Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads. Archaeological Finds of Cowrie Amulets 9781407303338, 9781407333489

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1. Introduction: Cowries
Chapter 2. 50, 440–2298. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin
Chapter 3. Summary
Chapter 4. Catalogue
Chapter 5. References

Citation preview

BAR S1846 2008

Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Archaeological Finds of Cowrie Amulets

KOVÁCS

László Kovács VULVAE, EYES, SNAKE HEADS

B A R

with malacological identifications by

Gyula Radócz

BAR International Series 1846 2008

Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Archaeological Finds of Cowrie Amulets László Kovács with malacological identifications by

Gyula Radócz

BAR International Series 1846 2008

ISBN 9781407303338 paperback ISBN 9781407333489 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407303338 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Table of Contents Foreword Acknowledgements Chapter 1. Introduction: Cowries

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1.1. The names of Cowries 1.1.1. Outline of the History of Archaeological Research 1.1.2. The Natural Science Nomenclature and Its Cultural Historical Background 1.1.2.1. “Porcelain Shells” 1.1.2.2. “Cypraeidae” 1.1.2.3. “Cowries” 1.2. The Lifeways of Cowries 1.2.1. The Lifeways of Cowries 1.2.2. On the Archaeological Depiction of Cowries 1.3. The Use of Cowries 1.3.1. The Working of Cowries 1.3.2. Implements and Tools 1.3.3. 1–338. Ornament or Amulet: The Symbolism of Clothing 1.3.3.1. 1–49. The Earliest Archaeological Cowrie Finds from the Upper Paleolithic (30,000 – 9000 BC) 1.3.3.2. 50–338. Finds from the Mesolithic Until the Scythian Period (10,000 –700 BC) 1.3.3.2.1. Similarity to the Vulva 1.3.3.2.1.a. 50–76, 178–291, 301–326. Eurasian Finds 1.3.3.2.1.b. 77–177, 292–300, 327–38. Egyptian and Sudanese Finds 1.3.3.2.1.c. Evaluation 1.3.3.2.2. 257, 309, 319. Resemblance to a Half-Open/Half-Closed Human Eye 1.3.3.2.3. Similarity to a Snake’s Head 1.3.3.2.4. Summary of the Symbolism of Cowrie Wear 1.3.4. 339–439. Currency or Ornament/Amulet 1.3.4.1. 339–416, 425–39. Cowrie Money and Other Cowries from Southeast Asia (China, Japan, Korea) 1.3.4.2. 417–24. Cowrie Money and Other Cowrie Finds in India 1.3.4.3. Hypothetical Cowrie Currency in Eurasia, West of China and India 1.4. Cowries Appearing Among the Archaeological Finds of the Carpathian Basin 1.4.1. Money and Ringed Cowries 1.4.1.1. The Maldive Islands, the Main Gathering Place of Money Cowries 1.4.2. Tiger and Panther Cowries 1.4.3. Dirty cowries 1.4.4. Further species

Chapter 2. 50, 440–2298. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin

2.1. 50. A Middle Bronze Age (1700–1350 BC) Cowrie from the Carpathian Basin 2.2. 440–785. Cowries in the Scythian Period Archaeological Material of East Carpathian Basin and Their Eastern Parallels (2nd Half Of The 6th Century–3rd/2nd Centuries BC) 2.2.1. Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.2.2. 542–785. Southern, Southeastern and Eastern Parallels beyond the Carpathian Basin from the 7th to the 3rd/2nd Centuries BC 2.2.2.1. The Earlier Distribution Area 2.2.2.2. The Scythians 2.2.2.3. Scythian Period Sauromatians and Their Northern Neighbours 2.2.2.4. The Scythian Cultural Unit in Siberia 2.2.2.5. Evaluation 2.2.2.6. Southern Siberian Cowrie Imitations



1 1 1 2 3 6 6 6 6 9 9 9 11 12 13 15 15 15 18 23 24 36 41 43 44 52 53 56 56 57 60 61 62 63 63 63 63 66 66 67 69 70 70 75

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2.3. 786–876. Cowries from the Late Iron Age and Celtic Period Sites in the Carpathian Basin and Their Parallels (600/550–10 BC) 2.3.1. 786–98. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.3.2. 799–876. The Central European Parallels to Celtic Period Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin (6th–1st Centuries BC) 2.3.2.1. The Etruscan and Pomeranian Face-Urns with Earrings 2.3.2.2. The Former Role of Cowries 2.4. 877–1155. Cowries in the Sarmatian Period Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin (10–453 AD) and Their Parallels (3rd/2nd Centuries BC–5th Century AD) 2.4.1. 877–952. Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.4.1.1. The Small Cowries 2.4.1.2. The Large Cowries 2.4.1.3. Evaluation 2.4.2. 953–1155. Parallels Outside the Carpathian Basin 2.4.2.1. The Continuation of the Scythian Tradition 2.4.2.2. The Spread in the Wear of Large Cowries 2.4.2.3. Evaluation 2.4.3. 896. The glass cowrie imitation from Hajdúböszörmény 2.4.3.1. 896. The Glass Cowrie Imitation 2.4.3.2. The Glass Spindle Whorl 2.4.3.3. The Dating to the Roman Imperial Period 2.4.3.4. The Dating to the Germanic Age 2.4.3.5. Summary: The Dating of the Glass Cowrie 2.5. 1156–1587. Cowries in the Migration Period Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin and Their Parallels (Middle of the 5th–End of the 9th Centuries) 2.5.1. 1156–57. Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.5.2. 1158–1587. The Parallels outside the Carpathian Basin 2.5.2.1. The Small Cowries 2.5.2.2. The Medium-Sized Cowries 2.5.2.3. The Large Cowries 2.5.2.4. Unidentified/Unknown Cowries 2.5.2.5. Evaluation 2.5.3. Cowries in the Archaeological Material of the Ancestors of the Hungarians 2.6. 1588–2159. Cowries in the Carpathian Basin at the Time of the Hungarian Conquest and during the Early Arpadian Period (896–1200) and Their Eastern Parallels (10th–12th/13th Centuries) 2.6.1. 1588–838. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.6.1.1. The History of Research 2.6.1.2. Evaluation 2.6.1.3 On the Hypothesised Cowrie Money of the Conquering Hungarians 2.6.2. 1839–2159. Parallels to the Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.6.2.1. The Finds 2.6.2.2 Evaluation 2.6.2.3. On the Supposed Cowrie Data from Ibn Fadlān 2.7. 2160–2268. Cowries in the Jazygian Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin (13th–14th Centuries) and Their Parallels (12th/13th–14th/15th Centuries) 2.7.1. 2160–90. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.7.2. 2191–269. The Parallels of the Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.7.2.1. The Finds 2.7.2.2 Evaluation 2.8. 2270–94. Cowries in the Southern Slav Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin and Their Eastern Parallels (16th–17th Centuries) 2.8.1. 2270–87. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.8.2. 2288–94. The Parallels to the Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.8.3. A view on Cowrie Use in Islamic Countries 2.9. 2295–98. A Horse Harness Decorated With Cowries from the Carpathian Basin and Its Parallels (17th–18th Centuries)

76 76 77 80 81 81 81 82 82 83 84 84 85 88 91 93 94 95 100 103 104 104 105 106 107 108 111 111 117 119 119 119 122 127 127 127 129 131 133 133 135 135 136 137 137 138 138 144

Chapter 3. Summary Chapter 4. Catalogue

149

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4.1 General Notes 4.1.1. Definition of Cowries 4.1.2. Catalogue of Cowries Mentioned in the Volume 4.1.3 Nomenclature of Archaeological Sites 4.1.3.1. Abbreviations of Administrative Units 4.2. 1–49 (37a), 2375, 2467. Upper Paleolithic Cowries from Western and Central Europe (30,000–9000 BC) – (see Annex 2375, 2467) 1–41 (37a), Annex 2375. France 42–48. Italy 49. Slovakia 4.3. 50–326, (50a–b, 144a, 225a, 326a). Cowries and Cowrie Imitations from the Mesolithic to the Scythian Period (10,000–700 BC) 50, (50a-b). Carpathian Basin 51–54. Armenia 55–76. Cyprus 77–177, (144a) Egypt 178–81, Annex 2376. Georgia/Gruzya 182–207. Greece 208–11. Iran 212–15. Iraq 216–246, (225a). Israel 247. Italy 248–280. Jordan 281–287. Pakistan 288. Portugal 289–291. Russia 292–300. Sudan 301–10. Syria 311–324. Turkey 325–26. Turkmenistan (326a). Ukraine 4.4. 327–338. Egyptian Female Fertility Statuettes with Cowrie Girdles (ca. 2119 –1292 BC) 4.5. 339–439. Cowries and Cowrie Imitations from South Asia (ca. 10,500 BC –1100 AD) 339–416. China 417–24. India 425–38. Japan 439. Korea, Republic 4.6. 440–541, (540a). Cowries of the Carpathian Basin from the Scythian Period (7th–3/2nd Centuries BC) 4.7. 542–785, (548a, 719a, 764a-c). Finds of Scythian and Scythian Aged Cowries and Cowrie Imitations on the Territory East and South from the Carpathian Basin (7th–3/2nd Centuries BC) 542. Afghanistan 543. Armenia 544. Azerbajdžan 545–49, (548a). Bulgaria 550–65. Cyprus 566–69. Egypt 570. Georgia/Gruziya 571–77. Greece 578–80. Iran 581. Iraq 582–83. Israel 584–91. Jordan 592–97. Kazakstan

152 152 152 152 153 154 154 154 158 159 159 159 160 160 162 172 172 174 174 175 177 177 179 179 179 179 180 182 183 183 183 187 187 192 193 193 193 207 207 207 208 208 209 210 211 211 212 212 212 212 213

598–99. Kyrgyzstan 600. Libya 601–10. Mongolia 611–18. Romania 619–712. Russia 713. Syria 714. Tunisia 715–16. Turkey 717–84, (719a, 764a–c). Ukraine 785. Uzbekistan 4.8. 786–98. Cowries Among Late Iron Age and Celtic Archaeological Finds from the Carpathian Basin (600/550–10 BC) 4.9. 799–876. Central European Parallels to the Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin in the Celtic Period (6th–1st Centuries BC) 799–801. Austria 802–08. Bosnia and Herzegovina 809–11. Croatia 812. Czech Republic 813–17. Germany 818–41. Italy 842–71. Poland 872. Serbia 873–74. Slovenia 875–76. Provenience unknown 4.10. 877–952, (900a, 940a). Sarmatian Cowrie Finds from the Carpathian Basin (1st–5th Century AD) 4.11. 953–1155, (959a, 1014a, 1017a–d, 1038a–c, 1073a, 1130a–d, 1139a, 1147a). Parallels to the Sarmatian Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin (2nd century BC–5th century AD) 953–54. Austria 955. Bulgaria 956–57. Cyprus 958–59. Czech Republic (959a). Denmark 960–64. Egypt 965–68. France 969–71. Georgia/Gruziya 972–78, Germany 979–81. Israel 982–84. Italy 985–91. Jordan 992–993. Kazakstan 994–99. Kyrgyzstan 1000–1012. Moldova 1013–35, (1014a, 1017a–d). Poland 1036–61, (1035a, 1038a–c), Annex 2475. Romania 1062–80, (1073a). Russia 1081. Slovenia 1082–86. Sudan 1087–90. Syria 1091–1118. Tadžikistan 1119. Tunesia 1120. Turkey 1121–22. Turkmenistan 1123–48, (1130a–d, 1139a, 1147a) Ukraine 1149–55. Uzbekistan 4.12. 1156–57, (1156a–b). Cowrie Finds of the Migration Period from the Carpathian Basin (5th Century ) 4.13. 1158–587, (1171a, 1177a, 1201a, 1224a, 1249a, 1255a, 1265a, 1464a, 1471a–b,

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213 214 214 214 215 225 225 225 225 230 231 233 233 233 236 236 236 237 239 241 241 242 242 257 257 257 257 257 258 259 259 259 259 261 261 261 261 262 263 264 267 270 274 274 275 276 277 277 277 278 281 282



1472a, 1475a, 1477a, 1482a). Parallels to the Cowrie Finds of the Migration Period from the Carpathian Basin (5th–9th/10th Centuries) 1158. Austria 1159. Belarus 1160–64. Belgium 1165–66. Bulgaria 1167–72. Czech Republic 1173–202 (1177a, 1201a). England 1202. Estonia 1203–04. Finland 1205–32 (1224a). France 1233–36. Georgia/Gruziya 1237–399. Germany 1400. Iran 1401–03. Israel 1404–12. Italy 1413–15. Jordan 1416. Kyrgyzstan 1417–51. Latvia 1452–53. Norway 1454. Poland 1455–530, (1464a, 1471a–b, 1472a, 1475a, 1477a, 1482a), 2488–90, 2493–95. Russia 1531–53. Sweden 1554–61. Switzerland 1562–63. Tadžikistan 1564. Tunisia 1565. Turkmenistan 1566–80. Ukraine 1581–87. Uzbekistan 4.14. 1588–1838, (1611a, 1684a, 1707a, 1717a). Hungarian Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin of the Conquest Period and Early Arpadian Age (10th–11th/12th Centuries) 4.15. 1839–2159, (1839a, 1843a, 2102a, 2122a, 2151a, 2169a, 2295a). Parallels of the Cowries from the Carpathian Basin during the Period of the Hungarian Conquest and Early Arpadian Age (10th–12th/13th Centuries) 1839–40, (1839a). Belarus 1841–43, (1843a). Bosnia and Herzegovina 1844–50. Bulgaria 1851. Croatia 1852–54. Czech Republic 1855–56. Egypt 1857. England 1858–59. Estonia 1860–61. Finland 1862. Israel 1863–64. Kyrgyzstan 1865–2074. Latvia 2075–78. Lithuania 2079. Macedonia 2080–85. Poland 2086–87. Romania 2088–126, (2102a, 2122a). Russia 2127–44. Serbia 2145–47. Slovenia 2148–59, (2151a). Ukraine 4.16. 2160–90, (2169a). Jazygian Cowrie Finds from the Carpathian Basin (13th–14th Centuries)

283 286 286 286 286 287 287 292 292 292 294 294 315 315 315 316 316 316 318 318 318 332 335 336 336 336 336 339 340 378 378 379 379 380 380 380 380 381 381 381 381 381 396 396 396 397 397 403 404 405 407

4.17. 2191–269. Eastern Parallels of the Jazygian Cowrie Finds from the Carpathian Basin (12th/13th–14th/15th Centuries) 2191. Belarus 2192–93. Bulgaria 2194. Croatia 2195. Egypt 2196–97. Estonia 2198–99. Georgia/Gruziya 2200. Germany 2201. Israel 2202. Italy 2203–04. Jordan 2205–29. Latvia 2230. Lithuania 2231. The Netherlands 2232–36. Romania 2237–68. Russia 2269. Sweden 4.18. 2270–87. South Slavic Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin (16th–17th Centuries) 4.19. 2288–94. Parallels to the South Slavic Cowries of the Carpathian Basin (15th/ 16th–17th Centuries) 2288. Estonia 2289. Israel 2290–91. Latvia 2292–93. Romania 2294. Russia 4.20. 2295–98, (2295a). A Horse Equipment with Cowries from the Carpathian Basin and Some of Its Parallels (17th–20th? Centuries) 4. 21. 2299–564. Annex of Cowries Not Discussed in the Text 2299–328. Carpathian Basin 2329. Abu Dhabi 2330–45. Azerbajdžan 2346. Barbados 2347. The Bermuda Islands 2348. Bulgaria 2349–50. Croatia 2351–56. Cyprus 2357. Czech Republic 2358–67. Egypt 2368–74. England 2375. France 2376–82. Georgia/Gruziya 2383–93. Germany 2394–413. Greece 2414–15. India 2416–21. Iran 2422. Iraq 2423–53. Israel 2454–57. Italy 2458–62. Jordan 2463–64. Kazakstan 2465. Kuwait 2466. Lebanon 2467. Libya 2468–70. Moldova 2471. Montenegro 2472–73. The Netherlands 2474. Pakistan

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411 411 411 412 412 412 413 413 413 413 413 413 415 416 416 416 419 419 424 424 424 424 424 424 424 426 426 429 429 430 430 430 431 432 432 432 432 433 433 433 434 435 436 436 436 438 438 438 438 438 439 439 439 439 440

2475–76. Romania 2477–504. Russia 2505. Serbia 2506. Slovenia 2507. Spain 2508. Sudan 2509–11. Sweden 2512–16. Syria 2517–21. Turkey 2522–61. Ukraine 2562–64. USA

440 440 443 443 443 443 443 443 443 443 445

Chapter 5. References

447 447 454

5.1. Abbreviations 5.2. Bibliography

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Foreword I began the present work as the result of a sudden inspiration and initially planed to confine myself to my field of research, the archaeology of the Carpathian Basin at the time of the Hungarian Conquest and the Early Arpadian Age (10th–12th centuries AD) and the pertinent chronological and numismatic problems. Along with my colleagues involved in the analysis of grave goods from this period, I once believed that since cowries are relatively common in burials and are easily identified amongst the grave goods, it was sufficient for the Hungarian records – as has been the practice for over a century – only to name and list them, since a detailed analysis would probably yield no special results. Thus, the analysis of the finds meanwhile accumulating unawares was delayed, as I repeatedly had reason to note. It was well-known that various peoples had used cowries as a form of currency or, like the conquering Hungarians, as jewelry since ancient times. Hungarian ethnographers have added information that our ancestors might have worn them as amulets on necklaces. It is exactly for this reason that the roughly sketched hypothesis surrounding the use of cowries, not as amulets but as currency, or that the Hungarians, newly settled in the Carpathian Basin, were at least aware that they could be used as currency, would have marked a breakthrough in the interpretation of our ancestors’ clothing. Based on my general knowledge of the archaeological material of the 350 years from the Hungarian Conquest until the end of the reign of King Bela II (that is, between 896 and 1141) and my own research on graves with coins which began two decades earlier, I disagreed with the above hypothesis from the beginning and had always planned to summarise my views. My original concept was soon proven untenable as several unforeseen circumstances called for a broader-based analysis: 1.

Based on forgotten lines by József Korek, Béla Szőke has pointed out that cowries were discovered among the Scythian (second half of the 6th century–3rd/2nd centuries BC) and Sarmatian (20–432 AD) finds from the Carpathian Basin. In order to be able to interpret the Eastern traditions of the conquering Hungarians, it seemed necessary to learn more about their Eastern antecedents in order to follow possible connections or maybe even discover their common origin.

2.

While gathering data on the finds from the Carpathian Basin from the above-mentioned three periods I came across cowries which were ignored or only marginally dealt with in the Hungarian archaeological literature. Most had been excavated recently and date to other periods, i. e. the Middle Bronze Age and the transition between Hallstatt and La Tène. Other specimens I found in Germanic, Jazygian and Southern Slav materials. As a result, further research in the archaeological literature seemed necessary. During this work, I not only learned about the archaeological context of these finds and their Eurasian parallels but also about the use of cowries and the enormous number of views on their meaning as burial finds from archaeologists, cultural historians, historians of religion and ethnographers, all of which somehow had to be ordered and systematised.

3.

It also very soon became evident that there were both small and large cowries in the accumulating archaeological material. Since the latter did not seem to represent mature varients of the small ones, I had to consider the presence of several species from different sources, acquired and used in various ways. I decided to gather the accessible Hungarian finds at least and to classify them scientifically. The



In this study I will be using the word ‘cowrie’ – originally denoting only Money and Ringed cowries – in two ways: 1. A specimen of unknown or unidentifiable species (i. e. Cypraea sp.) or 2. for the family name ‘porcelain shell’; for more details see below. The English name and the scientific names for the cowrie species, information on their extreme and average sizes and habitat are included in chapter 4.1.1–2.  Kovács (1988) 126, 152: note 5; Kovács (1991/92) 62: note 106; Kovács (1994) 116.  The first detailed survey of the finds from the Carpathian Basin: Szőke (1962) 54; the most important preliminaries: Korošec (1950) 84–85; Hadži (1953); Váňa (1954); Sláma (1958–59).  “Most probably there were amulets suspended on bead necklaces as well as cowries found in graves from the time of the Hungarian Conquest but unfortunately there are only a few such have been found ...”: Hoppál (1977).  Gedai (1996); Gedai (1994–95); Gedai (1998). I would like to thank the author for granting me access to the last study. In his later works he cites Arabic travellers comments on the economic circumstances of Hungarians in the 9th century where they mentioned various furs and fur clothing – which it seems – were measures of value and that perhaps there were also other “primitive forms of currency”: Gedai (1999) 54, 67: note 60 evidently referring to Gedai (1994–95).  Compare Kovács (1989). My research on the Early Arpadian age has not yet been published, see Kovács (1993/94); Kovács (1997a) 11; Kovács (2004); Kovács (2005–2006); Kovács (2006); Kovács (2007)  In his article analysing finds from the 17th century South Slav cemetery in Zombor-Bükkszállás (2283–86) published posthumously half a century later, he wrote: “The small-sized Cyprea shells are definitely female objects... Cypreae first appeared in the Scythian Period [445–46]. Only large shells, worn suspended from the neck [881], were used in the Sarmatian Period. The small variety found in our cemetery again appear strung onto necklaces on the Pilin-Sirmányhegy [in 10th–11th centuries Hungarian graves: 1726–28]. It is highly probable that they were thought to possess magic power.”: Korek (1989/90) 183.

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well-known geologist, expert on and, malacologist and collector of molluscs, Gyula Radócz, kindly offered to help me. To date, no such complex study has yet been carried out which covers several archaeological periods and includes the scientific classification of the shells in either the Hungarian or international literature. The present study is, however, only a pioneering work. Due to the chosen subject, fossils in the Carpathian Basin from non-archaeological contexts and the archaeological finds of partly fossilised shells of other species from the Carpathian Basin which can be found on sites from the time period ending with the Late Bronze Age when cowries, also fossilised, were exceptional (compare 50)10 have not been included here. Having excluded certain unverified data (50a–50b), it seemed acceptable to take a traditional point of view, namely that cowries, at that time an extant species, appeared for the first time in the Middle Danube region in Scythian material. Except for the Celts and the Germans, all the peoples who could actually have brought cowries to the Carpathian Basin when they moved there (the Sarmatians, the Hungarians, the Jazygians and the South Slavs with [South-] Eastern relations) or who had an influence on the use of cowries without actually settling (the Scythians) came from the East. Consequently, I looked mainly for parallel material in further east, more precisely in the southeastern European and Asian steppe and forest-steppe area. Despite the long time-span of over three and a half millennia, from the beginning of the Scythian Period in the early 7th century BC and the size of the distribution area of cowries, it is still difficult to follow the processes lying behind the appearance of these shells in archaeological contexts. For this reason, I extended the analysis from the appearance of the scattered remains of cowries in the the Upper Paleolithic (30,000–9000 BC) until the 19th–20th centuries AD. Spatially, I looked southwards beyond the steppe area, mainly to Egypt and the Near East, without excluding the relevant finds in Western and Northern Europe. I consistently strove to interpret cowries from different periods, based not so much on the archaeological literature, but rather on the material found in specific, independent catalogues of finds from the given period (4.2–21).11 The chapters interpreting the finds and their parallels from subsequent periods in the Carpathian Basin (2.1–9) were conceived in this maner, complemented by a general section (1.1–4). In addition to this and the interpretation of the symbolic value of cowries, I have considered finds dated earlier than those from the Carpathian Basin (1.31–3) and have provided an overview of the Eurasian use of cowries as currency (1.3.4). I have come across works in the scientific literature dealing with this subject, more or less, exactly, yet none are handled in as complex and detailed a manner as the present work. While gathering the data and writing the study I was confronted with the limits of both my own abilities and possibilities: 1.

During my research found a number of published references iwhich were not accessible to me. Without any information on the contents and the length of these publications, I could not risk ordering a xeroxed copy from abroad for financial reasons.

2.

It was impossible to review the accessible literature in sufficient detail so as to gather all the recorded cowries. Even while writing this volume I was still making some additions but some data will still be missing from the study (see 4.21).

3.

Place-names no longer used in the given form and often refered to without mention of their administrative area have caused great difficulties. I have tried to update them with varying success (4.1.3). Localities in the Carpathian Basin are called by their traditional Hungarian names with reference to their presentday official name.

From the above it follows that the present text is my work. It has been revised from a malacological point of view by Gyula Radócz. I would like to express my gratitude for his kind help with identifying the shells, as well as for granting me access both to his private library and to that of the Geological Institute.  See below note 20. 10 Cardium sp. and Dentalium sp. were found in the Early Bronze Age, Hatvan Culture of eastern Hungary (middle of 18th–first third of 16th centuries BC): Kalicz (1968) 37, 164. According to István Bóna, no other period has yielded so many shell species, some of which were already widespread in the Neolithic (6000–4500 BC) and the Copper Age (4500–2500 BC), in the Carpathian Basin as the first half of the Middle Bronze Age (17th–mid 15th centuries BC): Cardium edule, Cerithium, Columbella rustica, Dentalium, Helicigona, Pectunculus (now Glycymeris), Planorbis, Spondylus, Unio and Vermetus. Based on the analysis of Ilona Meznerics one cannot exclude fossils, therefore “die verschiedenen Schnecken und Muscheln können also ohne gründliche Untersuchung nicht an sich als Zeugnis ethnischer Bewegungen und Berührungen betrachtet werden.”: Bóna (1975) 267–69. The lack of cowries before the Scythian Period has been noted without mentioning later occurrences: Csalog–Kisfaludi (1985) 321. 11 Due to limitations of space I have not included site descriptions, the excavations or certain archaeological features of the individual burials (orientation, size, shape of the pit, position and size of the skeleton, position and description of the finds) in the catalogue.





4.

At times, it was extremely hard to relate the somewhat obsolete or only roughly defined dating assigned to a given grave material with cowries. I have possibly made some mistakes in this respect.

5.

An additional, yet the most easily forgiven problem with the data is that many of the accessible publications do not provide accurate malacological identifications for the cowrie finds. Unable to alter this fact, I only tried to record the classification method in the catalogue.

6.

For various reasons, it was not possible to present all the cowrie specimens from the Carpathian Basin to Gyula Radócz for identification.

7.

Given the wide distribution of the various cowrie species, I have not, to date, found any scientific results that would permit conclusions to be drawn about the geographically defined, precise origin of an archaeological find.12

In spite of all the deficencies mentioned above, of which I all too well aware, the present work evidently extends far beyond my original concept, i. e. a simple reply to articles by István Gedai. Although he provoked my basic interest in the problem, the present analysis has little in common with his ideas. The subject, which were neglected in the Hungarian scientific literature, came to life in a sense during the course of my research and called for a complex treatment.

This hope is, however, sustained by a kind remark by Karl Banghard in one of his e-mails. For preliminary results: Banghard (2000) 346; Banghard (2001); see below p.108: note 391. 12

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Acknowledgements During my work, as previously, I have enjoyed the selfless support of my colleagues; they have given me advice, suggested publications to read, lent me books, sent me photocopied material, made it possible for me to study cowries and have reviewed chapters of the present text. I would like to express my gratitude in colleagues in Budapest: Csanád Bálint, Eszter Bánffy, Elek Benkő, István Gaál, Dénes Gabler, Friderika Horváth, Dénes Jankovich, Erzsébet Jerem, Gyöngyi Kovács, Gabriella Kulcsár, Péter Langó, János Makkay, Zsuzsa Miklós, Imre Nagy, Gyula Siklósi, Judit Solti, Béla Miklós Szőke, Miklós Takács, István Torma, László Török, Attila Türk, Andrea Vaday and Tivadar Vida (Archaeological Institute of the HAS), ���������������������������� Sándor Fodor (Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Humanities, Arabic Department), Ildikó Puskás (Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Ancient History), Beatrix Mecsi (Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Humanities, Japanese Department), †István Bóna, Gábor Kalla and Pál Raczky (Institute of Archaeological Sciences of the Eötvös Loránd University), ����������������������������������������������������������� Mihály Hoppál (Ethnographic Institute of the HAS), �������� Borbála Maráz and Júlia Kisfaludi (Historical Museum of Budapest), Piroska Biczó, Viola ������������������������� T. Dobosi, István Fodor, Éva Garam, Tibor Kemenczei, †Attila Kiss, Tibor Kovács S., Júlia Kovalovszki, Károly Mesterházy, László Révész, Ágnes Ritoók and † Ferenc Temesváry (Hungarian National Museum), Mariann Bakró Nagy and Zoltán Molnár (Institute of Linguistics of the HAS), András Pálóczi-Horváth (Gáspár Károli Calvinist University), István Ecsedy, Gábor Hatházi and Mihály Nagy (Ministry of Cultural Heritage), Márta Ferenczy and Emese Pásztor (Museum of Applied Art), Tatjána Kardos (Museum of East Asia), ����� Géza Andó, Péter Hubay, Péter Gaboda, Hedvig Győry, István Nagy, János Szilágyi and Irén Vozil (Museum of Fine Arts), ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Tamás Baczonyi and György Ságvári (Museum of Military History), ����������������������������� András Figler (Office of the Cultural Heritage), ������������������������������ Gábor Sarbak (Research Group “Fragmenta Codicum”), Márton Horváth (University of Applied Arts, Department of Glass), ����������������������������� István Elter (Variorum LLC). From other institutes in Hungary: Margit Cs. Dax, Sylvia Palágyi and Ágota S. Perémi (Laczkó Dezső Museum of Veszprém), László Domboróczki and Adél Váradi (Dobó István Castle Museum of Eger), Ida Fröhlich and Katalin Jankovits (Pázmány Péter Catholic University of Piliscsaba), Attila Gaál, Zsolt Gallina, János Ódor and Márta G. Vizi (Wosinsky Mór Museum of Szekszárd), János Gömöri (Fabricius House Museum of Sopron), Walter Hercker and Tamás Romváry (Horse Academy of Kaposvár), István Horváth and Márta H. Kelemen (Balassa Bálint Museum of Esztergom), Jolán B. Horváth (Intercisa Museum of Dunaújváros), Eszter Istvánovits (Jósa András Museum of Nyíregyháza), Ákos Janó (Rákóczi Ferenc Museum of Sárospatak), Irén Juhász (Tessedik Sámuel Museum of Szarvas), Ferenc Karsai (Library of Jánoshalma), Gábor Kiss (Savaria Museum of Szombathely), †Mihály Kőhegyi (Türr István Museum of Baja), Klára Kővári and Sarolta Tettamanti (Tragor Ignác Museum of Vác), Valéria Kulcsár (Petőfi Sándor Museum in Aszód), Béla Kürti, Gábor Lőrinczy and Gabriella Vörös (Móra Ferenc Museum of Szeged), Judit Kvassay and László Vándor (Göcseji Museum of Zalaegerszeg), László Madaras (Damjanich János Museum of Szolnok), Éva Maróti (Ferenczy Museum of Szentendre), Katalin B. Nagy (Tornyay János Museum of Hódmezővásárhely), Ibolya M. Nepper and László Selmeczi (Déri Museum of Debrecen), Miklós Nyakas (Hajdúsági Museum of Hajdúböszörmény), Sándor Petényi (Kuny Domokos Museum of Tata), ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ Andrea Pölös������������������������������������������������������������������ (King Mathias Museum of Visegrád), Rezső Pusztai (Hansági Museum of Mosonmagyaróvár), Zoltán Rózsa (Szántó Kovács János Museum of Orosháza), János József Szabó (Koszta József Museum of Szentes), Imre Szatmári (Munkácsy Mihály Museum of Békéscsaba), György V. Székely and Erika Wicker (Katona József Museum of Kecskemét), Edit Tari (Kossuth Lajos Museum of Cegléd), Edit Újvári and Gyula Wojtilla (József Attila University of Szeged). From institutes outside Hungary: Heidi Amrein, Alexander Koch (Schweizerisches Landesmuseum, Zürich), Judit Antoni and Alfred Falchetto (Nuku Hiva, Marquises isles, French Polynesia), Jacqueline Balen (Arheološki Muzej, Zagreb), Karl Banghard (Archäologisches Freilichtmuseum, Örlinghausen), Christiane Bis-Worch (Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art, March-Aux-Poissons), Claus Carnap-Bornheim (Archäologisches Landesmuseum, Schleswig), Jānis Ciglis (Latvijas Vestures Muzejs, Riga), Joe Cribb, Gillian Varndell and Derek A. Welsby (The British Museum, London), Falko Daim (Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz), Andrew Gerard (Andrews University, Oronoko Charter Township), Matthias Glaubrecht und Hannelore Landsberg (Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin), Gabriel Fusek, Milan Hanuliak, Gabriel Nevizánszky, Mária Rejholcová and Alexander Ruttkay (Archeologický Ústav SAV, Nitra), Marian Głosek (Instytut Archeologii Universytet Łódzki, Łodż), Valerij Grigorov (Institute of Archeology and Museum of BAS, Sofia), Angelika Heinrich (Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna), Volker Hilberg (PhilippsUniversität, Marburg), Birgitta M. Johansson (Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology

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& The Archaeological Research Laboratory, Stockholm University), Aleksandr Vladimirovič Kaškin (Institut Arheologii Akademii Nauk Rossii, Moscow), †Vytautas Kazakevičius (Lietuvos Istorijos Institutas, Vilnius), Andrzej Kokowski (Marie Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin), Raimar Kory (Department. of Archaeology, Freiburg University), Oystein LaBianca (Andrews University, Oronoko Charter Township), Ildikó Lehtinen (Kulttuurien Museo, Helsinki), Annette Lennartz (Department of Archaeology, Bonn University), Felix Lorenz (Zoologisches Institut, Universität Giessen), Yvonne Markowitz (Museum of Fine Art, Boston), Henk K. Mienis (Mollusc Collections at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and at the Tel Aviv University), Barbara Porter (American Center of Oriental Research, Amman), David S. Reese and Catherine Sease (Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven), Darrel Rohl (Andrews University, Oronoko Charter Township), Ajay Mitra Shastri (Vidya Vihar, Rana Pratap Nagar, Nagpur), Kinga Stanek (Institute of Archaeology, Warsaw University), Sabine Tolksdorf (Staatsbibliothek, Berlin), Željko Tomičić (Institut za Arheologiju, Zagreb), Pirjo Uino (Department of Archaeology of the National Board of Antiquities, Helsinki), Heiki Valk (Archaeology Centre, University of Tartu), Anna Zariņa (Riga). I owe a debt of gratitude to the personally unknown Curator in the Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT/USA, David S. Reese, for sending many offprints and photocopies his and other researchers’ works was the most important helper in the collection of data for my book. Andrea Vaday and I got his help with the correction of as English translated text Kovács–Vaday (1997–98). And when the English translation of this book was finished and I was not satisfied with the results of its revision by Alice Choyke made a timid request for more help of Professor Reese. I could give my deepest thanks to him for his careful corrections, without which it would be impossible to publish my text in English.

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List of Illustrations Fig. 1. Messalina icta ‘Me–ssalina attacked’ on a Roman gem – after Aigremont (1909) pl. I: top right. Fig. 2. Antique nymph with shell – after Aigremont (1909) pl. II: above links. Fig. 3. Features of a cowrie shell – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 6: fig. 1 Fig. 4. The external anatomy of a cowrie shell – after Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 13: fig. 23. Fig. 5. Schematic drawing how beads can be cut out of a Panther/Tiger cowrie shell – after Trotzig (1988) 292: fig. 6 Fig. 6. Cypraea millepunctata as bread-fruit scraper (1), two cowries as bait for cuttle-fish (2) of 20th c. – after Pfeiffer (1914) 128: fig. 137: b–c Fig. 7. Cowrie rattles fitted to a squash to indicate dance rhythms from Togo of 20th c. – after Pfeiffer (1914) 226: fig. 253 Fig. 8. So-called “Hamburger Ware” box of 20th c. glued together from Cypraea, Strombus, Trochus, Mytilus and Pecten shells– after Pax–Arndt (1929) 172: fig. 82 Fig. 9. Apron with cowrie pendants of Zulus of 20th c. – after Schläger (2002) 127: fig. 9 Fig. 10. Loin-closses with cowrie rattles and the portrayal of its costume on a hairpin from Togo of 20th c. – after Pfeiffer (1914) 122–23: fig 124–25, 128 Fig. 11. Variants of so-called cowrie-scaraboids from the 18th Dynasty – after Hornung– Staehelin (1976) pls 7: 94, 13: 153, 7: 109, 18: 189, 14: 157. Fig. 12. „Easy-birth” cowrie shell used in Japan of 20th c. – after Andersson (1934) 305: fig. 134 Fig. 13. Ivory staff handles of 20th c. from Zaire – after Cornet (1995) 243: fig. 4.a–b Fig. 14. Female ancestor’s mask of 20th c. from Zaire – after Mack (1995) 278: fig. 4.49 Fig. 15. Neolithic jōmon figure wearing a large cowrie shell – after Singer (1940) 51: fig. Fig. 16. Mask from Ivory Coaster of 20th c. edged by ringed cowrie lines and consisted of twice four cowries ordered in a cross-shape –after Schläger (2002) 120: fig. 4 Fig. 17. Naga textile of 20th c. from Angam (State Assam, India) – after Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 163 Fig. 18. Muria girls of the Abujhmar foothills (Bastar State, India) of 20th c., with bunches of cowries in their hair – after Elwin (1942) pl. F: fig. 4 Fig. 19. Wooden female figure of 20th c. with cowries eyes from New Guinea – after Murray (1942) 144: fig. 1 Fig. 20. Money cowrie each in the eye sockets of a skull with carved ornament from Borneo of 20th c. – after Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 196 Fig. 21. Painted skull from Augusta River (New Guinea) of 20th c., 1-1 cowrie in the orbits and a strand of 10 cowries fastened to its top – after Pfeiffer (1914) 123–24, 125: fig. 132 Fig. 22. Modeled skull with multicolor paint and 1-1 Money (?) cowrie in the orbits from North New Guinea of 20th c. – Törzsi (1981) I: 82, fig. 60 Fig. 23. Wooden statuette of 20th c. with Money (?) cowrie inlays in the eye sockets from Kongo – after Törzsi (1981) I: fig. 352 Fig. 24. Mongolian textile shaman’s head dress of 20th c. from Darhat: the ears, the eyes and the middle of the forehead indicated with a cowrie each – after Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 137 Fig. 25. Chest ornaments of 20th c. worn in battles from New Guinea, their faces decorated with nassa snails, the eyes with a cowrie each – after Pfeiffer (1914) 124: fig. 130 Fig. 26. Clay figurine with coffee-bean eyes from Byblos of the neolithic Yarmukian culture – after Gopher–Orrelle (1996) 265: Fig. 8: 5 Fig. 27. Apron (kaatteri) of an Ingrian woman (1), cap of an Votian maid (2) decorated with cowries from the 20th c. – after Manninen (1957) pl. IV: [1–2] Fig. 28. Chest ornament (rissikko) of a Votian woman of 20th c. trimmed with cowries – after Manninen (1957) 172: fig. 201 Fig. 29. Temporal ornament (uusnikkauset) of an Ingrian woman of 20th c. trimmed with cowries – after Manninen (1957) 172: fig. 202 Fig. 30. Mari women’s head dress (koržgol’) of 20th. c. decorated with beads and 25 cowries – after Gening (1963) 52/53: fig. 30 Fig. 31. Necklace of Money cowries of a Mokša-Mordvin woman of 20th c. – after Valonen– Rácz (1978) pl. 81 Fig. 32. Holiday clothes with Money cowrie ornaments of an Erzyan-Mordvin girl of 20th c. – after Valonen–Rácz (1978) pls 69/79 xiv

4 5 7 8 10 10 10 11 20 20 22 25 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 38 39 40 42

Fig. 33. Brooch (Hemdspange) of a Mari woman of 20th c. with Money cowries, coins and beads – after Lehtinen (1994) 291: fig. 359 Fig. 34. Map of the use of cowrie currency – after Schilder (1952) 42: fig. 45 Fig. 35. The Chinese sign for cowrie and a recent shell – after Johansson (2005) 18: fig. 4b Fig. 36. The hieroglyphics for cowries appearing in bone (a) and bronze inscriptions (b) of Yin and Chou periods – after Egami (1974) 15: fig. 10 Fig. 37. Chinese pot from Ma Chang period decorated with painted cowries – after Johansson (2005) 18: fig. 4a; Andersson (1934) 324: fig. 141 Fig. 38. Chinese bronze lid probably from Han Dynasty with cowrie ornaments – after Andersson (1934) 303: fig. 133 Fig. 39. Cowrie imitation in mother of pearl (1) and outlines of metallic cowries – after Quiggin (1949) 225: fig. 92, 226: fig. 93. Fig. 40. Perforated Money cowrie (1) and Chinese cowrie imitations of stone (2–6) and bronze (7–8) – after Bykov (1969) pl. I: 1–8 Fig. 41. Cowrie species appearing among the archaeological finds of the Carpathian basin: 1. Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum (from 795–798), 2. Money cowrie pierced at the apex (1673), 3. intact Dirty cowrie (888), 4. pierced Panther cowrie (925), 5. pierced Tiger cowrie (925) Fig. 42. The living place of Money cowries and a living animal – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 205: fig. Fig. 43. The living place of Ringed cowries – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 204: fig. Fig. 44. The living place of Panther and Tiger cowries and their posterior outline – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 65: figs, 66: fig. Fig. 45. The living place of Dirty cowries and a living animal – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 196: fig. Fig. 46. Antique phallus-amulet, vulva-shaped pendant (876) and open-worked disks with vulva ornamentations – after Mercklin (1935) 118: figs 40–43 Fig. 47. Wiews of the Sarmatian-period glass cowrie amulet from Hajdúböszörmény (2–896) and a comparable wiews of a Tiger cowrie (1) – after Kovács (2001c) 173: figs 1–2 Fig. 48. Vas diatretum of 4th c. from Szekszárd with 3-3 fish- and shell-like legs – after Barkóczi (1996) 556: pl. LXVIII Fig. 49. Bottle of dark green glass of 2nd–3rd c. in the form of a fish with pincered decoration – after JGS 11 (1969) 110: fig. 6 Fig. 50. Black glass spindle whorls 3rd–6th c. decorated with a five-petalled red-white rosette from Hajdúböszörmény (1 – 896), Jánossomorja (2), Mohács (3) and a small example from Szentendre (4) – after Kovács (2001a) 288: fig. 3: a–d Fig. 51. Glass pommel of a double edged sword from the Hun period at Tiszalök – after Kovács (2001a) 290: fig. 4 Fig. 52. Magic sword pearls of 2nd–3rd c. from the Thorsberg marsh (1–2) and a black glass spindle whorl from Kerč (3) – after Kovács (2001a) 292: fig. 5: 1–2, 4 Fig. 53. Spindle whorls of 5th–7th c. from Köln-Junkersdorf, Grave 338 (1), Bülach, Grave 9 (2), Juellinge (3), Long Wittenham, Grave 150 (4), Eislingen, Grave 5 (5–6 – 1871), Kingston, Graves 30 and 31 (7–9), Köln-Müngersdorf, Graves 105, 122 and 149 (10–12)– after Kovács (2001a) 297: fig. 6: 1–12 Fig. 54. Large cowrie perforated on both sides from Gammertingen, Grave/1903 (1 – 1282) or with one hole from Hailfingen, Grave 318 (2 – 1359) – after Arends (1978) 1187: pl. 24: 1–2 Fig. 55. Earrings with cowrie pendants from Vot cemeteries of 12th–13th c. – after Sedov (1953) 197: fig. 2: 2–3 Fig. 56. Child’s amulet composed of 2 cowries strung in a strand of blue beads from Greece of 20th c. – after Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 108: fig. 283 Fig. 57. Gipsy woman with neck ornament of beads and cowries in Külsőrekecsin 1998 – Photo by Andrea Pölös Fig. 58. Hand-amulett of 20th c. of blue beads with cowries at their ends – after El-Adly (1981) 99: fig. VI. 1 = Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) fig. 12: 3 Fig. 59. Fish-shaped phallic amulet of 20th c. composed of rows of beads, cowries and a dried fish strung on a wire frame – after Kriss–Kriss-Henrich (1962) fig. 24 Fig. 60. Fertility charms of cowries of 20th c. – after Kriss–Kriss-Henrich (1962) fig. 30 Fig. 61. Wooden statue “nail-fetish” of Nkisi-Konde Zulus of 20th c. from Kongo/Zaire with a large cowrie shell pendant on its navel region – after Schläger (2000) 121: fig. 5 xv

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58 59 59 61 61 79 92 94 94 96 97 98

102 110 137 139 139 140 140 141 142

Fig. 62. Ornaments of performers of the ritual celebration zār with cowries of 20th c. – after Kriss–Kriss-Henrich (1962) fig. 127 Fig. 63. Harness embellished with Money cowries of 18th century (Hungarian National Museum – 2295) – Photo by András Dabasi Fig. 64. Mule or donkey’s forehead pendant (1) and a camel neck band (2) of 20th century from Iran – after Tanavoli (1998) pls. 70, 97 Fig. 65. Headstall decorated with Money cowries from Haverő parish, Medelpad from middle of 19th c. – after Johansson (2005) Paper VI 111: fig. 14 Fig. 66. Harness of a cavalryman from Danzig made in 1892 – after Pfeiffer (1914) 125: fig. 131 Fig. 67. Distribution of Upper Paleolithic cowrie finds (30,000–9000 BC – 1) and sites of cowries or cowrie imitations from the Mesolithic to the Scythian Period (10,000– 700 BC – 2) Fig. 68. 4 pierced Cypraea bernanya brocchii from Cessac-Faustin l’abri (7) – after Taborin (1993) 187: fig 2 Fig. 69. Contracted skeleton of male (1) with 20 perforated cowries (2) placed in pairs from Eyzies-Laugerie-Basse (10) – after May (1962) pl. 12: 2; Taborin (1993) 185: fig. 61 Fig. 70. Pebble painted with cowrie-pattern from Mas d’Azil and a contemporaneous Pear cowrie – after Schilder (1952) 20: fig. 21 Fig. 71. 1-1 Panther (?) cowrie from Aswan (96), Ringed (?) cowrie from Tell-el-Yehudieh (163) and 2 faience cowrie imitations of undetermined location (177) – after Reisner (1958) pl. X: 12831, 12834, 12832–33 Fig. 72. Worked natural cowries and cowrie imitations from Ballas (98), Mahasna (117), Nagadeh (145–46), Gheyta (960) and with insufficient informations (175, 177) – after Petrie (1914) pl. XIV: 107. a–k, pl. XLIV: 107. l, pl. XLVI: 107. m Fig. 73. The girdle with gold cowries of Princess Sit-Hathor from Dahsur (99) – after Aldred (1978) color plate 19 Fig. 74. The gold cowrie girdle of Queen Mereret from Dahsur (100) – after Aldred (1978) color plate 31 Fig. 75. Cords with pendants and cowries from Kafr Ammar (107–08) – after Petrie (1914) 131: pl. XVII: b–c Fig. 76. Cornelian flat-backed leg with foot and bone buckle-beads imitating cowries from Mostagedda (134) – after Andrews (1994) 71: fig. 74: g Fig. 77. Girdle around the hips of the mummy from Grave 480 at Thebes, with a gold frondshaped lock, carnelian and amethyst beads in double-lines interspersed with 12 cowrie imitations made of gypsum and gold plate (168) – after Hayes (1990) I: 239: fig. 153. Fig. 78. 8 electrum cowrie imitations of a girdle from Thebes (169) – after Andrews (1994): fig. 69: a Fig. 79. Glass and faience cowrie imitations (174, 176) – after Andrews (1994) 45: fig. 49: g (= fig. 64: k), c Fig. 80. Cowries in eye sockets of female skull from Jericho (257) – after Kenyon (1981) II: pl. 57: c Fig. 81. 3 pierced silver cowrie imitations among the disturbed grave goods of Prince Shabako from Grave Ku. 203 at El Kurru (296) – after Dunham (1950) pl. LXIX: B. 19-4-41 Fig. 82. Thrice 7-7 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum and intremiddently udžat-eye beads of the horse trapping of Prince Shebitku from Grave Ku. 209 at El Kurru (297) – after Dunham (1950) pl. LXVIII: B. 19-4-72 Fig. 83. Fallow cowries set in eye sockets of female skull from Layer VII, Grave 2 at Çatal Höyük (319) – after Mellaart (1966) pl. L: b Fig. 84. Faience figurine of a nude woman from Deir el Bahari (327), on her hips with a double-beaded girdle and 6 (?) large cowries – after Desroches-Noblecourt (1953) pl. I. Fig. 85. Wooden figurine of a nude girl, her belt is shown strung with 4 (?) large cowries (328) – after Breasted (1948) pl. 89: fig. b Fig. 86. Steatit sculpture of a nude girl wears a double-beaded girdle made of large cowries around her hips (332) – (C) Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan of the British Museum, London, acc. nr.: 2572 Fig. 87. Blue faience figurine of a nude woman, on her hips with a double-beaded girdle, strung with two large cowries in front (334) – after Hodžaš (1971) fig. 13 Fig. 88. A harness decorated with cowries from a vehicle-horse pit at Chang-chia-po (351 – Restored drawing) – after Egami (1974) 7: fig. 3

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143 145 146 147 148 154 155 156 156 163 164 164 165 166 168 170 171 171 177 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 188

Fig. 89. Sheep-shaped grave talisman from Grave 12 at Ku-ch’eng-p’u (380), its body is a Tiger cowrie and its head and legs are made of bronze – after Egami (1974) 40: fig. 12 Fig. 90. Cowrie from Kimhae shell mound (439) – after Egami (1974) 50: fig. 19 Fig. 91. Distribution of the cowrie finds from the Scythian Period of the Carpathian Basin (7th–3/2nd centuries BC) Fig. 92. 22 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum and kaolin beads from Grave 9 at Magyarózd (473) – after Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 133: pl. XIV: 1–24 Fig. 93. 50 pierced Ringed cowries among the finds of a female grave at Mezőtúr (478) – after Kisfaludi (1983) 71: fig. 1: 4c Fig. 94. 12 pierced cowries among the remaining finds from a disturbed burial at Nádpatak (480) – after Horedt (1941–43) pl. 2: 1–8 Fig. 95. Distribution of Scythian and Scythian Age cowries and cowrie Imitations on the territory East and South from the Carpathian Basin (7th–3/2nd centuries BC) Fig. 96. Large Tiger or Panther cowrie from Grave 1at Varna (549) – after Ivanov (1956) 103: pl. II: 1 Fig. 97. Bronze statuette of a sitting cat with a depicted one-rowed cowrie necklace, in which middle part an eye-tooth amulet (568) – after Mogensen (1930) II: pl. 53 Fig. 98. Head of a larger-sized bronze statue of Godness Bastet with neckband decorated by a row cowries (569) – after Seipel (1989) I: 318: nr. 486 Fig. 99. Bronze cowrie imitations from an Asian Hun cemetery at D’erestujskoe (634) – after Rudenko (1962) 46: fig. 41: g–d–e Fig. 100. 10 likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum among the finds of a female burial from Novozavedennoe-II, Kurgan 12 (682) – after Maslov–Petrenko (1998) 225: fig. 6 Fig. 101. 6 likely Ringed cowries and 5 bone arrowheads among the finds of a male burial at Sagly-Baži-Cemetery IV Kurgan 2, Skeleton II (689) – after Kenk (1986) 116: Abb. 12 Fig. 102. Distribution of Late Iron Age and Celtic cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin (600/550–10 BC) Fig. 103. 28 Ringed cowries among the finds of Grave 29 at Sopron (798) – after Jerem (1981) 115: fig. 7 Fig. 104. Distribution of Central European parallels to the cowrie finds of the Carpathian Basin in the Celtic Period (6th–1st centuries BC) Fig. 105. Cowrie pendant on a double silver rod bandage of the treasure find from Ošanići (805) – after Marić (1979) 225: fig. 1: 3 Fig. 106. Beads and Ringed cowries with open dorsum von Egloffstein (814) – after Erl (1953) pl. 3 Fig. 107. Bronze ornament with 4 cowrie-shaped pendants from the Niessen-collection (817) – after Franken (1996) 181: fig. 371 Fig. 108. Face urn at Lublewo with 6 bronze earrings, on the both side 1 pierced cowrie and on the left side an unique clay cowrie imitation (860) – after La Baume (1963) pl. 13: 544 Fig. 109. Tiny globular urn from Wysin with 5 rings, on the both side 1 pierced cowrie on a suspension loop (869) – after La Baume (1963) pl. 25: 1194 Fig. 110. Distribution of Sarmatian cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin (1st–5th Century AD - 1) and of the Migration Period (5th-7th Century - 2 - 1) and of the Migration Period (5th-7th Century - 2) Fig. 111. 2 pierced Panther cowries from Budapest-Railway station Rákos; one of them (2) with bronze bandage (884) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 702: fig. 9, 704: fig. 11 Fig. 112. Unmodified Dirty cowrie from the territory of the vicus at Intercisa (888) – after Kovács (1999/2000) 476: fig. 2: 3 Fig. 113. Money cowrie (1) with sawn opening from Hódmezővásárhely (902) and a Dirty cowrie (2) of a female grave from Jánoshalma (903) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 695: fig. 2: 2–3 Fig. 114. Pierced Panther cowrie of Grave 54 from Komárom (909) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 700: fig. 7 Fig. 115. 8 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum from Mezőberény (919) – after Kovács– Vaday (1997–98) 696: fig. 3: 1 Fig. 116. 1-1 pierced Tiger and Panther cowries from Öttömös (925) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 697: fig. 4, 698: fig. 5 Fig. 117. Ringed cowrie among the finds from Grave 1/1933 at Törökszentmiklós-Surján, near the Barta-puszta (944) – after Vaday (1988–89) pl. 153: pl. 7–10

ii

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190 193 194 198 199 200 208 209 211 211 216 222 223 232 234 235 236 237 237 241 241 243 245 245 248 249 250 252 255

Fig. 118. 2 Panther cowries and 1 large cowrie among the finds from Grave 1/1932 at Törökszentmiklós-Surján-Szőlők dűlő, communal sandpit (945) – after Vaday (1988–89) pl. 153: 2–6 Fig. 119. Distribution of parallels to the Sarmatian cowrie finds of the Carpathian Basin (2nd century BC–5th century AD) Fig. 120. Sketch of the position of finds in two female graves: Grave 2 at Lauffen (977) and a grave from Žiželice (959) – after Dübner-Manthey (1987) 77: fig.3: 3, 75: fig. 2: 3 Fig. 121. Upper part of a women’s skeleton in Grave 2 at Lauffen (977) and her large cowrie amulet – after Schach-Dörges (1981) 624: fig. 9, 626: fig. 11: 6a–b Fig. 122. Swan-shaped container from Grave 8 at Tell Hesbān (991), its body is a Tiger cowrie with ivory neck-shaped handle, fan-shaped tail and cover – after Thompson (1971) 28: fig. Fig. 123. 2 Panther (?) cowries among the finds of Grave 224 (1) and 4 Ringed cowries among the finds of Grave 375 (2) at Dančeny (1005, 1009) – after Rafalovič (1986) 156: pl. XXXIX, 173: pl. LV. 4–5) Fig. 124. Tiger cowrie bandaged by a four-bunched bronze band from Witakowice (1032) – after Stanek (1999) 362: fig. 3: 1 Fig. 125. 4 Ringed (?) cowries from a probable female grave of Ştefăneşti (1061) – after Bichir (1977) 180: pl. 16: 14–17 Fig. 126. Large perforated cowrie from a smith’s grave at Azelino cemetery (1063) – after Gening (1963) pl. XXIII: 1 Fig. 127. Reconstruction of the belt and the sword of a Sarmatian soldier (1069) – after Korolkova (1995) 88: fig. 111 Fig. 128. 1-1 Panther (?) and Tiger (?) cowrie among the finds of Grave 894 from LjubljanaEmona (1081) – after Petru (1972) pl. LXIV: 14–23 Fig. 129. Gold forehead ornaments with sheet gold cowrie imitation pendants from Sudan (1085–86) – after Wildung (1996) 312: fig 331, 314: fig. 334 Fig. 130. Part of a Tiger cowrie among the finds of Grave 24 at Várpalota (1157) – after Bóna (2000a) 145: pl. VI Fig. 131. Distribution of parallels to the cowrie finds of the Migration Period from the Carpathian Basin (5th–9th/10th centuries) Fig. 132. Panther cowrie among the finds from Grave 48 of Linz-Zizlau (1158) – after Meaney (1981) 251: fig. VII.j.1 Fig. 133. Panther cowrie among the finds from Grave 42 at Burwell cemetery (1175) – after Meaney (1981) 126: fig. IV.q: 1–2, 4–8 Fig. 134. Grave 48 at Shudy Camps (1195) and its Panther cowrie – after Meaney (1981) 31: fig. I. n: 1, 4 Fig. 135. Large cowries perforated twice crossways from Graves 56 and 175 at Kleinlangheim (1307–08) – after Peschek (1996) pl. 15: 21, pl. 39: 13 Fig. 136. Female burial of Weimar-Lassenstraße Grave 1 (1386) – after Arends (1978) 435: fig. 782 c Fig. 137. Necklace with 3 Money cowries and chest ornaments of Grave 24 at Zvirgzdenes Kivti (1445) – after Mugurevič (1965) 55: fig. 21 Fig. 138. 11 Money cowries with removed dorsum from a grave at Ytterstad (1453) – after Sjövold (1974) pl. 14: f Fig. 139. Necklace of 9 Money cowries from the Kurgan K 102 at Alamyšik (1455) – after Bernštam (1952) 86: fig 47: 12 Fig. 140. Naturally mummified woman with beads and amulets (among them a larger cowrie) from Grave 1 at Asiatskij-Moščevaja Balka (1456) – after Ierusalimskaja (1996) pl. IV: fig. 10 Fig. 141. Smaller cowrie from Grave 20 and a larger cowrie from Grave 15 among other amulets (1 – 1459, 1458), cowries in string of beads from Grave 2 (2 – 1457), amulet bag with amulets from Grave 1 (3 – 1456) at Asiatskij-Moščevaja Balka – after Ierusalimskaja (1996) pl. IX: fig. 21 [left and right in the middle], pl. IX: fig. 22, pl. XXI: fig. 46 Fig. 142. Scarf with a string of beads and 25 pierced probably Money cowries from Grave 2 at Asiatskij-Moščevaja Balka (1457) – after Ierusalimskaja (1996) pl. XXI: fig. 46 Fig. 143. Head-dress reconstuction of a Finno-Ugrian woman from Grave 94 at Bezvodnoe (1460) – after Krasnov (1982) 57: fig. 3 Fig. 144. String of beads and 5 Money (?) cowries from Grave 128 of Birsk cemetery (1475) – after Mažitov (1968) 141: pl. 20: fig. 5

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255 258 258 260 262 264 268 271 271 272 274 275 284 285 285 288 291 304 313 319 320 320 321

321 323 324 325

Fig. 145. 6 perforated cowries among the finds of an infant in a secondary superposition (8a) of the male Grave 8 at Bol’šie Tigany (1483x) – after Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 18, 105: pl. VII: 21–24 Fig. 146. 2 pierced probably Money cowries among the finds of Grave/1965 from Giljač gorodišče (1494) – after Minaeva (1971) fig. 21 Fig. 147. A Ringed cowrie among the finds of Grave 481 from Tankeevka cemetery (1520) – after Khalikova–Kazakov (1977) pl. XIV: a–t Fig. 148. Necklace with 6 cowrie shells and 29 shell (Cypraea spp.) beads from Vi Alvar (1549) – after Johansson (2005) Paper VI 101: fig. 9 Fig. 149. Pierced Panther (?) cowrie on a copper loop from treasure hoard at Hacki (1568) – after Korzuhina (1996) 612: pl. 22: 53. Fig. 150. 42 (from 110) Money cowries with removed dorsum, silver belt buckle and 4 gold earrings from treasure hoard at Harivka (1569) – after Korzuhina (1996) 663: pl. 73: 4, 1–3 Fig. 151. Reconstruction of female costume of Mohnač (1576) – after Aksenov–Babenko (1998) 118: fig. 5 Fig. 152. Distributon of Hungarian cowrie finds of the Carpathian Basin from the Conquest Period and Early Arpadian Age (10th–11th/12th Centuries) Fig. 153. 4 pierced Money cowries in the girl’s necklace of the Grave 276 at Csekej (1618) – after Rejholcová (1995) 139: pl. XLIX: 3 Fig. 154. 4 pierced Money and 1 pierced Money/Ringed cowries in the girl’s necklace of the Grave 357 at Csekej (1622) – after Rejholcová (1995) 147: pl. LVII: 6 Fig. 155. The first published cowries from the Hungarian Conquest Period at Csorna (1633) – after Lakner (1889) 265: pl. II Fig. 156. Necklace of beads and amulets: last phalange of an animal’s finger, pierced shell (Turritella sp.) and a pierced Money cowrie from Grave 241 at Ipolykiskeszi (1664) – after Hanuliak (1994) 189: pl. L: A, 1 Fig. 157. Necklace of beads, 2 pierced freshwater snails (Planorbis sp.) and a pierced Money cowrie from Grave 486 at Ipolykiskeszi (1668) – after Hanuliak (1994) 229: pl. XC: c, 1 Fig. 158. String of beads with 34 pierced Money cowries from Grave 215 at Mačvanska Mitrovica (1690) – after Ercegović-Pavlović (1980) pl. XXIII Fig. 159. In a string of 394 beads 6 pierced Money cowries from Grave 385 at Majs (1697) – after Kiss (1983) 343: pl. 35 Fig. 160. Necklace of carnelian, quartz, fluorite beads and 4 pierced Money cowries from Grave 1 at Pusztaszentlászló (1730) – after Szőke–Vándor (1987) 86: fig. 45: 1–2 Fig. 161. Braid ornaments of a young woman from the Grave 118 at Sárrétudvari (1742): nearly 80 beads, 2 pierced Cardium sp. and 6 pierced Money cowries of the left braid (1), nearly 70 beads, 1 pierced Cardium sp. and 7 Money cowries of the right braid (2) – after M. Nepper (2002) 278: pl. 272, 280: pl. 274 Fig. 162. 1 broken Turritella sp. and 10 pierced Money cowries in the string of beads of a young woman from Grave 41 at Szob (1788) – after Kovács (2000). Fig. 163. Grave 4 at Zvonimorovo and 52 (?) probably Money/Ringed cowries from the female burial (1836) – after Tomičić (1996–97) pls 3 and 2 Fig. 164. Distribution of parallels of cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin during the period of the Hungarian Conquest and Early Arpadian Age (10th–12th/13th Centuries) Fig. 165. St. Phoibammon on horseback in Fresco nr. 5 at Abdallah Nirqui (1855) – after van Moorsel (1975) 74: fig. 6b Fig. 166. Necklace comprised of 81 (?) perforated cowries from Bonifacova (1882) – after I Balti (1991) 154: fig. 1001. Fig. 167. Necklace of 17 cowries, glass beads and metal cross from Grave 8 of Daugavas Oglenieki cemetery (1890) – after Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 23 Fig. 168. Necklace composed of alternating yellow glass beads and 150 cowries in Grave 4 of Jaunpiebalgas cemetery (1902) – after Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 22 Fig. 169. 29 Money cowries with removed dorsum among the finds (2) of a woman’s burial Grave 10 (1) at Nukšu kapulauks (2001) – after Nukšinskij (1957) 130: pl. XXVII: 1, 118: pl. XV:1 Fig. 170. Large cowrie pendant and 30 pierced Money cowries among the finds of Grave 94 at Salaspils Laukskola (2038) – after Zariņa (1992a) 294: fig. 250 Fig. 171. Money cowrie with open dorsum among the finds of a child’s burial from Grave

