ground, her dappled back giving her perfect
to
to half a ton.’
teach her such
.
In the silt -covered clearing the morning wears on
successful survival tactics Even though the Ornitholestes is a forest hunter,
and two more Ornitholestes appear. After the first
relying on scent as much as on sight, and the sauropodlet still carries the aroma of her egg membranes, he passes her by. This is the environment in
eat
the sauropodlets. Instead cannot
hunting practice, or simply a form of play. At the far comer of the clearing a female sauropodlet climbs free of the
which such a vulnerable creature can survive. She remains motionless for a few minutes more before scrambling up and continuing deeper into the foresL This upland Laurasian forest is the nursery for the giant sauropod herds of
the plains. When they are small the sauropodlets exploit the lowest ground level vegetation in the forest . Here there is plenty of food including liverworts,
coniines of her egg. She sits momentarily, recovering from the effort, redwood
club mosses, moss, fungus, and
needles and silt plastered on her dappled skin . Her appearance is unusual because her pigmented skin is darker than the rest of her brood. Suddenly, as
There are also larger ferns, such as the king fern, that have highly nutritious
a
number of delicate species of small ferns.
An Ornitholestes looks up from his kill , stretches out his arms, and runs after
sauropodlet will have to learn quickly what is and is not good to eat if she is to gain die weight as fast as she needs to. While she progresses further into die forest and the yolk in her stomach is used up, she begins to pick at the
her. While he closes in on her, two more hatchlings cross his path. He stalls and
plants around her, starling a lifetime obsession with feeding.
if she heard a gun shot, she trundles off toward the dark side of the clearing.
partially 72
Now that she is under the cover of ferns, the sauropodlet
behavior is innate since there is no parent there
why they continue the slaughter. Perhaps it is useful
obsession with eating.
ence of a hatchling.
predators like Oi nitholesies.
consume all the carcasses, and it is hard to explain
hatch, they start a lifelong
and watches, looking for shaking fronds that will betray the pres-
camouflage against the tangle of moss and dead fronds. This
they kill them and leave the bodies. They
the first year. Soon alter they
the same smell she encountered in the clearing, the unmistak-
forest standards and impervious to the attentions of
few, they no longer
about half a ton in weight in
scent ,
but he cannot pinpoint her among the dense foliage. He stops
1 first For the three years of the sauropodlets lives,
phenomenal rate, putting on
Following her most basic instincts, the sauropodlet travels uphill, away from
for several days, pushing deeper into the upland forests until they
.
Diplodocus have to grow at a
and has reached the first scrappy ferns on the edges of the flood area.
light. She stands only about one foot ofT the ground and soon the huge fronds
find a safe place Eventually, they will settle* down
Eating for the future : baby
the time lie looks up, his original target, the dark female, is out of the clearing
stay
to
turns,
T I T A N S
stems. The
catching one of die pair with his claws. It is a quick kill, buL by 73
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS TIME
Out on the
Absent Parents Y E A R
O N E - O N
T H E
plains, the sauropodlet 's mother
is already almost 60 miles away from her
hatchling’s struggle for survival. She is part of
P L A I N S
a
herd of adult Diplodocus grazing on cycads
in the hot |urassic sun. Of all the sauropods, Diplodocus are perhaps the
elegant. F.ven the oldest animals weigh only about 25
tons, half as
bulkier species such as Brachiosaurus. Yet they can grow
Brachiosaurus, about 130-150 feet . This is partly due
to be to
most
much ;LS the
twice as long as a
an
extraordinarily
long, flexible tail , which for the last 10-13 feel is a long, thin whip.
Diplodocus sounds
to
are also
unique because they produce a distinctive range of
communicate with each other while they continue feeding, even
with their heads buried deep in ferns. The strangest of these sounds is a low-
frequency rumble that travels through the ground and is sensed by other Diplodocus through their feet. This is a way of keeping the herd together. Even if he cannot see them, since each member can feel the others rumbling nearby,
he feels reassured. The pitch is
too
low for
most creatures to
hear, but close
the herd die rumbles make sand skip across stones and plants vibrate.
to
OF
THE
TITANS
The deepest and strongest rumbles come from the females, who dominate
Diplodocus herds. They are larger than the males and. because size matters in a
predatorial world, they tend to live longer. This particular herd contains one
gigantic old female. She is by far the longest creature there and must be at least 100 years old. Many of the spines that run down her back are broken or
twisted, and her flanks are crisscrossed with scars from decades of predator
attacks, but her sheer size makes her almost invincible. Except for the occational wandering male, all Diplodocus live in herds, bound together by the need for protection, barge, old females are an extraordinary
asset,
providing
security for many other smaller Diplodocus. There are 40 sauropods in this herd and
most are
subadults ranging from 6
to
15 years old. There are no
really young animals. When Lhe herd is on the move, the smaller animals lend to
follow the larger females, walking under their long tails, for protection. The old female has led the herd to the cycad grove, where diey are feeding.
Besides die low rumbles, there are other sounds, a range of audible snorts that get
deeper die larger the animal is, and the constant eerie swish and crack of
their tails.
O n t h e move: the lead
members of a Diplodocus herd
approach a cycad grove. The trees are
just starting to flush
with new growth, and the giant herbivores will tear the
grove apart to get at the fresh, new leaves.
WALKING WITH
DINOSAURS TIME
DIPLODOCUS MAKE OVER
T
devices. Similar
to
head is buried in vegetation 30 sards awav. With a gentle Hick of the base the
its long, snake-like tail along the
thin (aid of the tail can lx* accelerated so hist that it whistles through the air
ground. Its skin is smooth with
small wrinkles, like an elephant's, and its neck
and produces a supersonic crack. If several members of a herd perform the
curves up to crop the trees. However, as a
same trick, the noise can lx* considerable, and this is the first line of defense
revolt of a number of finds, this picture has
when they are threatened by predators. Although they avoid making direct
changed. Now it is believed that massive
ligaments down Diplodocus! back helped hold Its long body horizontal, Irke a
vertebrae did not
contact
with attackers, the aggressive cracking is often enough
but the
most
to scare
off all
determined. The tails also maintain a tactile communication
within the herd, constantly exploring the backs of other members. In fact, it
articulate much, therefore it could move its head around only in long, sweeping curves.
often appears that the more tails an individual can feel, the calmer he is. If a
Thrs gave it a wide feeding arc, but would
Diplodocus begins to feel isolated, he will swish his tail or snort
have made it impossible for it to bring Its
tion before he bothers to lift his head from feeding.
head around more than 90 degrees. At the
For many yejrs the Drphdocui skeleton in
end of the long neck, the head was
move ut supersonic speeds and probably
orlentaled downward for grazing.
produce a crack similar to a bullwhip, but
Museum in London showed the dinosaur
2,000 Ume5 louder. Pathological damage has
dragging its tall along the ground. Recently
1980s it was pointed out that this
been found m the bones at the base of the
it has been reset with Its tail held aloft.
appendage bore an uncanny resemblance to
tail, suggesting it was heavily stressed by
A background
lh« main hall of the Natural History
to
-
to attract atten
all this snorting, rumbling, swishing, and cracking is
.
another noise, the deep gurgle and grind of active stomachs The Diplodocus’
.
gut is one of the secrets of its success Indeed, all
having this huge food processor, which allows them
satiropods benefit from to
feed and
extract
nutri-
unpalatable food imaginable. The stomach of a
repeated movmenl. It is unlikely that
those of the armored dinosaurs. They were
ents
but flexible, and the end tapered to a long
Diplodocus used its tail to whip predators,
more like the skin structures that run down
thin tip. Some 40-50 small vertebrae
because that action would cause it too much
the back of a modem iguana. The flat scales
Diplodocus can hold over a half a ton of vegetation. In addition, it contains sev -
continued for about 12 feet with no obvious
damage. However, they could have used it to
across the surface of Diplodocus' back were
eral pounds of stones, used
function. The last 6 feet 6 inches (2 meters)
threaten, or lor courtship or communication.
actually humps about 4 inches (10 cen-
digestive activity is audible outside the animal and adds a particular character
a
bullwhip. The base was heavily muscled
of this massive creature's tail was only 1V*
TITANS
the rumbling, the tail carries on a conversation while the
ol Diplodocus shows it dragging
The tail was held aloft, and in the late
THE
Diplodocus use their whip-like tails as highly sophisticated communication
HE OLD AND FAMILIAR image
suspension bridge. Its neck
OF
The final part of the transformation of
timeters) long, and down the midline of Its
inches ( 32 millimeters) across and weighed
Diplodocus Involves Its skin. Faint traces in the
back ran spines up to 7 inches (18 cen -
about 5 pounds (2 kilograms) . Computer
rock around the best -preserved skeletons
timeters) high. The "new look" is more like a
studies have shown that fl the sauropod
suggest that their backs were covered in skin
medieval dragon than a lizard, but It b
swished the base of Its tall, the far end would
spines. These were not made ol bone, like
unmistakably reptilian.
to
from some of the
most
to
digest the food and grind it down further. This
the sound of a Diplodocus herd. This herd has been attracted
Cycads are unattractive plants
to
to
the cycad grove by the Hush of new leaves.
the majority of grazing animals since their
bark is as lough as armor, their leaves are thick and spiny, and they produce
poisons to make themselves even more unpalatable. However, their new leaves
\
are soft and more easily grazed. These grow from a central crown on lop of die
Iratr Diplodocus balanced Hi enormously long body over Its legs like a suspension bridge. Tall spines on its vertebrae
plant and are protected by a ring of older leaves around the outside. However, the Diplodocus reach over with their long necks and pluck at the crown within. with their peg-like teeth, they strip upward,
provided altachmenl points, and huge ligaments running
Securing each long leaf
down its back helped take the strain of the nock and tail.
removing and swallowing all the soft new growth. The older spiny leaves have
stem
little effect because the Diplodocus * soft nostrils are placed well 76
out
of the way 77
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
TIME OF THE on top of their heads. Cycads have evolved to overcome this threat
by growing tlieii flush of
quickly, and they are less likely to be discovered by a grazing animal during new leaves
their vulnerable period. Unfortunately this grove of cycads has been unsuccessful and
the Diplodocus are feasting.
their activity, not ev en registering the hundreds of tiny sharp claws that cling to
their thick hides.
Through the afternoon the herd works their way into the grove, destroying two and a
way through the grove, disturbing clouds of insects. Lcafhoppers, shield bugs, sawflics,
tors start to
understory and are temporarily evicted by the
midable wall of Ilesh
predators large enough
Silting
-
huge herbi
only about one and a half feel and a liny mouth less than an inch long full of needle-like teeth, they are voracious insect eaters. Anurognalhus use the
Diplodocus ’ backs as hunting platforms and spend the entire day swooping back and forth after the prey Hushed
out
by the destructive feeding of their
giant traveling companions.
attack a fully grown adult .
lay eggs. Otherwise they feed,
to
sun
drops lower and the shadows lengthen, no large
predators appear. Instead, a small group of Coclurus stalk in among the feed-
far
too
mate,
fight, and grow up on the
destruction the herd produces, but when these sleek little
call
ous place for the Coelurus. Wlien they try to
escape, they run into the path of
Anurognalhus line up in rows along their necks,
Coelurus is caught when a huge
bickering and snapping at each other for the best position. Along with insects,
Diplodocus neck sweeps toward him
Anurognalhus will eat the Diplodocus’ dead skin scales, parasites, and even its
out
are feeding on low ferns, the
.
blood if it is wounded It is hard
to
-
see what the herbivores get out of this rela
. except removal of the occational parasite. The Anurognalhus can fre
tionship
quently make wounds worse, and
-
most
adult Diplodocus are covered in
pterosaur droppings. However, the giant herbivores seem utterly oblivious to
creatures
the
crawl
. He starts a long hollow alarm call. Other members of the herd hear the and wave their tails in agitation .
meat
neck and tail in defense. The first
to
to
deeper into the grove, one of the subadult Diplodocus picks up the smell of
back. When the Diplodocus
be seen Hitting from back
.
hunt in groups However, they are
after Anurognalhus, or other inscctivorcs or herbivores attracted
the huge female, who is swinging her
creatures can
to
small to threaten even the youngest Diplodocus. They are probably
Diplodocus spines. In any herd or sauropods, (locks of these tiny blue and green
78
Today, when the
The grove suddenly becomes a danger-
Anurognalhus spend their entire lives on the backs of sauropods, leaving
only
bring down young Diplodocus, but none would
especially since they often join together
wants.
some of the most formidable
stop a determined sauropod.
to
companion of the Diplodocus
vores are up to a dozen pterosaurs called Anurognalhus. With a wingspan of
However, none of these will
all potential assailants. On these plains there are many
ing giants. They are about 6 feel long and effective hunters of small reptiles,
Forbidden fruit: cycads use
.
to
herd’s passage. This is exactly what a small on the back of each one of these
poisons to protect their fruit
appear from the cool places they have been hiding, avoiding the
hottest part of die midday sun. This is a daily ritual and the Diplodocus are well
and thrips all live among the cycads and fern
spines, thick cuticles, and even
hall acres of cycads in four hours. When evening approaches, preda-
prepared. The larger of them feed on the edges of the herd, presenting a for-
When they feed, the herd smashes their
defenses of any plant, armor,
T I T A N S
of the evening gloom. The blow
sends him tumbling back into the
cycads and he is killed instantly. The other Coelurus
scatter
into the under-
growth, leaving the herd calling
rest -
Strange traveling companion the tiny pterosaur
Anurognalhus spends most of its life on a Diplodocus back, 1
feeding off the Insects the giant dinosaur disturbs
while grazing.
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS T I M E
lessly. By nightfall they are calmer. Some sleep where they stand, and others
these huge creatures prevents die growth of all but a few
continue to feed in die moonlight. The plains can be as dangerous at night as
-
.
lucky
sound of cracking wood and tearing leaves continues in the darkness.
to
survive this long. In somg •fas toin < much mjjjzmg h
^
ing and dry weather ha'
finished with one tree, they move onto the next, frequently crushing underfoot
oosened the topsoil, creating di
r
an ml dimes. It
-
However, dp effect of theh rds is not all bad. Besides
they also
fertilize course oMwar.
DINOSAUR DUNG
the pl
^ ^
fi
dun dng
^ ^* ^
foi die plants, buf
7,
ents
tons
)
of
duiwfl
iutri-
^
for die insects.
ryp - of beetle lives on s ® ropod dung.
( )
MONG THE MATERIAL left
have been discovered all over the
behind by dinosaurs are items
world. In Yorkshire a collection of
we would not expect to find
small pellets has been found, each
deduction of the cycad grove. Eventually, the old
after so long, such as coprolites,
measuring just under V, inch (1
feiflale takes
ground
^
If takes the herd only three days to complete the
or fossilized dung. This might seem merely
centimeter) across and containing diced
amusing until you consider how much a
bennetilte leaves. The clue that they might
modem zoologist can tell about an owl from
have belonged to a dinosaur is in their
its pellets- The dinosaurs must have
volume. There is over 10 square feet (a
produced a lot of waste but, as with most
square meter) of them.
\ found In Montana and believed to belong to
In Montana, near a collection ol large
.
would have started to decompose, then It
paleontologists have discovered bulky
could have been trampled, eroded, dried
coprolites containing plenty of woody conifer
hatched, the young would have fed on this
out, or even eaten. Nevertheless, coprolltes
debris, which suggests that these dinosaurs
material. Durtg beelles do the same today on
were used to a tough diet. Even more
the plains ot Africa, where they play a vital
interesting are the short columns of dung
role in recycling the tons of waste dropped
found m the sediment nearby. These were
every year. The Montana coprolites prove
left by dung beetles, who would have carried away pieces of dung and buried them In tunnels with their eggs. When the eggs
ules anl
is highly unlikely that lbere is any
close
essential task lor the dinosaur herds
genetic link f
^
ecosystem on the plains of Africa, clearing the
.
tons of dung dropped by large mammals
There Is evidence that similar beetles first
tween the old female
and tli # &maller
Diplodocus. Rai , the whole herd is a marriage of convenience. The yount. s m join the herd whcnl ey are about five or six yeas old and too large to |
^
^
the forest. They beiiefii
I
they are smalle
urale for food with the
ipii
the protection of the
^^ unrelated younwd
Findings like this are part of a trend around fossil finds. Once they would have
immediately
priifW ptMiiion. Although this might look like a
among paleontologists to study the areas Dung beetles are an essential part of the
a young female follow
two
illwrotipnf her rear and they, meanwhile, jostle
about what dinosaurs ale.
that early dung beetles carried out the same
.
start to move on
id. TlA old female’s tail constantly explores this
Maknoura can tell palaeontologists a lot
Cretaceous herbivores called Maiasaura,
£ l
dynamic arrangements. Sometimes,
when there is a lot of food, creches will
already slightly larger and one female is noticeably darker in color dian the others. In her three years of life she has increased her length tenfold and now weighs a little under 3
tons.
She is large for her age, a sign that she has done
well in the forest. Her body shape has changed with the increase in size. Her
.
neck and tail are much longer and her legs are comparatively thinner The small homy plates that will eventually cover her back are beginning
to
appear
and a line of small spines has developed down her back. Her method of feeding has also changed. Instead of nibbling selectively new
at
growth, she now feeds in bulk, like an adult Diplodocus. Her neck has
groups that can quickly clear all the
uses these to strip low fronds. Occasionally, she will rock back on her hind legs,
. However.
TITANS
There is roughly an even mix of males and females, but the latter are
grown enormously and she has developed peg-like teeth. Most of the time she
trees
THE
when targeted by predators, which they often are, so many are killed that a creche can dwindle to almost nothing.
join together, forming huge grazing vegetation between the
OF
plant the base of her tail on the ground, lift her head 20 feet into the air, and graze on leaves. She tends
because her teeth
cannot
to
avoid conifers, either because of die
cope easily with the woody branches. Most
taste or mature
.
conifers lose their lower branches naturally and escape dinosaur grazing On
the other hand, sapling maidenhair
trees
offer more attractive foliage and,
despite their high toxin content, they are a favorite with the young sauropods. Heads down: a juvenile
Increasingly, the dark female and her creche
Diplodocus strips the leaves
mates
stick
to more
open areas.
Their bulk prevents them from exploiting areas of new growth where the trees
off newty sprouted horsetail
together. They are developing some of die range of noises of the
ferns. Meadows of these
are too close
plants grow around the rivers
adult herd, but they do not yet have the bodies for the rumbling and tail crack-
in the forest and are a favorite
ing.
feeding ground for the young
Tlie creche’s feeding fills the clearing with dust and spores while they slowly
herbivores.
and methodically strip the entire area of fern fronds. Flitting from one sunlit back
to
another are several Anurognathus, frantically harvesung the feast of
forest insects thrown up by this activity. Some of them already have mouths
crammed with food. These are young Anurognathus, some with wingspans
/L 82
of as little as one foot long, and they have been living with the creche
for only a few weeks. However, every day their numbers increase. Like the
:: 83
W A L K I N G
WITH
DINOSAURS
sauropocUcts, they hatch on the* forest fringes. Then some will then ll\ to the plains and look for host herds, and others will spend their first few weeks searching the clearings on the edge of the forest for creches. There are almost always too many pterosaurs for the number of juvenile Diplodocus and competition between these little creatures is fierce. Once established with a suitable
host, the Anurognalhus will transfer with tin* creche
the open plains.
to
However, the relationship is never close. Anurognalhus are always willing
to
abandon one back for another. Tlie dark female’s feeding takes her right
to
the edge of the clearing where
she disturbs an Omitholestes. Much has changed since three years ago when this
creature terror
-
ized the sauropodlets. The herbivore is now huge
compared
to
the slim little predator, and tinder
normal circumstances the Omitholestes would have avoided the clearing altogether. However, this is a female and she is guarding her buried nest
since the movements of the creche could
accidentally crush her brood. She snaps
at
the
Diplodocus and puffs up her long scales. What she lacks in size she makes up for in aggression.
The startled herbivore rocks back on Changing roles: juvenile
Diplodocus grow so fast that by the time they are three years
to
her hind
legs and pulls her head away from the confrontation. From her considerable height, she watches the antics of the little animal below. The Omitholestes is
old, once - formidable predators,
lucky because while as the Diplodocus rears up. the creche starts to move
such as Omitholestes, are no
of the clearing. When the predator backs off a little, the dark female
longer a threat.
onto
all fours, and
turns to
follow the others away
trees
the light-colored plates running down his back label him as an animal from the
like this magnificent bull, have
plains. He has wandered up the river valley in search of lush vegetation. His scent signals to the creche that he is a herbivore and therefore likely
to
be a threat. However, they will
not
not
know from experience that a
shallow valley
innocent animals if he feels stressed. A careful look at a Stegosaurus reveals
and joins a larger river. While they crop the horsetails, the further down, the
why other animals learn to give him a wide berth. IIis neck is heavily armored and down his back runs a series of huge plates, but the real cause for concern
the plains, where it starts to meander, creating
is at the end of his tail, four spines each a yard long. The tail itself is fairly short
stream
leads steeply down
river leads out of the forest
onto
wide open marsh) areas. Here, rising
out
two
stream,
to a
of a dense stand of horsetail is the
very thick skin. To protect their
necks they have rows of
Stegosaurus can be very aggressive in defense and will frequently damage quite
creche continues to move down the bank. Only a mile or
84
Strong features: Stegosaurus,
plucking
vegetation while they go. The
under the
returns
from the Omitholestes’ nest.
The group of young sauropods follow the path of a small at
out
distinctive bulk of a Stegosaurus. His 40-fool-long, 7-ton, dark brown body and
pebble-like bones held In an impregnable sheet .
and muscular, and the Stegosaurus can use these spines very effectively. 85
W I T H
W A L K I N G
D I N O S A U R S
TIME OF
Although his limbs are vast
not
designed for speed, they do allow him
to turn
his
body rapidly, presenting his lethal spines to anything that surprises him.
When the creche filters
out onto
the marshy flood-plain, the Stegosaurus
pays little attention. He is busy working his wav through a tough bennetlite stem ,
and in any case, he is used
to
feeding in the company of sauropods.
I lowever, his sensitive nose soon picks up a smell that
brain. Since the creche started
to move
sets
off alarm bi lls in his
down the river valley, they have unwit-
tingly attracted the attention of a predator. A subadult bull Allosaums has been stalking the Diplodocus for the past hour. He is 30 feel long and could easily
kill a juvenile, but he has been warv of attacking the whole creche in case they
panic. If that happened in the closed environment of the forest, he could he injured or crushed. However, in this open marshy area he has grown bolder and is gradually moving nearer.
Allosaurus are die
titans, they are also the largest predators ever
I
armor, but they were in a strange position,
very bizarre dinosaur dug up in
too high on the back to be effective. Close
Colorado. It was a large, tour -legged
examination also revealed that they were
board ? All have been
herbivore with a small head, a line of
made of thin honey-combed bone full of
suggested as an
plates running down its back, and four long
blood vessels, the last type of structure
explanation for the
spikes on Its tall He called it Stegosaurus. .
Stegosaurus was the largest of a group of
grown as a means of defense. Another theory arose, suggesting that they helped control
Defensive armor, heat exchanger, or display
terrifying
turn of
speed. They to
stegosaurs' plates.
Although they might have
performed all three roles, it is now
strong
animal, the creature can die quickly of shock and blood loss.