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326 328 330 334 337 338 339 341 344 346 347 351 352 356 358 363

365 371 377 378 381 383 383 383 391 394

49 (1 – 2088) and 10 pierced Money cowries of a child’s burial from Grave 70 of Kurgan 17/10 (2 – 2089) at Belaja Veža – after Artamonova (1963) 115: fig. 80: 1, 3 Fig. 172. 4 pierced Nassa sp. and 1 pierced Money cowrie from the burial of a small child from Kurgan 19/1, Grave 34 at Belaja Veža (2095) – after Artamonova (1963) 168: fig. 113: 2 Fig. 173. Headdress ornament with Money cowries from Grave 5 at Brovarki (2148) – after Niederle (1953) 253: fig. 29 Fig. 174. Distribution of 13th–14th c. Jazygian (1) and 16th–17th c. South Slavic (2) cowrie finds from Carpathian Basin Fig. 175. Pierced Money cowries and glass paste-beads from Jászberény cemetery: Grave 118 (1 – 2167), Grave 373 (2 – 2183), with other finds from Grave 393 (3 – 2185) – after Selmeczi (1992) 109: pl. V: 26, 118: pl. XIV: 19, 43–47 Fig. 176. Distribution of eastern parallels of Jazygian (1) and South Slavic (2) cowrie finds from Carpathian Basin (12th/13th–14th/15th centuries) Fig. 177. A „treasure find” of 37 Money cowries from Dolišče (2192) – after Zaprjanov (1988) pl. I: 1 Fig. 178. Necklace of beads and 154 pierced Money (?) cowries from Grave LI at Vaabina (2197) – after Valk (1999) pl. XLV: 5 Fig. 179. Necklace with cowries of Grave 332 at Mārtinsala (2214) – after Zariņa (1974) 246: fig. 3: 3 Fig. 180. Necklace of beads with 15 cowries and 5 rattles from Grave 1 of Taurupes Vecmuižnieki cemetery (2222) – after Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 24 Fig. 181. Money cowrie with open dorsum from Coconi (2232) – after Constantinescu (1972) 285: pl. 13: 5 Fig. 182. Cowries from Dombóvár: 4 Money cowries with opened dorsum among the finds of Grave 65 (1 – 2276), head dress of 9 Ringed and 1 Money cowries of Grave 130 (2 – 2279), sketch of Grave 193 and Money cowries on the skull (3 – 2280) – after Gaál (1979 Fig. 183. 11 Money and Ringed cowries with opened dorsum among the finds of Grave 85 at Zombor (2286) – after Korek (1989/90) 192: pl. II: 14–37 Fig. 184. Female headdress (ajšon), ornamented with beads and cowries from Grave 14 at Cip’ja (2294) – after Semenov (1987) 103: fig. 6 Fig. 185. Harness from 1694 embellished with Marginella sp. (Hungarian National Museum – 2295a) – Photo by András Dabasi Fig. 186. 6 Money cowries from Grave 7 of Léva (2315) – after Nevizánsky (2006) 310: pl. VIII Fig. 187. Large cowrie from a multi-layer settlement at Osztópatak (2317) – after LamiováSchmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105: fig. 30 Fig. 188. 14 Money cowries among the finds of Grave 1 from Szolnok (2320) – after Madaras (2006a) 216: fig 2 Fig. 189. Grave of a medicine man at Newton Plantation (2346) and components of his necklace – after Handler–Lange (1979) 48–49: figs Fig. 190. Panther or Tiger cowrie among the finds of a woman’s grave from Praha-Hostivař (2357) – after Lutovský–Šmolíková–Státníková (2001) 4: fig. Fig. 191. Pendant of the dentated outer lip of a Tiger cowrie from Neuss (2390) and a recent shell – after Sauer (2001) 107: fig Fig. 192. Pierced Fallow cowrie from Ayios Mamas (2395) – after Becker (1996) 14: fig. 8 Fig. 193. 3 pierced Money cowries among the finds of Grave 6 at Giurgulesti/Džurdžulešt (2469) – after Rjabceva (2005) 127: fig. 47 Fig. 194. Golden ring with the apertural half of a Money cowrie from Dordrecht (2472) – after Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 97: fig Fig. 195. 3 Money (?) cowries from a woman skeleton of a double burial of Kurgan 43 at Palasa-Syrt (2494) – after Gmyrja (2001) 71: fig. 2: 5–7 Fig. 196. Money cowrie from Monticello-Mulberry Row (2563) – after Kelso (1986) 30: fig. above

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422 423 425 426 428 428 429 431 433 434 435 439 440 441 445

Chapter 1. Introduction: Cowries

1.1. The names of Cowries

cowries or even misidentified shells – and in the scientific literature it was considered possible that fossils were also present in addition to specimens actually gathered in the 10th century. Neither was the classification of the cowries from earlier times in the Carpathian Basin more precise: various examples from the Scythian Period were described using the terms “small sized”, “shell” and Cypraea in various combinations, leaving the question of species unresolved. Publications dealing with the Sarmatian Period did not strive for more precise identification either: “small” and “large” cypraea10 only referred to the size, while the name “cowrie (kauri/kaori)”, reserved for the small specimens and the name cypraea11 used for the large ones was only a way of contrasting the name of a species

1.1.1. Outline of the History of Archaeological Research Found in 1888 and already published by 1889, the two cowries from Csorna-Sülyhegy (1633) were the first examples of Hungarian burial finds from the time of the Hungarian Conquest. Having gathered them, Ambró Lakner published the finds with the help of József Hampel and with the drawings of Ödön Passuth, referring rightly to them as “perforated cypraea”. Although a reasonable mistake, the reason this identification has become generally accepted in the Hungarian archaeological literature, is also connected to this find; namely these sea-snails are considered and called shells, just as József Hampel called the sea-snails in the above drawings “sea shells (ciprea/Cypraea)”. At the time of the Hungarian language reform, a “neologist” Hungarian name (csüllőr) was introduced to replace the Latin as we know from the fact that at the beginning of the 20th century this name was used by Béla Pósta when defining a find (1135) as a Panther cowrie rather than a Tiger cowrie: “a larger shell of the csüllőr-type (cyprea)”. The problems of terminology are further exacerbated by the fact that it is more difficult to identify these shells because the colors on the shell’s surface changes due to the time they lay in the earth and in contact with the bodily fluids of the deceased. As a consequence, in studies dealing with the period of the Hungarian Conquest, “cowrie/cowrie shell”, actual referon the Money cowrie and to some extent to “cowrie sea-snail”, have come to be used almost exclusively. The possibility always existed that other species might be present – e.g. Ringed cowries, Panther

Zichy from the Baksan and Čhegem valleys of the Caucasus region, that many were shell beads made by removing the dorsum of a Money cowrie. They appear in the Carpathian Basin in the Scythian Period and the age of the Hungarian Conquest. Béla Pósta knew of two finds from the latter period, were really Money cowries (1633, 1735–36): Pósta (1897) 357, 520–22, 534: fig. 68. As opposed to this, the analysis of all the Hungarian finds accessible to us from the Scythian Period has shown that these were all Ringed rather than Money cowries.  Compare Váňa (1954) 60–61.  The cowries from two graves from the age of the Hungarian Conquest (1799–800) were identified at my request by Margit Bohnné Havas (Hungarian Geological Institute, Budapest) to the family level (Cypraea sp.). She considered them to be “Miocene fossil specimens used in the Sarmatian or Baden Periods [12,6–14,5–16,5 Million years BC] and probably easily found in the Tokaj mountain or the Borsod basin in couloirs, ditches or the streambeds. Based on their condition, in her opinion, they cannot be recent specimens.”: Kovács (1988) 126, 152: note 5. On the Miocene cowries – Cypraea sp., Cypraea (Zonaria) fabagina, Cypraea (Zonaria) columbaria, Cypraea (Cypropterina) duclosiana sulcicauda – from the sites of Budapest-Illés Street, Budapest-Rákos, Lapugy (prev. Hunyad megye, Hungary; Lăpugiu de Jos or Lăpugiu de Sus, judeţul Hunedoara, Romania), Sámsonháza (Nógrád megye, Hungary) and Várpalota (Veszprém megye, Hungary): Strausz (1962) 156–57: Nr. 539–42, 156: fig. 176, pl. LXXV: 10–11, 14–24.  For specimens definitely identifed as Ringed cowries I have found the following Hungarian terms: “cowrie”, “Cypraea”, “Cypr(a)ea shell (bead)”, “cowrie or cypraea shell”, “small Cypraea shell”; in foreign languages “Kauriperlen”, “Kaurimuschel” and, “petite coquille Cypraea”. 10 Mihály Párducz generally differentiated between shells called Cypraea from the Sarmatian Period on the basis of their size. There were Ringed cowries which he called “small Cypraea-shells” (944): Párducz (1950) 25. The larger ones he simply called “Cypraea shells” (893, 906–07, 912, 923, 933, 937, 945): Párducz (1950) 17, 19, 24, 27, 31, 47, 52, although he also writes about “large Cypraea-shells” (894, 936): Párducz (1950) ibid. 12, 27; “large or small Cypraea shells/grosse oder kleine CypraeaMuschel”: Párducz (1944) 37, 76 11 Ferenc Móra was probably the first to observe that during the Migration Period, the term “cowries” took the place of “large cypraeashells”: Móra (1932) 64. This differentiation became widespread due to the works of Andrea Vaday who used the term Cypraea-pendant for the large specimens and kaori/Kaori-shell pendant for the small specimens: Vaday (1978/79) 64; Vaday (1988–89) 58, 106, 317: fig.25: 37. G. B.

Lakner (1889) 267. A mistake also made by István Gedai.  xy. (1889) 267–68. In the German publication a printing error also appears: “Cypreenmuscheln” or “Cypressenmuscheln”: Hampel (1905) I: 843, 877, II: 483, 660 and I: 825.  Pósta (1905) 508. The name, of an origin unknown to me, appears both in the Great Hungarian Dictionary of the Hungarian Academy of Science or in the László Gozmány’s Septilingual dictionary of European animal names, see Gozmány (1979) I: 324: nr. 3589. The linguist Károly Gerstner is of the opinion (12.12.2006) that the Hungarian word “csüllőr” is probably is the coining of Béla Posta himself.  János Reizner had already noted in connection with the Panther cowrie from a Sarmatian grave from Szeged (929) that the “larger Cypria shell ... generally of a colorful beauty, had completely lost its shine and colors during this long period”: Reizner (1903) 46, 47: fig. 2; compare Francis (1987) 29.  Thus, Béla Pósta noted when describing the finds acquired by Jenő  



László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads with that of a whole family and did not really result in closer identification. During my research, however, it has turned out that “small cowrie/cowrie” usually refers to Ringed or Money cowries, while “large cowrie/cypraea” referred to Panther or Tiger cowries.12 Information on finds from outside the Carpathian Basin would probably have increased the number of species considered here but those finds are also rarely classified precisely.13

Salin with Frankish data, Jovan Hadži, Jiří Sláma, Marija Birtašević and Ružica Drechsler-Bižić complementing each other in the way they treat mainly (South) East European Slavic data, Ann Franka May writing about Paleolithic data, Ēvald Mugurēvičs on Baltic, primarily Latvian, data, István Ferenczy and Valentin Vasiliev writing about Scythian data, Audrey L. Meaney writing about Anglo-Saxon data, Ella Kivikoski, Ingmar Jansson and Birgitta M. Johansson writing about Scandinavian data, David S. Reese and Henk K. Mienis writing about Mediterranean and Near Eastern archaeological material.19 Namio Egami’s treatment of Chinese data, Ulrich Arends’ study of Germanic data and Yvette Taborin’s publication on Paleolithic archaeological material20 also represent complex approaches, although ones characterised by a different method related to the different nature of the finds. For the present subject, I could not make use of Cheryl Claassen’s work21 which was also written from a different point of view. The latest encyclopaedia entry of general relevance, although focusing on the Germanic Period, was written by Karl Banghard22 and includes ideas for future research directions.23

No studies analysing the cowrie finds of any period have been published in the Hungarian archaeological literature. Apart from the short comments published in an immense number of individual reports, the work of Mihály Párducz dealing with the Scythian and the Sarmatian Periods deserves mention because of the volume of the excavated material.14 The first comprehensive, although short treatments, were written by Andrea Vaday on material from the Sarmatian Period15 and by Béla Szőke on the Hungarian cowrie finds from the 10th–11th centuries. Present views of the cowries from that time period are based on the latter, with additions by Béla M. Szőke.16 New cowrie finds from previously unknown periods were discovered during excavations by Gyula Gazdapusztai and Annamária G. Varga (Middle Bronze Age – 50), by László Selmeczi (Jazygian material: 2160–88), by József Korek, Attila Gaál and Erika Wicker (South Slavic material from the 16th–17th centuries: 2269–86). It was also a new idea to take harnesses decorated with cowries into consideration (2294).

I would like to mention here, that I have already published several preliminary studies focusing on various aspects of the present work.24 1.1.2. The Natural Science Nomenclature and Its Cultural Historical Background

The international scientific literature has dealt with the subject from both the archaeological and the cultural historical points of view, the latter approach yielding new results. However, the archaeological data was only reviewed here with minor additions from those authors accessible to me: Grafton Elliot Smith, John Wilfrid Jackson, B. L. Bogaevskij and Walter Leo Hildburgh following Eduard von Martens, Hugo Conwentz and Oskar Schneider.17 The work of Franz Alfred Schilder and Maria Schilder has brought the biggest advance in the natural scientific and ethnographic data.18 New archaeological horizons were opened up by a number of publications on the archaeological material of various peoples and regions: Johan Gunnar Andersson and Harry E. Gibson dealing with Chinese data, Theodor Voigt with Germanic data, Édouard

The cowries known from archaeological literature belong to the subkingdom Metazoa, phylum Eumetazoa, subphylum Bilateria, branch group Protostomia, tribe Mollusca, subtribe Conchifera, class Gastropoda, subclass Streptoneura or Prosobranchiata, as well as the order Ctenobranchiata or Monotardia, suborder Mesogastropoda/Taenioglossa and finally the main family Cypraeacea, family Cypraeidae.25 In the latest scientific literature, the family Cypraeidae is further divided into four subfamilies (Bernaynae, Cypraeinae, Cypraeovulinae, Erosariinae) with further classifications at the taxonomic Andersson (1934); Gibson (1940); Voigt (1952); Hadži (1953); Sláma (1958); Salin (1959); May (1962); Mugurevič (1962); Mugurevič (1965); Kivikoski (1967); Ferenczy (1969) 55–56; Vasiliev (1972) 79–80 = Vasiliev (1972a) 47–48; Birtašević (1973); Meaney (1981); Jansson (1988); Drechsler-Bižić (1991); Reese (1978) – (2005); Mienis (1985) – (2005b); Johansson (1990) – (2005): see in bibliography.. 20 Egami (1974); Arends (1978); Taborin (1993). 21 Claassen (1998). 22 Banghard (2000); Banghard (2001). 23 The PhD dissertation of Annette Lennartz about cowries in Roman and early medieval European contexts is soon to be published. She kindly informed me of this in an e-mail; see Lennartz (2004). Raimar Wilhelm Kory sent me the photocopy of the dissertation published in 2006 only in 14th January 2008, so I was not able to make any use of it. 24 Kovács (1999); Kovács (1999/2000); Kovács (2001); Kovács (2001a); Kovács (2001b); Kovács (2001c); Kovács (2002); Kovács (2002a); Kovács (2003); Kovács‑Vaday (1997–1998); Elter‑Kovács (1998/2000). 25 Based on Kilias (1977) 27, 221, 239, 244–45, 251–53; Dudich– Loksa (1987) 233–50; Papp (1996) 67–76. Within the family of shells (Gastropoda) the Streptoneura /Prosobranchiata differ from the rest of the shells in that their long pleurovisceral nerve trunk is crossed and thus their nervous system is shaped like an 8. Also their branchiae are 19



Fedorov was thinking along the same lines in that he differentiated cipreja and kauri species from the Indian Ocean, probably based on their size: Fedorov (1960a), 147, 342: pl. 35: 9–11. 12 A brief although incorrect identification of a specimen (884). 13 I often refer to the variety of imprecise names when discussing specific finds; a similar observation was made by Arends (1978) I: 170. For other types see below. 14 e.g. Párducz (1952); Párducz (1954); Párducz (1955); as well as Párducz (1944); Párducz (1950). 15 Vaday (1974/75) 84–85; Vaday (1985) 370–71; Vaday (1988–89) 68; Schmidt (2000) 395: note 1004. 16 Szőke (1962) 54–55; Szőke-Vándor (1987) 62. 17 von Martens (1872); Conwentz (1902); Schneider (1905); Jackson (1916) = Jackson (1917); Elliot Smith (1917); Bogaevskij (1931); Hildburgh (1942-43). 18 Schilder (1923); Schilder (1926); Schilder (1952).

Introduction: Cowries levels of genus, subgenus, species, subspecies, form and variation.26

piglet’ with a secondary meaning, ‘female genitalia’.31 I have not been able to discover why voting stones were identified with the relatively large Little-Calf cowrie, at the time perhaps not even living in the Mediterranean Sea32 – since khoiriné may have referred to Mediterranean Agate, Pear and Fallow cowries as well as the probably well-known Indo-Pacific Ringed and Money cowries and species of the other shell families. However, the accepted view concerning the whole family of cowries is that the second meaning of khoiros came into being based on the similarity of their aperture to female genitalia.33 This view is further strengthened by the Modern Greek name gurunáki also meaning ‘piglet’.34 Another explanation for this word is based on the assumption that the domed part of the cowrie resembles a crouched piglet, which is why people called it ‘piglet’35 both in Greek and Latin, later in the Neolatin and eventually in other languages as

An overview of the name of the family and the abovementioned species sheds light upon cultural historical aspects, too. Below, I will deal with the origin of the names “porcelain shell”, “Cypraeidae” and “cowrie”. 1.1.2.1. “Porcelain Shells” The name “porcelain” came to be used for ceramics, based on the name of the shell.27 At the end of the 13th century when Marco Polo (1254–1323) brought the first Chinese porcelain objects to Europe, his Italian contemporaries could only compare their delicacy and glossy white surface to that of the cowries called porcelletta/porcellana ‘pig’ by them and they even came to believe that those valuable Chinese dishes were actually made of ground cowries28 – something Marco Polo had never claimed.

Compare khoiréné ‘small sea shell (with which the judges in Athens voted’, khoiros ‘1. pig, piglet, 2. female genitalia’: Györkössy–Kapitánffy– Tegyey (1990) 1208. Otto Keller plainly stated that “der griechische Name für die Cypraea war khoiriné scil. kónkhé d. h. Schweinmuschel... Der Name Schweinmuscheln, khoirinai hängt damit zusammen, daß »Schwein« in obszönen Nebensinn sehr gebräuchlich war.”: Keller (1913) 543. 32 “Khoiriné ist Cypraea vitellus L., die Porzellan-S.[chnecke] des Mittelmeers. Die Tiere dienten den athenischen Richtern als Stimmsteine...”: Gossen-Steier (1921) 614: nr. 54. Little-Calf cowries inhabit the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific Ocean: Schilder (1926) 314; Schilder (1952) 12, 16; and have only recently (?) appeared in the Mediterranean Sea: “Lyncina vitellus was introduced into the Mediterranean Sea.”: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 72–73. According to an earlier study 45 new species (26 snails and 19 shells) have appeared in the Mediterranean Sea since the opening of the Suez Channel in 1869. Of these, the authors only regard the appearance of the Cypraea (Erronea) caurica caurica as certain, they are doubtful concerning the appearance of Money cowries and make no mention of Little-Calf cowries: Barash– Danin (1972) 301, 310–11, 347. 33 “Auch für eine weniger sinnliche Phantasie, als es die der hellenischen Völker war, ist die Ähnhlichkeit mit einem menschlichen Körperteile zu aufdringlich, als daß sie nicht bemerkt worden wäre, und so ist die Porzellan- und Eierschnecke in ganz natürlicher Weise zum Sinnbild des Spezifisch-weiblichen geworden.”: Keller (1913) 542. With reference to Aristophanes: ibid. 543; compare Schilder (1926) 322. I would like to add here that based on this view it is understandable that “certain other shells, as well, have long been associated – also presumably because of fancied similarities between their shapes and those of the feminine pudenda – with the name of Venus.” The Oxford English Dictionary, which under ‘VENUS’ cites at some length a number of very different genera to whose shells the term of ‘Venus’ has been applied says «... VENUS-SHELL, a bivalve mollusc belonging to the family veneridae or related species; a venus, murex or cowrie»”: Hildburgh (1942–43) 185. Later he mentioned the bivalve pecten (Pecten jacobaeus) called “venera” in Spain. This has long been compared to the vulva – due to its ribbing it was given the Latin name pecten ‘comb’, referring, like the Greek kteis to ‘comb, vulva, cockleshell belonging to the family of Venus shells (Cardium edulae)/pecten’ as well as to the female pudenda. The pecten was the symbol of the initiate to the mystery of Eleusis and later became the sign of St. Jacob and of the pilgrims visiting the place of his birth and cloister in Compostela, Spain. The symbol, however, was not devoid of sexual symbolism or of the protective power against the harshness and the dangers of the pilgrimage, including the evil eye: Hildburgh (1942–43) 185–86: note 20; Aigremont (1909) 36–39. 34 Seligman (1910) II: 126–27, 204; Keller (1913) 525; Schilder (1926) 322; Schilder (1952) 18; Arends (1978) I: 627: note 1. 35 According to the explanation by Columna: “because they were crouched like piglets themselves (quia in se porcellii modo conglobantur)”: Schilder (1916) 323. Relating the shell to the fecund animal known to all, might also have enhanced the use of cowries as fertility symbols: Hildburgh (1942–43) 187; Meaney (1981) 127. 31

But where did the name used for cowries come from? As widely believed and accepted, the above-mentioned medieval Italian name ultimately derives from Greek, in which besides the word kokhlos meaning ‘snail/shell/ bivalve’ in general,29 the name for cowries, khoiriné, also used as voting stones,30 was derived from khoiros ‘pig/



situated in front of their heart because of the frontal position of the cavity of their mantle. From the two orders that of the Monotocardia is less ancient: they have only one auricle in their heart, one kidney, their branchiae are pectinated in one side and none of their species has a layer of motherof-pearl on the inside of the shell. The suborder of Mesogastropoda/ Taenioglossa differs from the suborder of Neogastropoda/Stenoglossa in that each of the 70–200 rows of teeth in the radula contains more than three, most commonly seven teeth while specimens of the latter generally have three teeth in a row. A further difference between them is that the aperture of the shell of the former only ends in a siphon like that of the latter in rare cases: 26 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 30–31; Tosi–Biscione (1981) 24. 27 It was only the name of the ceramics which adopted in Hungarian. The Hungarian word porcelán seems to derive from the Italian porcellana ‘Venus shell’ according to the Hungarian Dictionary of Etymology: TESz 3: 254. In the natural scientific literature, however, the Venus shell name is not used for porcelain shells but for the bivalve Cytherea Dione: Aigremont (1909) 42, pl. I at the bottom to the left; or called Pitar dione: Podani–Lexa (1988) 44: nr. 3. 28 Franz Albert Schilder mentioned that several authors from the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Age, such as Conrad Gesner (1516–1565), Girolamo Cardano (1501–1576), Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540–1609), Crusca [see Francese di Rusticiano: I Viaggi di Marco Polo. Venedig 1847, 359.] and maybe also Jacob Fiedrich Abel (1751–1829), but Rumphius, i.e. Georg E. Rumph (1627–1702) had similar opinions of the equally nice specimens of an egg shell species, namely Amphiperas ovum: Schilder (1926) 323; Schilder (1952) 3–4. The work of Maria Schilder was almost completely repeated without naming the source or without any reference to the scientific literature by Táborský (1954). 29 This word also had a non-literary meaning. The hetaerae of Alexandria wrote this word on their door and there is a hetaera called Kokhlis ‘Little Shell’ in one of Lukianos’s works: Aigremont (1909) 46. In a modern equivalent, the prostitutes of German sea-side towns used to hang Cypraecassis rufa which had an opening similar to that of cowries in their windows as a sign of their profession: Martens (1872) 72; Schilder (1923) 205; Brühl (1929) 169; Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 97–98; see below note 47 on p. 5. 30 They voted with small stones, metal balls or shells on marble plates. The Greek satirist Hesychios (5th century AD) referred to the shells as ai thalássia pséphoi ‘small sea [voting] stones’: Keller (1913) 543; Brühl (1929) 253.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads well.36 It has been suggested as an opinion not supported by written sources,37 that Roman satirical poets often used Latin porcus, the equivalent of Greek khoiros figuratively, to refer to the pudenda muliebra ‘female genitalia’.38 From the Middle Ages on, however, learned scientists considered relatedness of this meaning in Greek, Latin and the Neolatin languages to be self evident. The family name porcellana was first used by Rumphius, that is, Georg E. Rumph (1627–1702) who derived it from porcus or porculus. Grafton Elliot Smith quotes page 113 of volume II of his “D’Amboinsche Räriteitkamer” published in Amsterdam in 1741, according to which the Roman poet Quintus Ennius (239–169 BC) called cowries matriculus, ‘a fish?’, because these shells “got their name from both peoples [i. e. the Greeks and the Romans] due to their similarity to female genitalia, called pig by the Greeks and pig or piglet by the Romans, the similarity being based on the shape of its shell (apud utorsque nomen accepterunt a similitudine pudendi muliebris, quod Greci Chaeron, Latini porcum et porculum vocant, cujus aliquam similitudinem refert hujus Conchaerina.).”39 Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) uses the general word concha ‘snail, shell, bivalve’40 instead of porcus for the tool used to smooth papyrus which could also refer to a large cowrie41 as well as the female genitalia (Fig. 1)42 and as such was identified with cowrie.

Fig. 1. Messalina icta ‘Me– ssalina attacked’ on a Roman gem – after Aigremont (1909) pl. I: top right.

Following modern authors,43 concha Venera44, a term also appearing in Pliny, is usually identified with Panther cowrie.45 This identification, based on the oft’ quoted lines,46 is so doubtful that it has been questioned by both Plautus (ca. 254—184 BC): “They think you were born from a shell, be careful not to despise their shells (Te ex concha natam esse autumant, cave tu harum conchas spernas)”: Plautus: Rudens. Act 3, Scene 3 = line 704: Schilder (1926) 322; Brühl (1929) 168. Trachalio’s sentence refers to Palaestra and Ampelisca fleeing to the altar of Venus from the procuress. Yet the concha mentioned in this crude joke was not necessarily a cowrie as demonstrated e. g. by the depiction on the gem mocking the lust of Messalina, the wife of the Emperor Claudius ( 41–54): between the inscriptions MESSAL and CLAVDI in the middle there is a snail surrounded by 7 phallii pointing at it, with the letters ICTAINA scattered among them, probably meaning Messalina icta ‘Messalina attacked’: Aigremont (1909) 46, pl. I: top right (Fig. 1). About a verse from an epigram of Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius (1434–1472): “Desereat concham lubrica concha suam”: Vadász (1993) 72–73. 43 Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605), among other authors, wrote about cowries in his in 1606 book that “porcellanae id est Venereae” as their exterior resembles the female pudenda, their inside the womb, their beauty, shine and smoothness is like the body of Venus: Schilder (1926) 323. Michel Adanson’s (1727–1806) work – Adanson (1757) - is also often mentioned on this topic: “It is called Venus [snail/shell/bivalve] because somehow it portrays the female body part: the opening of the vulva from outside, the form of the womb from inside..., therefore these must be called pig-like (that is Veneral) parts because of the resemblance to the parts of women one should be bashful about (Concha Venerea sic dicta quia partem foemineam quodam modo repraesentat: externe quidem per labiorum fissuram, interne vero propter cavitatem uterum mentientem... Sunto igitur dictae Porcellanae /id est Venereae/ ob aliquam cum pudendo muliebri similitudinem)”: based on Elliot Smith (1917) XIII; Andersson (1934) 305; Eliade (1997) 166: note 12. 44 Franz Albert Schilder rejected James Cosmo Melvill’s opinion, stating that Cypraea did not appear either in Aristotle or in Pliny based on references unaccessible to me: Schilder (1926) 323: note 9. This was also accepted by Otto Keller, also based on further references:Keller (1913) 524. Thus, although none of them included the quotations, both knew of lines possibly referring to cowries in Pliny’s work. This is interesting especially because Franz Albert Schilder also rejected the interpretation of an often-mentioned part where Pliny ) mentions cowries (see below). 45 Elliot Smith (1917) XV; Jackson (1917) 138; Schilder (1926) 323; Schilder (1952) 22. etc. 46 “According to Mucianus a murex is wider than a purpura, it has neither a rough nor a round mouth, nor a pointed long beak, but like a concha, its sides lean towards each other is it here rather a shell than a snail[?] while they stick to Periandros’ ship – which carried many young noblemen to be castrated – these shells are venerated by the people of Knidos as Venus (�“Mucianus muricem esse latiorem purpura, neque aspero neque rotundo ore neque in angulos prodeunte rostro, sed sicut concha utroque latere sese colligente, quibus inhaerentibus plenam venti stetisse navem Periandri portantem, ut castrarentur, nobiles pueros; conchas, quae id praestiterint, apud Cnidiorum Venerem coli..)”: Plinius lib. IX. cap. 25. (41) 80: Plinius (1909) 183–84; Bürchner (1921); Furtwängler (1884–86) 416. ������������������������������������������������������� Periandros mentioned in this quotation was a tyrant of Corynth (628–586 BC). According to Herodotos (Book III. 48–50) he sent 300 boys from Korkyra to the Lydian king Alyattes to be castrated

e.g. Italian porcellana, German Porzellanschnecke, French porcelaine etc.: Schilder (1926) 324; Andersson (1934) 305; Hildburgh (1942–43) 187. The French word porcelaine and the English word cowrie are also used for other shell species outside the Cypraea family, compare Quiggin (1949) 26. Although indirectly, the French word pucelage ‘1. virginity, 2. porcelain shell’ also belongs to this female circle of meanings: Schilder (1926) 323–24. 37 e.g. Jackson (1917) 126; Schilder (1926) 322–23; Andersson (1934) 305; Hildburgh (1942–43) 186–88; Quiggin (1949) 26. Compare the shell-shaped vulva like the 2.0 cm bronze Roman. Its attribute “muschelförmige” is explained by the way the authors of the book used the term “Kaurimuschel”: Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 211: fig. 699. 38 “On the other hand [beyond their similarity to a crouched piglet] ‘khoiros’ was often used by the comic poets, as was the Latin word ‘porcus’, used ‘of the pudenda muliebra’. These poets were always punning on the word and its compounds.”: Hildburgh (1942–43) 187–88. Otto Keller had noted earlier that “Auch in Italien hatte porcus ‘Schwein’ die angeführte übertragene Bedeutung, doch ist das Wort als Muschelname nicht überliefert.”: Keller (1913) 543; Hiskett (1966) 340; as “le pudendum magique”: Gobert (1951). 39 Elliot Smith (1917) XIII; Schilder (1926) 323. According to Gábor Sarbak, matriculus only appears as ‘a species of fish’ in the large Latin Dictionaries. I would like to note here that I am thankful to him for having translated and commented on the longer Latin quotations in this study. 40 Shells were not differentiated in the system of animals by Aristotle (382–322 BC) or Hippocrates (ca. 460— 377 BC) or Galenus (ca. 131— 201 AD) either. Pliny also used conchylia, more frequently the common name conchae: Gossen-Steier (1921) 585. 41 Pliny writes that the Egyptians used a shell to smooth paper made from papyrus: “You can smooth the paper with teeth or shells but the letters may get damaged (scabritia levigatur dente conchave, sed caducae literae fiunt)”: Plinius (1909) XIII 11 (25). Sixteenth century travellers could still observe this procedure in Egypt, identifying the shell as a Panther cowrie: Martens (1872) 35–36; Schilder (1952) 16. 42 “Plaut. Rud. 704 nennt das weibliche Glied geradezu concha.”: Gossen-Steier (1921) 614: nr. 54. The quotation is very similar to F. A. Schilder’s source referring to Lykophron (sic!) Keller (1903) 542: “Manierierte Dichter der alexandrinischen Zeit wie Lykophron gebrauchen geradezu das Wort Muschel, konkhé, im angedeuteten übertragenem Sinn, und Plautus benützt den Doppelsinn von concha zu einem derben Witz, wie man bei ihm gewohnt ist.” According to



36

Introduction: Cowries Franz Adalbert Schilder47 and Walter Leo Hildburgh.48 Their view is also supported by the fact that there are no contemporaneous depictions that conclusively demonstrate the connection between (large) cowries and Aphrodite. On the other hand, there are several Greek dishes, statuettes or paintings which portray the goddess rising from the open shell of a St. James’ scallop or pilgrim oyster (Pecten jacobaeus)49 in accordance with the name of the goddess and the myth handed down to us by Hesiodos around 700 BC,50 following written traditions.51 Furthermore, it is probable that the Early Imperial (1st–2nd centuries AD) tradition of depicting dressed or half-naked nymphs holding a large shell with both hands in front of their pudenda evolved from the depiction of the “rising Aphrodite” (Aphrodite/Venus anadyomene) or of the “chaste Venus” (Venus pudica) covering herself with her

Fig. 2. Antique nymph with shell – after Aigremont (1909) pl. II: above links.

as a revenge for the murder of his son, the regent of Korkyra, by the people there: Herodotos (1892) 179–80. Knidos was a town on the coast of Carya in Asia Minor and it was in one of the temples there that Praxiteles’ statue of Aphrodite stood. 47 Franz Albert Schilder still accepted this explanation in 1923: “Im Altertum spielte Cypraea vinosa beim Aphrodite-Dienste zu Knidos (Hellenisch-Kleinasien) eine wesentliche Rolle...” He relied in this respect on the views of Simon Louis-Pierre Cubières published in 1799 and referred to E. von Martens’ statement lacking any reasoning: “Auch eine Symbolik,... ist es, ...wenn ‘die Dirnen der niederdeutschen Seestädte’ eine Seeschnecke, den glühenden Ofen, Cassis rufa, an ihre Fenster stellen als Aushängeschild ihres Gewerbes..., viellicht derselben Formähnlichkeit wegen, welche auch schon die alten Griechen veranlasste, Porzellanschnecken, vermutlich die ihnen aus dem rothen Meer bekannte Cypraea pantherina, im Tempel der Aphrodite zu Knidos aufstellen (Plinius IX, 25, 41).”: Martens (1872) 72; Schilder (1923) 204, 206: note 4; see above note 41; Knol (1988) 120. In a later summary from 1926 his rejection of the above view becomes evident: “Dagegen ist die ekhenéis des Herodot... und Aristoteles... wohl ein Octopus..., wiewohl viele Autoren... in der entsprechenden remora (murex) des Mutianus eine Cypraea sehen wollten (wohl wegen des Kultes in Knidos...).”: Schilder (1926) 322—23; Knol (1988) 120. 48 The identification was questioned by W. L. Hildburgh, pointing out that though it is generally believed that “the cowrie was called by the ancients «Concha Venerea», I have not found that term mentioned elsewhere.”: Hildburgh (1942–43) 185: note 19. 49 The lekythos from Taman (Krasnodarskij kraj, Russia) dated to 415– 390 BC portrays this scene, while on the pelike from Olynthos (Greece) dated around 370 BC the same could only be pictured by the painter as rising from one half of the shell: Bratschkova (1938) 8–9, 118: nr. 807, 9: fig. 2. This scene remained popular and often appears on terracottas from the 4th century BC: Aphrodite, naked, kneeling or crouched in an open shell, holding a patera or a cup, an apple or a gown in one hand: Bratschkova (1938) 10, 79–80: nr. 197–98, 200, 202, 204–08; Aigremont (1909) pl. II: 1; in other cases, as on two examples from Corinth, the gown is held by Eros standing behind her: Bratschkova (1938) 10, 80: Nr. 201, 203, 10: fig. 3. Further various depictions with a shell between the 1st century BC and the 5th century AD: Bratschkova (1938) 10–14. An outstandingly beautiful depiction from a 7th century pendant: in a lapis lazuli shell a small, golden Aphrodite: Maguire (1999) 242, fig. 24. 50 The name Aphrodite ‘born by/from the foam’ (aphros ‘foam’) alludes to the legend of her birth: “Aphrodite, the Goddess of love, rose naked [attribute: Anadyomene ‘rising’] from the foams of the sea. She rode a shell and landed first on the island of Cytherea [attribute: Kythereia ‘garlanded’]. But realising that that was only an island, she moved on to the Pelopponesus and finally settled on the island of Cyprus, in Paphos. This town is the centre of the cult of Aphrodite even today... Some hold the view that Aphrodite was born from the foam that appeared around the phallus of Uranus when Cronus cut it off and threw it into the sea...”: Graves (1970) I: 70–71; Hesiodos (1967) lines 188–200. 51 The shell was a sacrificial present for Aphrodite because both (the Greek and) the Roman system of beliefs and Late Roman poetry maintained the idea of her birth from a shell: Plautus (see above), or the lines of the from the lexicon of Sextus Pompeius Festus, the Roman

hands (Fig. 2)52 Therefore, it seems advisable to accept the suggested Antique connection between cowries and Aphrodite only with reservations. There are other debatable views. While, for example, James Cosmo Melvill thought that the phrase concha lucida ‘bright/light snail/shell/bivalve’ referred to some variety of Meleagrina and not to the genus Cypraea, the very same assumption was questioned by Franz Albert Schilder.53 I have not found a clear standpoint in connection with the idea of identifying the sea creatures with obscene connotations mentioned by Lucius Apuleius (ca. 124–ca. 170), virginal and veretillum (based on veretrum ‘pudenda’) with cowries.54 Finally, it also remains undecided whether the egg-shaped large shell mentioned in one of Aesop’s fables (6th century AD)55 were cowries or belonged to the



scholar from the 2nd century AD known from the 8th century excerpt of Paulus Diaconus: “Cytherea Venus ab urbe Cythera, in quam primum devecta esse dicitur concha, cum in mare esset concepta.” p. 36: Bratschkova (1938) 4; Maršić (1997–98) 112; Pecz (1902) 759–60. 52 The shell of this nymph type, probably appearing in Late Hellenistic times (1st century BC– 1st century AD) could symbolise water and, at the same time, was a symbol of being created possibly making it a symbol of eroticism and fertility: Maršić (1997–98) 123, 105–09: fig. 1–6; Aigremont (1909) 39–40, pl. II: 2. 53 Schilder (1926) 323. 54 Keller (1913) 543–44. 55 “A dog that had the habit of eating up eggs saw a shell it opened its mouth and swallowed the shell at once, thinking it was an egg. But its stomach started to ache and it said in pain: I have deserved this suffering because I considered all round things to be eggs.” Aesop: “Kyon kai kokhlos”: Hausrath (1959) 85: Nr. 265. Aiszóposz (1987) 130: Nr. 265. According to his tale translated into Hungarian with the title “The dog and the bivalve shell”: The German translation, quite correctly, refers of a “Schnecke” and not a “Muschel”: “Der Hund und die Schnecke.”: Antike (1978) 131: nr. 265. The snail in the tale was identified with the Mediterranean Little-Calf cowrie: Gossen-Steier (1921) 614: nr. 54. The note with Nr. 223. refers to the number in the edition of 1852/1911 by Carolus Halm; Hausrath (1959) XV; Antike (1978) 469, 476.; Schilder (1926) 322.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads family of the closely related, similarly shaped egg shells (Ovulidae).56

Regardless of whether the identification of the abovementioned concha Venera ‘Panther cowrie’ is true or false, Cypraeidae, the Latin name for the family of cowries came to be used in modern times57 based on one of the attributes of the goddess Aphrodite/Venus,58 Cypria/Cypraea ‘from Cyprus’. Karl von Linné (1708–1778) included it in his classification in 1740.59

Therefore, from the malacological point of view, it would only be correct to refer to the species under discussion in general with the Porcelain shell and to use cowrie only for the above-mentioned two small species, Money and Ringed cowries.62 However, in the Hungarian – and to some extent also in the international archaeological literature – it has become general practice to call the finds of all the species of Porcelain shells, cowries.63 I will follow this practice for two reasons. Firstly, I do not wish to change the traditional name reflecting the similarity of various species and secondly, this term has been used with the very same meaning even in the latest scientific studies.64

1.1.2.3. “Cowries”

1.2. The Lifeways of Cowries

The name “cowrie” as it is used in archaeology, bears no connection to the Greek khoiros60 but is of Indian origin. In Sanskrit, kapârda, kapârdika was used for ‘change, currency’ in the 6th century AD. The word became kauri in Hindustan and was used as kori ‘obligation, tax’ in Gujarat. From there the English first borrowed gowrie/cowrie, then cowrie (pl. cowries)/cowree/coury/kauri/kavadi and passed it on. In the beginning, this word really only referred to the two small species used as change/currency, i. e. Money and Ringed cowries.61

1.2.1. The Lifeways of Cowries

1.1.2.2. “Cypraeidae”

The family of cowries (Cypraeidae) comprises some 160 species, most of which inhabit the shallow, only 3–5 m deep, waters of the coral reefs of the Indian and the Pacific Ocean, i.e. the Indo-Pacific Ocean, where the

As pointed out, among other researchers, by Kilias (1977) 251. “There are other large shells belonging to the same family of Cypraeidae, which should not be called as cowrie but instead large porcelain shells. However, these large shells have been attributed incorrectly as cowries in the archaeological literature. Among these, for example, there are five species: European cowrie (Trivia monacha), pear cowrie (Cypraea pyrum), egg cowrie (Ovula ovum), agate cowrie [Cypraea achatidea] and [fallow cowrie] Cypraea lurida... It should be noted, that there is no true cowrie in the European mollusc fauna relating to their usage as currency and for trade...”: Johansson (2005) 18. 63 Among other works in the Russian archaeological literature, for example, “cowrie shell (rakovina kauri)” is used generally, maybe with the attribute “large” to indicate differences in their size. The word rakovina itself only means the outer hard shell of molluscs, either of shells or of snails: Rákoviny (1955). Similarly the English word shell can mean ‘the shell of shells, oysters, snails, tortoises, crabs’, similarly to the French word coquille ‘the shell of snails, shells’. In the concise Russian– Hungarian, Hungarian–Russian dictionary rakovina is mistakenly defined as ‘shell (the mollusc)’: Hadrovics–Gáldi (1977) II: 420; the shell of bivalves ‘rakovina, rakuška’, but the shell of snails ‘skorlupa, rakovina ulitki’: Hadrovics–Gáldi (1964) I: 1171, 345. In the German archaeological literature both Muschel ‘shell/bivalve (the mollusc)’ and Schnecke ‘snail’ appeared: Arends (1978) I: 170–71, 629: note 14. In the Serb/Croatian literature both kauri školjka/kauri školjica ‘cowrie shell’ and kauri puž ‘cowrie snail’, in Slovenian kavri školjka ‘cowrie shell’ and kavri polž ‘cowrie snail’ or lupina kavri ‘the shell of a cowrie’ are used: Hadži (1953) 68; Miletić (1967) 132; Miletic (1980) 138–39. 64 Lorenz–Hubert (1993); Dance (1994) 68–73. Birgitta M. Johansson had other opinions, in her „thesis, there are two main reasons for not following the old convention in the usage of therm cowrie: First, the term porcelain shells will be used for all Indo-Pacific shells belonging to the genus Cypraea. Only the small sized porcelain shells, Cypraea moneta and C. annulus, previously used as currency, will be referred to as cowrie (pl. cowries). Similarly, the large sized Cypraea shells, Cypraea mauriti[a]na, C. Pantherina, C. ventriculus and Cypraea spp., used in prehistory for purposes other than currency, will be referred to as large porcelain shells. Secondly, there is a need to differentiate between the semiotics of the term cowrie and the usage of the shells described in written sources. For example, the small cowries have been used as currency, artificial eyes for mummies, charms against the evil eye and to bring good luck. The large porcelain shells are believed to bestow fertility on women and to help in the process of giving birth. In the archaeological record the large porcelain shells are mainly found in graves conferring power and resurrection.“: Johansson (2005) 18–19. Cowries… “are sometimes found in Egyptian mummies to ensure good eyesight in the afterlife.”: Reese (1988) 262. 62

Keller (1913) 543; Dance (1994) 74–75. The cult of the Moon, i.e. of fertility in general – of humans, animals and plants – of love, of water and wetness was associated with Aphrodite. In the myths about the goddess of originally Eastern origin – see Istar/ Astarte, Scythian Argimpasa/Aphrodite Urania – Semitic and Greek ideas mix with each other. The early main Greek places of her cult were on the islands of Cyprus/Cytherea (e.g. in Paphos) and in Knidos in Asia Minor. From here her cult spread through the Greek world: Furtwängler (1884–86) 390–402; Elliot Smith (1917) XIII–XIV; Jackson (1917) 138–39; Schilder (1926) 323; Schilder (1952) 22, etc. 58 The first modern author to call cowries Concha Venera – in 1551 – was Pierre Belon (1517–1564). Others used the names Venerea, Concha Veneris, Veneroides: Schilder (1926) 323. The genus Venus is actually a Mediterranean bivalve (note of David S. Reese). By chance the mentioning of a cowrie-shaped brooch-arch has already from the 3rd century AD been known: The future emperor, Claudius II. Gothicus (268–270) was given by Zosimius, procurator of Syria each year from the private treasury of Valerianus (253–260) „two red military tunics, two military cloaks, two silver clasps gilded, one golden Cypraea clasp with a pin (tunicas russas militares annuas [duas], sagochlamydes annuas duas, fibulas argenteas inauratas duas, fibulam auream cum a[r]cu Cyprea unam…/fibulam auream cum a[r]cu Cyprea[e] unam)”: Trebelli Pollionis: Divus Claudius. XX. 14. 5: Hohl (1927) 145. It seems that the above mentioned brooch had a cowrie-/cypraea-shaped archso it could have belonged to the so-called bulb-headed brooch type in archeological literature. I’am to thank Andrea Vaday for the translation and the interpretation. 59 David S. Reese, publishing the cowries from Cyprus (55–76, 550– 65), notes that “cowries are often seen as symbols of love and to have the power to increase sexual potency. In some areas they are given as bridal gifts. The scientific name Cypraea, derives from Cyprus where the worship of Aphrodite is thought to have begun.”: Reese (1988) 262. 60 James Cosmo Melvill believed that cowrie/cowrie/gowrie were related to the development khoiros–porcus/porculus–pou de mer–porcelain. Joseph Deniker and the authors following him rejected this based on the Sanskrit origin of the word: Jackson (1917) 126; Schilder (1926) 324. The view revived again by Kurt Singer – see Singer (1940) 50. – was rejected by J. H. Hutton arguing that Assamese gahuri does mean ‘pig’ but that this was a mere coincidence: Hildburgh (1942–43) 187: note 28. 61 e.g. Dutch kouwers, German Kauri/Kaurie/Cowri/Kowri, French cauris/coris: Martens (1872) 66; Schneider (1905) 112; Jackson (1917) 126; Schilder (1926) 324; Quiggin (1949) 26; Hiskett (1966) 240; Johansson (2005) 17–18. etc. 56



57

Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 3. Features of a cowrie shell – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 6: fig. 1 0

water temperature never falls below 18 C ,65 generally 0 between the 40 parallel of the northern hemisphere and 0 the 40 parallel of the southern hemisphere. Shallow-water specimens have occasionally been observed at depths of 50 m while some species may even live in waters as deep as 100–600 m. Certain species can also be found in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic Sea66 but there have never been cowries native to the Black or the Caspian Seas. Their area of distribution may be divided into 6 large regions.

the dorsal line in the pattern of the shell signalling the edges of the mantle. Both, i.e. the inner and the outer side of the outside part of the mantle, is covered with sensory cells of various shape and color called papillae, which react to chemical and optical stimuli. The shell is mainly composed of carbonic lime, the mantle extracting the lime yielding the callus of the shell and its bright enamel surface, the papillae producing the colorful patterns of dots and drops on it. The shell either acquires lime with its foot or extracts it from the sea bed with the help of the carbonic acid formed during respiration. The shell consists of three layers: the periostrakum on the outer surface of the shell is made up of protein impregnated with chinon and protects the second layer, the ostrakum from acids. These two layers are produced by certain parts of the edge of the mantle. Thus, it grows continuously at the edges, its surface becoming ever larger. The innermost layer of lime is called the hipostrakum and is produced by the whole surface of the mantle so that it grows in thickness making the shells stronger and thicker. The mantle protects the shell from parasites and is involved in repairing the cracks or holes caused by erosion or predators. The colorful mantle even helps the animal camouflage itself and hide on the sea bed.

The shape of the adult cowrie shell varies between species: there are egg-shaped, rhomboid, cylindrical, pear-shaped and spherical ones or shells with beak-like extremities, often with a convex nodule in the middle of the amazingly colored dorsum. The spire lies at the posterior extremity and is either visible or hidden by the last bend of the shell. The aperture runs longitudinally down the middle of the base of the shell, ending at both ends in a canal-like fashion. The right or labral side of the base comprises the outer whorl of the lip or the labrum of the shell. The left or columellar side comprises the central bend or the axis. The last whorl usually covers the others (Fig. 3). The body of the shell bulges out through the aperture and is covered by a mantle within the shell, protecting it like a fine membrane (Fig. 4). The mantle widens outside the shell to such an extent that at the two sides it almost completely covers the shell, except for a longitudinal, line of varying width running along the middle of the dorsum,

Through their respiratory organ, the siphon, the shells continuously draw in water rich in oxygen, which exits through the other end of the animal. The anterior end of the siphon extends from the canal of the shell, narrower than its aperture. It is not a snorkel-like tube, as often believed, but originates in the internal mantel and is open along the base. In some species the opening of the siphon is smooth, in others it has processes. At the anterior there are also a simple pair of tentacles with eyes and a tube-like mouth called a proboscis, with a long tongue, with radula to catch food. Finally, there is an anal opening at the other end.

Based on Franz Albert Schilder, Ulrich Arends has mentioned as exceptions smaller Cypraea species from the cold coastal waters of the North Sea, which only reach a length of 3.2 cm: Arends (1978) I: 169, 628: note 11. The data can, however, be traced back to misidentifications in all cases and refer to the specimens of a similar species but another family, e.g. Trivia europea (29, 225a, 1156a, 1181?, 1224a). 66 Fallow, Agate, Pear and Dirty cowries live in the Mediterranean Sea. Of these only Agate cowries are not native to the Adriatic Sea as well. Some other cowrie species were only brought into the eastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea in modern times (?), including Five-Banded and Marked Graceful cowries and in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, Little-Calf cowries: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 137, 146, 72–73. 65



The shells use their muscular foot, wide in the front and

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 4. The external anatomy of a cowrie shell – after Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 13: fig. 23.

narrower towards the back and possibly of another color than the mantle, to move fast and also to protect themselves. Shallow-water species confuse their main enemies, fast moving fish, polyps or other carnivorous gastropods, e.g. Naticidae or Muricidae of the coral reefs by shedding the back part of their foot like a lizard’s tail and retreating into their shell while the predators is occupied with the still moving “bait”. Other species secrete large quantities of a slimy liquid after shedding part of their foot and quickly move on to seek a hiding place. The slime also makes the shell slippery and, thus, more difficult to catch. Furthermore, the serrated edge of their aperture also offers protection because crabs cannot reach the body of the cowrie when trying to reach in with their claw.

develop their final shell in 3–4 growth stages, changing its color and shape. The free swimming stage does not occur in some species. In an aquarium environment, it took various species 18–24 months for individuals to approach maturity.67 Indivudals in particular species not only differ in the way they develop but this can also be affected by the environment of their habitat, in their ecotype.68 Other species with a, more or less, similar shape and with a serrated aperture have doubtlessly been employed for the same purposes as cowries. Possible species include IndoPacific species related to cowries, belonging to the same superfamily of Cypraeoidea and the family of Ovulidae, e.g. egg snails (Ovula ovum Linné); some Indo-Pacific species were classified as cowries up to the superfamily level but, in fact, belong to the superfamily Tonnoidea, the family Cassidae, e.g. little helmet snails (Cassis nana, Tension-Woods), red helmet gastropods (Cypraecassis rufa Linné)69 or the Trivia europea, already mentioned. I have not attempted to create a systematic base for them.

Cowries hide in the daytime and seek food at night. On their muscular foot they move very swiftly to find their food which consists of animals from lower orders such as those in coral reefs: foraminifera (Foraminifera), hydras (Hydrozoa) and mainly madrepores (Madrepora), worms (Annelida) and small crabs (Crustacea) and, occasionally, even shell eggs.

Young cowries do not resemble old ones but are much rather like Oliva shells (Oliva sp.). The number of whorls increases until the outer whirl completely embraces the shell becoming thicker and wider in the meantime, with only a narrow longitudinal opening remaining on the base, the aperture, with the teeth appearing first on the inner then on the outer lips. Finally thicker lime layers (callus) are deposited on the base, the sides and the dorsum of the shell, forming nodules: based on Schilder (1952) 7–8 and Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 21–22. 68 Based on Schilder (1952) 4–9; Kilias (1977) 211–21, 251–53; and Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 6–24. 69 Compare notes 29 on p. 3, 47 on p. 5, 134 on p. 79.. 67



Cowries are divided into two sexes, although sexual differentiation is not evidence in the shell. The fertilised females lay up to 100,000 eggs a year, at least 150–300 at a time, in places where the area does not dry out during ebb tide. They generally guard their eggs until hatching and the larvae are then allowed to swim around. They

Introduction: Cowries 1.2.2. On the Archaeological Depiction of Cowries

perforated near the anterior extremity. This could be done with a pointed object piercing the shell (230), yet the examples considered show another method used consistently, namely that a V-shaped indentation was made, at the bottom of which a hole appeared in the shell. The hollow could be made either by two opposite incisions with a sharp blade made of shell, stone or metal or by a narrow triangular, wedge-shaped scraper or a metal file or rasper rubbed on the shell until it became perforated. The perforated shell was either strung directly on a thread or with a metal ring. The large shells were either worked and strung in the same way or they were perforated at the anterior extremity on both sides and the metal ring was passed through both holes.73

It deserves mentioning that in natural scientific works, cowries are generally depicted with their wider posterior extremity up as this is where the end of the whorls at the tip of the shell, the spire can be seen. The opposite is true for the archaeological literature where they are depicted the way they were employed, i.e. suspended,70 as they were in all the archaeological periods discussed here, with their narrower, anterior end up. 1.3. The Use of Cowries The shells of the 160 species discussed here were used in a variety of ways. The animal itself was generally not eaten, it was believed to have a bad taste, even to be poisonous. In some areas it was none the less used as bait.71 Recently, I have come across practices contradicting this view.72 Below, I will deal with the role of cowries as implements, as parts of dress ensembles (as ornaments or amulets) and finally as currency.

Another wide-spread method of working cowries was to more or less remove the dorsum. The shell was either first pierced with a pointed tool and then the hole enlarged with a sharp tool made of shell, stone or metal to get the desired shape and size74 or – as is characteristic of the specimens from the Scythian and the Celtic Periods – the back of the fixed cowrie was rubbed with a rough stone (later maybe a file or a rasper).75 The indentation caused by the curved stone could be discerned from a specific angle. They probably did not want the inner whorl of the shell to be revealed by the large hole. The spiral could have been removed while the shell was being perforated or it might have broken later while the shell was employed.76 The cowries, which were by this time practically as flat as a ring, were suspended with their serrated lips outwards and were sometimes suspended by a metal ring in spite of the unnecessarily large hole (804, 873–74).

1.3.1. The Working of Cowries Intact, whole cowries have rarely been found in graves, appearing more frequently in settlement finds. This suggests that in some cases at least, tradesmen delivered unmodified shells to settlements. Although anyone could have worked them, that is, perforated the shell for stringing, there is evidence that this happened not where they were gathered but after delivery to the place they would be used (51).

As a special method the serrated edge of the outside spiral of large cowries was cut off to be used as a file or a rasper

Furthermore, whole cowries would also have served well as amulets, as shown by some grave finds, where they sometimes appeared along with worked shells (63, 554, 651, 806?, 836), at other times in leather bags (701?) or as figures for board games (827). There was no need to perforate cowries when they were bound and thus suspended. Wire or metal strip was bound along the aperture and the dorsum (805) or all around the side (2281) or embracing the shell in several directions (1015–17, 1019–20, 1022. 1028–29, 1031–33). This method was also used when the anterior of the shell was so fractured and chipped that it was impossible to perforate it (884).

This kind of distinction is generally possible with cowries from Sarmatian and Germanic burials. 74 The various piercing techniques have been summarised by: Francis (1987) 73–75; Mienis (1995) 276 and comparee note 88. 75 Peter Francis observed that it took about 25 minutes to rasp off the dorsum of an unidentified cowrie, whereas it only took 6 minutes to pierce it and enlarge the hole: Francis (1987) 74; compare note 88. 76 This is in accordance with ethnographic observations. Julius Lips described the working of the best-known Melanesian currency, the divarra or tambu, made from the shell of the circa 1 cm large Nassa camelus gastropod as follows: „Der bekannteste melanesische Wertmesser ist das berühmte, auch als Diwarra oder Tambu bekannte Nassa-Geld, das aus der mit einem Höcker versehenen, etwa zentimetergroßen Nassacamelus-Schnecke hergestellt wird. Die an der Küste von Nakanai lebenden Eingeborenen sammeln diese kostbare Schnecken mit Netzen vom Meeresboden auf und verwahren sie in ihren Hütten, ohne sich um den üblen Geruch der verwesenden Fleischteile zu kümmern. Die Herstellung des Nassageldes erfordert große Geschicklichkeit und ist ein Vorrecht der Häuptlinge, das vor allem den Frauen versagt ist. Sobald die Jahreszeit des Südwestmonsuns vorüber ist, verlassen die Expeditionen der Geldsammler in ihrer Auslegerbooten die Gazellehalbinsel, die Talili-Bucht und die Nachbarinseln, um die von den Eingeborenen palatambu genannten Rohschnecken zu fangen. Die Reise wird mit religiösen Zeremonien eingeleitet, denn die Diwarra oder das Tambu wird als heilig angesehen. Schon der erste den Neugeborenen dargebrachte Segenspruch lautet: ‘Mögest du groß und stark werden, damit du oft nach Nakanai reisen und recht viel tambu einsammeln kannst.’ Die Reise dauert etwa einen Monat.Der Besitz von Tambu 73

Most cowries were worked in that their dorsum was i.e. they were not sewn on in a pattern, generally in horizontal lines, with their aperture outwards, horizontally aligned next to each other. 71 Schilder (1926) 314. 72 According to Alfred Falchetto (Nuku Hiva, Marquises island, French Polynesia), the husband of the Hungarian archaeologist and ethnographer carrying out research in the Pacific archipelago, Judit Antoni, natives regularly eat cowries. They suck out the smaller Mauritian cowrie through the aperture but they remove the large Tiger cowrie after cutting off its dorsum and cook it. They eat Tiger cowries only rarely, however, since they prefer to sell the large undamaged shell to tourists (Budapest, September–October 1999). About the exhibition of marine shells arranged by Antoni, Falchetto and László Kovács in Hungarian Agricultural Museum (Budapest, 9 August–9 September 2001): Antoni (2001); K. M. (2001).



70

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 5. Schematic drawing how beads can be cut out of a Panther/Tiger cowrie shell – after Trotzig (1988) 292: fig. 6

Fig. 6. Cypraea millepunctata as bread-fruit scraper (1), two cowries as bait for cuttle-fish (2) of 20th c. – after Pfeiffer (1914) 128: fig. 137: b–c

Fig. 7. Cowrie rattles fitted to a squash to indicate dance rhythms from Togo of 20th c. – after Pfeiffer (1914) 226: fig. 253

10

Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 8. So-called “Hamburger Ware” box of 20th c. glued together from Cypraea, Strombus, Trochus, Mytilus and Pecten shells– after Pax–Arndt (1929) 172: fig. 82

(see below) or – since this was the thickest, most solid part of the shell – to be cut into round, flat beads (Fig. 5).77

to mention their use as cups, boxes, spoons, letter-weights, tourists’ souvenirs (Fig. 8)81 and, as parts of watch chains, key-rings (even before 1554), cuff-links, etc.82 made of the shell. The Greeks used small species as voting tokens, but also fin ordeals, soothsaying and games, as the shells either fell on their convex or their opposite side.83 Large numbers were used in Africa for lime-burning, to pave the streets or to make mosaic floors, while in Japan, powdered cowrie was used as make-up.84 As net-weights, they also helped to ensure good luck and success.85

1.3.2. Implements and Tools Since they are hard and smooth, from Antique times, large cowries, e. g. cowries from Mauritius, Mole cowries, Panther and Tiger cowries, have been used to even and smooth textiles, papyrus and paper (in modern times even collars)78 and were employed by the Anglo-Saxons as files or raspers.79 Furthermore, it has been suggested that Vikings used the conveniently serrated cowrie to decorate their clay pottery with wavy lines.80 Ethnographically seen they were used as coconut or bread-fruit scrapers, as bait for cuttlefish (Fig. 6), as rattles to mark dance rhythms (Fig. 7), not

Pfeiffer (1914) 129, 224, 226, 128: fig. 137: b–c, 224: fig. 251, 226: fig. 253. The supposition that it is used as a breadfruit peeler and as octopusbait was also reinforced by Alfred Falchetto, compare note 84; Brühl (1929) 240, fig. 103. On the so-called “Hamburger Ware”, i.e. the boxes were made from various shells glued together with the cameos carved on them: Brühl (1929) 173, 183–84, 232–33, 236, 240, 247–50, 172: fig. 82 (Fig. 8). Two special examples from the past (Figs 89 and 122): a Chinese sheep-shaped grave talisman from the Han Period (206 BC–220 AD) with bronze legs and head and supposedly the body of a Tiger cowrie (380); a Tiger cowrie serving as the body of a swan-shaped cosmetic box from a Roman/Byzantine burial (991) which had an ivory head and tail: Thompson (1971) 28: fig; Reese (1991) 161: nr. 7. On making animal figures: Brühl (1929) 253. 82 Brühl (1929) 173. 83 Contrary to the 3 possibilities with the astragalos of sheep/goats used as a dice, a cowrie could only fall either with its dorsum or its ventral side, the latter being called “laughing”: Martens (1872) 69–70; Schneider (1905) 170; Jackson (1917) 158; Schilder (1926) 315; Brühl (1929) 189, 217; Schilder (1952) 18; Claassen (1998) 210–11; Kiss (1983) 168–71. The view that they were used as figures in board games as early as the Geto/Dacian age should be mentioned here: Simion (1976) 155 (compare 826). According to an isolated report, wandering gypsies from Romania used Money cowrie for fortune-telling as late as the 20th century: Dragomir (1970) 71: Note 24. Reference: Dicţionarul române moderne. Bucureşti (1958) 336. As a point of interest I would like to note that our hostess, the archaeologist Júlia Kovalovszki who was born in Doboz (Békés county) mentioned on the 25th March 1999 on the first anniversary of the death of Professor Gyula László that in the 1940s a native gipsy woman, Julis Kanálos, when fortune-telling, took a large cowrie out from under her wide skirts and looked at its surface. Kovalovszki remembers that her father even asked jokingly where she were keeping that cowrie. In the game named pačiz of Usbeg men in Khoresm were cowries like instruments: Sznyeszarjev (2003) 30; the draughts named manqala of Egyptians was playing with pebbles or cowries: Ezeregyéjszaka (1999) I: 151: note 6. 84 Martens (1872) 70; Schilder (1926) 315; Schilder (1952) 16–19. 85 Andersson (1934) 308; Brühl (1929) 241. 81

wird von den Eingeborenen höher eingeschätzt als Leben und Gesundheit. Bereits das Wort ‘tambu’ bedeutet ‘groß und heilig”. Sogar die Unsterblichkeit kann man sich damit erkaufen, denn nur die Seelen der Reichen dürfen nach dem Tode nach Nakanai in das heilige Tambuland ziehen. Zur Geldherstellung wird das Schneckenhaus von unten in eine Kokosnußschale eingeschnittenes Loch gepreßt, und der ‘Kamelshöcker’ der Muschel wird mit einem scharfen Muschelwerkzeug weggefeilt, wodurch das später zum Aufziehen auf eine Schnur benötigte Loch erzeugt wird. Hierauf wird das Schneckenhaus gründlich gereinigt und zur Erzielung der begehrten weißen Farbe einem Bleichprozeß unterzogen. Am Schluß wird das Tambu aufgereiht, und zwar erst zur Beseitigung noch etwa verbliebener gelblichen Stellen auf Rindenstreifen und dann erst auf die endgültig als Geldschnüre dienenden Lianenranken.”: Lips (1955) 262–263; Lips (1962) 213–214.���������������������������������� The description partly relies on Schneider (1905) 19–21 who also mentions that the women or the boys doing this work could remove the dorsum of as many as 20 shells in a minute. 77 In the present study, I shall not deal with the question of beads made from the shell of shells, even though these were probably often made from large cowries, e.g. Panther cowries or even the much smaller Money cowries: H. Vaday (1988–89) 105–06. The technique of making beads from Panther cowries was described based in Scandinavian finds by: Trotzig (1988); evaluated by: Jansson (1988) 589–92; Callmer (1989) 21; Meaney (1981) 128, 136; Evison (1987) 122; Geake (1997) 62–63. On the shell beads of unidentifiable origin (oysters?) in Central European graves from the Merovingian Age: Siegmund–Weiß (1989). 78 Compare note 41 on p. 4. 79 Martens (1872) 35–36; Schilder (1926) 314–15; Brühl (1929) 225–27; Schilder (1952) 16; Hiskett (1966) 340. 80 Compare Johansson (1997) 227, fig. 5: bottom, middle.