Unfortunately for this Allosaums, once the Stegosaurus picks up his he loses die element of surprise. The large herbivore embarks on a
pre-programmed
set
of defense maneuveres. First he bel-
Jurassic. They all had spiny tails, but none
plates quickJy. The blood running through
seem to have had plates as large as Marsh's
them would then help raise its temperature.
suggested another role for the plates -
scans for the attacker. His sense of
creature. From the beginning it was clear
During the hotter part of the day, a breeze
display. With such a rich blood supply, they
that the tail was a powerful weapon of
through the plates would cool the dinosaur,
could have been flushed at will. Therefore
smell is lietier dian his eyesight, and
defense, but the plates were more of a
performing a similar function to an
during sexual display, they could have been
puzzle. At first it was assumed that they were
elephant 's ears today.
used to advertise. They might also have been
some time until the
important in defense, but not as armor.
makes himself more obvious.
lows, pounds his front feet, and swings his tail vigorously. Then he
diis
movement
will continue for
predator
Stegosaurus could flush its plates, and
However, this time he spots the
accentuate its size. If this made the predator
Allosaums in the open, behind
stop and think, the spiked tail would quickJy
die creche. Immediately his plates
A flattened Stegoiavrus from the Morrison
Formation. This display dearly shows the animal 's distinctive throat armor, back
plates, and tall spikes.
to
show signs of weakening. If several Allosaums adopt this tactic with a single
Stegosaurus could face the sun and warm its
make up its mind.
grappling
their prey with their teeth , and then back off, wailing for the victim
from the United States to China during the
When a predator approached, the
-
prey like Diplodocus, they will frequently attack,
body temperature. On cold mornings the
Recently, scientist Ken Carpenter has
evolve. Allosaurus are ambush
use their three clawed hands like
armored herbrvores that spread all the way
thought that they were for display.
to
prey, while their powerful jaws and serrated teeth deliver
the killer blows. With
m
constant
hunters. They prefer not having to chase food down, even though they have a
tear N 1877 CHARLES Marsh described a
successful carnivore on the plains, a
menace to the Diplodocus herds, whether in groups or singly. In this time of
hooks to hold on
HOW THE STEGOSAURUS GOT HIS PLATES
most
flush a deep red-brown and lie turns giving
the Allosaums the full benefit of his display. The Stegosaurus’ general attitude of alarm disturbs the creche and they start
to move
around and swing their tails. The predator
scent
THE
TITANS
Stalemate: a bull Allosaurus (aces
a 7 - ton Stegosaurus.
When confronted with a
predator, the Stegosaurus goes through an aggressive pattern of defense, bellowing, flushing
his plates, and swiping his lethal tail from side to side. Despite his hunger, the
Allosaurus is unlikely to attack.
WALKING
WITH DINOSAURS T I M E
knows from experience that il nould hr dingenjus to attempt an anark mih a
bdKgerent Stegosaurus ncarbv . Hr avoids the marshv area and heads down the mrr. The Stegosaurus
aggTr"ivc
state lasts for ^ » me time butv * '> :\ as thr scent
of Allosaurus dears from his nose, his plates return to their normal color. The to calm down ,
Diplodocus are quicker
espccialh once the Stegosaurus alarm
calls cease. On the plains these two species frrqumth grazr together not onh ,
because lhc\ crop the
vegetation in
different wavs. but also because their
senses complement one another, allowing them both to pick up predator*
quicker than either would do alone. With the disturbance oscr. the cieche continues feeding in the
Although they might return
to
marshy
area.
the clearings occasionally from now on thev will
lend toward areas like this, and inevitabh that will lead them onto the pLura.
iiig flames. Few sauropodlcls will survive , and those that do
will be easy pickings for the predators. A fire like this comes
along only once in every few hundred years , but when it does, il can wipe out whole generations of animals. When the conflagration reaches the edge of the forest , it
O F
THE
T I T A N S
‘ Brachiosaurus have
sharp, chisel-like teeth for nipping off cones,
starts smaller wild fires
among the open scrub , but the drought has left the vegetation here sparse and these blazes
fruit, and new growth
quickly burn themselves out . The creche pick up the smell of smoke early and are finally driven out of the forest and onto
from a height no other
the plains. They are followed by a pair of huge Brachiosaunis.
sauropod can reach.’
Even by
Jurassic
standards, these are gigantic dinosaurs ,
dwarfing the Diplodocus. They are only about 70 feet long , but they are enormously heavy, weighing over 70 tons , more than twice as
much as other sauropods. Their upright stance and elevated necks mean that The creche is smaller now Several attacks b* lone predators have reduced their number bv
A New Home YEA
*
FOUR- THE
FOREST
a third. Thev are rno^dv feeding on the forrsi
EDGE
edge, and this exposes them to attack bv larger predators without giving them the
advantages of being
pan of an adult herd. There has been a panicularfv 1
they can graze at heights of almost 43 feet . They have evolved as specialist tree feeders and their strategy is different to that of the Diplodocus. They do not
strip leaves and rarely touch low-lying vegetation . Instead , they have
sharp chisel-like teeth for nipping off cones, fruit , and new growth from a height no other sauropod can reach . They feed along die forest edges, seek,
ng.
ing out the trees in fruit and cropping all but the tallesL branches. Although
drs period and the plains' vegetation is suffering from drought. Therefore, the
they can cause considerable damage because of their sheer bulk , they only push trees over if they have grown too tall . This makes sense because they are
members of the creche have remained in the open to seek out the aduli herds. \ lightning
Morm to
the south starts a fire in the Cordilleran Highlands.
Fires are not uncommon in this area, hut it quicklv becomes apparent that this
-
adapted to cope with food at tree height . While the two Brachiosaurus pull away from the burning forest , the Titanic harvesters:
going to be a big one. In tinder drv conditions, warm 'outherh winds fan and drive die fire north A firestorm stairs among the coniiery and within a
walk , the pair head for a small knot of araucaria 8 miles from the main
searching the top branches of
of burning vegetation spawn a thousand m re fires.
forest . There are other ways in which these animals are different from
araucaria trees for their
is
tew hours floating ,
pieces
-
Soon a 60 mik stretch of forest
i>
an inferno , completeh incinerating the
understorv . Huge columns of fire leap up through the canopv Thousands ot belore die :
sensitive '
dinosaur noses pick up the scent ot smoke long
them but nunv will pe rish cither because thev flee in ,
the v%Tong direction or became thev are not fast cnmigh to outrun the advanc-
members of the creche amble aside to let diem dirough . Widi a very stalely
Diplodocus. They are mostly solitary, occasionally forming small groups , but not for protection since their sheer size leaves them with little to worry about , even
from the largest predator. Despite this bulk , they make little
OVERLEAF
this pair of Brachiosaurus are
nutritious cones. Although
some of the trees can grow too high even for these giants, the dinosaurs can always flatten them , like they have done with
noise . Without other herd members to “ talk " to , they call only to attract a
the tree on the left hand side
mate.
of the picture.
-
91
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
TIME OF
With their long strides, the pair quickly remove themselves from the burning forest, their ponderous footsteps shaking the ground as they move. The
year or
. Their best chance of survival now
two
lies in finding an adult herd
over die
ally stopping at nightfall bv a shallow river to drink. Along the distant horizon a
die morning sun start
line ol orange flames marks the destruction ol their previous habitat. The
burning hangs in the air and mixed with it is the faint
-
to
join on the plains.
creche heads oil in the same direction, but they are more confused and panicked by the fire. They wander much further titan die Brachiosaurus, eventu-
lorest will recover and. despite the enormous heal, many of the largest trees will survive, hut there will IK little lor the Diplodocus to feed on for another
THE TITANS
Bv first light the fire has moved to the north and a dark pall of smoke hangs
smouldering forest. The creche has remained b\ the river and with to
feed on some new growth of horsetails. The smell of scent
of scorched
.
carcasses. Ml through the night this has attracted many predators looking to
scavenge an easy meal
.
GIANTS AMONG DINOSAURS
S
AUROPODS WIRE TRULY
Supenaurm, suggest a creature more than
have attempted to calculate its size. It Is
very difficult to attack, and a giant herbivore
enormous even by dinosaur
120 feet ( 36 meters) long. In South Amenca a
possible that it was almost 200 feet (60
could have a long gut enabling It to digest
standards. Most other large
collection of huge back bones suggests that
meters) long, stood 30 feet (9 meters) at the
any food it wanted. Most experts agree that
herbivores, vuch as Tmerotopi and
the titanosaunds were not small They were
hip and weighed almost 150 tons. This is
sauropods fermented their food since they
Iguonodon, might have weighed as much as
wider bodied than their ancestors, so
certainly longer than, and almost as heavy as
had no chewing teeth to break it (town.
two or three elephants, but a single
Argerrtinaiaurui might have been only slightly
a blue whale.
Estimates about the size of their stomachs
Hrachiounjn / i would tip
the balance against
15 or 20 elephants. Their long neck and tail
design was supremely successtul Sauropods
.
shorter than a large Dqikxkxuy but could
With all these finds, the most obvious
have weighed a staggenng 100 tons.
This still does not claim the prize of largest
*
vary, but it is possible that the larger animals
question that emerges ts “ why ?" For marine
could hold half a ton of vegetation in their
creatures, such as whales, weight Is less
stomachs. All this was ground down and
important than it Is lor land animals, and as
mixed up with the help of stomach stones.
f
evolved some time in the earty (urassic,
dinosaur ever found. That belongs to a very
dominated the late |urasstc, and continued
mysterious find indeed. In 1878 Edward Cope
long as the waters are nch In knll, there rs no
until the end of the dinosaurs as a group
described a 5- foot (1.5-meter) portion of a
problem with size However, sauropods had to
highly polished stones that have been found
stones in their stomachs to help digest tough
known as titanosaurlds. Even paleontologists
have legs and a skeleton strong enough to
with sauropod fossils. Sauropods may also
vegetation, just as some birds do today
large they grew There rs
vertebra from the Jurassic sediments at Green Park in Colorado. The complete bone could
support tons of flesh, and they also had to
have grown so large simply because they were
a history of tantalizing pieces of skeleton and
have been about 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 meters)
feed on land off fairly poor-quality plant food.
the first land animals to be able to. With the
The Jurassic plains were not dominated by
single bones that suggest gigantic creatures
high. Unfortunately, it Is not possible to check
efficient upright stance of the dinosaur
one plant like grass. There was probably a
slid only dimly described These finds Jostle to
because it has been lost Cope named the find
solve this mystery entirely. Certainty, there are
adapted with four column-like legs, huge
great mixture of vegetation. To exploit a
become the biggest dinosaurs ever and have
AmpItKorhai frogilhmuy and modem scientists
many advantages to being big since giants are
weights could be supported.
variety of different tough plants at different
cannot be sure how
.
Perhaps no one will ever know enough to
been given evocative names, such as
However, none of these points really
Ult / asaurui and Senmowurus- However, since
sauropods probably grew
throughout their lives, It Is possible that
/
*
versions of well - known species The complete skeleton of Diplodocus shows It to be about 80 feet (25 meters ) long, but two bones, a shoulder - blade and neck vertebra, from a similar animal called
94
Evldence for this has come from collections of
skeleton on display In the
apply to animals that are already big
waste too much energy moving around to
Humboldt Museum In
Sauropods originally must have been smaller,
find suitable food. A longer neck would have
Berlin could have belonged
and gradually evolved longer necks, longer
made a wide area of grazing available to a
to a dinosaur that weighed
tails, and bulkier bodies. Something along the
static
almost 70 tons. It Is
way must have rewarded each step up In size.
their way methodically across miles and mies
This Is probably a function of how they
of vast country, their shape being ideal for
interacted with the environment around
coping with unpredictable and very poor-
them, and here lies the real key to their
quality vegetation.
size, and weak Jaws, given the
^
teeth were very
\ v5
£f « «
halopods, a group
survive today, and one, the
column pine, grows wild only around New Caledonia
the final chamber of the shell
and the short -necked pliosaurs. Both
.
PANTHALASSA
OCfAN
Belemnites were built for
speed and probably lived in shoals. While reptiles had been
the dominant Irle form on land since the Carboniferous
penod, comparatively they With the break-up of
were newcomers in the
lay In tropical or sub -
effectively became Island
water
Pangaea, the ancient
continents, while Europe
tropical zones, and there
coastlines began to change
was a collection ol small
was no Icecap at either pole
rapidly. This was due not
islands, some of them very
to restrict the movements of
only to the movement of
low - lying. Warm currents
marine or land animals.
are typical filler - feeding
evolved by the late jurassic into a range of
been around since before the time of the
land, but also to a rise in sea
ran around the Equator, but
Through these extensive
echinoderms. They
predators. The dofphln- like Ichthyosaurs,
dinosaurs, but during the |urasslc true crabs
levels. Huge areas that we
what remained of the vast
seas large fish and reptiles
belong to a group of
pursuit predators who preferred the open
and lobsters made their first appearance.
know as land today were
landmass of Pangaea slIN
could roam freely around
animals that has thrived
Both predatory groups developed powerful
flooded, especially In Europe
diverted them toward the
the globe.
water, continued to flourish, but were not as
on the sea floor since
and Asia. Siberia and China
poles. Consequently, most
114
Mesozoic seas. After first
entering the ocean sometime Feather stars like these
the Cambrian era.
in the Triassic, they had
Some Crustacea, such as the crayfish, had
diverse as they had been in the late Triassic.
.
Sea-going crocodiles were also common
claws for snipping open the lough shells ol their molluscan prey
115
ft
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
A
The Gathering Begins I U N E- THE
C O R A L
N U R S E R I E S
Ai the southern end of die long seaway
that connects the Tethys and Boreal oceans lies a wide expanse of shallow
epicontinental sea dotted with thousands of islands. From a pterosaur’s view, each lonely spot of green land is framed by
pale coral reefs and divided by deeper tracks of blue. Occasionally, rivers spill off the larger islands, pushing wide silt fans into the azure waters. Millions of years ago this whole area used to I K * dry plains with the occasional upland . While the sea rose , the uplands became large islands cut off from the conti nents to the east and west , and when these flooded ,
-
they formed groups of tiny
MONSTERS FROM THE DEEP
T
HE SHALLOW EPICONTINENTAL
were twice as long as those of Tyrannosaurus.
manne creatures. Where the
bottom was covered In thick mud, any
animals that died above floated down, EVIDINCI
good chance of "surviving" as a fossil. In the
ranging in age from juveniles to adults. Remains have been found In Europe and Argentina. size Around 16 feet (5 meters) long, with a skull
late Jurassic a large island stretched from London across the English Channel and into
Several beautifully preserved skeletons
3 feet (1 meter) long.
rich in life and the sea floor was made up of
ACE
165-150 million years ago.
Tethys, and here lies one such group of islands, the Vindelicischs. In some
deep mud. This now forms the Oxford Clay (see page 131), which stretches like a sash
in this chapter have been found fossilized In
rich water from die ocean makes conditions perfect for marine life.
this formation and many have also been
Cryptoclidus are lone marine hunters liv ing off a diet of fish and squid , and although a dozen or so are around the island , they interact only during the While the sun begins to strike the coral directly, the female Cryptoclidus
wakes and , with a couple of cumbersome movements, launches herself off the shelf into the cool sea. Once in her element , she glides effortlessly. Like all plesiosaurs, she propels herself with four large flipper s that move like underwater '
wings
to
CRYPTOCLIDUS
Medium- sized plesiosaur with a slightly
BOREAL OCEAN
-
vlndelicncn Islands
TETHYS OCEAN
The Vindelicischs wore a group of islands on the edges of the Tethys Ocean. To the east
help her fly thiough the water. While she pushes down with the front
carnivore. Given the maritime environment In
flattened skull and upward facing eyes. Us long,
which it was found, it could have been a
slender teeth may have been used for piercing
beachcomber, as well as an active carnivore.
squid, but could also have helped sift burrowing animals out of the mud. tvioiNct Several complete skeletons, including luvemles. Most have been found in England and northern France, but there are also reports of finds in Russia and South America. size Maximum length of 26 leet (8 meters) with a 2-loot (60-centimeter) skull. Possibly weighed as much as 8 tons. DIET Fish and squid. ACE 165-1 SO million years ago.
EVIDENCE
Based on a single skeleton found In
the Oxford Clay, north of Oxford. This was
probably a carcass that had drifted out to sea. SIZE Around 16 feet (5 meters) long and weighed about half a ton. OUT Carnivore and scavenger. ACE 165-160 million years ago. RHAMPHORHYNCHUS
A common marine pterosaur of the late Jurassic. The shape and onentatlon of Its teeth suggest It
A very common ichthyosaur in the late Jurassic.
could have fished by flying low over water and scooping out prey. ( VIDINCI Range of skeletons bom the Oxford Clay and Solnhofen in Germany: also Tanzania. SIZE Wingspan of almost 6 feet (2 meters); skull of 8 Inches (20 centimeters). Including tall, total body length was
It had the largest eyes of any vertebrate, which
about 3 feet (1 meter ).
helped It hunt for squid at night or at great
OUT
lay Siberia, to the west the opening Atlantic . The current ran predominantly north from
LIOPLTURODON
the warm Tethys to the colder Boreal Ocean .
mating season .
4
EUSTREPTOSPONDYLUS
Not much is known about this European
reached a level that would cause her to overheat.
predators large enough to threaten her. Another Cryptoclidus is basking on the shelf about 50 yards away, but the two show no interest in each other.
.: !!
found elsewhere in the world
rise and fall against the coral beneath . She is asleep. It is early in the day and
She has probably been here all night , safe on an island where there are no
long, bopfeurodon’ s weight is difficult to estimate, but It may have been 150 tons. DIIT Anything else in the ocean. Act 165-150 million years ago.
.
almost stagnant , but around die Vindelicischs die upwelling of cooler, oxygen-
not
with a skull an incredible 16 feet (5 meters)
across the center of England All the animals
the end of a long neck her small head protrudes over die glittering waves dial
116
.
became buried in the sediment, and stood a
islands. To the south a continental shelf falls off into the deeper waters of the
plesiosaur suns herself on a warm coral shelf. She is a Cryptoclidus, about 22 feel long, and her four elegant flippers lie spread out on the rocks. At
Complete skeletons and several fragments, found mostly in England und France, but also possibly in Chile, size Adult length of about 80 feet (25 meters)
IVIOINCI
Fish and squkf
On the co«ist of one of the smaller, nameless islands a sleek brown
the distinctive rosette at the front of Its snout
preserving the skeletons of
OUT
parts of the epicontinental sea there are so few currents that the waters are
size of the largest modern whales. The teeth kn
\v
seas have often proved ideal for
Belgium. Just off Its coast the waters were
the temperatures have
SEA
CRUEL
OPHTHALMOSAURUS
^
11
depth . Its snout was long and thin, perfect for
An enormous predator, the only Mesozoic
ACE
snapping after fast, maneuverable prey.
manne reptile that comes dose to matching the
years ago.
170-145 million
^
r
-
pair, ( he hack ones an raised by the water, and then when site pushes the hack pair down the front ones rise. Gently repeating this cycle , she moves above the coral meadows in search or prey. Each flipper has powerful muscle attachments and is capable of working together or independently. This means dial the Crvptoclidus can use just one flipper to make herself turn very fast, or all four together if she wants a hurst of speed .
A
CRUEL
OPPOSITE
Settled on the
SEA
seabed: a curious young
Cryptoclidus comes to inspect
an empty ammonite shell. Cryptoclidus teeth are long and thin, best suited to
catching slippery prey such as fish and squid . They rarely
About a mile from the island she encounters a massive Perisphinctes
methodically working his way over a coral meadow. Perisphinctes are
attack ammonites because their spiral shells are too thick.
ammonites, a common group of shelled marine mollusks, and this is one of the
-
largest in the area , witli a heavily armored , coiled shell measuring about a yard
-
s
across. He is a predator, and issuing from the end of his shell are several power
ful pink tentacles that regularly pluck small animals off the coral and pass them back to his crushing jaws. While the bright Jurassic sun filters down through
the water, the ammonite picks out the magnificent red and white stripes that
wrap around his shell . He has built this beautiful structure chamber by cham ber as he has grown. Now his soft body occupies only the last , largest chamber
of the whorl and the vacated sections are filled with air for buoyancy. Although out of the water he
weighs around 220 pounds , here he hangs weighLlessly
.
above die coral Under his tentacles lie a small siphon which he can point in
any direction and through which he can jet water, enabling him to move around in search of prey.
A sweep of the Cryptoclidus’ flipper sends the Perisphinctes tumbling away from the coral and she turns to inspect his defenses. He has withdrawn within his shell and pulled shut the hood that covers die end . The Cryptoclidus knows
her teeth are not strong enough
to
break in , so alter nudging him a couple of
rimes, she moves on , searching for softer prey. There is no shortage of food for either animal . Beneath the Perisphinctes is a bewildering array of marine life. The sea here is perhaps richer and more
varied than it has ever been in Earth 's history. Besides die uny organisms that
actually build the coral meadow, it supports other filter feeders, such as oysters, clams, and sea lilies. Sponges sprout from the coral , forming large , plate like
-
structures and tall , elegant baskets. Among these crawl shrimps , crabs, snails, 119
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
A
and predatory worms. Above them swim numerous species of fish , rays, sharks,
stops because there is not enough light to support growth . It also does not sur-
and squid . Although each of its inhabitants occupies only a tiny patch of coral , diis reef stretches for hundreds of miles , forming a complete patchwork across
vive near islands where the silt run-ofT from rivers can smother it .
the shallow sea. It varies in form depending on the depth of the water, from shallow meadows to deep sponge banks witli massive flat reefs built by bacteria .
Disappearing into die blue gloom , hundreds of their coiled shapes float suspended in die water, occasionally bobbing after prey with their tentacles. A
The only areas without coral are those where the
shoal of squid slip among the ammonites. Although both these animals are
water
drops below about 250 feet and the coral
Above the Perisphinctes other ammonites feed nearer the surface.
in these rich seas is completely different. Unlike the ammonites, the squid have no protective shells and are always on die move. Their soft
LIVING FOSSILS
f,
T
bodies form the staple diet of many large predators and
HE IDEA THAT dotted around
‘When the Cryptoclidus
their speed is their only chance of escape.
our modem world there are a
Several yards below, the squid are being stalked by the
1
few animals that have managed to survive since prehistoric times
and escape extinction is extremely attractive.
However, this is an inaccurate concept, since
Ammonite* died out at the same time as the
no individual species lasts more than a few
dinosaurs. Today their nearest relatives are
million years. It b the families or groups of
the rare Naulilus found in the Pacific.
.
animals that keep producing new species, Once a year horseshoe crabs reproduce by
plan and therefore giving the impression that
gathering on beaches and laying their eggs in
they are ancient.
the sand. This group of animals is over 400
With the exception of jellyfish and corals,
million years old.
shoal, she halts and
tion herself direcdy below the shoal. Despite her size , the
prepares for attack. Her
squid are oblivious
to her
presence. Her molded brown
below. /Also , of her 22-foot body, more than 6.5 are feet, and this is where it comes into its own . These plankton rich waters enable her to approach her prey while her
which are much older, most major groups of
comes up under the squid
Cryptoclidus. She is about to use the ambush technique for which she is designed , gliding across the coral to posi-
back is a perfect camouflage against the coral meadow
each one varying only minutely from a basic
large body remains a crucial 6 feet out of sight . When she comes up under the squid shoal , she halls and prepares
eyes are located on top of
her head, which helps her to keep her prey in view.’
animals can trace their origins back to the
a primitive neural chord. If we wind forward
those left behind once a large and diverse
Cambrian period 550 million years ago
in lime, creatures with a striking similarity to
group is driven to extinction. CoekKanihs,
when, during the Cambrian explosion,
animals that are alive today start to be found
discovered in the early twentieth century off
hundreds of new animal designs evolved.
in the fossil record. Horseshoe crabs appear
the coast of Africa, are the only species alive
Worms, sponges, crustaceans, mollusks, and,
430 million years ago from the group that
today from a group of lobe- finned fish that
even our own group, the animals with
also gave rise to spiders. Lungfish first
were extremely common 300 million years
backbones, called echinoderms, appeared
evolved 400 million years ago, sharks 300
ago The ginkgo, or maidenhair tree, is the
then. However, humans could not be classed
million years ago, and sturgeons 200 million
only representative left of a group of
as living fossils and bear little resemblance to
years ago. Evolution flows through time,
that used to forest the Mesozoic. After the
her attack posture.
the tiny fish- like creatures that first developed
creating ar>d losing species
ammonites were cleared out of the sea 65
Suddenly die shoal turn and start toward her. This is what die Cryptoclidus was wailing for. Squid move backward through the water and have a blind side
.