11

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1.3.3. 1–338. Ornament or Amulet: The Symbolism of Clothing

their belts.91 Dalmatian women wore cowries on their dresses, belts92 and caps,93 Albanian and Bosnian women wore them on their dresses and their children’s blankets and,94 women from Versec (prev. Temes county; opšt. Vršac, Serbia) wore them in their hair.95 Tyrolese men put them on their tobacco-bags, Bosnian gipsy girls and Bulgarian women wove them into their hair and, Galician craftsmen and copper-smiths from the Sudetenland sewed them onto their belts and bags. There were cowries on the horses, donkeys, mules, camels harness equipment etc (see chapter 2.9) and on Medieval dog-collars,96 too. The traditions of our Finno-Ugrian relatives, as well as their Turkish neighbours, deserve special attention (see chapter 1.3.3.2.3).

A special type of ornament was designated by the word derived from Latin amuletum ‘amulet’ of unknown origin. This referred to a small object with magic power to ward off, even passively, the harmful effects of witchcraft, illness, wounds, bewitching and, especially the evil eye – while talisman ‘talisman’, a word of Arabic origin, rather ensured good luck in an active way.86 Some amulets were natural objects left in their original state or somewhat worked, e. g. for suspension, that is, gems, metals, bones, teeth or claws of animals, plants, etc. or else they could be entirely man-made objects. They were generally worn on the body or the clothing or hung onto animals or their equipment. They were believed to be powerful either because they were thought to be connected to natural or religious forces or because they were made at the right time during special rituals. The history of amulets is usually traced back until the time of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome but the Church condemned their use in the Middle Ages, which is probably why they play no special role e. g. in contemporary Hungarian folklore.87

Without going into much detail, I would like to point out here that in the reports cited above, cowries were not worn or hung on animals as mere ornaments but as amulets believed to avert the evil eye. This is reason enough for us to consider and draw conclusions concerning the beliefs lying in the background.97 These former wearers and owners were not merely satisfied by the fact that they had come into the possession of a distant, therefore rare and also precious object with a beautiful shape and color that could be employed as a bead or a pendant.98 The fact that most cowries were discovered in women’s and (in all probability) girls’ burials does not contradict the latter supposition. Yet almost all ethnographers and cultural

Due to their appropriate size, outstanding beauty and the fact that they are not spiky but have a massive construction, cowries were appreciated as ornaments or jewelry and were traded over great distances from their original source. Agate, Pear and Fallow cowries, indigenous to the Mediterranean, were first discovered in Upper Paleolithic caves in France and Italy. The Indo-Pacific Little-Calf, Ringed, Money and Tiger cowries, as well as the Panther cowries from the Red Sea appeared in Egypt, Nubia and the Near East from Pre-dynastic times (3100 BC) on, always assuming these species have been correctly identified.88 Over and above their position as archaeological finds, cowries have retained their role as ornaments and jewelry until the present, as attested by a number of European, Asian, African and Oceanic ethnographic observations. It is not possible to list them all here,89 so I only wish to name a few 19th–20th-centuries European examples taken from data gathered by Hugo Conwentz, Oskar Schneider and Franz Adalbert Schilder90: Dalmatian men, (South) German carriers, butchers and farmers wore cowries on

In the following notes only further references relevant here will be included. 91 Calling Money cowries used against the evil eye “serpent’s or viper’s head (Schlangen- oder Otterköpfchen)”: Seligman (1910) II: 126–27, note *, I: 329: fig. 58. 92 The dresses and the belts of women from around Vrlika in Dalmatia (Croatia) were densely covered with cowries similar to armour, while in other places of Croatia as e.g. in Šibenik, Trogir, Sinj, Bukovica and Ravni Kotari only a few pieces were worn on the dress on the breast as ornaments. During the World War I the importance of shells came to an end and so the amount they already possessed had to be used. For this reason, cowries had completely disappeared from the national dress by the 1970s except in the surroundings of Vrlika: Birtašević (1973) 186–87; Brühl (1929) 174. 93 Martens (1872) 74. 94 The wearing of cowries and imitations of them in the Balkans, more rarely in Albania, more frequently in Bosnia, mainly by women and children was noted by: Durham (1940); Durham (1941). 95 Without more specific reference: Birtasević (1973) 186. 96 Marco Polo mentioned about the inhabitants of the province of Karadžan (present-day Yunnan near the border to Mianmar/Burma) that they used “white porcelain shells, like the ones sometimes put on dogs’ collars [in Venice]” as currency: Marco Polo (1963) 215; compare note 356 on p. 51. 97 Mircea Eliade has devoted a study to the symbolism of shells, having collected a great deal of evidence in connection with various snail and shell types, as well as beads. However, he often leaves the species, its habitat and the place of use unidentified and does not date the described custom or consider the chronology, the development and the interaction of the related beliefs he has developed within an entangled mosaic. He divided his study into the subjects of cosmology and sexuality, fertility, ritual functions and beliefs connected with death and mourning, and refers directly to cowries only in the 4th part; compare Eliade (1997) 174–85. Unfortunately the cowries mentioned by him (coquillage, coquille) were translated into Hungarian as bivalves by Ildikó Kamocsay. On the symbolism of shells in general: Csima (1997); Reuss (1997) 98 Its Japanese name, for example, takaragai, hints at the composition of takara ‘health, wealth’ and gai/kai ‘shell’: Quiggin (1949) 249; see note 374.

Brühl (1929) 162; Amulet (1957); Amulett (1973); Amulett (1995). Hoppál (1977); Pócs–Kovács (1980). 88 Ulrich Arends has noted that due to the variety of names used in the archaeological literature one cannot always identify the species based on the name. However, a few general conclusions can be drawn: 1. cowries longer than 6.5 cm are either from the Red Sea or the Indo-Pacific Ocean, 2. among the cowries smaller than 6.5 cm there might be Mediterranean ones, 3. in the archaeological scientific literature the names Panther and Tiger cowrie are often confused. Among the finds, however, there are definitely more of the former: Arends (1978) I: 170—71; Arnold (1997) 119; Banghard (2001) 15–16. 89 With an extensive bibliography: Conwentz (1902); Seligman (1910) II: 126–27; Jackson (1917) 133, 139–94; Andersson (1934) 299–12; Schilder (1926) 316–17; Brühl (1929) 206; Schilder (1952) 32–37; Becker (1996) 14–15; Claassen (1998) 204, etc; ������������������������ with beautiful objects: Pfeiffer (1914) 120–129. A good summary in a newspaper article: Taylor (1993). 90 Conwentz (1902) 10; Schneider (1905) 117; Schilder (1926) 316. 86 87

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Introduction: Cowries (23) and Cypraea sp. (14, 36–38) were discovered. There were no cowrie species among the 3 Eocene species found in France on sites from from the Solutrean Period (20,000– 15,000 BC),103 but Cypraea sp. (14, 36–38) were the most common among the 16 Miocene species, while Cypraea subovum d’Orbigny (40) is not listed, as opposed to the 27 contemporary recent species of which Fallow cowrie (5) appears towards the end of the list but where Pear cowrie (14) and Cypraea sp. (28, 36) were not even listed.104 In all probability it was the Magdalenian Period (15,000–9,000 BC) that saw the beginnings of the more wide-spread use of cowries as reflected in the find material from French caves. Of the 4 Eocene and 24 Miocene species of the early period (15,000–13,000 BC) Cypraea brocchii (30) and Cypraea brocchii var. subannulus d’Orbigny (30), Cypraea polysurca Cossmann/dujardini/physis (10), Cypraea sublinchoïdes d’Orbigny (4), Cypraea subovum d’Orbigny/subamygdallum/brocchii (10) and Cypraea sp. (6, 10, 31) are listed high up within the latter group, while only Pear (10, 22, 27), Fallow (10, 22) and Cypraea sp. appear among the 32 non-fossil species.105 There were no cowries among the 5 Eocene species from the Middle and Middle-Upper Magdalenian (13,000–9,000 BC) but cowries head the list of the 32 Miocene species, namely Cypraea bernanya brocchii Grateloup (7), Cypraea brocchii subannulus (12–13, 15), Cypraea columbaria (18), Cypraea columbaria Lamarck var. sanguinolenta Dujardin (39), Cypraea fabagina Lamarck (20), Cypraea fabagina Lamarck var. apice producta (29), Cypraea schilderia Dujardin/C. globosa Dujardin (19), Cypraea sp. (13, 15–16, 21, 24–25, 33, 39, 41), while among the 35–36 non-fossil species only Agate cowries? (15), Pear (15, 41), Fallow (39), Cypraea sp. cowries (9, 25) and cowrie-pattern painted pebbles (15?) play a minor role.106 There were no cowries among the 26 late Magdalenian and Azilian (9,000–8,000 BC) Eocene species but among the 24 Miocene species, cowries are ranked third represented by Cypraea bernanya brocchii (3) and Cypraea sp. (8, 16). Among the 27–39 contemporary recent species Fallow cowries (5, 16) and Cypraea sp. are mentioned.

historians99 agree that these shells were worn because they resemble the female vulva or a half-closed human eye or a serpent’s head. Due to their symbolic importance and as a result of this resemblance, cowries were mainly worn to protect against the evil eye or to secure female fertility and fecundity. In the following pages, I will endevor to trace the archaeological background to these assumptions. 1.3.3.1. 1–49. The Earliest Archaeological Cowrie Finds from the Upper Paleolithic (30,000 – 9000 BC) It emerges from Yvette Taborin’s book that the cowries in the Upper Paleolithic were just one of yet by far not the most commonplace type of shell in graves.100 Of the 33 species of fossil Eocene (57.8–36.6 million years BP) and the Miocene (23.7–5.3 million years BP) shell finds discovered at Aurignacian sites (30,000–25,000 BC) in France only 2 or 3 were the cowries: Cypraea columbaria and Cypraea burdigalensis (35) as well as other Cypraea sp. (26). Of the 31 at that time contemporaneous recent species, only the Fallow cowrie (32) and the Cypraea sp. (34) can be mentioned.101 The situation is different in Italy: the non-fossil Pear cowrie (44–45), Fallow cowrie (45) and Cypraea sp. (42–43), probably identical with one of these first species, were found on sites of this period. Of the 15 Eocene mollusc species discovered in the French caves from the Perigordian Culture (30,000–28,000 BC) – treated as a sub-group of the Aurignacian Culture – only one was a cowrie, namely Cypraea inflata (2), while there were no cowries among the 10 Miocene species. Of the 34 non-fossil species, once again, the Pear cowrie (11) and the Fallow cowrie (11) can be found.102 In the French, Italian and Slovak material from the Gravettian Period (25,000–20,000 BC) non-fossil Pear and Fallow cowries In Patrick J. Geary’s recent opinion, archaeological literature has started to reject the mystification of phenomena and finds, above all those on the 7th–8th centuries Germanic material, partly by analysing the phenomena from a natural scientific point of view, partly due to rationalistic argument. “Ebenso zögert die moderne Archäologie, immer wiederkehrende Erscheinungsformen, wie z. B. die Orientierung der Gräber, die Grabbeigaben und Muscheln [sic! – L.K.], die in germanischen Gräbern gefunden werden, Gefäße, die Nahrung oder Wasser enthalten haben könnten, als rituell zu bewerten: sie können ganz einfach ein Resultat vielleicht nur halb verstandener traditioneller Bräuche sein... Grabbeigaben werden nun dahingehend gedeutet, daß man annimmt, diese Beigaben wären nicht vererbbarer Besitz des Begrabenen gewesen und nicht notwendigerweise dazu da, um im Leben nach dem Tode von Nutzen zu sein.”: Geary (1980) 111. This supposition is of course incorrect. Without going into much detail let me note that according to this, all child burials with grave finds should be those of orphans lacking even distant relatives. Further it should be stressed that shells, including cowries, are regarded as ritual objects, as amulets by the author who repeated the above view: Hanuliak (1997) 476–77, 479: fig. 7. 5 (1-1 murex and Money cowrie). 100 Other fossil Miocene shell families which were collected is reflected by cave finds are: cowries (Cypraeidae), Care-shells (Conidae), murices (Muricidae), olive shells (Olividae), mitre shells (Mitridae) and turret shells (Turritellidae): Taborin (1993) 45; Kuhn–Stiner–Reese–Güleç (2001). 101 Taborin (1993) 107, 105: fig. 12, 106: fig. 13: Fallow cowries are not mentioned here and remain unidentified (46–47). 102 Taborin (1993) 116, 114: fig. 18, 115: fig. 19. Due to the uncertain dating and identification of the species unidentified finds also remain (17). 99

As the area of France was formerly covered by sea, Eocene cowries were probably collected in the Parisian Basin, Miocene ones mainly near Bordeaux and from other presently unknown find spots. Only 1 Eocene species, Cypraea inflata (2) is known, while many others date from the Miocene, i. e. Cypraea bernanya brocchii (3, 7, 30), Cypraea brocchii subannulus (12–13, 15, 30), Cypraea burdigalensis Cossman et Peyrot (35), Cypraea columbaria (18, 35), Cypraea columbaria sanguinolenta (39), Cypraea fabagina (20), Cypraea fabagina. apice Including the finds from the Late Solutrean (20,000–15,000 BC) and the Early Magdalenian (15,000–9,000 BC) Period (5, 38, 40). 104 Taborin (1993) 126, 124: fig. 24, 125: fig. 26. 105 Taborin (1993) 137, 135: fig. 30, 136: fig. 31. I have included the further unspecified Magdalenian finds here, too (4, 6, 27, 30, 31). 106 Taborin (1993) 143: fig. 36, 144: fig. 37, 145: fig. 38. No Miocene species were marked in the tables. Among recent species, Agate cowrie was not listed and Fallow and Pear cowries appeared together as Cypraea lurida pyrum: ibid. 144: fig. 37. 103

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads producta (29), Cypraea physis Brocchii/achatidea Gray (15?), Cypraea polysurca Cossmann/dujardini/physis (10), Cypraea schilderia/C. globosa (19), Cypraea sublinchoïdes d’Orbigny (4), Cypraea subovum/subamygdallum/brocchii (10, 40) and Cypraea sp. (1, 6–8, 10, 13–17, 21, 24–26, 31, 33, 35–37, 41).107 One reason for their becoming so wide-spread might have been that the places where they were collected were possibly closer to where they were used than the present-day habitat of Recent specimens.108 It is possible that they first received attention because they could be collected from the surface. Such a supposition may be indirectly supported by the Italian material from the Mediterranean coast where, since the sea was so near, there was no need to look for fossil collecting places. Still, there is no chronological difference between the layers containing specimens of two different origins and it is precisely the recent Pear and Fallow cowries (43–45) which could be collected right by the sea, that appear in the earliest, Italian Aurignacian – not French – burials. Naturally enough, all contemporaneous recent specimens came from the warm waters along the Mediterranean or Atlantic coast, since it is only species from a related family, e. g. Trividae, that could be collected from permanently or periodically cold water. The following species which are indigenous (also or only) to the Mediterranean Sea were discovered at various sites: Agate cowries? (15?),109 Pear cowries (1, 10–11, 14–15, 22, 23, 27, 41? [or Cypraea dollfusi?], 44–46), Dirty cowries (1, 46), Fallow cowries (5, 10–11, 15–16, 22, 32, 45) and finally Cypraea sp. (9, 15, 17, 25, 28, 34, 36, 38, 42–43, 47–49).

over the whole period under discussion here (Aurignacian: 43–45, Gravettian: 48, Epi-Gravettian: 42, Late Solutrean: 36, Magdalenian: 10, 29, 31). It is probably not by chance that113 it was mostly men who were buried with cowries (10: 16–18 years old, 42: young, 43: old, 44: adult, 45: adult man (or adult woman), 48: boy of 13, 29: woman, 36: child, 31: sex unknown),114 which leads us to the conclusion that the symbolic value of these shells as being connected to sex leading to their use in female attire and finds had not developed – or at least cannot be documented – during the Upper Paleolithic. Cowries usually with 1 perforation,115 were interpreted as whorls116 since their beauty and rarity is reason enough to suppose that they were dress or body ornaments.117 It is not impossible that – being worn on a string or a strap around the elbow, the wrist, the knee or the ankle – some significance as amulets had already been assigned to them.118 This hypothesis brings us to how they later developed into female sexual symbols. Theoretically, this cannot be disputed even in the earliest times. In his book demystifying archaeological–ethnographic–religious historical myths that have become generally known concerning prehistoric cults, André Leroi-Gourhan finds the symbolic nature of cowries, among others, acceptable. ceremonially interred, which certain writers regard as implying that they were not without some idea of religion. The fact that they used perforated shells, teeth and pendants, as amulets, also supports this conclusion. But, of course, the validity of the inference depends upon what is meant by the term ‘religion’.”: Jackson (1917) 137; compare Hiskett (1966) 339; Müller-Karpe (1966) 263: nr. 30, 268: nr. 49 and 206: nr. 18. 113 Yvette Taborin deals with 16 graves in France, 13 in Italy, 4 in the Czech Republic, 5 in Russia and 1 in England: Taborin (1993) 304–05: pl. XI. Apart from the burials in France and Italy also dealt with here, there were no cowries in the following Upper Paleolithic graves: Grave 1891 at Brno (Czech Republic)-II: Franz Joseph Street: male skeleton: Filip (1966) 168; Müller-Karpe (1966) 312: 230; Grave 1953 at Kostënki (Voronežskaja oblast’, Russia)-II.: a Europid male skeleton, aged more than 50 years old, dated to the end of the period: Boriskovskij (1955) 40–41; Rogačev (1955) 32; Debec (1955) 48. Grave 1954 at KostënkiXIV (Markina Gora): male skeleton aged 20–25: Rogačev (1955) 34–38; Debec (1955) 43–44; Müller-Karpe (1966) 335: Nr. 342. Grave 1952 at Kostënki-XV.: child’s skeleton aged 4-5 years: Rogačev (1955) 30–31; Debec (1955) 43); Müller-Karpe (1966) 335? Nr. 345. Grave 1953 at Kostënki-Mys Pokrovskogo loga: child’s skeleton aged 6-7: Rogačev (1955) 32. Vladimir (Vladimirskaja oblast’, Russia)-Sungir: male skeleton aged around 55 years: Bader (1965). Předmostí (okres Přerov, Czech Republik): next to the 20 skeletons excavated here “keine Ziergegenstände und andere Erzeugnisse des Menschen gefunden wurden...”: Absolon–Klíma (1977) 32; Müller-Karpe (1966) 315–16: Nr. 243. 114 Ann Franka May calls for circumspection when dealing with the ratio of the sexes because compared to those of contemporary men, only a few female burials are known: May (1962) 93. 115 As opposed to the similar Trivia europea which usually have two perforations on their dorsum: Taborin (1993) 180–89, 245. 116 “Doppeloliven” (43), as well as cowries arranged symmetrically (10, 43) were regarded as some kind of button by: Müller-Karpe (1966) 183–84; similarly, with regard to the above: May (1962) 92. 117 The 4 examples found on the skulls of the skeletons from the two burials already mentioned (10, 43) may have been part of the decoration on a head covering while the others were either strung on a belt around the particular body part or fastened to some kind of dress. The specimens found on the feet may have belonged to some footwear: May (1962) 28–30; Müller-Karpe (1966) 183. All of the various possibilities have some parallels in Upper Paleolithic depictions: May (1962) 89–92. They may also have decorated the lower hem of an anorak-like dress: Taborin (1993) 186. 118 They possibly believed they gave power to the runner, a belief found in hunting societies in Africa, Asia and America: May (1962) 51, 110.

Since both fossil and recent cowries had to be transported to the cave sites from various distances,110 it is not surprising that from the Upper Paleolithic – when finds attest that they were generally easy to obtain and grave goods show that possessing them111 was connected to transcendental ideas112 – specimens of both origins were discovered in caves and burials. However, most of the finds came from habitation layers while only a few were discovered next to skeletons Taborin (1993) 41–45. Compare Taborin (1993) 77–-88. 109 Cypraea physis Brocchii or Cypraea achatidea Gray: Taborin (1993) 350. 110 According to Ann Franka May’s compilation of Nassa also Cyclope neritea, no snails which are only indigenous to the Mediterranean Sea have been found in French caves, while the Ligurians Litorina litorea, indigenous only to the Atlantic Ocean, was missing. However, at both sites species appeared which can be found both in the sea and in the ocean, showing that contemporary people generally gathered their snail ornaments from the coast closer to the place they lived. The only exception seems to be the young man (10) who, in spite of the fact that he lived closer to the Atlantic, collected only Mediterranean shells, namely (according to the old identification) 20 Pear and Fallow cowries which came from a distance of at least 300 km (roughly 187 miles) taking the terrain into consideration: May (1962) 29–30, 69–75, 97–98. The new shell identifications contradict the above. 111 With reference to how they were valued: Müller-Karpe (1966) 185. 112 “The association of perforated cowrie shells with men belonging to the Cro-Magnon group is not without interest, when it is remembered, that these people were members of our own species – Homo sapiens and quite distinct from the earlier Neanderthal people. That they were men capable of formulating ideas and endowed with an artistic sense is unquestionable. The skeletons of this race all seem to have been 107 108

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Introduction: Cowries According to him “large numbers of cowries were found in Upper Paleolithic burials, comprising both fossil and Paleolithic recent specimens. Then as today, they were probably generally regarded as symbols of the female genitals, all the more so because ... in cave art, stylised depictions of women and some bone pendants depict this symbol very similarly.”119 Later he added: “in summary it may be stated that animal teeth, shells, bone or stone pendants form an important group of objects; they were doubtlessly associated with some kind of religious meaning but we cannot know for sure, what exactly... It is evident that among the teeth, the canine from a deer, cowries from the shells and oval or oblong pendants among the suspended objects referred to female and male symbols.”120

the material listed in the catalogue has allowed above conclusions to be drawn.123 1.3.3.2.1.a. 50–76, 178–291, 301–326. Eurasian Finds Dentalium snails comprised three quarters of the Near Eastern (Levantine) shell finds towards the end of the Upper Paleolithic and during the Epi-Paleolithic (10,000– 8,500 BC),124 probably because they were easy to cut into beads and not because of any symbolic meaning attached to them. Among the wide range of other species there were also cowries, at this point with no attested symbolic meaning. They definitely reflect a change in the species being used as compared to the French and Italian cave finds discussed above, a consequence of the situation of the sites. While there were exclusively Mediterranean (maybe Atlantic) cowries discovered there, this is only true for early discoveries in this area, with a shift towards Red Sea (and Indo-Pacific) species later on. It was the smaller species (Ringed and Money cowries) that became popular among these cowries, also implying that were changes in the clothing.

Except for one surface site in Slovakia (49), all cowries discussed here were discovered in cave materials from (South-)Western Europe, contemporaneous finds from the Near East are discussed and listed in the chapter and the catalogue on their continuous use until the Iron Age. 1.3.3.2. 50–338. Finds from the Mesolithic Until the Scythian Period (10,000–700 BC)

The earliest cowries – very few compared to other shell remains – were discovered in Natufian settlements (10,000–8500 BC) in Israel and Jordan.125 The species exploited included Money and Panther cowries with their closest habitat in the Red Sea (219, 235), Thrush cowries from the western part of the Indo-Pacific Ocean (239), as well as Trivia sp. mentioned because of its close similarity to cowries (225a) and some unidentified or unidentifiable specimens (238, 253). The fact that they were discovered several hundred kilometres from their habitat126 and that one of them were perforated (219) demonstrates that these shells were obtained and worn deliberately.

Although it may have developed earlier, the symbolic system connected with cowries must have evolved during this time. This development will be discussed in order of the three possible objects they could symbolize through: their similarity to the vulva (1), to a half-closed human eye (2) or to a serpent’s head (3). 1.3.3.2.1. Similarity to the Vulva121 This was probably the most evident similarity recognised by the collectors, traders and wearers of cowries, which is why this interpretation has became general, not only for cowries but also for later imitations in various materials from as early as the Upper Paleolithic or very soon afterwards.122 Cowries, contemporaneous with the earliest Upper Paleolithic finds from (South-)Western Europe, were discovered in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea (Levant) transported some distance from their habitat. As they became more widely used, not only can an increasing number of species be observed, but an increasing appreciation as amulets becomes evident as well. Due to shortcomings in my data, I have been able to illustrate this process only incompletely. Nevertheless,

The number of Israeli and Jordanian finds from settlements dated to the early phase of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNA: 8500–7300 BC) or to both its phases (PPN: 8500– 6300 BC) has not increased either. Most of the known specimens have been published and are either unidentified or unidentifiable (217–18, 268, 271, 278) although there were Mediterranean Fallow cowries (259), Indo-Pacific My data base was impeded by the size/amount of the relevant material, the lack of (precise) dating of some finds and the difficulties of gaining access to the relevant literature. The latter remark mainly concerns publications, including the studies of David S. Reese. I could not get access to them and therefore could not find out more details of the archaeological circumstances of the shell finds. Another consequence of my scientific limitations was that I could not date the following finds: 98, 124, 146, 161–62, 164–66, 171, 186, 189, 229, 240, 267, 270, 275, 285–87. 124 Species appearing in the Near East: Reese (1991) 162: pl. 1. The preponderance of Dentalium was noted based on 34 sites with materials including the shells of 25–847 molluscs each: Reese (1991a) 613, 614: pl. 1. 125 I could not use the material from Vela Luka (Hvar island, Croatia)Vela Špilja dated from the Mesolithic to the Iron Age. Here, among food leftovers from the sea, the drawing of a cowrie also appears, although left unmentioned and unidentified: Čečuk–Radić (2000) 22–23, 23: fig. left top. 126 Compare Reese (1991) 188. 123

Leroi-Gourhan (1985) 71, 66: fig. (5.) F–G. and. 82–93, 83: fig. (6.), 91: fig. (7.). 120 Leroi-Gourhan (1985) 130. 121 Seligman (1910) I: 317: fig. 55, 333: fig. 59, II: 204–05; Jackson (1917) 128–44; Schilder (1926) 318; Andersson (1934) 304–05; Schilder (1952) 19–23, 30–40; Claassen (1998) 204; Banghard (2000), etc. This comparison did not only apply to cowries. The old Danish name for oysters (Ostrea sp.) was kudefisk (kude ‘vulva’): Eliade (1997) 165; Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 97! 122 With a long list of the species: Déchelette (1924) I: 207–08, 286–87, 296, 319, 464, 572–73 and ibid. 316, 318; May (1962) 13–69; MüllerKarpe (1966) 323–25: nr. 281, 263: nr. 30. 119

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Gnawed (261) and Thrush cowries (236). The fact that some of them were perforated (218, 259, 271) directly implies that they were used by the people. During the next phase of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPNB: 7300–6300 BC) the number of cowries increased in these two countries and finds also appear in Cyprus (76) and Turkey (323). Although only a few specimens were discovered (216, 236–37, 246, 248–51, 256, 264, 269, 323 at most sites, in some cases they were also found in larger numbers (244: 802 cowries from 3,138 molluscs, 76: 350 from several hundred, 245: 191 from 1109, 254: 120 from 651) although they played no special role in the rich variety of shell species. The earliest grave find known to me (252) dates to this period.127 I will discuss another interesting find, namely the eye inlay from a head model (257), later on (see chapter 1.3.3.2.2.). Most of these cowries appearing in the publications known to me are described as unidentified or unidentifiable (237, 244, 245, 248, 252–52, 254, 256, 264, 269) although I have found many identified as Mediterranean (216), i. e. Fallow (76, 319, 323) and Red Sea (246, 249, 269), more precisely Ringed (216), Money (323) and Thrush cowries (236). Specimens of these species were probably collected near the sites but could also be transported over greater distances (323). David S. Reese does not explain the paths along which these shells could have been traded but rather suggests that the Israeli and Jordanian nomadic or semi-nomadic people who possessed Red Sea species, as well as the mobile hunters and gatheres from the aforementioned Turkish site (323) could have gone to the sea themselves to collect the shells128 because it is certain that they were looking for the species they liked.129 Since natural, unmodified cowries appear along with perforated ones at several sites (76, 216, 236, 249, 254), I have not attached any importance to this, supposing that it was only due to whether they had already been worked or were to be worked for suspension. (I will return to the method of perforation later.)

cowries, as well as larger specimens (318, 325)130 were traded to the continent. I mainly had access to secondary publications on mollusc finds where their archaeological environment is not always described. Although I have only found one grave find (319) among them, some of the specimens probably came from settlements and were also perforated or had their dorsum removed (191, 202, 206, 211, 325). Only the inlaid eyes of head models are a rare exception (309, 319; see chapter 1.3.3.2.2.). It is only because of gaps in the data that the Middle Neolithic (4500–3800 BC) is represented by only 3 sites where cowries only comprised a fraction of the shell finds. The sites remain within the boundaries of the previous distribution, although here should be mentioned an Iranian settlement which survived for much longer (210). This may be the reason there were only worked Fallow cowries at the two other Mediterranean sites (67, 188), while here a variety of the species from this family were discovered. The wide spread Ringed and Bobcat cowries were probably transported from the Red Sea, the Lamarck, Thrush and Tiger cowries from the western Indo-Pacific Ocean and, the Arabic and Millet cowries from Far Eastern waters. It deserves mention that cosmetics jar was made from one of the Tiger cowries (210). The distribution of cowries basically did not change during the Late Neolithic (3800–3000 BC). I have mostly come across specimens from the Greek mainland (190, 194, 203, 205) and islands (201), further on from Iraq (213, 215) and even Pakistan (282). The cowries used in the Mediterranean were probably still collected from the Mediterranean itself, since – apart from the unidentifiable specimens (194) – mostly Fallow cowries were found at these sites (190, 203, 205) as well as other species, such as Agate cowrie (201) which only occurred as exceptions to the rule. On the Asian continent, a large variety of species are present on sites: besides the unidentifiable specimens (215), Ringed, Money and Tiger cowries (213, 282) were identified. The existence of long-distance trade is also supported by a hoard deposit (215). Whether coming from settlement or cemetery material (194), different methods of perforation such as removing the dorsum or other forms of perforation (190, 194, 201, 205), can, more than once, be observed at one and the same site (213, 203) uggesting different uses. This is illustrated by some of the Fallow and

Even my database, with all its lacunae, shows that the use of cowries became wide-spread during the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age (6300–3000 BC). Archaeological evidence shows that cowries, though still an, more or less, insignificant part of the rich mollusc material, appeared in the early phases of this period, not only in the Mediterranean archipelago (71, 191, 199, ) and the coastal area (184, 187, 202, 206, 309), but in Turkey (318–19), Iran (211) and, even in Turkmenistan (325). In spite of the many unidentified specimens (187, 202, 206, 211) it is probable that in the above Mediterranean areas, it was mainly Mediterranean Fallow cowries which were accessible (71, 184, 191, 199, 319), while Red Sea and the small Indo-Pacific Ringed

“Besides amulets they [the inhabitants of Džejtun] wore bone and stone beads as well as beads made of turquoise and shells [iz rakoviny]. The latter were extremely rare due to the distance of Džejtun to the sea. Cowries are more characteristic finds, mainly those from the Indian Ocean.”: Masson (1966) 88–90, 89: fig. 17: 10; compare Egami (1974) 2: note 5. Connections to southern Iran have been mentioned in connection with a cowrie, indicating that the shell’s habitat is the Indian Ocean: compare Albaum–Brentjes (1972) 22, 38: fig. 8 in the middle to the right. The question was not dealt with in more detail. The malacologist I. A. Korobkova only remarked in connection with the cowries here that “they are most probably from the Indian Ocean. Namely, these shell ornaments attracted people’s attention due to their attractive appearance and were moved over long distances through barter trade. It is not impossible that cowries were valued in Džejtun as amulets rather than jewelry.” In: Masson (1971) 40. 130

An overview of the grave finds: Reese (1991) 188, 184–87: pl. 2. “It is possible that the nomadic and semi-nomadic occupants of these Jordanian and Israeli sites and the mobile hunters and gatherers of the Turkish site had direct access to the sea, collecting the shells themselves. This should therefore not be considered ‘trade’, but rather long distance transport of these items.”: Reese (1991) 188. 129 e.g. Reese (1986) 331. 127 128

16

Introduction: Cowries in Armenia (52) and North Ossetia (291). Mediterranean Fallow cowrie (64–66, 68, 72–73, 183), retained its leading role among the identified133 species exploited in Greek areas. Elsewhere, from Israel to Northern Ossetia, Fallow cowries are rare (214, 311) and the Ringed and Money cowries (214, 220, 233, 273, 276, 291, 311; ?: 52) of probable Red Sea/Indo-Pacific origin and half the size of the Fallow cowries are recorded, suggesting a different route of delivery. The proportion of grave finds (52, 64–66, 68, 195–98, 200, 276?, 273, 291, 322), significantly rises in this period. Although I have found some data on the sex and the age of the deceased (adults and a child: 196, children: 198, 273), these do not yet permit even general conclusions. There were but a few cowries in the graves, usually perforated or with their dorsum removed. Therefore it is remarkable that 150 specimens with removed dorsum should have been found in a single burial (52?).

Ringed cowries from two, at least partly, Chalcolithic Age (3700–3000 BC) sites (70, 255). In the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), archaeological traces of cowrie wear extend westwards; besides Iran (209), Iran ( Israel (224, 228), Jordan (258, 260, 272, 274), Syria (301, 305–07), Turkey (313, 315, 320–21, 324), Pakistan (281, 283–87),131 and southwestern Greece (193), cowries appear on Sardinia (247) and possibly even in Portugal (288). Most of these shells are published as unidentified/ unidentifiable and only Dirty and Fallow cowries are recorded from Turkey (315, 324). Nevertheless, specimens from the Red Sea (307) as well as the Indo-Pacific Arabian (284), Bobcat (209, 281), Lamarck (283), Ocellaite (209), Ringed (260, 272, 274, 283, 284), Thrush (260, 283, 285, 305), and Tiger cowries (209, 283, 286) were also found in Jordan, Pakistan and Syria, while 1 Money cowrie from the same habitat as the latter ones even reached Portugal after a journey of more than 4000 kilometres (288),132 possibly demonstrating long-distance trade. Most of the finds probably came from settlements. The perforation on the majority of them (209, 260, 274, 282, 283–85, 305–06, 313) as well as on many grave finds (228, 258, 272, 320; ?: 247, 307) regardless of the differences in size of the species, suggests that cowrie wear was relatively uniform. Large Tiger cowries also served as small dishes and cosmetic jars (209, 286). Unfortunately, I have no information on the sex of the skeletons in these burials.

During the five centuries of the first half of the Iron Age (1200–700 BC)134 archaeological evidence of cowrie wear is present over the whole area earlier noted with the numbers of finds increasing in the Caucasus region. Finds have been recorded from Israel (230–32, 241–42), Jordan (265–66, 277), Syria (304), Turkey (312, 314, 377), Russia/ChechenIngushetia (289–90), Armenia (51, 53–54), Georgia (178, 181), Iran (208), Turkmenistan (326), moreover Cyprus (55–63, 74) and Greece (185, 192). The proportion of grave finds rose due to the discovery of probably later Cypriot burials. The predominance of female burials from the Scythian Period onwards is not yet evident, possibly due to shortcomings in the collection or identification of the material. To my knowledge, cowries appeared in male (180–81), adult (178) and new-born/infant (179, 185) burials in addition to a great number of unspecified graves (53–66, 68, 192, 232, 265–66, 277). Apart from the numerous settlement finds (74, 208, 224, 231, 304, 312, 314, 326), cowries were also found in a bronze hoard (289), hidden in a dish (242) or as raw material and semi-finished products in a workshop (51). The latter case is important because there are no known Armenian grave finds from this period (earlier: 52) although several hundred cowries were available for working in one single workshop at that time. Apart from the shells still unidentifiable to me (54, 75, 185, 230, 265–66, 290, 314) the variety of species was further reduced, becoming mainly restricted to Ringed cowrie (51, 53, 55–63, 74, 178, 181, 208, 230, 231, 277, 289?, 304, 312, 326) although Money cowries (242, 317) and other Red Sea specimens (224, 232, 241) also appeared. It is probably not coincidental that Mediterranean Dirty cowries (55, 58, 60, 63) and Fallow cowries (60, 68, 192) were all discovered on Cyprus, with a single exception

The little evidence available seems to suggest that no change took place in the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 BC). There were Red Sea/Indo-Pacific Ringed cowries in the Israeli (234) and Syrian (308) material and Mediterranean Dirty cowries in the Jordanian (262) and Turkish (316) material as well as Fallow cowries in the Cypriot and Greek materials (64–66, 69; 182, 204). My database reflects a rise in the proportion of grave goods (64–66, 234, 308). Unfortunately, I found no information on the sex of the owners of either the untouched (69), or perforated cowries (308) or the cowries where the condition is unknown (64–66, 234). It is of special importance that during this period cowries appear in the archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin. However, since the only grave find (50) from the 1500 years between the Middle Bronze Age and the Scythian Period (2000–700 BC) contained fossil shells probably found by chance at the time, their isolated presence is unlikely to be related to the beliefs discussed in connection with cowries. The Late Bronze Age (1600–1200 BC) was a time for the expansion of cowrie wear. Cowries were found to the north of the regions recorded earlier, i.e. north of Cyprus (64–66, 68, 72–73), the Greek islands (183, 207) and continent (195–98, 200), Iraq (214), Israel (220, 233), Jordan (273, 276), and Turkey (311, 322), in the Caucasus:

The unidentified examples: 52, 195–98, 200, 207, 302, 322. The entire Iron Age (1200–100 BC) is not discussed in the chapter. I have included the material dated after the appearance of the Scythians in the steppe, i.e. the early 7th century BC in a separate catalogue (4.7). Here, I would like to mention those cowries found at sites dated longer than the beginning of the 7th century BC (53–63, 74, 123, 210, 225, 232, 241, 265–66, 290, 304, 312, 314, 326). This period, i.e. the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, was considered the time when cowries use began to spread in Central Asia in: Kaúri (1953) 394. 133 134

Identified arbitrarily, date unknown to me (285–87). This extraordinary specimen is identified and dated correctly: Reese (1991) 188; compare Reese (1986) 330: nr. 22. 131 132

17

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads from mainland Greece (192). The majority of the shells was perforated or their dorsum was removed but among the latter, suspension with a metal ring was also observed (289).135 As with comparable with Egyptian, Italian, Scythian and Chinese finds, it is worth mentioning that in one of the Cypriot burials (63) 9 stone cowrie imitations were found besides the intact, perforated specimens of four species including Ringed and Fallow cowrie.

122, 125, 127, 133, versus 112, 145, 149). This does not yet indicate that the custom was connected to women (127?) and girls (122) assuming that the identification of many skeletons (125, 133) was correct (in spite of their finds?). As far as one can tell from the few identified cowries – such as Arabic (112),139 Ringed (80, 112, 145), Panther (133), Money cowries (82) and Cypraea caurica caurica (149)140 – were acquired from the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific Ocean. (species ?: 122, 125, 127). They could hardly have all been worn in the same manner since Ringed and Money cowries are small, Arabic cowries middle sized (3.3–5.6 cm) and Panther cowries large and weighty. The girdle of mixed: Columbella sp. ���������������������� and cowries discussed below may well be an early example from a child’s grave (122), whereas the 3 perforated Panther cowries found in the region of the knees of a skeleton identified as male (133) could not have reflected the way they were worn.

The above data roughly describes the spread of cowrie wear originating from the Near East, both in space and time.136 Based on the range of species it also seems likely that the small Ringed, Money and Dirty cowries (1.7/2.2– 2.5/3.0 cm), the medium-sized Thrush and Fallow cowries (2.5/3.0–4.3/4.8 cm) and the large Panther cowries (6.0–8.2 cm) were employed differently depending on their various sizes and weights. In the collected material this is reflected by the fact that the cowries are intact, i. e. yet unmodified or are perforated at their narrower (i. e. head) end or else had had their dorsum removed, leaving behind an opening unnecessarily large for suspension. The third state deserves more attention than the first two since – as I have pointed out later on below – I cannot wholly accept the view that this was a solely practical kind of perforation, namely that the “flat” shell fitted the background better when fixed with the aperture upwards.137 There is no doubt, however, that while this was done, the observer could always see the base, the side of the aperture of the fixed shell. This may have been precisely the aim of wearer, as suggested and explained by the Egyptian and Sudanese finds so far not considered here.

Among the sporadic, mainly grave or cemetery finds from the five centuries of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2707/2657 – ca. 2170/2120 BC) and the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2170/2120 – ca. 2025/2020 BC) cowrie imitations in various materials also appear besides natural ones, either to help satisfy the demand for cowries or to allow for more variation in color and form. The wearing of both cowries and their imitations and, as a consequence, their appearance as grave finds was by this time probably associated with women and girls (131), although I could not support this hypothesis with anthropological data. Similarly, it remains a hypothesis that Ringed cowries (147, 155) began to dominate the choice of species – even though there were few identified specimens (?: 95, 131, 135–38) as opposed to the correctly identified Panther cowries (96, 113, 170) with perforations that also show that they were used. Most of the many cowrie imitations were blunt, oval or rhomboid flat beads with their ends cut off. There was a longitudinal aperture with or without 1–3 holes as well as various patterns of grooving imitating the callus ridge. They were suspended through the longitudinal hole in the 141 bead. It was only in the 6th Dynasty (ca. 2347/2297 – ca. 2216/2166155 BC) that imitations were first made from painted blue terracotta, then from carnelian, quartz, glass and glass paste (79, 104–06, 117, 121, 126, 128, 130, 148, 150–53, 156–60) or in the form of stylised plates (118).142 The plaque imitations made of bone were cheaper massproduced objects from the First Intermediate Period (ca.

1.3.3.2.1.b. 77–177, 292–300, 327–38. Egyptian and Sudanese Finds It is probably due to the shortcomings of my database that I have found cowries at the archaeological sites of Egypt, the leading power of the region and the age, only from relatively late periods: from the Neolithic Badarian Culture (ca. 5500–4500 BC),138 as items of tomb inventories (122, 125) in large cemeteries which continued to be used into Roman and even Coptic times (5th–12th centuries) (see 962–63). It is no coincidence then that the number of finds I have listed from the Pre-Dynastic/Archaic Period (ca. 3100–2650 BC) has increased, showing that the custom of wearing cowries was spreading (or were more excavations of later periods?). This proposal was further strengthened by the proportion of grave and other finds (2:1 – 80, 82,

Meanwhile Arabic cowries have been divided into subspecies. Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica immanis is native in the Red Sea and the western part of the Indo-Pacific Ocean: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 58–60. 140 The shell expert Wilfrid Jackson, as well as Louis Lortet and Claude Gaillard have identified both the find from this grave and that from a burial in Ballas (date unknown to me; 98) as Cypraea caurica (Linné, 1758), the latter two even mentioning the Red Sea habitat of the shell. Following this publication, it seems this species is native to the far eastern part of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. It is only a subspecies, namely Cypraea (Erronea) caurica quinquefasciata (Röding, 1798) which is native to the Red Sea: Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 136–37. 141 Brunton (1928) 12. 142 Győry (1999). 139

We have knowledge of other cowries with removed nodules, suspended on a metal ring (804, 873–74), suggesting that these specimens were suspended on a textile cord or a leather strip. 136 A similar overview including more shell species but based on fewer cowries is provided in: Reese (1991) 187–90. 137 Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 121. They probably had a secondary use, the cowrie with its dorsum removed, leaving an unnecessarily wide opening, was strung on a knotted magical cord: e.g. Petrie (1914) pl. XVIII: e, pl. XIX: g. 138 I would like to note here that I have relied on the data in Seipel (1989) 366–67 out of the various Egyptian chronologies used, following the kind advice of László Török: see Beckerath (1997). 135

18

Introduction: Cowries 143

reinforcing renewal.148 These magnificent plate cowries,149 like some of the natural ones and the simpler imitations were worn by women on their girdles, is documented in situ by a mummy buried during the 12th Dynasty (ca. 1976–ca. 1794 BC) (116, 168) and can still be observed on a number of aprons, waist-clothes (Figs 9–10) and statuettes today in Africa. Neither ladies nor maid servants were portrayed naked on statuettes or wall paintings150 in the Old Kingdom. It is only from the time of the Middle Kingdom onwards that the so-called concubines,151 made of blue faience, wood, ivory, stone, burnt or dried clay and designed to insure fecundity appeared as items of the funerary equipment. Some 50 concubines, among them at least 10 depicted wearing cowrie (327–36), are published from museum collections. The legs of the statuettes were mostly formed from the knee up. These extremely feminine figures with their carefully combed hairdoes wore only some jewelry and the majority were also tattooed (327, 329–30, 333–35). Their jewelry comprised only a necklace or a bracelet of beads and/or a girdle with cowries.152 The girdles were generally made of 2–6 parallel strands of beads with cowries and other amulets arranged in regular patterns (168). Based on these statuettes, it is evident that the girdles were worn by women, not around their waist but little lower, around their hips so that they ran right above their mound of Venus. Further, it is probable that girdles were not worn over the dress but on their naked bodies.153 Based on the depictions, it is hardly possible to infer which cowrie species were strung (they are depicted as being of the same size), yet it is possible that in reality

2170/2120–ca. 2025/2020 BC). Aristocratic women wore cowrie imitations made of sheets of precious metal. These will be discussed below, here only an early specimen dated to 6th Dynasty (154) should be mentioned. From our point of view, the time of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2119/1976–ca. 1794/1793 BC) and 11th–17th Dynasties of the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1794/1793–1550 BC) are of outstanding importance. The archaeological material comes almost exclusively from graves, probably mainly from women’s (99–100, 114, 129, 168) and children’s (88, 116) burials, although men’s graves (86) are also mentioned. Natural cowries were used as beads on necklaces (84, 87, 89–91, 93), bracelets (85), girdles (88), anklets (87) as well as individual pendants (83, 86, 92, 94) and were chosen from a range of species wider than ever before (?: 84, 88–90, 92, 139–44). The majority were Red Sea or Indo-Pacific specimens and included: Arabian (83), Ringed (115, 163, 172), Mistaken cowrie (129), 144 Honey (87), Money (115), Gnawed (91), Thrush (87, 93) cowries and Cypraea caurica (97). The correctly identified, though obscurely dated, range of species in Theban assemblages (165–66) was even more pecular, for they include Red Sea and Indo-Pacific Arabian, Little-Calf, Ringed, Serpent’s head, Minstrel, Money, Tiger and Giraffe cowries and cowries from Eritrea. In the absence of dating methods, it was hardly possible to document non-metal cowrie imitations. Nevertheless, it seems that artistically worked examples (174–77) began to appear alongside stone, glass and faience imitations.

Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 122; compare Riess (1894) 1986. Besides large cowrie imitations made from precious metal sheeting, small ones lacking a definite context are also commonly found in museum collections. With reference to the pair of gold cowrie imitations soldered together along their longitudinal sides (origin unknown) in the Metropolitan Museum, one may assume that the small ones were linking elements between larger cowrie imitations as shown by the 7 large and 14 small gold-sheet beads shaped like two leopard heads facing each other on the other girdle of Sit-Hathor-Yunet. Here each large gold sheet bead was followed by 5 amethyst beads on the cord pair, a small double goldsheet beads and another 5 amethyst beads each: Winlock (1934) 40, pl. IX; Aldred (1978) 40, 116, pl. 23, pl. 31; compare Wilkinson (1971) 81, 80: fig. 46; Reese (1988) 262; Andrews (1994) 42. A cache-sexe is a garment whose sole purpose is to hide the genitalia. In the most common design, a triangle of cloth is provided with strings or loops, which are used to fasten the triangle between the legs and over the genitals. The alternate form is more skirt-like, and is sometimes called a “modesty apron”: a cloth is wrapped around the hips several times and then fastened with a girdle. This often exists in the minimalist form of a beaded belt worn about the hips so as to hide the genitalia. This latter form is common in African cultures. Women along the Nile wear aprons decorated with cowries even today as protection against sterility: Reese (1988) 262; apron (cache sexe) with cowrie pendants of Zulus of 20th century: Schläger (2002) 127: fig. 9 (Fig. 9); waist-clothes with cowries and their from Togo: Pfeiffer (1914) 122–123: fig. 124, 128, 125 (Fig. 10). 150 On one of the wall paintings on the east wall of the 20th century BC tomb of Chnemhotep in Beni Hasan, who died during the 12th Dynasty at the time of Amenemhet I (ca. 1976–ca. 1947 BC) a Libyan figure is depicted most probably wearing perforated cowries on her girdle on top of her dress: Newberry (1893) 83, 85, 87, pl. XLV. 151 The so-called “concubines of the dead”, “paddle-doll”, “concubines du mort” etc. “Contemporary cosmetic containers in which female figures act as a supporting element and so-called ‘concubine’ figures, the latter at least intended to stimulate sexual activity whether in this life or the next, are frequently depicted wearing a cowrie girdle.”: Andrews (1995) 76. 152 Hayes (1990) I: 220–21; Reese (1988) 262. 153 According to Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 122. 148

The most beautiful imitations were of precious metals: gold, electrum or silver worked with a gold-smith’s expertise and an artist’s artistic abstraction. The remark which I have not repeated with every single description of the series possibly has a general validity, namely that the gold-smiths would certainly have been able to copy the real shell since they repeatedly chose to work both sides of the plate in the form of the ventral side with the aperture (99– 100, 114, 116, 168–69, 173, 177, 300)145 signalling what they considered important: namely the resemblance of the shell to the female vulva.146 They also put bits of metal into the hollow plate cowries soldered from two halves which, thus, made a jingling, rattling sound when their wearer moved.147 This probably had the role of averting evil and

149

Andrews (1994) 42; Andrews (1995) 76; cf. Petrie (1914) pl. XIV: 107 f–h, j–k, pl. XLIV: 1071, pl. XLVI: 107 m; Reese (1988) 262; Győry (1999). 144 Wilfrid Jackson identified it as a Red Sea species but its species and a variety of it living closest to Egypt are also native to other waters: Cypraea (Erronea) errones errones (Linné, 1758) along the coast of south-eastern Africa, variety bimaculata (Gray, 1824) along the coast of India: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 121–22. 145 Compare Wilkinson (1971) 80; Aldred (1978) 116: nr. 53; Roehrig (1995) 76. I have not found any publications showing both sides of such a cowrie imitation. 146 Wilkinson (1971) 81. 147 Wilkinson (1971) 80; Aldred (1978) 10, 116: nr. 153; Andrews (1994) 42; Roehrig (1995) 76. 143

19

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 9. Apron with cowrie pendants of Zulus of 20th c. – after Schläger (2002) 127: fig. 9

not only small species but also middle-size and large species were used. Though the size of the cowries shown on these statuettes was probably related to the nature of the depiction itself, there is at least one case (328) where large examples seem to have been strung along with a series of small ones. On another statuette (336) it is not a strand of beads but of adjacent cowries of the same size that seem to decorate the girdle. Based on the above, the general agreement that cowries which are worn should be regarded as amulets rather than imported and therefore valuable beads154 seems acceptable. One can, thus, only argue about their actual meaning as amulets. According to one of the two opposing views of these statuettes, the location155 of the girdles with cowries signalled the relationship between the amulet and the body part protected by it as well as its functions in general (e.g. in the case of Hapi, the girl who is not yet able to deliver a child – 116) and especially during pregnancy.156 This relationship may be based on the fact that – as attested in ethnographic data arranged in chronological order from the present backwards in time – its wearers found the ventral Birds’ claws and various molluscs, including cowries, made up a separate category of Pre-dynastic amulets. Cowries retained their importance as amulets until the end of Pharaonic history: Andrews (1994) 9. Cowries belong to group IV of Petrie’s categories, the group of so-called protective amulets: Petrie (1914) 7; with a general evaluation: Klasens (1973) 233. 155 “... diese Gürtel [wurden] nicht in der Taille, sondern weiter unten, auf dem Hüften aufsitzend, getragen. Dadurch kamen sie ganz in der nahe der Scham zu liegen, und es erhebt sich bereits von dieser Situation her der Verdacht, daß eine enge Beziehung des Gürtels zu diesem Körperteil besteht.”: Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 122. 156 Beads imitating cowries, as elements of women’s girdles “were located in exactly the right place to ward off evil influences from the relevant body part of the wearer, especially if she were pregnant.”: Andrews (1994) 42; Andrews (1995) 76. 154

Fig. 10. Loin-closses with cowrie rattles and the portrayal of its costume on a hairpin from Togo of 20th c. – after Pfeiffer (1914) 122–23: fig 124–25, 128

20

Introduction: Cowries side of the cowrie with the aperture similar to the external female genitals, the vulva and thus, regarded it as an effective amulet.157 The other view considers that the belief in the power of the cowries is due to the resemblance of the shell aperture to a half-open/half-closed human eye.158 I will consider this supposition and put forward a possible compromise in the following sub-chapter.

beginning in the early 7th century BC, this is the last period of Egyptian, mainly grave goods which will be discussed here. These were probably mostly the burials of women and girls/children although there is a man’s grave (120) among them: the chain of 22 gold plated cowrie imitations was perhaps not an accessory but a present for the deceased Prince Sheshonk. Cowries perforated or with the nodule removed were hung around the neck or on a necklace (123) or strung on “knotted cords” carrying amulets with magical power (107–11, 132).160 Based on the depictions of nude girls on mirror handles, girdles with cowries remained in use (337–38).161 I suppose that the majority of natural cowries were already Ringed cowries but I have only found a few that were identified to species (78, 109) while gathering the data. Metal plate/sheet imitations continued to be produced (120) but there were also porphyry and faience ones (175–76). Stylised sheets resembling cowries (119) have been found, as well as imitations formed like a bulla (226). The can even be reticulated, usually with the udžat������ eye �������� pattern.162 All these variants reflect the importance of cowrie amulets,163 which increased further by the spread of a special kind of scarabeus-shaped seal-amulet,164 the socalled cowrie-scaraboids, as mass produced objects from around the time of the 18th Dynasty.165 Variants of it imitate

Erik Hornung and Elisabeth Staehelin expand upon and summarise the background to the former opinion as follows: “Nun liegt bereits von der Form der Kaurischnecke her die Assoziation zum weiblichen Geschlechtsteil nahe. Daß das klassische Altertum diese Gedankenverbindung gezogen und die Cypraea mit der Liebesgöttin Aphrodite Kypris zusammengrebracht hat, wurde ... erwähnt. Es ist anzunehmen, daß die in so hohem Maße assoziativ denkenden Ägypter diese Kombination ebenfalls gemacht haben, wenn sie es uns auch nicht direkt sagen... So dürfen wir doch wohl schließen, daß die Kaurischnecke zunächst die weibliche Geschlechtskraft symbolisierte und weiter die weibliche Fruchtbarkeit versinnbildlichte. Der Ägypter bleibt aber – gerade, wenn er die diesseitige Ebene gedanklich verläßt und es ihm ums Jenseits geht, was ja bei allem, was mit dem Grab zusammenhängt, eo ipso der Fall ist – nicht bei solchen vordergründigen Zeichen stehen, sondern er sieht mehr dahinter. Die kreative weibliche Kraft deutet ihm bereits weiter auf die Geburt, und damit eng verbunden ist die Wiedergeburt, die sich jeder Mensch nach dem leiblichen Tode erhofft. Wir glauben also, in der Kaurischnecke mehr als nur die weibliche Fruchtbarkeit sehen und sie außerdem wiederum als Regenerationssymbol deuten zu dürfen. Daß die Goldkauris der Gürtel der königlichen Damen teilweise kleine Kügelchen enthalten, die einen Rasseleffekt ergeben, könnte diese Idee nur unterstützen, da wir ... der Meinung sind, daß wie auch immer geartete Rasseln in Ägypten einen Regenerationsbezug aufweisen.”159

The 1–2–4–7–12 knots tied in the cord served as magical obstacles to ward off evil powers, the knots served to tie them up and could prevent the circulation of poisons in the body: Kákosy (1974) 109. There were several words for ‘amulet’ in Egyptian, one being sa ‘protection’, written down with a hieroglyph depicting a knot: ibid. 155. There are no contemporary data in the Egyptian magical literature on the employment of knotted cords. In Europe, according to Pliny, the 7 knots of a girdle could help to catch a hyena, knotted cords with the name of the widow were used to cure inguinal rupture, the knotted hairs of she-mules were employed to ensure fertility: Petrie (1914) 29. As a point of interest, in the 19th century Frédéric Cailliaud observed a woman’s skirt in North Africa which had cowries fastened to the ends of the cords covering the pudenda: Cailliaud (1823) pl. 57: 14. – “Mr. [Robert] Baden-Powell… has… seen cowries from Nubian cemeteries in the Pitt-Rivers Museum. It is perhaps worth considering, therefore, wether the apparent influx of shells in Egyptian Delta and south Palestinian groups should be associated with the entry of African mercenaries into Palestine under Shisak, founder of the xxiind dynasty, ca. 925 B.C. Their popularity in Palestine might also be the result of good southern trade connections during the reign of Solomon. Cowrie shells are, of course, widely distributed and are frequently worn by Bedouin women to this day, but there is some indication that the use of these shells as ornaments varied in popularity at different times. G[uy] Brunton, for instance, remarks on the number found in the xxiind dynasty tombs in Egypt and close parallels to the Palestinian examples, comprising twelve varieties, are illustrated in Lahun II (p. 37 and pl. L, bottom left). The same authority states (QB III, p. 23) that cowrie shells were very common about two centuries later, in the xxvth-xxvith dynasties.“: Tufnell–Murray–Diringer (1953) 215. The data were kindly sent to me by David S. Reese. 161 They were given as burial goods in the New Kingdom as well. At this time, however, naked servants and young women wearing a girdle (without cowries) around their hips were often portrayed on other depictions as well and sometimes they seem to be wearing this girdle above their dress, too: Aldred (1978) 40, 120: nr. 56, pl. 56: a Theban wall painting from the grave of Neb-Amun from the 18th Dynasty depicting women playing music and dancing. 162 Győry (1999). 163 Compare Seyfried (1984) 671. 164 “Scarabs symbolised the rising sun, resurrection, being. ... On smaller specimens we find inscribed royal names, sentences ensuring good fortune or statements on the benevolence of a deity”, most of which can be considered amulets. The larger, so-called heart-scarabs were amulets representing the life-giving and sustaining heart: Kákosy (1974) 169–70. 165 Győry (1999). 160

Since 25th Dynasty (ca. 747–664 BC) was partly contemporary with the Scythian Period starting at the The aim is: “Protection from evil eye and witchery, from resemblance to vulva...”: Petrie (1914) 27: no. 107; Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 211: fig. 698; Seyfried (1984) 671–72; Andrews (1994) 42. Let me mention here that obscene movements connected to the external genitals were a frequent means of protection against the evil. These movements were performed on the body parts themselves or on things replacing them, e.g. concerning the vulva on shells/snails, in this case cowries. Thus, their use can be explained by their direct or indirect similarity, compare Riess (1894). A brief overview of the possible interpretations: Reese (1988) 262. 158 Wilfried Seipel remarked in the description of a girdle with cowries (168): “Die als Verbindungsglied verwendete Kaurimuschel, die mit ihrer eingedrückten Lippe das Aussehen eines halbgeschlossenen Auges aufweist, galt seit jeher auch in Ägypten als ein vorbeugendes Mittel gegen des bösen Blick, eine Ansicht, die sich heute noch in verschiedenen Ländern des Mittelmeers und Ostafrikas findet.”: Seipel (1989) I: 119. Cowrie girdle around the waist of a nude Tamberma woman (Togo): Dupuy (2002) 63: fig. „Shells with the dorsum removed [see 2 Fawn cowries from Nessana [see Annex 2441, 2443] have been used intensively as ornaments, votive items and money. Even today such manipulated shells are used as fertility symbols by females of many Arabic tribes in North Africa and the Middle East.”: Mienis (2004) 183, 193. 159 Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 122. 157

21

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 11. Variants of so-called cowrie-scaraboids from the 18th Dynasty – after Hornung–Staehelin (1976) pls 7: 94, 13: 153, 7: 109, 18: 189, 14: 157.

the slightly oval backline, leaving the flat ventral side free for the inscription. On the early imitations, the inscription was placed on the concave side of the base with the callus ridge.166 Yet more frequently, the toothed line ran along the margins of the concave back instead of the aperture (Fig. 11)167 or it was only the outline which was reminicent

of a shell,168 the concave back being flattened almost to a circle, yet preserving the indentation on the extremities of the cowrie.169

“Nur wenige Exemplare bilden die Schneckenschale einigermaßen naturalistisch ab. Die Spalte mit den gezähnten Rändern wird dann beinahe naturgetreu angegeben. Die gegenüberliegende Seite, die der Kuppe des Kaurigehäuses entspricht, kann eine Inschrift aufnehmen.”: Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 121. In note 263 on p. 153 they refer to 3 unpublished specimens only: BM (British Museum?) 3906–7 (without inscription), 4192 (with inscription), but without an illustration or further reference to scientific literature. 167 Based on Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 121 and note 264 on p. 153, e.g. 209 and pl. 7: nr. 94, 221 and pl. 13: nr. 153 (Fig. 11. 1–2).