Perhaps the only creatures that can such as horseshoe crabs comes from tracks the creature made before dying.
120
genuinely be described as "living fossils" are
trees
million years ago, a related group of mollusks somehow survived, and descendants called Nautilus can still be found in the Pacific
fossils like this. It even shows the last
SEA
mollusks and both use jets of water to propel themselves, their approach to life
v
Hard evidence of the antiquity of creatures
CRUEL
for attack. I ler eyes are located on top of her head , which
helps her keep her prey in view. Slowly she starts to rise, her back flippers positioning her while her front flippers lift in readiness for a powerful downward stroke. When she moves toward the squid , her back flippers also rise . This is
behind and below. The Cryptoclidus is ideally positioned . She drives dowti both pairs of flippers and shoots forward . While she meets the oncoming shoal
i
her head darts from side to side, snapping at the squid . At the same lime the 121
W A L K I N G
WITH
DINOSAURS
shoal
scatter
encounter
in all directions, filling the
lasts only a few
moments, but as
water
with clouds of ink. The
the Cryptoclidus bursts free of the
inky curtains, she has three squid skewered on her long, pin-like teeth. She rises
to
the surface and lifts her head out of the water
to
Hick the squid
essential if she is
to
continue hunting. Like all reptiles, she
is an air breather and if she wants to
to
dive deep she hits
compensate for the buoyancy. The stones weigh her
down and stop her having
to
struggle against her
into her mouth before taking a gasp of air. While she does, she watches a
natural tendency to float. Once the stone ballast
Cryptoclidus, like most
pterosaur glide close to the water. It is not unknown for Cryptoclidus to pluck
is on board, she
plesiosaurs, uses speed and
pterosaurs from the air while
Ambush predator: this
surprise to catch her prey. Her head Is on the end ot a long
they arc fishing, but this lime the flyer steers well
clear of the predator and soon she slips back below the surface. Before posi-
returns to
gliding across the
coral in search of squid and fish. While she scans the yards of water above
neck, which means that her
tioning herself for a new ambush, she dives to the bottom and digs her mouth
her, she spots a new shape slipping through
large body and flippers may
into a patch of soft sand and pebbles. Then, pulling it out again, she swims for-
the rays of sunlight filtering down from the surface. It is another reptile, a little
ward with sand streaming out between her teeth. Soon all she has in her mouth
smaller than she is but far too large
not be visible to a fish when
her comparatively small head is ready to strike .
.
is a collection of stones, which she swallows Though odd. this behavior is
to
be prey. When she
turns to
I
look, more
of these creatures appear out of the depths. Soon the sea above is full of these
reptiles, hundreds spreading across the shallow coral. The Cryptoclidus
turns
and gives up her hunt. She has encountered the annual arrival of the
Ophihalmosaums and knows it is pointless to linger. Ophthalmosaums are beautifully streamlined marine reptiles. The origin of their group, the ichthyosaurs, lies somewhere back in the early Triassic period, even before the dinosaurs evolved. While other reptilian predators chased prey
with paddle-like limbs, the ichthyosaurs developed long, fish-like bodies, sleek
fins, and powerful crescent tails. The easy side-to-side beat of these tails allowed
them
to
cruise effordessly through the Mesozoic seas, becoming top predators
long before animals like Cryptoclidus appeared. Now, although their glory days
competition from other reptiles, they are still extraordinarily successful, which becomes obvious at this time of year. are over and they face suffer
Cutting through the blue waters, the Ophthalmosaums nice over the coral,
exploring the reef while giving the retreating Cryptoclidus a wide berth. At regular intervals they steer up to the surface, lake a breath, then return to the coral, streaming bubbles behind them. Ophthalmosaums usually live in small
pods of unrelated individuals, hunting fish and squid in the deep waters of the Tcthys. Their distinctively large eyes are a special adaptation
to
help them spot
depth or at night. However, during early summer, females break away from their pods and migrate for hundreds of miles, gathering in die shallow
prey
122
at
123
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS A
give birth. Cher tiie space of a few days die
waters
around the Vindelicischs
area
around the island will see
to
die arrival of well over
10,(MX)
.
Ophthalmosaums, each heavily pregnant with pups It is another adaptation to marine life that ichthyosaurs do not lay eggs. Instead they give birth to live young at sea. The need
to
crawl out of die
water
every year and bury eggs, as
turtles do, must have prevented the ichthyosaurs’ ancestors from exploiting
the
water
C R U E L
SEA
fully. However, once they evolved live birth, they no longer needed
their limbs, and were free to take on their present sleek, fish-like shapes. Several weeks before converging on the Vindelicischs, the female
Ophlhalmosaurus conceive and hatch tiny eggs within their birth canals. Then, as the mothers-to-be continue to hunt and feed, their babies grow inside them,
supplied with food and oxygen through the mothers’ blood supply. Eventually, the pups become
too
large
to
remain inside their
mothers, and this stimulates the females
to
swim
to
shallow waters and give birth. Also, the pups are now
large enough
to
survive on their own. Having given
birdi, die mothers abandon die young to fend for diemselves, and dial is why the pups gather above the coral. Although they are large,
at
a foot and a half
long, the newborn pups are still vulnerable
to a
number of predators in open waters. They would also starve
trying to chase fast, ocean-going squid and fish.
However, among the coral and seaweed of the epi-
lifT
Mother's day: in mid-|une
female Ophlhalmosaurus
arrive from the Tcthys to have their pups in the seas around the Vindelicischs. Each of these females is carrying several young and will give birth in the shallow waters so
that their babies can seek protection among the coral. The mothers themselves will leave the area the moment
the pups are bom.
continental sea, there are plenty of places to hide and no shortage of slow-moving food for diem to eat.
Having arrived in the vicinity of the Vindelicischs, the Ophthalmosaums will give birth as soon as possible. Despite the abundance of food, the adults find it
adapted for the sundrenched waters. Their hunting technique relies on
hard
to
fish here. They are
not
speed and endurance, best in open areas of deep water
where there is plenty of room for pursuit.
These shallow
waters
cramp their style. Packed into
this comparatively small area, they also find it harder to
escape large predators. While the sun drops
-
toward die horizon, the still w aters around die island are alive with coundess cut
Ophdialmosaums. Their fins
through the surface as they chase squid, occasion125
4T
m
m
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
A
C R U E L
SEA
ally leaping out of tlu* water in pursuit. The island is typical of tlie Vindelicisch group. This whole area is regularly
hit by violent winter
storms
that roll in from the
east
and, since
Vindelicischs are low-lying, they have become accustomed
to
most
of the
being flooded.
Having been isolated for millions of years, the islands have developed a unique range of plants and animals that can cope with periodic flooding. The
MESOZOIC MARINE MONSfERS
F
OR MORE THAN a century
moment of birth being caught in stone, but
themselves from predators through sheer
paleontologists have been finding
rather the unfortunate consequences of a
force of numbers. At what point ichthyosaurs
fossilized ichthyosaurs with tiny
mother dying In the process of giving birth
gave up laying eggs is not known, but It does
embryos preserved within them .
and the baby then being partially expelled
explain how they managed to evolve such
-
Over the years almost a hundred have been
after the build up of gases during decay.
sleek, flsh -like forms. Without the need to
Idenlitied, most Irom one site near
From the Hoizmaden finds we know that
crawl back on to land to lay, they could
Hoizmaden in southern Germany Here the
ichthyosaurs were born tail first, like modem
afford to let their limbs and body become
|urassic ichthyosaurs have been exquisitely
whales, because they are air- breathing
completely aquatic.
podocarp. These small trees are found nowhere else in the world and have spe-
preserved in what were deep silt layers at the
animals. If they were bom mouth first, they
cially -thickened trunks that resist the effects of Hood. They
bottom of the seabed. Most fossils contained
would have drowned.
most
obvious greenery is provided by groves of column pine, but in between the thin trunks of the conifers most of the island is covered in dense thickets of stunted
‘In a few thousand years
this island will probably
fossils, and their hefty skeletons might have
feet high and are well over 2( H) years old. The insect popula-
thought that these were examples of
offspring. In fact, there is some evidence that
been designed to help them drag themselves
cannibalism because this was easier to accept
ichthyosaurs were also cannibalistic Because
on land. However, all four of their limbs were
than the thought that such early marine
of the large number of mothers and embryos
dedicated paddles (turtles have retained
reptiles had evolved live birth. However, all
found at Hoizmaden, it has even been
stumpy hind limbs for digging hofes to lay
the embryos were found inside the body
suggested that this must have been some
eggs) and no plesiosaur or pliosaur eggs
cavity, not the stomach, and their skeletons
kind of birthing area, where generations ol
have been discovered- Also, the truly gigantic
were in perfect shape, rather than jumbled
ichthyosaurs came to give birth, protecting
pliosaurs, which could have weighed marry
levels aie rising steadily, in a
few thousand years this island will probably disappear perma-
nently beneath the waves, and with it , the unique ecosystem. Many of the larger animals here are not so unusual. The
unique ecosystem.’
been found in the plesiosaur or pliosaur
any dose bond between mother and
tures. Unfortunately, because sea
and with it will go its
It is unlikely that these live births led to
T
live birth is less clear. No embryo has ever
many as twelve. For a long lime it was
scavenges the mud-flats in search of stranded marine crea-
beneath the waves,
between one and four embryos, and some as
In other marine reptiles the question of
grow extremelv slowly and there are some that are only 6-9 tion is also unusual, including a large predatory beetle that
disappear permanently
.
up as if haH - digested. Scientists now agree
tons, would have faced a major problem
that Ichthyosaurs must have given birth to
climbing out of the water and hauling
This beautiful German fossil shows an
live young, and there are even fossils of
themselves up a beach. Today no one knows
island supports a large colon) of Rliamphorhynchus, red-
Ichthyosaur apparently at the moment of
embryos half out of their mother's birth
Wrth. This Is irrefutable proof that at least
how other marine reptiles reproduced, but
faced marine pterosaurs that are common along the Teihys
canal. These are not examples of the
one Mesozoic reptile developed live birth.
we know that live birth is possible.
coastline. The adults live entirely on fish from the sea, but the
younger animals will also prey on insects on land. These
smaller islands in the group are an ideal habitat for pterosaurs because they are
usually safe from large predators. In the evening light hundreds of
Rliamphorhynchus gather along the old coral ledges
to roost
in large bicker-
ing groups. They crawl all over the rocks looking for suitable sites and signaling
aggressively
to
each other with their stiff little tails. At this lime of year the
females in the colony arc getting read) small
nests
to
lay. They will soon start constructing
made of anything from leaf litter
to
seaweed. Although in
most
.
areas Rliamphorhynchus lav eggs all vear on this island there is a definite nest-
ing season and this is connected to another unique feature of the island. Every
year on one particular night , when the tides are high and the moon is lull. 126
I 127
Si:
A
thousands of horseshoe crabs crawl up on to its beaches to mate and lay their eggs. For a few days the beaches themselves become an abundant source of
protein , as millions of tiny, pearly green eggs develop just below the sand . This is an important source of food for the hatchling pterosaurs.
While the sun finally sets, the calm water becomes thick and dark. Along the beaches two large, clumsy shapes rise out of the shallows and draw them -
OPPOSITE
CRUEL
SEA
Colonial life: several
Rhamphorhynchus colonies
are found around the edges of the island . These are colorful and noisy places, especially as
the adults come and go on
fishing trips.
selves uncomfortably on to the sand . The Cryptoclidus arc preparing to spend the night out of the water. With their huge flippers they have to strain and twist to
drag themselves clear of the water. However, this effort is worth it for a safe
night’s sleep. Somewhere out in the dark waters are bigger predators, such as
-
die fearsome Liopleurodon that can devour even a 22 foot-long Cryptoclidus.
High and dry: a male
Cryptoclidus hauls himself on to the beach for the night.
Although his four flippers enable him to move swiftly and elegantly under water, on
land they are cumbersome.
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
A
Danger from the Deep IULY
-
T I M E
T O
G R O W
CRUEL
SEA
It is a breathlessly hoi day on the small island . There is no wind and the tall
THE LAND OF SEA DRAGONS
thin conifers at the far end of the
A
island twist and contort in the heat ha / e. Most of the Rhainphorhvnchus have taken cover under the podocarps, except for those tending the more exposed nests. A number of the inexperi
enced mothers have built badly, placing their piles of vegetation
loo
-
near the
open on dark rocks. With temperatures well into the l ()0s even in the shade , their tiny clutches of eggs are in danger of overheating . Without
water or in the
cloud cover, many of these mothers will be unable to stand the heal and will soon abandon their nests.
On the coral headland several pterosaurs suddenly whistle in alarm . About
100 yards out. bobbing through the water, the grotesque head of a
Eustreptospondylus has appeared . This is the largest dinosaur predator on die
LTHOUGH BRITAIN DOES not
The first illustration of a plesiosaur bone
being exposed by the sea. Collecting In the
have the vast dinosaur beds ot
was made in 1604, and while the new study
1820s was so popular that many locals made
tt»e US, in one revp«t it Is rich
of natural sciences grew, collections of these
a living out of finding and selling fossils. One
in finds. Stretching from the
fossils were made. In 1 706 Ihe Ashmolean
of them, Mary Annmg, found her first fossil
Yorkshire coast near Whitby across central
Museum in Oxlord even published a
when she was 11 years old and went on to
England and down to Dorset, together with
handbook for their Identification. At the time
discover some of the finest marine reptile
patches in south Wales, are the exposed
most
remains of |urassic seabeds known as the
of prehistory and thought the finds were
dinosaur remains were correctly Identified
Oxford Clay. The ichthyosaur and plesiosaur
fossifized fish bones. In 1719 the first
and science acknowledged their role in
skeletons in this formation have been studied
complete khthyosaur was found and
evolution, the general public was already
in Britain for over 300 years.
identified as an extinct dolphin or crocodile
familiar with "sea dragons" from prehistory.
killed in the Flood. It was not until the early
At the end of the nineteenth century brick
nineteenth century that these creatures were
pits were opened up around Peterborough,
acknowledged as fish-like reptiles.
cutting into late |urassk seabeds. Once
Most of the first attempts at reconstructing
what fife might have looked like before the Flood" were dominated by vivid drawings of monstrous creatures which were simply described as sea dragons.
people believed in the biblical version
skeletons ever to be displayed. By the time
"
In Lyme Regis in Dorset earfy |urasslc
again, manne reptiles
seabeds form soft cliffs and are constantly
are found every year.
tumbled out and more
Vindelicischs and he has developed the ability to swim in order to island - hop in
search of food. Beneath the waves his back legs paddle quickly as his tail helps
him stay upright and on course. Because of the dangers of marine predators he has no desire to be in the water longer than necessary , and the draw of the island is too much for him to resist. Except for other Eustreptospondylus, he will face little competition for all the small pterosaurs, lizards, and mammals
that live on the Vindelicischs , and there is always a plentiful supply of marine Fossil marine reptiles were so common In
up on the shore. Despite his size , Eustreptospondylus is primarily a scavenger and will eat anything he finds on the
creatures washed
Britain that their existence svas well known long before anyone had heard of their terrestrial cousins. The name "ichthyosaur"
beach , from jellyfish , sharks, and fish to the odd stranded
was coined 20 years before "dinosaur.'’
marine reptile. The Eustreptospondylus strikes for shore . This to sink low in the waves. When he reaches a shal-
extending the long dark talons on the end and shaking vigorously. His tail flicks from side to side. It is badly deformed with a heavy callus bending it in
\
low, white-sand bay he draws himself out and
die middle, probably a souvenir of an attack by a marine predator. In die hot
'
pauses on the beach
has been a long swim and his head is beginning
to
recover. He is about lb
feet long and as he looks around the water streams off his gray, blotchy flanks. He stretches his
.
amis
up. He barks as if to greet his new residence and starts to move around the bay toward die headland , scanning the beach litter for anything edible.
sun he quickly dries and warms
131
% m
i
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
A
C R U E L
SEA
.
baby. The mother paddles slowly to the surface for air then hangs motionless as her body readies itself for birth. She twitches and a small cloud of red drifts away from her cloaca. This is followed by the tiny limp tail of the baby. For a moment
she remains like this, then convulses again and
turns to
dive down
to
the coral. When she does, she leaves behind a large plume of blood and a startled baby Ophthalmosaurus. Immediately, the little female heads for the surface
to
take her first breath of air. She is an only pup. but her mother will no
longer play any part in protecting her. Instead the adults will soon join the long list of predators that would be quite happy
to eat
the young Ophthalmosaurus.
.
Fortunately for this pup her mother quickly leaves the birthing area and heads the deep water
rejoin a pod. After filling her lungs, the baby dives dowm
back out
to
to
to
hide among the corals. She is
only about a foot and a half long and can easily use the caves and weeds as cover. However, even when she is sheltered among the rocks, she is not entirely
0
X
safe. The birth of so many ichthyosaurs has attracted the local population of
hybodont sharks. These predators are now patrolling the coral in large numbers, their yellow - tipped fins visible on the surface as they circle the birthing A decaying feast: a scavenging
Eustreptospondylus cleans out the inside of a turtle shell. Even
The whistling alarm calls spread through the Rhamphorhynchus colony.
Several adulLs circle around the predator’s head, flapping and screeching
to
though the carcass was
distract him. He snaps occasionally, but he is not listening to them because he
probably rotting by the time he
has caught the
picked up its scent, he will still
whistling, he stalks past the headland that holds many pterosaur
eat every bit of It.
steps
scent
of food in the air and he is hungry. To a crescendo of
gingerly dowm ( he rocks
to a
nests
and
small cove on the other side. He is already
drooling. There, in the middle of the beach, is the decaying body of
a
Hide and seek: baby
Ophthalmosaurus are quick and highly maneuverable.
With a beak full of sharp teeth, they hunt a range of small prey in the cracks and crevices of the corals.
huge
turtle. The Eusireplospondylus bends down and pushes his head into the halfempty shell. With a tug he draws out a large blob of meat and starts
to
feast.
No more than 200 yards from where the Eustreptospondylus is feeding, the last few mother Ophthalmosaurus are giving birth just below' the surface of the water.
One slows down and stops cruising over die reef. I lei body convulses a
couple of times as her abdomen prepares
to
push
out the
large occupant .
Visible beneath the pale skin of her underbelly is the writhing form of the 132
133
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
A
Ophihalmosaums. Allhough they would not touch a large mother, they frequently take the pups before they can even draw their first breath. Nearby, in the slightly
deeper
mother is giving birth, but it is
not
water
just beyond the reef shell, another
going well. Her body convulses repeatedly
Watching her struggle from below is a fully grown male Liopleurodon, all four flippers raised in attack posture. He is 80 feet long and weighs almost 150
. Each flipper
tons
measures more than 10 feet and at the end of his huge
mouth he carries a crown of dagger-like teeth for impaling prey. He could have
CRUEL
OVIRLIAF Out
SEA
of the deep blue:
a giant male Liopleurodon
launches an attack on an
Ophthalmosaums. The
ichthyosaur is more than
but there is no sign of the small tail. Idle baby is stuck further up the birth canal. The mother returns to the surface for air and her body is hit by another
been drawn
because he has a highly sophisticated method of smelling and tracing prey in
wave of muscular contractions. She is releasing blood now, but is still unable to
massive flippers, the
the water.
Liopleurodon can produce a
give birth. She is clearly exhausted, and again she returns to the surface.
to
the birthing Ophthalmosaums from as far as 150 yards away
He raises his massive head slowly and then drives his flippers down. When
he lurches forward, ammonites are
sent
tumbling through die
water
10 feet long, yet it Is dwarfed
by the predator. Using his four
terrifying turn of speed In pursuit of prey.
and fish
arc dragged off the coral in his wake. His moudi opens and snaps firmly shut
THE FOUR - FLIPPER PROBLEM
around the mid-portion of the struggling Ophthalmosaums. The power of the attack carries both his head and his prey clean
hang for a
moment
out
of the water, where they
.
before he brings both down with explosive force Among
all the spray and blood, bis victim dies instantly, her body punctured by his
IV
^
terrifying echo
1
repeatedly biting and shaking it. Eventually it breaks into three pieces and, „
grasping the front portion, he rises
from the past this complete
o
lloplfurodon skeleton dearly shows the
NE LOOK AT a plesiosaur
distincllve features of the pllosaurs. Note
have had a unique method of
its body into a reinforced bo«.
both flippers together if it was able to "porpoise," movrng up through the water on
the power stroke, gliding down on the
equivalent Although many marine creatures
water
have flippers, none have two equally
turtles do today. However, more recently it
passive return, and producing a characteristic
powerful pairs as these marine reptiles did.
was realized that plesiosaurs could not raise
undulating motion through the water.
their flippers as high as these creatures, and
to
the back of his
tion repeating the process. Meanwhile, the Ophthalmosaums' elegant crescent
speed However, the reptile might have used
the way the dippers of penguins and
the surface, flicking it
gaping pink throat and swallowing. He
the plates on the underside that help turn
swimming that has no modem
to
even rate, but it would not allow for bursts ol
skeleton shows that they must
Figuring out how these limbs work has
long teeth and her back broken. He adjusts her limp corpse in his moudi,
Plesiosaur skeletons support this theory.
returns
and picks up the second por-
tail quickly sinks, passing the coral wall and dropping 100 yards
.
of the sea The Liopleurodon
turns to
to
the bottom
chase it, but then decides to let it go.
While lie resumes his hunt, he slides through the from side
to
water,
moving his head
help him detect potential prey. His huge flippers displace with each stroke that they only have to move slightly to propel
side
to
tested scientists since the early part of the
the sea lion was suggested as the nearest
The flippers were attached to a rigid body
so much water
twentieth century. The first detailed study
equivalent because it moves through the
whose backbone was curved like an archer's
him forward at cruising speed. Only when he is ambushing prey do these flip-
suggested that they rowed through the
water in a sort of backward rowing way
bow an d held in position by reinforced nbs.
water, using their tapered ( Uppers like oars.
It was also noted that plesiosaurs had very
-
This would Iwve allowed the body to absorb
pers beat together. Like all Liopleurodon, this male is beautifully bi-colored, with black mark-
However, this would have made them poor
strong muscles for pulling their flippers
the stresses of a double stroke and might
swimmers who would have also found it
down, but relatively weak ones for the return
even have enabled plesiosaurs to use each
difllcult todrve . In the 1970s American
stroke. This suggested that while one pair ol
dipper independently. If so, they could have
palaeontologist fane Robinson studied the muscle attachments of the flippers and
limbs was pushed down, the second moved
cruised comfortably, turned quickly, and
no longer as risible as they once were. His
up passively, setting up an alternating stroke
accelerated with ease. Considering how long
deep scars from frequent
concluded that they worked like underwater
cycle between the two pairs. This cycle
they prospered in the oceans, the system
wings, powering the reptiles through
would have propelled lire plesiosaurs at an
must have been productive.
marine creatures capable of inflicting such wounds. .Also, he Inis collected the
134
the
ings on lop and white underneath. However, he is old and these patterns are encounters
flippers and head arc covered in
with other Liopleurodon, the only
usual range of “squatters” during his decades at sea. Along his ridged back bry 135
W A L K I N G
WITH
DINOSAURS
A
ozoans. anemones, seaweed , and even corals grow, and among them lampreys, leeches, and shrimps Iced . His eyes are encrusted with lice , but this docs not tations of worms in their nostrils and ears. These ailments can compromise
unlike adults , they have prominent teeth . Fully grown Ophthalmosaunis have
long , thin , elegant snouts ideal for snapping at small , soft prey while swimming
tively starving them
at
presents the pups with much more varied food , which their short-toothed jaw
Liopleurodon continues to hunt . A hundred yards below, by the coral wall , the
is better able to deal with . Those pups who have survived the first hazardous
provide a bounty for numerous bottom-dwelling crea-
weeks of life have done well on their seafood diet, doubling in size in a month .
tures. In particular, within an hour of the tail reaching the seabed , the first hag
-
Under a huge, spreading fan coral a male pup is tormenting a small
fish slithers out of the gloom . Eyeless and colorless, these scavengers have been
ammonite. Somehow he has succeeded in cornering the shelled creature so
trawling the deep sea for carrion since the very first fish evolved and they are
that it cannot escape into the open water where the pup would not dare put up
still as successful as they were more than 200 million years earlier. As long
a sustained chase. However, the ammonite has drawn in the hood dial covers
as there are messy predators like Liopleurodon in the waters above, these
Ophthalmosaurus with an impenetrable defense . He tries butting up against the rock and nibbling at the
A Precarious Home A
speed . Teeth would add weight and offer more resistance . However, the reef
While the light from above gradually fades with the coming of night , the
scavengers will continue to thrive.
-
.
their ability to hunt, and in the worst cases stop them catching anything, effec
remnants of his last meal
S E P T E M B E R
enjoy the wide expanses of their parents’ domain. However, they have adaptations to help them survive among the rocks. They are more
mottled than their parents, which helps them hide against the coral , and
to death .
R A C E
F O R
L I F E
SEA
sters will live to
concern him . However, all Liopleurodon occasionally suffer from heavy infes-
-
CRUEL
the opening
or its shell
and presents the
voting
At first light the female Cryplodidus is woken
Drawing up the defenses: an
by the scent of dinosaur. She has attracted
ammonite pulls its hood over
the unwanted attention of the hungry
Eustreptospondylus 100 yards down the beach . When she lifts her head , the predator runs forward. The Cryplodidus is larger and bulkier than the dinosaur and he would probably not attack unless she were visibly weakened through injury or disease . However, she reacts with alarm and drags herself back into the water as quickly its her flippers can manage. The predator slows even before he reaches the place where she has been sleeping. Then he stalks forward and sniffs the depression she lias left behind in the sand. Meanwhile, the Cryplodidus is gliding through a shoal of ammonites far out to sea .
the opening In its shell as a baby Ophthalmosaurus
approaches. Behind the hood lie a pair of calcified plates that
can be drawn together, providing an almost
impenetrable barrier to attack.
The waters around the Vindclicischs are now completely free of birthing
Ophthalmosaurus. The mothers have returned to deeper water, but they have left the reefs full of their pups. With the danger from sharks, marine crocodiles, and the occasional Cryplodidus, only a small proportion of these young138
139
W A L K I N G
WITH
DINOSAURS
A
closed hood. Each lime, the ammonite simply bounces around die coral and floats back upright. Eventually, the pup
turns
and darts up
to
the surface for a
The Vindelicisch island chain is split in die middle by a long, deep
channel that runs up from the Tethys for about 100 miles. Here, within a few
breath. On his return he finds the ammonite slowly squirting itself away from
Ophthalmosaurus grow, the caverns and tunnels of the coral
its coral prison. He snaps hold of one of its tentacles. The ammonite immedi-
reefs decorate the rim of this channel, but at the bottom of the abyss there is
are an ideal place for them to
ately
inside its shell and draws its hood back. The pup, however, does
hide from predators ' eyes.
nothing but a diick layer of mud full of creatures such as hagfish, which survive
not
let go and thrashes as the ammonite attempts to free iLs appendage. Finally,
on die rain of dead animals from the sunlit waters above. This was die route
die coral with a small tentacle
favored by the Ophthalmosaurus as they arrived to give birth, and now’ it brings
Within a few months, however,
they are large enough to survive in the open water.
the ammonite jerks free and die pup
dangling from his mouth.
returns to
SEA
water
Sheltering sky: while the baby
retracts
CRUEL
hundred yards, the depth drops from about 50 yards
to
almost a mile. Coral
other ocean-going creatures high up into the shallow seas. The channel runs close to the island, and on its eastern side
large ocean breakers crash
against the coral outcrops. Standing on these rocks, a Eusueptospondylus stalks among die spray looking for dead fish. He stops smashed ammonite and foolishly
to sniff a
turns
his
back on the ocean. Suddenly, a bow wave
sweeps through the dark blue
water
toward
the dinosaur. While it explodes, the mouth of a
huge Liopleurodon erupLs out of the
and clamps on
to
water
the Eustreptospondylus'
tail. The dinosaur dirashes around, scream-
ing in terror, but its fate is sealed. Effortlessly, the huge marine predator slides back into the water, dragging the luckless scavenger
to
his doom. Only a few minutes later the Liopleurodon resurfaces off
shore and there is no sign of the dinosaur. His wide flippers hold him steady in the
water as
he scans the surface. Because of his bulk it is often difficult
appreciate him in his entirety under
water.
However, on die surface die
to
Terror from the deep: a moment of carelessness and a
Eustreptospondylus is plucked screaming from the coral by a
giant Liopleurodon.
true
size and powrer of this predator become apparent. His black and white head is
almost 13 feet long, with a mouth only 3 feet shorter. At the end of his
snout
his ring of crown tusks are so long that they overlap. These tusks mean that even if he does not grasp his prey
cleanly, a glancing blow is enough
to
disem-
bowel it. This fearsome structure is held up by a massive neck suong enough
to
wield die head like a precision weapon. 140
141
WALKING
OPPOSITE
WITH
In the shadow of a
killer this male Liopleurodon
DINOSAURS
After a moment the giant predator slips back under the water, moving
seas. At 80 feet long, he is the
slowly over the coral until he spots the bright red and white swirls of a Perisphincles. I Ie twists his head to one side and plucks the huge mollusk from
largest and most powerful of
the reef . Manipulating it to the back of his month , he suddenly tenses his jaw
predators. The only threat he
muscles , producing a cloud of shell fragments. He releases the Perisphincles
is unrivaled In these ( urassic
faces Is a confrontation with another male of his kind .
-
and inspects his work. With another snap of his jaws , the giant ammonite disap
pears into the I .iopleurodon ’s throat and he heads ofT, leaving the shattered
pieces of shell still settling on the coral below. On the surface a pterosaur flock is oblivious to all this. They have been fish-
ing and are returning to their roost on the island . Kach pterosaur catches only one fish at a time. Despite a wingspan of almost 6.5 feet , their bodies are less
than one foot long and can hold only a small amount of food . On the low-lying
island the Rhamphorhynchus nests are empty. Within the last few days, all the
eggs have hatched. Each tiny pterosaur has immediately started flapping its wings and attempted to fly. For a while the yolk left in their stomachs has nourished them , but now they need food and they arc still not strong enough to fish for themselves. However, the sea is about to produce enough food for all of
them , which is why they have all been bom at precisely this time. Down on the
-
beach , in the late evening light , two small , dome shaped creatures, one riding
on the other’s back , shuffle out of the surf onto the land . They are the first of
thousands of pairs of horseshoe crabs crawling toward the island , preparing to mate on its white sands.
The tide is now at its highest, and as the full moon rises, the two long beaches on the southern and eastern sides of the island fill with copulating crabs. The few Cryploclidus waiting out the night on the sand find themselves surrounded by one of life’s oldest spectacles. Horseshoe crabs are not true
crabs. They are more like marine scorpions and are ancient creatures with ancestors going back 200 million years. They, or animals like them , have
probably been visiting beaches near here since before this land was flooded . Once a year at the full moon they must have drawn up on to the waterline of long-forgotten coasts that existed before the giant continent Pangaea formed. T hey survived the great killing before the dinosaurs emerged and have been 142
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
A
unaffected by ihc age of ihe reptiles. The mating ritual continues, an un-
stoppable primeval urge driven by the waxing and waning of the moon.
Ophthalmosaurus
The Gryptoclidus have no desire to eat these creatures, so they shift up the
start
to
flee the reefs.
These nurseries have now served their pur-
O C T O B E R
-
A
pose. Many of the pups are three
moonlight the smooth sand is covered with glinting domes stretching from
times the length they were when they were born. The hybodont sharks still
lays several hundred pearly eggs. The males fertilize these, release their partners, and return to the sea . Since more and more horseshoes arrive, the sand becomes too full with eggs and the females start
to
dig up each other's nests.
By morning, most of the horseshoe crabs have returned two litter
to
the sea. One or
tin* beach, exhausted or stranded after their night ’s exercise. Some
the baby Rhamphorhynchus, who swarm over the beach hunting for food.
patrol the coral, but the Ophthalmosaurus are now strong enough swimmers to
escape them. They are leaving die shallow
waters just
in time because this is
the beginning of the storm season. Although the passing of the Jurassic seasons ern landmass of Iaurasia becomes colder. I he Tethys Ocean next to it remains warm all year, while the winter takes hold in the east . The temperature difference between the two
While a
stream
is enough to generate stupendous storms.
high- tide mark . There are also thousands more eggs right beneath the surface,
The thudding of distant thunder becomes audible and the tranquil sea
and some pterosaurs scoop the sand in search of these.
dull gray. This is the sort of storm that has shaped the Vindelicischs. Plants and of the
podocarps. where he has been hunting lizards. He ignores the horseshoe
animals that cannot survive this onslaught do
Gryptoclidus head for deeper
water
stall to
not
pile up on the horizon. turns a
inhabit these islands. The
and the Rhamphorhynchus settle on the
crabs, since they have little meat on them, and instead strides along the beach,
trunks of the column pine and podocarps. The pterosaurs are particularly vul-
snapping up the pterosaurs. Many are able
nerable
to
fly away, but a large proportion
are still too immature and cannot crawl fast
to
the high winds. Their light-framed bodies do not survive long aloft
in 60-mile-an-hour
storms
long before the
chance is to cling on
to
predator is swallowing whole mouthfuls of spindly little bodies. Before the sun has fully risen, he has gorged himself, and still the beach is crawling
The waves begin
enough
to
escape. It is
not
the
to
Juveniles tend to have a more varied diet than the adults.
ride higher up the
beach, and white spume gathers over the shallower corals. Already the
has
water
up from the bottom. Even though it is mid-
fly and
afternoon when the storm hits, the clouds
.
have made it as dark as twilight. The rain
Not until they are fully grown will they become specialists at fishing. This
column pine bark for insects.
.
The crab eggs give the surviving Rhamphorhynchus just feed. While youngsters they will have a varied diet of insects and seafood
Rhamphorhynchus probes the
trees
turned opaque widi silt and the sand drawn to
Nursery food: a young
and their only
with young pterosaurs. what they need, a boost of easy protein while they learn
e0 *'
of Ophthalmosaurus pups head over the coral walls and
down into the deep-water channel, the clouds
out
S E A S O N
four
to
They feast on the exposed crab eggs that have formed a gelatinous line at the
All the activity on the beach draws the Euslreptospondylus
N E W
is marked only by small variations in temperature, the center of the huge east-
are upturned and hopelessly wave their ridged tails in the air. Dawn also brings out
SEA
The Storms Arrive
beach, their large flippers sending the crabs skittling in all directions. In the one headland to another. On the waterline each female crab digs a hole and
I ’
Around the middle of October the young
CRUEL
swipes at the pterosaurs huddled on liie
tree
avoids competition between adults and young on the small island, and prevents
trunks and the waves ride up between the
the adults preying on the young, which occurs in other reptilian species.
podocarps, tearing the ferns and club
moss 145
A
and draping them over the lower branches. At the highest point on die island the Eustreptospondylus squats down close rises. He has sal out
storms
-
low lying island on which
to
die rocks as the howl of die winds
.
like this before and although this is a dangerously
he knows better than
to stay,
to
take
to the water
in
at sea
the waves roll across the coral, plucking
Most of diose attached
to
SEA
Underwater (light: a
Cryptoclidus dives to the sea floor to pick up stones, which
he uses for ballast. In the background a second glides to
the surface for a breath of air.
search of a larger refuge. Out
OPPOSITE
CRUEL
at
the sea
.
creatures
During the storm, both seek
shelter In deeper waters.
rocks can resist the physical effects of die waves, but
with all the sand that is being moved around, many will have been buried
by the time the
storm
is over. Some of the larger ammonites, such as
Perisphinctes, cling to the rocks, but the others ride the jetting frantically to hold themselves in place.
waves back and forth,
.
S
It is a bad storm and it continues to pound the shallow' sea for three days
By die unie it finishes and the sun once again warms the land, the small island
i
is a mess. Except for a patch about half a mile square in the middle, the sea has
understory away, piling it up in large rotting heaps. The lower parts of the trees are festooned srilh a mixture of fern, seaweed, and the occaswept the entire
tional piece of coral. Along the lop of the beaches dead pterosaurs lie crum-
pled up with smashed ammonites and stranded fish. The Eustreptospondylus shakes himself and basks in the tropical sun. Soon the gentle breeze, which is draw's a pungent smell from the beach to the south. The Eustreptospondylus picks his way across die battered island, lured
all that remains of the
storm,
by the promise of carrion. When he reaches the coast , he finds plenty of small animals lying up and down the beach, but there is another smell in the air. He heads once again for the cove where he found the rotting turtle, and while he crosses
the headland, the source of the new odor becomes apparent .
Lying with his tail just in the
water
OVERLEAF
and his head and front flipper tangled
Flash point:
Eustreptospondylus are solitary
among die podocarps is the male Liopleurodon. From his position about 150
scavengers, surviving by
yards away the Eustreptospondylus can hear his desperately labored breathing.
swimming between small
Occasionally
a deep bellow of pain rolls out of the giant ’s mouth as his lungs
are crushed under the weight of his own
body. He swings his head and tries
to
Islands for food. However, the
huge Liopleurodon corpse on the beach has drawn several of them to the same island and,
shift his flipper Mature podocarps shatter like twigs, but the Liopleurodon is
despite the plentiful food,
stuck. At some point during die
fights are frequent.
storm
he
must
have become confused and
147
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
A
out of the water quick!) . They are exhausted after the long swim and would not
usually dare to challenge the incumbent scavenger, but with a mountain of flesh stretching across the whole beach die usual hierarchy before a carcass is
irrelevant and the first dinosaur ignores the intruders. While he pulls at the head , die odier two tear at the rear flippers.
Large, stranded reptiles are not unusual , especially after a big storm . However, to have such a giant creature on a small island is rare , and the delicate balance of its inhabitants may be affected for some lime. Within days, there could be as many as 50 Eustreptospondylus crowded around the corpse. They will stay there, fighting, eating, and mating, for as long as the food lasts , which could be six months. Worse still , when the meat runs out , the
Eustreptospondylus will probably strip the island of everything they can catch before another scent tempts them off.
BN evening there are seven Eustreptospondylus standing or sitting around the corpse . They have gorged
themselves and this hits made them lethargic. On a
*•
nearby headland the female Gryptoclidus draws T h e e n d I t nigh: a giant bull
ended up stranded. Now he is too heavy to crawl back into the sea and he has a
herself out of the water for the night . She raises her
Liopleurodon lies stranded on
short time to live. Not only are his lungs collapsing under the pressure, but in
head and sniffs the breeze. Her island is cloaked in
the warmth of the sun his bodv temperature is soaring.
unfamiliar smells: decav rising from the corpse , the
the beach after the storm .
Nothing will touch him while he still lives, but after his
weight crushes his lungs, the
Eustreptospondylus will tear him to pieces .
Another bellow tears from his lungs and he starts
to
bleed from the comer
predators, and ,
.
most of all the smell of
of his mouth . The Eustreptospondyius creeps forward slowly. He can smell that
blood . For a while, the lure of the I .ioplcurodon will keep her safe from
the huge creature is dving, but it is still capable of crushing him or tearing him
attack , but sooner or later the scavengers will have to hunt again .
in half should lie be foolish enough to get too close to those mighty jaws. The
Ironically, the Gryptoclidus salvation Ls likely
dinosaur holds back , waiting for the giant to die , intoxicated by the stench of
large number of Eustreptospondylus would not be able to shelter here
150 tons of meat.
and would either be swept away or have to swim for safety elsewhere. With
Despite the Lio pieu rodon’s terrible condition , it is four more hours before his head crashes to the ground for the last time. As the patient
several months of winter to go, another storm is almost guaranteed. This
Eustreptospondylus edges forward , he notices two scarred gray faces bobbing through the waves toward the cove, more of his own kind drawn by the
where animals such
scent of death . By now this huge carcass is probably attracting every
and wait for the storm clouds to gather once more in the east.
EiLstreptospondylus in the Vinclclicischs. The two new arrivals draw themselves 150
UIUSIN odor of the
*
to be another storm . Such
^
a I
will probablv refloat the I .ioplcurodon carcass and return it to the sea, its
the hagfish will be Lite eventual winners again . For now
the Grvptoclidus must simph steer clear of the unwelcome \ isitors to her island
CRUEL
SEA
, ath Bene , 3 1 2 7
A
M I L L I O N
YEARS
AGO
Giant's M Wings \
1J
*
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
T
_7
HE EARTH 1 ‘'
.
MILLION YEARS AGO
Tile
At the same time, the destroyers of so much
Cretaceous period has taken over from the Jurassic and the
Jurassic
world’s continents are on the move. From Laurasia tight down
and their place has been taken by smaller herbivores. In
through Gondwana a new ocean is opening up slowly, cleaving
particular, the ornithischian dinosaurs, that until now' had
.
flora , die massive sauropods, are in decline
;
what will become South America from its giant partner, Africa.
been relatively unsuccessful , have come to dominate the
Sea levels are high and the
plant-eating populations and move in
OIK
e-great landmass of Pangaea is
unrecognizable. The climate is becoming wetter and , along widi the isolation of continents, a huge number of new plants
vast
herds across
the lush Cretaceous landscape.
Other reptiles are changing
loo.
The old , “ long- tailed ”
Although flowering plants evolved during the early
and animals are appearing.
pterosaurs have disappeared , replaced by dying leviathans,
Cretaceous, conifers continued
to dominate the landscape for
The most significant newcomer is not another type of
some of which have wingspans of up to 38 feet. These huge
dinosaur. Instead , for the first time on earth , dowers have
gliding monsters are the pinnacles of pterosaur evolution , and
started to bloom . For millions of years plants have defended
as a group they have never been so diverse. However, formerly
millions of years.
X
:: '
:: King of the sky: a giant
Ornithochelrus soars effortlessly through the air. suspended by the warmth of a late evening thermal Sometimes he can .
themselves against grazing animals in as many ways as possible.
the sole masters of the air, they now have to make room for
Now dowering plants have adopted a new sU ategy. They grow
competitors, birds, a new' group of feathered dinosaurs, which
fast , reproduce fast , and recover faster after being eaten . In
is quickly proving itself to be more adaptable than the
essence , plants have found a new way to live with herbivores.
pterosaur group.
'
::
travel for over 30 miles with a
single wingbeat .
154
155
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
BENEATH
A
G I A N T ' S
W I N G S
WORLDS APART N THE EARLY Cretaceous period the
redwoods and cedars became more common
plants. The Impact of this group on both
movement ol the continents radically
and a new conrfer group, the pines, thrived.
plants and animals cannot be overestimated
remodeled He on Earth. Driven by
To the south the ancient podocarps and
( see The Arrival of Flower Power, page 182).
movements deep in the Earth's mantle, a
araucaria continued to do well and excluded
The advent of flowers is probably the single
other types of conifer.
most important evolutionary event of the
I
volcanic ridge that ran down between Europe and North America, South America and
With the changing shape of the continents
Mesozoic era. However, their initial
Africa, and around between Africa and
global weather also changed. The world
appearance as small shrubs in the Laurasian
Australia started to unzip the old landmasses.
became welter. The moist polar climates
All this activity in the crust periodically pushed
north. Stegosaurs declined, but their distant
omithomimids, fast -running omnivores, also
ornilhischian cousins became incredibly
appeared at about this time. The only group
successful and went on to dominate the
who suffered from this fragmented world
Hungry br iuly
Cretaceous herbivores. First there were the
were the giant sauropods, who went into
starfish are active
iguanodonllds, such as Iguonodon, which
sharp decline, except in South America.
gave rise to the duck- billed dinosaurs, then
.
I
f
predators that specialize In
In the warm seas, the Jurassic plesiosaurs
eating mollusks
.
the armored dinosaurs, such as Pofocanthus,
disappeared, and different species evolved.
marshes gave little indication of their later
such as oysters They pry open their victims'
and finally the homed dinosaurs which,
These new, four - flippered marine reptiles
shells, slip their stomachs inside, and digest
spread and the ocean currents running
success. It was not until the late Cretaceous
looked very similar to the old, except that
the creature where it lies.
up sea levels and allowed the Tethys Ocean to
through the Tethys brought a mosaic of wet
period that they began to dominate the
although non-existent at the beginning of the Cretaceous, formed vast herds by the end of
some took the long necks to even greater
flood land to both the east and west, finally
microclimates to previously dry equatorial
planet's flora.
this era. Among the carnivores, the allosaurs
extremes, with the elasmosaurs having as
had powerful claws to snip them open. Starfish
Isolating Laurasia to the north and Gondwana
regions. This led to a decline in some plants,
started to die out, but were replaced by a
many as 70 vertebrae in their neck. In the sea
used their arms to force the shells apart and
to the south. In all these new lands the
such as the cycads, but a boom In those that
of
variety of new designs The dromaeosaurs, or
specialized predators appeared to take
inserted their stomachs to digest the
animals and plants diversified and took on
thrived in marshy, damp environments. In
appeared during the early Cretaceous. The
raptors, were small, active hunters, while later
advantage of the abundance of sedentary
inhabitant within. Finally, marine snails
local charactenstlcs. In particular, the
particular, the early Cretaceous saw the
evolution of flowers was paralleled by the
the tyrannosaurlds evolved as giant meat -
bivalves, the mollusks that took sanctuary
developed the ability to drill small holes
north/ south divide was strong. In Laurasia the
emergence for the first time of flowering
success of one of today's largest groups of
eaten. The ostrich-like dinosaurs, or
between two hard shells. Crabs and lobsters
through the shells and lick out the insides. It is
Insects were finding new and varied ways preying on plants.
Aphids and leaf miners
insects, the hymenopterans ( bees and wasps).
not
Elsewhere, the feathered dinosaurs had
Above all this, the early Cretaceous was
evolved Into birds and spread across the
the heyday of the pterosaurs. The older, long -
globe. They appear initially to have thnved
tailed species died out and many developed
around lakes, and probably did well in dense
into huge gliders. Some of these had
forests. The bird's wing, made up of separate
wingspans in excess of 33 feel (10 meters)
feathers, was more resistant to damage by
and were specifically designed to gain lift
twigs and branches than the stretched skin
from the smallest of air movements. What is
of the pterosaur's wing.
most
Among the dinosaurs there was a radical
extraordinary about these gigantic
pterosaurs is not how they flew but how they
change in dominant groups, especially in the wasps arc part of a group of insects, Hymenoptcra,
with Asia. A rise in sea level
surprising that bivalves learned to burrow
managed to stay on the ground, especially if It was windy. Their wings were feeding
Fossils from Brazil show that the pterosaur
whose development appears
platforms which held aloft a small body and a
Taptjara had a sail-like head crest three to
to have been closely
large head. Palaeontological finds suggest
four times taller than its skull
related to the evolution
that most of the pterosaurs, large and small,
of flowering plants .
were manne species with a number of novel
The continents unravel:
thot ran dosvn between
during the Cretaceous period
Europe and North America
split the North American
the world major landmasses
Africa and South America,
continent In hall and
continued to subdivide Into
and around the southern-
allowed the Tethys Ocean
Conifers dominated the age ol
combs on Its beak to filter feed, like modem
smaller continents. This
most tip ol South Alrka.
to separate the northern
the reptiles, but it was not until
day flamingos. However, this may just be bias
break - up was driven by
Over millions ol years this
and southern continents.
the Cretaceous that the pine
in the fossil record because delicate fossils are
movement deep within the
movement opened the
This division led to the
family evolved. While many
almost always found around lakes and seas,
Earth’s mantle, which
Atlantic Ocean, Isolated
evolution of subtly
species died out with the
rather than in uplands that were subject to
weakened the crust and
Antarctica, and drove India
different flora and fauna in
success of flowering plants
created a volcanic ridge
north on a collision course
the two hemispheres.
pines continued to flourish.