168

Cowries and their imitations, therefore, formed, more or less exclusively, part of the costume of Egyptian women and girls, which is why the different nature of certain Based on Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 121 and note 265 on p. 153, e.g. 212 and pl. 7: nr. 109, 228 and pl. 18: 189 (Fig. 11. 3–4). 169 Based on Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 121 and note 266 on p. 153, 222 and pl. 14: 157 (Fig. 11. 5). Compare Andrews (1994) 54, fig. 55: d-e. The specifically female connection with cowries may explain their extraordinary frequency among the seal amulets of Queen Hatshepsut and Teje: ibid. 122. E.g. there were 306 steatite and faience scarabs and cowries in a depot find, 4 found outside the south-eastern corner of the court of Hatshepsut’s temple in Deir el Bahri: Hayes (1990) II: 89, 87: fig. 48; compare Seyfried (1984) 671–72; Andrews (1994) 42.

166

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Introduction: Cowries Sudanese finds is surprising: here cowries were found not only in women’s (292), but also in men’s graves (293–95) and in burials of horses drawing war chariots (296–99). The finds include Ringed cowries (297–99), cowries of unknown species identified as coming from the Red Sea (293–95), as well as silver plate imitations (296). It is possible that Sudanese finds reflect the process of reinterpretation of cowrie amulets or their areal separation: apart from female girdles (292) neither the dresses of noble men, nor the equipments of chariot-horses of the pharaohs of 25th Dynasty called for fertility symbols – they rather required amulets to ward off evil similarly (in their effect) to other items of the same burial equipments as, e.g. the udžat-eyes (293, 297–98).

also have been related to deities personifying fertility, i.e. Aphrodite, Demeter/Persephone, ������������������������� Baubo, Tanit ������������ and Mithras – as shown by the cowries from shrines later than the period discussed and listed below171 – and to their cults. I have already signalled my reservations concerning the assumed relation of the cowries and the genus name Cypraea to the cult of Aphrodite and to the attributes of the goddess.172 Thus, I have not considered the Cypriote finds (55–76) in general and the finds from the sanctuary at Kition (72–74) or the somewhat later shrine in the Negev (230), sacrificial pit no. 1 of the Astarte Temple (560) or the Altar of Aphrodite in Athens (571) in particular, to be decisive evidence in this matter. That 2 Tiger and a Ringed cowrie were found in the 7th century sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone in Cyrene deserves no more than to be mentioned, since 18 incised examples of the symbolically less significant Tridacna species have also been found here (600).173 Various depictions of Baubo, that is, the Greco-Egyptian thea,174 Latin Dea impudica, ‘the impudent goddess’,175 are well known from the Aegean and Mediterranean regions.176 Possible connections to cowries was raised in as regards a Japanese statuette177 but can hardly be regarded as a generalized phenomenon. Cowries do not appear among the sexual symbols of the cult of Tanit, i.e. the main goddess of pre-Roman North Africa associated with the Punic chief god Baal. Nevertheless, several specimens were found (714) in the

1.3.3.2.1.c. Evaluation In the introduction to this section I mentioned the fact that archaeologists, ethnographers, cultural historians, etc. usually regard cowries not only as special beads but also as protective amulets. Based on a comparison and interpretation of the discussed Egyptian data, this can be accepted at least for Egypt. It also seems probable that the spread in the use of cowries in the Near East outlined above was related to their symbolic meaning, which in turn allows for the conclusion that they were also mainly worn there for this reason. It is a different matter that because of the different climate they might have been worn in another way than by the Egyptians, namely the small perforated ones were worn vertically as pendants while those that had their nodule removed were sewed on probably so that their serrated aperture faced the onlooker.

Reese (1991) 189. Compare notes 46-59 on pp. 4–6. 173 Tridacna shells could be used to keep something in them or as votive offerings: Reese (1991) 189. 174 The picture depicting Isis anasyrmene, in which the goddess pulls up her robe to show her vulva may be a piece of Greek-Roman erotic art but it could also reflect a very old tradition practised by common women in front of the Apis bull and by priestesses at the feast of Bubastis on processional barques passing the crowd standing on the bank of the Nile to ensure or (in the latter case) to radiate fertility. “Whenever they pass a town on the river-bank, they bring the barge close in-shore, some of the women continuing to act as I have said, while others shout abuse at the women of the place, or start dancing, or stand up and hitch up their skirts.” Herodotos II. cap. 60: Herodotus 1954/1973, 153.; Herodotos (1892) II: 113; compare Frankfurter (1998) 104, note 27. 175 Baubo was an obscene goddess of the Demeter cult in Eleusis. According to the myth, Demeter was looking for her daughter, Kore, kidnapped by Hades. When she came to Eleusis with her son, Iakchos in disguise, they were received by King Dysaules and his wife Baubo. Demeter refused the drink made by Baubo and remained sad until old Baubo pulled up her dress and showed them her pudenda either by accident or to cheer them up. The face of Iakchos clapping his hands at the sight made Demeter laugh and accept the drink offered to her. It is probable that originally Baubo personified the female genitals (cunnus, vulva), being a drastic expression of maternity and that her figure is mixed with Iambe, the daughter of King Keleos and Metaneira of Eleusis, who made Demeter laugh with her jokes: Schultz (1965); Weizsäcker (1965); MNLex III, 381. The same scene is repeated in the story of Horus and Seth: the goddess Hathor uncovers her vulva in front of Re and thus brings him to laughter. Both scenes reflect the same ancient Mediterranean voluptuous gesture, the purely erotic meaning of which is preserved in a 6th–7th centuries Coptic love charm: Frankfurter (1998) 104: note 27. 176 e.g. a sitting female figure with legs apart: Tončeva (1953); a magical woman whose head is held by her legs: Lurker (1984) 50; Biedermann (1996) 49–50; a woman riding a pig with legs apart: Seligman (1910) II: 204, 293: fig. 196 A; a female statuette with a scallop (Pecten sp.) replacing her vulva: Frankfurter (1998) 104: note 27; also see Maršić (1997–98). 177 Compare note 187 on p. 25. 171 172

Based on the above, it seems reasonable to accept that one explanation for wearing cowries was the ancient belief in the power of cowrie amulets lay in their similarity to the female genitals or to a prone pig (and so indirectly again to the vulva). Thus, they were considered effective against against the evil eye, envy, jealousy and other forms of magic and witchcraft, which was probably extended (mainly but not exclusively) to the functions of the female life cycle related to sexuality and reproduction, puberty, pregnancy, fertility, as well as the prevention of illnesses.170 This supports the hypothesis that wearing cowries might According to a survey by David S. Reese, Ringed and Money cowries were the most common Red Sea/Indo-Pacific shell species in the Mediterranean material ever since, together with Panther and Tiger cowries, from Roman times onwards. He also explains their spread with their role as amulets resulting partly from their resemblance to female genitals and partly to their resemblance to a half-closed eye: they were placed in women’s and girls’ graves in hope of fertility or rebirth, as well as to protect them against the evil eye: Reese (1991) 188–89. The same were emphasised earlier from another point of view by Mircea Eliade who pointed out that “the sexual and gynaecological symbolism of marine shells and oysters [I include here cowries frequently mentioned by him] also had a mental aspect: at the ‘second birth’ during their initiation they gather strength from the same inexhaustible source which sustains cosmic life, too. This explains the role of shells and beads in burial rituals: the deceased is not torn from the cosmic force which sustained and ruled his life ... [Therefore] large amounts of shells, marine shells and other, natural and artificial beads were found at prehistoric sites, most often in graves.”: Eliade (1997) 175, 176. 170

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads cemetery of the holy district (tophet) of Salammbô.178 A possible connection of cowries to the worship of Mithras is suggested by a Tiger cowrie found in an even earlier, Gallic-Roman context, in a Mithraeum in France (968). It is possible that such a reason lies behind the large numbers of Tiger or Panther cowries found in Pompeii and Herculaneum (982–83). These were perforated and therefore most probably employed as amulets.179 This kind of ascribed significance later spread into European areas dominated or influenced by Rome (965–67). At the same time, it is hardly likely that the cowrie in the treasury of the sanctuary of Poseidon in Isthmia, which date to an earlier period than the one under discussion here (572) could have been immediately related to the cult of the god.

as protecting horses and other riding and pack animals.182 It is interesting that cowries rather played a role in burial rites, though not exclusively, as money.183 1.3.3.2.2. 257, 309, 319. Resemblance to a Half-Open/ Half-Closed Human Eye The variety of ways cowries have been used has lead to some doubts being expressed in the interpretation of cowries being exclusively symbols of the vulva. In 1939, the Egyptologist Margaret Alice Murray argued that cowries resemble more a half-open/half-closed human eye and instead of insuring fertility, might rather have been talismans against the evil eye since – as she incorrectly believed – they were worn by men or hung on male animals anyway. While phallus or fico type amulets served to ensure the men’s fertility connected with the functioning of their external genitals, women would not have worn amulets relating to their more hidden genitalia. Yet protection against the evil eye was vital for both sexes and especially for women during pregnancy. Murray argued that in this manner, cowrie money could at once secure good fortune, which would have been unthinkable if they were symbols of the vulva.184 There were many responses to her writings,

So far we have analysed the period from the Upper Paleolithic until the early 7th century BC. The later use of cowries, until as late as the 16th–17th centuries A.D. will be discussed below based on the main chapters on the consequent archaeological periods. Here, it deserves mentioning that Thrush cowries are still worn as love amulets by Christian peoples along the Red Sea coast Mediterranean Pear or Fallow cowries are employed in Naples to prevent female sterility and Mediterranean Agate cowries are worn there by children against the evil eye and toothache. Necklaces of Pear cowries used to be called ‘piglets of St. Anthony’ (porcelli di Sant’Antonio) in Southern Italy, possibly as a remote reflection of ancient beliefs.180 Similarly, Islamic cowrie amulets, believed to protect against the evil eye and envy, can be directly derived from pharaonic times.

term daballe refers to their hairstyle, worn long like that of a girl and decorated with cowrie shells and buuran beads. In Oromo cowrie shells (ellelaan) are a symbol of the mother-and-child relationship, by their colour (that of milk) and are thought to have mnemonic properties, linked, like elsewhere, to the ear”: Kassam–Megersa (1989) 28. An 18th century ivory ritual ornament: on an oval plate 4 strands of cowrie pattern: Kingdon (1995); 19th–20th centuries ivory staff handles portraying a mother with a cowrie necklace and a theriomorph figure: Cornet (1995) (Fig. 13); a female ancestor’s mask made around 1917 with strands of cowries: Mack (1995) (Fig. 14); undated magical girdle with pendants with bead and cowrie embroidery and snail pendants: Phillips (1995) 273: fig. 4.45; a contemporaneous cowry girdle around the waist of a nude Tamberma woman (Togo), cowrie on a childs bracelet, cowrie necklace of a wizard and a face from cowries on a wizards long hat: Dupuy (2002) figs on pp. 63, 60, 62. A late 19th century Nubian lute deserves mention. On its upper cross-laths, hundreds of beads, rosaries, amulets, coins and cowries were suspended as votive offerings which made a tinkling sound whenever the lute was moved. This lute was used during the zar ritual in which spirits causing illnesses were driven away: Tobert (1995). On the zar ritual and its special amulets (among which cowries are not mentioned): El-Adly (1981) 61–79. – On an Akan terracotta funerary head from the 17th century are applied cowries. “Applied motifs, such as snails, symbolic of peace and harmony, gold nuggets and cowries, symbolic of royalty, wealth, prosperity and cheerfulness and female breasts, symbolic of fertility were used in decorating some of the heads... Symbols like the ladder, star, crocodile, rams horn, halo, cowry and shield represented definite traits in the philosophical and cultural thinking of the Akan and were employed in nineteenth century architectural motifs as means of communication; in symbolic stools whose history seems go to back to late medieval Adanse times...”: Boachie-Ansah (2000) 71–72, 80, 69: fig. 4. 182 Schilder (1926) 313–18; Andersson (1934) 301–09; Schilder (1952) 16–23, 30–40; Borozna (1975) 289; Kleppe (1999) 107, fig. 44. 183 In India cowries were thrown among the crowd watching the burial procession, in Africa many cowries were put in graves to cover the costs of the journey of the deceased. According to a Nigerian account, the young chief of a tribe later opened his father’s grave to get the cowrie treasure buried with him. An interesting ritual has been observed in Uganda where the king’s grave was opened five months after the burial and the head of the deceased was taken from the body, then the lower jaw from the skull. The skull was buried again near the grave and the jaw “cleaned” in an anthill, then washed in beer and milk, covered with soft bark and butter, ornamented with beads and cowries and then a temple was built to honour it: Andersson (1934) 299–300. 184 Murray (1939).

Ethnographic observations outside Europe display an even wider range in the ways cowries are used with adornment or jewelry are only of secondary importance. Apart from adorning women’s hair, dress, girdle and jewelry (necklaces, bracelets), they served to signal virginity or maidenhood, elsewhere pregnancy (with a protective function) or to protect children against the evil eye, etc (Figs 12–14).181 They played a role during circumcision, initiation and head-hunting rites, in jurisdiction and prophesying as well “Cowries also found in vessels with burnt human bones at tophet of Carthago – recent University of Chicago excavations.”: Kindly note of David S. Reese. 179 “...many examples of this species were found and ... the shell in question was an amulet which the women carried in order to prevent sterility. The ladies attached as much value to this beautiful exotic shell as to Cyprea pyrum and C. lurida from the Gulf of Naples, which were utilised in the same manner by the women of the lower class.”: Jackson (1912) 308. Compare Brühl (1929) 168; Hiskett (1966) 339–40. 180 Schilder (1926) 325; Schilder (1952) 23; compare Martens (1872) 72; Seligmann (1910) II: 126–27, 204–05; I: 317: fig. 55, 329: fig. 58, II: 333: fig. 59; Schilder (1923); Schilder (1926) 317–18; Brühl (1929) 168–69; Rydh (1929) 113; Schilder (1952) 19–23; Jankovich (1984), etc. 181 In South India, for example, cowries signal virginity, in Japan they are a sign of maternity or function as amulets to ensure conception, to guard against illnesses during pregnancy or childbearing, as well as against illnesses in general. During delivery women held a cowrie (in Japan a koyasugai ‘easy-delivery-shell’, ‘easy-birth-shell’) in their hand to relieve pain: Schneider (1905) 109; Jackson (1917) 183–84, 205 (Fig. 12). Special examples from Central Africa, Zaire: “Among Booran Oromo (East Africa) the daballe, boys born ideally at the ‘right’ time in the cycle, who are therefore very special children who are highly protected. The 178

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Introduction: Cowries with arguments based mainly on recent ethnographic as well as archaeological observations scattered in time and space, submitted to the editors as a reader’s letter, some rejecting her thesis, some supporting it, some mediating between various views, yet all offering or striving for a finer interpretation. The first to reject Murray’s point of view was the archaeologist Thomas Sheppard who, based on cowries in Anglo-Saxon graves of the 6th–7th centuries, namely from a woman’s grave in Staxton (1198) and a pregnant woman’s grave in Camerton (1176) believed that these shells not only ensured fertility and helped during labor but symbolised resurrection as well.185 Kurt Singer referred to Mediterranean idols, among them Baubo-figures, which unmistakably display the female genitalia.186 He emphasised a northeast Japanese female statuette from the Jōmon Period (7500– ca. 250 BC), the genitals of which were substituted for by a huge shell(?)/cowrie(?) hanging from a cord around its neck (Fig. 15).187 Merwyn David Waldegrave Jeffreys stated, based on his observations in Nigeria and the British/Southern Cameroons, that cowries were mainly worn by women, who did not always cover their genitals since they, especially maidens, walked about naked. At the wedding, cowries appeared on the dress of the virgin bride (Fig. 16)188 – as eye/amulets they could hardly have been fastened on the tassel of the girdle hanging down to the female pubes.189 Mary Edith Durham noted the wearing of cowries and their imitations, mainly by women and children in the Balkans, less frequently among Albanians, more frequently among Bosnians.190

Fig. 12. „Easy-birth” cowrie shell used in Japan of 20th c. – after Andersson (1934) 305: fig. 134

The Indian examples provided by Wilfred Vernon Grigson, who prefered the interpretation of the cowrie being used against the evil eye with cowries were worn rather by men.191 It is probably the eye-symbol which accounts Sheppard (1939). Compare note 176 on p. 23. 187 Singer (1940) 50–51, 51: fig. 1. At a Middle Jōmon Period (3600– 2500 BC) site in Japan more than 100 statuettes were found which can be interpreted as depictions of goddesses or ancestors. “... They are highly decorated but scarcely human, with bulging eyes that have been variously interpreted as snow goggles, the closed eyes of the dead, cowrie shells, or the facial gear worn by aliens from outer space.”: Nelson (1997) 164. 188 Jeffreys (1940). In connection with the helmet from Formosa (now Taiwan) with cowrie trimming (compare note 199 on p. 28.) the possibility that the cowries could be interpreted as symbols of the vulva and of life based on the opposiing notions of life and death was not rejected by: Jeffreys (1941). Perhaps it is worth mentioning that instead of using actual cowries in the forehead ornament of a Yoruba wooden mask representing a woman’s head, three strands of cowries were carved from the material of the mask: Herold (1967) 41: nr. 25–26, pls 25–26. Elsewhere, e.g. on Congolese Bakuba helmet masks, natural cowries, most probably Money cowries, were used both as neck and hair decoration: ibid. 54–55: nr. 53–55, pls 53—55; Boachie-Ansah (2000) 69: fig. 4; similarly ������������� on an Ivory Coaster mask edged by ringed cowrie lines and consisted of twice four cowries ordered in a cross-shape��: Schläger (2002) 120: fig. 4 (Fig. 16) and on a Kuba wooden mask from Zaire with Money (?) cowrie pattern: Phillips (1995) 278: fig. 4.49. 189 Jeffreys (1943). 190 Durham (1940). On types of metal pendants derived from the shape of cowries: Durham (1941). On the development of disc-shaped amulets with several holes from traditional hand amulets: El-Adly (1981) 30–31, 98: pl. V: 2–9 (partly based on Walter Leo Hildburgh). 191 Grigson (1940). 185 186

Fig. 13. Ivory staff handles of 20th c. from Zaire – after Cornet (1995) 243: fig. 4.a–b

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 14. Female ancestor’s mask of 20th c. from Zaire – after Mack (1995) 278: fig. 4.49

for the variety of uses in Nigeria listed by Charles K. Meek. Yet the cowries were not solely used as amulets against the evil eye but also as protection against all kinds of witchcraft and invisible powers.192 In his second letter, arguing with Merwyn David Waldegrave Jeffreys, Meek tried to demonstrate that the evil eye was known in Nigeria, supporting his view not only with examples but also with etymological evidence.193 The archaeologist Thomas Charles Lethbridge pointed out that cowries might have been employed for various reasons in various regions of the world, in ancient Egypt, for example, symbolising an eye. He ascribed the same meaning to the Tiger cowries discovered in the 3 Anglo-Saxon women’s graves he excavated, i. e. as protection against the evil eye rather than as life-giving surrogates.194 This opinion leads us to the views of experts who propose several different explanations. John Henry Hutton noted that among the Naga tribes in Assam, it was rather the men who wore Meek (1940). In his opinion the Hausa language has two words for cowrie, wuri and ijiya, the latter meaning 1. ‘cowrie’ and 2. ‘eye’, which shows the connection of the shell to the aforementioned magical domain: Meek (1941). 194 Lethbridge (1941). 192 193

Fig. 15. Neolithic jōmon figure wearing a large cowrie shell – after Singer (1940) 51: fig.

26

Introduction: Cowries Fig. 16. Mask from Ivory Coaster of 20th c. edged by ringed cowrie lines and consisted of twice four cowries ordered in a cross-shape –after Schläger (2002) 120: fig. 4

cowries, not so much as symbols of success in warfare, but in love (Fig. 17). He believes that the Latin porcinus, caput porci ‘wedge-shaped battle order’ also belongs within the associated area of khoiros/porcus for similarly shaped things such as the vulva, cowries, pigs and the head of pigs.195 According to Verrier Elwin,196 cowries

were not employed as vulva-symbols, fertility amulets or protection against the evil eye in Bastar, an Indian state, but rather as embodiments of value, rarity and symbols of past times and maybe also to ward off supernatural powers (Fig. 18). The same view was later adopted by Percy Graham Harris in connection with the Hausa tribes of Nigeria.197 The initiator of the debate, Margaret Alice Murray, has repeatedly refused to compromise. First, she dismissed the archaeological examples presented by Thomas Sheppard, later – referring to the difficulties of ethnographic data collection – she questioned the above, previously mentioned, statements of John Willfrid Jackson,

Hutton (1940). ������������������������������������������� The number of head-symbols sewn on costume ornaments shows the rank of the person wearing it: Törzsi (1981) II: 145.� A Naga textile from Angam with sewn on ornament of cowries: Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 163 (Fig. 17). 196 Elwin (1942). A modern example mentioned in addition to the Scythian material: in Kashmir and Ladakh amulets against illnesses and insomnia were sewn on children’s bonnets. These were also intended to quiet their crying. At both ends of the strand of amulets made up of beads and mounts 1 cowrie each was sewn with its aperture pointing outwards: Rolle (1991) 98: fig. 1: b. 195

197

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Harris (1943).

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 17. Naga textile of 20th c. from Angam (State Assam, India) – after Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 163

an acknowledged expert in this field.198 She also published a helmet with a cowrie-border from Formosa/Taiwan with the remark that the shells must have ensured good luck and could not have been female fertility symbols.199 Then she rejected the supposition of Jack Herbert Driberg who held the view that the vulva embodied vigour and cowries symbolised this force without being identical with the vulva.200 In her counterargument, Murray argued that primitive peoples protected themselves with an eye symbol against the evil eye, the earliest form of this being the half-closed eye.201 In her last publication on this subject, she reported on a wooden figure of a woman from New Guinea, as well as skulls modelled from wax with cowries placed in the eye socket (Fig. 19).202 John Henry Hutton reflected in a second article that both kinds of use mentioned by Murray also appear in Assam, Borneo and Melanesia, the cowrie, however, being no more than a simple surrogate for the human eye.203

from this far-reaching discussion,204 in my opinion basically confirming the main arguments of Grafton ElliotSmith.205 He was the first to publish sexual amulets from the Mediterranean region: cowrie imitations, pendants in the shape of a hand showing a fig, a female figure (Baubo?) “I propose here to do little more than to set forth evidence seemingly indicating the probability that in Europe in general the cowrie served as a symbol, more or less recognised, of the vulva and that its intended purposes included both the safeguarding of its carriers from the effects of evil eye and its analogues and matters connected with the birth of children.”: Hildburgh (1942–43) 178. 205 According to him, cowries were offered in the Mediterranean area to Aphrodite/Venus personifying the female principle and the force of reproduction, as well as similar goddesses before them as is shown by the ancient authors mentioned above. The people wanted to secure the life of the deceased in the afterlife with slowly emerging rites which were based on beliefs associating blood with life and water with re-birth. With such rituals, bodies seemed to be revitalised, re-born through any of their parts, by their depiction in objects similar to them. This might be the way cowries, doubtlessly collected along the Red Sea coast acquired a twofold role as amulets; on the one hand because they resembled female genitals and on the other hand, because the snail emerging from its shell would symbolise birth. As amulets they acted as aids during the adolescence of girls, to ensure conception and an easy birth, to cure sterility and, as such, could be put in graves in hope of rebirth and a new life for the deceased. As on the other hand they resembled a half-closed eye, they could symbolise as eye surrogates the old belief in the power of the eye to bring fecundity as well as the power of a glance to cause good or ill fortune, such as the evil eye; i.e. viewed from another point of view they were regarded as protection against such ill influences. Later, they used more cowries to increase their power even in areas where they could not be collected. Thus, these shells had to be imported and people would 204

Walter Leo Hildburgh summarised and drew conclusions Murray (1940). Murray (1940a). 200 Driberg (1940). 201 Murray (1940b). 202 Murray (1942). 203 “There cannot be the least doubt that in these cases the cowrie is simply the ‘surrogate’, so to speak, of the human eye and nothing more.”: Hutton (1940). 198 199

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Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 18. Muria girls of the Abujhmar foothills (Bastar State, India) of 20th c., with bunches of cowries in their hair – after Elwin (1942) pl. F: fig. 4

sitting with her legs apart,206 as well as phallus and vulva pendants (some inspired by cowries) which offered protection against the evil eye and other harmful effects from ancient Egyptian times until the 20th century.207 Then he critically summarised the 19th–20th centuries hypotheses on cowrie wear accessible to research since antiquity. He found, in spite of many possible examples, that there was no immediate evidence for Romans having worn cowries against sterility. However, any amulet believed to protect against the evil eye, envy or jealousy, either resembling the vulva or a lying pig well-known for its fecundity, could be used to insure fertility.208 It is for this reason that modern or contemporary cowrie amulets produced in various manners were so popular throughout Europe, from Spain even exchange their animals, the most valuable of all they possessed, in exchange for the social and magical benefits ensured by them. Maybe this was also the origin of the role of cowries as currency: Elliot Smith (1917) XI–XX. A list of the reasons for their use: Bogaevskij (1931) 3. 206 See above. Medieval relics and the mental background of the depictions were discussed by: László (1947); with pictures: Kostić (1970). 207 Hildburgh (1942–43) 178–84, 184/185: pl. I: 1–13. 208 “I have been equally unsuccessful in finding any ancient authority for printed statements to the effect that in Roman times cowries were worn as amulets against sterility..., are not substantiated by any ancient evidence that I am able to recall; so far as I know, they may be no more than presumptions based on modern folk-beliefs. It should, however, be kept in mind that, as it is often believed that sterility may be caused by evil eye or by envy or jealousy, any amulet or practice – whether it can be associated with a representation of the vulva or not – assumed to be preservative against such agents of harm in general, may in certain circumstances be said to be made use of particularly ‘against sterility’...”: Hildburgh (1942–43) 187. The names discussed above, derived from khoiros/porcus ‘pig, piglet’ might be explained by the resemblance of a prone pig: Hildburgh (1942–43) 187–88; Seligman (1910) II: 126–27, 131, 154, 204; Meaney (1981) 125–27; Eliade (1997) 161–62: note 1, 173; Geake (1997) 62, 230: map 28. “Cowrie shells, because their shape

Fig. 19. Wooden female figure of 20th c. with cowries eyes from New Guinea – after Murray (1942) 144: fig. 1

29

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads to Greece.209 The same debate was reviewed by Ernest G. Gobert, as well, who demonstrated with much scientific circumspection and a large apparatus that the magical, lifegiving characteristics associated with cowries are based on the ancient concept of le pudendum magique.210 Some decades later, excavations in the Near East were to show that for almost 10,000 years previously, that people also recognised the similarity between the aperture of a cowrie held horizontally and a half-closed/half-open human eye. This might later have lead to the belief in their power against the evil eye.211 The 12 plastered skulls (8 female, 3 male, 1 uncertain) from the tell of Jericho (257), dated to the 7th millennium BC (late PPNB), no longer had Unio shell inlays similar to the white of the eye which had to be put together from two pieces with a vertical slit left in between, possibly to indicate the pupil. Since this chink recalled not so much the round human pupil but rather an animal one, e. g. that of a cat, it was probably not intended as a realistic representation but rather as a symbolic indication.212 There was only one example a young woman (inventory no. D111), in which a cowrie was placed in each of the eye sockets of the skull. These resemble the horizontal eye slit of humans. This may indicate that cowries had no magical meaning yet but were used for their natural shape or maybe only for their bright white color.213 The procedure itself might also rather be connected to some kind of death- or ancestor-cult214 rather than to a cult associated with head-hunters’ trophies similar to those from modern times. The fact that the eyes of a female skull thickly covered with ochre found in layer VII (6200–6050 BC) at Çatal Hüyük (319), also contained middle-sized

Fallow cowries from the Mediterranean Sea, reflects how to here spread this custom had become.215 The cowrie eyes of at least one of the red-painted plastered skulls of 11 adults of the same age (the sex is unknown to me) from Tell Ramad (309) may serve as further examples. In later periods, based on the parallels from various periods, one must treat cowrie eye-inlays and plastered skulls modelled after faces separately. The latter re-appears in burials of the inhabitants of the Ingul region in the South Ukraine, i. e. the Catacomb (katakombnaja) Culture (2100–1700 BC) of the East European forest steppe, who are regarded as ancestors of the Scythians and who spread the use of cowries throughout the steppes. Due to the spread of the Catacomb Culture together with the Pit-grave (jamnaja) Culture (3200–3000 BC), river shell (but no cowrie) eye-inlays appeared in the lower reaches of the Dnepr. Of the 3000 graves excavated so far, about 100 had river shell (Unio sp.) eye-inlays in the eye-sockets of the deceased, more carefully executed adults than in children’s burials.216 To completely model the skull they first removed the flesh and brain. The modelling material contained fat, yellow, blue, green and grey clay, sometimes mixed with ochre or charcoal, but they could also use soot, ochre, powder from pottery, bone powder, a resinous material, a black mud-like material and leather soaked with a resinous material.217 The eye sockets, the ear holes, the nose hole, the nose itself, the part of the face below the cheek bone held together by the jaw were filled and the latter also modelled into an oval using this material. Finally, the closed eye lids and the closed lips were marked with a horizontal line. In simpler cases, the whole procedure was indicated by modelling only the eyes, the nose and the line of the mouth, or the eyes and the nose, or even only the eyes. This technique retained the facial features to a certain extent,218 required that the eyes be closed. Thus, there was no need for them to be indicated by Unio obtainable locally. The demand for cowries cannot have appeared just at that time as they were unknown to them. However, it has already been suggested and emphasised that the Ingul Culture had connections to the Near East.

can suggest either a woman’s vulva, or, seen in profile, a pregnant woman, were associated ritually with childbirth in some African cultures.”: Blackmun Visoná–Poynor–Cole–Harris–Abiodun–Preston Blier (2000) 514. cited by Schläger (2002) 108. 209 Hildburgh (1942–43) 190–95, 192/193: figs 14–26; Meaney (1981) 125, 134. 210 Gobert (1951); Hiskett (1966) 340. 211 “Cowrie shells have also been perceived as the half-closed but ever watchful human eye fringed with lashes and as a prophylactic against the evil eye. Cowries were used for the eyes of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic plastered skulls from Jericho and are sometimes found in Egyptian mummies to ensure good eyesight in the afterlife.”: Reese (1988) 262. I have not found any data on cowries as eye surrogates in Egyptian mummies. 212 “The reconstructed eyes were mostly well placed into the mid-point of both orbits... The breadth of the eye slit was, however, too small and out of this a bigger distance between the inner corners of the eyes resulted (hypertelorismus). The vertical chink between the two halves of shells, representing pupil,... however, recalls more the animal pupil e.g. that of a cat, than the rounded human one... We may conclude, that the reconstructed eye was most probably not intended to be a realistic eye but only a symbolic indication of an eye.”: Strouhal (1973) 242. About 72 plastered skulls from 7 Neolithic sites between 7200–5000 BC in the Near East without mention of cowries: Bonogofsky (2006) 47. 213 A possible further evidence for that may be the fact that white plaster lenses (une petite lenuntile de plâtre) were put in the eye sockets of two contempory modelled skulls found under the floor of a house excavated in Beisamoun (northern part of Galilee, Israel): Ferembach–Lechevallier (1973) 224; Oates–Oates (1976) 80–81; Contenson (1981) 62; Cauvin (2000) 113; parallels without cowrie inlays: Schmandt-Besserat (1998). 214 It was stated in connection with the skulls from Jericho that “these skulls had probably played a role in some kind of ancestor cult. We already find examples for separating the skulls from the trunk and ritually re-organising them in Palestinian Natufian graves. Material suggesting a ‘skull cult’ was also found in layer PPNA in Jericho. Such beautifully

modelled skulls have been excavated – besides those of the PPNB Period from Jericho – somewhat later in Beisamum near cAin Mallaha and in Ramad at the foot of the Hermon mountain south of Damascus. One of the latter can be dated to 6200 BC according to the radiocarbon method.”: Oates–Oates (1976) 80–81. The rituals were considered as some kind of skull cult or as the result of the effort to maintain memory as for a living person: Eliade (1997a) I: 45; Cauvin (2000) 113–15. 215 How rarely this was practised is reflected by the fact that during the excavation in 1965 at least 80 graves were recovered. Among these there were 9 women’s graves with ochre and only 1 with cowries: Mellaart (1966) 183, pl. L: b; Müller-Karpe (1968) 350, 438: nr. 85; Reese (1986a) 193. 216 35 skeletons could be anthropologically analysed. Nineteen of them were male, 7 female, 1 adolescent, 5 children’s skeletons and 3 could not be identified: Kruc–Kubyšev–Otroščenko–Pustovalov (1991) 51. 217 The use of resinous and mud-like materials was not as characteristic of the Ingul Culture but rather of other ethno-cultural groups: Pustovalov (1999) 245. 218 Kruc–Kubyšev–Otroščenko–Pustovalov (1991) 51–53; Otroščenko– Pustovalov (1991); Pustovalov (1999) 244–54.

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Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 20. Money cowrie each in the eye sockets of a skull with carved ornament from Borneo of 20th c. – after Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 196

(Fig. 23),222 indicating that the eyes in Asia (Fig. 24)223 and the “South Seas area” (Fig. 25),224 a gap of many thousand years remains basically unfilled in the archaeological and ethnographic finds. Individual examples can hardly be interpreted as stages in a single line of development. The starting point itself is, moreover, only a projection of the interpretation of modern and contemporary data back into ancient times – in the beginning the serrated aperture of

Although the custom of plastering skulls and of cowrie eyeinlays219 is still in vogue in remote corners of the world (Figs 20–22),220 eye-inlays on statues221 have appeared in Africa I do not understand Karinè Hristoforovna Kušnareva’s opinion in connection with the cowries found at the workshop in Dvin (51), unfortunately published without references, namely that “as it is well known, cowries have been employed by many primitive peoples as change until recent times, in the remote past widely spread as beads, ring inlays or decorations on statues... The wear of the shell of cowries was connected to special beliefs by many ancient peoples. They were believed by some to have medical, by others to have prophylactic characteristics. In Asia Minor, where they were believed to have magical power, they can be found as symbolic inlays (v vide vstavok-simbolov) of the statues of gods, as filling on the church-ground walls and as sacred ornaments.”: Kušnareva (1977) 93. 220 Some recent examples: the Dajaks of Borneo also used 1 cowrie (more precisely a small white Money cowrie) each in the eye sockets of ornamented skulls as eye surrogates. With references to primary sources: Jackson (1917) 173; Schilder (1926) 316; Schilder (1952) 37, 37: fig. 40; Törzsi (1981) II: 163, fig. 196 (Fig. 20). According to D’Albertis the skulls of the dead from the battle in Mawatta, New Guinea in 1875, which later came to Cambridge, were modelled with wax, small cowries serving as eyes. Later W. Behrmann saw 3 other skulls with cowrie eyes in the region of the Sepik River: Murray (1942); similarly Clark (1986) 23, 25: fig. 9; Kruc–Kubyšev–Otroščenko–Pustovalov (1991) 52–53. A modelled skull from the region of the Augusta River, also in New Guinea, now in the collection of the Völkerkunde-Museum in Hamburg, ������������������ the skull and the jaws are painted, the tongue is made of clay, and 1-1 cowrie was fitted in the orbits������������������������������������������������� and a strand of 10 cowries fastened to its top: Pfeiffer (1914) 123–24, 125: fig. 132 (Fig. 21); other example from the region of the Sepik River: Törzsi (1981) I: fig. 60 (Fig. 22). 221 Shell inlays were also found on a head sculpture from the Cretan Middle Minoan Period (2000–1600 BC) from Trapeza cave: MüllerKarpe (1974) 563, III/3: pl. 382: 25. 219

From the material of an earlier collection: Richard Edward Dennett published a Bavili “protective fetish” called a Mpembe, which were carved from wood, the eyes being indicated with cowrie inlays with their serrated aperture outwards. A Beneki fetish published by Friedrich Ratzel is very similar, cowrie eye inlays were also found on the Begbowo idol: Jackson (1917) 149–50, 158, compare Schneider (1905) 170. Small wooden statuettes with cowrie eye inlays were collected among the Regas living near Lake Tanganyika in Kongo: Törzsi (1981) I: 229, fig. 352 (Fig. 23), similarly in Togo, the Philippines and New Zealand: Clark (1986) 23–24; compare Brühl (1929) 187. Here I can only refer to but cannot list examples of wooden or clay statues with their eyes carved to imitate the form of cowries: Africa (1995); Herold (1967) 50: nr. 45, etc. 223 Of special interest is a Mongolian textile shaman’s head dress from Darhat decorated with feathers: the ears, the eyes and the middle of the forehead of the trimmed face were indicated with a cowrie each, i.e. altogether with 5 cowries: Törzsi (1981) II: 133, fig. 137 (Fig. 24). Further away, in New Zealand, Little-Donkey cowries (Cypraea asellus) or other shells were placed in the eye sockets of statues: Jackson (1917) 176. 224 Ludwig Pfeiffer published chest ornaments worn in battles from New Guinea, now in the collections of the Town Museums Weimar and Berlin (Germany), which portray faces decorated with nassa snails, the eyes, however, being indicated with a cowrie each: Pfeiffer (1914) 123, 124: fig. 130 (Fig. 25). 222

31

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads cowrie eye-inlays might well have indicated the closed, no longer harmful eyes of the dead. The shell eye-inlays of the skulls from Jericho might indicate this supposition since there appears to have been no pupil painted on them, or at least, I have found no reference to such painting. Further evidence comes from skull models from the Ingul Culture with their eye sockets divided into two by a scratch, which could only be the depiction of a harmless, ever-closed eye. A further connection between cowries and amulets against the evil eye is Cyril Aldred’s hypothesis which is not considered in the above cited summary by Erik Hornung and Elisabeth Staehelin, namely that the shell resembles a half-closed eye fringed with lashes and an ever-guarding glance at the same time. Thus, Aldred considered them prophylactic against the evil eye, a belief (i. e. in the evil eye) which first appeared in Egyptian texts.225 He held the view that Egyptians first used natural cowries and cowroid designs for this purpose, later changing them for the so-called udžat ����������������������������������� eye depiction of the sky god Horus,226 probably the most wide-spread amulet besides the scarab in ancient Egypt.227

Fig. 21. Painted skull from Augusta River (New Guinea) of 20th c., 1-1 cowrie in the orbits and a strand of 10 cowries fastened to its top – after Pfeiffer (1914) 123–24, 125: fig. 132

In view of the above, it has been proposed that the coffeebean eyes (Kaffeebohnen-Augen/glaza v vide kofejnyh zerën) of mostly Neolithic female and male clay figurines not only resulted from the application technique but were, in fact, an imitation of cowrie eye-inlays (Fig. 26).228 This problem also arises in the debate on the statues from the Yarmoukian Culture (6th millennium BC), which spread to the southern areas of the Near East and excavated at the Israeli sites of Sha’ar Hagolan and Tell Munhata. According to Avi Gopher’s and Estelle Orrelle’s explanation, certain clay figurines did not depict a person of defined sex, rather they represented compositions of various male and female genitals, the coffee-bean eyes and pouting lips symbolising He referred to the fact that along the Nile women still wear aprons with cowries sewn on to protect their lower trunk from malevolent glances causing abortion or sterility: Aldred (1978) 10. “The evil eye is one of those superstitions whose history we know very well from the age of the builders of the pyramids into the present day.”: Kákosy (1974) 161–62. 226 The “udžat (i.e. intact) eyes” were the eyes of the Sun god Horus injured in the battle he had fought with Seth and healed by Thoth. The pair of amulets representing of the two eyes may have symbolised the Sun and the Moon, Horus’ protection, the eyes of the deceased, etc. Two pairs of them may represent the four cardinal points but may also have had an apotropaic function, averting the evil eye: Kákosy (1974) 158–63. 227 Aldred (1978) 10; also referred to and accepted by David S. Reese, who pointed out that udžat/udjat/udyat/wedjet eye amulets were often found on so-called knotted cords of magical power along with cowries (107–111, 132): Reese (1988) 262; compare Petrie (1914) 29 and pls XVII: 131 b–c, XVIII: 131 e–f, XIX: 131 g. 228 This opinion is almost generally accepted; for Avi Gopher’s and Estelle Orrelle’s divergent views see below. Some quotations from similar views: “Auch die Kaffeebohnen-Augen mancher Obedfiguren [e.g. Müller-Karpe (1968) pl. 96: 14.] treten ähnlich an Tonfiguren dieser altneolithischen Siedlung auf, ein Formdetail, das an die Augeneinlagen aus Kaurimuscheln der Jericho-Kopfplastiken erinnert und in Palästina dann an Figuren von Scha’ar Hagolan begegnet.”: Müller-Karpe (1968) 293, 61. pl. A: 50, 53. According to S. S. Weinberg in the Early Neolithic “the slit ‘coffee-bean’ eyes that are commonly found on figurines of this 225

Fig. 22. Modeled skull with multicolor paint and 1-1 Money (?) cowrie in the orbits from North New Guinea of 20th c. – Törzsi (1981) I: 82, fig. 60

period would seem to be an imitation in clay of the cowrie shells used for eyes in the Near East, as early in the plastered skulls of the pre-pottery Neolithic period at Jericho.”: Weinberg (1970) 580; compare Lloyd (1981) 57–58, 57: figs 15–16, 103: fig. 45. Referring to the female idols of Tell Munhata and Sha’ar Hagolan of the Yarmoukian (6th millennium BC) Palestine: “The Jericho-type skulls worked very plastically probably influenced the modelling of the heads of the clay statuettes of the Yarmoukian Culture to some extent. It is possible that their coffee-beanshaped eyes can be traced down from the cowries employed as eye-inlays on the skulls at Jericho (“Vozmožno, čerepa s plastičeski prorabotannymi

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Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 23. Wooden statuette of 20th c. with Money (?) cowrie inlays in the eye sockets from Kongo – after Törzsi (1981) I: fig. 352

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 24. Mongolian textile shaman’s head dress of 20th c. from Darhat: the ears, the eyes and the middle of the forehead indicated with a cowrie each – after Törzsi (1981) II: fig. 137

Fig. 25. Chest ornaments of 20th c. worn in battles from New Guinea, their faces decorated with nassa snails, the eyes with a cowrie each – after Pfeiffer (1914) 124: fig. 130

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Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 26. Clay figurine with coffee-bean eyes from Byblos of the neolithic Yarmukian culture – after Gopher–Orrelle (1996) 265: Fig. 8: 5

the vulva.229 Arguing against this view, Yosef Garfinkel suggests that the iconographic analysis of clay figurines

is generally based on the anatomy of the human body, an eye being an eye and a mouth a mouth, etc.230 The two authors answered his mocking rejection of their proposal with a lengthy answer. They maintained their original views on each matter, including the problem of the eyes,231 stating that the eyes of the clay figurines have the same iconographic meaning as the so-called sharpening stones, the oval “vulva-pebbles” with a vertical slit or groove, as well as the coffee beans, cowries or cereal grains, namely that all should be interpreted as vulvae.232 For my part I completely agree with Yosef Garfinkel’s view. It is quite possible that the debate only arose in the first place because both sides confined themselves to the statuettes of the Yarmoukian. As far as the eyes are concerned, the examples I have cited also show that they are eyes, with their special form being related to the application technique. Following others, it only remains to be added that it seems more justified to use the term cowrie without any reference to vulva symbols in this context as opposed to using the formally similar, coffee beans, since cowries have been shown to have been employed as eye surrogates in contemporaneous dead-cults.

licami tipa ierihonskih v kakoj-to mere povlijali na oformlenie golov glinjanyh statuètok jarmukskoj kul’tury. Predpolagalas vozmožnost’ proishoždenija glaz v forme ‘kofejnyh zerën’ ot rakoviny kauri, kotorymi inkrustirovany glaza ierihonskih čerepov.).”: Antonova (1977) 20, 145. and pl. IV: 2, 9, 22 (with many other examples among the illustrations to her book not discussed here). Further examples: from the Late Neolithic Samarra Culture (5600–5500 BC) of Mesopotamia: Kőkori (1995) 33, 33: top picture; on a bull’s head from the Copper Age Cucuteni/Tripole Culture (4500–3700 BC): Dumitrescu (1977); Monah (1997) 211, 297: fig. 45: 7a–c; from the Bronze Age: Berezkin (1981) 17–19: tables 1–3, etc. Of further interest are the Bronze Age female idols with a similar eye form found in the Copper and Bronze Age tell settlement of Altyn-Tepe in southern Turkmenistan. The hair plaits on both sides of their head and neck form snakes, with their heads at the line of the idol’s eyes, thus, the roles of cowries as eye and as snake symbols – to be discussed below – are both present, compare Masson (1981) 84, pls VIII–XI. Maybe it deserves mention that eyes of a similar shape can be seen on face depictions on Roman so-called Firnisware, e.g. Osterburken (Kr. Neckar-Odenwald, Baden-Württemberg)-Markplatz: Reutti (1980) 215, pl. 181: 3. The phenomenon might even be generalised since depictions of snake’s heads also appeared on Roman dishes with faces in which amulets and magical devices were kept, e.g. Braithwaite (1984) 113, 125, 126–27, 114: fig. 9:9; coffee-bean/cowrie eyes ibid. 102: fig. 2: 2, 107: fig. 5, 111: fig. 7: 1–2, 4, 6, etc.; also compare note 199. – Heads of funerary terracotta figurines and pottery with coffee-bean eyes of the Akan in Ghana from end of the 16th and 17th centuries: Boachie-Ansah (2000) 69–71: figs 1–5, 7. Contemporaneous textile from Ghana embroidered with many cowrie rows: Thévenot (2005) 11: fig. (right below). See further: Vadetskaja (2004) 54, fig. 4: 2. 229 “The ‘mask’ [of the Group V clay figurines] can be seen to portray a fairly obvious representation of male and female genitalia – the so-called pointed ‘hairstyle’ or ‘hood’ being rather phallic in nature, the ‘cheeks’ resemble testicles and the so-called ‘coffee bean eyes’ and pouting lips resembling vulvae. Garfinkel follows Clarke, Mellaart and others (Garfinkel (1995) 32), [*] in describing these appendages as ‘cowrieshaped eyes’ which, in view of the symbolic associations of cowries, supports a vulva symbolism. A technique of body self-mimicry seems to be used here where lips mimic labia and the nose may also represent a phallic element.”: Gopher–Orrelle (1996) 273. The publication referred to here was not accessible to me: Yosef Garfinkel: Human and animal figurines of Munhata (Israel). Les Cahiers des missions archéologiques françaises den Israel. 8 (1995) [Paris].

Garfinkel (1999) 131. “Garfinkel... becomes hopelessly embroiled in notions of realism, anatomy, analogy, schematisation and technical properties. One is left wondering whether the eyes are eyes, or whether they are coffee beans or perhaps cowrie shells for him? We are still waiting to hear, by the way, why coffee beans and cowrie shells were sitting on the ladies’ foreheads.”: Gopher–Orrelle (1999) 134. 232 “As to the oval pebbles with a central slit – we are aware of the traditional assignations of ‘sharpening stone’ or ‘vulvae’ for the oval pebbles with a central slit or groove... The ‘eyes’ on the clay figurines share the same iconography as the ‘sharpening stones’, the vulva pebbles and indeed the coffee bean, the cowrie and the cereal grain. All are oval and bear a central longitudinal incision. Each of these and all of them (except the coffee bean) could well have functioned in some connected way in the same symbolic system.”: Gopher–Orrelle (1999) 136. 230 231

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1.3.3.2.3. Similarity to a Snake’s Head A further possibility for symbolic interpretation generally neglected in the literature mentioned above is that in the beginning, the dorsal view of cowries reminded people in the Baltic region not of a lying pig but rather a snake’s head.233 Thus in this region, cowrie wear can mainly be explained by its relationship to the snake cult. ������� Ēvalds Mugurēvičs������������������������������������������������� has traced the snake cult of the Baltic peoples back to the Mesolithic starting in the 5th millennium BC and has documented it with archaeological finds to as late as the 5th–13th centuries AD.234 From the 13th century onwards we also have written sources and traces of the snake cult preserved in the Medieval sources concerning the beliefs of Baltic peoples as there is a lot of data on the veneration of and on offerings to snakes, especially the ringed/grass/common snakes.235 Baltazars Rusovs (1542/43–1602),236 reporting mainly on 16th century occurrences in Widzeme,237 has also confirmed that pagans worshipped various idols including the sun, the moon, the stars, even snakes and other animals before the Germanic invasion and the spread of Christianity in the Baltic area. Sources from the 17th–18th centuries238 bear witness to the snake cult in Livonia.239 People used to firmly believe that snakes could protect them from ill fortune, illness and even death. This might explain why they – though I could not find data referring only to women240 – wore dried snake’s heads or skulls as amulets. In South Estonia, women trimmed the neckline of their fur coat or their wedding dress with zigzag lines as late as the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century to protect themselves from the evil eye. They called this zigzag pattern the loogeline ‘snake line’.241 It is possible that cowries, so widespread among Latvian archaeological finds, symbolised the head of a snake, a creature venerated by common people as a deity. To some extent then, this may be the reason why

Fig. 27. Apron (kaatteri) of an Ingrian woman (1), cap of an Votian maid (2) decorated with cowries from the 20th c. – after Manninen (1957) pl. IV: [1–2]

Fig. 28. Chest ornament (rissikko) of a Votian woman of 20th c. trimmed with cowries – after Manninen (1957) 172: fig. 201

cowries were so extensively employed as adornment.242 The archaeological finds will be discussed later in the relevant chapters (4.13, 15, 17). The extremely rich data has shown that cowrie wear and cowrie names meaning ‘snake’s, viper’s and grass snake’s head’ were very popular from the Baltic to South Siberia and China243 among the Finno-Ugric, Slavic and Turkic peoples. Estonians also called cowries ‘snake’s head’ as is shown by the early 17th century name snekenkoppe /schneckenköppe used when referring to rustic jewelry from Tallinn.244 The Finns also considered them snake’s heads and called cowries accordingly, käärmeen pääluu.245 In Karelia, home of the Balto-Finnish Karelians, they were called kyynpää ‘viper’s head’.246 In just the same way, they wee also called kyynpäämet in Ingermanland, tsüpämet and tśivilougat247 ‘idem’ in Vot, kumbr’ä (or more precisely kuj*en’p’r’ä) in Mordvin and kos’ke-

This similarity is also evident and it is not by chance that natural scientists named one of the species Serpent’s Head cowrie: Podani–Lexa (1988) 16: nr. 3, 17: pl. VII: 3. 234 Mugurevič (1962) 46. On the written records of Baltic snake cult and on archaeological traces preserved on metal objects (bracelets with snake’s heads, clips, brooches), not even mentioning cowries: Gurevič (1947); Finno-ugry (1987) 94. On the Slavic snake cult and “snake pebbles/stones” also without cowries: Veleckaja (1988). 235 Wilhelm Mannhardt: Latviešu-prūšu mitoloģija [Mifologii o verovanijah latyšej i prussov]. Latviešu literāriskās biedrības Magazina 21 (1936) 52, 63, 67, 135 (based on Mugurevič (1962) 46, 46: note 19). 236 Baltazars Rusovs: Livonijas chronika. Riga (1926) 14 (based on Mugurevič (1962) 46: note 20). 237 Livonia/Livland/Widzeme is the area north of Lithuania on the east coast of the Baltic Sea, originally the dwelling place of the Finno-Ugrian Livs. Later it comprised parts of Latvia and Estonia, in the 17th century under Swedish, in the 18th century under Russian rule. 238 Based in the note 235 mentioned work of Wilhelm Mannhardt: 489, 510. 239 See above: Widzeme. 240 Members of both sexes could hope for a positive effect from snakes or cowries representing their heads. Their almost exclusive role as female amulets therefore was probably the result of some outer influence, maybe the opinions of tradesmen selling them. 241 The other name was loogelised ‘small snake’. The report mentions that this pattern, along with rectangles with looped angles, eight-pointed stars etc. used to serve as amulets: Trèès-Saks (1960) 233; Mugurevič (1962) 47, note 22. 233

Mugurevič (1962) 46–47. According to the generally held view it was for similar reasons that Money cowries were often called snake’s heads (Schlangen- or Otterköpfchen) in the East and were used as protection against the evil eye: Seligman (1910) II: 126–27. 244 17th March 1603: “halßbandt von schneckenköppen”: Johansen– Mühlen (1973) 401, 401: note 83; compare 389, 397 (photocopy kindly sent to me by Heiki Valk). 245 Manninen (1957) 172; compare Manninen (1934) 396. 246 Kivikoski (1967) 43, 44: note 18. 247 Manninen (1934) 329; Manninen (1957) 95. 242 243

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Introduction: Cowries bü, kêskê-bi or ‘snake’s head’ in Mari/Cheremis.248 The word gyrpin’ or ‘molar’ among the Udmurt and the Beshermyans249 shows that cowries were worn as real teeth and tooth amulets.250 Johann Gottlieb Georgi (1729–1802) has provided a suggestive, yet not quite complete (Fig. 27. 1–2, Fig. 28)251 view on the general Finno-Ugrian use of Schlangenköpfen or ‘snake’s heads’, not only as ornaments, but as also implied by the coral find, possibly as amulets. In his book published in 1776,252 he noted their presence in the clothing of Finnish,253 Ingrian (Fig. 27. 1, Fig. 29),254 Mari/Cheremis (Figs 30, 33),255 Mordvin

(Figs 32–33) and256 Vogul/Ostyak257 women as well as of Turkic-speaking Chuvash women,258 but didn’t note in the clothing of Udmurt/Votyak women.259 In his description of Mari clothing, he mentioned that Schlangenköpfen meant Money cowries. He he referred to ‘porcelain shell’ in case of Mordvin and Chuvash clothing, in the same sense. Georgi, however, also covered areas far beyond the home of the European Finno-Ugric or Ob-Ugric peoples during his travels, yet never mentioning this amulet dress-ornament260 in the clothing of the various peoples 25 plaits, decorated with trinkets, small bells and cowries: compare Manninen (1934) 302–03, 313: top fig., 314: top fig.; Manninen (1957) 61–62, 75: figs 27–28. On their gowns trimmed with beads and cowries: Manninen (1934) 390; Manninen (1956) 165; On the cowrie pendants on their oval ornamental clips: Manninen (1934) 391, 392: bottom fig.; Manninen (1957) 166, 165: fig. 188. On their necklaces were 2 strands of cowries: Sedov (1953) 198. – About cowries (jyrpin’) on the Mari woman’s traditional costume: Klimov (1980) 24–25, 31, figs on pp. 25, 27–28, 31; and the head dress: Lebedeva (1980) 43, fig. on p. 41 (above left); Šapran (2002) 281, 284. “The set of decorations for girls up to 15 included necklaces together with fibulae decorated with beads, glass beads and kauri shells... According to ethnographic data, a typical set of girls’ decorations included kosnik (that attached the plait on the back to the apron), forehead bands and open-worked chains with back pendants made of bands. The decoration set of brides and young married women till the first pregnancy was similar to the girls’... Ethnographers also note that as a talisman the Mari often used various things that differed from others by specific shape, colour or materials, for example, kauri shells. A lot of them were attached to neck-and-breast and shoulder decorations.”: Shapran (2003) 108–09. 256 “Die Haare werden in viele kleine Stränge geflochten und unter einer nach dem Kopf gemachten Haube bei alten und einer hohen ausgestopften, abgestutzten, ausgenäheten und mit Korallen und Porcellainmuscheln gezierten Mütze bei jüngern bedeckt...”: Georgi (1776) 48. Money cowries as parts of bead necklaces and as ornaments on various parts of the dress were mentioned from the late 19th century Mordvin ethnographic material: Jastrebov (1893) 48, note 336.: Sistem. opis. Daškovskogo Ètnografičeskogo. Muzeja) 32, 34. (compare ibid. 19: note 14.). On cowries employed, among others things, as neck and breast ornaments: Manninen (1934) 391, 384–85: pls XIII–XIV, 385: lower fig.; Manninen (1957) 166, 152–53: pl. XIII, 160–61: pl. XIV, 158: fig. 174. On their net collars with beads and cowries (korallikaulus/Netzkragen): Manninen (1934) 394–95, 352–53: pl. VIII, 395: fig.; Manninen (1957) 170–71, 171: fig. 200, 112–13: pl. VIII. 257 “Die Haare tragen sie in zwei Flechten und von jeder Achsel hängt ein Riemen von Leder oder Tuch, einer Hand breit, bis in die Kniekehlen. Diese Riemen sind mit Klimperwerk, Schlangenköpfen, Zahlpfennigen, Korallen, auch wohl mit gelben Blech, das wie Blumen oder Thiere ausgeschnitten, sonderlich bei Zauberinnen, besetzt; Schnüre halten beiden Riemen zusammen.”: Georgi (1776) 77. It should be mentioned that he dealt with Ostyaks and Voguls separately, not mentioning cowries in case of the latter: ibid. 67; see below. 258 “In einigen Dörfern tragen die Weiber statt der Mützen nur Stirnbinden der Tscheremißischen gleich mit kleinen Münzen, Korallen und Porcellainmuscheln bedeckt...”: Georgi (1776) 40; compare Manninen (1934) 391; Manninen (1957) 165. Cowries as items of bead necklaces and as ornaments on various parts of the dress were mentioned from the late 19th century Chuvash ethnographic material: Jastrebov (1893) 48, note 335: Kollekcija Muz. Oteč. pri Kazansk. Univ. na vystavke VIII Arh. S’ezda. Chuvash women wore their necklaces of beads, coin-shaped pendants and cowries as late as the early 20th century, married women’s head coverings included a long ornament of cowries worn on the back of the neck (nazatyl’nik): Sedov (1953) 198. Here, it should be noted that the former Volga Bulgar dialect was a “Chuvash-like” dialect very close to present-day Chuvash: Róna-Tas (1997) 100. On other, e.g. musical connections between the Mari and the Chuvash: ibid. 121–22. 259 Georgi (1776) 54. 260 Although he separately discussed the clothing of prostitutes in connection with each population, interestingly he only noted in connection with the Buryats that “Dirnen in andern Stämmen sind kleine Kamisöler über den Rock zu tragen mode, deren Rückenstück mit Schlangenköpfen (Cyprea nodosa L.), Glasperlen, Schnüren und Klimperwerk besetzt sind.”: Georgi (1776) 428. Cypraea nodosa is an unknown name or synonym, compare Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 531, 560.

The linguistic data is based on Manninen (1934) 396; Manninen (1957) 172; compare Kivikoski (1967) 43, 44: note 18. Both cowries and a Mari embroidered pattern in kiškè-vuj ‘snake’s head’ form were mentioned by: Krjukova (1949) 49; Mugurevič (1962) 46; referred to by: Lehtinen (1994) 135. Mariann Bakró Nagy and Zoltán Molnár have helped me by translating the mentioned Finnish passages of Ilmari Manninen, Ildikó Lehtinen has kindly drawn my attention to the existence of the German translation. 249 That is, descendants of the Udmurt speaking Volga Bulgars: Besermjane (1950). – Cowries on their head dresses: Lebedeva (1980) 44–45. 250 The tradition connected to the object was carried over to the name of the embroidered pattern: Krjukova (1949) 49; Sedov (1953) 198. 251 He did not mention this among the Votians, the Ingrians and the Udmurts. Yet even 18th century travellers noted Votian women wearing necklaces comrising some strands of cowries: Sedov (1953) 198, note 4. As late as 1901, head coverings decorated with cowries on the lower hems and near their tops (pääs’s’e) were observed, probably retained from the time before the Russian cultural influence: Manninen (1934) 329, 331, 320–21: pl. IV: 2–3; Manninen (1957) 95, 97, 80–81: pl. IV: 2–3; Lehtinen (1991) 163. The lower hem of the aprons of Votian and Ingrian women (kaatteri) was decorated with copper coins, fringes and cowries, as already reported by Pastor Cetreus who lived among themfor some years in the 18th century: Sedov (1953) 198; compare Manninen (1934) 383, 383: fig.; Manninen (1957) 156, 80–81: pl. IV: 1 (Fig. 27. 1–2 ), 155: fig. 171. On their temporal ornaments with cowries (peltuškat): Manninen (1934) 397; Manninen (1957) 173; Lehtinen (1991) 166, 170– 171. The longer and longer neck and chest ornaments of Votian women worn one under the other (rissikko) were also trimmed with cowries: Manninen (1934) 396, 304–05: pl. II., 396: fig.; Manninen (1957) 172, 64–65: pl. II., 172: fig. 201 (Fig. 28). On the garments of an Udmurt girl: Manninen (1934) 376–77: pl. XII; Manninen (1957) 144–45: pl. XII. 252 The illustrations listed in the contents were missing from the copy of the book accessible to me in the library of the Hungarian Museum of Ethnography. 253 “Vor der Brust ist das Kleid ebenfalls zierlich genähet und mit Schlangenköpfen und Glasperlen besetzt... Der Kopf deckt ein zur Mütze geschürztes Handtuch, welches auf dem Rücken unter dem Gurt durch bis auf die Fersen reicht und unter welchem ein handbreiter, mit Korallen und Schlangenköpfen bedeckt, unten befranserter Riemen, der die Haare bedeckt, herabhängt.”: Georgi (1776) 18. 254 “Statt des Rockes binden sie von jeder Seite eine Schürze ohne Falten von Tuch, Zeuge oder bunt ausgenäheter Leinenwand, die hinten über einander schlagen, vorn aber von einander stehen, weswegen sie eine kleine ganz mit Korallen und Schlangenköpfen bedeckte Schürze verbinden.”: Georgi (1776) 26; compare Manninen (1934) 352, 382, 315: fig.; Sedov (1953) 198, 198: note 7; Manninen (1957) 122, 155, 79: fig. 31. On temporal ornaments trimmed with cowries (uusnikkaiset/ ušnikkaat): Manninen (1934) 397, 396: figs a–b.; Manninen (1957) 173, 172: fig. 202 (Fig. 29). Cowries as parts of bead necklaces and as ornaments on various parts of the dress were mentioned from the late 19th century Ižor ethnographic material: Jastrebov (1893) 48, note 337.: Daškovskij Ètnogr. Muzej dress-stand/maneken’ nr. 10. 255 “Die hohe kegelförmige Mütze (Schurf) ist von Birkenrinde, mit Leder oder Leinetwand überzogen und ganz mit Korallen, kleinen silbernen Münzen und Schlangenköpfen (Cyprea Moneta) bedeckt. Eine solche Bedeckung erhält auch der handbreite von der Mütze auf den Rücken herabhangende Riemen (Schirkame).”: Georgi (1776) 30; Manninen (1934) 326, 368–69: pl. XI; Manninen (1957) 91, 136–37: pl. XI; Lehtinen (1991) 165. Mari and Mordvin girls, before having adopted the Russian coiffure of only one plait, used to braid their hair in up to 248

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads such as the Tatars,261 the Samoyedics, the Caucasians, the Manchurians, the Eastern Siberians, the Mongolians and a few others – although he noted the presence of coral beads, also of warm sea origin, on many of their dresses.262 Ilmari Manninen cited the 18th century Russian traveller Peter/Pëtr Simon Pallas (1741–1811) who said that the Chinese exported cowries to Russia.263 Other sources say that cowries were further exchanged for fine furs by Russian tradesmen or that Tatar travelling merchants sold cowries bought in Moscow, at a price depending on their size, for 3–5 kopecks.264 It is therefore no coincidence that collectors studying the clothing, the harnesses etc. came across material remains of these shells over an area much larger than the Baltic region, since they survived on costumes or as accessories265 for Finnish,266 IngrianFinnish (Figs. 27. 1, 29),267 Votian (Figs 27.2 , 28)268 Mari/Cheremis (Figs 30, 33),269 Votyak,270 Mordvin (Figs On the wide shoulder band of Tatar women from Kazan’ and Orenburg decorated with (cowrie) shells: Manninen (1934) 390; Manninen (1957) 165. 262 E.g. on the clothing of Tatars from Kazan’, Orenburg, Tomsk and Nogay, of Bashkirs, Tunguse, Kamchadals, the Buryats, the Mongolians and the Russians, compare Georgi (1776) 99, 118, 126, 179, 320, 338, 428, 448, 490. 263 “Pallas erwähnt sie [i.e. Cypraea nodosa according to Ilmari Manninen, too] in einer Aufzählung des chinesischen Handelswaren, die nach Russland eingeführt wurden.”: Manninen (1957) 172; compare Manninen (1934) 396. 264 Lehtinen (1994) 118. 265 Their magical interpretation at least among the Volga-Finns was noted by: Kivikoski (1967) 43, 44: note 19 quoting: Krjukova (1949) 49. The above-mentioned descriptions by Johann Gottlieb Georgi do not only prove that sewn-on cowries were called “snake’s heads” but also the existence of shell ornaments. 266 “Sogar in Finnland hat man sie [die Kaurischnecke] in gewissen Umfang als Schmuck verwendet, wenigstens in vorgeschichtlichen Zeit, wie einige Funde beweisen (Hollola, Sakkola) [compare 1860–61, 2119]. Später haben die Finnen mit Muscheln [Kaurischnecken] Pferdegeschirre, vor allem Zaumzeug verziert.”: Manninen (1957) 171–72; compare Manninen (1934) 396. 267 Manninen (1934) 315; compare: Ingrian women’s clothes with a strand of perforated Money cowrie pendants and with four strands of also perforated coin pendants from Narvusi and Laukaa: Kivikoski (1967) 37–38, 39: fig. 1: 1-2; Valonen–Rácz (1978) 324: nr. 107, 327: nr. 136, pls 107 and 136. 268 Especially interesting is a pair of earrings (2257) forming a transition between the 12th–14th centuries ethnic Votian “temporal rings with many beads [mnogobusinnye visočnye kol’ca]” and 18th–19th centuries Votian big temporal rings with cowrie pendants observed by ethnographers. This latter is as big as the ring “with many beads”, with only 3 beads but with 4 cowries suspended from it: Finno-ugry (1987) 37, 258: pl. X: 4. 269 Manninen (1934) 313–14: fig., the color plate to the right between pp. 368 and 369, 391: bottom picture. Finno-Ugrians along the Volga, especially the Mari sewed cowries called kiške-vuj ‘snake’s head’ onto their dresses to protect against evil spirits: Mugurevič (1962) 46. Their magical function “can further be supposed based on [certain] rituals connected with them. Researchers have observed, forexample, the custom of throwing [cowrie] shells into water among Mari brides.”: Krjukova (1949) 49; Sedov (1953) 198. The wearing of cowries continued almost into our days: Mari women living in the Uržuma district of the former province of Vjatka used to decorate the back of their caftans with rosettes, barrel beads, beads and cowries: Krjukova (1956), 131, 132: fig. 84: middle; compare Mugurevič (1962) 48: note 40. In 1955 Vladimir Fedorovič Gening made a drawing of a Mari women’s head dress decorated with beads called koržgol’ at the market of the village of Kitjaki (Malmyžskij raj., Kirovskaja obl.) with 25 cowries (rakovina-užovka), possibly Money cowries, separated by a round bead each suspended from the lower hem: Gening (1963) 53, 52/53: fig. 30 (Fig. 30). 270 Manninen (1934) color fig. between pp. 376 and 377. “In specific rituals [cowrie] shells serving as amulets would be sewn onto the wedding dresses of the Udmurts and the Beshermyans. Among a variety 261

Fig. 29. Temporal ornament (uusnikkauset) of an Ingrian woman of 20th c. trimmed with cowries – after Manninen (1957) 172: fig. 202

38

Introduction: Cowries Fig. 30. Mari women’s head dress (koržgol’) of 20th. c. decorated with beads and 25 cowries – after Gening (1963) 52/53: fig. 30

31–32)271 and Vogul272 women and girls. The most relevant summary accessible to me, the work of Ildikó Lehtinen, presents, when discussing Mari ornaments in full detail, the role cowries,273 more precisely Money cowries play, in

Mari clothing even almost to the present day (Fig. 33).274 This role has been more than only that of conspicuous ornament. Cowries were believed to protect against the evil eye,275 which is why Orthodox sects spread among the Mari tried to ban them along with other ornaments.276

of peoples [cowrie] shells would also be sewn onto children’s clothing to avert danger.”: Krjukova (1949) 49. 271 Manninen (1934) 2 color plates between pp. 384 and 385, 385: bottom picture, 395: picture 2 and 3 at the top. Cowries sewn on to suspended from decorated the best clothes, the head dresses, front and back aprons, girdles of Erzä and Moksa Mordvin girls and women and were also worn as jewellery: Valonen–Rácz (1978) pls 69/79, 72/96, 76–78, 81, 83 and 87–90 (Figs 31–32).. 272 In 1776, Johann Gottlieb Georgi noted about Ostyak women that “they wear their hair in two plaits and they wear a leather or felt ribbon, the width of a hand, hanging from each shoulder down to their knees. These ribbons were decorated with trinkets, snake’s heads, coins, coral, yellow tin cut in the form of a flower or an animal, especially in the case of shaman women;…”. Mentioned, without any further reference to snake’s heads by: Kodolányi (1967) 392; see Annex 2493–95. 273 “Die Gehäuse von Kaurischnecken, die sich Mokschamordwinen und Terjuchanen anschafften, nähten die Terjuchanen an ihren Kopfputz venec, die Mokschamordwinen dagegen an die Brustspange der Mädchen, an den Zopfanhänger und an dem Brust und Rücken bedeckenden Perlenschmuck. Bei den Bessermanen verbindet sich mit dem Gebrauch der Kaurischnecke der Zauber eines Amuletts. Das Schmuckmaterial weist relativ viele Gehäuse von Kaurischnecken auf. Mindestens 20 Schnecken sind an folgenden Objekttypen befestigt: Halsschmuck [Lehtinen (1994) 250: nr. 83.], Münzkragen [ibid. 261–62: nrs 163–73.], Münzjabot [ibid. 265: nrs 188–89.], Kauriband [ibid. 276–77: nrs 250– 258.], Schulterband [ibid. 277: nrs 259–263.], Schultergurt [ibid. 278: nrs 264–265.], Hemdspange [ibid. 290–291: nrs 356–362, 364 (Fig. 33)] und Brustschild [ibid. 292: nr. 371–372.]. Darüber hinaus finden sich einzelne Schnecken als Effektmittel an folgenden Schmuckstücken: ošpuKranz, Halsschmuck, Kopfbedeckungspange, Münzgürtel und Verzierung des Hochzeitgürtels [ibid. 239: nr. 20, 251: nr. 85, 286: nrs 333–334, 297: nr. 397, 301: nrs 425–426, 428]... aber auch an die Kopftücher und Mäntel von Braut und Brautführerin genäht... Wenn die Hypothese akzeptiert wird, daß die Schmuckstücke mit Tropfenkopeken [“Kopeken mit unregelmäßiger Form, die in Rußland nach der Münzreform von 1534 geprägt wurden”: ibid. 98.] alte Schmucktypen darstellen, kann festgestellt werden, daß eben diese Objekttypen auch ausnahmslos mit Gehäuse von Kaurischnecken versehen sind... Eine Schmuckgarnitur enthält bei jeder ethnischen Gruppe mit Ausnahme der Osttscheremissen durchschnittlich 100 Kaurischnecken.”: Lehtinen (1994) 118. Here I can only refer to the depictions of individual items of dress and to their countless photographs.

Names in Russian dialects also hint at the existence of a snake cult, the most widely spread being zmejnaja golovka ‘little snake’s head’ or užovka (užovok ‘young grass snake’),277 similarly random examples are the Kazak žylan basy ‘snake’s head’278 or Tuvinian čilan baži with the same meaning.279 The Turkmen, Uzbek and Tadžik names also mean ‘snake’s head’.280 Cowries were preserved on the women’s clothing of many Central Asian and North Caucasian peoples until the 17th–19th centuries.281 Cowries appear as Kazak amulets,282 on Persian donkey harnesses283 and among the ornaments and the clothing of Iranian and Pakistani women284 as well as among the hair ornaments Compare Lehtinen (1994) 135. Lehtinen (1994) 135–36. 276 Lehtinen (1994) 182–83. 277 The names žukovina (žuk ‘beetle’) and žernovok (žernovka ‘little millstone’) also appear: Spasskij (1962) 61; compare note 411. 278 They called cowries snake’s heads (žylan basy) and wore them as talismans even in the 20th century: Borozna (1975) 288; compare Bogaevskij (1931) 4. 279 Diószegi (1962) 150: note 47, 177. The back of the shaman’s gown of the Altaic Kižis was decorated with an embroidered row of small babies, below that, in two rows by three times 10 pearl oyster named beads (pearl oyster = jilan baži ‘snake’s head’): ibid. 176. 280 Sewn on the head coverings and caftans of women and children: Lehtinen (1994) 133. – The Usbeg inhabitants of Khorezm wore the ilan baši ‘snake’s head’ as talisman, with cowries was decorated the headdress of girls (čakkalik) to protect against the evil eye: Sznyeszarjev (2003) 30. Turkmans called cowries snake’s heads (jylankelle) and wore them as talismans against the evil eye: Polubojarinova (1991) 69. 281 Kaúri (1953) 394; Polubojarinova (1991) 69. 282 They wore cowries called snake’s heads as talismans even in the 20th century: Borozna (1975) 288; compare Bogaevskij (1931) 4. 283 Compare note 378 on p. 53. 284 Lehtinen (1994) 133. 274 275

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 31. Necklace of Money cowries of a Mokša-Mordvin woman of 20th c. – after Valonen–Rácz (1978) pl. 81

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Introduction: Cowries of the people of Chakas from the Minusinsk basin,285 and of several small Altaic peoples286 and the Nanays,287 the Udeges and the Orochs288 from the Amur region who considered that these cowries offer protection against evil spirits.289 A further evidence of their significance is the fact that cowries appear among the magical objects of shamans in South Siberia as far as China290 in a way that their magical

role291 and along with that, their role as snake symbols are clearly suggested. In the 18th century, Pëtr Simon Pallas observed that the red felt hat of the Shaman Utschilai “was trimmed with fox-fur and decorated with ‘snake’s heads’ (shells)”,292 i.e. most probably it had cowries sewn on it. Well into recent times, cowries were fastened on the crowns/head dresses of the shamans of the Khalkhas and other West Mongolian tribes because there, just as in other areas of North Asia, they were considered to be snake’s head symbols, snakes being the most helpful spirit for the shaman’s journey in the other world.293

Kljueva–Mihajlova (1988) 118. e.g. the false plaits of South Altaic Teleut maidens, braided in three plaits and decorated with beads and cowries (čač-puuš), the two lines of cowrie rings strung on leather and braided among the Kižis, cowries strung in braided lines of beads, as well as head ornaments of rows of cowries braided together with ribbons of beads and cowries or ribbons widening like a fan among North Altaic Kumandins and similar ones among the Shors: Kljueva–Mihajlova (1988) 120–22, 121: fig. 10: a–b, 11. 287 The lower trim of the rectangular hair ornament of Nanay maidens (afi) was decorated with a row of cowries sewn on it: Kljueva–Mihajlova (1988) 115, 116: fig. 6: b. 288 False plaits for both sexes were decorated with cowries braided into them: Kljueva–Mihajlova (1988) 115, 116: fig. 7. 289 Kljueva–Mihajlova (1988) 128. 290 I have not found any summarising publications dealing with this subject, therefore I would like to name a few data mainly from the collection of Vilmos Diószegi (1923–1972) and Mihály Hoppál: at the end of the 19th century the head covering of the Altaic/Uryanhay Shaman Entshu was lined with a felt stripe above the face. The upper trim of the stripe was decorated with feathers of the yellow-alpineeagle or eagle-owls and the lower trim with 19 cowries. On both sides a ribbon hung between each of the 2nd and the 3rd cowries, onto it were sewn 2 beads and 2 cowries each while a black squirrel’s tail hung from the end of the ribbons: Diószegi (1958) 255. The head dresses of Altaic Telengit and Tuba shamans were also decorated with cowries: Diószegi (1962) 173–77, 175: fig. 24, 176: fig. 25. A six-pointed star made of shells (cowries?) decorated the front of the head covering of the Kagay/Tatar Shaman Kuske in Minusinsk: Diószegi (1958) 258. A complete face with cowries sewn on can be seen on a Darhat and three cowries on a Halha shaman’s head covering: Diószegi (1962a) figure before 65. and figure 2 after page 80. It is probable that a strand of strung cowries hung from a Buryat shaman’s crown-shaped iron head ornament among its metal chains with little bells: Diószegi (1960) 152. Vilmos Diószegi has observed regional/geographical differences in the decoration of Tuvan shamans’ dresses, a subject which is well explored. In the western steppe area their head ornaments were decorated with metal or wooden skulls and cowries. Their gowns were ornamented with twisted bundles of ribbons and cowries; the former being retained in the middle steppe region, with textile stripes sewn onto their gowns and boots to symbolise snakes: Diószegi (1962) 172, 176, as well as 180–81. As an example of western head coverings he referred to those of shamans living along the River Kemčik, the front of which was decorated with 4 cowries sewn on, forming a cross and each of the sides was ornamented with a Chinese coin. The upper trim of the head dress of Shaman Mongus Möngä living on the bank of Chadan was decorated with red, blue and yellow ribbons, below them in two rows, metal disks and Money cowries were sewn on, alternating with each other, below these came colorful beads, metal bells and colorful fringes of yarn: Diószegi (1962) 150. He mentions parallels from among Altaic Kižis: ibid. 176. In the middle steppe region, cowries were the most important items of shamans’ head coverings. Those along the Teš River were decorated with two rows of either 4 cowries each sewn on in a cross with 2 cowries each sewn one above the other in between as an alternating pattern or some colorful buttons, two Chinese coins and also a strand of cowries. The same shell ornaments appeared on the head dresses of Tuvans in Mongolia and along the Oka River as well: ibid. 151–56, 152: fig. 3. Mongolian and Halha-Mongolian parallels of the above-mentioned Tuvan head dresses decorated with wooden skulls, coins and cowries: Diószegi (1961) 203, 203: fig. 3. Cowries hung as pendants from the strand of beads on the head dress (xamnar bört) of the Tuvan shaman woman Matpa Ondar excavated in a grave in Inek-Taš at the foot of the Kizil-taiga mountains in 1959–1960: Hoppál (1995) 120: fig. 154. Cowries were found on the clothing of a Mongolian shaman (bő) from the end of the 19th century: ibid. 53, 171: fig. 51, on a shaman’s head dress decorated with feathers from Abakan in the Minussinsk basin (Hakassija, Russia), from the turn 285 286

A good example for how wide spread and complex this custom was is that at the turn of the 19th/20th centuries, carriers, butchers and farmers all over Germany would still suspend cowrie amulets called snake’s heads onto their belts or clothes.294 1.3.3.2.4. Summary of the Symbolism of Cowrie Wear To summarise the data for the three possible symbolic interpretations of cowries discussed above, it can be said that except for the earliest (Upper Paleolithic?) times they have hardly ever been worn only as beads, i.e. without any significance attached to them.295 However, while their role in the North European-Asian snake cult is usually treated as an independent phenomenon, the three interpretations may be unified or at least connected, including their similarity to the vulva and the eye. For women, cowries offered protection in each phase of fertility based on their similarity both to the vulva and the eye. As shown already by Egyptian grave finds and depictions and later by the anthropologically more precisely identified material from the Iron Age until the Middle Ages to be discussed below, as well as by modern and contemporary ethnographic observations, cowries were considered protective, not by both sexes, but mainly, though not exclusively, by women and girls. In other words, it was probably the symbolism related to female fertility which was decisive in cowrie wear. This is also supported by the change in cowrie wear of the 19th – 20th centuries: ibid. 120, 175: fig. 153, on the gown of the Shagai shaman Tanöle Čuprikov photographed in Abakan in 1941: ibid. 23, 169: fig. 14, on the collar of an Evenki/Oroch shaman from the Hailar region (North Eastern China) photographed in 1959: ibid. 90, 172–73: fig. 105, on the round collar and the 2 wide chest ribbons of an Oroch shaman from Manchuria (North Eastern China) photographed in 1963: ibid. 164, 179: 229. A–C, as well as on the head covering of a Kachin shaman: ibid. 141. It deserves mention that cowries were always sewn on with their serrated aperture outwards. Anohin (2003) 138–145, figs 6–7, 10, 13, 21b, 22–23, 35–37, 39 and 44. 291 Cowries richly decorating the collar of the clothing of the Evenki shaman Tu Mingyang were interpreted as having the power to avert evil: Hoppál (1995) 92, 173: fig. 109 (district of Hulunbel, Manchuria, North Eastern China) photograph by Guo Shuyun, 1990); Reuss (1997). 292 Diószegi (1967) 85. 293 Johansen (1989) 222. 294 Schlangen- und Otterköpfchen: Seligman (1910) II: 126–27, 127: note*); Schlangen- und Schneckenkopf: Schilder (1926) 325: with further bibliography. 295 There are ethnographic records mentioning that cowries appeared in the identified complexes. In 20th century Central Asian ethnographic material, pendants of strands of beads with a cowrie at their end to decorate the plaits of young girls, cowries strung among strands of

41

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 32. Holiday clothes with Money cowrie ornaments of an Erzyan-Mordvin girl of 20th c. – after Valonen–Rácz (1978) pls 69/79

42

Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 33. Brooch (Hemdspange) of a Mari woman of 20th c. with Money cowries, coins and beads – after Lehtinen (1994) 291: fig. 359

at the end of the Iron Age, namely that from the Roman/ Sarmatian Period on. At this time the majority of the shells did not have their dorsum removed to be mounted on a surface but were only perforated for suspension, which obviously put an end to their horizontal use emphasising the similarity to the eye. The exception is the huge area from the Baltic to China, where cowrie wear to the present day is explained by the inhabitants as being related to the snake cult. It is also a possibility, however, that beliefs more general than those connected to snake cult, such as protection against sterility and against the evil eye might well have also justified and strengthened cowrie wear from the very beginning. Whenever cowries were not suspended but sewn onto cloth or leather, they were always turned with their underside, i.e. their aperture, towards the viewer and not with their back visible to resemble a snake’s head!

general protection against harm. I have not been able to pin point the date of the appearance of this kind of use since the sporadic eye inlays of the afore-mentioned Neolithic skulls cannot be treated as a manifestation of this role. Thus, the Sudanese finds (293–99) from the first quarter of the 1st millennium BC as well as finds from the Scythian Period discussed below (horse burials: 526–27; horse harnesses: 638?, 649, 684?, 721?) are already reflections of this extended symbolism. A conclusion of great importance for the rest of this study should be drawn from all this: it is not always certain from the above summary of theories based on the most important published Egyptian finds and their interpretation through the interpretation of ancient sources maybe not always certainly refers to the cowrie family. Conversely, ethnographic observations with a large spatial and chronological scope may be valid for regions and periods with rich archaeological cowrie material between these two extremes even if the relevant written sources are lacking.

As mentioned above, cowries have never been exclusively worn by women. As rare finds in men’s graves and horse burials as well as in ethnographic material connected to men and harness elements for animals of both sexes, the use of cowries must have had a significance beyond the symbolism related to the female sex, as a more abstract,

1.3.4. 339–439. Currency or Ornament/Amulet It is widely known, maybe even better than the uses listed above, that cowries which were nice and could be used without being altered,296 more precisely two species, Money and Ringed cowries, were used as money in trade to regions

beads, crib ornaments of cowries and tinkles or the so-called mulčok amulets made up of 2 cowries and beads were found in children’s jewelery. They were believed to protect against the evil eye among the Tadžiks as well as in the Fergana basin where necklaces, bracelets and pendants necessarily included at least 1 cowrie each. Specimens with a pattern similar to tigers’ skin, which they called ‘camel’s eyes’ were especially valued: Borozna (1975) 288.

296

43

Jackson (1917) 123.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads both close to and further away from their original habitats. There seems to have been no difficulty to transport them or to count large numbers of individually less valuable specimens.297 The earliest data concern China and India; cowrie money was used in Tibet until the 12th century, in the Philippines until around 1800 and, in less developed regions of China and India, in Siam (now Thailand) and New Guinea even until the 20th century.298 However, their role as currency was most significant in Central Africa, especially between the 12th and 19th centuries (Fig. 34). As we know, cowries were transported there mainly by Arabs and later by European trading and sailing peoples: Venetians, Portuguese and English, so that they would be freed from the complications of bartering. Because of their beauty, these shells were bought as adornments even in areas where they were not used as currency, e.g. in Central Africa. Due to the subject of this work I have decided not to deal with the various forms299 of the mosaic-like, though extensive, use of cowries as currency300 since the 9th century until the present day or with how their value has changed.301 I much rather wish to emphasise that none of the general ethnographic works I have consulted includes data concerning the use of cowrie money either in Eurasia west and north of China, Tibet and India, including the steppe and forest steppe areas or in Europe, although none of these sources preclude this possibility (see chapter 1.3.4.3).

used, not so much based on their weight but rather counted one by one. Larger amounts were put in baskets.302 It would hardly have been possible for me to provide an overview of the use of cowries as currency (as well) in two ancient areas, (north) China and India without summaries on the topic. I have only found such a publication concerning China, therefore below I will attempt a brief overview from my special point of view and will refer to India only through some examples. This is necessary, not only for the sake of providing clear insight but will be of great help in connection with possible Eurasian/European steppe/forest steppe relationships in the Scythian Period. 1.3.4.1. 339–416, 425–39. Cowrie Money and Other Cowries from Southeast Asia (China, Japan, Korea) Based on my research of the relevant literature, it seems that experts in archaeological cowries have overlooked Namio Egami’s fundamental study303 dealing mainly with China, although mentioning Japan, India and (South) Korea as well. It is such a complex work that I will only attempt to summarise it briefly. Though the circulation of cowries as currency can be verified in China only from the 8th century BC and in India around the beginning of our era,304 their use in other ways began much earlier. Schilder (1926) 320–21. A bundle of almost 20,000 pieces, weighing around 40 lbs. (20 kg) was the load of a coolie, a bundle of 70,000 pieces was half the size of a camel’s burden. 303 Členova (1972) 53–54. She has drawn my attention to his earlier work on this topic but it proved to be of no use to me as it was written in Japanese, without a summary in a European language, compare Egami (1932). Later, he published an extended version of this work in English which, together with some other publications, served as the basis of this chapter and the relevant catalogue (4.5), compare Egami (1974). – Andrea H. Vaday has drawn my attention to the new paper of Li Yung-ti with the following conclusions: „According to the Shi Ji, bei, or sea shells, were widely circulated before the Qin empire [221–206 BC] established a unified monetary system. Yet, tempting though it may be to make a connection between the circulation of bei in Eastern Zhou [770–256 BC] and the presence of cowries at Shang [/Yin 1550–1050 BC] and Western Zhou [1122–771 BC] archaeological sites, the avaiable textual and inscriptional data do not conform the use of cowries as money in the Shang and Western Zhou periods. Cowries mentioned in Shang and Early amd Middle Western Zhou bronze inscriptions were prestige items given by the king or other members of the elite to their subordinates. They were treasured probably because their maritime origin made them exotic items procured at some cost through long-distance trade networks, and they werw often used as ornaments. In archaeological contexts, they are typically found as components of personal adornments and horse trappings (...). Imitations made in other materials may also have been for decorative use. Cowries may even have had religious functions, for oracle bone inscriptions document inquiries about the proper quantities of cowries to be used in rituals. Most of all, cowries seemed to have been used as mortuary objects. Their placement in Shang and Zhou burials in locations such as the mouth, the hands, and areas around the knees or ankles of the deceased suggests that they were the early form of the han... and the wo... of Zhou mortuary custom (...). It is possible, that the widerspread use of cowries for ornamental, religious, and mortuary purposes among the Shang and Zhou elite made them suitable for use as royal gifts. By the Middle Western Zhou period, these standard gifts were perhaps beginning to be thought of as a standard of value. This, in turn, may have eventually led to the use of cowries as a medium of exchange and means of payment. But on present evidence, it seems unlikely that cowries were used as money until some time after the Middle Western Zhou period.”: Li (2005) 17–18. 304 Compare Bergman (1935) 112–13, pl. XV: 14–17; Egami (1974) 49. 302

In China, southeast India and in the 17th–18th centuries in Guinea, cowries used as currency were perforated and suspended on a cord. Elsewhere, unmodified cowries were

Quiggin (1949) 25; Clark (1986) 24–25. Except for the South Western Indian Malabar coast and Ceylon we have data from numerous regions of India, in some places filling the very same role almost until the present day. 299 According to the effective but imprecise summary of Cheryl Claassen “those shells which have served as money in an unmodified state (with the exception of stringing holes) are... cowries in China, Thailand, India and many Pacific Islands, prior to European influence and the eastern US, west Africa and India after European influence.”: Claassen (1998) 209. 300 Summarising: Schilder (1926) 318–20; Schilder (1952) 40–41. Detailed: Martens (1872) 65–69; Schneider (1905) 101–73, index: 181– 82, 183; Pfeiffer (1914) 258–62; Jackson (1917) index: 211; Eichhorn (1929) 264–66; Einzig (1949) 63, 89–90, 102, 115, 118, 125, 130, 132–36, 139, 141–48, 154–58, 250, 253–54, 282, 285, 311, 384, 399, 402–03, 413–14, 445, 451. Quiggin (1949) 25–36, 46–48, 62, 93–94, 99, 101–02, 104, 105, 110–12, 114, 168, 177–78, 191–94, 196, 202–03, 209, 211, 214, 224–27, 243–45, 249, 252, 258–59; Johnson (1970); Schläger (2002) 107–09; Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 96; Trubitt (2003) 246–47. 301 The earliest data I have found comes from the work of the Arabic traveller and geographical writer Ibn Battuta (1304–1369 who visited the Maldive Islands in 1343 and 1346 where they called 100,000 cowries bostū and where 4–12 bostū were worth a golden dinar. In the trade with Male and Jūjū tribes of Africa, 1150 cowries made the change for a golden dinar: Carswell (1975–77) 137. The most detailed modern data: Schneider (1905) 101–73. The change in the value (“inflation”) of a hundred cowries each between 1700 and 1900 is described in gold pfennigs based on four Indian/Far Eastern and four African examples: Schilder (1926) 321. According to an illustrative example in the Middle Ages when cowrie money was introduced to the Baganda, 2 pieces would have bought a woman, whereas in our century an ox was exchanged for 2500 pieces to be given as a wedding present: Elliot Smith (1917) XIX–XX. The latest summary I have found: Johnson (1970). 297 298

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Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 34. Map of the use of cowrie currency – after Schilder (1952) 42: fig. 45

Fig. 35. The Chinese sign for cowrie and a recent shell – after Johansson (2005) 18: fig. 4b

The first mention of cowries in the Chinese literature dates from the Han Period (206 BC–220 AD). According to these sources, north Chinese specimens dated no earlier than the Yin Period (1550–1050 BC) were considered freshwater cowries. At the time of the Ch‘in Dynasty (221–206 BC), however, it was already known that their habitat was the southern sea (Nan-hai) along the coast of the present day province of Kuang-tung/Guang-dong. They knew about the Money and Ringed cowries (pei-ch‘ich– Figs 35–36)305 which were transported there from the coast, south of the Yangtze River (Ch‘ang-jiang) and – perhaps from the Han Period or even later on – over land from India and Myanmar (Burma). Large ‘purple (colored) cowries’ (tzu-pei) known also from Han Period literature were possibly specimens of a species of the genus Mauritia which are partly purple:306 i.e. Cowries from Mauritius Island or Arabian cowries or Tiger cowries from the genus Cypraea.307 They were collected, as far as one can tell since the sources are quite difficult to interpret, first in Indochina,308 then in the first half of the 1st millennium AD also (?) in Taiwan (perhaps

from the Ryu-kyu Islands). From the second half of the 1st millennium AD they were collected around Sulu between Borneo and the Philippines, as well as on the Laccadive and the Maldive Islands309 west and southwest of the southern end of India. From here, cowries were transported via India (Bengal), Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand over Yunnan to China.310 The first sources concerning the role of cowries are the magical inscriptions on Yin Period tortoise shells and animal bones and inscriptions on Chou Period (1050–225 BC) bronze objects. The expression p‘êng ‘unit of measure’ probably meant a necklace of 24–26 shells long enough to fit an adult.311 Inscriptions from the Late Yin Period (1200–1050 BC) reveal that cowries were donated, hoarded and taken away by force. At this time, 1–10 p‘êngs could be donated while this number rose in the Chou Period to 35–50.312 Archaeological finds can be interpreted and evaluated in accordance with these written sources. The use of cowries did not spread fast after prehistoric times in North China, in the valley of the Yellow River (Huang Ho). So far, only a few (?) specimens (382) are known from sites of the Late Neolithic East Chinese painted pottery Yang-shao Culture (3500–2200 BC)313 while there are some cowrie and cowrie imitation finds from sites (382, 383) and burials (356?, 414?) known from the later, black pottery Lung-shan Culture (2500–2000 BC). Johan Gunnar Andersson already emphasised the importance of

Pei: the hieroglyph is a simplified drawing of the serrated side of a cowrie – see Johansson (2005) 17, 18: fig. 4b (Fig. 35) – and was further simplified from the Chou Age onwards until it completely lost its cowrie character. Words and names for a number of things are based on this sign which are connected to the use of money, to treasures etc., for example money, trade, reward, loss, richness, thing. valuable, alms, prize, bribery, to gain, to buy, to store, to lend, to give etc.: Gibson (1940) 36–39, 36–39: pls II–II A, III–III A; compare Schneider (1905) 103–05; Jackson (1917) 181–82, 180: figs A–I; Bykov (1959) 5; Egami (1974) 15, 15: fig. 10 (Fig. 36). Ildikó Ecsedy has also noted that the dictionary of the emperor Kang Hsi (1661–1722) based on Hsü Chen’s (†120) work entitled Shuo Wên defined pei as a sea animal living in a shell and that the words pei in North China, puei in Canton, p‘ae in Korea all meant ‘cowrie’, later ‘money, currency’: Ecsedy (1992) 30–31. 306 The conchologist John Wilfrid Jackson considered purple cowries to possibly be juvenile, not yet adult specimens of Money cowries, the dorsal side of which is deep purple in immature animals: Jackson (1917) 178: note 173. In the modern description of the species there is no mention of this color only that they are colored “yellow to white or dark orange”: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 205. 307 Egami (1974) 22–36, summary: 36–37. Indo-Pacific cowries from Mauritius Island and Tiger cowries, as well as the Asian subspecies of the Arabian cowries native from the Persian Gulf to South China – Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica asiatica Schilder & Schilder, 1939. – could certainly be gathered there. 308 The Chinese names for cowrie, pei, pei-ch‘ich and pa-tzu are similar to the Cambodian bior, Khmer bier and Thai bijas, which suggests that the name pei was introduced together with cowries when latter were transported to North China from South China: Egami (1974) 29. 305

For a separate discussion see chapter 1.4.1.1. Egami (1974) 29–37; compare Andersson (1934) 296–97; Bykov (1969) 4; Ecsedy (1992) 30–31. This is how the opinion that they were imported from East India should also be interpreted: Schneider (1905) 103; Quiggin (1949) 224. 311 According to Harry E. Gibson the word meant a pair of cowrie strings fastened to the two ends of a rod as can be seen on the hieroglyph. The number denoting the number of cowries was written above this sign. They probably strung 10 cowries on each string, thus, one p‘êng could mean 20 cowries: Gibson (1940) 40–43, 40: pl. IV, 41: pl. VI, 42: pl. V. 312 The vassals or the noblemen receiving a donation from the king or a prince had a bronze kettle made from it, setting it up and offering it to their ancestors’ temple as homage to the event mentioned in the inscription: Egami (1974) 15–22. 313 Presently the Yang-shao Culture (3500–2200 BC) dated with the 14C radiocarbon method is divided into three periods: Ma-chia-yao, Pan-shan and Ma-ch‘ang: Chang (1977) 118–21, 485, 84: fig. 31. 309 310

45

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads these early finds but his dating314 and interpretation (Fig. 37)315 of the finds needed revision,316 even though the large-scale excavations after 1945 have revealed very few further comparably early finds.317 Large numbers of finds Based on finds from the provinces Honan (414), Kanshu (356), Shanshi (382) and Shantung (383) considered to date from the Yang-shao Period: Andersson (1934) 323, 323: fig. 140: a; Andersson (1943) 172, pl. 120: 12; compare Bogaevskij (1931) 2; Egami (1974) 3; Eliade (1997) 175, 178. On the Culture: Chang (1977) 91–126. 315 Based on the broadest ethnographic–archaeological material Gunnar J. Andersson has tried to prove that the depiction of cowries appearing in the painted so-called cowrie-pattern on Pan-shan (considered a period of the Yang-shao Culture) and on younger Ma-ch‘ang style ceramics. On burial urns, as a symbol of female genitalia, it stood for vitality, making it easier for the deceased to enter the new life and it meant the characteristic cowrie-pattern referring to money cowries, e.g. on dishes from the sites Pan Shan and Pien Chia Kou: Andersson (1929) 65–66, 69; Andersson (1929a) 158–59; Rydh (1929) 103, 140–41: pl. XI: 4; Andersson (1934) 322–24, 324: fig. 141 (Fig. 35); Johansson (2005) 17, 18: fig. 4a. B. L. Bogaevskij developed this idea saying that the Yang-shao oval outline of cowries with a middle line or, according to the principle of pars pro toto their most spectacular and, at the same time, symbolic-magical detail, the serrated aperture appeared in depictions of cowries. They were depicted later, at the end of the period and in the Ma-ch‘ang and the Hsin Tien (1300–1100 BC) Periods as a geometrical serrated strip alone or with a spiral pattern: Bogaevskij (1931) 7–30, 89. The depiction of various molluscs (rakoviny) was also examined in the Mediterranean area, finding only egg snails (Ovula ovum) with a shape similar to the family of cowries: on magic purpose Cretan representations: Bogaevskij (1931) 46–47, 47: figs 20, 51–54, 52: figs 26, 87; Podani–Lexa (1988) 14–15: nr. 3. On the influence of shells on the patterns of ceramics in Knossos: Evans (1964) IV/1: 108–15. Bogaevskij believed that the painted dishes of the Early Bronze Age Cucuteni-Tripolye (kukuteni-tripol’skaja) Culture (4500–3700 BC) from the basin of the River Danube, Dnestr and Dnepr depicted river and land molluscs but also hypothesised that certain oval and saw-patterns were meant to depict bivalve shells or stylised cowries. He did not believe that people of the Cucuteni–Tripolye Culture thought of cowries when seeing these patterns but he maintained that these apotropaic serrated stripe painted on sacred dishes evoked associations connected to the protection of the bodily remains of the viewer and his relatives: Bogaevskij (1931) 87. The above interpretations are no longer valid today, compare: Egami (1974) 3. The same negative point of view may be the reason why Valerij Vladimirovič Evsjukov did not repeat the ideas of Andersson on cowrie depictions but noted evasively: “The opinion that the figure [depicted on the dishes] be a seed-sower is interesting: in some cases one can actually discern longish ovals between the arms and the legs which in their outline do remind of seeds. At the same time such a conclusion is only a hypothesis and cannot be regarded as a fact. Strictly speaking the very same depictions might also be interpreted with another meaning, e.g. as vulva symbols (simboly, naprimer kteičeskie)”: Evsjukov (1988) 37, 35: fig. 7; compare ibid. 11, 83, 11: fig. 1: a (= Andersson (1934) 324: fig. 141). While briefly discussing the Cucuteni–Tripolye Culture he did not mention the presence of cowrie symbols, nor did he include one among the plates but in a comparative table he named “fertility cult” as characteristic of the Cucuteni–Tripolye Culture: Chang (1977) 110, 129–32, 153, 130–33: figs 61–63. A sentence on the painted ornaments of Yang-shao ceramics in another book is somewhat self-contradictory, namely that “there is no sign of depictions of animals or humans. The shell of cami-shells, however, do appear on them.”: Fitzgerald (1989) 52. It is evident that “cauri-shells” incorrect on itself, was misread. 316 It seems probable that several sites (e.g. 356, 414) should not be dated to the Yang-shao but rather to the Lung-shan Culture or even to the late Yin Age (342): Egami (1974) 3. Namio Egami maintained that the connection between the strange oval pattern of Kan-su painted ceramics and cowries cannot be shown. In 1934, N. Palmgren also called this pattern cowrie-pattern, while in 1960 Chang-Kuang-chich, rejecting the presence of cowries in the Yang-shao Culture considered it, while excluding cowrie models, directly as a female genital pattern: Egami (1974) 3, 9. The view that certain bone amulets with an unusual shape (356) imitated cowries was also questioned by: Egami (1974) 3. 317 “Moreover, there seems to be no case of cowries or their imitations found among the many sites of Yang-shao Culture excavated after the war such as the Pan-p‘o site in Hsi-an, Shen-hsi Province and the Miao-ting314

Fig. 36. The hieroglyphics for cowries appearing in bone (a) and bronze inscriptions (b) of Yin and Chou periods – after Egami (1974) 15: fig. 10

Fig. 37. Chinese pot from Ma Chang period decorated with painted cowries – after Johansson (2005) 18: fig. 4a; Andersson (1934) 324: fig. 141

46

Introduction: Cowries were found on sites of the Erh-li-t`ou Culture of the Hsia Dynasty (ca. 2200–1700 BC).318

thousands were found placed in drum-shaped vessels in graves (409).

Cowries came to be used more often during the Shang/ Yin Period (1550–1050 BC), mainly in its later phase (1200–1050 BC: 339–342) in the capital An-yang-hsien/ Ta-i-shang (339–47) and at other sites (353–54, 412). This change was brought about both by the economic and military activities of the population and, even more so, the connections established with the foreign cultures of Central and South China.319 Most of the finds were Ringed and Money cowries, although specimens of other species probaly also came to light (339: 2 large ones in 1932) while imitations made of bone, stone, copper and the shells of other species have also been found (339, 354).320 All were often placed in the mouth or the hands (347) of the deceased as amulets (han).321 With a removed dorsum and the aperture facing outwards they were used as adornments on horses’ harnesses, on the bridle straps and on the reins (341, 343–44: with a reconstruction).322 At other times they were hidden as treasure in storage pits along with dishes, bone objects, pang shells, tortoise shells, deer bones, sometimes even with gold and jade objects (344, 346).323 At this time, there is no sign of their being used as currency.324 In spite of their appearance,often quite large numbers (342: >7000, 412: 3790, 353: c. 460, 343: 127, 341: >100 pieces, etc.), they could only be used by emperors, princes and the court nobility.325 Cowries have also been found northwest of this area, in the province of Kan-su (367) and to its southwest, in Yunnan, where

In the next period, at the time of the Hsi (i.e. West) Chou Dynasty (1122–771 BC)326 the use of cowries (348–51, 358–59, 364–65, 391–92, 394, 400–05) in North China became more wide spread. From then on, they appear not only in Shen-hsien (province Shen-shi) but also in the tumuli of the emperors and the nobility of the feudal Wei (364–65) and Kuo (400–05) empire. The number of find complexes rose compared to the Shang/Yin Period but the absolute number of shells declined (348, 351, 358, 364, 400), imitations made from stone, clay and shell becoming the majority (350, 364, 400, 402, 404–05). These changes did not affect the use of cowries. In accordance with Shang/ Yin traditions, cowries were used or put into graves or votive pits in both ways: either as burial finds in the mouth or the hands of the deceased called han (348–49, 358) or suspended as head- and hip-dress or as bracelets (350, 364, 400, 403–04) or as bridle and/or rein ornaments on horse harness (351: with a reconstruction, 365). Cowries or their imitations can be found in both men’s and women’s graves (391–92 and 349?–50?).327 After that, i.e. during the two periods of the rule of the Tung (Eastern) Chou Dynasty – the Ch‘un-ch‘iu (‘Spring and Autumn’: 770–476 BC) and the Chan-kuo (‘Warring States’: 475–256/255 BC) – (352, 355, 357, 360–63, 366, 368–69, 381, 384–85, 387–88, 395–98, 406–08, 411, 413)328 the use of cowries – Ringed (352, 368, 396–98) and Money cowries (368, 396) – became more varied. They were present in each capital of the period and also appeared in the province of Kan-su (Sha-Ching Culture: 700–500 BC – 395–98) to the north and in Central Mongolia (352, 368–69). Natural cowries (360: 984, 363: 317 pieces, etc.) in find complexes were again outnumbered by imitations in bone, fresh- and saltwater shells and pang shells both in settlements and in burials (355, 357, 361–62, 366, 368, 381, 384–85, 387, 408, 411, 413) and most probably in everyday life as well.329 According to the chief archaeologist at the excavation, Kuan Pai-i, the 317 cowries found in a famous burial (363) suggest that they were given as money.330

kou site in San-men-hsia, Ho-nan Province except those from the painted pottery site at Li-chiao-ts‘ung, Ju-ch‘eng-hsien, Shan-hsi Province [382]. For these reasons Andersson’s view that cowries and their imitations were prevalent in the Yellow River Valley of the Yang-shao Period should be re-examined. At least what he maintains to be the cases does not seem to be a general phenomenon. The same can be said of the Yellow River Valley in the Lung-shan Period. Although the cowries unearthed at Puchao-sai [393]... might have been from the Lung-shan Period, there is no evident case of cowries excavated from the Lung-shan Culture sites being widely distributed in the area extending from the Shan-tung Peninsula and the Yellow River Valley to the lower reaches of Huai and Yangtze Rivers.”: Egami (1974) 3–4. 318 Chang (1986) 312; compare BHV 10 (1998) 474. 319 Egami (1974) 12; referred to by: Claassen (1998) 212. 320 The summarising work of Wang Yü-ch‘üan: Wo-kuo ku-tai-huo-pi te ch‘i-yüan hai fa-chan (The origin and development of ancient coins in our country). Peking 1957. Referred to by: Egami (1974) 5–6. 321 For details see below. 322 Li-chi also mentioned feng – besides han – meaning the presence of a cart and horse (but also grave finds in general). The notion was designated with a double sign, one meaning ‘alms’, the other ‘cowries’, showing how important they were for the deceased: Egami (1974) 40. 323 Egami (1974) 4–6, 12–13. 324 Opposing e.g. the views of the excavating archaeologist, Li Chi: Egami (1974) 6; stating they were already in circulation as currency at this time: Členova (1972) 53. This view is based on the collection of Terrien de Lacouperie: Catalogue of Chinese coins from the 7th century BC to 621 including the series in the British Museum, (London 1892.) and maintained e.g. by Paul Enzig, to be late as 1949, namely, that cowries were used as currency as early as around the 24th century BC seems even less acceptable, compare Einzig (1949) 253–54. John Wilfrid Jackson, on the other hand, already pointed out in 1917 that the late sources analysed by Terrien de Lacouperie are not reliable for dating and that the circulation of cowrie currency cannot be shown around 2000 BC but only from the 7th century BC onwards: Jackson (1917) 177. 325 Egami (1974) 12.

Only in the second period of the Tung (Eastern) Chou Dynasty, the Chan-kuo (‘Warring States’: 475–256/255 BC) (366, 381, 384–85, 399, 406–08) the number of natural cowries probably almost equalled the number of cowrie imitations made of bone, stone, pang shells, copper, gold-plated copper, gold-plated bronze and lacquer (366, 381, 384–85, 399). Large numbers of cowries were found in several grave complexes (385: several thousands, 408: The beginning is traditionally dated to 1122 BC, the hypothesised latest onset is 1027 BC but most historians date it to around 1050 BC: BHV 10 (1998) 482: note 3. See Western (Middle) Chou Period (771–473 BC – 394), Western or Eastern Chou Periods (1122–771–255 BC: 358–59). 327 Egami (1974) 6–9, 13. 328 BHV 10 (1998) 480. 329 Compare Egami (1974) 9. 330 Egami (1974) 13–14. 326

47

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads and the evil eye.336 For this reason they were first acquired only by noblemen, but later, in the Tung (Eastern) Chou Dynasty and the Han Period by common people as well.

more than 3000 pieces, etc.). Furthermore, it was during this period that carved, engraved cowrie patterns first appeared on bronze kettles (407), three-legged dishes (Fig. 38), dress adornments (e.g. clips), hatchets and musical instruments (e.g. the hu-ch‘un).331

According to a description of Tsa-chi II from the 3rd–2nd centuries BC Li-chi (Tracts on ritual practice) the number of cowries (han) put in burials not as jewelry, dress or harness ornaments depended on the rank of the deceased: the han for the king comprised 9 cowries, 7 for a prince, 5 for a ta-fu and 3 cowries for a shih.337 The nine bodily openings were originally sealed with gold, jade or cowries to prevent evil spirits taking the form of ants, from entering the body338 or to keep the body from decomposition.339

Namio Egami has not studied the use of cowries in later dynasties, therefore there is no mention of Ch‘in (221–206 BC) data. The latest examples are three specimens from the Han Period (206 BC–220 AD): a sheep-shaped talisman with a Tiger cowrie as its trunk and with a cast bronze head and legs (380–Fig 89) from a man’s grave, verifying the use of cowries in the southern province of Yunnan (410) and a northeastern Chinese burial (389) which, due to its location, might indicate that cowries were transported to Korea from China (see 439). As I have not found any summaries or references to ones on China from the Ch‘in Dynasty onwards, on Japan, Indochina or India, it was not possible to collect the relevant archaeological material.

When the power of the dynasty was extended to areas south of the Yangtze and the Huai River during the Tung (Eastern) Chou Period (770–256/255 BC) the inhabitants of North China could import large amounts of cowries and, thus, it became generally possible to possess them, allowing cowries to function as measures of value. According to written sources, it was well known in the Han Period that during pre-Ch‘in times (i.e. before 221 BC) tortoise shells, cowries, cast bronze coins of sword- (tao), plough- (chuan), bell-, small shovel-, key-, hoe-shape and pu money, at first without inscriptions, were used. Later small gold bars with inscriptions, cast bronze coins showing the weight and the place of issue340 and finally round bronze coins with a rectangular, or rarely with a round hole and also displaying the weight and the place of issue – used until the 20th century

Based on the above, it is evident that the Chinese found various sorts of cowrie imitations just as suitable for the purposes mentioned in the introduction to this chapter as the few identified natural specimens. The spread of various imitations was earlier dated to the 8th century BC on.332 Based on the above finds, however, this can be dated back more than a thousand years earlier (e.g. 339, 354, 356? etc.), The hexagonal or oval imitations with an even or diagonally ribbed base, a longitudinal groove and one or two holes were made of stone, bone, mother-ofpearl, shells (including pang shells), jade, later of copper, sometimes even gold plated (366) and the latest ones were made of bronze (Figs 39. 1, 40. 7–8),333 in a somewhat different area.334 It has also been shown that cowries were appreciated, kept and donated as valuables from the late Yin and early Hsi (West) Chou Period. They were used as jewelry, dress and harness ornaments not only because of the value ascribed to them or their natural beauty but because they were considered talismans for reproduction and new life (as in afterlife)335 due to their resemblance to female genitals and as being effective against evil spirits

Verborgene, noch nicht ans Licht getretene.”: Kösler (1958) 28. “...we are able to glimpse broad connections between life symbols, all of which were enlisted in the service of the cult of death, certainly the rows of teeth [the so-called death pattern], the red color and the cowrie images, probably also the spirals, the gourds, the check pattern and the snake image – a many-toned orchestra, attuned to a resurrection symphony intended to make it easier for the departed to take the fateful step through the gates of death.”: Andersson (1934) 329. All that in Mircea Eliade’s words: “The metaphysical and ritual value of the ‘cowrie-pattern’, ‘death-pattern’ are evident here. This decorative pattern, characteristic of Chinese pottery, played an important role in the cult of the dead. The depiction of the shell [i.e. cowrie, also below – L. K.] or geometric elements derived from a schematic description of it connect the deceased with cosmic forces governing fertility, birth and life. It is the symbolism of the shell which has a religious value: the mere depiction of it, whether naturalistic or reduced to a spiral or the cowrie pattern would have been effective in the cult of the dead. This explains the fact that one can find cowries and urns decorated with the cowrie-patterns at many prehistoric Chinese sites.”: Eliade (1997) 183–84; Eliade (1997a) II: 8. 336 Egami (1974) 37–38. 337 Egami (1974) 39–40. Also mentioned by Géza Róheim in 1946: “To this end they even employed porcelain shells [cowries], i.e. the general symbols of value (shells functioned as currency). «They filled up with porcelain shells the mouth of the Son of the Sky – says chapter 56 of the Li-chi [Book of rites: an encyclopedia of ancient ceremonial usages, religious creeds and social institutions from 221–207 BC] –, seven [porcelain shells] in the mouth of a feudal lord, five in the mouth of a high, three in the mouth of an average official.» Average people get [1?] porcelain shell.”: Róheim (1984), 371. 338 Compare Bykov (1969) 5–6. 339 Compare Jackson (1917) 182–83; Rydh (1931) 91; Eliade (1997) 174–75. 340 Hoe- and sword-shaped coins remained in use for the longest time, finally disappearing in the 1st century AD: Bykov (1969) 7.

Egami (1974) 13–14, 41–42, 13: fig. 8, 14: fig. 9. Johan Gunnar Andersson also published a possibly Han Period bronze pot lid with 6 lines of cowries arranged in a net-like pattern on it and an undated bronze clip ornamented with a row of cowries framed with cowrie pattern: Andersson (1934) 323–24, 303: fig. 133, 311: fig. 135 (Fig. 38). 332 E.g. Členova (1972) 54. 333 Quiggin (1949) 225, 225: fig. 92 (Fig. 39. 1); Bykov (1969) 5: pl. I: 7–8 (Fig. 40. 7–8); Členova (1972) 54. On imitations from bone, motherof-pearl (Anodonta chinensis), stone, jade, as well as on imitations with and without inscriptions: Zheng (1959) 65–66, 65: figs 3–26. Tatjána Kardos (East Asian Museum, Budapest) has helped me with this article written in Chinese; I wish to thank her for her kindness. 334 Imitations of white stone are mainly known from North China, the province of Hebei, whereas bone and bronze ones were much wider spread: from Kan-su to South China: Členova (1972) 54 (dated late, to the 5th–6th centuries BC or even later). 335 “Ein bei den alten Hochkulturen weit verbreitetes Symbol des Weiblichen war auch in China die Kauri-Muschel, die jedoch eine allgemeinere Bedeutung hatte, nämlich das im Dunkel Weilende, das 331

48

Introduction: Cowries – were circulated.341 A speculation found in the sources342 or drawn as a consequence on them343 which still appears in the latest scientific literature,344 however, was rejected by Namio Egami: in his opinion cowries do not have a longer history than other kinds of money types345 and cannot be considered the first type of Chinese currency.346 It is also Bykov (1969) 4–11. Mária Ferenczy, in a fax dated 16th October 1999, has made such useful remarks answering my questions connected to the identification of bronze coins, in my opinion insufficiently specified, used to date the cowries from the Khara-khoto region (371–79) that I would like to quote them: “The coins are quite certainly round bronze coins with a rectangular hole in the middle and an inscription on one side. These were moulded (and not minted). At first, the inscription named the weight of the coin, however, from the 7th century onwards it included the magic motto (nien hao) of the ruler issuing it, in addition to signalling that the coin served as currency. The motto was used instead of the ruler’s name during his life (this is why it appeared on money) or during his reign or for a shorter time because it could be changed from time to time upon political or magic considerations. Therefore historical sources allow us to date the period in which a given motto was used to the year and the month. Based on that, the coins can be dated (at least post quem); but can be used to date other finds only with much circumspection because (1) these mottoes and their abbreviations (or what stood for them) are sometimes difficult to elucidate unambiguously, (2) what is more important, they often made good copies based on magical considerations even in old times, (3) the coins could be in use for centuries – until they were completely worn down or moulded by someone.”. I thank Mária Ferenczy for her kindly help. 342 In part 6. II. of his work entitled Shuo-wên Chieh-tsu (the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary finished in 100 BC), Hsü Chen (†120) says that “Cowries are marine shellfish... In ancient times cowries were used as moneys and tortoise shell was regarded as a treasure. In the Chou Period there were chuan (sword- and plough-shaped moneys) and in the Ch‘in Period cowries were abolished and round bronze coins were used instead.”: Egami (1974) 42–43. 343 The fact that in the Yin and Chou Periods two hieroglyphs were used for cowries and later the two merged into the generally used sign which then appeared in many hieroglyph roots related to economy and spread even beyond the borders of ancient Chinese civilisation, might easily have lead to the conclusion that cowries were the representative North Chinese currency: Egami (1974) 43–44; compare Bykov (1959) 5–6. 344 Aleksej Andreevič Bykov’s point of view sounds interesting but is completely unjustified as far as the dating and other countries are concerned: “Based on [Chinese] archaeological finds and those of other countries, cowries seem to have been the oldest currency in China.”: Bykov (1959) 4. 345 In my opinion Ildikó Ecsedy shares these views: “As far as the currency of this period is concerned, pictographs from around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC only signify a drawings of cowries. The history of prehistoric economic relations informs us about them: they were brought to China from far-away oceans and this factor alone might be partly responsible for the fact that they were not present in necessary numbers and thus, could not have played a role in everyday economic life. They rather had a certain prestige as is shown by their depictions in writings of ritual importance. As currency they were not important enough so as to have been found in China in historic times; we have some knowledge about them through their metal imitations and the late discovery of metallurgy – pictographs tell us much about the early beginnings of bronze casting –, i.e. from around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. It is only from this time on that we should expect and search for money finds, yet not great quantities of fragile cowries but early money types characteristic in China: textiles, ceramics or even later metal coins – all these can be counted in larger and regular amounts only in the unified empire, i.e. from 221 BC on.” Ecsedy (1992) 30–31. She also confirmed that “the role [of cowrie money] can be seen in Chinese signs appearing in the words, pictograph combinations for ‘exchange’, ‘buy’, ‘sell’ etc.”: ibid. 30: note 6; compare Schneider (1905) 103–05; Jackson (1917) 181–82, 180: figs A–I; Karlgren (1930) 34–38; Einzig (1949) 253–54; Quiggin (1949) 243; Schilder (1952) 40; Bykov (1969) 4–5. 346 Referring to the aforementioned lines from Hsü Chen’s work he continued: “he regards cowries as the oldest currency in China and hints that although they were used prior to and all through the Chou Period, they were discarded in the Ch‘in Period. Even today many scholars, 341

Fig. 38. Chinese bronze lid probably from Han Dynasty with cowrie ornaments – after Andersson (1934) 303: fig. 133

Fig. 39. Cowrie imitation in mother of pearl (1) and outlines of metallic cowries – after Quiggin (1949) 225: fig. 92, 226: fig. 93.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads debated whether cowrie imitations from various materials functioned as measures of value. Namio Egami rejected this view as well (Figs 39–40).347 Harry E. Gibson maintained a view completely contradicting the above ideas but unfortunately I have not had the possibility to archaeologically verify the claims made in his surprisingly forgotten work. According to his appparently logical observations based on 1500 natural cowries and cowrie imitations, Ringed and Money cowries used as currency348 were consistently perforated at the head for suspension on a cord, a cord then being tied to each end of a stick and carried this way. The perforations are usually round, with the edges worn smooth by the cord during use.349 On the other hand, the dorsal side of cowries used as adornments were also consistently removed, leaving them flat. These were then fixed on a background with their filed side down (though they could be strung in a strand for head, neck, arm or belt ornaments) so that the aperture could be seen.350 This may have been because earlier on, they may perhaps had associations with fertility but even after the abandonment of these ideas by the Shang/Yin Period they still maintained this earlier method of working and fixing.351 Cowrie imitations should be counted with the latter group as all the specimens studied by Gibson had two perforations for suspension – had they functioned as currency, one perforation would have been both in Japan and other countries, hold similar view. Nonetheless, ... I maintain that cowries came to be used as currency only in the Ch‘unch‘iu Chan kuo Periods, when their number in possession in North China conspicuously increased. It is not likely that they functioned as money in the Yin and West Chou Periods, since they were almost totally monopolized by the nobility because of their rarity and preciousness.”: Egami (1974) 43. 347 “Furthermore, since cowrie imitations made of bone, stone shell (pang) and bronze prevailed in the same Ch‘un-ch‘iu Chan kuo Periods, it can easily be conjectured that they were also used as cowrie money. There is, however, no evidence as to whether bronze cowrie imitations were the prototype of the so-called I-pi-ch‘ien as T[errien] de Lacouperie, Lo Ch‘en-yü and Hamada Kōsaku maintained.”: Egami (1974) 44. Besides the researchers mentioned towards the end of the quotation, according to some others accepting this view, the type of metal cowrie imitations called pei huo ‘cowrie, change’ is traditionally dated to the 7th– 6th centuries BC, its 8 variants bearing various inscription-like depictions which cannot yet be interpreted. The two most widespread variants are traditionally called kuei-t‘ou-ch‘ien ‘ghost’s head’ and i-pich‘ien ‘ant’s nose’ money because of the resemblance of the signs on their backside to a schematic depiction of a human’s or an ant’s head. Concerning the other variants there have been attempts to interpret the signs as somehow connected to the circulation of currency, e.g. as “metal”, “emperor” or even “mountain”: Jackson (1917) 177–78; Quiggin (1949) 225–26, 226: fig. 93: I–VIII (Fig. 39. I–VIII); Bykov (1969) 5, pl. I: 1–8 (Fig. 40). 348 In his opinion, cowries were used in Shang/Yin (1766–1122 BC) and Chou Periods China both as ornaments and as currency: Gibson (1940) 33–34. 349 Gibson (1940) 34, 34/35: pl. A. 350 Gibson (1940) 34, 34/35: pl. B. 351 “Careful research in connection with the Shang and Chou ideographs representing the cowrie, along with their built-up combinations, makes it quite clear that during both periods cowries represented money as a medium of exchange and were not, as in many other countries, linked with fecundity superstitions or regarded as symbols or tokens of Aphrodite. There is nothing in these pictographs or their combinations that in the least suggest it. The same applies to the texts of the Shang Bone and Chou Bronze Inscriptions. There is a possibility that before the Shang era these superstitions may have existed. When describing the cowries used for

Fig. 40. Perforated Money cowrie (1) and Chinese cowrie imitations of stone (2–6) and bronze (7–8) – after Bykov (1969) pl. I: 1–8

sufficient.352 Aleksej Andreevič Bykov’s opinion represents a compromise, maybe due to his work in numismatics. He hypothesised that both cowries and their imitations could be used in two ways: both as currency and as burial finds, without suggesting an amulet character or symbolic background.353 Irrespective of these debated questions it seems certain that the circulation of the above mentioned numerous types of personal adornment it was stated that the dorsal side of the cowrie shell was filed away so as to leave only the ventral side in its original form. This leads me to believe that at very early date long before the Shang Period the Chinese may have regarded the cowrie as an Aphrodite symbol with the established custom being to wear the ventral side up. This custom followed into Shang times without regard to the significance.”: Gibson (1940) 35. Elsewhere he noted, having listed the approximately 200 old signs based on the hieroglyph pei meaning ‘cowrie’; he had not found a single root among 154 examples referring to or connected to fertility: Gibson (1940) 36. 352 Gibson (1940) 34, 34/35: pl. C. It is also thought that it was probably the imitations with one or two holes which were used as currency, while those without a hole were considered ornaments: Členova (1972) 54. 353 Bykov (1959) 5–6.