's
156
.
feeding techniques, including one that used
.
-
erosion. Again, the lack of finds does not
prove that a creature did not exist
157
ft:
i
I
WALKING
W I T H
DINOSAURS
BENEATH
A Long Journey Starts T H E
T I P
O F
On ilic northern coast of Borborema a
a constant dull booming as
huge granite outcrop juts
been carved out beneath.
out
into the*
deep blue of the ocean. Rain and thou-
B O R B O R E M A
sands of years of pounding waves have
carved this dark rock into a series of spectacular pinnacles. From a distance
they
art *
clearly visible, bristling
at
the end of a long headland, but close
up they are even more impressive. Hundreds of small pinnacles are mounted on taller outcrops and these in turn build to the highest peaks, towering almost 2( H) feet into the air. Here and there among the rocks large blowholes
periodically send spouts of water up among the pinnacles and the waves make
S
most
fossil finds have been made in
North America and Europe, but new
digs on other continents are now
challenging this emphasis. Sauropods were
carnivores that could dwarf Tyrannosaurus.
about 11 feet (3.5 meters). Omithocherrui '
Evidence about the creatures in this chapter
weight h difficult to calculate, but he was almost certainty extremely light for his sIze, around 220
comes mainly from the Americas and Europe,
but each represents a group which appeared and became successful in the early Cretaceous.
once thought to have virtually disappeared by
the early part of the Cretaceous penod, but
the
water.
recent work has shown that they continued
wings. When he draws nearer, it is clear that he is an Omithocheirus, light gray on top
with
a
black , flecked pattern breaking up his outline. His long yellow
beak has a wide, keel-like crest
at
the end. However, the most distinctive thing
about Omithocheirus is his size. He is the largest pterosaur in the world, measuring 38 feel from wing tip to wing tip, a true giant of the air.
TAPEJARA
has demonstrated how successful the early
migrate huge distances. Their long, keeled beak could pluck fish from the water during flights EVIDENCE
Cantabria EARLY ATLANTIC
TE THYS OCEAN
Borborema
The Omithocheirus migrated across the Atlantic to Appalachia, and then followed the coastline to reach Cornubia ( now Cornwall) and Cantabria ( now Iberia).
158
rviofNCf
Herd- dwelling herbivore found on almost every continent, but the largest, distinguished by long fours, but could run on two legs W necessary
,
Numerous bone and footprint finds
Irom Mongolia to the American Midwest. The Very large marine pterosaurs probably able to
CornLibia
ICUANODON
i viDENCt
birds were, and Afnca may yet reveal large
A P P A L A C H I A
'r*
thumb spikes, thrived in Europe. Walked on all
to thrive in South America. Research In Chtna
Numerous fragmentary finds In Europe
Medium- sized Cretaceous pterosaur with a huge
and South America, mostly the Santana Formation In Brazil. Different finds were initially identified as separate species, leading to some confusion about the naming of giant pterosaurs Many names have been suggested, but
Santana Formation in Brazil.
Omithocheirus (the name given to the earliest
SIZE
find) seems likely to prevail. The huge size
with a body around 3 feet (1 meter) long.
attributed to the pterosaur is based on several
Although the head was only 12 inches ( 30 centimeters) long, with lire crest on top It was three times that length.
.
wing-digit fragments found in the Santana Formation and Europe SIZL A maximum wingspan of 40 feet (12 meters), but a total body length of only
display crest on its head. Tape/ aro lived on the edge of likes and Inland seas, and was probably a slow flier, not traveling large dlslances. tvioiNCE Beautifully preserved skelelons in the Wingspan ol around 17 feet (5 meters),
Mostly fish. TIME 120-110 mdlllon years ago.
DIET
WINGS
waves, slipping from one swell to another with no perceptible movement of his
,
Mostly fish and squid. TIMI About 125-110 million years ago.
S
A pterosaur appears, gliding effortlessly on the updraft from the
pounds ( 100 kilograms) is possible . His head was about 5 feet (1 5 meters ) long and when standing on all fours he would have been oil T
'
It is late afternoon and the warm winter sun throws an orange light across
about 10 feet ( 3 meters) tall ORNITHOCHEIRUS
GIANT
they rush along the tunnels and caves that have
THE SECOND FLOWERING OF DINOSAURS INCE THE NINETEENTH century,
A
best -known species, Iguanodon bernissartemJs, was identified from several skeletons found in a coal mine near Bemissart in Belgium. SIZE The largest species grew to over 30 feet (10 meters) long, standing10 feel (almost 3 meters) at the hip and weighing about 7 tons. DIET Ate most large plants, like cycads, conifers, or ferns, and could browse on vegetation up to 16 feet (5 meters) off the ground. TIME
132-100 million years ago.
UTAHRAPTOR
Possibly Ihe largest of the dromaeosaurs, a qroup of raptors distinguished by a vicious sickle claw on each foot A very successful carnivore that probably hunted in packs.
ft
One find In Dalton Wells Quarry near
Moab, Utah, but smcc America and Europe were close together during the Cretaceous, it seens
likely that Utahraptor would have been found on both continents - New evidence from South America suggests the raptors might have grown even larger than was previously believed. SIZE About 21 feet (6.5 meters) long It stood 6 feet 6 inches (2 meters) tall. An adull would have weighed almost a ton, and the toe claw was about 12 inches ( 30 centimeters) long. DIET Probably specialized In attacking large herbivores. TIME 112-100 million years ago.
.
SIZE
A heavily armored herbivore with a thickened
plate over its hips, spines running down the side of its body, and long spikes over its shoulders. Although probably solitary animals, they frequently grazed with Iguanodon herds. EVIDENCE Three fragmentary skeletons and many armor plates have been found In southern England, particularly on the Isle of WlghL
About 13 feet ( 4 meters) In length and 3 feet
y
(one meter) high at the hip, this relatively small
herbivore could still weigh up to a ton. Dirt Probably not choosy, but perfers ground vegetation. TIMI 1 32-112 million years ago, IBEROMESORNIS
A small bird that retained the dinosaur features of teeth In its beak and a daw on its wing. This feathered, strong flier may have lived in forests. EVIDENCE
-
A well preserved skeleton found in lake
deposits in Las Hoyas, Spain. SIZE
POLACANTHUS
H
A wingspan of about 8 inches (20 centimetres)
and vmghing perhaps 1 -2 ounces (a few tern of a gram), approximately the size of a goldfinch. DIET Omnivorous, feeding on any high-energy food it was big enough to tackle. The fact that remains were found in lake deposits suggests that aquatic crustaceans
may have formed part of Its dleL TIME 115 million years ago
u
r
> 159
.
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
B E N E A T H
When he reaches the outcrop, the air
currents
rise and sweep over the
rocks. Suddenly the pinnacles erupt into life. They are home
Tapejara, an
lo a
colony of
species of marine pterosaur. Although Tapejara are not dwarfed by the Omithocheirus while he sails over them. He
ornate
small, they arc
poses no threat, having a diet of nothing hut fish, hut Tapejara are excitable
and his presence makes them nervous. Just behind the oulcrop there is a wide open shelf area. Here the Omithocheirus stalls his flight and hangs in the air
before dropping clumsily on
to
his feet . For a
moment
A
G I A N T'S
W I N G S
he is an ungainly heap
of limbs and membranes, then he contracts his wings and flips his long wing
fingers over his back
to
adopt
light blue eyes, he looks back
a more comfortable sitting
at
position. With his
the chaos he has caused among the Tapejara
and leLs out a series of loud throaty clicks. Omithocheirus is a wanderer. His kind can be found in every comer of the
globe from north-eastern Laurasia
to
south-western Gondwana. Some have
even been spotted in the middle of the Panthalassa Ocean,
although they prefer
to stay near
land in case they
. Like all giant pterosaurs, Omilhochcims
encounter storms
is a
master
of the air currents. Although he can flap, his
whole body is designed
enabling him
to stay
exploit
LEU
Unwelcome visitor an
old male Omithocheirus
glides over a Tapejara colony on the northern coast of
of the air
Borborema, Although he
aloft with little efTort . Despite his size,
means them no harm, his
lo
contours
he weighs under 220 pounds. Most of his bones are no
sheer size causes panic and a
flurry of red display crests.
more than paper-thin tubes designed for maximum
strength and minimum weight . Some are even filled with
I1
air. His wing membranes cover an area of nearly 200 square
feet and arc filled with tiny muscle fibers that help him con-
trol their shape in flight . All this gives him an incredible
.
lift He does his best most of
avoid flapping at all and spends
to
his life hunting for warm air rising off the land.
Then, with the help of these “thermals,” he can soar, cir-
cling slowly upward
to
heights of over four miles. At diis
altitude he can glide without using any energy for almost 50
miles in search of other thermals. Below the resting Omithocheirus, the Tapejara are
calming down. This colony has about 1,000 members and it is mostly the males die giant pterosaur can see silting on
die pinnacles. Fully grown Tapejara have a wingspan of
about 16 feet. They live mainly on fish and, although the) often catch food
. they specialize in
at sea
combing the
nearby lagoons for washed-up carrion. What makes this 161
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
pterosaur
BENEATH
A
G I A N T'S
W I N G S
unique is iLs spectacular head crest lu the male a hard sail of bone ,
and keratin rises up almost a yard from the front of his beak, and in hill mating
colors it is flushed with black and red. 1 lie
crest
is so large that it has a pro-
.
found effect on the way Tapejara behave They are very slow fliers and when
the wind stai Ls
to gust,
the whole colony
turn
toward it
to
stop being caught in
the crosswinds. Although the immensity of these comes to mating and
crests
may seem like a handicap, when it
display it is clear that si /e
. This is the Tapejara’s
matters
breeding season and each male is lighting to occupy the flat top of a pinnacle, w here he shows off by waving and bucking his head. The taller the pinnacle, the more sought-after the site lx*cause the fenudes flv over the outcrop looking
.
for a mate, and the more obvious the male is, the better his chances There is
relentless competition between the males for these little theaters of display. The older and youngest Tapejara frequently have to make do with sites close to blowholes and near the waves. Not only are they nearly invisible if ) the females
here, but also they may be swept away by a wave in mid-display.
*
The Borborema granite is an extraordinary sight as the females circle before sunset . The whole outcrop is a frenzy of exhibitionism. Kach dark pin-
nacle is adorned with a black Tapejara flashing his brilliant
crest
and issuing
piercing calls clearly audible above the booming of the waves beneath. The females are in no hum
to
play while keeping an eye
choose their prospective mates, who continue out
for competitors who may try
to
to dis-
knock them ofT
their chosen pinnacle. This spectacle continues for about an hour, until sunset draws a curtain on the proceedings. Tapejara are creatures of the day, and they do
not
function
who spend
most
in a
wrorld without color. When darkness arrives, the females,
.
Face - off: two male Tapejara
ing through the colony.
size each other up across the
of this time of year feeding, land further dow n the clifT away
In the morning light , the male Omilhocheims grooms himself, running his
their hard-won pinna-
fearsome-looking teeth delicately through the light gray fur on his belly. He
from the display area. Meanwhile , the males sit light
on
cles. Then the whole colony goes quiet.
has been heading north along the coast of Gondw'ana for days and will use the
Borborema rock. Each male
fights to occupy the top of one of the pinnacles on the
outcrop. Although the confrontations are loud and
Twelve hours later, when the sun rises once more, hundreds of green eyes
granite outcrop as a thermal springboard while he continues toward the Tethys
aggressive, there Is hardly
open and spot the red ( rests of their competitors. The male Tapejara instantly
Ocean. His usually aimless wanderings are becoming directional as the mating
ever any
start
displaying again. It will be a while before the females take
the males react instinctively 162
his crest and those around him respond. Soon waves of red flashes are sweep-
to
to
the air, but
the sight of the colors. One male starts bucking
season
approaches. Omithocheirus may roam the planet
only on the island of Cantabria, about 1,860 miles
to
at
will, but they male
physical contact
between the rivals.
the north of Borborema. 163
;
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
BENEATH
activity and those animals, such as
ductive peak , but still he is driven back once every two years to do battle with
frogs, snakes, and certain mammals,
other males for his right to mate. Although there are no outward signs, over
which take to the air onfy
the last few weeks his body has been getting ready for this. Soon he will also dis
-
occasionally in order to move from tree to
play his bright mating colors, most noticeably his beak crest will flush red . He waits, watching the Tapejara’s extravagant mating displays, while the morning sun climbs higher in the sky and the thermals around the outcrop
tree, lend to glide. Full- time fliers, such as
birds, insects, and bats are more usually
flapping fliers, capable of powered ( light. It
may seem strange that pterosaurs should first
have evolved as small flapping fliers and,
grow stronger. About mid-morning he rocks back on his legs and opens his
millions of years later, have developed Into
wings
giant gliders.The explanation is that theirs
by
extending
his
arms
long wing fingers. In almost the same
was a sort of gliding that we can hardly
and
flicking
movement
out
his
he leans into
the breeze and jumps off the granite shelf. Conditions are per-
imagine today. Giant pterosaurs could still fly OrnJthochei / ui had a wingspan of nearly
anywhere they wanted. They simply
is either pushed up by a hill or clilf, or
abandoned the need to flap. The nearest
generated by the beat of the sun as a thermal
modem equivalent is probably something
updralt over sun-lacing slopes or dark
which to catch the lifting air currents. This,
like the stork, but this still does not come
patches ol ground. Pterosaurs might
together with their lightweight bodies,
anywhere near what an animal such as
deliberately have looked for cumulus clouds,
made them consummate gliders.
Ornithocheirus achieved.
which are a sure sign ol a thermal updraft, and then could have soared to heights of
40 feel ( 12 meters ), so had almost 200 square feet ( 20 square meters) with
suggested that taking off and landing could
fect . He immediately starts to climb, leaving the screeching
Tapejara far below as he banks into a light circle and soars higher. In the distance further clown the coast other large pterosaurs are also lifting off. Eventually, as the rising air weak ens, the Omiihocheims peels off and starts to glide north again .
Over water there are no thermals, but the giant pterosaurs
wing - loading, the ratio of the wing area to
3 miles (5 kilometers), enabling them to fly
be a problem and that pterosaurs would
the weight of the animal. Ornithocheirus had
for more than 30 miles ( 50 kilometers)
have had to leap off cliffs to become
the wing area of a small airplane, yet because
without flapping their wings once. Even over
airborne. However, with the lift their huge
of its hollosv bones and liny trunk, it
water, an expenenced glider can use the
wings could give ( hem, a light bree2e would
island-hop or glide all the way across from a high coastal ther-
probably weighed less than a human. The
dynamics of the air above the waves to
have been enough for them to take off .
mal , he will use what the water has to offer. He can get lift by
best gliding aircraft design can travel forward
remain airborne with little effort . It has been
Despite all they sacrificed to be
can still cross open seas. If the Ornithocheirus cannot
‘On a good day an
Ornithocheirus may
fly for 300 miles after flapping his wings
7;
only once to become
>1
airborne.’
lightweight, they maintained large heads and
pterosaurs probably did considerably better
long, strong legs. Their big beaks were often
can exploit “ground effect ," compressing a cushion of air in front of and below
than that . Coupled with this ability to fall
on the end of long necks and were probably
him to help keep himself aloft . He can also take advantage of the wind gradi-
slowly, they would also have been able to
essential if they were to catch food, especially
capture any rising air and rise very fast. If you
fish, on the wing. The legs were obviously
ents over the
know what you are looking for, it Is possible
used for walking but might also have allowed
closer they are to the surface. An Ornithocheirus flying near the surface can
to find rising air all across the countryside. It
them to leap and become airborne with a
rise into the faster air and the increasing lift will drive him still higher until he
few lazy flaps if there was no wind. Neither before nor since has Earth seen such
Cretaceous the short tailed pterosaurs took
-
consummate gliders, creatures that viewed
over from the long tailed varieties, and the
the world around them in terms o< moving
shape of their wings changed. They also
started to grow much larger
164
air masses that took them, like elevators and conveyor belts, anywhere they wanted to go.
if . 1
riding the windward side of waves and , by remaining very low,
1 3 feet ( 4 meters) for every yard it (alls. Giant
The new model: at the beginning of the
W I N G S
Cantabria , he has probably revisited it about 20 times. He is well past his repro-
LIGHT IS A HIGHLY specialized
Gliding ability depends on a feature called
G I A N T'S
This male is old , about 40 , and after spending the first year of his life on
GREAT GIANT GLIDERS
F
A
ocean. Friction with the water means wind speeds are lower the
loses momentum . Then he glides clown at an angle to llie wind , building up
speed and ready to repeat the entire process. M \ this means that on a good day an Ornithocheirus may fly for 300 miles after flapping his wings only once to become airborne.
165
WALKING WITH
DINOSAURS
BENEATH
Shelter from the Storm T H E
C O A S T
O F
A P P A L A C H I A
A
GIANT' S
WINGS
11 is a blisteringly hot clay and the
Snap shot: an Omiihocheirus
Omiihocheirus is fishing off shore,
beak plucks a fish from the water. The keel crests at the
tip
lit * Hies low over the waves, looking
help guide the beak through
for flashes of silver or surface distur-
the water, preventing twisting while the pterosaur strikes.
bance. He holds his long beak right above the water and when he sees some-
thing he dips it in quickly, snapping it shut the moment it makes contact with
prey. In this way he traps fish with his long, sharp teeth and then, with a flick of his head, throws them into his throat pouch, where he even before tant
they gel
to
starts to
digest them
his stomach. The keel-like crests on his beak are impor-
because they help keep it moving straight ahead when he dips it into the
water.
In such a delicateh balanced hunter, a force working sideways, against
the direction of flight , can be extremely dangerous, either tipping him into the water or
damaging his neck.
The Omiihocheirus makes contact with a squid. While he clips it water,
out
of the
.
its tentacles writhe and it blushes a deep red Then, in a blink, it is gone,
adding
to
and starts
the fish soup in the pterosaur ’s pouch . He to
turns
flap. The extra weight of fish has upset his usual effort less gliding.
While he manages a long slow' climb
to
the nearby cliffs, it is also cleat that the
heat is affecting him. His wings are paler than usual, indicating that he - has
beak
reduced the blood supply
tree
exposed
to
creatures.
to
his membranes. Willi so much surface area
the sun. overheating is one of the biggest problems for these huge
Reducing the amount of blood flowing through the wings helps, as
. He is nervous since
crests
the area behind the cliff is dense cycad and
fem forest and could be hiding all sorts of predators. From somewhere
beyond the forest he picks tip the distant nimble of a giant herd of herbivores. At the far end of the beach a river spills out, and where it
meets
the sea, the
does his fine pale fur. The air sacs throughout his body also help him lose heat
swirling currents have dragged the sand out into a long spit . On either side the
from his internal organs. However, when temperatures are high, he cannot fly
cycads give way
or fish for extended water on
periods without seeking shade. Smaller pterosaurs splash
their wings and quickly cool down, but this is more difficult for the
He lands
at
the end of a long bay on top of the heavily eroded sandstone
cliffs. After he has slowed liis wings, he gently wafts his giant wing lingers create a
to
low thicket fern and lush riverhank plants. While the
OmithocheiriLs watches from its elevated position, a single adult Iguanodon strides out of die ferns onto the beach. She weighs about six
tons and
is 22 feet
long, a fine example of an extraordinarily successful group of animals. The
cumbersome Omiihocheirus.
to
cooling breeze around his body. He is on the southernmost tip of
Appalachia, several hundred miles nearer his breeding ground than Borborema. Dark red mating colors are just beginning to stain the rim of his 166
m
toward the shore
brown and white stripes down her back mark her as an Appalachian
Iguanodon, hut her relatives can I K* found on most continents and sometimes in herds of thousands. She
tm ns
and rocks back on her hind legs, rising to her full height of about
16 feel off the ground. She calls and then heads toward the river. Soon the rest 167
BENEATH
of the herd appear from the forest edge. One by one they file out on to die
-
beach . Walking slowly on all fours, diey vary considerably in size from 6 foot-
long yearlings to old males almost 16 feet in length . The juveniles try to keep up with the adults by trotting around on two legs. All Iguanodon are capable of walking on two legs, but the adults do this only when fleeing. Unlike the
young, diey spend
most of their time on all fours,
A
G I A N T ' S
orposru
WINGS
In the late evening
light an Appalachian Iguanodon stops (or a drink. This Is a fully grown female and her long, defensive thumb
spikes are clearly visible.
grazing. Some of die larger
animals have detached themselves from die main herd and wander alone as outriders. Perhaps they are diere to give the herd early warning of danger, or
perhaps because they are less vulnerable than the smaller animals and do not need the protection of the herd , they can get a better choice of plants by forag-
ing away from the others. Soon the single file becomes a mass of white-and-
-
brown striped bodies gendy rocking from side to side as they walk. The herd is using the beach because the river is at its shallowest here, and on the other side lies a large expanse of lush grazing. When more animals
cross, the estuary is increasingly churned up and the sand starts to liquefy.
Soon the smaller animals are in trouble since they do not have the strength to
pull dieir legs out of the quicksand. Though die bray of worried juveniles fills
i
the air, the adults continue walking, dragging their limbs through the sticky
1
mud , seemingly oblivious to the mounting number of drowning youngsters. It
takes about an hour for the whole herd to cross, and by the end. a dozen
young Iguanodon have lost their struggle with the sand. While the llow of the
-
river smoothes over the beach , it obliterates all the evidence of the herd ’s pass
ing and the youngsters are slowly buried. The rest of die herd head for die lush flood-plain vegetation . Iguanodon
are extraordinarily adaptable herbivores, which pardy explains their success.
They have a wide, homy beak that can crop low plants or pick at higher shrubs and trees. Unlike other dinosaurs , they have evolved batteries of teeth at the The herd thunder by:
back of their mouths , which allow them to chew. Chewing means the plant
ovmilAf
food is processed before it goes into the stomach and this speeds up the whole
beach in search of new
process of digesdon. Iguanodon hands are also a miracle of adaptability. The middle three digits are wrapped logedicr by a fleshy pad and provide a strong , load-bearing base to die front limbs. This is especially important in this species
grazing . When moving slowly,
Iguanodon move along the
adults usually walk on all fours, but if they need to hurry, they
can rise up on two legs.
169
=_ — ==E
W A L K I N G
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
BENEATH
because they spend so much time walking on all fours. Their litile finger is held ofT die ground and is highly flexible, helping them grasp food. Finally there is the thumb, which has evolved into a long spike that can become a fearsome weapon in defense.