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Introduction: Cowries currency came to an end when Emperor Ch‘in Shi Huangti (221–210/209 BC) unified the disparate parts of the empire in 221 BC and, among other measures, reformed the monetary system. He abolished barter trade, in which cowries among other goods had played a role although, as he gained control rule over the south coast and gained access to their habitat, the value of cowries sunk rapidly. He then prohibited the circulation of all currency types employed previously and introduced the round coins with a rectangular hole and the inscription ‘half a lian’. In view of the following it should, however, be noted that Wang Mang (9–23), the usurper of the throne after the early Han Dynasty (205 BC–9 AD), in his reform carried out in 10, tried to reintroduce barter trade. As a result cowries, grouped in five value classes, again gained an important role.354 His reform failed, however and in a third reform in 14, the emperor at last reintroduced hoe-shaped and finally round cast bronze coins.355 This did not mean that cowrie money disappeared: in the southwest regions of the Empire, Marco Polo observed their use as currency at the end of the 13th century.356 Furthermore, during the economically unstable times of the Ming Dynasty (1368–

1644) following the Mongolian conquest (1260–1368) cowries appeared again and remained in use as currency among the common people.357 Cowries, having lost much of their monetary value, did of course, appear as burial finds following the period of the Ch‘in Dynasty as well358 and some – at least the purple ones (tzu pei) – even retained their high value. In 179 BC the king of Nan-yueh sent 500 such cowries among other presents to the emperor.359 Their use in the Han Period is further attested by some burials already mentioned above (380, 389, 410). Namio Egami has also reviewed the above development from another point of view. He tried to follow the spread in the use of cowries out of the principal territory of the Chinese empire, in North China: from the lower reaches of the Yellow River. To the northwest of this region, in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, in the provinces Kan-su and Ch‘ing-hai, cowrie finds appear if not already in the Yang-shao Period (3500–2200 BC), certainly from the Lung-Han Period (2500–200 BC – 356) and cowries remained in use both in the Hsien-tien (1300–1100 BC – 367) and the Sha-ching Periods (700–500 BC). Cowries appeared around this time north of the principal territory, in eastern parts of central Mongolia in the Huang-t‘ao Culture (around 770–255 BC – 368–69). Furthermore, the cowrie pattern characteristic of Chan-kuo type (476–256/255 BC) of bronze objects also appeared on contemporaneous Sui-yüan Period bronze objects found in the region of the Great Wall360 reflecting the economic and cultural relations between the principal territory and these border areas. Later finds from the peripheries of the Tarim basin possibly date to around 260–330 (386). Others were recovered from the western parts of central Mongolia, partly along with terminus post quem Wu-shu/ Wu-chu-chien bronze coins from the Han-Sui Period (206 BC–618 AD – 370–71, 374), partly with terminus post quem bronze coins from the 11th (375–77, 379), 12th (373) or from 11th–13th centuries (372), as well as from finds whose date is unknown to me (378, 390, 415–16). Namio Egami’s re-dating of two south Siberian cowries does not seem acceptable to me: of an Alamyšik grave (1455) originally dated to the 7th–8th centuries by the excavating archaeologist to the 2nd–3rd centuries based on the Han Period coin found in it and of a 5th–3rd centuries BC Pazyryk grave (684) to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC. He considered the cowries and cowrie imitations in South Siberia (639, 641, 1065) to have travelled the longest distance from China.361 As opposed to the above-mentioned northern, northwestern

Without details: Egami (1974) 42. The details were elaborated on by the conchologist J. Wilfrid Jackson based on Terrien de Lacouperie’s data, compare Jackson (1917) 178–80. According to him the 5 categories were defined by the size of the cowries given in tsuns ‘inch (= 2.54 cm)’ and fens: 1: 4+8, 2: 3+6, 3: 2+4, 4: 1+2, 5: 1+2–0+6; while cowries smaller than 6 fens were not used as currency. At that time, the pairs of the cowrie shells of the 1st category were called pang (p‘êng ?) and were worth 216 small cowries, the pairs in the 2nd category were worth 150 small cowries, of the 3rd category a pair were worth 30 small cowries, of the 4th category a pair was worth 10 small cowries. The smallest ones were not strung in pairs and were worth 3 coins (cash) each. Unfortunately, we have no information concerning which species belonged to which categories. J. Wilfrid Jackson suggested the following solution which takes habitats into consideration: 1. Tortoise cowries, generally the largest species, 2. either smaller specimens of the same species or Tiger cowries, generally somewhat smaller than Tortoise cowries, 3. Bobcat cowries, 4. large, selected specimens of Money cowries. It is interesting that he did not consider Ringed cowries common (the most frequent?) among the finds or cowries from Mauritius Island and Arabian cowries discussed in the introductory chapter as possibly imported species. However, archaeological finds listed in the catalogue included only identified Ringed, Money and Tiger cowries or ones identifiable as such based on the figures. 355 With further details which will not be mentioned here: Bykov (1969) 11–15; compare Jackson (1917) 178; Quiggin (1949) 243–45; Clark (1986) 25. 356 Marco Polo observed porcelain/cowrie shells in Karadžan, in the present-day province of Yunnan bordering on Mianmar/Burma. According to him “certain white porcelain shells were used [as currency in one of the province’s capitals, Jachi (present-day Kunming)] which were gathered from a lake, similar to those sometimes put on dogs’ collars. Eighty such porcelain shells are worth a measure of silver which is the equivalent of two Venetian small coins, i.e. twenty-four piccolo. Thus, eight such silver measures are worth a gold measure.”: Marco Polo (1963) 215: book II, chapter 48, 423: notes on p. 215. The inhabitants of the other capital of the province, Karadžan (present-day Tali) to the west “use the abovementioned porcelain shells as change. These cannot be gathered within the country but are imported in sufficient numbers from India.”: ibid. 216: book II, chapter 49, 424: notes on p. 216. Naturally, none of these cowries were lake-shells – this is a mistake in the Hungarian translation: compare Jackson (1917) 183; Schneider (1905) 105 (die and not der See!); Einzig (1949) 285 (“white porcelains found in the sea”) – locating their place of origin in India might be correct. Elsewhere he mentioned in connection with the, so far, not localised but possibly Malaysian Lokak Island that “porcelain shells used as change in areas mentioned previously, are also collected here”: ibid. 294: book III, chapter 7, 434: notes on p. 294; compare note 96 on p. 12. 354

Bykov (1969) 28. “They seem to have been used only as dress ornaments or burial objects, following the old custom since the pre-Ch‘in Period.”: Egami (1974) 45. 359 Jackson (1917) 178; compare note 306 on p. 45. 360 From the site Pa-t‘ou (Central Mongolia): Egami (1974) 48, fig. 16. 361 Although I have also found some cowrie imitations which can be dated before the Scythian Period, i.e. before the 7th century BC (626, 646–47, 665), I will discuss them together with the other finds from the Scythian Period. Thus, they are listed in the relevant part of the catalogue. 357 358

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads distribution he also suggested a northeastern, eastern path, possibly leading through south Manchuria (389) to (South) Korea (439). He considered this route to be more probable than the possibility that cowries had arrived there from the Ryu-kyu Islands, Okinawa or Miyako.362 It was also Namio Egami who collected but has not discussed in detail, the Japanese archaeological material mainly derived from the shell-mounds (kjökken-mödding) of the Neolithic Jōmon Culture (7500–ca. 250 BC) including both perforated cowries and ones with their dorsum removed, unfortunately unidentified to species. Cowries dated later than the Neolithic Yayoi Culture (ca. 250 BC–ca. 250 AD) have been found both in graves and in urn burials (425, 433). They also appeared on Okinawa although these shell-mound finds (426–27, 429–32) have not been dated by Namio Egami so that their contemporaneity is only hypothetical.363

the Islamic Conquest (1203), gold and silver coins of high value were used besides copper coins in northern India, whereas in the south, cowries were employed as small change.367 An earlier publication makes reference to data from the 3rd century BC which seem creditable but are not supported by any evidence.368 Among the more cautious researchers, Eduard von Martens claimed that the use of cowries as currency could only be traced back until the 6th century369 and Oskar Schneider dated their use back to the beginning of our era.370 It seems, however, that the circulation of cowries (called pei-ch‘ih) as currency was first mentioned in Fa-kuo-chi, the travel report of Fa Hsien, a Chinese traveller who visited the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya II (376–415 BC).371 In his work entitled Chiao-chou-ch‘i the Ch‘in Period (?; 221–206 BC) writer Liu-Hsin-ch‘i was probably referring to the Chinese peich‘ih when he said that “large cowries are gathered in Ji-nan [i.e. Indochina]. Small cowries are pei-ch‘ih, which have an antidotal effect. Both are purple in color.” From this Namio Egami drew the possibly somewhat daring conclusion that these small, purple cowries called pei-ch‘ih were also used in India as currency. He thinks they were doubtlessly Ringed cowries as previously suggested by Julius von Klaproth.372 Another mention of Indian cowrie money is made in a 7th–12th centuries mathematical work: in a part of Bhaskara Aharya’s Lilivati formally ascribed to 628 although more probably written in the 12th century,

1.3.4.2. 417–24. Cowrie Money and Other Cowrie Finds in India Considering the size of the Indian sub-continent and the extent of archaeological explorations I have found a surprisingly small number of cowrie finds, generally undated or wrongly dated and published without identification of the species. Neither have I found references in the literature accessible to me to help in further research. The Indian material was thus shown to be inaccessible in both in terms of time and space so that I could not evaluate it.364 Making statements such as cowries were popular as amulets and currency from the earliest times just because they were found in some prehistoric sites together with bracelets made of Turbinella pyrum considered a sacred animal in India and with other snail or shell ornaments would not be appropriate.365 I have not found any data supporting Del Mar’s view, namely that in Bengal, cowries represent the most important currency finds from the times before the reign of Alexander III the Great (336–323 BC) when metal coins occured relatively rarely.366 Alexander del Mar further maintained that until

Greece) in the so-called Pi-dot series dated around 320 BC, before the right knee of Zeus who sits on a throne. In Macedonian minting there were 41 different symbols for the sea, the cowrie being newly added to the 10 previously known symbols of the so-called tetradrachma type. “The cowrie is a very rare, perhaps unknown symbol, in ancient Greek numismatics. Of course, I should venture to say that the ancient Greeks would not have ignored the beauty of these magnificent shells, nor the fact that they were valued both as money and as ornaments in eastern regions already explored and conquered by Alexander”: Cancio (1990) 86; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 86. 367 “In Northern India the copper pieces were supplemented by gold and silver multipliers and in Southern India by dividers of cowrie-shells.” mentioned by: Jackson (1917) 165–66. 368 “Even earlier, from the 3rd century BC, cowries were a currency and had very high purchasing power in India. Twenty of them sufficed to pay for the daily wants of a man. Even a single cowrie had a fair purchasing power in fruits and vegetables.” Pran Nath: Tausch und Geld in Altindien. Leipzig (1924) 1. c. quotation referred to without further evidence by: Einzig (1949) 250. 369 “Nach einer freundlichen Mittheilung von Prof. Weber [the Sanskritologist Albrecht Weber (1825–1901)] kommen sie [die Kaurischnecken] in der indischen Literatur im Pankatantra, ferner bei Blankara und Dandin vor, so dass sich ihr Gebrauch als kleine Münze bis ins 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr. zurückverfolgen lässt;”: Martens (1872) 66; Schneider (1905) 112. I have not found the relevant parts of Panchatantra in the aforementioned sources, considered to date from the 2nd–3rd centuries because there was no register in it: compare Harmatta (1959) 10; the bibliographical data of Blankara (by Schneider Bhaskara) see below, Dandin (by Schneider Dandiu) lived around the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. 370 “Wann die Kauris in Vorderindien als Tauschmittel feste Geltung erlangten, liess sich noch nicht bestimmen, doch dürften sie um den Beginn der christlichen Zeitrechnung bereits in Umlauf sein.”: Schneider (1905) 109. 371 Egami (1974) 28; Schneider (1905) 109–10; Einzig (1949) 250. The original Chinese text referred to by Shung Yun speaks of cowries, translated simply as “shell” in the English version: Joachim Klimkeit’s correction of Beal (1896) 55, based on the kind note from Karl Banghard. 372 Egami (1974) 28–29. Thracia,

It is still a custom on Itoma- and Hateruma-jima Island in Okinawa to tie cowrie weights on fishing nets. This seems to support Yanagida Kunio’s opinion that the ships of the Miyako-jima once transported many cowries to the Chinese continent: Egami (1974) 51, note 122. This opinion spread early, namely that the Japanese probably gathered cowries between Japan and Formosa (now Taiwan), mainly on the Ryu-kyu Islands (USA administration) and so it is doubtful whether these actually circulated as money there: Schneider (1905) 103; Quiggin (1949) 224. It is debated whether Japanese takaragai (takara: ‘wealth, welfare’, gai ‘shell’) exclusively referred to cowries: Schneider (1905) 108; Jackson (1917) 183. 363 Egami (1974) 51. 364 I have not found cowries discussed in the short numismatic history of India, in which Gupta also dealt with measures of value before metal coins (cows, horses, gold etc.). Among these a certain necklace ornament (nishka) was mentioned but this could not be identified with cowries either, compare Gupta (1979) 3–4. Nor did he consider cowries in those periods, for which I have verified data from other sources, i.e. from the 4th–5th centuries onwards. 365 Jackson (1917) 164–65. 366 It is possible that depictions of cowries appeared on a Macedonian tetradrachma, namely on the back of the new version of the tetradrachmas struck by Alexander III the Great from Amphipolis (now Amphipoli, 362

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Introduction: Cowries cowries are mentioned in a mathematical example.373 Their role as currency at such a late date is further shown by a 10th century cowrie find of almost 10,000 pieces (417) and could still be observed by the 14th century traveller, Ibn Battuta.374 Cowries remained in use as currency in some areas of India, though playing a less important role, until as late as the 20th century but I will not be dealing with this data here.375 However, the Maldive Islands deserve mention in connection with the import of cowries. I will be discussing that below (see chapter 1.4.1.1.).

cowries as amulets that when Namio Egami considered the origin of Central Asian specimens (639, 711) and suggested that the cowries of Chinese, as well as of Indian and Persian origin were possibly transported via Tibet and Pamir, he was not relying on archaeological data but on statements in written sources pertaining to the hsien-pi tribes.380 The letter I have received from Professor Aglay Mitra Shastri described the present state of Indian research similarly, adding further details to the above and mainly emphasising the role of cowries as currency.381

The archaeological finds accessible to me have not helped in answering the questions related to the beginning of the use of cowries in India as currency as some are probably prehistoric (418–19, 422–24) or date from the Kushan Period (30–365/385 AD:376 420–21) and were not very likely to have been used as currency, as opposed to the above-mentioned 10th century hoard find (417). In spite of such an insecure archaeological background, it has been hypothesised earlier that cowries were transported from India via Persia,377 where they were still not used as currency but as ornaments 378 as well as to the region of the Caucasus and to Northern Europe.379

1.3.4.3. Hypothetical Cowrie Currency in Eurasia, West of China and India In the archaeological literature I have had access to, I have only found proposals concerning the question of cowrie currency west and north of India and China.

finds of various dates and from various sites like Susa (579) and Caucasian Kuban (1079). Shells from these sites were all dated to the first half of the 1st millennium BC. Large numbers of specimens identified as Bobcat, Carnelian, Mistaken, Money, Panther and Ringed cowries have been mentioned from sites with face-urns (Gesichtsurne) and “Steinkistengräber” from the Hallstatt Period, i.e. the first centuries BC from the Baltic coastal region of present-day Poland, Russia and Lithuania (see chapter 2.3.2.1.), as well as from the Roman Period (e.g. 1016–17, 1020, 1029 etc.), the Migration Period and the Middle Ages (e.g. 1561, 1534, 1929, 2080 etc.): Conwentz (1902) 9–10; Schneider (1905) 114–16; Jackson (1917) 130–34; even: Reese (1991) 169–72: Nrs. 57–58, 62, 81–86, 176: Nrs. 97–98. 380 The chapter on the tu-jü-hun (tu-ku-hun in the traditionally incorrect reading)/in Tibetan aža tribes of Wej Sou’s (506–572) work entitled Wei shu (The History of the Wei Dynasty) and the chapter Hsi-jun-chuan (The Description of the Western Regions [i.e. East Turkestan]) of Liu Hü’s (887–946) and others’ work entitled Chiu-t’ang-shu (The /Official/ Old History of the T’ang Dynasty) both mention that every woman decorated her hair with cowries and jewellery. The tu-jü-hun/tu-ku-hun was a hsien-pi tribe which had withdrawn themselves from Mu-jung-shih (i.e. the Barbarian region, from the border between the steppe and the Manchurian forest zone) and later settled down in the western part of Ch’`ing-hai (Koko-nor). Based on their settlement area, members of the tribe most probably maintained connections with Tibetans, adopting the use of cowries from them as ornaments: Egami (1974) 49–50. I thank Mária Ferenczy for a detailed explanation of the data published by Namio Egami. 381 From his e-mail of the 24th March 2000: “... I have no archaeological evidence nor does Dr. I. K. Sarma, though cowries must have been unearthed in archaeological and casual diggings. But to our knowledge such finds have not been recorded or if they have been we didn’t notice them. Maybe we didn’t realise their importance. But we have some literary and inscriptional evidence of their prolonged use by ordinary people and implied references. As for the latter, I can refer to Kapardakapura referred to frequently in inscriptions of the Sena Period (12th–13th centuries AD) from Western Bengal (India) and Bangladesh. It was not an actual coin but in reality an accounting silver coin calculated in terms of kapardaka or cowrie-shells. I am not aware at present of any other reference to the use of cowrie-shells for market transactions. But we find mention of heaps of cowrie-shells in the shops of the Gupta empire by the Chinese traveller Fa-hien (early 4th century AD) and by the 17th century traveller Thomas Bowry who found cowries to be the only money known in a village of eastern Orissa [see Pal (2004) 23]. Then in the schools in Bengal until recently the arithmetical calculations were done in terms of cowries and I remember during my childhood cowries were used for some small market transactions. Bhaskara, a well-known mathematician of the 12th–13th centuries gives the value of a small copper coin called koki as 20 cowries and that of other higher denominations correspondingly. Some foreign visitors to the Maldives refer to a rupee as equal to 3200 cowries. The value of cowries went up or down depending on their availability. All these details except only those appertaining the kapardaka-pura and several others.” See note 376 on p. 53.

So far, there is so little data available on the use of Indian The source also appears as Bhaskara Aharya: Lilavati: compare Schneider (1905) 110; Einzig (1949) 250; Quiggin (1949) 193. 374 Jackson (1917) 166; compare note 437. Buzurg ibn Sahriar was a Persian Gulf sailor, and probably wrote his Kitab al-Ajaib al-Hind in the middle of the tenth century. It is a collection of sailors’ tales made at Siraf. Much of it seems to be a legendary, but containing a substratum of truth. He wrote about a trained elephant paying with cowries in a grocery in India of the 10th century: Buzurg (2007) 110–111: c. 111. 375 Schneider (1905) 112–14; Bergman (1935) 112–13, pl. XV: 14–17; Einzig (1949) 281–82; Quiggin (1949) 191–94; Carswell (1975–77) 136–40. 376 On the not yet definitive chronology of the Kušan Dynasty, most recently: Cribb (1995/96); a list of rulers in table form: ibid. 106. In Orissa “agricultural products was used as currency. Mineral products such as cowries also was used first as ornament then as currency… The accounts of of the celebrated Chinese Travellers Fa-Hien [Fa-hsien Chinese Buddhist pilgrim (399–413)] and Hiuen-tsang [/Hsuan-tsang (603–664) Chinese Buddhist pilgrim (629–645)] provide information on the large scale circulation of the cowries as money alongwith the metallic money prevelant during that period in different parts of the country. That the cowries were also used during commercial transactions in Orissa and as in other parts of India down to the advent of the Britishers, is known from the account of Thomas Bowry, a foreign traveller. ”: Pal (2004) 23. See note 393. 377 Alison Hingston Quiggin has written that cowries could have come to Persia from India via Pakistan and Afghanistan on ancient caravan and military routes and has named a single find in connection with Pakistan without giving the site or its date (287); compare Schilder (1952) 41. On the possibility of transport by sea see below. 378 Cowries mainly used as ornaments on donkeys’ harness equipment in Persia were therefore called donkey shells (charmuneh). A line from Šaykh Muslib al-Din Sa’dī’s, a Persian poet’s (H610-615–691/12131219–1292) poem entitled Gulistan (= Rose garden) implies the amount of cowries scattered along caravan routes: “if all dew drops enclosed a bead, there would be as many as there are donkey shells along each road” (Wenn in allen Tauestrophen edle Perlen legen, Gleich den Eselmuscheln wären sie auf allen Wegen): Schneider (1905) 114; Schilder (1926) 322; Schilder (1952) 41. The Russian traveller Adam Olearius (1603–1671) added that the word – translated in the quotation as Eselmuschel – meant the ornament made from “Schneckenköpfen” (snake’s heads) on the harness equipment of she-asses. The same ornament on horses’ equipments was called khurmohnu ‘horse shell’ in modern Persia: Schneider (1905) 114; Conwentz (1902) 10; sc. Olearius (1969). 379 To support this position, authors referring to each other have used 373

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Oskar Schneider, having listed European Money, Ringed and Tiger cowrie finds from various periods and sites382 precluded the possibility of them having been used as currency.383 Alison Hingston Quiggin was not so strict: based on 50 cowries found in a Latvian grave from the Slavic Period (1929) she did not reject this possible role.384 Yet, of course, neither this archaeological find nor the many cowrie finds discovered elsewhere can be regarded as a basis for such a hypothesis.385 Based on the large number of Ringed cowries found in grave D114 in Abydos (78) dating from the 18th Egyptian Dynasty (1550–1292 BC) John Wilfrid Jackson considered it possible that the Egyptians had by that time already adopted this kind of currency from China.386 Later, having analysed the whole archaeological material known to him, he rejected his previous view, accepting neither the cowrie’s role as currency nor its role as mere adornments, considering at least some of the cowries to be symbols of the regenerative forces of nature, like amulets.387 In spite of the doubtful basis for such a statement, neither M. D. W. Jeffreys388

nor Alison Hingston Quiggin389 discarded the possibility of cowries having been employed as currency in ancient Egypt in the 2nd millennium BC. However, both possibilities should be dismissed based on the fact discussed above in greater detail, namely that the use of cowries as currency cannot be traced back to earlier than the 8th century BC in China itself, either. connections: Jeffreys (1948) 46–53. Two remarkable but contradictory new opinions about the currency or amulet role of cowries in Ancient Israel and Egypt: “Whereas all the above species [Lambis truncata, Tridacna sp., Charonia tritonis, Nerita sp., Clanculus pharaonis, Dentalium sp. and other Red Sea species] from Kadesh Barnea [see in Annex 2433] might have been brought to the site primarily for ‘cultural’ uses, one species, Cypraea annulus, was probably collected especially for economic reasons. 128 specimens, forming about a third of all the shells at the site were retrieved and 75% of them were complete shells. This shell is a relatively small Indo-Pacific cowrie and it has several characteristics which make it suitable for use as money i.e., as an intermediary means of exchange: It is not easily degradable; it is easily identifiable by the distinctive yellow-orange ring around its dorsum and it is relatively rare: accounts of its current distribution indicate this species is rare in the Gulf of Elat and in the northern Red Sea and it is not peresent north of Qatar in the Persian Gulf. It should be noted, however, that some of these cowries were shaped into beads and probably served as decoration as well as money. One anthropoid statue made of clay depicts a person wearing a garment decorated with cowries [Horvat Quitmit (230)], as is the case in various cultures, where coins serve as ornaments as well. Cypraea annulus is the very same species used as shell money in the Bronze Age of China, of the Middle Ages, in the 16th-19th centuries in Africa and in the 7th century BC in India. It is found in numerous Iron Age sites in southern Israel and Jordan. Especially worth noting is Tell-el-Kheleifeh..., which is a fortress architecturally and ceramically almost identical to Kadesh Barnea... Other sites include Quitmit... and the City of David [Jerusalem]. Indo-Pacific cowries in this period are also found as far north as Megiddo [see in Annex 2435–38] and some sites in Syria and Iran [Reese (1989a) (1991b)]. The consistent presence of this species throughout Iron Age sites in Levant and the fact that they are most often found as complete shells rather than beads, suggests their use as a currency. Furthermore, their rarity might render the shells more valuable and therefore especially suitable for use as money (Yet it also possible that their current distribution reflects over-exploitation by humans over the past three millennia). [I.] Eph’al and [J.] Naveh (1993), based on epighraphic finds, suggested that during the Iron Age of Israel there were a number of parallel systems for weighing of goods: A royal system, an urban system and a rural system. It there were parallel systems for weighing, there might also have been different system for paying for the goods. This would explain the presence and use of cowries as a form of payment at a time when we know, both from scriptures and from archaeological evidence that silver ingots were used for the same purpose...“: Bar-Yosef Mayer (2000a) 223–24; BarYosef (2000) 483˙(Kadesh Barnea – see Annex 2433). “Das Abschleifen oder Ausbrechen des Rückens stellt seit altersher (bis heute) eine häufige Bearbeitungsform dar und zeigt, daß das vorliegende Gehäuse aufgenäht bzw. aufgeflochten oder –geknotet war. In dieser Zurichtung einen Hinweis auf die Verwendung als Muschelgeld zu sehen, wie es Lortet und Gaillard (bzw,. Germain)13 tun, ist nicht gerechtfertigt. Die Verarbeitung in eindeutigen Amulettschnüren beweist, daß diesen Schnecken eine magische oder symbolische Bedeutung beigelegt wurde.”: Falkner (1981) 141. His note 13: Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 110, 11; Germain (1909) 325; item Jackson (1917) XXI, 130; Jeffreys (1948) 51, 52. “Während Jackson in dieser Frage äußerst zurückhaltend formuliert, nimmt Jeffreys die Verwendung der Kauris alt Weltmesser und Zahlungsmittel in Alt-Ägypten für gegeben; bislang fehlen jedoch eindeutige Hinweise.“: ibidem 141. 389 “Cowries (both moneta and annulus) are found in the Red Sea and may have been used as currency in Egypt in ancient as in modern time. They were highly valued as ornaments and worn as charms or talismans and buried with their owners in Pre-dynastic as well as in later graves (Jackson (1917) pp. 128. ff.). They travelled up the Nile Valley and also along the coasts and may have taken part in the early trade which was carried on between the Eastern Mediterranean across the Indian Ocean and down the East African coast at the beginning of our era.” An added note tells us that: “The reference in the Periplus is doubtful.”: Quiggin (1949) 27–28, 28: note 1; on Periplus: Gisinger (1937).

See note 379. “Die verhältnismässig geringe Zahl der in diesem dem Fundgebiete der beiden Cypraeaarten so entfernten Gebiete aufgefundenen Kauris und anderen ähnlichen Cypraeaarten schliesst natürlich die Mutmassung, dass diese da als Geld umgelaufen seien, völlig aus; wir haben es mit weit verschleppten Merkwürdigkeiten und jedenfalls Schmuckgegenständen zu tun, die aber doch auch da für so besonders wertvoll gehalten wurden, dass sie den Besitzern mit ins Grab gelegt wurden.”: Schneider (1905) 116. 384 “Occasional occurrences in graves [in Europe] cannot prove that the [cowrie] shells were used as currency here, though when 50 are found together as at Vitebsk in Latvia [1929], the inference is perhaps not unwarrantable.”: Quiggin (1949) 29. 385 e.g. in Latvia more than 7000 specimens were found in 151 mainly cemetery sites until the publication in 1962, i.e. more than 46 pieces on average. While graves with more than 10 pieces were rare until the 10th century, from then on there were several burials found with more than 20 pieces and in the 12th–13th centuries 70, 71, 75, 110 and even 150 perforated cowries were found in individual graves, strung as necklaces: Mugurevič (1962) 41–42. 386 The following was quoted from pp. 147 and 149 of Del Mar’s A History of Money. (London 1885.): Egypt “appears to have conducted its exchanges with cowries and scarabs, supplemented possibly at later dates by Lydian and Greek coins for foreign commerce, until the Persian Conquest, when it was supplied with a national coinage, probably of very limited extent, by Cambyses and Darius”, as well as: “The Indians, who traded with Egypt used cowries for money; the Chinese, who also traded with Egypt at a very remote period, used ‘tortoise’ (probably cowrie) shells for money.”: Jackson (1917) 130; on “tortoise-shells”: ibid. 178–82. This unacceptable reasoning lacked precise data both in the dating and in differentiating between information on cowries as opposed to cowrie money. This supposition on cowrie money was mentioned by: Hiskett (1966) 339–40. 387 “The numerous discoveries of cowries detailed above serve to show the migrations or intercourse of early peoples. They are not to be regarded as evidence of the shells, even the smaller kind, having been employed as currency in the localities where they were found, nor indeed are they to be looked upon as having been worn from purely aesthetic motives. Their presence may be explained by the part cowries played in early times as symbolic of the generative forces of nature.” Thus, some of the cowries played a role as amulets, for which examples from both ancient and modern times were named by: Jackson (1917) 138. 388 Not considering the activities of Arabic tradesmen he based his reasoning on the fact that cowrie money were used in the African kingdoms of Mali and Songhay before the appearance of Europeans. Thus, an earlier, possibly Egyptian origin can be hypothesised, since the monetary system of the Nigerian Ibo and of some other tribes, diverging from the generally used decimal system, was exclusively based on cowries, suggesting ancient Babylonian/Sumeric or even more, Egyptian 382 383

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Introduction: Cowries While attempting to demonstrate that the Persian monarchy of the Achaimenids (559–330 BC) had connections to the Anan’ino (anan’inskaja) Culture of the Kama region (8th–3rd centuries BC), by the appearance of Money cowries (rakoviny Cypraea moneta, more probably they are Ringed cowries) in the north among other things, although considering these shells primarily as adornments, Anna Vasil’evna Zbrueva hypothesised some kind of a role as currency, too.390 Her hypothesis had no solid, evident basis391 so it should not be surprising that soon afterwards it was dismissed both by Konstantin Fedorovič Smirnov392 and in the latest summary,393 at least in connection with the Sarmatians and the Anan’ino. Shortly after the publication by Anna Vasil’evna Zbrueva, Evgenij Ignat’evič Krupnov thought that he had found a special money hoard when he brought to light clay vessels full of cowries with their dorsum removed (51) in the houses from a 6th–5th centuries BC Caucasian settlement.394 I have not found further

discussions on this idea but the find can also be explained if one considers these shells adornments. Regarding Western Europe, August Eichhorn considered it impossible to decide if cowries had ever played a role as currency and on his map of the distribution of cowries he indicated their use as currency in Eastern Europe.395 Ēvalds Mugurēvičs suggested the limited use of cowries in the Middle Ages as concerned Europe in general396 and more precisely Latvia in particular based only on the observation that often they were found in find materials from settlements although they were rare in the nearby excavated cemeteries.397 His hypothesis concerning Europe is based on Ivan Georgievič Spasskij’s view which shows that he was a man of wide reading but it is of general nature and lacks any further references. According to his view, these shells “in the 12th–13th centuries grave finds from Pskov had taken over from the kuna [contemporaneous unit of currency]; in some cases as special hoard finds, with some specimens even in Kufic and Western European coin hoards from northeastern Europe and the Rus.398 These beautiful shells, the size of a small plum, have reached Africa, Asia and Europe and have been transported from ancient times onwards, for thousands of years from their habitat around the islands in the Indian Ocean; they were known to the Antique world and the inhabitants of the north coast of the Black Sea. It is known that they served as currency in Africa and Asia for thousands of years. Archaeologists and ethnographers know of them from Siberia and the Middle and Upper Volga region. In Russia they retained their role as articles of trade for a much longer time, until the 19th century in Siberian trade although it would be difficult to say just when Russian tradesmen started to supply the peoples of Siberia with this, for them, traditional article.399 ... [Consequently] we do have reason to hypothesise the use of cowries as currency in northwestern Russia during

“Money cowries among the finds from the Kurgan cemeteries from Pokrovka, in the Anan’ino Culture burials in Anan’ino, Zuevo and elsewhere were evidently ornaments. Before the introduction of metal coins, trade were conducted all around the world by bartering. In the east basin of the Mediterranean Sea and in Asia cattle used as the most important barter articles and shells (rakoviny) in Asia, Africa and America were used as currency. From among these shells Cypraea moneta were the most widely spread in the East until the centuries before our era. They circulated as money in the largest empire of the time, in Achaimenid Persia. During the time of the first Achaimenids and especially in provinces further away from the Mediterranean Sea the use of metal coins was not yet widely spread; various valuable objects, among them shells were generally accepted as currency. It is possible that the Cypraea moneta from the old cemeteries of the Kama Basin and among the Kurgan finds from the southern areas of the European part of the Soviet Union, from the Ural region and Siberia were not only ornaments, either, but also had a value as currency – as a sign of the ancient cultural connections of these regions to Achaimenid Persia, to which Central Asia also belonged. These small cowries were suitable as means of bartering between distant countries as they were easy to transport. From later periods we know of many examples of the employment of coins as ornaments. In the folk dress of the inhabitants living along the Volga and the Kama we find them on head and chest ornaments even in the present day.”: Zbrueva (1952) 182. 391 The author complemented the hypothesis of cowries being used as Persian currency with a single note: “V. Head Barclay. Uk. soč., Vvedenie.” that is “V. Head Barclay. L. c., Introduction”: Zbrueva (1952) 182: note 1. The partly incorrect resolution of the abbreviation was possibly based on a previous note in the same publication: “V. Head Barclay: The coinage of Lidia and Persia. Numismate orientalie, vol. I. London, 1877.”: ibid 181: note 3. Based on the reference to figures on coins here it becomes evident that Head (1877) is being refered to. Still, I have not found any data which suggests or demonstrates that cowries were circulated as currency in Persia either in the “Author’s preface” or in the “Introduction” or in any other part, compare Head (1877) V–VIII, 1–7. 392 In his opinion “cowries were used as currency [denežnyj znak] in countries along the rim of the Indian Ocean, i.e. in Achaimenid Persia. Sarmatians and Anan’inoans, however, could hardly have employed them as barter articles. Here Money cowries (Cypraea moneta), rare and imported, appear as amulets on necklaces and head ornaments.”: Smirnov (1964) 145. He has adopted the Persian reference only from another part of Anna Vasil’evna Zbrueva’s publication saying that “Money cowries [rakoviny Cypraea moneta] used in Achaimenid Persia as currency demonstrate the commercial and cultural relations of the Anan’ino community and maybe also the antiquity of the use of coins as pendants on head dresses.”: Zbrueva (1952) 80. 393 Although Sarmatians knew about cowries, the possibility of their circulation as currency was rejected based on the low frequency of money finds throughout their huge settlement area: Stepi (1989) 208. 394 Krupnov (1960) 140. 390

“Ob die in prähistorischen Gräbern Deutschlands, Englands und Schwedens gefundenen Kauri damals bereits Geld repräsentieren, läßt sich nicht mehr entscheiden.”: Eichhorn (1929) 265, 279: fig. 134. 396 “10th–11th centuries Arabian geographic writers and 16th–17th centuries European travellers have noted the circulation of cowries as currency together with coins. Cowries were an accepted currency through the whole of South East Asia and West Africa even in the 20th century. It is possible that earlier on, they played a similar role in Europe, too.”: Mugurevič (1965) 58. 397 Briefly discussing the use of cowries as measures of value from 15th century BC China to 20th century Africa he hypothesised that: “they could have played a similar role at times in Europe as well. Research has however shown that the importance of cowries was far from that of coins in the modern sense. Thus in Melanesia, for example, cowries had a barter function which was connected with magical rituals in case of buying women from foreign communities or to win allies in times of war etc. It is hard to say whether cowries were used as money in Latvia because there is little evidence. Still the cowrie finds from such fortificated settlements [“gorodišča”] as Daugmale, Mežotne, Talsy and Tervete [1891, 1994, 2057, 2067], where cowries were almost absolutely absent from the material of cemeteries nearby, may allow us to suppose that cowries might have had some importance in commerce.”: Mugurevič (1962) 48–49. 398 Mentioned by: Lehtinen (1994) 118. 399 He continues saying that “Russians knew these miniature shells well, otherwise they would not have introduced so many local names for them – užovka [užovok ‘young grass snake’], žukovina [žuk ‘beetle’], 395

55

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads times when coins were not in use.”400 Ēvalds Mugurēvičs maintained this view later on as well.401 It was accepted by others402 and some researchers even evoked the views of Ivan Georgievič Spasskij403 which was, however, discarded by Ingmar Jansson.404 The opinions of Christian Peschek405 and David S. Reese406 are similarly dismissive. In her study dealing with the history of currency types prior to metal coins, concentrating within Europe on the Czech archaeological material, Taťána Kučerovská always referred to the archaeological material of non-European peoples as being at a lower stage of cultural development

when discussing cowries.407 Neither can Tamás Hoffmann’s mention of cowries be regarded as a statement on the use of cowries in Europe either as currency or as amulets.408 1.4. Cowries Appearing Among the Archaeological Finds of the Carpathian Basin From the ca. 160 recent species of the family of porcelain or cowrie shells I have found five species in the archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin from various periods accessible to me which were identified by Gyula Radócz: the most common, i.e. found from the Sarmatian Period onwards, being the Money cowrie, less common, from the Scythian Period, the Ringed cowrie, even less common and characteristic for the Sarmatian Period were the Panther and sometimes the Tiger cowries and exceptionally the Dirty cowrie (Fig. 41).

žernovok (žernovka) [‘small millstone’] and one of the most widely spread – zmejnaja golovka [‘little snake’s head’]. It is evident that all these names are figurative, denoting the object itself only by association. We have reason to believe that the Old Russian expressions concerning us here and adopted into Russian from Latin and French are similarly figurative, ...”: Spasskij (1962) 61–62. 400 Spasskij (1962) 61. – ����������������������������������������������� From the catalogue the 3 pierced Money cowries from the kurganless cemetery of Osminenka (Pečerskij rajon, Pskovskaja oblast’) were regrettably left out: Spasskij (1962) 61: fig. 41 401 Mugurevič (1965) 58. 402 Zdenka Krumphanzlová discussion of the material from Bohemian cemeteries of the common people from the 9th–11th centuries mentioned, in view of Sláma (1958–59) and Mugurevič (1965) 54–59. that cowries in Northern Europe functioned e.g. as currency (“mušlička kauri... fungující na severu Evropy např. rovnìz jako měna...”): Krumphanzlová (1974) 68. Ľubomíra Kaminská publishing the material from the Hungarian churchyard cemetery of  Tőketerebes (1816) was more careful in accepting the ornament and jewellery role of cowries but also noted that in certain areas and periods they could also have served as currency or ritual objects (“mušlicky kauri..., pričom v niektorých krajinách a obdobiach sa použivali aj ako platidlo alebo kultový predmet.”): Kaminská (1982) 434–35. Here the wording may only be disturbing because of the 10th–14th centuries Hungarian-Slavic context. Birgitta M. Johansson noted, also taking Ēvalds Mugurēvičs’s work into consideration, though without any reference to the fact that “unmodified Money cowries, recovered from settlements in northern Europe, might have been used as money or dice to play with, or perhaps they were brought home as gifts.”: Johansson (1995) 350; later repeating this idea: “The Money cowries found in prehistoric contexts in Northern Europe are mostly regarded to have been used as some kind of money.”: Johansson (1995a) 226. 403 Ella Kivikoski has referred to the role of cowries as currency in East and South East India, China, Persia, Siberia and Africa but was fully aware of the fact that European cowrie finds going back to the Neolithic [? – L.K.] do not allow for a definite differentiation between the functions of currency and jewellery. Russian merchants had transported cowries to Siberia so it is possible that they were used as money here in Eastern Europe as well. This hypothesis may further be strengthened by their co-occurrence with coins on the costume of Northern and Volga-Finnish women and since 3 of the 4 cowrie finds from Finland (1203–04, 1860– 61) were possibly found – similarly to the Russian treasure finds – in treasure complexes, it seems reasonable to suggest that cowries, having quite high a value, circulated as currency: Kivikoski (1967) 37–40, 43 (in connection with 2119). 404 “Es ist eine wohlbekannte Tatsache, daß Kauri-Schnecken und scheibenförmige Perlen von Schneckenschalen in verschiedenen Perioden und in verschiedenen Gegenden der Welt als Zahlungsmittel verwendet worden sind, so beispielsweise in Gebieten am Indischen Ozean zur selben Zeit wie der Wikingerzeit. Mugurevičs schlägt vor, daß sie auch in Ost- und Nordeuropa eine ähnliche Funktion gehabt haben. Eigentliche Indizien fehlen aber bislang. Die allermeisten Funde stammen im Ostbaltikum wie in Skandinavien aus Frauengräbern, wo die Schnecken und die Schneckenschalen als Schmuck und wahrscheinlich auch als Amulett gedient haben.”: Jansson (1988) 592. 405 “Obwohl diese Schneckenhäuser sehr wertvoll gewesen sein dürften, ist eine Verwendung als Geld in Mitteleuropa nicht beweisbar: vgl. den ethnologischen Bericht aus nichteuropäischen Erdteilen durch O. Schneider [Schneider (1905)] passim.”: Peschek (1996) 30: note 299. 406 Referring to Bronze and Iron Age finds he noted that “the most common Red Sea/Indo-Pacific shells found in the Mediterranean Basin and Europe are the Money cowries, Cypraea annulus and Cypraea moneta, which were used here as beads, not money.”: Reese (1991) 188.

1.4.1. Money and Ringed Cowries The two species are so similar that their analysis necessitates a discussion of the differences necessary to tell one from the other as well (Fig. 42). The shells of Money cowries are rather pentagonal or deltoid, with discernible nodules on the basal margins while the shells of Ringed cowries are oval, with even, flat margins. The base of both species is somewhat domed. The inner, collumeral ridge of the aperture is more densely serrated and the first anterior edge-tooth is separated from the following by a wider interspace. Their colors, preserved only rarely on archaeological finds, are different. The dorsum of Money cowries is white, maybe somewhat yellowish or greenish, often with a dark line across it. The dorsum is bordered with a light orange circle in rare cases, the sides are the same color as the dorsum. The dorsum of Ringed cowries is also white, yet always definitely colored blue or grey, with a light yellow or orange cover. There is never a darker line across it but it is always bordered with an orange circle and the white margins stand in definite contrast to the color of the dorsum. The basal sides and the ridge of both species is white and both have very fine white lines running across the dorsum and the sides, making them similar to the surface of porcelain. They are also similar in size: the extreme and the average length of Money cowries being 0.9–1.7–2.8– 4.4 cm, of Ringed cowries 0.8–1.7–2.5–4.0 cm. The large, mainly common area of their distribution is the Indo-Pacific region, from the east coast of Africa between the latitude of Madagascar and the Red Sea eastwards between Japan and Australia. The habitat of Money cowries extends until the Galapagos Islands (Fig. 42) and that of Ringed cowries until French Polynesia (Fig. 43). The enormous variety of Kučerovská (1989–90) 13. He pointed out that metal objects decorated in the manner of the Scythian animal style were found in an area much larger than those actually inhabited by Scythians and were spread by tradesmen and wandering craftsmen. “Besides metal objects other evidences have also been found. Cowries, the most widely spread currency ever, were found in the Prussian material, far away from the coastal regions of the Indian Ocean, where they had once been gathered.”: Hoffmann (1996) 97. 407 408

56

Introduction: Cowries Money cowries could be gathered at any of the habitats named above. The Maldive Islands west of the southern end of the Indian subcontinent became the main collecting place for them only from the 9th century. Maybe it is no coincidence that it is also from this time that Money cowries finally came to be used more frequently than Ringed cowries.

both species makes it impossible to differentiate between geographically identified sub-species,409 yet there are very few examples which are really transitional between the two species. Their empty shells can be collected over an area much larger than those indicated on the map since large numbers were carried great distances from their original habitat as currency.410 From the above it also follows that the original habitat of archaeological cowrie finds cannot yet be located.

1.4.1.1. The Maldive Islands, the Main Gathering Place of Money Cowries

As already mentioned, according to their own written sources the Chinese had access to both Ringed and Money cowries along the South China coast, as well as in the coastal areas of the Ryu-kyu Islands and Indonesia. Since most of the shells in the scientific literature remain unidentified, it is not possible to determine the ratio of the two most wide spread small species.

The maritime trade from the coastal areas around the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea can be traced back until at least the 3rd millennium BC. Early tradesmen could probably sail only along the coast. However, already by 100 BC the Greek sailor Hippalos probably realised the possibilities of making use of the seasonal monsoon winds for sailing. In the summer the southwesterly winds could help sailors to reach India from south Arabia or the Persian Gulf from June to September, in the winter the northeasterly winds made the journey back possible from October to April creating a yearly rhythm for this long journey413 which was soon enhanced by the possibility of reaching China. During the northeastern monsoon, sailors could reach Malacca in southeast India (northwest of Singapore) from China. From there – with other ships sailing westwards – they could reach the port of Mecca, Jidda by the Red Sea or the towns of Suhar (capital of Oman), Shiraf or Basra via Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Maldive Islands all in one season. From here they could sail southwards along the coast towards East African Manda (Kenya), Zanzibar Island (Tanzania) and Kilwa Island (Mozambique).414 On the afore-mentioned east-west route, the Maldive Islands gained in importance because there, according to the 14th century Arabic traveller and geographer Ibn Battuta (1304–1369?/1377?), the sailors could obtain fresh water and food and could trade. On the other hand, many sailors of the same religion regarded the Islamic inhabitants of the islands as brothers, as opposed to the inhabitants of the coastal regions of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India. Moreover, the aboriginal women of the islands were willing to engage in short-lasting liaisons with the sailors.415 Finally, it was this area which became the main gathering place for cowries as is well documented by sources from the 9th century on (see below).

The small cowries found in Eurasia, which became widely distributed because of the influence of the Near Eastern centre where they were used, appeared there without any kind of connection to China. They could have been be collected along any part of the Indo-Pacific coast which could be approached by contemporaneous ships or caravans, i.e. mainly along the east coast of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Persian Gulf, even the coast of East Africa and anywhere along the west coast of India. While there were both Ringed and Money cowries among the earliest specimens, Ringed cowries became the most common species among the finds by the Iron Age and even almost the exclusive shells from around the 7th century BC onwards. It is possible, though quite improbable in view of the earlier richness and diversity of the species, that the specimens of these two similar small species were collected randomly, the Ringed cowries being valuable and worth being sorted out later.411 Yet, it seems more credible that a habitat was found where this species was almost (?) exclusively found. It could be gathered in large amounts for several centuries. I have not found such a supposedly exclusive habitat mentioned in the scientific literature although I have found mention that in modern times, when Ringed cowries were used as ornaments in East Africa and in Uganda even as currency, they were mainly collected from from Mafia Island (Tanzania) south of Zanzibar and Dar es-Salaam.412

According to the writings of the Arabic tradesman Sulayman from 851, the most important export articles of the Maldive Islands were amber, cowries and coconuts.416 This information was supplemented in 916 by al-Mas‘ūdī ( 893–956), who had also visited Ceylon, noting that the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands used cowries collected

The earlier literature mentioned 5 variants and 3 ecotypes of Ringed cowries, 4 variants and 5 ecotypes of Money cowries, e.g. Schilder (1952) 27–30, 26: fig. 26, 27: fig. 27, 29: fig. 28. 410 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 204–05, 414–15: pl. 95: 17–35, pl. 97: 1–22, 26–29, 34–36; Schilder (1952) 23–30, 10: fig. 8 b, 15: fig. 13: a, c, 19: fig. 20, 26: fig. 26, 27: fig. 27, 29: figs 28–29; compare Schilder (1926) 322–26; Arends (1978) I: 170, 628: note 13. 411 In the 1840s French and German merchants were so successful in introducing East African Ringed cowries instead of Money cowries, an accepted currency along the coast of the West African Gulf of Guinea, that they caused a cowrie inflation. Still it was only in one area that the protest against “fake” Ringed cowries was so intense that a whole shipload of them had to be thrown into the sea: Schilder (1952) 41; compare note 18 on p. 64–65. This example proves that specimens of the two similar species were accepted for each other at least in modern times. 412 Schilder (1952) 41; Johnson (1970) 17–18. 409

Whitehouse (1977) 865–67; compare Otto (1913); Wecker (1916) 1298–99. 414 Whitehouse (1977); compare Carswell (1975–77) 139. 415 Carswell (1975–77) 138–39; compare Schilder (1926) 318–19; Einzig (1949) 118; Whitehouse (1977) 865–67. 416 Quiggin (1949) 28; Carswell (1975–77) 135; compare Johnson (1970) 18; Clark (1986) 26. 413

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 41. Cowrie species appearing among the archaeological finds of the Carpathian basin: 1. Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum (from 795–798), 2. Money cowrie pierced at the apex (1673), 3. intact Dirty cowrie (888), 4. pierced Panther cowrie (925), 5. pierced Tiger cowrie (925)

58

Introduction: Cowries

Fig. 42. The living place of Money cowries and a living animal – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 205: fig.

Fig. 43. The living place of Ringed cowries – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 204: fig.

by themselves as currency. “The[ir] queen had no other kinds of money than cowries which is a shell species. Whenever she seems to be running out of her treasure, she orders the women to cut branches of coconut palms with leaves, to throw them in the [sea] water [and] when the animals climb on them, they gather the branches and lay them on the beach to dry. Their bodies are consumed by the sun so that only the empty shells remain. These are then taken to the treasury.”417 In the work of al-Birūnī († 1048) from 1028–1029, he differentiated between two

main groups of the Maldive Islands: one was known for its method of gathering cowries with branches of coconut palms put in the sea, the other for its ropes made from the fibres of coconuts with which they assembled the planks of their ships.418 The previously mentioned Ibn Battuta follows in the chronology.419 He visited the islands in “These islands are, according to their products, divided into two classes, the diwa-khuda, the islands of the cowrie-shells, because they gather cowrie-shells from the branches of the coconut palm which they plant in the sea and diwa-kanbar, the islands of the cords twisted from coconut fibres and used for fastening together the planks of the ships.”: Carswell (1975–77) 135–36. In the area of the Arabian Sea even the largest plank ships were fastened together with ropes made from palm fibres, even better than hemp ropes, as opposed to the nailed European or Chinese ships of the Middle Ages, because the ships were considered to be more elastic: Whitehouse (1977) 867; compare Ibn Battúta (1964) 292; Polubojarinova (1991) 69. 419 The mid 12th century writer al-Idrisi (1099–1166) considered the shells of loggerhead (Caretta imbricata), native around the islands even today, to be one of the main products of the islands: Carswell (1975–77) 136. Others have related this opinion, too, with cowries: Einzig (1949) 118. 418

In his work entitled “The gold fields and gemstone mines” written in 943, revised several times until 956: Schneider (1905) 110; Jackson (1907) 167–68; Quiggin (1949) 28. The same data was originated from Abu‘l Hasan Ali by: Einzig (1949) 118. According to other observations pieces of meat were put on the palm branches as bait. Cowries could be gathered more easily when the tide washed large numbers onto the coast at new and full moon: Schneider (1905) 112; Schilder (1926) 314; Einzig (1949) 118. In an entry Karl Banghard has referred to Wolff–Gueye– Meijboom–Piersma–Sall (1987), a special work not dealing with cowries, compare Banghard (2000) 345, 347: note 30. As the author has noted in his letter, the aim of this unfortunate reference was to complement the insufficient ethnographic data on the gathering of cowries. 417

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1343 and 1346420 and mentions cowries at several places. According to him “it was a tradition that when a man was getting married and went to his wife’s home, the woman would lay linen cloths on the floor from the door of the house to the door of the room and throw several handfuls of small shells421 on both sides of her husband’s path... When the wife went to the husband’s home the floor would also be covered and cowries would be scattered on it.”422 Since these cowries were not meant to ensure fertility or to ward off evil, the custom may have been an expression of the desire for wealth. The other place he mentions tells us about the choice of articles available for export, before mentioning cowrie money: “The ships take away many things from these islands, fish, ... coconuts, clothes, linen turbans, copper dishes, as they have many of these goods. They also take with them shells [cowries] and kanbar, i.e. coconut fibre.” 423 This is only an introduction to the place dealing with cowries which is as concise as a lexicon entry: “The inhabitants of these islands use shells [cowries] as change. [This is what they call] those (small) animals [which] they gather from the sea and put in pits. The flesh becomes detached, the white shell remains. They call a hundred such shells sijah, seven hundred fal, twelve thousand [thousand two hundred] kutta, a hundred thousand bostu.424 Four bostu are worth a golden dinar. Sometimes they are less valuable, then ten bostu comprise a golden dinar. They give the inhabitants of Bengal such shells in exchange for rice; rice is also a kind of change for the Bengali. They also sell them to Yemeni who put them in their ships [as ballast] instead of sand. The shells are also a kind of change among the Negroes [in their native land]. I have seen them around Mali and Dsudsu to the value of (a thousand, a hundred and fifty golden dinars) [one and a half thousand for a golden dinar].”425 About sixty years later, a Chinese expedition lead by the Muslim eunuch Cheng Ho went to the islands. Ma Huan wrote a report on the journey in which, besides the export of amber and dried fish, he described the export of cowries to Thailand and Bengal, noting that there they were employed as currency.426 Half a century later, the following sentence could be read on the world map of Fra Mauro, a Camaldolese monk (†1460), employed in the Doge’s Palace in Venice between 1457 and 1459: “The sea in which porcelain shells, used as currency,

are born in large numbers.”427 Gaspar Correa essentially stressed the same idea in 1503.428 Later, the Portuguese historiographer, João de Barros (1496–1570) noted their use as currency in Bengal and Siam (now Thailand), as well as the fact that the Portuguese had joined in the export trade of the Maldive Islands in that they transported the shells to the Central African kingdoms of Benin and Congo where they were also used as currency.429 Finally, the report of a Frenchman, François Pyrard de Laval, deserves mention. Following a shipwreck, he lived on the islands from 1602 to 1607 and wrote in detail about his knowledge of cowries: “The Maldive Islands abound in something else, as well, namely in small shells which they call caudi or kauri, as thin as a little finger and completely white. They gather them twice a month, 3 days after new moon and 3 days after full moon, as they cannot be found at any other time. Women look for them along the coast, sometimes wading in water up to their waist. These little horns [!] are then transported to every region of India in such quantities that sometimes I have seen 30 to 40 ships loaded with them. In Bengal, they are so valuable that they are used as everyday common currency in spite of the fact that the inhabitants have enough gold, silver and other metals. It is truly admirable that kings and noblemen have store houses built especially to hold them and consider them as part of their treasury. Tradesmen acquire them exclusively to transport them to Bengal because they cannot be found anywhere else. In Cambaya and in other areas of India they mount the nicest ones with silver and gold and regard them as rarities, as if they were precious gems.” Besides this he also noted that people taking part in processions threw cowries among the onlooking poor as alms on the way from the house of mourning to the cemetery. The poor gathered them readily since they could pay their taxes with them.430 1.4.2. Tiger and Panther Cowries Larger Tiger and smaller Panther cowries, which were not given their names based on the patterns on the shell but rather those on the shell’s mantle,431 comprise a pair similar to Ringed and Money cowries but which are more difficult to tell apart (Fig. 44). The large, heavy and bulgy shell of Tiger cowries has of a wider pear-shape, with prolonged ends and a flat or slightly convex base. The callus-ridge on the inner lips of the aperture is finer, denser and longer except for the anterior four which are bigger and shorter.

Ibn Battúta (1964) 289–09; Germanus (1964) 27–33. According to the translation and as is shown by the following, this probably referred to native money cowries in all cases. 422 Ibn Battúta (1964) 291. 423 Ibn Battúta (1964) 292. 424 These numbers should not surprise us. The husband of Her Sultanship of the Mahal Island, vizir Abdullah ibn Mohamed al-Hadrami presented Ibn Battuta after his introduction with a suit of clothes, food and a hundred thousand (i.e. one bostu) cowrie moneys. Later on the Muluk Island he received from him besides his daily food portion 120 bostu (!) cowrie moneys: Ibn Battúta (1964) 296–97, 299. In 1346 having returned from China to the Maldive Islands he received several bostu cowrie money from vizir Abdullah: ibid. 316. 425 Ibn Battúta (1964) 292–93; Jackson (1917) 168. The English version differing in some details: Carswell (1975–77) 137, from which I have taken over the additions in []. In () are the translator’s additions; compare Johnson (1970) 19, 331. 426 Carswell (1975–77) 137–38. 420 421

Schneider (1905) 110. Carswell (1975–77) 139. 429 Carswell (1975–77) 140. Before the Portuguese, the Venetians forcing out the Arabs in the 13th century, joined in the export of the Maldive Islands. They transported the shells on their ships to Morocco and with their caravans on to the south. It was from the 15th century onwards that the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English took over this role. 430 Schneider (1905) 110–11; Einzig (1949) 282; Quiggin (1949) 28; Johnson (1970) 18–20; Carswell (1975–77) 140. – “Plinius (Nat. hist. XXII, 59) betont, daß die Mondphasen auf das Wachstum der Muscheln besonderen Einfluß haben und daß sie bei Vollmond am schnellsten Wachsen.”: Schmidt (2000) 395; compare Werner (1964) 179. 431 Podani–Lexa (1988) 16. “Really I thought based on shell colot.”: note of David S. Reese. 427 428

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Introduction: Cowries The callus-ridge of the outer lips is sparser, shorter and wider. There are two colored layers on the dorsal side, the lower with a greyish blue pattern, the upper being made up of crowded, often merging spots of red and even dark brown. The spots of the upper layer are large and outlined in orange. The line running along the length of the dorsum marks the merging of the two lobes. It is one of the most varied species, its coloring ranging from albinos through to golden and yellow varieties to almost black ones. Its base is white. The extreme and average length is 4.5–7.0– 10.8–15.2 cm.432 The above description fits Panther cowries, too, with the following differences: their shell is gas a thinner pearshape but is higher and more elongated in cross-section. The callus-ridge of the inner lips in particular is finer and denser. This callus-ridge also extends to the basal edge of the inner lips. The dorsal side is more densely spotted, the spots being smaller than those of Tiger cowries. They are not black on their sides but orange, often covered with a whitish or dark reddish color. Their extreme and average length is 3.7–6.0–8.2–11.8 cm.433

Fig. 44. The living place of Panther and Tiger cowries and their posterior outline – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 65: figs, 66: fig.

The habitats of the two species are well defined (Fig. 44): Panther cowries only inhabit the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden while Tiger cowries are native to the Indo-Pacific Ocean east of the east coast of Africa at Madagascar and of the southeastern and eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula (including among other places the Gulf of Aden).434 Therefore, Panther cowries could only be acquired from a well-defined habitat, Tiger cowries from the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea, the habitats closest to Europe. In the scientific literature I have found no attempt to specify the habitat of Tiger cowries further. All the more interesting is an analysis – the results of which have not yet been published – attempting to differentiate Merovingian archaeological finds of Panther and Tiger cowries, as well as to define the habitat of the former more precisely.435 The beautiful and characteristic surface is destroyed on most archaeological finds so that only the round or else rather straight, higher contour of the posterior of the shells can help in identifying such finds as Tiger or Panther cowries.436 1.4.3. Dirty cowries Dirty cowries are more similar to Money and Ringed

Fig. 45. The living place of Dirty cowries and a living animal – after Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 196: fig.

Schilder (1926) 313–14; Schilder (1952) 11; Tyahun (1988) 27; Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 65, 260–61: pl. 18; Dance (1994) 71. 433 Schilder (1926) 314; Schilder (1952) 12; Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 66, pl. 19: 1–6, 8–15. 434 Schilder (1926) 314; Schilder (1952) 11–12, 12: fig. 9, 13: fig. 10; Voigt (1952) 174: note 8. 435 For the possibility of more precisely defining the origin of Panther cowries see notes 12, 841. 436 Compare Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 65–66. According to another wording the sides of Panther cowries are steeper and thinner: Schilder (1952) 12. – Note of David S. Reese: “This is the modern species distribution but it may have been different in ancient times.” 432

cowries in size (Fig. 45). Their shell is also pear-shaped, sometimes bulgy and compressed, i.e. more wide than high. Its dorsum is brown with irregular white spots, the middle may have another color than outline (ocellated) while the edges of the shells are spotted with a darker color. The base is brownish. The color may also extend to the sparsely toothed callus-ridge. Their extreme and average 61

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1.4.4. Further species

length is 1.2–2.2–3.0–4.0 cm.437 Dirty cowries are native to the Mediterranean; a variety of them called Cypraea (Erosaria) spurca verdensium inhabits the west coast of Spain and Africa up to about the island of Saint Helena (Fig. 43). The dorsum of these cowries has smaller and more densely arranged spots, the base is chestnut brown and their narrower lips are often more densely toothed. They are so varied that they have not yet been accepted as a sub-species.438

437 438

Detailed descriptions of other cowrie species not appearing in the archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin but mentioned in this work will not be described in such detail here. Their most important characteristics are summarised in chapter 4.1.1

Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 196–97, 396–97: pl. 86: 1–11. Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 197, 396–97: pl. 86: 12–16, 19–20, 22–24.

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Chapter 2. 50, 440–2298. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin

2.1. 50. A Middle Bronze Age (1700–1350 BC) Cowrie from the Carpathian Basin

the Carpathian Basin, cowries were found in 100 grave find complexes from 37 sites and in one settlement layer. Most of the 94 grave complexes in question were found together with extended inhumations (in 54 cases: 440–44, 446–48, 453–58, 466–67, 470–75, 477–81, 485, 448–92, 495–96, 499–501, 503, 506, 508, 513–14, 516, 518, 521–23, 525, 528–29, 536–37), less frequently in contracted burials (445, 449, 482, 484, 502, 510, 538–40) as well as in 2 separate horse graves (526–27). Many fewer were found in single cremations: in 16 cases in burials with scattered ashes (450, 459, 461–64, 493, 497, 507, 509, 512, 515, 519–20, 524, 530), in 6 cases in urn burials (460, 498, 504–05, 521, 517), once in a grave (?) without human bones (483) and, finally, in 6 cases (476, 531–35) where I lacked provenence data at the time of writing this text. The former owners of these cowries have been shown to have been mainly women or children (possibly girls) based either on their anthropological identification or on their characteristic finds buried with them. Their number would probably be increased by most of the graves identified as adult burials or those lacking sufficient data – there is a chance for this even with some of the 4 graves considered

In accordance with the above discussion concerning the spread of cowries in the first half millennium of the Iron Age (1200–700 BC), contemporary recent specimens have not yet been found in the Carpathian Basin: the specimens appearing accidentally at one single site (50) in the Middle Bronze Age were fossil ones. 2.2. 440–785. Cowries in the Scythian Period Archaeological Material of East Carpathian Basin and Their Eastern Parallels (2nd Half Of The 6th Century–3rd/2nd Centuries BC) I have chosen Jan Chochorowski’s list of finds as a basis for the collection of scientific literature on the Scythian Period finds of the eastern Carpathian Basin and have tried to gain access to the archaeological finds of cowries for Gyula Radócz to identify based on this catalogue. Unpublished or unmentioned specimens are included in my catalogue only accidentally, I have not attempted to collect them. Cowries are not the only shells from Scythian Period burials of the Carpathian Basin but I have confined my research to this species. 2.2.1. Finds from the Carpathian Basin

Counting 6 find complexes (468–69, 479?, 486–87, 494) which have meanwhile become sporadic among the grave finds but not counting a find complex (541) of uncertain date. From the stray finds one can infer 3 cremated urn burials (486–87, 494) while another 3 cases (468–69, 479) seen to be lacking sufficient data. The only settlement find is 465.  52 graves, with more or less certainty female ones: 444, 447, 449–50, 452–54, 459, 466–67, 472–75, 477–78, 480–81, 485, 488, 491–92, 495–97, 499, 503–04, 506–21, 523, 525, 528, 530, 533, 536–38, and 13 child burials: 440, 443, 445–06, 456–57, 460, 471, 482, 484, 522, 529, 539.  It is interesting that besides mirrors, combs, spindle whorls, etc. and clay stamps used for body painting – compare Kisfaludi (1997) –, river shells (rečnye rakoviny) are also of help in identifying the sex of the buried persons, because they had most probably been used as jars, to put on white and red make-up already from the Sauromatian Age onwards: Grakov (1947) 110–11. István Ferenczy’s attention was drawn to these shell data because in the Scythian cemetery excavated by him at Csombord (prev. Alsó-Fehér megye, Hungary; Ciumbrud, judeţul Alba, Romania) there were freshwater shells in 2 of the 18 Scythian Period graves: among other finds together with 1 Unio pictorum in a child’s grave 2 and along with 1 fragmented shell (Unio sp.) in a woman’s grave 14: Ferenczy (1965) 93, 102; Ferenczy (1969) 55, 64. On cockleshells as Sumerian Period paint containers, possibly filled during the burial: Aynard (1966) 30.  Adults: 458, 470, 501, 540, lacking sufficient data: 441–42, 461–64, 476, 483 (empty), 489–90, 493, 498, 500, 505, 524, 531–32, 534–35, 541, and the 6 stray finds (468–69, 479?, 486–87, 494). 

In the collected Scythian Period archaeological material of Compare Párducz (1944) 37, 37: note 110, 77, 77: note 110. On the dating: Jerem (1986a) 187: according to this the Scythian Period population of the Great Plain remained in place when the Celts settled down. They lived in peace even in the 3rd–2nd centuries BC, which is shown by the Celtic burials in Scythian cemeteries: compare Maráz (1981). I have included the graves of such mixed cemeteries in the Celtic catalogue (compare 786, 788).  Chochorowski (1985a) 257–71.  e.g. some intrusive land snails (Cepaea Vindobonensis) were found in the graves of the Scythian Period cemetery at Szentes (Csongràd megye, Hungary)-Vekerzug: grave 26: 2 pieces: Párducz (1954) 28, pl. V: 10–11; grave 27: 2 pieces: Párducz (1954) 28–30, pl. V: 15, 17; grave 31: 1 piece: Párducz (1954) 31, pl. VIII: 26; grave 76: 5 pieces: Párducz (1953) 39, pl. XXIV: 8–11; grave 112: 1 piece: Párducz (1955) 3, pl. II: 34; grave 115: 1 piece: Párducz (1955) 4, pl. IV: 9; grave 134: 1 piece: Párducz (1955) 8, pl. VI: 14; 137 (1) = 8, pl. VI: 8. Pál Patay, referring to the shells of the above marsh shells remarked: “In connection with this I must note that there were 46 pieces of them in a corner of grave 17 in Nógrádkövesd [Nógrád megye, Hungary]. They were not immediate finds, lying higher than the bottom of the grave. Still, putting them in the grave must have been part of the burial ritual. There were also snail shells in grave 22.”: Patay (1955) 73. In grave 17 probably a woman, in grave 22 a 3–4-year old child were buried: Patay (1955) 64, 65. 

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads male burials. Only the 2 horse graves can be regarded as special exceptions.

was sewn or tied onto the background at both ends.14 The advantage of this position may have been that this way, it was always the magical, toothed aperture which faced the viewer.15 I have found a single observation (473) and two other pieces of data which demonstrate this: one is a decoration for what may be a hair-dress diadem (472) while the other is a collar (510). In the future, it will be necessary to collect possible evidence for the way cowries were probably sewed on based on in situ observations at excavations.

The excavator considers that given the circumstances of their appearance, these cowries were mostly worn as items on strings of beads.10 Yet, such series of large numbers of cowries11 might indicate that they were strung in separate strands. However, cowrie finds located by parts of the body other than the neck or the chest12 as well as the general mode of their perforation rather suggest they were used in other ways. Both the analysed cowries and those only accessible from illustrations generally had their dorsum partly or completely removed (i.e. were rasped down to various degrees),13 even though this way, the hole was made unnecessarily large for the cowrie to be strung or suspended. I have already mentioned that archaeological finds can be interpreted based on clothing reconstructions as well as on modern or contemporary ethnographic observations. Thus, cowries which have had their dorsum removed seem most likely to have been mounted on a textile background in such a way that the cowrie, now almost with a ring-shape,

There are 628+3?+ cowries in the the material being examined here. The number of cowries – as I have already noted – varied greatly from burial complex to burial complex, ranging from 70 pieces to a single piece, naturally with only a few specimens next to most skeletons. More than 4 pieces were found mainly in female burials: of the 34 cases in question only a third had different identification.16 Gyula Radócz was able to hold in his hands and examine almost half of these 631 cowries, i.e. 304 specimens (48.18 %). According to his identifications, all these are Ringed cowries. The same may apply to others only seen on illustrations, most of which seem to me to be specimens of the same species.17 Therefore, it seems quite probable that it was mainly Ringed cowries which were imported to the Carpathian Basin in the Scythian Period. Ringed and Money cowries have a similar shape and their size is generally almost the same. Their habitat is almost identical as well. Thus, what is the reason for the preponderance if not exclusiveness of the Ringed cowries in this region? There are two possibilities:

One of these is indisputably a man’s grave (448: close and far fighting weaponry), while the finds of the others are rather female ones (451: a pendant, beads, 2 spindle whorls; 455: jewellery, strand of beads, spindle whorl; 502: a bead). It should be noted, however, that there were 25 cowries scattered at the left arm in the above named man’s grave, which might be interpreted as remnants of a woman’s head-dress or necklace given as a farewell present but could also have been a special male dress ornament, compare 1069.  Anna Ivanovna Meljukova noted that sometimes which are finds of human burials also appeared in horse graves here. Among them cowries were mentioned: Stepi (1989) 90. Roughly contemporaneous Sudanese horse graves with rich finds: 296–99; contemporaneous cowries on horse equipment: 649. 10 In case of skeleton burials where the position of the finds can be observed, cowries showed in situ connection to the beads and other pendants, were therefore once worn together with them. Thus it is possible that they appeared along with beads around the neck and on the chest also in the cases not observed (445–47, 449, 451, 455, 471–72, 475, 477–78, 481–82, 488–90, 495–96, 500, 508, 510, 514, 516, 518, 521–23, 529, 532–34, 536, 538). Complexes of both types were naturally also found in burials with scattered ashes (497, 512) and urn burials (504, 517) but their joint employment could not be documented. Cowries found separately from beads (459, 537) and in graves without bead finds (440, 442, 444, 448, 452–53, 457, 460, 484, 491–92, 498, 501, 503?, 505, 520, 527, 531, 535, 539–40) are less frequent, nonetheless they do suggest that the wearing of beads and cowries was not necessarily connected. A further evidence for that would be all those Scythian Period burials which had bead finds but no cowries. Their number is probably quite large and I have not tried to collect them. 11 The numbers of cowries in grave finds and in stray find complexes in decreasing order: 70 pieces (496), 50 (478), 40 (514), 28 (501: without a strand of beads), 25 (448: without a strand of beads), 22 (473), 21 (480), 18 (512), 15 (441, 472, 498), 14 (477), 12 (447), 11 (474), 10 (442, 523), 9–10 (487), 9 (461, 535), 8 (499, 510, 513), 7 (494?), 6–7 (504), 6 (468?, 474, 479?, 486, 495), 5–6 (509), 5 (440, 481, 491, 507, 518, 532), 4 (469?, 471, 486, 531, 533, 538, 541?), 3 (443, 451, 455, 462, 489, 506, 511, 525, 530, 537), 2 (446, 449, 456, 458, 460, 467, 470, 482–83, 492, 500, 503, 508, 517, 521, 534), and 1 piece (444–45, 450, 452–54, 457, 459, 463–64, 466, 475–76, 484–85, 488, 490, 450, 502, 505, 515–16, 519–20, 522, 524, 526–29, 536, 539), ? pieces (497, 540) = 627+3?+? pieces and 1 piece from a settlement (465). 12 443: next to the femur, on an iron ring?, 458: at the end of the legs, 467: in the region of the pelvis and under the right forearm, 474: left of the jaw bone, 499: as the continuation of a strand of beads, in the region of the pelvis, 513: in the region of the pelvis. 13 On Scythian Period rub-/whetstones: Šramko (1973); compare note 76 on p. 9. 

1. Perhaps these shells, circulating in long distance trade, were gathered in a well-defined habitat where, exceptionly, Ringed cowries were found almost exclusively or 2. the gathered shells were sorted and Money cowries discarded.18 Such shells were most probably gathered along The probability of this explanation is weakened if the dorsum of cowries in the same grave were raspered off at quite different levels and thus the sizes of the hole vary. Specimens with a relatively small hole would not have leaned up so well against the background as those as thin and flat as a ring. Furthermore we have evidence that there were contemporaneous specimens with removed dorsum which were suspended on a metal ring (804, 873–74). In view of that it should be noted that cowries with an unnecessarily large hole could have been suspended on textile fibres, on straps etc. dissolved in the ground, as pendants. 15 From the countless examples that could be referred to, see chapter 2.8.1; Schilder (1952) 30–38: figs 30–41; Tyahun (1988) 81–82. etc. 16 21 cases were probably female burials (447, 472–74, 477–78, 480–81, 491, 495–96, 499, 504, 507, 509–510, 512–13, 514, 518, 523), above that 1 male (448), 1 adult (501), 1 child (440) burials and 10 lacking sufficient data, unidentifiable or stray finds (441–42, 461, 468, 478, 486, 494, 498, 532, 535) can come in question, some of which might of course had originally been female graves. 17 Publications rarely include the identification of the species and in some cases where they do, the identification seems incorrect: e.g. 447–48, 471–76, 495–96: are not Money but rather Ringed cowries. The only identification of a find as Dirty cowrie (470) could not be verified based on the illustration in the publication. Two other finds would also need to be verified (450, 480) which are the size of the largest known Ringed cowries and might actually have belonged to another species. 18 The two similar species were used with a regional difference even in the late 2nd millennium AD. According to a very late yet interesting 14

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin coasts closer to Europe, i.e. along the coast of the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea, although they could also have been transported over long distances both with caravans and on ships sailing along the coast. However, it seems likely that they were not transported to the Carpathian Basin directly from their natural environment but through the mediation of the Scythian settlement area.

The question of who wore the Scythian type material from the central Carpathian Basin, the Great and the Small Plains of Hungary,23 from the second half of the 6th century BC (“Vekerzug Culture”) cannot be answered without reference to a new population settling down with the local native population. Earlier researchers thought that they might be the Agathyrsoi. Nowadays, they are supposed to be the Iranian-speaking Sigynnoi of Median origin, formerly of the Cimmerian tribal confederation. Their use of the cremation rite and urn burials would have been unfamiliar to the Scythians.24 They used their large cemeteries until the turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC to the middle of the 2nd century BC. Later, they appear mixed with burials of the Celts (e.g. 488–492, 529) who had already settled in the Great Plain in the middle of the 3rd century BC.25 There are surprisingly large numbers of cowries in their archaeological material, a fact which has not been sufficiently emphasised by earlier researchers26 and has been wrongly interpreted.27 My database has shown that cowries played a major role in women’s dress of the period.28 Besides their being fashionable in the Scythian Period, they likely also became so wide spread because like amber they were used in barter trade as jewelry.29

Cowries in the Scythian archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin could be found from the Great Plain, the southern areas of Upper Hungary and Transylvania. They date from the 2nd half of the 6th century BC at the latest. However, it was not thought worthwhile to mention these finds although they typical items of wear over the whole area. At the beginning of the 6th century BC, the Agathyrsoi, also Iranian-speaking and related to the Scythians, appeared in Transylvania. Their almost exclusively inhumation burials offer a clear contrast with the exclusively or mainly cremation burials of the local Thracian population. The extent of their settlement area is still debated, yet it probably also included areas east of the Carpathians in addition to Transylvania.19 They had already lost their cultural autonomy in the 1st half of the 5th century BC when they merged with the local Thracian population.20 Cowries appear in their archaeological material in accordance with their general characteristics (443–44, 466, 471–76, 479?¸ 480, 495, 528) but date to pre-Scythian times, to the 2nd half of the 7th century BC in two cemeteries considered to be Thracian. This should, however, be verified21 since, as Valentin Vasiliev has discussed and confirmed several times, cowries (incorrectly called by him “Money cowries”) appeared in Eastern Europe, including Transylvania, only in the Scythian Period and were amulets representing the vulva and the cult of fertility.22

Based on their co-occurence with beads, often with sind...[for the continuation see note 100 on p. 74]... In Siebenbürgen erscheint die Cypraea moneta in einigen skythischen Gräbern von Rotbav [480], Proştea Mică [466], Simeria [496], Ozd [471–75]. Das Vorkommen der Kauri-Muscheln nur in der Skelettgräbern Mittelsiebenbürgens bietet ein Argument mehr für die fremde, skythische Herkunft dieser Gräber, denn es ist schwer vorstellbar, dass diese Kategorie von Beigaben durch ‘Kultureinfluss’ hierher gelangt sei, besonders da der Ritus und die Beigaben der Gräber, in denen sie erscheint, gleichfalls dem einheimischen Milieu völlig fremd sind. In Grab Nr. 1 von Blaj [443] befanden sich die drei Kauri-Muscheln ‘in situ’ innerhalb eines Eisenringes zwischen den Becken- und Oberschenkelknochen. Die gleiche Situation fand sich auch in einem Grabe der Nekropole von Ozd vor [it is not clear what he meant with that, compare 471–75]. Gewiss erklärt sich die Verwendung dieser Schneckenart [sic!] als Schmuckgegenstand durch ihre exotische Herkunft. Dennoch könnten die zwei erwähnten Fälle darauf hindeuten, dass sie nicht nur als Zierde diente und dass sie vielleicht mit dem Kult der Vulva, bzw. der Fruchtbarkeit, den einige antike oder primitive Völker pflegten, in Zusammenhang war.”: Vasiliev (1972) 79. In connection with the last thought see: Ferenczy (1969) 55. Compare also Vasiliev (1972a) 47; Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 111; Vasiliev (1976) 36–37: “Auf dem Gebiet Rumäniens treten sie [die Kaurischnecken] in der Späthallstattzeit nur in der skythischen Gruppe aus Siebenbürgen auf und verschwinden gleichzeitig mit ihr. Die Schlußfolgerung ergibt sich von selbst.”: Vasiliev (1976) 36–37. Referring to the works of Valentin Vasiliev and István Ferenczy in connection with Scythian Period cowries from Transylvania: Crisan (1974) 108; Iconomu (2000–2001) 277. 23 The identification of the cemeteries at Hetény (451–57, 458) as Thracian is today important only from the point of view of the history of research; I wish to thank Tibor Kemenczei for his kind information. 24 Szabó (1971) 10; Stepi (1989) 88–91. 25 Jerem (1986a) 187. The Eastern Hungarian archaeological material was collected by: Maráz (1981). 26 Only Erzsébet Jerem has mentioned that fashionable cowries “... are probably not found anywhere in such large numbers in women’s and children’s graves as in the Middle Danube region.”: Jerem (1986a) 185. 27 e.g. “Außer in den Skythengräbern vom Norden des Schwarzen Meeres und aus Siebenbürgen erscheinen die Muscheln [i.e. cowrie shells!], doch in viel geringerer Zahl, in den skythoiden Gruppen in Ungarn und der Slowakei. In Hallstatt sind sie nicht bekannt.”: Vasiliev (1976) 36–37. 28 They were not listed among the chronologically characteristic finds of the period by: Chochorowski (1984) 107, 109–10, 116–17: figs 6–7. 29 Jerem (1986a) 185.

parallel, French and German merchants successfully introduced African Ringed cowries to the coastal region of Guinea in the 1840s.. At one place, however, the very same cowries were so fiercely rejected that a whole shipload was sunk in the sea: Schilder (1952) 41–42. 19 Including the contemporaneous archaeological material from BirsestiFerigile in Romania, the Kuštanovice group in the Ukraine, maybe even from the forest steppe areas of the Ukraine, of Moldavia and Romanian Moldavia. Below I have not considered this: compare Stepi (1989) 88. 20 Stepi (1989) 87-88. 21 447–48, 496: for their ethnic identification see 447–48. According to George Marinescu’s opinion: “Das ständige Auftreten von Kaolinperlen und Kaurimuscheln in den transsilvanischen Bestattungen wurde auf östlichen Einfluß oder auf die Anwesenheit von Skythen zurückgeführt [quoting here: Vasiliev (1980) 99]. Solcher Schmuck wurde aber in Transsilvanien viel leichter geborgen, da man es hier in den meisten Fällen mit Skelettgräbern zu tun hat, in denen bei sorgfältiger Untersuchung nichts verloren gehen kann. Ganz anders steht es dagegen um die Brandgräber, wo sich dieser sehr zerbrechliche Schmuck, der auch unter der Verbrennungstemperatur leidet, nur äußerst selten wahrnehmbar ist. Unbegründet ist wohl auch die Behauptung, daß Kaolinperlen auf rumänischem Gebiet gleichzeitig mit dem ‘Eindringen der Skythengruppe’ erschienen waren, denn solche Stücke wurden doch auch aus Stoicani und Basarabi gemeldet.”: Marinescu (1984) 81. It is possible that the wrong dating is due to connecting the time of the appearance of kaolin beads and that of cowries. 22 Vasiliev (1972) 79. According to his summary on Southern and Eastern Europe: “Man kann aber behaupten, dass in Mitteleuropa und auf dem Gebiet Rumäniens, die Kauri-Muscheln bis jetzt in den Funden vor dem 6. Jh. unbekannt sind und dass sie in dieser Zone erstmalig in den skythischen Gräbern Siebenbürgens und in den Gruppen aus Ungarn und der Slowakei, die den Skythen zugeschrieben werden, beglaubigt

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads apotropaic beads with eyes and beads with ocellus30 and with other objects with magical import31 almost exclusively found in women’s (and girls’) graves, it was suggested earlier that cowries were employed as magical objects, as amulets.32 Furthermore, as already mentioned, Scythian Period peoples in the Carpathian Basin could acquire their (mainly or exclusively Ringed cowries) cowries from the Red Sea or even further to the east and thus, it seems reasonable that they also imported the ideas connected with them from the east, though the mediation of the Scythians. This is why, above all, it was particularly necessary to review eastern parallels. Their character as amulets may ultimately be emphasised by the fact that their owners insisted on having cowries acquired from far away. They do not seem to have been willing to replace them with specimens native to the Carpathian Basin.

also appeared in areas where – perhaps reflecting the limits of my own research – they had not been found earlier, neither continuously or even only more sporadically,33 i.e. in Afghanistan (542), Azerbajdžan (544), Bulgaria (545–49), Kazakstan (592–97), Kyrgyzstan (598–99), Libya (600), Mongolia (601–10), Romania (611–18), Syria (713), Tunisia (714), Ukraine (717–84), Uzbekistan (785) and over much larger areas of Russia than before (619–712), i.e. in North Africa, the Near East and the steppe zone of Eurasia. Furthermore, as I have dealt with the West European finds separately, in the same way as the contemporaneous Celtic archaeological material, the areas listed above are complemented by material from Central Europe which is defined here as ranging from the Balkans and Italy to the Polish coast (799–876). 2.2.2.1. The Earlier Distribution Area

2.2.2. 542–785. Southern, Southeastern and Eastern Parallels beyond the Carpathian Basin from the 7th to the 3rd/2nd Centuries BC

The archaeological material from some of the countries listed above reflects only a sporadic use of cowries as opposed to their continuous exploitation in other areas. For this reason I have not included cowries from Armenia (543), Cyprus (550–565), Egypt (566–69), Georgia/ Gruziya (570), Greece (571–77), Iran (578–80), Iraq (581), Israel (582–83), Jordan (584–91), Syria (713) and Turkey (715–16) and those appearing far from the areas of Scythian influence in Libya (600) and Tunisia (714) in the discussion of the Scythian material but have reviewed them separately.

I have extended my database to the 500 years between the appearance of the Scythians in the 7th century BC and the Sarmatian take-over in the 3rd/2nd centuries BC. This avoids a time gap following the first half of the Iron Age (1200–700 BC). I will also consider the whole period in which Scythian cemeteries were used in the Danube region until the turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC when they were given up. Due to the difficulties of dating, I have included here sites, graves and other find complexes dated from the 3rd century BC onwards, even if their final date is some centuries later. Again to avoid interruptions, I have also listed even later finds from the steppe among the Sarmatian Period parallels starting at the turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC, even though in the Carpathian Basin, this period only begins in the 1st century AD. As far as the geographical limits of the database are concerned, I have considered an area ranging from Tunisia and Greece to Mongolia.

Most of this archaeological material comes from burials and although I often had no information on the sex of the deceased (559, 561–65, 567, 571, 574, 576–577, 580, 583, 586, 590, 713), these were probably women’s (550–58) and girls’ burials (577, 589). Considerable numbers of cowries were found in settlement layers or as stray finds (543, 566, 578–79, 581–82, 584–85, 587, 591, 715), as well as at shrines, buried deliberately (571, 600, 714, 716), as votive offerings (573, 575) or in sacrificial pits (560) and as parts of hoard finds (588). There were cowrie depictions on two figurines of a cat (568–69) among the art objects.

The distribution of cowries in the first half of the Iron Age (1200–700 BC) mentioned at the end of chapter 1.3.3.2.1a ranged over a broad area in the period to be discussed here, 700–200 BC. The shells remained in use in most of this area, as is shown by finds from Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Iraq, Israel, Jordan and Turkey. Cowries

The majority of the cowries were still Indo-Pacific Ringed cowries (543, 550–55, 558, 560, 566, 572–73, 579–80, 582, 584–89, 591, 600), certainly or possibly accompanied by a few Money cowries in some cases (561–64, 581, 590). As a continuation of the tradition observed earlier, Mediterranean Dirty cowries appeared on Cyprus (553,

Oculus beads: 449–50, 467, 468?, 482, 499, 502, 506–15, 517–19, 521, 523–24, 526, 528, 538, beads with ocellus: 478. 31 e.g. 2 “needle shells” (Cerithium sp.? – 445), a perforated motherof-pearl (485), “browngirdled snail” (Cepaea Vindobonensis? – 507), a “marsh snail” (522), a “marsh shell” (525), “small shells” (529), a perforated bear’s tooth (457, 527: in a horse grave), perforated wolf’s teeth (529), clay stamp (458, 460, 497, 530, 534, 536), a bronze tube with rattling disks (460), a bird-shaped pendant (510), a human-shaped pendant (529) etc. 32 “We have no reason to discard the hypothesis that the very frequent occurrence of these snail shells in children’s graves is connected with their employment as amulets. This role can be observed in the earliest Scythian cemeteries, it is also supported by other objects appearing as items of neck ornaments for the very same reason.”: Jerem (1986a) 185–86. The two notes in the quotation refer to Pauli (1975); and Jerem (1979) 210: note 57 and the child’s grave at Tápiószele (529): Jerem (1986a) 228: note 415–16. 30

In the pre-Scythian Period ending in the middle of the 7th century BC, south-eastern Europe, the steppe region along the north coast of the Black Sea was inhabited by nomadic Cimmerians. They were thought to be Thracian-speaking and are now believed to have spoken an Iranian language. The cultures of the forest steppe zone between the Carpathians and the Don are considered as Thracian groups or settled inhabitants showing Thracian influence. The Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobynskaja) Culture from the mountainous foreground of the Crimea is ethnically unidentified so far. Neither in this area nor in the contemporaneous pre-Sarmatian archaeological material east of it between the Don and the Emba, nor in the examined south Siberian zone have I found cowries dated before the 7th century BC. 33

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin 555) and the more popular Fallow cowries on Cyprus, in Greece and Turkey (552, 554–56, 558, 561, 564–65; 571, 574–76; 716). Indo-Pacific Thrush cowries, known earlier as well, appeared on Cyprus (557) and even Tiger cowries appeared in Libya (600). Finally, some of the shells could not be identified (570, 575, 577, 578, 583–84, 585, 713–14, 715–16). It may be that it was in this period that a change in the way cowries were worn began: besides the traditionally worked34 specimens with their dorsum removed, larger numbers of cowrie shells began to appear which were only perforated at their anterior end, i.e. to be suspended and not sewn on.35 In some cases, both perforated specimens and ones with their dorsum removed can be found in the same find complex (551, 554, 561, 564) indicating that both ways of using cowries were equally popular. Except for two outstanding cases (26 pieces: 552, 20: 583) there were no significant change in the numbers of cowries: 8 pieces (564), 7 (565), 6 (558, 590), 5 (555), 4 (570?, 589), 3 (554) and finally 2 (551, 553, 561, 570, 577): it is hardly likely that cowries, including single finds not listed here, were exploited in another way.

The ethnogenesis of the Scythians is not clearly known: neither historical sources nor the archaeological material provide enough data. According to the two main hypotheses, they either moved to the coast of the Black Sea from (Central) Asia or they were descendants of the Late Bronze Age Chamber Graves (srubnaja) Culture (15th–9th/8th centuries BC) from the area between the Volga and the Urals and had moved south from there. They drove out or assimilated the Cimmerians, probably also an Eastern Iranian-speaking people with no cowries in their archaeological material, from the north coast of the Black Sea and established their tribal confederation and their characteristic Scythian archaeological culture from the second half of the 7th century BC. Its influence can already be detected in the pre-Scythian Period in the archaeological material of the settled population of the North Caucasian Koban (kobanskaja) Culture (12th–4th centuries BC). This archaeological material is divided into three regional variants which is considered to belong to the ancestors of the present-day Karachay, Balkar etc. populations. Cowries, suggesting connections to southern, especially Iranian regions, had already appeared there before the Scythian Period:38 in the early phase of the central variant (middle of the 12th–middle of the 7th centuries BC – 291) and in both its western (8th–middle of the 7th centuries BC – 651–57) and eastern variants emerging from it (10th–middle of the 7th centuries BC – 290, 650). Later, from the middle of the 7th until the end of the 4th centuries BC the use of cowries can also be shown in both the western (640, 658–59, 661–62, 694, 700, 708–09, 712) and eastern variants ( 638, 660, 678) and even later in the Sarmatian Period, either as a continuation or as a result of the Scythian influence. Cowries were known before the Scythian Period in southeastern Chechnya, i.e. the northeastern foreground of the Caucasus (289) although there is hardly any trace of them further to the east, in Dagestan on the coast of the Caspian Sea.39 They were also known south of the Caucasus, in present-day Georgia, Armenia, Azerbajdžan and Turkey. Furthermore, some cowries are dated to a time before before the Scythian Period (51–54, 178–81, 311–324) and others to the time of the Scythian migration and rule (543–44).40 It was probably also due to the Scythian influence that cowries

Based on the accompanying finds and the above discussion, the role of cowries as amulets placed in graves seems to have been sufficiently demonstrated.36 2.2.2.2. The Scythians The mobile lifestyle embodied in the Scythian Culture seems to have been present from the Danube to Mongolia. It emerged in the Eurasian steppe region in the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. Where it can be traced back a common Srubno-Andronovo Phase (srubno-andronovskij plast) of the Bronze Age Eastern European Chamber Graves (srubnaja) and the South Siberian Andronovo (andronovskaja) Cultures. The Scythian Culture is characterised by an Europid population and the so-called Scythian triad comprised of their characteristic weaponry, horse harnesses and the animal style ornamentation of their objects. The relative unity of the world of this Eastern Iranian-speaking population comprised vast tribal-territorial groups: The Scythians lived in more western regions while to their east lived the Sauromatians/Sarmatians and yet further to the east, the Saka-Massagete-Daha tribes.37

Pogrebova (1984) 206. Among the Early Iron Age female jewellery in the Caucasus glass and glass paste beads as well as cowries were present from pre-Scythian times on, while amber and agate beads only spread from the second half of the 7th century BC onwards. Among them cowries in larger numbers are also only characteristic of the Scythian Period, as a result of the reviving foreign contacts of the bearers of the Koban Culture and of North Caucasian tribes in general in the 7th–4th centuries BC: Berezin–Dudarev (1998) 178–79; “Auch Kauri-Muscheln (Cypraea moneta), die offenbar von der Küste des Indischen Ozeans sowie aus dem Persischen Golf über Transkaukasus importiert wurden, weisen auf Handelskontakte der Koban-Bevölkerung über weite Entfernungen.”: Berezin–Dudarev (1999) 206. 39 Based on Stepi (1989) 215–91. 40 Unfortunately Marija Nikolaevna Pogrebova probably regarded them as an unimportant find type and has therefore not dealt with them when discussing the influence of foreign, i.e. primarily Scythian and Urartu objects and arts on the archaeological material of the areas beyond the Caucasus, compare Pogrebova (1984) 101–58. 38

Unworked specimens – maybe not yet employed – were rather (?) found not in burials (575, 585–87, 591, 600). 35 Because of unclear descriptions there might be several mistakes in the differentiation, therefore the 19 cases below may only suggest a shift in their ratio: 552–54, 556, 558–59, 561, 564–66, 572, 575–76, 584, 586, 589–90, 713, 715–16. 36 In grave and shrine assemblages: Egyptian and other amulets (551– 54, 557, 560, 574, 714?), other molluscs (550, 552–58, 575, 580, 600?, 713, 715–16), a cat’s sarcophagus and the statuette of the cat goddess (568–69), etc. 37 Summarising works: Párducz (1973); Smirnow (1979); Il’inskaja– Terenožkin (1983); Jerem (1986a); Stepi (1989); Stepnaja (1992) 6–7. The eastern Kazak proto-Scythian/proto-Saka archaeological material (Aržan Kurgan, V. Kurgan at Čiliktino etc.) dated to the middle and the end of the 8th century BC was viewed as their forerunner: Ismagilov (1988) 45–46. 34

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads also appeared in period I of the so-called Middle Meotic (srednemeotskaja) Culture (5th–3rd centuries BC – 683) of the Meots settled in the Kuban region.41

material of the Scythians settling down along the transport routes, i.e. along the middle reaches of the Kuban region in north western Caucasus (649) and in the steppe around Stavropol (620, 668–77, 682). From among these sites the Kurgan cemetery at Nartan is of outstanding importance for my subject. Cowries already appeared in the earliest burials here, i.e. from the time when the Scythians were in Asia Minor (second half of the 7th century–turn of the 7th/6th centuries BC – 670–72, 674, 677).47 They also remained both in the next period starting to merge with the Kuban Culture (6th century BC – 669, 673, 675–76, as well as 666–67, 696) as well as when this process was completed (6th–5th centuries BC – 668, as well as 679) so that one of the most recent summaries on the Scythian Culture considered the presence of cowries in the North Caucasus as a commonplace.48

The Caucasus region deserves special attention because the Scythians settling by the Black Sea at the beginning of the 7th century BC, who probably had not known cowries either in their European or their Siberian Late Bronze Age tribal territory, may have first taken notice of this ornament/ amulet when they started their military campaigns against Asia Minor from the middle of the century on. During their campaigns across the Caucasus region they even reached Egypt and subdued the whole of Asia Minor for some decades, most probably between 625 and 585 BC.42 This period greatly influenced the emergence of their culture43 and cowries might also have played a minor role in that. Not accidentally because on the one hand they probably did not collect Mediterranean species44 but rather Ringed cowries, the westernmost area of their habitat being the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and the coast of the Arabian Sea. On the other hand it was here that Scythians first had immediate contacts with the Mediterranean world where the above mentioned data on the use and symbolism of cowries has been preserved – i.e. they might have taken over their amulet role along with the natural shells themselves. In view of that one cannot accept Evgenij Ignat’evič Krupnov’s opinion that cowries only appeared in the Caucasus mediated by Greek colonial towns along the Black Sea which on their part had Mediterranean contacts following the breakdown of the traditional contacts between Asia Minor and the Caucasus in the first half of the 1st millennium BC.45 Further, he himself has written that the Caucasian connections of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean region were strengthened by the colonisation in the 7th–6th centuries BC and that cowries appeared besides weapons and the diverse, mainly carnelian jewelry transported to the mountains.46 The Greek colonial towns could contribute to their appearance at the most but they themselves had to import the cowries – since they could not have been or were not mainly Mediterranean species – from the east.

Three clearly separable variants of the Scythian Culture emerged in the Scythian tribal territory of the steppe zone north of the Black Sea between the 70s of the 7th century BC and the turn of the 4th/3rd centuries BC. Natural cowries appear in the archaeological material: in the area between the lower reaches of the Danube and the Azovian Sea (718, 721–22, 761), by the lower reaches of the Don (637) and in the steppe areas of the Crimean Peninsula (739) but also in the foothills of the mountains at its southern end. The Tauros population of the pre-Scythian Kizil-Koba (kizilkobinskaja) Culture in this last area probably came in contact with cowrie use only at the end of its early period (9th–5th centuries BC), i.e. also between the 7th century and the first half of the 5th century BC, when they assimilated with the Scythians. This is the period when cowries appear in the cemeteries of all these four groups of the culture: along the southern coast (724–30, 732–38, 740–41, 743), in south Bajdary (765–72), north Bajdary (745–57, 763–64, 775–76) and in the foothills of the Caucasus (778–80).49 The Scythian type Culture of the forest steppe zone from west Podolia to the middle reaches of the Don, north of the steppe, has been archaeologically divided into 8 local groups. In my database I have found cowries in the archaeological material all of them except for the small group along the Bug. This showed their general distribution (moving from east to west): from the middle reaches of the Don (664), along the Seyma (774), to the northern reaches of the Donets (720), along the Vorskla (719, 757) and the Sula (717, 777, 783), mainly on the right bank of the middle reaches of the Dnepr (731, 742,758–60, 762, 773,

However, cowries immediately appeared in the early Stepi (1989) 233. Stepi (1989) 33–34. 43 “Scythian leaders learned to value pompousness and tried to copy eastern rulers. Their material culture took on Near Eastern elements and their art was enriched by many Near Eastern subjects and their presentations.”: Stepi (1989) 34. 44 This hypothesis which, lacking malacological data, might seem daring but is based partly on the identified finds of the period from the Carpathian Basin, partly on the Ringed, Panther, Money and Tiger cowries known in most of the 1st–4th centuries Sarmatian archaeological material mainly originating from this region. 45 Krupnov (1960) 207; connected to Krupnov’s opinion: Brujako (1999) 49.. 46 Krupnov (1960) 351. Here he also suggested that cowries, generally referred to as “Money cowries” by him, were native not only along the coast of the Indian Ocean but in the Persian Gulf as well and even – and here he was mistaken – along the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea according to the latest data. Compare Kris (1981) 50; Berezin–Dudarev (1999) 203, 216. 41 42

Stepi (1989) 219. “Sometimes, when female burials accompanied male ones female adornments (bracelets, earrings, pins, pendants) were made in the Kuban style. The majority of beads are made of carnelian, amber and Egyptian faience. Cowries are quite common.”: Petrenko (1995) 17. There are probably more sites with cowrie finds than those appearing in the catalogue. Aleksandr Aleksandrovič Iessen, for example, has noted that cowries considered as trade articles of southern origin by him as well were known from many north Caucasian sites (e.g. 640, 651–52, 662, 724). Also on the sites he has not listed due to constraints on the volume: Iessen (1940) 48, 48: notes 1–5; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 49 Kris (1981) 36, 38, 41, 43, 50, 55–56. 47 48

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin 781–82), finally to the so-called west Podolian group, in the basin of the middle reaches of the Dnestr River (723).50 West–northwest of the latter, in the (mainly eastern) Polish Lužica Culture of the 6th–4th centuries BC as well as in local cultures to the west and to the south, the Scythian influence took the form of the adoption of certain object types rather than, more or less, ethnic identity. I have found larger numbers of cowries only among the Transylvanians (443–44, 447–48, 466, 471–76, 479–80, 495–96, 528) while I have not found any in the 6th–3rd centuries BC Thracian archaeological material between the Dnestr and the Prut.51In the archaeological material characteristic of the population living between the Dnestr and the Prut (i.e. in present-day Moldova) and dating to the 6th–5th centuries BC, also Iranian-speaking but non-Scythian population of Transylvania which had already assimilated with the local Indo-European Geto/Thracian tribes,52 the Agathyrsoi, in the 5th century BC. However, I have found more cowries in the 6th–3rd/2nd centuries BC Geto/Thracian material in the Regat area of Romania (611–18) and in present-day Bulgaria (545–49). Scythian type objects have appeared in other areas of Central Europe, too, so that it is no coincidence that cowries were also found in the same places: in the cemeteries of the Thracian/ Triballoi (872), of the Illyrians (802–03, 805, 873–74), more exactly the Japods (806–11) and the Delmatas (804) dated to the HaD Period (600–460/430 BC) onwards or, in conspicuously large numbers, in the Sigynnoi material, probably of Median origin, in the Great and Little Plain in the Carpathian Basin (440–42, 445–46, 449-65, 467–70, 477—78, 481–94, 497–527, 529–41).53

the turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC they drove the Scythians to the southwestern edges of the Crimea55 and to the lower reaches of the Dnepr.56 Cowries appeared in a late, rather the 5th century phase of the Sauromatian material (619, 643, 681, 685) and also among their genetic descendants, the people of the Prohorovka (prohorovskaja) Culture (4th–1st centuries BC – 686) in the steppe between the southern Urals and the Dnepr River, comprising also linguistically related populations from present-day Kazakstan and the Aral region who settled there.57 The fact that cowries are present in smaller numbers probably reflects the limitations my database58 rather than the greater distance from the Mediterranean, as there are material evidences for contacts with Sauromatians in the Don-Volga region with Scythia and the North Caucasus, as well as with the populations living in the area between the Samara-Ural region to Siberia and Central Asia, particularly to the related Saka tribes of the Aral region and the Near East. There are also find complexes which seem to contain booty and objects from military campaigns as far off in Egypt and later their Greek, Roman, Armenian, Median, Babylonian and even Indian connections.59 Cowries reached areas north of the Sauromatian tribes, appearing at sites of the Finno-Ugrian Anan’ino (ananin’skaja) Culture (8th–3rd centuries BC – 621–22, 710) in the forest region at the confluence of the Volga and the Kama Rivers,60 its descendant in the Belaya valley, the Kara-Abuz (kara-abyzskaja) Culture (4th century BC–2nd century AD – 707) and the Čeganda (čegandinskaja) Culture (3rd century BC–3rd/4th centuries AD – 629) by the lower reaches of the Kama. Also mentioning snail shells (rakoviny), unfortunately without identification of the species, among their amulets: Stepi (1989) 136. On their intensive trade contacts with Greek towns: ibid. 138–39. 56 Antique influence is weaker in this area than among the late Scythians of the Crimea but snail shells (rakoviny) were also present as magical objects in children’s graves: Stepi (1989) 142, 144–45. 57 Although fossil marine shells (Griphaea) are frequent in the burials of Sauromatian priestesses, especially in the Samara-Ural (samaroural’skij) Variant of the culture, appearing along with a mirror and a small spoon, serving probably as containers for rouge or for paint necessary for tattoos, realgar: Stepi (1989) 167, 169, 174 (?). On the culture: Istvánovits–Kulcsár (1998) 10–17. 58 The summary of the 6th century BC–to the 4th century AD burial customs of the Sauromatians/Sarmatians is just being electronically processed: Moškova (1994) 5, 7. Among ritual objects shells (rakoviny) without further identification were mentioned in 3 male, 26 female and 1 child’s burial in the eastern/Ural group and in 3 female burials in the western/Volga-Don group in the list of finds and quite frequently in the plates classifying the material. Some of them might have been cowries: Bernabej–Bondioli-Guidi (1994) 169, 171–72, 179, 183. Data without further reference was useless to me. It is interesting that Marina Glebovna Moškova dealing with the archaeological material of the Prohorovka (prohorovskaja) Culture between the Volga and the Ural did not mention cowries either, although she did deal with shell pendants (podveski iz rakušek) saying that it was hard to decide whether they had any significance or were just considered as ornaments: Moškova (1963) 46, pl. 32: 36–37. 59 Stepi (1989) 169, 207–08. 60 According to Anna Vasil’evna Zbrueva, cowries (“Money cowries”; this identification has to be verified) appeared among female ornaments in the forest region between the Volga and the Ural, along the Kama, the Belaya and the Vyatka in the middle period of the Anan’ino (anan’inskaja) Culture, i.e. between the late 6th and the late 4th centuries BC. Along with the Egyptian paste beads they prove the early Scythian contacts of the Finno-Ugrians, probably of the early Komis and the Udmurts: Zbrueva (1952) 17, 36, 38, 43, 80, 86, 174, 182, 215; Kivikoski (1967) 38. 55

2.2.2.3. Scythian Period Sauromatians and Their Northern Neighbours Although the question of the origin of the similarly Eastern Iranian-speaking Sauromatians related to the Scythians and the emergence of Sarmatian tribes has not yet been resolved, it is possible that the Sauromatian (savromatskaja) Culture evolved in the 7th–4th centuries BC from the pre-Sauromatian (predsavromatskij) Horizon established by the 7th century BC as a result of the interference of the Bronze Age local Chamber Graves and of the Siberian Andronovo Culture in the steppe between the Don and the Ural/Emba.54 The initially peaceful relations between the Scythians and the Sauromatians got worse at the turn of the 5th/4th centuries BC. The latter started to invade the Scythians’ territory (it was then that Sauromatians began to be called Sarmatians in the Greek sources). Having occupied these territories by Stepi (1989) 48–80. Stepi (1989) 83–87. 52 Szabó (1992) 190, 192. 53 Based on Stepi (1989) 51–91; see Alekseeva (1982) 30–31. A recent summary of the spreading of the cowries from the south Caucasian foreland of the 9th century to the Dnepr region and Transylvania of the 7th century: Brujako (1999). 54 Herodotian Sauromatians are believed to have inhabited the area between the Don and the Volga. Whether the Issedonians, the Massagetes or the Dahas inhabited the southern Ural region is debated: Stepi (1989) 153–64. 50 51

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2.2.2.4. The Scythian Cultural Unit in Siberia

nomadic Kurgan finds from the Altai mountains and to the north, in the steppe–forest steppe region along the Upper Ob seem to form a transition between the contemporaneous finds of Central Asia and northeastern Kazakstan on the one hand and the Minusinsk region on the other. I have not found cowries in the first two phases of the early nomadic Altai Culture.66 They probably appeared in the next, socalled Pazyryk (pazyrykskaja) Phase (5th–turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC) identified with the Yueh-Chi/Tocharian material (630?, 645?, 648, 684, 701, 703), when this area was certainly affected by the influence of Chinese and, via Iran, Egyptian and Greek-Bachtrian arts and artifacts.67 In central southern Siberia in the Minusinsk Basin, i.e. by the upper reaches of the Yenisey, cowries are again absent during the Scythian Period (exception?: 642) even though cowrie imitations from various materials had long been known there.68 In the period under discussion here, it was the nomadic Uyuk (ujukskaja) Culture (8th–2nd centuries BC) living south of the Minusinsk Basin in Tuva, in the eastern area of the Altai and in north Western Mongolia.69 The derivation of its initial, so-called Aržan (aržanskaja) Phase (end of the 8th–middle of the 7th centuries BC) presupposes the immigration of the Saka population from the Aral region.70 They probably did not take cowries along with them because cowries are not very common in the early (middle of the 7th–6th/5th centuries BC) but rather more so in the late period of the culture (5th–2nd centuries BC – 623–24, 631–33, 635–36, 687–90, 695, 704–05).71 Cowries were also known in regions to the east of them, in the 8th–3rd centuries BC among so-called Stone Slab Burial Culture (kul’tura plitočnyh mogil) between Lake Baikal and the Gobi Desert (634).72

A particular and separate group was formed in Central Asia in the 8th/7th centuries BC within the emerging Siberian Scythian cultural unit from both the settled and nomadic peoples of the region. The settlement area of the eastern Iranian-speaking Saka tribes,61 who were probably related to the 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age Andronovo (andronovskaja) Culture in the southern part of western Siberia, possibly extended from the Caspian Sea to the Altay-Dzungaria region. The Massagetes lived east of the Caspian Sea and south of the Aral Sea to Amu-Darya, i.e. in the neighbourhood of Choresm and Sogdia, while the Daha tribes lived further to the south, in the northern neighbourhood of the Parthian empire.62 Since there could not be any real reason for the fact that I have not found cowries in their entire settlement area, I consider this to be an artifact of the limitations of my database, explaining their mosaic-like appearance. Progressing from the west to the east, I have found cowries only rarely in the early Saka Culture (7th–5th centuries BC) in the eastern region of the Aral Sea, south of Syr-Darya (326) and I have not found any cowries in the material of the Daha Čirikrabat (čirikrabatskaja) Culture (end of the 5th– 2nd centuries BC) in the Choresm region and northwestern Turkmenia identified with the Massagetan material.63 I have only found some in the material from early sites of the Džety-asar (džety-asarskaja) Culture (5th century BC– 5th century AD – 592–94) north of the Čirikrabat Culture and partly contemporaneous with it.64 Similarly, there were no traces of cowries either around Lake Issyk-Kul or in the Semireč’e region west of it or in the valleys of the Inner Tien-Shan in the Saka Period. However, cowries are known in the Ketmen-Tube (Ketmen’-tjube) Basin, i.e. among the nomadic populations of the Naryn valley in the middle of the western Tien-Shan and among the settled inhabitants of the Fergana Basin to the south – not completely without precedents (785)65 – maybe even at the end of the Saka Period, in the find material of the so-called Džalaryk (džalarykskaja) Culture (5th–3rd centuries BC – 598). Further to the east, the Scythian-Sarmatian Period

2.2.2.5. Evaluation The better part of the archaeological material discussed above was found in burials although there have been cowrie finds in settlement/building materials (542, 592, 629, 719, 723, 744, 774). Votive gifts/offerings (721) and On the material of the early, so-called Kurtu (kurtuskaja) and Mayèmir (majèmirskaja) Periods (8th–7th centuries BC and 7th–6th centuries BC): Stepnaja (1992) 164–66. 67 Stepnaja (1992) 166–68, 170, 173–74. The material earlier separated as the so-called Šibe (šibinskij) Period (2nd century BC–1st century AD) is recently classified as belonging to the Pazyryk Culture: ibid. 170–71: note 3. It should be noted that cowries of the Pazyryk Culture have consistently been called Money cowries, which needs to be verified. 68 Stepnaja (1992) 217. According to an earlier wording: “In the numerous old burials excavated in the Minusinsk region we have not found any [natural cowries]. This can hardly be explained by the unsuitable circumstances for the preservation of shells because we have already found neck ornaments of corbicula fluminalis snails in the burials of the Afanasyevo (afanas’evskaja) Culture (2000 BC [i.e. the 3rd millennium BC]). It is evident that in the older period only a restricted amount of natural shells of the Cypraea family reached the Minusinsk region.”: Teplouhov (1931); compare 642. On cowrie imitations (603, 605–06, 624–28, 632, 634, 639, 641–642, 644, 646–47, 663, 665, 680, 687, 691–93, 697–99, 702, 706, 711) see below. 69 The culture is divided into 3 chronological period: the beginning or Aržan, an early and a late one: Stepnaja (1992) 179. The other names are only relevant for the history of research. 70 Stepnaja (1992) 182–83. 71 Stepnaja (1992) 192. 72 Without reference to a closer site: Stepnaja (1992) 252. 66

Stepnaja (1992) 45–46. Opposing opinion: ibid. 26. Stepnaja (1992) 13–16. With a somewhat different localisation: Czeglédy (1969) 139, 145, 147–48. 63 In spite of the certain connections of the Saka tribes from the Aral region and Kazakstan, of the former and the Sauromatians of the South Ural region on the one hand and the Persian Achaimenid empire on the other: Stepnaja (1992) 46, 59–60, 116–29. The absence of cowries is also pointed out in the monograph on this culture – see Vajnberg–Levina (1993) – and may prove that cowries were not imported from/through Persia. I have found these shell ornaments only among the 3rd–5th centuries material, compare 1155. 64 On the culture and its beads of Syrian and Egyptian origin among others and its Sarmatian jewellery from the Lower Volga region: Stepnaja (1992) 70–72. 65 From the Early Iron Age Čust (čustskaja) Culture (turn of the 2nd/1st millenniums—to the beginning/end of the 7th century BC) in the Fergana Basin cowries are known as ornaments, see: Drevnejšie (1985) 195 without reference to sites. They also appear in the next, so-called Èylatan (èjlatanskaja) Culture (7th–4th centuries BC – e.g. 785): ibid. 195, 197: describing beads made of cowries as very rare. 61 62

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin hoard finds (544, 611, 638, 642: cowries and imitations cooccurring) with mixed compositions as well as those found in hidden hoard deposits where the find circumstances were not available in published form (556) or which were stray finds (615, 662, 712) deserve separate mention.

pendants (726–27, 730), stone pendants (617) and other amulets (635–36, 725, 734, 737, 741, 747, 755–56, 766, 780), etc. It has also been noted that among other things, amulets were kept in pouches in burials of the Pazyryk Culture, for example, which are rarely preserved (compare 701).76 It is also absolutely possible that the Scythians became acquainted with the beliefs and ideas connected to cowries in the Caucasus and the Near East at the time of their rule in Asia Minor, i.e. 625–585 BC. Therefore, it is not surprising that an amulet-like significance had already been, more or less, routinely hypothesised,77 related to beliefs mainly connected with fertility, even to a vulva cult78 among women and to a prophylactic role79 with children. Without attempting any interpretation, a cowrie found in the mouth cavity of a skeleton (782)

Most of the burials were those of females, especially as I have somewhat arbitrarily identified some burials as those of females based on their finds.73 It is probable that most of the children’s burials (8 cases: 548, 594–96, 601, 604, 617?, 762)were that of girls in spite of the relatively large number of undoubtedly male graves identified as such in publications or partly arbitrarily (in 12 cases: 609, 610?, 633?, 635?–36?, 643, 674, 677: symbolic grave, 689, 695, 701, 736?) or boy’s graves (630). Beyond that, I have not even attempted to identify the sex of many adult skeletons. Among the uncertain data I have also included the grave finds which came to light in double or collective burials which could not be assigned to one particular skeleton, as well as the sites which lacked sufficient contextual data although most probably they were also mainly finds from female burials.74

eastern object types, among them of cultic/ritual objects (mirror, poletops, kettles) and ornaments for a comparative analysis of the native and the immigrant, newly settled population of the Carpathian Basin did not even mention cowries: Párducz (1973) 28–43. Varvara Andreevna Il’inskaja, publishing 1 large and 2 small specimens (717, 777, 783) from 3 sites similarly only remarked when evaluating the Scythian archaeological material in detail that “bronze loops and cowries also appear as items of necklaces.”: Il’inskaja (1968) 142. Anna Vasil’evna Zbrueva similarly considered the cowries from Ufa (707) as ornaments/coins and did not list them among the amulets: Zbrueva (1952) 86, 182. In the discussion of whether shell pendants of the Prochorovka (prohorovskaja) Culture were amulets or ornaments, cowries were not even mentioned at all: Moškova (1963) 46, pl. 32: 36–37. 76 Kubarev (1987) 90. 77 e.g. the perforated cowries (cupraea moneta – sic!) from Scythian Period sites in the Chechen-Ingush AR and of some Caspian snails (Cardium sp., Didacna trigonoidas) were not considered as mere ornaments but as amulets (obereg-amulet) by: Kozenkova (1982) 65. Similarly the archaeologist noted about Scythian cowries of Tuva that “ebenso, wie bei den durchlochten Tierzähnen wird es sich bei der Kaurimuscheln um Gegenstände handeln, deren Bestimmung wohl nicht im profanen Bereich liegt.”: Kenk (1986) 69. 78 The excavating archaeologist noted in connection with the cowrie from the 6th century Pazyryk Kurgan (684) that “it is more correct not to consider Cypraea moneta shells as ornaments but as amulets as they regularly occur as single specimens in the Kurgans.”: Rudenko (1953) 135. According to the summary “Money cowries (rakoviny moljuska Cypreae moneta) resembling the female genitals were widely spread as amulets protective against evil spirits and the evil eye both in previous and in later periods, not only in the Altai region but well beyond that as well. Their single specimens found in the 6th century Pazyryk Kurgan and in the 1st simple Kurgan at Kotanda [648] were valued as amulets in the given society.”: Rudenko (1953) 335 (on the Kotanda/Katanda identity compare Rudenko (1953) 13: fig. 1 and Rudenko (1960) 9: fig. 1. István Ferenczy’s opinion explicitly referring to vulva cult was also accepted by Valentin Vasiliev, compare Ferenczy (1969) 55, 63–65; Vasiliev (1972) 80; Vasiliev (1972a 48. Ferenczy referred to a publication dealing with the subject from the point of view of the history of morals in which cowries – Cypraea porcellana (sic!) and Cypraea moneta – are mentioned as one of the symbols of the vulva: Aigremont (1909) 47; in more detail, referring to other shell species: ibid. 35–45, 45–50. Mihály Párducz, on the other hand, has not referred to this cult in connection with a cowrie from Tápiószele (529), even though he had found an engraved vulva depiction on the clay spindle whorl in grave 295: Párducz (1966) 61, 89, pl. VIII: 17a–b. 79 The frequent appearance of cowries in Scythian children’s graves was connected with their amulet character: Jerem (1986a) 185–86, 228: note 415, mainly referring to Ludwig Pauli’s research on Celtic folk beliefs and her own observations on the Celtic Period: Jerem (1979) 211–12: note 58. She has pointed out that their significance as amulets “had probably been realised even in the earliest Scythian burials as is also suggested by other objects strung on necklaces for similar reasons”: Jerem (1979) 185, 228: note 416: according to this, other objects were also strung on necklaces for similar purposes, e.g. bronze ornaments imitating animal teeth, cowries, animal and bird figures which were complemented with perforated pebbles (compare 529).

The majority of the burials were inhumations, characteristic of the Scythians – and thus, not listed – while the exceptional cremation or urn burials implied pre-Scythian/ Scythian (670–71, 674?), Sauromatian (619) or Geto/ Thracian (545, 548, 613, 616–18) ethnicity. It would be impossible to compare the forms of the grave goods in the collected burials with such a vast spatial and chronological range. I only wish to note that cowries appeared among rich (546–47, 549, 668–77, 682, 695, 701, 761 etc.) and poor burial assemblages alike. Perhaps this distribution suggests their importance as amulets beyond the fact that they were rare75 since they had to be imported from distant areas. This supposition is reinforced by the fact that cowries frequently occurred along with objects accepted and regarded as amulets: from the various beads along with beads decorated with magical eyes (546, 602, 607, 616, 618, 656, 701, 726, 743, 773, 783), with other marine shells, snails (546–48, 651, 760), bear canines (687, 680), wolf canines (758), wild boar canines (649, 688, 783), maraldeer canines (607, 688), musk-deer canines (631–32, 688), animal teeth in general (607, 720, 728, 783), club-shaped In 73 cases: 545–47, 549, 599?, 607–08, 612, 619?, 622, 624: natural cowries and imitations co-occurring, 613?, 616?–17?, 631, 637, 651?, 653–56, 657?, 658–59, 664, 667–68, 669?–72?, 676?, 678–79, 682, 684, 696, 725?–30?, 731, 734?, 737?, 739, 741?–42?, 746?–47?, 750?–53?, 755?–58?, 761, 765?–68?, 771, 773, 775?–76?, 777, 778?–80?, 785. 74 In 62 cases: 593, 597–98, 602, 613, 615, 618, 620–21, 623, 634: natural cowries and imitations co-occurring, 640, 645–50, 660–62, 666, 673, 675, 681, 683, 685–86, 688, 690, 694, 700, 703, 704–05, 707, 710, 717–18, 722, 724, 732–33, 735, 738, 740, 743, 745, 748–49, 754, 759–60, 769–70, 772, 781–84. 75 They have often been regarded as such in the scientific literature. Árpád Bottyán thought: “Cowries or Cypraea shells can be considered as typical Scythian jewellery ... These shells only live in warmer seas (Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, etc.). Thus they are an important material evidences for the long-distance trade relations of the Scythians. The Scythians wore these perforated shells probably as strands of beads.”: Bottyán (1955) 59. Although there was no doubt about their eastern origin, no more could be stated of them. Mihály Párducz, who had mapped the diffusion of 73

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads deserves mention. It is possible that these small cowries were connected to the cult of Aphrodite/Venus based on the hypothesised fertility beliefs, similarly to the larger cowries already mentioned and to be discussed below with the Sarmatians. If so, the question arises whether this connection was entwined with the cult of the Scythian goddess Argimpasa (Aphrodite Urania).80 Researchers of the Scythian (Period) archaeological material however, do not mention cowries among the ritual objects of the period,81 which may simply be a consequence of their insignificance from the archaeologist’s point of view.

though, as shown above, cowries could appear in male burials, too. The already mentioned change in the way cowries were used and worn began in the Scythian Period: besides the preponderance of Ringed or Money cowries with removed dorsum, meant to be sewn on, the number of specimens perforated for suspension increased. I have not been able to collect them item by item because the descriptions are often not detailed, specimens are not pictured, and often only with the side of their serrated aperture shown and because of the limits of my database. Therefore, besides mentioning some finds that I have not verified (546, 595, 612, 645, 664, 666, 696, 703, 717, 741, 757), I would like to draw attention to this tendency which culminated in the Sarmatian Period. The appearance not only of large, perforated Panther or Tiger cowries, also suspended on an iron loop (549) may be an early sign of this change. These two species and this form of suspension also became wide, spread in the Sarmatian Period. The change is not yet clearly reflected as both cowries with removed dorsum and perforated ones could appear in the same grave (594, 762) and specimens (or a specimen?) of one of the larger species have also been found with removed dorsum (783). Their tendency to be suspended decreased the probability of interpreting these vertically worn specimens as direct symbols of the human eye, i.e. similarly to cowries sewn on horizontally (757). This meaning might of course have lived on but in a more abstracted form, unifying the symbolism of the eye and the vulva, i.e. as protection against the evil eye and as a sexual charm. This duality may be present on horse harnesses (638, 649?, 721?) and with the above mentioned specimens worn by men. Among the latter, however, the burial of a warrior deserves mention: his belt was decorated by a large gold fitting in the shape of a panther’s head and with 20 cowries (695).84 The 25 perforated cowries found around a little girl’s pelvis and knees (762) also suggest a rare kind of cowrie wear.