The herd will have a profound effect on the Hood plain , eating or crushing most of the available
plants. In fact , there are clear signs that this herd , or one
A
G I A N T'S W I N G S
like it, has been here before. The plain is dominated by a shrub called Protoanihus, which is distinctive because from its stems hang small , white flow ers. Flowers and flowrering plants have recently evolved and are widespread
only in the equatorial regions. However, in a short time they have proved extremely successful , especially in lush lowland areas. Their secret is not some new poison or extra spines to make them unpalatable to dinosaurs. Instead ,
they seem to thrive on being grazed. Protoanthus produces
T O CHEW OR N O T T O CHEW
E
VER SINCE ANIMALS first crawled
Running along the length of the skull was a
out of the sea and onto the land ,
hinge, which allowed the upper jaw to flex
plants have been a difficult source
Checking with the wear patterns on the
of food , especially when compared
teeth, Norman suggested that Iguanodon
many seeds, each with enough nutrients to give the seedling an early boost . That means that if grazing flattens an area , Protoanthus is often the first plant to reappear. Even if substantial parts of a Protoanthus shrub are eaten or dam aged , it can still grow back from different poinLs on the plant ,
to meat. Vegetation was full of indigestible
chewed by pushing its lower jaw up inside Its
cellulose, frequently protected by armored
upper jaw, wh*ch then flexed outward to
recovering betLer than other plants. Finally, it grows fast and is
bark or spines, and could often produce a
allow the teeth to grind together. Watching
quick
range of poisons to deter the herbivore. Over millions of years animals have had to show
an Iguanodon Idly chewing on its food, you would have seen the bottom jaw moving
endless adaptations and innovations to
In order to chew, Iguanodon must have had
overcome these plant defenses. Eventually
some kind of cheek, otherwise the food would have fallen out the sides of their mouths. This baffled scientists for years because no modem reptiles have cheeks
their guts had to become complex
processors, extracting nutrients from fairly
to
produce seeds. Protoanthus have found a unique way
to live with the
impact of herbivorous dinosaurs, and wher-
rhythmically up and down, and the sides of
ever these appear in large herds , you are likely to find plants
its head gently expanding and contracting.
such as Protoanthus. Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of
Although there are many theories about why
this plant is also the most obvious, the color of its flowers. In a
the omithopods were so successful in the
‘In a world dominated
the greens and browns
of ferns, conifers, and
cycads, the pale white blooms of Protoanthus
light up the landscape.’
Cretaceous, it Is highly probable that their
world dominated by the greens and browTis of ferns, conifers,
of the side of the mouth. Crocodiles, lizards,
secret was as mundane as they
and cycads the pale while blooms of Protoanihus light up the landscape.
stomachs were vast stone containing
and turtles, for example, have no facial
learned to chew their
fermentation tanks, but they (fid nothing to
muscles. Mammals are unique in having such
food welL
help prepare the food for digestion .
expressive muscular faces, of which cheeks
haze of white Protoanthus. Insects are ihick in the air. attracted to die pollen
are an integral part. However, the Iguanodon
on the flowers, and angry clouds of them rise and fall as the giant reptiles work
skull shows that its teeth were set on the
their way from plant to plant. To the Ornithocheirus, sitting on the clilT a mile
unpromising material. Sauropods, the giants
of the ) urassic, succeeded because their
-
In the early Cretaceous the omithopods,
the group of dinosaurs that included
-
inside of the jawbone, leaving room for
further. They learned to chew. An Iguanodon
some sort of cheek, even if it was just
away, the mass of striped dinosaurs seems
skull shows a beak at the front for cropping
skin drawn between the jaws.
watches the herd while he strums his enormous wings to cool down.
The second problem was the gnnding
similar to that of a modem-day grazing
movement of the jaw. In mammals the
mammal, such as a horse.
lower jaw Is free to move from side to side,
Although this may sound obvious, for
many years the question of how dinosaurs
enabling them to chew. Dinosaur jaws could
move only up and down . A careful study of
chewed baffled scientists. In order to chew
the Iguanodon head by paleontologist David
you need cheeks, otherwise the food falls out
Norman revealed how the herbivore coped .
to float
on a sea of white froth . He
On careful examination another type of dinosaur is risible mixed in with
the Iguanodon . There are only a few of them and they are smaller than the Beautifully preserved skulls have
allowed scientists to recreate the way Iguanodon jaws must have moved to enable
them to slice up their food.
Iguanodon and heavily armored. These are Polacanthus, and almost every centimeter of their backs is covered in huge thick spines, except for an area over the rump, which is one solid bony plate. Even the tail has spines running down either side of it . All this makes Polacanthus a formidable prospect for any
172
I
I
The Iguanodon herd fan out onto the flood plain to graze . Before them is a
Iguanodon, took food processing a stage
and ranks of teeth at the back for sheanng,
by
173
WALKING
W I T H
D I N O S A U R S
BENEATH
A
G I A N T
'S WINGS
£
predator and explains win iliev are principalis solitary. However, it does explain why they are frequently seen mingling with Iguanodon herds. The
AN OLD FRIEND OF PALEONTOLOGISTS
W
ITH THE ARRIVAL ol
CY
not two
species pay little attention to each other and it is difficult to understand what advantage the association has for both animals. One theory maintains that
the now millennium,
Iguanodon will have Its own celebration. It is 175
together they are better at spotting predators because their senses complement
years old. This early Cretaceous herbivore has
a special place m the history of
each another. An Iguanodon can rise on his hind legs and has good eyesight
palaeontology since It was only the second
and hearing. A Polacanthus, on the other hand, stands low to die ground, and
Eating alone: a Polacanthus
has an exceptional sense of smell. Often they can sniff out predators that are
grazes on the edge of the river.
dinosaur to be named, tn 1825 surgeon Dr.
The first reconstruction of Iguanodon, by
surgeon Gideon Mantell, was based on
Gideon Mantel! identified teeth found in
hidden from the Iguanodon in the undergrowth .
the skeleton of a modem llzaid.
waste rubble in Sussex, England, as
\
Mantell placed the thumb
belonging to a new species of reptile. It
spike on the nose, like a
looked as if they came from some giant lizard
rhino hom
^
(
like an iguana. Mantell called their owner
Iguanodon, or "iguana tooth," 16 years before the term dinosaur was even invented.
Iguanodon became famous as a pre-Flood
*
monster and in 1851 had pnde of place In
the Great Crystal Palace Exhibition.
In 1878 an extraordinary discovery down
Alter several skeletons were found down a coal mine In Belgium in 1878, Iguanodon s 1
The brick model still exists in London and
a coal mine In Bernissart, Belgium, produced
look was revived. The scientist reposed him
shows the rrmlts of scientific knowledge at
more than 30 fully articulated Iguanodon
in an upright stance, but to do this the tail
the lime. What was later proved to be
skeletons. It took three years to remove 130
had to be dislocated
Iguanodon' s thumb spike was placed on its
tons of fossil material from the mine. Work by
nose like a rhinoceros horn and the creature
the paleontologist Louis Dollo completely
placed the spikes on \guanodon's thumbs and
is posed as a heavy quadruped.
changed the Crystal Palace look. Dollo
made rt into a giant biped. This became the classic image of Iguanodon for most of the twentieth century, standing upright next to
The first bit of Iguanodon found was Its tooth in 1825 Gideon Mantell identified lls simi
-
its favorite conifer, giving artists the thumbs-
larity to a modern-day iguana, hence the
up with its spikes. However, in fact, Dollo
name "iguana tooth."
had broken Iguanodon' s tail in order to get it to stand like this.
In the 19705 Iguanodon went through
another makeover and is now reconstructed into something between a four -legged and a
-
two legged creature. Us spine is believed to
have been held parallel to the ground, and
although It was capable of moving around
.
During the Great Exhibition of 1851 In
on two legs, while It walked and grazed It
London, dinosaurs were the star attraction,
would have been on all fours. This Is a unique
with several life-size models being built for the occasion.
form of locomotion that has no modern counter parL
These armored dinosaurs have
.
a formidable array of defenses
Hk.
BENEATH
accessible from the land , an ideal spot for sitting
A
GIANT'S
WINGS
out
a storm. Right after sunset the storm rolls in from the east ,
pushing giant waves before it . Rain hammers down on the cliff and torrents of water sweep over the sand stone. Tlie Ornilhoc heir us ducks his head and
clings
on in the darkness, his wing lingers drawn down tight
over his back. While the wind and rain scour the cliff, the pterosaur is quickly soaked and the fine gray fur
across his back and wings becomes sodden . Although
the min is warm , with all the wind his body tempera -
drops and he faces the opposite problem to the one he had a few hours before . Once again he controls the blood flow to his wings, this time to reduce heat ture
loss, and he twitches his massive flight muscles rapidly,
T»
which helps maintain a core body heat . He is shivering, and just audible over the rage of the storm is the sound of his beak chattering.
By morning the storm has blown
LIFT
out and a cool
breeze wafts in off the sea. After such a violent night , the huge pterosaur is cold and bruised. While the sun rises over the sea, he opens his wings to welcome it ,
desperately accepting any warmth in its thin early rays. Fortunately, the sun strengthens rapidly, warming the
Dangerous games: a
young Iguanodon plays with a Polacanthus. These two species
seem to have a great tolerance
tor each other, which could be based on mutual protection. Iguanodon have good vision and Polacanthus a superb
sense of smell.
rocks around him . Soon he relaxes and starts to groom represent serious danger. Tropical downpours and high winds can knock
himself, repairing the storm damage. It is clear from his movements that the
pterosaurs out of the sky and even on the ground they need to seek shelter
old pterosaur is suffering from arthritis. Having become so cold in the night ,
from these conditions. The Ornithocheirus defecates the remains of his morn-
his huge finger joints must ache badly. He inspects each wing closely and
ing catch , flicks his wings out , and leaps into the sticky air. Ho drifts along the
runs his long beak over their surface like a rake . Like most large pterosaurs, he
cliff edge, his huge wings lifted by the tiny breeze rising from the waves below. After a few minutes, he finds what he is looking for, a long overhang in the
almost certainly has parasites hanging on to his wings. One in particular, called
sandstone rocks. It is high enough to be clear of the waves but not easily 176
Saurophlhirus, lives only on pterosaur wings. Saurophthirus is a colorless little insect about an inch long. It has no wings, long legs with hooks on the end . 177
i
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
BENEATH
A
study fossilized insects from llw
explained in only one way. It must have been
surface as it probps the sparsely haired bat 's
a pterosaur parasite.
wing for blood vessels to drain. It does not
Mesozoic, there is little doubt
that the giant reptiles were
This 1-Inch (2-5-centlmeter) - long
G I A N T'S
W I N G S
and sharp sucking moulhparis. Its entire life is spent hooked on to a pterosaur,
PARASITES ON THE WING MONO SCIENTISTS WHO
A
-
venture near the hairier parts of the bat
creature comes from the Cretaceous rocks of
because its legs are too long and would
plagued with mites, ticks, and all sorts of
Transbaikalia in eastern Russia and has been
become tangled up in the hairs.
biting creatures. Despite the dinosaurs'
called Saurophthirus. It has no wings, long
tough, scaly skin, these parasites regularly
drilling the wing membrane for blood vessels. It is important for
keep himself well groomed, because large populations of Snurophthirus can seriously weaken him and impede his ability to fly. Even Omithot heirus
to
worse, badly infested pterosaurs are
rarely picked as mates during breeding dis-
The wing of a pterosaur would have
plays. By running his teeth through his fur he can break the legs of these para-
legs ending in hooks, a long proboscis, and a
offered exactly the same opportunities to
sites and, although he will never eliminate them, this keeps the numbers down.
sought out the soft spots around their eyes,
soft body that could have been distended for
Saurophlhirvs. There would have been very
In their ears, and between their scales in
fluid feeding. For an insect, all these are
little fur and an enormous expanse of skin
order to extract the blood on which they fed.
adaptations to a parasitic way of life.
filled with blood vessels. If this link is correct,
Unlortunately, short of finding a mite
Although not related, Saurophthirus also
then It is highly likely that grooming to get
fossilized in dinosaur skin, it is difficult to
bears an uncanny resemblance to the
rid of these unwanted parasites was an
prove the link. However, from an old lake
modem nycteribiid parasite that specializes
important part of pterosaur behavior.
bed in Russia comes one fossilized insect
in
whose odd physical appearance can be
long legs help it remain steady on a moving
Methodical grooming occupies the old male until mid-morning, by which time the sun’s heat is driving invisible thermals high into the air all along the
. The sight of large numbers of pterosaurs soaring above him tempts the Omithocheirus off the cliff and into the warm air. Immediately he starts to rise*. coast
Dipping one wing, he
feeding on bat wings. This little creature's
he is ready
to
turns
his flight path into a tight spiral upward and soon
continue his migration toward his breeding ground.
Cornubia is like a massive fortress in the middle of the Tethys. All along its western coast,
sheer cliffs rise
out
1
of the
ocean, sometimes as high as 1,300 feet. The
The Time is Near
waves that batter these cliffs have to run the
gauntlet of hundreds of jagged black rocks,
T H E
I S L A N D
O F
b
>
C O R N U B I A
and the waters of the Tethys are churned up
'
into a thick froth.
Despite its forbidding appearance, Comubia is a sanctuary for migrating giant pterosaurs. Its warm black cliffs insect has been found. In form It Is similar to a common type of bat flea, but there were no bats In the Cretaceous, only
hairy pterosaurs.
create
huge thermals that give the
—hop between continents. Thousands crowd onto
pterosaurs a lift as they island
its ledges and fish in iLs violent
Toward the
.
waters
center of die island is a
su ing of dark, freshwater lakes from
which die pterosaurs dliuk. From his position high on a coastal dienmal, the Pterosaurs, especially the large ones, woukf
have found it difficult to fly in the rain. While
old Omilhocheirus can see them and he slowly
starts to
descend. His migra-
grounded, thry might have spent time
tion is almost complete. Cornubia is only a few hundred miles from Cantabria
grooming, since flight, and possibly success at mating, depended on their delicate wings
and his body is preparing to breed. The crests on the end of his beak are bright
being in perfect condition.
red and inside he is weighed down by the growth of his testes. He needs to feed these changes, and one way
to
do diis without expending too much energy is 179
W A L K I N G
W I T H
DINOSAURS
to get other pterosaurs to do the
hunting for him .
Below him the lakes are well slocked and a number of smaller pterosaurs
are busy fishing, in particular groups of juvenile Omithocheinis. When they skim above the glassy lake , the old male slows his descent . One of the young
Ornilhocheims strikes the water with her beak and then flaps quickly to rise
up. In her mouth is the silvery glint of a fish . The male tucks his wings slightly and drops toward the laden pterosaur as she heads for the shore. Showing remarkable agility for his size , the male sweeps in front of the surprised juvenile , issuing a series of aggressive hisses. She drops the wriggling fish on the
beach and the male swiftly claims his prize. He will spend most of the dav
doing this and , although bullying smaller pterosaurs consumes energy, he has a much higher success rate than if he were fishing alone.
Being cut off from the marine environment by the cliffs, these lakes have
developed unique residents. In particular, they are dominated by large , predator)' turtles. Most of the time these unlikely killers litter the beaches, sunning themselves, and seem somewhat slow and cumbersome compared to other
aquatic predators. However, in the dark waters of the lakes thev are highly effective ambush hunters and only a few fish escape their powerful jaws. The island itself is big enough to support large numbers of dinosaurs. In its
uplands there are thick forests of Huon pine and cycad . Huon trees have an unusual way of colonizing new
'
areas. Low branches grow from
m '
.
graze. They arc a different species to the ones in Appalachia. They have deep
Rogue male: even on their own
the ground , roots sprout down
green scales and are less bulky around the neck , but fully grown they arc larger,
Iguanodon are capable of
into the earth . Over many years
weighing about 7 tons. Most noticeably, they have more powerful forearms
most predators. A male like
equipped with longer thumb spikes.
this one can weigh more than
the trunk and , where they touch
a new tree is established and
.
then reproduces itself in the same
These herbivores need to IK strong because this island has large and power-
way. On Comubia some of these
ful predators. In particular, Utahraptors stalk the Iguanodon herds on
forests are very old , and in some places one original tree and its clones
Comubia. As a group, the raptors are successful carnivores, with different
cover whole hillsides. The lowland areas are filled with ferns , bennettites, and
species spread through Laurasia and Gondwana. Most hunt in packs , but this is
large patches of flowers. Through these meadows small herds of Iguanodon
less common among the larger animals. Unfortunately for the prey here .
*
protecting themselves against
7 tons and rear up to a height of 16 feet .
181
W A L K I N G
W I T H
BENEATH
D I N O S A U R S
A
G I A N T' S
W I N G S
Utahraptors arc large, about 19 feet long, and they hunt in packs. *
THE ARRIVAL OF FLOWER POWER
T
About a mile from the lake where Lite old Orniiliocheirus is bullying for bis capable of sprouting and forming a new
angiosperms, dominate nearly
plant. From this innovation blossomed a set
every habllat on Earth. From
of characteristics that transformed the
palms and cactus lo beech and
world's vegetation.
they shape the green landscape we see. Yet,
quicker to colonize areas that had, been
lor most of the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs lived
cleared of other plants. They grew lo seed
a green and brown world with no flowers
.
at all and
.
During the jurasslc period, the sauropods
developed mass grazing to a new level.
to have been an observant botanist lo spot
.
in
a world full of established coniters, ferns,
This 140- mllllon- year -old fossil, found by American and Chinese scientists in Nanjing,
Uiahraplors make slow progress toward
Utahraptors are truly beautiful predators. They are covered in a well-
started to contnbute to the flowers' success
tlowering plants did appear, you would need
two
their quarry.
damage. Then a number of outside factors
However, in the early Cretaceous, even when
one They evolved as small marginal shrubs
the Iguanodon, in deep shadow,
faster and recovered more readily from
they certainly never saw any grass.
Iguanodon are idly plucking saplings from between the bare rocks. It is late afternoon and the long shadows thrown by the rocks hide danger. Right below
For whatever reason, angiosperms were
oak, Irom heather moors to wide grasslands,
in
supper, a low outcrop of granite backs up against the Huon forest. A herd of
ODAY FLOWERING PLANTS, or
Herds moved through an area, churning the ground with their feet and decimating the
.
defined black and yellow pattern with a pale cream underbelly Their sleek,
well-muscled bodies are held in perfect balance by a small, highly mobile tail that constantly adjusts and readjusts as the animal slinks forward. Each
Utahraptor weighs almost a ton, and if they surprise an Iguanodon , the Iguanodon will be lucky to escape. Their heads hardly move when they walk
and cycads - The first flowers were not only
is the oldest known flower. The blooms are
vegetation. This "dinolurbation" would have
small, they probably had no scent or color.
small and likely to bo wind-pollinated.
left behind ideal environments for flowers to
and their eyes remain locked on the prey ahead. Their forearms are tucke d tip
The mystery Is why this rather unassuming
Insect - attracting flowers evolved only later.
exploit . In the early Cretaceous the climate
high, with their long grappling fingers held against their ribs. Each step reveals
over most of the Earth's land surface became
new group of plants eventually took off with
by insects, or contracting a fungal infection.
moister, and in many areas lush vegetation
others to extinction. The scientific
The male pollen can only fertilize such a
developed. Competition for light became
definition of an angiosperm
plant by landing in the right place and
more Intense, whkh also suited flowenng
growing a tube into the ovule down which
plants.
such vigor that they drove so many
Is that it has covered ovules.
This means that the lemale
reproductive parts are
the sperm can pass. The seed that then forms
Finally, as the Cretaceous progressed,
has its own food supply and when dropped is
flowers developed a closer relationship with insects. With their protected ovules, they
covered by special tissue
a flash of the long, black claw on the second
toe,
predators.
5
These raptors have obviously spent some lime working their way around
this position because the
rest
of their pack is still on the edge of the forest.
They are both females, and female Utahraptors do most of the hunting. Somewhere nearby will be a dominant male, but he will rarely hunt. If a kill is
needed to ensure that the pollen grain
first Mesozok varieties, however, some
reached the right place. Insects already
made, he will claim his share and save his energy for the challenges that come
species, including magnolia (illustrated
visited flowers to eat the pollen and then
from other males. The two stalking Utahraptors reach the edge of the outcrop
carried the excess from one plant to another.
unnoticed. The Iguanodon arc slowly moving away from the predators and the
Ihclr lineage back to the time of : hc dinosaurs
Flowers started to produce nectar to attract insects, who became regular visitors. When
distance the raptors will have
flowers developed color and scent to make
Utahraptors do
themselves even more attractive, Insects such as bees came to specialize in feeding on nectar. This process, called co-evolution,
benefited both organisms. With so much
working in their favor It Is not surprising that flowering plants were so successlul.
v
to
Modem flowers are very different from the
below) and drimys (a flowering evergreen),
Kh
distinctive of this group of
not
to
sprint once they arc in the open is increasing.
usually pursue their prey for any distance and the
Iguanodon could soon outpace them, running on their long back legs. It is time
.
to attack
The larger female springs silently onto die outcrop and heads for the herd.
She has chosen her victim, a sturdy subadult on the edge of the group. She is
spotted immediately and the Iguanodon
start
their screeching bellows of
alarm. The rest of the Utahraptor pack appear from the forest, but die herd is 183
WITH
W A L K I N G
OPPOSiTf
Elegant killer a
Utahraptor stops for a drink. He is constantly alert and the
DINOSAURS
already striding away toward a large meadow of while Protoanthus. Most of the
Utahraplors are out of the chase before il even starts, but the lead female man-
midday sun betrays the tools
ages to gain on the Iguanodon before lie can get into his stride. She leaps.
of his trade, his slckle - llke toe
While she travels through the air, her long fingers, tipped with hook-like daws,
claw and long, grappling
spread out . Her legs come forward, and as she lands on the Iguanodons rump, she tries to drive her lethal hind claws into his flank. However, die leap was mis-
hands. This species is the
largest of the raptors, standing
.
almost 7 feet high
timed. Her feet fail
to
find their target and, although the Iguanodon stumbles
.
when she lands on him. he remains on his feet While her claws rake across his
back, his bellows turn into an ear-splitting scream. 1 Ie rears and bucks in a panicked frenzy. The predator loses her grip and tumbles
to
the ground. She
instantly springs up again, but she is in a dangerous position, right in front of the Iguanodon. He rises up and knocks her back down with one forearm, then ,
swinging the other across, drives a thumb spike deep into her shoulder. The
Utahraptor breaks free and scrabbles away, one arm dangling uselessly. The Iguanodon
turns to
catch up with the
rest
of the herd, and continues
his deafening alarm screams. The second stalking Utahraptor is too far behind to
take advantage of tin* work started by her pack mate and the predators aban-
don the chase. The injured female pauses on the forest edge. She is badly wounded but still stands a chance of recovery. The pack will continue kills and if there is enough food
though she may be
too
weak
to
to
go around she will be able
to
make
to eat even
hunt . Attacking big prey is always dangerous
and most of the older females carry a number of healed wounds.
Utahraplors live in a unde variety of environments and adapt their hunting techniques accordingly. On the wide open plains of northern Appalachia they always hunt in large packs, but among the hill forests to the west they are frequently solitary. In Cornubia they usually live in small packs. If they hunt alone their success
rale
is as low
its
15 percent. As a pair this
three attacks ending in a kill. After that it docs there are in the pack since they fail
most
not
rale
doubles
to one
in
seem to matter how many
of the lime. Members of a pack also
specialize. Some of the smaller animals pursue the prey but are rarely the first to attack . The larger individuals concentrate on ambush and
appear
to
leaping on the prey. If the prey is small enough they may approach from am 184
W A L K I N G
W I T H
BENEATH
D I N O S A U R S
angle, but with Iguanodon they never attack from the front . In one other respect
Ulahraplors
are
unique. They willingly attack healthy prey, even large
giant herbivore bucks and reels, screeching in pain. In doing so she stumbles
males, not just the young or w eak like other predators do. The Utahraptor pack reforms and the members greet one another with what looks like a formal dance. In facl, it is a sophisticated visual “language"
Although this attack has failed, the panic caused is enough
to
send several
of the younger Iguanodon running off into the darkness. A young male breaks
approach others with their heads down and their ringed tails flitting furiously
away from the group right past a waiting raptor, which leaps on
to
side. The more dominant animals stand upright and greet others
by spreading out their arms and claws and waving them up and down. There is little noise and every member seems
‘Utahraptors willingly
dominant male is still nowhere About a mile away,
attack healthy prey, even
large males, and do not appear to select the young or weak like other
at
to
to
know her place. The
the far end of the Protoanthus
moments
appears out of the darkness and latches on
the herbivore’s other side. The
back arc soon
too
two
to
a second
Utahraptor
large predators tearing, kicking, and biting his
much for the young Iguanodon. Unable
to
dislodge them,
his back legs crumple, exposing his belly, and the predators are quick
ing. Meanwhile the Utahraptors have
cerate
not
given up on the
his
duces a loud and furious defense, but within
weight and shock of these
be seen.
to
haunches, kicking her claws deep into his side. Like before, the attack pro-
meadow, the fleeing Iguanodon slow down and resume feed-
to
evis-
him.
off after
More of the Utahraptor pack appear when it becomes clear from the noise
the herd. When the lead raptors reach the Protoanthus
that the Iguanodon is dying. While the herbivore gasps his last breath, they
shrubs, they fan out , sinking down among the flowers to hide.
settle down
hunt . After a flurry of displays, one by one they
To the
west
the sun begins
to
trot
sink belowr the horizon.
Although the Iguanodon herd continue
to
feed, they bunch
two
to
feast with much squabbling and displaying
hours after sunset, one of the large female
Utahraptors rises up from her crouching position about GO yards from the herd. She starts to run toward the nearest Iguanodon and issues a series of short barks. She is not trying to catch her prey offguard. About 20
establish who gets the choice parts.
Morning reveals a gory
scene. All the
Utahraptors
will remain around die dead Iguanodon for a few days,
warding off any other predators attracted by the smell. Each one will
eat
its fill, and by die
time they leave, there will be very little left.
Nearby, the
waters
of the lake are still,
yards away, she stops and continues her loud display. The Iguanodon become nervous. They mill around, stomping their front legs and bellowing at the
reflecting die golden clouds above. On a small
predator. She holds her ground and soon other Utahraptors appear, again
island in die center the Ornithocheirus
stopping short of the herd and doing their best the moment it is impossible for them
to
are resting by the corpse, covered in blood. The pack
closer together.
About
to
to intimidate
the herbivores. At
attack any single member of this tight-
knit group without risk of being injured by another. Their aim is
to
keep push-
ing the herd until it breaks up in the darkness and one of them is isolated.
The night wears on and for a w hile it appears as if the pack ’s tactics will fail. 186
into another Iguanodon and sends the raptor tumbling off her back.
that reinforces the dominance hierarchy within the group. The lower orders from side
predators do.’
Suddenly, one raplor seizes her chance at the back of ihe herd and leaps on a female Iguanodon, successfully digging her hind claws into her Hank . The
^
shifts uncomfortably in his sleep. The
day warms and huge dark shapes start pull themselves out of the
water.
to
The Ornithocheirus sud-
denlv finds himself sharing his island with numerous big black
w
tur -
tles. He tries waddling away from them, hut soon he is surrounded. The
A
G I A N T ' S
W I N G S
W A L K I N G
W I T H
BENEATH
D I N O S A U R S
day is not yet warm enough for him to soar, therefore he takes off and flaps his
attacked by a half a dozen of these aggressive little animals. His presence has
turtle-free piece of shore. He lands awkwardly and , after closing
clearly upset them , and despite the enormous size difference, they are attempt-
way slowly
to a
G I A N T'S
W I N G S
ing to chase him away.
his wings, turns to take a drink .
-
Close behind him is a dense patch of pines. Between their trunks an under
On the edge of the forest several others of these small creatures sit on
story of cycads and ferns twist up through the branches, creating an impenetra-
branches, calling to each other with high-pitched , rasping whistles. These are
ble barrier. Alter the Omilhocheirus lands an unfamiliar chatter starts up deep
not pterosaurs. Their
in the forest. He ignores these sounds until suddenly a tiny, brightly colored
have taken to the air and , for the first lime, are challenging the supremacy of
flies out of the thicket and dive-bombs him. It is followed by a second
the pterosaurs. They are members of a new group of animals, birds, which have
creature
A
and a third , and before the old male can take evasive action , he is being
their
TOOLS
flight is far
loo
fast and erratic. They are dinosaurs that
back in the Jurassic but have started to blossom in the Cretaceous.
THE ORIGIN OF BIRDS HERE CAN BE FEW subjects in
seemed obvious. He noted rvo fewer than 35
clovely related to birds were the dromaeosaurs
draw their wings In during the upward stroke
dinosaur wishbones among fossils, which
paleontology that have attracted
features that the two groups shared, including
or raptors that first appeared In the mid -
and to push them out on the downward
further endorsed the dinosaurians’ views.
as much controversy as the origin
their lightweight bones, bipedal stance, three-
Cretaceous period. Archaeopteryx existed
stroke, therefore helping to attain more lift.
However, by the 1990s, the arguments were
of birds. In 1861, a beautiful fossil
fingered hand/ wing, and hinged ankles.
millions of years earlier, in the late Jurassic .
The carnivorous dinosaurs probably used the
as alive as ever, with embryological studies
For decades scientists actively looked
same technique to tuck their long hands up
contradicting the relationship between birds and dinosaurs.
T
of what looked like a half -bird/half -dinosaur
However, even in Huxley's time, some people
was dug up in Germany. About the size of a
believed that this was an example of
elsewhere for possible ancestors for the birds.
against their bodies when they were running
magpie, it had the wings and feathers of a
convergence, two different creatures evolving
Theories that they descended from pterosaurs,
and then flick them out to catch prey.
bird but the teeth and tail of a reptile. It was
independently to look the same. Besides,
crocodiles, mammals, and lizards were all
called Archaeopteryx and was the first of seven
dinosaurs were believed to be cold-blooded
similar fossils that have now been found. Eight
s,
Behind all these arguments lay feathers,
it:
'
During the 1970s, the idea of warm-
an extraordinary complex adaptation for
proposed, but the only tenable Idea was that
blooded dinosaurs became widely accepted
flight that Is unique to birds. Before their
reptiles, and powered flight (as opposed to
they evolved from some still unknown reptile
( see A Hot -blooded Dispute, page 104) and
appearance on Archoeapteryx, there was little
years later Thomas Huxley suggested that
gliding) requires the highly energetic
that existed around the time dinosaurs
paleontologists also started to find small
evidence of them and little reason to suppose
birds had evolved directly from dinosaurs and
metabolism of a warm-blooded creature.
appeared. Then, in the late 1960s, |ohn
they existed earlier than this find. What would
this is when the arguments started, since
Then it was pointed out that dinosaurs'
Ostrom's study of the raptor Deinonychus gave
any animal do with a protofeather ? It had
some paleontologists supported and some
"wishbones," which play an important part in
fresh hope to the dinosaurians. He revisited
long been suggested that feathers could have
vigorously opposed Huxley's view. The two
flapping flight, had disappeared in the course
and extended Huxley's arguments and
first appeared as insulation for small, warm-
camps have been labeled the dinosaurians,
of evolution and that birds could not have
systematically analyzed the characteristics
blooded carnivorous dinosaurs, and this view
who maintain that birds are the living
"reinvented" them. To add further doubt,
shared by dinosaurs and birds, characteristics
seems to be supported by the Chinese finds,
survivors of dinosaurs, and avians, who believe
although Archaeopteryx was a pretty good
such as the half -moon wrist bone that allowed
particularly Sirrosauropteryx , a small dinosaur
both raptors and birds to swivel their "hands"
covered In what look like primitive shaggy
sideways. In Might, birds use thts ability to
feathers. Previous imprints of dinosaur skin
In the uniqueness of this exceptional group of
animals. A number of remarkable finds In
"missing link" between dinosaurs and modem
.
birds, It was too old The dinosaurs most
showed flat, pavement -like scales. Sadly, It is
China in the 1990s have provided the most
conclusive evidence so far In support of the
A beautifully preserved Archaeopteryx from the
dinosaurians, who now gleefully call birds
Solnhofen limestone in Germany. Since It was
"small, feathered, short - tailed dinosaurs."
first discovered In 1861, this half - dinosaur /
When Huxley first suggested that birds
were descended directly from dinosaurs, it
188
half -bird has been seen as the archetypal "missing
link"
between the two groups
A young hoatrin clings to a twig. This species is
rare for soft tissue to be fossilized and this area
unique among birds because the young still
of study Is fraught with misinterpretation.
have a claw halfway down the wing. This could be a throwback to an ancestral state, before the creature's "arms" developed Into wings.
However, the evidence for feathered dinosaurs is now as strong as that for furry pterosaurs, and most experts have accepted the latter.
189
WALKING
onrosiTi
WITH
Home maintenance:
an Iberomesomis attends to
its nest . This strong, agile little
DINOSAURS
Their stales have developed into “ feathers,” long, flattened
structures
central spine rimmed by thousands of liny branches that lock together
with a
to
form
flier lives in dense forests He
a sort of double blade. Feathers are a highly
is covered in specialized scales
rough, downy scales that cover some other small carnivores, and are the key
.
called feathers, which are essential for flight and for
to
bird llight. They are very light , yet when layered together, give the bird a large
-
keeping him warm. They are
surface area which can I K finely adjusted
also brightly colored for
strong, so that if
display purposes.
specialized adaptation of the *
to create
maximum lift. They are also
they are hit bv branches or twigs, they do not
tear, instead
they
can be gr< M )ined back into place. All this allows the little birds to live happily in
dense thickets like the one behind the Omilhochcinis. They have even taken
laying their eggs in the
keeping them snugly supported by small collections of twigs, moss, and leaves. These aerial nests are safe front attack by to
trees,
other small dinosaurs. These particular birds are called Iberomesomis and they are small com-
pared
to
their dinosaur cousins, only about 3 or 4 inches long. They are also
beautiful!) patterned, like tiny jewels against the dull green conifers. Their bodies are blue and they have white heads and red-tipped wings. When they
fly, they flash deep purple under their wings. They are attacking the Ornithocheirus because he is a threat
to
their
nests,
which sit high in the
branches only a few yards away. Their boldness against such a huge enemy must
be based on their confidence as fliers. Despite the pterosaur’s attempts
to
snap at them with his fearsome beak , he never really comes close. When more
Iberomesomis scuff him. they draw blood widi their long, sharp claws. He is
forced to flee by creatures less than one hundredth his size. The Ornithocheirus takes off, but his progress across the lake is slow. It is still early in the morning and there are no thermals. Fortunately, he finds a head wind and manages
birds continue
to
to
rise away from his dazzling little
attack him, even as he pulls away from the lake. He heads for
the southern cliffs to wait for the first of the morning thermals
the island. He is in full breeding colors and should be
ready
. The
tormentors
to compete
at
to
take him off
his physical peak,
with other males in a long and arduous mating ritual.
However, his age and arthritis are taking their toll, and although there are few
outward signs of decline, he is far from ready for the future. 190
W I T H
W A L K I N G
D I N O S A U R S
BENEATH
On a long, open beach on the north coast
HAIRY DEVILS
of Cantabria stands a lone rock . Jutting
E
many doubted the conclusions drawn from
wing membranes, tails, or faces, simdar to
scientists recognized that pterosaurs
the find. It was not until 1970 that a fossil
the pattern found nowadays in bats. The
must have been very different
discovery finally convinced most
hairs were thick and short, / 'A inch (S - 10
flow of the lide for generations. Once a year
creatures from dinosaurs. None of
palaeontologists that pterosaurs were
millimeters) long. They would not have been
it performs a unique task. It lies in the center of the Omilhocheirus’ breeding
the arguments for claiming that dinosaurs
covered In fur. Russian scientist A.G. Sharov
like mammalian hair because, like feathers,
were cold-blooded applied il the reptile
found a pterosaur in Kazakhstan, which he
they evolved from scales, but they did
indulged in the highly energetic activity of
called Sordes plbst /s, or "hairy devil," because
perform the same function, stopping heat
from all over the globe. Then the rock is dwarfed , and it becomes a black
Happing flight. The pterosaurs' tiny bird-like
preserved will) the skeleton were thick lulls
loss. This was proof that pterosaurs must
pebble swamped by a sea of flapping gray wings. This is one of the most spec-
bones clearly suggested that they were
of hair. It is now accepted that pterosaurs
have been warm-blooded. Why else would
svarm -blooded animals (see The Origin of
had hair over their bodies but not on their
they have needed insulation?
tacular displays in nature. A beach nvo miles long and a half a mile wide plays
of the sand , it has resisted the ebb and
site and acts
its
W I N G S
T H E
B E A C H E S
O F
C A N T A B R I A
a focal point when thousands of these huge pterosaurs sail in
host to the largest pterosaurs in the world .
.
Birds, page 188) In the 1920s close
flie males arrive first to stake out their territories. F.ach needs enough
examination of a beautifully preserved pterosaur skeleton from Solnhofen In
Germany revealed a pattern of hollows and
stripes on the stone next to the fossil. These were interpreted as being the Imprints left by
hair follicles and tufts of hair. The idea that
anything other than mammals had hair was
power of his wingbeat. Aggression and competition are intense, and as the beach fills up, vicious fights break out between the rivals. The biggest risk in these contests is that males will use their sharp, fish -catching teeth to tear an opponent ’s wing. Several days of
space
to
display his red beak
crests and show off the
controversial and, because this sort of soft
this establishes a brutal order, where the most powerful males occupy the
tissue preservation can be confused with
largest sites toward the center of the beach . The old male arrives late. There are already a mile and a half of squabbling
.
such other phenomena as crystal formation
For decades, scientists argued about whether or not pterosaurs were furry. Then , in 1970, this fossil, called Sordrs PILOJUS, was found with what looked like tufts of hair over its body In a
pattern similar to that found on bats.
G I A N T' S
The Battle to Mate
VEN IN THE NINETEENTH century,
out
A
flA
!
Omithocheirus below him, llie world’s entire male breeding population . He
slowly descends toward the beach and aims for the center of the group, hoping to land and
carve out a choice display area for himself. When he glides low
over the other males, he is met by a forest of clacking red beaks. It will
not
be
an easy task. In flight his delicate wings are fully exposed to his rivals’ sharp On close inspection the hair appears obvious, but many other factors, such as
leedi . He needs to be on the ground with his wings safely packed away if he is
bacterial activity, might have left similar -
to
looking traces in the lossil find .
fight his comer successfully. He continues to search in vain for a space to
.
land , slowly losing height all the lime. He beats his wings to rise up but as he does , another male clamps his teeth over the old pterosaur ’s wing tip. He flaps
frantically, tearing his wing membrane in his struggle
to free himself . More
beaks snap at him and chaos breaks out among the overexcited pterosaurs. *
Tlie old male lands and manages to close his wings, but he is already badly
wounded . Two others continue to attack him , striking at his long wing fingers.
He tries to fight back , but he is on the defensive. Soon , bleeding and 192
lorn ,
he is 193
e lurking nearby. Occasionally, some of die clan drink from the river’s edge. It is probably the noise of their lapping and splashing that attracts the attention of a Koolasuchus lying at the Ixntom of the river.
and he returns to the
Although the amphibian would be lucky to catch a fully grown lx^aellynasaura,
protection of an adult.
a juvenile is a different matter.
O F
THE
While she moves into the shallows, ihe koolasuchus not only senses their
-
vibrations but also, with her all around vision , she sees the clan on the bank.
Despite her size , her head and body are almost flat, allowing her to move
through a mere
two feet of water and remain invisible from the bank.
point the bank drops steeply down
to the river’s
At this
edge. When one young
Leaellynasaura drinks, he does not realize he is only one jaw length away from die huge amphibian .
The Koolasuchus lunges and the clan scatters, but it is too late for the youngster to turn and run . Instead he leaps upward, a move he has practiced
in play. When the Koolasuchus snaps her mouth shut, he lands on top of her
head , tumbles off to one side , and stumbles back up the bank . Out of the water the Koolasuchus cannot move her head fast enough for a second snap and instead stops where she is, watching the repeating dinosaur. Meanwhile, the
.
rest of the clan returns The juvenile hoots with distress, but the adults
recog-
-
nize that the threat is not serious and start to taunt the Koolasuchus. The frus
trated amphibian retreats into the water, but not before she has been pelted with mud and pebbles by the clan . The days are still warm and long, but there
are a few signs that die year is progressing
The Last Flourish F E B R U A R Y - L A T E
S U M M E
toward autumn . The female podocarps are
developing their distinctive red Trim" and many ferns are heavy widi spores. Among the dinosaurs, the young are gaining weight and keeping pace with the adult groups. On the edge of the flood plain a dwarf allosaur has brought
down an old male Muttaburrasaums. The rest of the herd continue grazing
nearby, apparently unconcerned . It is difficult to judge why the predator has been successful this time. The old bull could have been wounded or ill , but it is
a big kill for the allosaur and lie will not be able to eat it all himself . Out of the fern thicket , another allosaur approaches, drawn by die smell of a fresh kill . He is smaller and advances with head lowered. This could be a
submissive pose , but it also puts him in a good position to retreat should the larger allosaur react badly to his approach . In fact, a bad reaction is almost 231
guaranteed . Allosaurs are lone hunters and do
not
willingly give up kills. The
larger predator stops feeding and freezes in an aggressive pose , letting out a low hiss. The interloper continues to advance, presenting the first with a
dilemma. There is far more meat here than he can eat and more carnivores
-
are bound to arrive soon . Does he waste time and energy fighting off the new
comer, or does he eat his fill and leave? He obviously decides on the less
a predator or a pack of mammals, but by other Leaellynasaura. The sentry has
spotted a rival group grazing nearby and the entire clan responds aggressively. Adults of both sexes advance through the ferns, bobbing and hooting threat-
eningly. The intruders hoot back and chatter, but do
not retreat. The
assault
party moves nearer, still bobbing and jumping. When they are close enough
.
they flick litter in the direction of the other clan . However, die newcomers are
WALKING
WITH
SPIRITS
DINOSAURS
Winter 's First Bite M A R C H - E A R L Y
A U T U M N
Shortly after another heavy downpour, die sun finally slips beneath the walls of the rift
valley toward the west . In die dim gray light the forest shivers. There will be no steam
baths for the animals for many months to come. From now on the nigliLs will
rapidly become longer. Soon complete darkness will blanket the clan 's home . There Ls a chill in the air and the character of the forest seems to be changing.
Pterosaurs are already filing back from the darkening south and many bird
species are following. At die first sign of sunset , die Muttaburrasaurus herd Incomes agitated and start
a twilight call . Their loud , low bellows echo across the forest and are
OF
THE
SILENT
FOREST
answered by other distant herds. After a summer dispersed among the rich
polar feeding grounds, thousands of Muttaburrasaurus will come together, drawn by the urge to migrate north once more, chasing the dwindling sun .
Ironically, given that its population is rapidly diminishing, this is probably the noisiest time of year in the forest . A clan of Leaellynasaura , feeding on the forest edge , is forced into the open by a group of Muttaburrasaurus.
Immediately, one Leaellynasaura darts for a high vantage point
to act as sentry,
but the herd is causing a lot of disturbance, and the noise of its calling deprives
him of the use of one of his senses. This is unfortunate, since slowly creeping toward them through the podocarp scrub is an allosaur. Still worse, the movement of the herd is
pushing the Leaellynasaura toward her. When they come closer, die allosaur slowly flexes her claws and shifts from leg to leg. Oblivious to the danger, the sentry tumbles off his perch again and die clan breaks
up , intending to run through the herd to the safely of the forest. Right at this moment the predator strikes. She is
on open ground , the Leaellynasaura have no warning
LIFT
When the days start to
shorten, a small family group
of Muttaburrasaurus begins the long trek north, leaving behind a forest that will soon be in 24- hour darkness.
and their attention is on the herd . A supreme killer like
the allosaur does not need any more help than this. Her
jaw closes on a male subadult before he even sees her and , with one flick of her neck , she breaks his back . The allosaur stands over the body of her victim with a strip of Leaellynasaura skin hanging from her teeth . The effort of her attack hardly registers in her breadiing.
She bends down and nudges the carcass. Then , placing
her foot firmly on the rib cage, she locks her jawr around
the Leallynasaura ’s hip and tears of!a leg. Lifting her head she throws the leg to the back of her throat to
swallow it whole.
Not far away, in die sanctuary of the forest, the clan is soon restored to calm . While they regroup , a senuy takes
up his post on a nearby podocarp trunk. 237
Ambush in the forest: the allosaur is a very effective ambush predator. Even
though the Leaellynasaura
are faster, rf he can get close enough , they stand no chance. One bite of his jaws
can break their backs .
238
W A L K I N G
W I T H
SPIRITS
DINOSAURS
Darkness Descends A P R I L- W I N T E R
Every day twilight comes earlier. A wintry silence settles across the plain . Even at its height , the weak gray sunlight barely pene-
A R R I V E S
trates to the
gloom of the forest floor. The
Leaellynasaura are still busy. Although most of the ferns have turned woody and brown , there is plenty of rotting fruit and fungus. The clan is also adept at digging for
roots and
rhizomes.
waits. Probably driven by the fading light , she is leaving the river Cold comfort : a female
Leaellynasaura breaks the Ice on a pond with her beak . Even
to return
the forest . Just as it was in the spring, this is a hazardous
expedition , taking her
out of her element.
However, the larger summer resi-
dents have long since left . She pulls her black glossy body out of the water,
In winter, temperatures this
struggles up the bank, and trundles into the forest. The clan is nowhere near
low are rare in the forest and
they put the little herbivores
and she reaches the pond within an hour, unmolested. Then she works her way
under enormous stress.
along its muddy hanks
to
THE
SILENT
FOREST
The weeks pass and cold has gripped the forest. There have been warm
periods during the long polar night , but now frost covers the leaves in even the deepest parts of the forest . The mammals, so common in the summer, are nowhere to be seen since they have retreated into their burrows.
:
Outside, the clan of Leaellynasaura remains active in the darkness, their
keen eyes picking out what food the forest has to offer. They do not possess the mammals’ ability to hibernate , but as the temperature continues to drop, they
During this damp period , die Koolasuchus rises to the edge of the river and to her dark cave in
O F
find her cave. The entrance has become overgrown
during the summer, but she recognizes the smell and pushes her way through the ferns.
Once inside, she settles among the moist litter
and prepares for hibernation . The sky begins to clear just as the sun sets for one final time behind the western
horizon , turning the evening clouds red .
Most of the clan slop feeding. The clear skies mean that , for the first time this year, the temperature drops toward freezing. The Leaellynasaura huddle in groups, sharing each other’s body warmth. It is dark and still among the dormant trees. High above, the sky is alive with curtains of greens and purples that whip and roll across the polar night.
They are the Southern Lights, visible again for the first time in months.
behave strangely. They gather into a huddle , wrapping their long legs and necks around each other. Then slowly they all slop moving. The low temperatures have forced them into a stale of torpor. Like hibernation , torpor
start to
F-
saves precious energy, but it is a short-term response and may happen several limes in the course
or
the winter. When temperatures rise again , the
Leaellynasaura quickly revive and break into activity. Sunrise, and a watery bine light spills across a silent landscape. Spring is returning to the
polar forest. Beneath the open canopy and
Turning Full Circle T H E
R E T U R N
O F
S P R I N G
the spreading tree ferns, a dark brown pond
fringed with ice gently steams in the cold morning air. The sunlight reveals the frozen body of a small green and brown dinosaur on its banks. It is the dominant female
Leaellynasaura. Her perfectly preserved body suggests that she
died of exposure during a severe cold snap.
In the center of the pond , the brown water parts to reveal a huge battened head with vacant black eyes. The head waits motionless, watching the bank lor movement , then
slips toward the dead Leaellynasaura . The water surface
hardly registers the smooth
movement . The Koolasuchus has woken
early tills
year and is in need of food. She rises out of the pond and damps ahold of the lifeless body. Slowly she drags her prize into die water. Nearby the
rest of
the clan are scraping the last morsels of winter food
from the forest floor before the new growth of spring. Another Leaellynasaura
lias replaced the dominant female in the hierarchy and the males are begin-
-
ning to fight. Tlie year lias come full circle and it is the mating season again . 241
:
MILLION
YEARS
AGO
Death of a Dynasty
WALKING
WITH
DINOSAURS
T
DEATH
65
The
species of pterosaurs remain , and the explosion of flowers has
Earth 's Mesozoic era is drawing to a close and most of die huge
driven many species of fern and cycad to extinction . Through
HE EARTH
MILLION YEARS AGO .
180 million years the world has been warm , with no ice-caps
and littie change between die seasons. However, this long
to survive the recent eruption
are mature araucaria trees,
to
graze on the soft flowering vegetation , and different preda-
some than Tyrannosaurus, the king of the dinosaurs.
groups
appeared to
eat them . None of these is more fear-
However, there are major environmental changes on the way, and events are conspiring to sub-
to a moist
green place full of flowering
jeet life on Earth to its biggest
tinction . Subtle alterations
groups that have steadily increased in number and variety, as
in the world ’s atmosphere
have the ubiquitous insects. However, there have also been
and a catastrophe plummet-
losers. Gone arc the ichthyosaurs and pliosaurs in the oceans,
ing down from outer space is
with the ammonites in sharp decline. Only one or two giant
about to bring this last age
whose branches are too high for the dinosaurs to reach .
LEJ
lest
since die massive Permian ex-
plants. This has favored the small mammals and birds, two Scene of desolation: with the
search of food. The only plants
no signs of decline. Vast herds of new herbivores have evolved
successful. For much of the
epoch has witnessed massive changes among all its living crea-
The landscape has transformed from a dry world dominated
Torosaurus cross an ash field in
all of this, dinosaurs have remained hugely successful and show
tors have
of animals.
background , a family of
DYNASTY
of the Mesozoic, flowering
period of apparent stability has been decepdve. The same
tures, including the evolution of most of the modern
volcano still smouldering in the
A
Glorious blooms: at the end
old landmasses are now divided up into smaller continents. For
by conifer forests
OF
of the giant repules to an
plants have become hugely
Cretaceous they have grown
no larger than shrubs, but now there are several varieties of flowering trees
forming dense forests.
WALKING
WITH
DEATH
DINOSAURS
A
OF
DYNASTY
DINOSAURS FOR EVER
E
VEN BEFORE ANY disaster struck, the
altered, the weather beeante more
end of the Cretaceous was a time of
unpredictable, making it more difficult for
change. Globally, temperatures started
these vast creatures. The loss of warm, shallow
to fall Thrs did not lead to the formation of
seas also robbed them of their favorite
icecaps, but life at the proles was hit hard and
hunting grounds. From then on, the group
the lush polar forests, which had been rich
was doomed.
enough to leave behind coal deprosits, died out, to bo replaced by more open habitats. At
the same time, sea levels were falling and this led to the loss of the epicontinental seas.
Toward the end ol this period, pterosaurs
In the water, other reptiles were in decline
no shortage of dinosaurs. In western North
flowers had evolved, as had Lhe first social
America the herbivores included armored
bees and ants. However, most flowers still
ankylosaurs, ostrich- like omlthomlmlds, and
relied on wind or general insect feeding for
dome- headed pachycephalosaurs, but the
pollination. A few flowering plants had
duck-billed hadrosaurs were by far the most
developed into trees, and in the south the
successful. During the late Cretaceous,
southern beech did well. Around the Equator
numbers of homed dinosaurs Increased to
palms grew in large numbers. In most places
make them the second largest group of
conifers continued to dominate the upper-
grazers. They were hunted by small
story, pines and redwoods to the north and
carnivores, such as raptors, and considerably
podocarps and Araucaria to the south. In the
larger ones, such as Tyrannosaurus. Another
colder temperatures pines did particularly well
curious predator was Troodon. With its
most successful group of dinosaurs There are
grasping hands and large eyes, it was
many superb fossils ol these animals.
,
Snakes appeared toward die end of tie age of dinosaurs and are, therefore, a relatively
theory behind their lack of legs suggests they originally lost them adapting to aquatic life .
recent group of reptiles. One
went into decline. The only forms that
khthyosaurs had already died out and
plesiosaurs and the sea lizards, mosasaurs, were also going. Other marine creatures were
suffering. Reef -forming clams, squld-kke belemnites, and even the ever-present
survived were the huge, toothless species that
divers. However, it was not competition with
specialized in fishing. Birds continued to thrive
birds that finished off the pterosaurs. Instead,
and diversify. Among the new species were
as temperatures across the world dropped
flightless marine lorms, similar to modern
expense ol cycads and lerns. Insect - specillc
at
ammonites were disappearing.
do today.
On land, flowers became the dominant
Animal populations varied enormously
type of plant, representing 50-80 percent of
from one continent to another, but there was
all species. This success was mostly at the
and the sea currents around continents
high latitudes and altitudes, which they still
Palms were among the earliest flowering
.
Sixty- five million years ago
Antarctica settled over the
to Europe, Africa to Europe
the world’s continents had started to take on a modem
South Pole. India continued
and South and North
north on a collision course
America to each other.
configuration. The Atlantic
with Asia. The inland seaway
Despite thh there was a
Ocean had almost completely
that had split the North
separated the New Worfd
American landmass ( or so
continents to tendency develop their own endemic
from the Old World. The
many millions ol years
range of plants and animals
giant southern conUnent of
Places such as Australia and
Condwana broke up as
retreated. Sea levels rose and fell, with land bridges
Australia moved north and
occasionally connecting Asia
246
plants to grow as trees. With their spreading crown of leaves and tough stems, they look
like cycads. but the similarity b superficial.
most likely prey were mammals, whose
.
numbers were rising rapidly One species to
.
The southern continents of South America,
Africa, Madagascar, Australia, India, and
emerge as this time was the
Antarctica were all separate, but shared a
marsupial Dtdelphodon, related to
common drfference from the north. The
the modern-day opossum.
trtanosaurids, or southern sauropods, were the dominant herbivores and the predators
creatures also occurred in Asia
belonged to a group known as the abelrsaurs.
because the two continents were
Tyrannosaurus never seemed to have ventured
periodically joined by a land bridge
south, even though there is evidence of a
at the Bering Straits. However, dry
North/ South American land bridge. Perhaps
central Asia appears to have had a
this is because some abelisaurs grew as large
unique mixture of small bipedal
and fearsome as Tyrannosaurus . Unfortunately,
dinosaurs and birds. During this
the fossil record for this period on these
time, Europe was a collection of
southern continents remains poor, so it Is
large islands, and in the mid-
difficult to construct a complete global
Cretaceous also shared marry
picture. However, there was no sign that
dinosaurs with America. However, as the
dinosaurs were about
Atlantic opened up, it became isolated,
ol the planet.
to
disappear off the face
developing its own raptors, duck -bills, and armored dinosaurs. Some islands showed
Moths belong
signs of this isolation by protecting animals
to one of
The evolution and success of many insects
that were extinct elsewhere and developing
most common
seems to parallel the increasing complexity of
dwarf species. Fossil finds of southern
groups of today's insects,
Condwana predators and herbivores in Sprain
called Lepidoptera. Over time,
( or
Madagascar remain unique to the present day.
the duck -bills or hadrosaurs were by lar the
potentially a specialist night hunter and Its
Many of these American
>
For the last few million years of the Mesozoic
flowers. Late Cretaceous fossils show fused
petals and funnel- shaped flowers, which would have depended on insects pollinating them
and France also suggest that land bridges with
Afnca might have opened.
most
the
have become specially
adapted to feed on (lowers
WALKING
WITH
DEATH
DINOSAURS
A Fading Paradise S E V E N
M O N T H S
T O
I M P A C T
11 is the
wet
season on the eastern
coast
of
the Pierre Seaway. It is typical of this time of
lie over the low plains for several days, trapped in the still aii between the mountains and the shallow sea. The forests here are unique, with trees covered in plants that absorb moisture front the air. The trunks of die giant araucaria arc swathed with light green lichen
covering and softening their craggy bark.
Dense layers of moss also hang from the branches of the southern beech , and the low shrubs, such as magnolia and bay. drip with long clumps of moss.
In marshy areas the layers of green dressing are even thicker, making the huge
VIDENCE FOR ALL the animals In
TYRANNOSAURUS
TOROSAURUS
ol them represent the largest or most
The top predator on its continent, Tyrannoiaurui
This large, sociable herbivore was typical of the
decorative of their group. In the past this has
had longer teeth and a larger head than any
horned dinosaurs, with a powerful beak lor
been used as evidence that the dinosaurs
other terrestrial carnivore, yet it also had a short body and short arms.
three horns on Us face. Its unique characteristic was the largest of all display crests. EVIDENCE Seven partial skulls and several pieces of skeleton from Alberta to New Mexico. SIZE Almost 25 feet (8 meters) in Irnglh, with a skull (Including crest) of over 6 feet 6 Inches (2 meters). Weighed around 7 tons
E
this chapter comes from the Hell
Creek Formation in the western
United Slates (see page 277),
—-
or from associated fossil beds. All of them seem to have flourished right up until live
sudden disappearance of the dinosaur. Many
became too big and lumbenng to survive and that is why they died ouL However, this
Is to forget the giant sauropods and the fact that dinosaurs reinvented themselves several
the whole area looks as if it is covered in a thick , green blanket, which is why it
times during their long history. There is no
obvious reason why these should have been
is called the Blanket Forest .
the last of the dinosaurs. Instead, being so
However, this beautiful forest is under threat . Only a few hundred miles the north, where the plains open seawTiv
out ,
to
large and well-preserved, it is not surprising
the blanket is completely absent . Each
that the Hell Creek dinosaurs are some of the
is slowly retreating further south , and with it go the fogs. The
range of the Blanket Forest has shrunk
to
most famous
.
viDtNCE
Over 20 individuals have been found,
of them in recent years. Only three complete skulls are known, but remains have been discovered all the way from Alberta to New Mexico. SIZE About 45 feet (14 meters) long and could have weighed up to 5 tons. Its mouth had a gape of over 3 feet ( 1 meter ) and could probably remove as much as 150 pounds (70 kgs) of meat In one bite. DIET A top predator, exclusively carnivorous. TIME 67-65 million years ago. most
even more bleak bv its mountainous neighbors. Dominating the uplands is a
series of snow-capped volcanoes, which are dolled every few miles down the
length of the range . They are young and active, and in several places long black tongues of old lava reach into the forest . Many of the volcanoes have con-
plumes of smoke and ash drifting from their peaks, and the sulfur fre-
coverings altogether. Although the region supports At the tear at
forest ’s
creatures are
a
o
edge on some raised ground, a pair of female Ankylosaunis
rare.
Very strong beaks allowed it to tackle the
toughest of vegetation, even small branches. TIM ( 67-65 million years ago. ANATOTITAN
Z at
Anatotilan was closely related to Edmontoiaurus,
-1
some of the largest hadrosaurs, or duck billed
>
dinosaurs, ever to have lived.
2
ml
--
wide variety of animals
life under the blanket , many are now endangered.
the moss and lichen. Although
DIET
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live btrlh. irhthvrrs -uirs 124 125 , 127 , I 12 - 1 living Iniiili 120 h l* lr sll 4 115
.'
lunghnh 31 . >2 37, 120 1 imr Rrgin, Dorvrt Juravsii sraltcrls 111
magoolia 1H2 80. 221 m mlrnh tJi nee 17 6 7 120
.
iiuniiu ils
216. 260'
P.uillialassa ( )i ran 2* 1. 22. I I I l'iiiiiuiumL>l - bu \ 218 260 pa / a'llr-s I 77 . 178 . I 7 / 1 marine 135. I 3K / ‘mspluortrs I 10. | 12 I’mnian extinction 8 22 . 2 S, 280 l\‘. i" OuiurHS 25 , > 6 7—K 3 * 1, 45 ' Pi nlinitiugh |ur .i :i sr . ilicih 131 " 24 25 Prinfird 11 . I- M. Vrizuna ph\ nipl.iiikiun. mid-Crrt.umm 202 plivlusjuns 31.43-6 52 luassic rxLnw lion 65 I'lrirr Seaway 248. 249. 270 pine l.iiinh 1 aria, nnii primtl 157 I ' i ma., 25 25-31. 42-3. 42 - 1 40- 7 . 32. 57 platotlunii 23 plain adaptation In herbivorous grazing 77—**. 171 plant evitlerxc , ntrlrot iinjkicl 277 / V, Iniwurm 25 46. 57-«, 1«- plr-tiosanTs II i, 115 , I SI . 202 live bittli or egg-laving 127 ( impulsion throngll wain 134 •jr alio O' lfSurlidlli plwaitr 113. 115 live hull) or egg l.ntng 127 .
cvi 1I1 ill MI
*
8 12. 3-1
bu- Ciriaeeoiei 221. 225. 217 , 252. 25 i. 2t 47 Manlrll ( iKk-nil, Igunu Ion 174
.
.
< 1111 otkilcs I 15 marine lilc 8 114- 15.120 127 154
inannr
Tiussic jirniid 23 |nr,i lr | >TII IMiplnuivrlrisi podix aip 203 231 . 214
.
f\sLirimJhui 159. 173. 175. 76- 7 pnl.li I Ml si llil«b—C lelai etlUs 203, 2' I I puliu ( liiiusauis 205. 208- 9 Muium/ W, 2 I. 29. UJ I . 42 1. 13- 1. 51). 51 , 5 A 9 pnis.uuiipi «i 14, 221 ur aim ISnlfsiifiNiHS / V-v'/ sanfAui 178 prnvmr lalisni 64 . 156. 202, 216
TIIIIVMI |K Iinti *
Mcstu 1 in Marine Revulinion 111- 15 liielcui ini |U( I . Hell ( 11 ek b ) l nut Ion 277
,
31 . ' millipedes 21
nH' t ( |>i& iiii
-
'
Mugnllon I hghl.mtLs 24
molluscs I 5“
Mangufiii. ilinovinr mg linds 220-1
.
pipms itirs 37. .38
Mimana \ Unasanrn finds 80 221 Ins -.rlur egg' 220 McHTisntt Fiirmiiliou. I' nited Stairs 66 7 I 0R
( lelau- ous
jimf lig l iwiihiium , 'Miiiih Run a 101 |m i"l< mailin' lllc I 12- 13 11 4- 15 , 1 Ilk 29 117 1 UM 131 I IK- 51 . I »i » >l film 228 265 fur asm 1‘aik jiitavsK jx-nml 12. 13 1.2-3 rfin onlmmial sras III 15 117 » abeds . Britain 117 . 131 IIllllliph nl ilninvauis 64 5
hloodrd 192 aim Anuinpiiilli in. / ///iilBi/s/imAriir /im
WJlTn
u
Inrli
1 ' iraivn period 112. Ill
.
( tel 11 roll
Vm|mg. oldrsl knoivil llotsrr IN2 \ uvtilus 115. 120 in-si . fiMstli /rd 220-1 \ rss'Zraland (rm 201 'vrnman. David /gr in ivlmi lira I 172 millin'.mi' 23
.
.
irairgisis - 220
- 291)
.
O/td/Wuiin/ juimi 110- 11. 117. 123-6. / 24- 4. 132-3 Ill 134-5 , / >6- 7, 138-9. 140 uimlluwluans 13.23 . 155 LSI 138. i I. MM Ill k 104 IOS 11 167 175- 7, 179-81). 188 189 191) |U3 7 / M I9fl Wing p-lll Ifrl
._ .
. *
-
11
.
u ii / m
()
>
. 1 ,. b oallllK .
.
'
.
I 5n. 200 . 202 , 246
281
Snrnii. Paul, htmpha find 11 ' I1.11L' 115 I . Vl. I 13 Miami A ( > Sonin fiilusm 192 Sdxiian Iiapx. Iimuabun 28
.
.
,
.
.
S.' u iiiuiufrl iw 189 'i »11 ti ur pirM naOtin 192
-
"
Sulllllnlnl. ( •rinuin Altk / lmptmx 1K8 pamv .iiir 'krlrion 192
.
'
V-T /n pilmsai 192 Simili Pnie wr |Kibn lureM. nud-( -irL icnoii ipiilm. Tiiavtu pmml 22 i|)( ingr 111. Oil 121-2
.
.
MJIIIII
slailull 11 1. / 57
.
.buny plaic .
nlcgosani 65
.
O- / 67 85-7. SS- 0. 97,
Sug
in 1 / u 1 /1
-v
Slsir/f / ndtm 225
.
sium nl) slimes,
ihuc-iiion 77. 95
Mr / rlrrlu R.ing( v \ mir,illn 205, 20H- 9 SllUgCOIIs 115 Siinrbnrr Sea 108 Si. /A-rifiiini 1 91
Irfirjani / 46. 158. 160. / 69- / . 161— 3 / 63 lelrovts 111 15 Trnd.iguru llrd», Tim /ama 66 ,
.
.
iri 111111.111s
65
.
.
-.
I il s > Ocean 22 rjZfi 4 117 154i ihrra|xi< h 265
TTtlluiUmtlnr 23.84
.
ilur. rum Ids 94 202 ' WI 242 - 1. 249 2M- 9. 291 . 2 b2 I I MIUZIBI rirsLs 260 tia rl isMl 111 80, 101.221
.
.lviikalia '
.
,
Kiissi.c plmrsaur pai.csllr 178 ' tree (mis 203
I raii
2S , 64 , 65 | rim, I 12- 13, 20- 5* 1 Tnmrthfn 260 , 277
friassir Trui'Mc
rximclion
260
iirrk vonrluar 272 Iknutim 247 egg- Molilalia 220 73 /min isauiusB- 9. 249. 232 1 . 255. 25o- 7. 261. 262 1. 26441.265. 21 /3. 278. 270-7, 278-9. 2W 281-2 272 healed (rat lUJrs 272 Hell ( reek finds 277
ctiui
Vu lun
fuimalHil) . Brazil 158
hiam 13 inr also sanmpods; iherapcxti
vaiiitsc
.
l< riling iet|iiiinnnils 265
irillsi nxl' 65 n-| Miles ilivniifx anon 12 13 III 1«/)/ „r - vnr / iu 117 . 12fi. 130.128. 129 . | 12. Ill / / 1 Ru Ii . Thomas and I'ai IHinit.iin ( cur i Vi av .iliims 209 Sonili Pole leh, I lamia 211 Ruliinviii. Jane . (lip|ieis 13-1 Mmlana
K » >. 272
86
l ull lonipnnls. rracr lossil 101 Itohtafrtm 159 , IH3- 1 . IS" . 186 7
-
'
'
liiplun 181 183. 18)1 265 iff also ( Uihmjiloi rrrum-d tredi ihnajimh 265
. .
nnunviin s
A
'
jver mil 15 1 .
rxlini lion ihnmr-s
QUJCJII, oallets 270- 1.272. 273 i
.
sea
clev!
ITS , 179 parasites 177. 178. 179
\ annntius 213
'
.
giiiniuing
Ifunaurui. Imullzed milirvo 221 MmLaliuira. Queensland. MnJlnhiinasiiiinn find 205. 218 MuHJmnaimnm 'M , 216-17. 217. 218. 218-9, 228. 220. 231-2. 212- 1 283-4. 234-5. 236- 7
.
period I 35 157 , 164
decline 246 270 mlimitin of flighr 164
1 86
.
1111 mill' whip M urpron 32. 53
.
'
/
.
.
,
. .
.
.
9,
.23
.
motlrs 247
and ewdulmn ul llmiris 182 246—7
k Mrail gt'i - 220
113 Lfiftrumdim 147. 1.50
/
'
.
-
Irptlnpicra 217. 273
v/z c niiim ' ^ 202 moauviui
igu iundunilds 157 msec 1 25. 57 65.78 195 156 tiding IIH- S 227-H 228 229
.
M
I’iilcii / im nil 8 palms 202 247 r iliiM RIMM . Texas . Irate fossils 101 Piuig 11 .1. Illr ikup III 10- 11 Tllastlf |HTtl » l 22 |ur i ir prnixl 62. 51. Ill ( n l" 11 < (>ii p< mill I 54 . 156 200. 205. 205 . 208
.
vsela
.
121)
al10 lyiirlhiiasaum
anhrnis 272 chewing 160. 172
»n i M9. 254. 2( i7 rgg lu Ih , impnilance ul llix bless 234 ' i lasmosjuis I 37 Lamp!< •’ 1 I rpM rniinvrnial vr.rs I l 'Z 111 I In, 117 . 270 / iitllmnipkodon 38 / uslmpuipamdflm 6, 7, 117. 130-2 Ml 111 144 I 17. I IN- 9 I - 0- 1 miluliun ami ihr Uinv .il ul s|ienr 8 9 12- 13 11
him n /
, 1 limb 127
i / n irin Mi OfiAlh /gunmeioi, 157 . 159 1157-9, 170- 1
-
.
;
'
v
do nigh) 1 nniiiiunis and 1 inniliahviu 53 157 . 21 1 202 217 219 dmk - lull dll < 11' vis 264) vr alio A nahslllmic hdisK / nlaiauius iliuig IxTtlrs SO dung liwsili /rd 80 dwail jllin.nn 205 207 211 21 3- 16. 2 / fV 217 219
.
' 249 277.281
Hol * llumei . |- n k . Mmasautu voting 221 In ise,line crabs 120 129. I 12. 144 lluinlioldl musrvim. IW 1I111 Boohmsaams 94- 5 llunn pine 180 llnxlrv Tluinus, nngin ul bird * 188 hyl> don ' tiaik I i l * i 145 * 1.1 156 157 hyme impti hvpsilc|ihiidnnis 207. 209 mei|pn. Cai in iin /
.
atlmfihsus 53 34
.
huaizin iso
1 - 3.
liisutll .sl
( ‘ nurd Stair
llaiinin Am 18!) is
I I . 21 16- 7 S 3
247. 219
hips , upnghi pi MU 11 r I I
/ hin m. Ii
)
Majuxiiuni
I Its can h i |»s 281
-
-
K
aui \
i>
IIr 11 < reel Formation
—
.
vini
duluig lliglil 161 ( vndwana 156 gi 11 / irniiiiiuomui 272 ( iinii 4 \ hdaluiii. 1851 . /pmn.irfiv skrl < lun 171 C > rrrn 1’ lb . ( nlnrado * 14 ( Mill < d Mevir 11. cunicl ! / • '/ /• 11 65 i wads 17 . 77—8 Oil BO , 8 | Ihfilod' vus Irrtllllg mwalimis 25. 3' 3-4 , 34 > 3.1' * , -til. 4 1 . 35.65 Tfirtnaxodon 25 li
.
M
gnikgn 17. til. 120
K
-
''
.lit - laRamil No. Mi
gianr
I 15
also iK iri /uui hui < lU iai ra I 15 ' fn // / ulin 116. 1 1 7 / IS I I i/r
.
also trasli *vsilkrlrlal rli--r .ivr and ln|in \ 272 ' hug' 1Is ( Iiclow ) I > i llelmul Nl ivi h ivnisr lie Naalvsaminliiilg f ill I’nl.ioninlogie und Ilislnnsi lie ( eolngie Muni hen ; 127 Naiural Union Museum London ; 131 left ) Lwniispicrc fmin Tliornas Hawkins ( iimil Vu Ihaflom , I S 10 ill m l( lilh ) o\iniT \ n Imlory of /mu/ ' wfiragnn \ In SR Ilnw < . I Sharpe and II S lorrens National Musenin ol Wales IOS| p 23, ( nghi ) Planet F trill Phil ( liapinan I 14 Insiiiiu und Museum lur Ceologic und l‘al.ioni < lo" ie drr Lmvrrsiiai I iihingt-ii: I 33 Anclra Iondon I ) Dixon ; 150 Dr D M. Mai nil I 3 t *-7 NIII’A Mlx -it Naidi ; 157 ( ( enter ) Oxford Stirilldit Fdms M Y ( hap| wll. ( right ) Plane I Fanil 1 Ranine Mac km non lid ( hclnw ) Natural Mixture Museum London; 172 ( Imvei light Lliisiitut Koval ties Si u n< rs Naim files de llelgirpu . Ill nssels ( l)e|x,u It uienl < !< I alrontologie ) . 171 alxtve ( eulei ) Nalinal Ilislon ’ Page I ' t page 1>< M BBC Worldwide 1999
iimi
IIIIII '
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