The interpretation of the grave goods from what has been regarded as a woman shaman’s burial (656) in view of an interpretation of the system of beliefs based on ethnographic comparisons, is especially interesting, though in my opinion somewhat exaggerated. Jakov B. Berezin and Sergej L. Dudarev have concluded, based on the grave finds, that the deceased was occupied with ensuring fertility, fecundity and wealth, with keeping in touch with the cosmic forces of nature and, with the protection of the ancestor cult and the community. This is perhaps suggested by the composition of her grave goods including: pointed iron objects, 2 knives and an axe, offering protection against evil spirits, by her bracelet with its snake’s head-pattern (snakes were regarded as mediators of fertilising humidity between the sky and the earth), by her masked disk pendants connected to an ancestor cult as well as her amber beads meant to protect against illness and bad fortune and more precisely against sore throats. Her bronze necklace might have been a remnant of some agrarian cult because the bronze double eye-glass spirals were known in the Caucasus from the Neolithic on and were possibly connected to a fertility cult just as “cowries had [also] been an attribute of the fertility cult because mythologically they were related to the female genitals.”82 The authors’ opinion on the deceased in another burial in the cemetery (657) is no less exaggerated, in that they base their decision on the sex of the body on the cowrie find. Although it would seem to be a male burial because of the 11 arrowheads and as neither the knife, the axe and the chisel or the whetstone (?), the archaic large, socketed bronze arrowhead and the piece of limestone pushed into the bottom of the dish before burning, all with magical significance, can be exclusively connected to one of the sexes, the skeleton would have been interpreted as a warrior-priest, had the cowrie not appeared beside it. Based on this latter find, researchers hypothetically interpreted the grave complex as the burial of a female warrior83 even

Although the wear was probably mainly connected with beads and other small ornaments, the fact that cowries vary in terms of the numbers found in individual burials may relate to real unique differences. More than 20 specimens were found in a few, exceptional cases: even more than 160 (773), 110 pieces (671), 60 (669), 32 (673), 30 (704), 27 (734), 25 (762), and 24 pieces (667).85 It is not easy to describe the process of the spread of An excellent later parallel to it is known: with a buckle depicting a pair of griffins, along with 54 Thrush cowries sewn on in two rows (1069). 85 Below 20, the decrease in the number of specimens is generally coupled with an increase in the number of such assemblages: 20 pieces (675, 695), 19 (672), 15 (656, 658–59, 721), 14 (759), 12 (637, 674, 737), 11 (670, 703), 10 (682, 741, 760, 768), 9 (548, 767, 775), 8 (733, 746), 7 (653), 6 (657, 676, 688, 753, 757), 5 (677, 613, 742, 745, 758, 779–80), 4 (594, 612, 614, 738), 3 (545,604, 636, 651, 724, 726, 740, 751, 765–66, 783), 2 (546, 596, 607, 611, 631, 633, 643, 679, 681, 684, 688, 696, 701, 731, 747, 770, 778, 781), finally a few specimens (622, 630, 649, 655, 660, 700, 707, 732, 735–36, 749–50, 755–56, 771, 776, 784), while there was only 1 cowrie each in the other burial finds. 84

Argimpasa’s (winged) figure and iconography probably emerged during the time of Scythian rule in Asia Minor, influenced among others by Istar and the eastern variant of Artemis. She was the most humanlike of the Scythian deities, ensuring human and animal fertility but also having military functions. She was depicted as the ruler of animals, later of the dead, as the goddess of life and death. I have, however, found no suggestions connecting the appearance of cowries as burial finds or their being worn by the living with the cult of the goddess: Bessonova (1983) 37–41; Stepi (1989) 121; Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 264. 81 Stepi (1989) 99, 121–22. 82 Berezin–Dudarev (1998) 182–83. 83 Berezin–Dudarev (1998) 183–84. 80

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin cowries over this huge area because they may have originated from three geographical regions: the Near East, India and China. Because of the extraordinary source range and the lack of scientific identifications has been or can be developed, it is doubtful whether the identification of the specimens found in collections would be of much help. The fact that most of them are not identified and that the identification of many cannot be verified renders their derivation almost impossible. The majority of the finds must have been Ringed cowries native to the Indo-Pacific region, the smaller part of them being Money cowries. That the former outnumbered the latter by far is also signalled first by the exclusiveness of Ringed cowries among the verifiably identified Scythian Period specimens from the Carpathian Basin, second by their frequent mention in publications in other areas,86 third by my conjecture based on their drawn or photographed illustrations which only show a few specimens of the species found in large numbers. A part of the shells referred to as cowries or Money cowries87 in the scientific literature really are these species, the others (the majority?) may have been Ringed cowries, with other species occurring quite rarely: thus, Panther or Tiger cowries (549, 783) and Mediterranean Fallow cowries (612).88 Other specimens approximated or exceeded the maximum size of Ringed and Money cowries of 4.0 cm and were thus, probably from other species, either Mediterranean or Indo-Pacific (e.g. 593, 598, 684, 758, 774).

from the above-mentioned south Siberian sites – except for Tuva –, especially compared with the number of southeast European Scythian finds but rather those cowrie imitations appearing continuously in mainly 8th–1st centuries BC burials in areas near China, along the upper reaches of the Yenisey, in the Krasnojarsk region in the north (625–28, 639, 642, 644, 646–47, 663, 665, 680, 691–93, 697–98, 702, 706), in Chakassia (699) and in Tuva further southwards (624, 632, 687), as well as east of the Baykal (634, 641) and in North West Mongolia (603, 605–06)90 to be discussed below that allow us to trace the origins natural cowries from here or (for some of them) from China,91 transported along already established routes.92 The possibility of this origin is further strengthened by burials in which natural cowries and their imitations were found side by side (634?, 642). There is not sufficient evidence to show that cowries could have come from India, I think, because of so many finds not yet excavated, although the idea has been considered several times93 and does not seem impossible, especially as far as the western part of southern Siberia is concerned. However, concerning both the latter area and the European settlement area of the Scythians, From the 8th–6th centuries BC: 646–47, 665, 691, from the 7th century BC: 625, from the 7th–6th centuries BC: 680, from the 6th century BC: 644, 697–99, from the 6th/5th–4th centuries BC: 627–28, 663, 692–93, 702, 706, from the second half of the 1st millennium BC: 642, from the 5th–3rd centuries BC: 687, from the 4th–3rd centuries BC: 624, from the 4th–2nd centuries BC: 603, 605–06, from before 221 BC: 711, from the end of the 3rd–2nd centuries BC: 632, from the end of the 3rd–1st centuries BC: 634, 641. It is not likely, though not impossible that a find dated very early (626) is from before the end of the 8th century BC since Chinese imitations had already been known from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (356). 91 Yet, the fact that while many Chinese cowrie imitations were found in the Minusinsk basin no natural ones appeared may contradict the hypothesis that cowries were exported by China. 92 That they originated in this area does not contradict the results of earlier analyses on other objects because tribal trade had already established connections between China and the Ural region, in the steppe zone between the desert and the forest zone, during the Neolithic. These connections are shown by the appearance of characteristic Chinese bronze objects including knife-axes (ko). Paul Reinecke noted the (Northern) Chinese connections with the gold and bronze finds from South Siberia, especially the Minusinsk region, at the end of the 19th century. Following his overview of the history of research, Johan Gunnar Andersson assigned them to 3 large Eurasian regions: the Altai and Minusinsk region, the north coast zone of the Black Sea which was inhabited by Scythians in the 6th–2nd centuries BC and west of the Urals, in the area of the Anan’ino Culture in the Kama region. In all three cases he hypothesized direct contacts with Northern China: Andersson (1929a) 148–49. Later, this idea was re-inforced by Sergej Ivanovič Rudenko who demonstrated that the Altai region had trade and cultural contacts with Asia Minor, the Greek world and from the 5th century BC on to China based on, e.g. the Kurgan finds from Pazyryk (compare 684): Rudenko (1953) 356–61; Rudenko (1960) 340. Knife-axes were also found in cemeteries at Seima (Gor’kovskaja obl.), Turbino (present-day: Perm, Permskaja obl.) and Rostovkino, as well as in the Borodino treasure (with the Karasuk Culture belonging here) which can be dated to the 11th–9th centuries BC based on Chinese parallels: Členova (1972) 138–39; FitzGerald (1978) 54–55. It is no coincidence that in the western part of Central Mongolia, in Ordos bordered by the bend of the River Hoangho, large numbers of stray bronze finds are known which strongly resemble Shang-age bronze objects. Nevertheless, how the Shang and Western Chou Cultures came to Ordos is not known, although it is thought that the Karasuk Culture in the Altai and the Minusinsk regions developed as a result of direct Shang influence: Chang (1977) 394–95. 93 On the Indian contacts of South Siberian Scythians: Stepnaja (1992) 317. Since the coastal area of the Indian Ocean is one of the main habitats of cowries, the specimens found among the Scythian material of the 90

A possible, though the most remote possible area for acquiring Ringed and Money cowries (?) for the Scythians might have been China, where both species were known.89 However, it is not primarily the few natural cowrie finds David S. Reese has especially striven to publish newly identified revised and verified older finds. 87 Unfortunately I was not sufficiently consistent in noting the cowrie identifications provided in the literature I have studied. However, it is certain that there could have been Ringed cowries – e.g. Krupnov (1960) 351; Onajko (1970) 54; Kozenkova (1982) 65. etc. – among specimens called Money cowries, as a general name, e.g. 447–48, 471–76, 495–96, 612–13, 648, 651–52, 664, 678, 684—85, 695, 703–05, 709. 88 The appearance of Mediterranean species is not surprising. Their harvesting and trading in the Mediterranean area are also demonstrated by the presence of the above-mentioned Dirty and Fallow cowries from Cyprus, Greece and Turkey (see chapter 2.2.2.1.) as well as by the presence of Murex sp. native to the same area and appearing in Bulgarian grave complexes together with cowries (546–47). 89 Earlier on, Chinese cowries were generally called Money cowries, e.g. Bogaevskij (1931) 2; Bykov (1969) 4; which was not correct, as specimens of seemingly both Ringed and Money cowries appeared, as noted by Wang Yü-ch‘uan: Egami (1974) 6; compare ibid. 10: fig. 5: top row (Ringed cowries) and 10: fig. 4: top row (Money cowries). Roman Kenk has suggested “auffallend sind in Tuva die häufigen Funde von Kaurimuscheln (Cypraea moneta) schon wegen der weiten Entfernung vom Raum, aus dem sie stammen (Indischer Ozean). Die Fragen, auf welchem Wege sie nach Tuva gelangten, und ob sie außer als Schmuck und eventuell Talisman darüber hinaus auch noch die Funktion eines Wertträgers als allgemein anerkanntes Tauschmittel (= Geld) hatten, muß vorderhand offen bleiben. Bekanntlich hatten Kaurimuscheln schon im chinesischen Altertum vor dem Aufkommen gemünzten Geldes (das im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. erfolgte) neben Seide, Jade und Bronzegegenständen Geldfunktion. Bezeichnenderweise hatte eine der ersten chinesischen Münzen die Form einer Kaurimuschel.”: Kenk (1986) 101. I think that among the Tuvans, the role of cowries as measures of value can be excluded since their economic and social maturity lagged behind that of China. 86

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads I find it most probable that these cowries were imported from part of their huge Indo-Pacific habitat between Egypt and Pakistan, i.e. from the coastal regions of the Red Sea94 and the Arabian Sea stretching beyond the Persian/Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, together with long-distance trade in coral and amber.95 They were probably transported over land via the Caucasus and the Iranian plateau and even present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan96 but it is not impossible that they reached the Scythians living north of the Black Sea over the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.97 Of course, they might have been acquired from more than one area, as is suggested by the presence of Panther and Tiger cowries which have different habitats, in the Sarmatian Period which followed. Finally, another phenomenon may offer an argument for seeing the cowries as coming mainly from the Near East, with transport routes via the Caucasus, namely, the quantities mentioned above: only 1-2 specimens have been found as find complexes in the Sauromatian/Sarmatian area further away from the Scythian tribal area and in the neighbouring region to the north, as well as in the sourthern Siberian steppe, with 4, mainly Tuvan exceptions (30 pieces: 705, 20: 695, 11: 703, 6: 689).

several in my description of the database98 and here I only wish to refer to Valentin Vasiliev and Jan Chochorowski. The former has dealt with the origin of cowries several times and according to his most detailed, though not his last analysis99 including both facts and mistakes, Chinese cowries reached Central Asia and Asia Minor via trade routes in the 1st millennium BC, from where they were further traded by the Scythians.100 Chochorowski, based on the 318 cowries collected from the Scythian (Period) material culture of the Carpathian Basin and the area to its north–northeast, lately called the Vekerzug Culture and on earlier opinions, saw their appearance in Central Europe as the result of trade with the Near East, the Levant and northern coastal areas of the Black Sea, noting their spread in East Pomerania, too;101 with which I completely agree. See note 22 in p. 65. Vasiliev (1972a = Vasiliev (1972). In addition to the two contemporary archaeological Romanian groups, neither Scythian, lacking cowries (Balta Verde, Ferigile) there were two other groups as well as (Basarabi, Gogoşu etc.) later parallels: Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 111; Vasiliev (1980) 100–01; compare Vasiliev (1976) 36–37. 100 “Die Kauri-Muscheln (Cypraea moneta) [The word Muschel instead of Schnecke and the reference to the appearance of Money cowries exclusively was mistaken]. Diese Art von Bauchfüsslern (Gastropoden) ist im Indischen Ozean und den warmen Zonen des westlichen Pazifiks daheim. Seit dem frühesten Altertum wurden sie auf den Inselgruppen dieser Zone und in Südostasien (China, Indien, Ceylon) sowie in Ostafrika als vormünzliches Tauschmittel verwendet [Except for China, such a statement cannot be shown, of course!]. In China sind Kauri‘Münzen’ oder Bronzenachahmungen davon schon seit den 14. Jh. v.u.Z. in der Shan-Epoche belegt [As shown above, cowries and their imitations were used from around 2500 BC onwards, i.e. well before the Shan/Shang dynasty (1550–1050 BC). However, their role as currency can only be hypothesized, at least according to Namio Egami, who wrote in the Tung (Eastern) Chou Period (770–256/255 BC)]. Im ersten Jahrtausend v.u.Z. drang die Kauri-Muschel nach und nach auf Handelswegen in verschiedene Gebiete Zentral- und Vorderasiens ein [?], und erscheint auch in den berühmten Kurganen der skythischen Epoche von Pazyryk. Für die Zeit vor Ankunft der Skythen sind keine Funde bekannt, die das Erscheinen und Verwendung der Kauri-Muschel im Kontaktgebiet zwischen Europa und Asien oder im Osten unseres Kontinents anzeigen würden [as opposed to that see 51–326]. Man kann aber behaupten, dass in Mitteleuropa und auf dem Gebiet Rumäniens, die Kauri-Muscheln bis jetzt in den Funden vor dem 6. Jh. unbekannt sind und dass sie in dieser Zone erstmalig in den skythischen Gräbern Siebenbürgens und in den Gruppen aus Ungarn und der Slowakei, die den Skythen zugeschrieben werden, beglaubigt sind. Hingegen sind sie in der Hallstattgruppe [as opposed to that see chapter 2.3.] und im illyrischen Kulturkreis (ausgenommen 2? Exemplare in der Vače-Gruppe [873]) unbekannt [This situation has changed, see 802–11, 872–74], und in Thrakien (südlich der Donau) tauchen sie – wie es scheint – erst zu Ende des 6. Jhs. v. u. Z. in den Ravna- und Dobrina-Gruppen auf. Auf dem Gebiete Rumäniens sind sie in den Gruppen von Balta Verde und Ferigile nicht belegt. Zum Unterschied von den nichtskythischen Gebieten Mitteleuropas sind die Kauri-Muscheln häufig in den skytischen (und sarmatischen) Frauengräbern, beginnend von der Ural-Wolga Gegend [619], dem Gebiet nördlich des Kaukasus [666–67, 678], sowie auch in den Kurgan-Gruppen vom nördlichen Schwarzmeergebiet, wo sie – neben den verschiedenen Perlentypen, besonders den kleinen Kaolinperlen – in der Zusammensetzung der Halsketten und -bänder vorkommen [717, 783].”: Vasiliev (1972) 79 (In [] with the references to the sites mentioned by him). This is followed by an evaluation of the Transylvanian finds, see note 22 on p. 65. 101 “Neben den Perlen treten verhältnismässig oft auch Kauri-Muscheln als Bestandteile der Kolie [in der Vekerzug-Kultur] auf (318 Exemplare). Sie sind mit Öffnungen versehen, die durch das Abschneiden des am meisten hervorstechenden Teiles des Rückens enstanden sind. Austern aus der Familie Cypracidae leben in den warmen Gewässern des Indischen Ozeans (Roten Meer, Persischer Golf) sowie im westlichen Pazifik. Dass bei ihrer Ausbreitung in Mitteleuropa Gebiete des Nahen Ostens sowie 98 99

Naturally, this is not a new hypothesis, only one based on a greater quantity of and more verified data, which is partly in accordance with earlier opinions. Of these I have mentioned Altai region evidently originated from there: Martynov (1973) 152: “rakoviny kauri, privezennye s beregov Indijskogo oceana.” Accepting the view that they were transported from India and Persia via Tibet and Pamir: Egami (1974) 49–50. According to a later opinion “objects of doubtlessly Indian origin have been found several times in the material from Fergana. Cowries, carnelian and coral beads are common finds both in cemeteries and at settlements...”: Brykina (1982) 148. 94 It is probable that the main gathering area extended to both coasts of the Red Sea. Although there are no sources demonstating this, the ratio of large Panther and Tiger cowries used for the same purposes in the Sarmatian Period which followed the Scythian, supports this hypothesis. This also suggests that not only were Panther cowries, native only to the Red Sea, collected here but also Ringed and Money cowries which grow here naturally in the western end of their huge distribution area. However, the fact that Tiger cowries, native to east of the Gulf of Aden, also appear in the Sarmatian Period material also implies that it would not be correct to suppose that Scythian Period Ringed and Money cowries were harvested exclusively from the Red Sea. Due to constraints on this work I could not discuss the colorful faience beads, amulets and other imported objects of Egyptian origin which are further evidences of these contacts, compare e.g. Vinogradov (1960); Symonovič (1962); Alekseeva (1972), etc. 95 Grave goods including cowries, coral – also native to warm seas – and amber from the Baltic coast: 594, 611; including cowries and amber: 546, 656, 668–70, 672–73, 675–76, 682. 96 Their place of origin was in the Indian Ocean via Central Asia, where large numbers of them have been found: Zbrueva (1952) 80, 182; Smirnov (1964) 145. 97 In Emil Moscalu’s opinion North-Pontic Scythians acquired cowries which were possibly transported by sea along with other Greek goods from Naucratis in Egypt. However, since no Scythian finds appear in the Geta cemetery either in Ravna (548) or Dobrina (545) it cannot be hypothesized that they were exclusively transported through the Balkans: it is possible that the Getes imported them directly from the Greek towns. His opinion is also based on his identification of cowries from other sites either as Fallow cowries, also native to the Mediterranean Sea, or as Money cowries originating from the Persian Gulf (547, 612–13). He notes, however, that these ideas need to be verified: Moscalu (1981) 30. – “Modern distribution of cowries may not have been the same in the ancient past.”: note of David S. Reese.

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin 2.2.2.6. Southern Siberian Cowrie Imitations

Culture.106 According to the author of the latest summary on them, Natalija L’vovna Členova, early, i.e. 8th–6th centuries BC imitations107 which date from the very end of the Karasuk Culture of the ancestors of the Samoyeds and from the beginning of the Scythian Tagar Period108 are very similar in form: they have a spherical crosssection, a narrow longitudinal groove on their convex dorsum, with one or two holes for suspension, sometimes with small transversal grooves running along both sides of the longitudinal one, copying the callus-ridge found on real cowries (625–26, 628, 644, 646–47, 665, 680, 691).109 The later, i.e. 6th/5th–4th centuries BC Tagar Period imitations110 are different from the above in that they have a drop-shaped cross-section, a longitudinal groove running along both sides. Their edges are worked in a pine pattern. Furthermore, there are frequently other thin grooves running along the two narrow sides of the imitation (627, 639?, 642, 663, 692–93, 697–98, 702, 706, 711?).111 Cowrie imitations in the Minusinsk region can probably be regarded as objects imported from China,112 as suggested by their geographical position. The specimens listed above come from the southern part of the Krasnojarsk district (Krasnojarskij kraj) where their import was directed from the neighbouring Chakas (699), Tuvan (624, 632, 687), Buryat (634, 641) and northwest Mongolian (603, 605–06) region from the 6th –2nd centuries BC. Finally, the author’s opinion is definitely acceptable, namely that “we have no reason to believe that cowrie imitations served as currency in the Karasuk community as they had in China during the Ch‘un-ch‘iu Dynasty. It is, however, not unlikely that they were appreciated as valuable objects, as suggested by the fact that they appear less frequently than other Karasuk ornaments.”113

I have already mentioned the presence of cowrie imitations, more or less, as amulets, in Africa and Europe, which appeared from the 22nd century BC to the Roman Period, without providing detailed information. I have provided a more comprehensive description of Chinese cowrie imitations which can be connected to the southern Siberian finds. S. A. Teplouhov earlier noted an interesting phenomenon, namely that while natural cowries only reached the Minusinsk basin in limited numbers, if at all (711?), their imitations of glass paste and bronze or102 even of bone are common.103 They were worn sewn on or as pendants or elements in strands of beads, mounted or suspended after perforation or after making a longitudinal groove with serrated edges. These objects, also considered by him to be Chinese, may have been employed as ornaments or amulets but he did not exclude that in the beginning they were used as coins, although he provided no evidence for that.104 Later research has also confirmed that there are no natural cowries in the Early Iron Age material of the Minusinsk Basin and that cowrie imitations only appeared and lived on at the very end of the Karasuk (karasukskaja) Culture (1200–700 BC) or in its immediate descendant, the Tagar (tagarskaja) Culture (700–100 BC). In the early period, they appeared as specimens carved from bones, sometimes with holes to aid in sewing them on, while in later periods such imitations became rare compared to the cast bronze copies found among them.105 Their appearance can hardly be explained without direct Chinese contacts or influence, the latter also being in accordance with Sergej Vladimirovič Kiselev’s theory on the origin of the Karasuk

Similarly to natural cowries, the majority of cowrie imitations were found in burials, others in hoard finds

die des östlichen Mittelmeerraums ausschlaggebende Rolle spielten, liegt ausser Zweifel. Es lässt sich aber nicht ausschliessen, dass auch die Zone der Schwarzmeerküste den Prozess wesentlich mitbestimmte. Die Kauri-Muscheln treten im Prinzip in der illyrischen Zone nicht auf, sie fehlen auch in der HK [Hallstatt-Kultur]. Sie werden dagegen vertreten in der SK [Skythen-Kultur] (hauptsächlich in den Fundkomplexen des 5. und 4. Jh. v.u.Z.) [783], in der thrakischen Kultur [545, 548], geto-dakischen Kultur [613], sowie in der Siebenbürgen-Gruppe [443–44]. Sie sind auch aus Gebieten bekannt, die nördlich von dem Karpatenbogen und in der Küstenzone der Ostsee (hauptsächlich Ostpommern) liegen. Ihr Vorkommen in diesen Gebieten steht mit entwickelten Handelsbeziehungen dieser Gebiete mit dem Süden, an dem u.a. auch das Gebiet des Karpatenbeckens wesentlich mitbeteiligt war, im Zusammenhang.”: Chochorowski (1985) 56. It should be noted that the Latin name for the cowrie family is Cypraeidae, their super-family is Cypraeoidea. The German Austern ‘oysters’ (Ostrea sp.; Ostrea edulis) is not a suitable name for any cowries. 102 He also discussed them as imitations of Money cowries, which can hardly be said to be correct, Teplouhov (1931) and above note 556. 103 Stepnaja (1992) 217. 104 Teplouhov (1931); compare Bogaevskij (1931) 21, fig. 12 (cowries and their imitations); fig. 13 (a bronze cowrie imitation). Here, he also pointed out that the Tatars from Minusinsk, the Tuvans, Buryats, Kirghiz (on their shamans’ dresses), Mongolians, Caucasian peoples and their settled neighbours in Turkestan (on horse equipment) used cowries to ornament flat objects. The Cheremis, Mordvins, Chuvash also used them in large numbers as ornaments, rarely suspended as amulets. On all this see chapter 1.3.3.2.c. 105 Stepnaja (1992) 217.

In his opinion, one of the components of this culture entered the Yenisey region via Sinkiang/East Turkestan (14th–13th centuries BC) from the late capital of the Shang Period, Hsiao-t‘un near Anjang (339–47); 15th–14th centuries BC according to him). Here, it may have merged with the local Bronze Age Afanas’evo (afanas’evskaja) Culture population (3rd millennium BC), or more probably, with the local, Eastern Iranian-speaking Andronovo (andronovskaja) Culture (2nd millennium BC), thus, developing into the Karasuk Culture, from which the Tagar (tagarskaja) Culture evolved directly: Stepnaja (1992) 153–55. There are chronological problems with this theory: the Anjang Period is currently dated to 1200–1045 BC: Kína (1998) 474. 107 These were called imitations of Cyprea moneta (sic!): Kiselev (1949) 77, although they more probably imitated Ringed cowries. 108 Sergej Vladimirovič Kiselev has already stated that Karasuk Age burials are the latest ones containing cowrie imitations and are close to the early Tagar Age burials which also containing such finds: Členova (1972) 54: note 256.; compare Kiselev (1949) 77; Jettmar (1950) 94; Vadeckaja (1986) 58, 56: pl. V: A. 6. (2 specimens without specific site). 109 Členova (1972) 54. 110 There is a specimen in the plate showing the typology of the finds from the Saragaš Phase of the culture (4th–3rd centuries BC) mentioned only as “rakovina” without the name of the site. Thus, it was not possible to decide whether this is a cowrie or an imitation: Vadeckaja (1986) 91, 90: pl. VII: 13. 111 Členova (1972) 54. 112 I have not found this explicitly stated in the cited publication! 113 This latter view may be strengthened by the fact that little crosses were engraved on the back of two cowrie imitations, maybe as a sign of ownership: Členova (1972) 54. 106

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads (642) or as stray finds (639, 711). I have not found data on the sex of most of the deceased in these burials (603, 625–28, 632, 634, 646–47, 663, 665,680, 691–93, 697–99, 702, 706) and since, among the other things, there were as many women (624, 641, 644) as men (605?, 606, 687), I do not wish to take a stand on the differences in cowrie use and their burial as grave goods between the two sexes. This phenomenon, just like their co-occurrence with natural cowries (624, 634, 642) may also be a result of Chinese influence as I have not found any references to differences between the burial rites of the two sexes in publications and analyses of Chinese finds either where the co-occurrence of cowries and their imitations (385, 411) was also observed.114 The imitations were made from a variety of materials: argillite (646–47, 699), bronze (603, 605, 634, 642, 698, 711?), bone (624, 632, 687), limestone (641), glass paste (606, 626, 665, 691, 697), a kind of unidentified stone (639) and finally other unidentified materials (635, 627–28, 644, 663, 680, 692–93, 702, 706). Due to their low numbers and the few data on their forms it would have been too early to attempt their typological classification or draw conclusions from their quantiative differences of their quantity, except for the two outstanding cases,115 pertaining to the differences in the way they were worn.

2.3.1. 786–98. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin The Celtic Period material is much smaller than that of the Scythian Period discussed above, consisting of only 9 burials at 8 sites, of 1 unique burial complex without contextual information (787) and of 3 stray finds (789–90, 794). Of the 9 burials, 6 were inhumation graves (788, 791, 795–98), 2 were probably cremation burials (792–93) and 1 lacks sufficient data (786). The sex and the age is known only in 4 cases: one of the skeletons is that of a 31–40 year old woman (798), the other 3 are children/girls (795–97). Based on the accompanying finds one can further hypothesise that 2 were female (788, 791) while one burial was possibly that of a male (793). According to some sources and the composition of the grave goods, cowries were found as elements in strands of beads (786, 793, 795–98) although there were burials where no beads were found (788, 791, 793). In one of the latter (791), the cowrie lay above the left clavicle. Thus, it could have been either suspended or sewn on. Based on an earlier female burial (798) the question may also arise whether the 28 specimens were strung on a strand by themselves or together with beads or whether they were sewn on the clothes as ornaments, since except for three intact stray finds (789–90), most of the worked ones – similarly to the Scythian Period finds – had holes made by removing their dorsum, unnecessarily large for suspension (786–88, 791–92, 794–798) and others are lost with no description (793). The situation is different with the 2 intact (789–90) and 1 perforated (789) Money cowries from Munkács: Money cowries were rare in this period and the rasped narrow holes also suggest a later dating. Therefore, I have treated the dating of these 3 specimens as uncertain.

Chinese cowrie imitations could hardly have served as currency in the economically less developed southern Siberian area. They rather were placed in burials as clothing ornaments – as is true of some of the Chinese finds – and it is even possible that they had an amulet character, something also borrowed from China.116 2.3. 786–876. Cowries from the Late Iron Age and Celtic Period Sites in the Carpathian Basin and Their Parallels (600/550–10 BC)

There were 64 cowries in the classified archaeological material. Some 51 of them represented finds from only 4 burials: 28 cowries lay next to a woman (798), 9 each next to 2 small childrens (796–97), 5 next to a person of unknown age (786), while 1 cowrie each was found in 5 other burials (788, 791–93, 795). Because of their low numbers any hypothesis beyond the mention of these facts seems unnecessary. All of the specimens identified by Gyula Radócz and Endre Krolopp seemed to be Ringed cowries. Another specimen appearing only in a drawing (797), was probably also this species, while there were 3 supposedly Money cowries (789–90) and 1 unidentifiable specimen (789) among the stray finds of uncertain date.

In the overview of the archaeological finds from the end of the Hallstatt Period and the transition period between the Hallstatt and La Tène (600/550 BC) until the end of the La Tène Period (10 BC), I have mainly relied on the works of Erzsébet Jerem.117 Complementing that with a further collection of my own I have tried to obtain the accessible finds for Gyula Radócz to identify them. Cowries are not the only shells finds in the Celtic Period burials of the Carpathian Basin but I did not attempt to collect the other species. Therefore, I have only considered those cooccurring with cowries in assemblages.

Cowries appeared prior to the emergence of the Celts in Transdanubia118 in the graves of the cemetery dated to the transition between the Early Iron Age and the Celtic Period (Hallstatt D2/3–La-Tène A: end of the 6th–5th centuries BC – 795–98). The custom of wearing them could have been adapted from the East European Scythians and the Scythian Period population without their becoming as wide spread as among the latter. The population of the southern half

Here, of course, I have not referred to the many examples of cooccurrence of natural cowries and their imitations, not in the same assemblage, but at the same site. 115 44 pieces (641), 23 (691), 3 (626), 2 (624, 632, 665, 699), some (628, 634). 116 Both the cowrie and the cowrie imitation from Baj-Tal (624) were regarded as amulets by: Vajnštejn (1966) 152, 170, 173, 175: pl. II: 5–6. 117 A map of the data collected by her was to be published with her articles written for a monograph in Russian – Jerem (1986), (1986a), (1986b) – but finally was not included in the publication. However, the author has kindly allowed me to study it; I would like to express my thanks to her here. 114

“Cowrie shells are commonly found in Scythian graves and occur in other cultural contacts from the Ha D Period.” Hellebrandt (1999) 165. 118

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin and Bulgaria (545–49). Central European trade in them therefore could have come, not only from the Ukraine (717–84), Romania (611–18) and the Carpathian Basin (440–541), but also from the western part of the Balkans or even from Italian areas. For this reason, it seemed necessary to review these finds separately although, unfortunately, I could gather very little data on them.125

of Central Europe could, of course, also be considered as mediators but the Scythian way of working them found here, i.e. the removal of their dorsum, rather speaks for them being a borrowed element from the east. The trade routes from East and Southeast Europe, from Transylvania and Eastern Hungary along the Danube as well as from the Sigynnoi of the Balkans and southern Pannonia leading to the Baltic amber gathering sites119 could have led across the area of Sopron and then further to the west and the north.120 Celtic cultural influence could also have reached the northeastern part of Pannonia from the territory of the present-day Czech Republic prior to the arrival of the Celts.121 Thus, it is either this influence which is reflected in the material of the cemetery at Pilismarót or it was the culture of the earliest Celtic settlers (the Taurisci?) around 400 BC which merged with cultural elements of the Sigynnoi/Scythians (791–93). The Celts themselves crossed the Danube around 300 BC. The cultures of the Celts and of the Sigynnoi/Scythians started to merge around 250 BC at the latest (compare 529), at first mainly along the frontier of the Great Plain and the northern Mountains (786, 788, 794), then further to the south as well (787). The first Celtic contacts of the Sub-Carpathian population can be dated to the 5th–4th centuries BC but the sporadic cowrie finds (789–90) are possibly younger, perhaps dating to the La Tène C phase (270–160/140 BC).122

Most of the finds were from sites but many of them are just mentioned, without contextual data on other objects in the assemblage (803, 810, 843?, 814, 816, 818, 820, 822–23, 835, 837–38, 840–41, 873). Apart from these finds there were votive offerings (804), hoard finds (802?, 805) and stray finds without provenience data (809, 815, 817, 819, 833–34, 842, 844–45, 847, 849–50, 853–55, 858–61, 863–64, 868, 870). The majority of these last may once also have been burial finds. Most of the documented burials were those of women (806, 811–13, 821, 824, 874) and children (801, 807, 825–26, 830–32, 839), with male skeletons appearing only in smaller numbers (799, 808, 827, 872?). Since many of the burials remaining were cremations and the data on accompanying finds was often destroyed, it would not have been right to draw conclusions as to the sex of the deceased even though it was probable that the majority were women, e.g. those buried in faceurns wearing cowrie earrings (856, 869). The remainder, whether buried in face-urns (846, 851, 857, 862, 865–66, 871) or in stone box burial urns (848, 852) or cremated (803, 836, 843?, 867) only increased the number of uncertain cases along with the ones lacking sufficient data (800, 828–29, 834). Generally, there were few cowries in the graves. Apart from those with just one cowrie there were more than 1 or 2 assemblages with only 2 specimens (805, 807–08, 825, 828, 831, 862, 871), whereas there were only one or two complexes with more cowries: 8 pieces (827), 6 (839, 874), 5 (821), 4 (817, 826), 3 (810, 833) and several (834). This is considerably less than the amounts observed in Scythian Period complexes. The situation was similar in hoard finds, too, with 7–10 pieces in one (802) and 2 pieces each in two others (804–05). It is all the more unfortunate that the majority of the shells remain zoologically unidentified (800–01, 803, 807, 811, 821, 823, 828–29, 842–45, 847, 849–50, 853–55, 858–64,

Since Ludwig Pauli, an expert on the beliefs of the Celtic Period has accepted the amulet character of cowries (see chapter 2.3.2.2.), it is understandable that Erzsébet Jerem shares this view based on burial finds with cowries from the Carpathian Basin.123 In all these graves, there were also other amulets of other materials – not considering here glass or glass paste and especially not beads with eyes –: other shells (791, 795–96), wolf canines (791, 796), amber and coral beads (792, 798), pendants depicting animals (792) and tubes with rattling leafs (797), etc.124 2.3.2. 799–876. The Central European Parallels to Celtic Period Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin (6th–1st Centuries BC) Cowries could have been spread throughout Central Europe in other ways besides the Celts in Pannonia adopting them from the Scythians on the Great Plain. As we know, these amulets had already appeared in the southern parts of Europe during the Neolithic in Greece (184, 187–88, 190, 202–03, 205–06), in the Chalcolithic in Greece (183, 193, 195–98, 200), on Sardinia (247) and in Portugal (288), in the earlier phase of the Iron Age in Greece (185–86, 189, 192, 199) and in the later Iron Age in Greece (570–75)

Ružica Drechsler-Bižić has stated clearly that although various shells were already used as amulets in the western parts of the Balkans and along the Adriatic coast in the Early and Middle Neolithic, in addition to Adriatic shells from the Iron Age onwards, cowries were only imported at the end of the Hallstatt Period and during the La Tène Period: DrechslerBižić (1991) 81. Marija Birtašević mentioned finds dated much earlier: “Ils furent employés déjà aux temps préhistoriques. On les a trouvés en Bosnie, Slovénie et Voïvodine. En Bosnie dans l’agglomération néolithique à Donja Dolina, près de la rivière Sana [/Sava?: 802?], en Slovénie dans les nécropoles illyriques à Zasavje comme ornament des pendeloques de boucles d’oreilles [873?–874?], en Voïvodine ils furent trouvés dans les fouilles des agglomerations halstattiennes, aux environs de Vršac, celles de l’Âge du Bronze aux environs de Soubotica [926?–927?, 949?–51?: 4th century AD] et de Zrenjanin [?]...”: Birtašević (1973) 184. As she has included no references in this part of the text I wrote her, under the name of Marija Bajalović–Hadži-Pešić (following her marriage), asking for them but have received no answer from her (Belgrade, Gradski muzej). 125

On the route leading through the settlement area of the Scythian Period population between the Dnestr and the Dnepr Rivers (compare 723, 731, 744, 758–60, 762, 773, 781–82) see below. 120 Jerem (1979) 212–13: note 61. 121 Szabó (1971) 11. 122 Slavjane (1993) 82. 123 Jerem (1979) 211: note 58; Jerem (1986) 164, 211: note 164; Jerem (1986b) 199, 233: note 528. 124 Jerem (1979) 210: note 57, 212–13: notes 59–61. 119

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 867–68, 870, 874)126 as the identified ones – whose identification cannot be verified but has to be accepted – display many specific characteristics. The majority of the specimens were again probably Ringed cowries (799, 802, 804, 806, 808?, 813, 827?, 829–32, 848, 851–52, 866, 872–74) but Money cowries have also been reported (846, 856, 865, 869, 814–15). Similarly, from a Indo-Pacific habitat were the Bobcat (862), Carnelian (871),127 Dirty Yellow (839) and Tiger cowries (824, 836), as well as a large cowrie of unknown species (825: c. 9.1 cm; Tiger cowrie?) and a specimen called Cypraea erronea (857), while the Pear (812) and the Fallow cowries (810) were transported from the Mediterranean Sea. Some specimens were simply described as being of medium size (805: 3.5 cm, 816: ca. 5.0 cm, 821: ca. 3.0 cm, 823: ca. 3.8 cm, (826): ca. 3.0 cm) so that their natural habitat(s) must remain unidentified. Compared to the Scythian Period material, there is a conspicuously large variety of species. Although, similarly to the situation in the Scythian Period, Mediterranean cowries played a minor role in this variability. Their use followed Mediterranean traditions (see chapter 2.2.2.1.) so that they could be found even in the heart of Central Europe (812). The differences in the way cowries were employed is even more important. Most of the Scythian Period ones, having had their dorsum removed, were probably more suitable to be sewn on, while the majority of the specimens under discussion here were suspended with a little loop running through the small hole pierced through their anterior end. Naturally, there are specimens where the dorsum was removed (799, 802, 804, 808, 813, 830–31, 872) and unmodified ones, too (806, 836). The excavating archaeologist considered the 8 unmodified Ringed cowries found together (827) as pieces from the game of draughts. The new fashion of suspending cowries took various forms: with a loop for suspension (821, 823, 829, 873, 825: on a large specimen), sometimes even with specimens with removed dorsum (804, 873–74) or as earrings for face-urns (856, 869, compare 828?), as items of, more or less, sophisticated pieces of jewelry, i.e. strung on a bronze chainlet (826) or on a torque (812) or suspended on the ends of a cross-shaped pendants on a torque (810). Some examples of bandaging which became popular later can already be found, not along the sides of the cowrie but its aperture and dorsum (805). This variety could also be attested by some further data on a cowrie necklace (834) and on specimens which were only possibly perforated (801?, 807, 814, 816, 824, 828, 839?) and those where their condition is not known (800, 803, 811, 815, 832, 842–55, 857–68, 870–71). Although perforating the anterior of cowries was not a Mediterranean tradition, it also appeared among Scythian Period parallels unlike suspension on a strong metal loop, for which I have found only a single example among parallels (549).

is the surprisingly large number of cowrie imitations.128 There were some ring-shaped objects resembling the shape of natural cowries (817, 833, 875–76) and specimens from amber, one with a flat base, shaped like half an egg and one where the shape is unknown (809–10). There is in sufficient data for the majority of them, however (818–20, 822, 835, 837–38, 840–41). As none of them have any connection with the Scythian Period imitations which have different shapes and material compared to those of Chinese origin found in southern Siberia, several thousand kilometres away, they should also be regarded as characteristically Mediterranean.129 The only question remaining is whether the latter or at least the ones I know of (817, 833, 875–76) were really cowrie imitations or whether they were meant to be vulva-shaped pendants, as the counterparts to phallus-amulets (Fig. 46).130 This view may be supported by the fact that they are symmetric with an even aperture, not imitating the serrated edge of cowrie apertures. As opposed to the uniform nature of the interpretations,131 this differing view has also been put forward (compare 875–76) as is shown by the separate database established by Eugen von Mercklin (compare 805).132 The finds discussed in this chapter are doubtlessly varied both in space and time. Besides natural shells, I have rather found cowrie imitations in the southern parts of Central Europe, in Italy and in Iron Age times which are perhaps beyond the scope of this catalogue. These are not precisely dated in the literature accessible to me but probably comprise the early phase of the Iron Age as well. Both cowries and imitations come mainly from the western coast of the Adriatic, in the central Picenum area (821, 839 and 820, 822, 833, 835, 840) but also directly on the coast (819) and even, within a semi-circle, to the west (829–32 and 838, 841) the south (825–28, 836 and 818) and the

Alison Hingston Quiggin mentioned bronze cowrie imitations from Italian Etruscan graves (and even gold ones from Cyprus) without further data, noting that although they can be considered parallels to Chinese metal cowrie currency, they were rather ornaments and/or amulets because the earliest currency in this area consisted of metal bars, metal nuggets or gold and silver rings: Quiggin (1949) 278. 129 See the specimens discussed earlier: from Egypt (79, 99–100, 104– 06, 114, 108, 120, 124, 126, 128, 130, 134, 153–54, 148, 161, 167–69, 172–177, 226), Sudan (296, 300) and Cyprus (63). 130 Instead of discussing them see Seligman (1910) II: 188–03 (phallus), 203–06 (vulva). 131 e.g. Dumitrescu (1929) 146–47; Drechsler-Bižić (1991); Franken (1996) 181. 132 Vulva-pendants collected by him and not listed in the catalogue include: 4 bronze ones, on a loop from Slg. Niessen, 3 bronze ones: from a cyst in Praeneste, 8 stone specimens: from the so-called Ripostiglio Bianchini. He pointed out that these pendants, wide spread in the South, were unknown in Germany, where they appeared on double-buttons (15–20 examples) and on open-worked ornamental disks (3 examples). Concerning the last piece in his collection, he noted: “Sollte auch die Bronzefibel aus Ristissen... durch ihren merkwürdigen Aufsatz in unserem Zusammenhang gehören?... Häufiger wird die Muschel der Cypraeagattung in gleicher symbolischer Bedeutung verwendet.”: Mercklin (1935) 117–18. I could not verify the items in his list because of the inaccessible references but some appear in my database as well (99?–100?, and all of the following: 1288–89, 1305, 1337, 1352, 1369, 1382): see Mercklin (1935) 119. 128

Another interesting feature of the finds under discussion E.g. saying that all the specimens in this catalogue were Money cowries from Italy and the Balkans: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 87. 127 As Cycpurae carnerola: Malinowski (1983) 118. 126

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin dorsum removed in the Scythian way, could have reached the Celtic inhabitants of present-day Austria (799–801), the Czech Republic (812) and Germany (813–17)140 either from them141 or imported from the Scythian world through Pannonia in low quantities.142 The final destination of the hypothesised northward route was the western delta of the Vistula River in Poland which was also accessible from another direction, from the area of the Scythian periphery cultures in west Podolia, the Middle Dnepr region and along the Sula River (see chapter 2.2.2.2.).143 The fact that there are no such archaeological finds in central and southern Poland between the cowries of the AgathyrsoiSigynnoi and the Celts on the one hand and the cowries found along the coastline on the other may also suggest this possibility, namely not so much that the inhabitants of these areas had no demand for cowries (or at least did not buy any) but rather that instead of a hypothesised northsouth route one should assume the presence of an eastern route leading towards the Baltic coast.144 Of the two possibilities, however, the first seems more probable, first because the amber route along which other objects were also transported was probably already functioning145 and second because cowries appearing as earrings suspended on a loop on face-urns (856, 869) were unknown in the Scythian world (see below). Furthermore, an explanation somewhere between these two possibilities is also feasible: on the basis of the absence of objects originally produced by the Greeks and the Etruscans, which are rare but present in the Hallstatt Culture in the northern part of Central Europe, Heinz Grünert has drawn the conclusion that the central European Hallstatt Culture and the North

Fig. 46. Antique phallus-amulet, vulva-shaped pendant (876) and open-worked disks with vulva ornamentations – after Mercklin (1935) 118: figs 40–43

north (823–24 and –).133 In this way, Italy may have been one of the starting points for a trade northwards which transported, among other objects, cowries as well.134 This could have reached the Balkans, leading from its western border southeastwards although there was also a trade route from Greece135 via Bulgaria (compare 549) to the Balkans. Going from west to east, cowries136 could, thus, have come to the Illyrian tribes native in the northwestern regions of Dalmatia (802–03, 805, 873–749), more precisely to the Japod (806–808, 809–11),137 Delmata (804) and the Triballus tribes (872) in Thracia and Moesia138 from the Hallstatt D Period (600–460/430 BC) onwards. It is also possible that there was a direct sea connection between Picenum and the opposite coast of the Adriatic inhabited by the Liburnus-Japod tribes.139 They may have initiated their transport from further off. These cowries, some with their

Considering the frequent appearance of cowries in other periods “muß es erstaunen, wie wergleichweise selten sie um die Mitte des letzten Jahrtausends v. Chr. in Gräbern Mitteleuropas auftauchen” (referring to: 799, 813, 816): Pauli (1975) 128. Among the listed finds there were ones where the dorsum were removed: 799, 812?–13?, 814, perforated ones: 812?, 816? and ones where the finished state is unknown to me: 800–01, 815. Regarding the transport of cowries acquired from the Sigynnoi further west from Pannonia, towards Bohemia and Germany and even further northwards, without excluding the possibility that they were remnants of the contacts between the forest-steppe zone in the Ukraine and the region of the Vistula-delta: Chochorowski (1978) 368–69, 374–75. 141 Grünert (1973) 120. 142 “Für die wenigen Kaurimuscheln in Mitteleuropa ist eine östliche Herkunft angesichts ihrer Beliebtheit in den ‘thrako-skythischen’ Gräberfeldern wahrscheinlicher als eine italische, zumal sie im Süden nicht einmal häufig vorkommen.”: Pauli (1975) 209, 209: notes 496–97.; Jerem (1979) 211: note 58. “Der Ost-West-Handel führte aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach der Donau entlang. Hier seien wieder die Kauri-Muscheln erwähnt, es gibt aber auch eine Reihe anderer Beweise dafür, daß die Waren und die Einflüsse aus der Richtung Siebenbürgens, Ostungarns und der Slowakei mit Vermittlung Soprons nach Österreich und Süddeutschland gelangt sind.”: Jerem (1979) 213: note 62. Ludwig Pauli referred to 25 sites in the area of the Vistula-delta (compare 843–58, 869–66, 868–71) based on Grünert (1973) 121 and to the Italian sites mentioned by Oscar Montelius (1904) (1910) (821, 823–24, 829). 143 This possibility was recognised quite early on: “Deutet die Uebereinstimmung mit den rheinländischen, etruskischen und ägyptischen Kanopen auf die Möglichkeit eines südlichen Ausgangspunktes dieser commercieller Beziehungen in, so wird durch die Cypraea moneta der Urne von Stangenwalde [856] das thatsächliche Vorhandensein einer irgend wie gearteten Verbindung mit Südeuropa oder dem Orient zur Gewissheit.”: Mannhardt (1870) 253; also see ibid 248. 144 Malinowski (1982) 118–20. 145 Grünert (1973) 122; Jerem (1979) 212, 211: note 58., 212: note 62; Megaw (2005) 269–70. 140

The uncertain dates are based on collected data of Dumitrescu (1929) 146–47. Adopted from: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81, 87, dealing with the period. I did not attempt a further overview. 134 In the Hallstatt Period Picenum was already an important southern transfer point in the amber trade. It was probably along this route that coral, Mediterranean cockle shells (Cardium sp.) and not Mediterranean but warm-sea cowries were transported during the Hallstatt C or rather D Period: Malinowski (1982) 118, 119: fig. 3.; Kristiansen (1998) 235. 237. Cowries were not mentioned by: Kimmig (1985) 224–25. In the Early La Tène Age (5th–3rd centuries BC) coral was substituted for by the Indo–Pacific red helmet shell (Cypraecassis rufa) which is very similar to large cowries. These latter were probably transported via Italy but the trade in cowries was not mentioned, compare Frey (1985) 247. 135 The author derives the type of a silver suspension loop wound with a silver wire of a cowrie (804) from the artistic circle of Hellenistic arts. From here it could have reached the Japods from the territory of the Liburni in the middle–late La-Tène Period (2nd–1st centuries BC): Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81–82. 136 In addition to cowries, red coral, also of warm-sea origin, appeared here: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 80, 87. 137 Szabó (1992) 61, 191. 138 Szabó (1992) 192. 139 Mason (1996) 108: map 18. 133

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Adriatic foothills of the southeastern Alps were the point of origin of these north-south connections which was also affected by an Eastern cultural influence bring cowries along with it.146 However, both explanations seem to be contradicted by groupings of cowries in the face- or houseurn cemeteries147 of possibly Baltic peoples on the northern coast of Central Europe by the western delta of the Vistula in Pomerania, earlier called the Face-urn and more recently the Wejherowo-Krotoszyn Culture (ca. 400–125 BC): there are 28 sites (843–858, 860–66, 868–71) published from this area148 with only 3 sites (842, 859, 867) from the rest of Poland.149 Unfortunately, we have practically no data on the cowries placed in the urns along with the ashes as opposed to the cowries found as earrings on the face-urns to be discussed separately below.

are also considered to be female ones.154 In the monograph by Robert D. Gempler, I have found 7 urns dated to 625–550 BC mainly from Chiusi (ancient Clusium) or the surrounding sites with earrings not made from cowries155 – although there were also earrings in the ears of a drinking vessel shaped like a Charun/Charon-head.156 Although beakers with face depictions already appeared among the beakers of the Neolithic Funnel-beaker Culture (Trichterbecherkeramik)157 in Northern Europe, that is, Denmark and Northern Germany, ones similar to the Etruscan material only appeared in the later Hallstatt Culture in the areas mentioned, as well as in Norway and western Poland. Of these, the Pomeranian face-urns of the so-called Coastal Culture (kultura pomorska)158 have become the most famous, with only an indication of the eyes, the nose and the ears on some of the specimens from the early phase (Hallstatt C = 700–600 BC) and of the late phase (La-Tène A–B = 460/440–270/250 BC) of the culture.159 During the middle phase of the culture (Hallstatt D = 600–460/440 BC), actually its golden age, urns with a vase-shape also appeared besides the earlier slim and biconical ones: with their belly shaped like a human trunk and the face formed on their narrow necks (856) or their lid (860), maybe without any indication of the face but with earrings (869). Ignoring other characteristics and their scratched depictions out of consideration here, their being ornamented with real jewelry should be mentioned: the urns of men and women had bronze or iron torques around their neck and only the urns of women had earrings in the same materials. Some of the earrings had blue glass, amber and clay beads strung on them while there were copper and/or bronze rattling leaves, spirals and even cowries suspended (856, 860, 869) on its bronze chainlets. While amber and clay beads were local products, the blue glass beads were probably articles traded from Southern Europe, from areas it is not possible to localise more precisely.160 Cowries are of no help in exploring this contact because Ringed cowries (848, 851–52, 866, 871) are the most common among the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific species identified in the Polish material, with some Money cowries (846, 856,

2.3.2.1. The Etruscan and Pomeranian Face-Urns with Earrings150 The Etruscans (750–50 BC) adopted the ritual of placing the ashes of their deceased into urns from the Central Italian Villanova Culture (900–750 BC) but had changed from the Villanova-urns with a characteristically conical neck and an overhanging rim over several stages to ones shaped like a human, often with a bronze mask so that the lid of the urn placed on a pedestal (“a throne”) had the shape of a head151 because “the head as a representation of the human figure lived on as an Italian idea after the Roman Conquest as opposed to the Greek arts which perceived the whole body as an organic unity.”152 The two ears thus appearing on the head-shaped lid were often pierced, with real, mainly wire spiral earrings hanging in them. As the urns rarely referred to the person whose ashes they contained, there seem to be indicationss that the presence of earrings can be taken as indicating the sex of the deceased153 – so much so that urns with pierced ears yet without ornaments such as earrings “Deutlich sprechen die im Gebiet der Wisłamündung an mehr als 25 Plätzen gefundenen Kaurischnecken, die ihre Beförderung wahrscheinlich dem ‘orientalischen Kulturstrom’ nach Südeuropa verdankten, dessen Ausläufer damit über vermutlich viele Hände noch das nordöstliche Mitteleuropa erreichten. Mit diesem Strom waren auch andere Kulturelemente in die Hallstattgruppen gelangt und mehr oder weniger eingebürgert worden, die als Hallstattgut weiter ausstrahlten und die Nordgruppen beeinflußten.”: Grünert (1973) 121. Others suggest that the shells, correctly identified as being of Indo-Pacific origin but incorrectly as being exclusively Money cowries, reached Japod territory along a land route following the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and from there (?) were transported onwards by sea: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 80, 87. 147 Filip (1966) 401; Filip (1969) 1068; Filip–Hrala (1998) 366. 148 Another two sites do not appear in the Polish list (847, 851 or 852), compare Łuka (1979) 167: fig. 90. 149 The cowries from this area were first collected by: Conwentz (1902) 9–10. The base was added to by: Łuka (1963) 279–80, 287. and 284: fig. 1 (distribution map with 25 sites); Łuka (1979) 166–67, 151: pl. XLI: 2–3, 167: fig. 90 (distribution map with 28 sites); this was adopted by: Malinowski (1982) 118–20, 119: fig. 3 (distribution map with dots for sites neither numbered nor named); Johansson (1995) 349. 150 János Szilágyi has helped me to collect the Etruscan parallels, for which I would like to thank him. 151 Pfiffig (1975) 164–65. 152 Szilágyi (1989) 34; Filip (1966) 401; Filip–Hrala (1998) 366. 153 Exceptions are e.g. an urn found on a hill 0.5 km from Chiusi: Gempler (1974) 40. and pl. 8: 4, pl. 9: 1: Nr. 28; compare Montelius (1904) B. pl. 221: 15; Montelius (1910) B. 978: pl. 221: 15. 146

Gempler (1974) 239, their list: ibid. 273. Gempler (1974) 31. and pl. 6: 1: nr. 17 (Site unknown: only one of the silver spirals remaining), 40 and pl. 8: 4, pl. 9: 1: nr. 28 (Next to Chiusi: with a pair of bronze spirals becoming thicker towards the end), 42–43 and pl. 9: 2: nr. 30 (Castiglione del Lago: with a pair of bronze spirals, hung in the ear with 1 modern loop each), 49 and pl. 1: 5, pl. 12: 2: nr. 37 (Dolciano: with a pair of gold loops not belonging to it), 57–58 and pl. 15: 3–4: nr. 47 (Marcianella: with only 1 bronze loop perhaps not even belonging to it), 82–83. and pl. 22: 3–4: nr. 72 (Sarteano: with a pair of big silver spirals thicker at the end), 86 and pl. 23: 3–4: nr. 76 (Site unknown: with a pair of large bronze spirals). On nr. 30 see also: Montelius (1904) B. pl. 222: 6; Montelius (1910) B. 979: pl. 222: 6; Spenger–Bartoloni (1977) 34, pl. 13. 156 Herbig (1965) 20, pl. 32: 1, pl. 33. 157 With a short summary of Neolithic and Calcholithic Age : Gempler (1974) 253–56. 158 Its modern German name is: Pommerellische-Kultur, names used earlier: Gesichtsurnen-Kultur, Kultura Wejherowsko-krotoszyńska). 159 La Baume (1963) 36; Gempler (1974) 256. 160 La Baume (1963) 15–16, 39; compare Virchow (1870) 76–79; Filip (1966) 401. 154 155

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin 865), 1 Carnelian cowrie (871), 1 inaccurately identified Cypraea erronea (857) and a unique clay imitation (860).

cowries were highly popular Celtic amulets169. There is also a concurrance of opinion that this apotropaic role was mainly connected to women and girls.170

Researchers recognised the connections to Etruscan and Pomeranian urns quite early.161 Some authors have never accepted the possibility of a direct derivation162 but have regarded these as similar, though isolated developments.163 The main reason for discarding a direct connection is the absence of sites in possible mediating areas.164 It should be considered, however, for the sake of a more delicate approach, that cowries suspended on a loop appearing as the earrings on northern face-urns (856, 860, 869) are generally unknown to the Scythian world, yet have threefold parallels in Italy: firstly in their role as burial urns also containing bones,165 secondly in the real (though not cowrie) earrings hung on the urns and finally in the way they were suspended, namely that the cowries with small holes discussed above were also hung on loops.

2.4. 877–1155. Cowries in the Sarmatian Period Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin (10–453 AD) and Their Parallels (3rd/2nd Centuries BC–5th Century AD) I have used Andrea Vaday’s database, with a number of additions,171 to compile the scientific literature on the Sarmatian Period172 cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin. I have then attempted to collect the accessible specimens for Gyula Radócz to identify them. The cowries are not the only shell finds in Sarmatian Period burials in the Carpathian Basin but there was not possiblity to collect specimens of the other species.173 2.4.1. 877–952. Finds from the Carpathian Basin

2.3.2.2. The Former Role of Cowries

The collected material from the Carpathian Basin comes from 76 find complexes at 64 sites. With one Pannonian

The appearance of cowries in only a few known grave complexes among the burial finds of armed men (799, 808), around the neck (826) and in the lower abdominal area (830–32) of children, as well as in the ears of faceurns (856, 860, 869) themselves apotropaic,166 suggesting female burials167 and along with certain find types168 verifies the earlier view of experts in the period that

Ludwig Pauli differentiated between the following 5 amulet categories within Celtic grave finds: 1: rattles and leafs making sounds, 2: real and copies of objects with symbolic meaning: wheels, shoes, legs, hatchets, human-shaped pendants and frames, baskets, rings, cubes, clubs, rods, hook-shaped, etc. pendants, 3: unfinished, half-manufactured products, 4: conspicuous objects, rarities which could have had no practical role in the burial 5: objects considered valuable based on their material and even more so due to their form: rock pieces, naturally perforated pebbles of various forms, older stone axes, stone blades, stone chips, fossils, deer antlers, objects made of antler, wild boar canines, bear canines, bear claws, the teeth or bones of other animals (horses, oxen, aurochs, wolves, dogs, pigs, roe deer, cats etc.), human teeth, bones, amber and glass beads (especially apotropaic beads with eyes), sometimes suspended on necklaces or bracelets (compare 810, 812) and finally snails and shells relevant to our topic. Besides the already mentioned fossils, murex (Murex trunculus) and unidentified shells have been found in Celtic burials: Pauli (1975) 128. 170 Mercklin (1935) 118. “Aus den Überlieferungen des alten und neuen Volksglaubens geht... hervor, daß auch die Schnecke vor allem in die Kategorie der allgemeinen Abwehrmittel gehört, wobei ihre Gestalt sie mit der Sphäre des weiblichen Geschlechts verbindet, wenn auch dieser Zusammenhang bei der Kaurimuschel noch offenschichtlicher ist.”: Pauli (1975) 179. “Wegen ihrer schneeweissen Farbe und dem leuchtenden Glanz finden sie als Schmuck Verwendung, dem man magische und apotropäische Eigenschaften zuschreibt.”: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 80–81, 87. Central Italian cowries (825–26) were regarded as female symbols of virginity, of the pre-marital state because of their shape resembling female genitals: d’Ercole (1997) 54–55. 171 Based on Vaday (1974/75) 84–85; Vaday (1985) 370–71. and Vaday (1988–89) 13, 299: fig. 7. Andrea Vaday has complemented my systematised database with her own notes and dates and has published them with an analysis in a preliminary study. She made her manuscript accessible to me. Since then, we have extended this text – Vaday (1997) – into a joint study – Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) –, I will not mention it below, however, I wish to thank her for her generous help. 172 In the Carpathian Basin, the period is dated to around 20–424 AD, i.e. between the appearance of the Iazyges and King Ruga’s transfer of the seat of the Hun Empire, east of the Theiss River. To maintain the chronological continuity of the parallels outside the Carpathian Basin I have considered the time from the Scythian/Sarmatian take-over to the fall of the Hun Empire (turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC–middle of the 5th century AD). The majority of the finds come from the area of the Sarmatian barbaricum east of the north-south section of the Danube but, of course, I have included here cowries from the province of Pannonia, west of the river (888, 909) and the Quad (885, 918, 922) and Gepid (941) cowries from the German barbaricum north of the Danube. 173 Discussed in: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998). 169

I have primarily attempted to collect the literature mentioned by Conwentz (1902) and Schneider (1905). This is how I came upon Rudolf Virchow’s study and in the same issue of the journal to further publications with complementing information, see Virchow (1870); Bastian (1870); Mannhardt (1870); Virchow (1870a). Already on Etruscan contacts concerning the urns and their decorations and on possible trade connections: Virchow (1870) 73, 83–84; Mannhardt (1870) 252–54. 162 “Die Ableitung der Hausurnen,... sowei der die ostpommersche Kultur der frühen Eisenzeit charakterisierenden und darüber hinaus vorkommenden Gesichtsurnen von italischen, bes. etruskischen Vorbildern ist bekanntlich immer wieder versucht worden, allerdings noch nicht überzeugend gelungen.”: Grünert (1973) 120; compare Bastian (1870). 163 “Ein ähnlicher Entwicklungsvorgang wie bei den voll ausgebildeten pommerellischen Gesichtsurnen hat stattgefunden bei den altägyptischen Mumienbildern und Mumien-sarkophagen sowie bei den nur von einem Gräberfeld in Italien (Chiusi) bekannten etruskischen Kanopen.”: La Baume (1963) 42. 164 “Zwischen den etruskischen Kanopen und den pommerellischen Urnen der späten Hallstattzeit im Norden Europas fehlen aber jegliche Verbindungsglieder. Diese unabdingbare Tatsache zwingt uns dazu, die Kanopen von Chiusi als eine selbständige, von äusseren Einflüssen freie Gattung menschengestaltiger Urnen zu betrachten.”: Gempler (1974) 257. 165 “Was das gleichzeitige Auftreten der pommerellischen Urnen und der etruskischen Kanopen besonders bemerkenswert macht, ist der Umstand, dass beide beide Gefässgattungen zur Aufnahme der Totenasche dienten.”: Gempler (1974) 257. 166 La Baume (1963) 40–42. 167 “In dem Bestreben, das Menschenähnliche irgendwie darzustellen, werden ‘weibliche’ Urnen durch Halsringe aus Bronze und Eisen [860], Ohrgehänge mit Perlen [856, 860, 868], Bronzekettchen und Klapperblechen sowie Kaurischnecken [856, 860, 868], ferner durch zeichnerisch wiedergegebenen Schmuck (z. B. Ringhalskragen, Anhänger u. a.) gekennzeichnet;”: La Baume (1963) 39. 168 Apart from the various beads, amulet complexes with special compositions deserve mention (800, 813, 823–24, 874). Regarding blue glass (856, 868) and amber beads, bronze rattling leafs and cowries (856, 868) appearing among the ornaments of apotropaic face-urns: La Baume (1963) 42. 161

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads exception (888), all of them were burial finds even if a quarter of them were retained as stray finds from destroyed graves or cemeteries (877, 881–82, 884, 892–96, 898, 902?, 905?, 910?, 918, 921, 925?, 933, 938?, 941, 943, 947). Cowries appeared in Sarmatian, Gepid (941) and Quad burials (885, 918, 922) almost exclusively in inhumation graves, but among the latter group also in cremation burials (918?, 922). The majority of their former owners were probably women completed with girls of various ages (879, 900, 930, 945, 952). Beyond these burials a man’s grave (929) with mixed finds is usually mentioned in connection with this find type while another shell find (902) is even more difficult to interpret whereas a third find complex (896) should rather to be viewed as a female burial.

fragmentary.177 Except for a medium-size shell of unknown species (880: length: ca. 4.0 cm) it is rather likely that the majority of the large shells were Panther or Tiger cowries, mainly the former and much less frequently the latter.178 From the above, it becomes clear that specimens gathered from the Mediterranean (880: ? species, 888, 903: Dirty cowries) were only exceptions, i.e. that these cowries were probably mainly obtained from the Near East, more precisely from the coastal regions of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the only habitat for Panther cowries. Ringed and Money cowries are also native here just as further to the east, around the Arabian Sea, from where the Tiger cowries could have originated, as the region nearest to the Carpathian Basin.179 It seems probable at first sight that the large and heavy Panther and Tiger cowries180 could be neither sewn on with removed dorsi nor strung on strands of beads, nor hung on earrings as pendants.181 There was a good reason that another way had to be found to wear them, in accordance with a custom spreading in the Scythian/ Celtic Period, rarely with similarly large, much rather on smaller specimens, from the southern part of Central Europe (549, 825: large, 804, 821, 823, 826: medium, 810: small, 828–29: ?) to the north (812, 856, 860, 869: small), namely hanging them on a loop, on jewelry. The loops usually with their ends bent back on the wire with some twists were sometimes silver (900, 908) or iron (937?) but mainly bronze ones (878, 882, 885, 890–91, 894, 901, 906–07, 910, 912?, 920–21, 928–29, 933, 935–36, 941–42, 945–47, 949, 951–52) pulled through the hole made in the middle of the anterior of the shell – by rasping it until it was perforated, by perforating the bottom of the rasped spot or by directly perforating it – as is characteristic of the period.182 At this time, the practice, which became widely spread, especially among the Germanic tribes in the following centuries, namely to pull the ring through a pair of holes made through the two sides of the anterior (893, 946) was rather rare. Large cowries which could thus be suspended were worn exclusively by women or girls,

2.4.1.1. The Small Cowries Since cowrie wear in the Sarmatian Period changed fundamentally compared to the previous period, before describing their employment it is necessary to deal with the range of species offering a range of sizes. The most popular species of the Scythian and the Celtic Period, Ringed cowries lose ground (883, 919, 932?, 944?, 948) with Money cowries, which also appeared earlier, increasing in popularity (from a grave: 899, as stray finds: 902, 905). The shells of these 2 small species, with their dorsum removed, could be sewn on (883, 919, 944) but these, as well as the ones which were rasped and perforated at their anterior end (899, 902, 905) could be worn as pendants or strung on a strand of beads the way Dirty cowries of similar size were worn (on a loop: 903, unmodified: 888).174 I have already discussed the possibilities of collecting Ringed and Money cowries from their nearest habitat, the Red Sea, but it can also be supposed that Sarmatians partly used small cowries from accidentally disturbed Scythian cemeteries secondarily.175 Mihály Párducz’s opinion that a certain calcium bead type was also an imitation of these small cowries deserves mention.176 2.4.1.2. The Large Cowries

(878–79, 882, 886, 889–90, 892–93, 897, 908, 910?, 912, 915, 920, 862: 3 pieces, 922–23, 926, 927?, 935: 2, 938: 2, 940–41, 945, 946: 3, 949–50). 178 Panther cowries: 877: 2 pieces, 881, 884: 2, 885, 887?, 891?, 894–95, 898, 900–01, 904?, 906, 907?, 908–09, 911, 913–14, 916–17, 924–25, 929–31, 933–34, 936?, 937, 939?, 940, 943, 945: 2, 947?, Tiger cowries: 891?, 893?, 918, 925, 928, 942, 951?–952?. 179 Here I would like to note finds from a grave at Csácsó (885) although remains of Chinese silk have been found together with Wend, Italian and Baltic objects. Here the cowrie was not a Tiger cowrie from any region within the large habitat area extending to the Far East but a Panther cowrie from Near Eastern waters. 180 The following shells are in my possession with the following sizes and weights: a recent Tiger cowrie of 7.9 x 5.5 x 4.1 cm, i.e. of medium size and weighing 83.0 g, 1 recent Fallow cowrie of 3.7 x 2.2 x 1.8 cm and 7.0 g, while the average weight of 4 recent Money cowries of greatly differing sizes (1.3-2.1 cm long and weighing 0.5-3.0 g) is 1.9 g, the average weight of 3 recent Ringed cowries (1.6- 2.1 cm long and weighing 0.5-2.5 g) is 1.5 g. 181 The question also arises in the case of the 2 specimens strung in a strand with calcite beads (893) of whether this composition was only an invention of the individuals who found them. 182 The wire loops were surely first bent, then pulled through the hole as a “spiral” with the ends turned back and twisted around the loop. 177

The Sarmatian Period was rather the time when the use of large cowries spread. Thus, it is quite unfortunate that many finds could not be identified because they were

These were called Kaori-Schnecken and treated as beads as opposed to the large shells Cypraea-Anhänger: Vaday (1988–89) 58, 15 and 317: fig. 25: 37 (Muschelperle). 175 E.g. burned Scythian Periods beads were found in a Sarmatian grave at Szentes (936), a Scythian Period cemetery at a site in Törökszentmiklós (947) lay partly below the Sarmatian and Scythian beads and spindle whorls appearing in Sarmatian graves. Specimens where the dorsum was removed may validate such a possibility since this form of suspension was more common in the Scythian Period (883, 919, 944, see 787?). 176 Párducz (1950) 87, 223; referring to Párducz–Korek (1946–48) pl. LV: 2, showing rather a pendant-like imitation of a (cardium?) shell in the middle of a strand of 6 beads, compare grave 29, Malajdok A. cemetery at Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Tápé: Párducz–Korek (1946–48) 294. 174

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin with at least one, more rarely but without any regularity183 2 (889?, 890, 908, 935, 940) or even 3 specimens (891, 945–46) appearing in a grave. It is probable that on the left side of the body they were suspended on textile girdles with metal girdle-rings184 because the following cases can be best interpreted in this way: in one case each there were remains of green silk on the cowrie with a loop for suspension, held in the left hand of the deceased (906) or the shell itself was lying at the end of a strand of beads on the girdle, above the left knee (920) or along with other pendants with remains of textile next to the left wrist (936, 945) or in front of the pubis (891). In other cases, the cowrie was found next to the left elbow, which can still be reconstructed as being from a flipped up girdle band (949– 51). However, specimens appearing on the chest (889, 952) call for another explanation. Earlier, it was suggested that they might have been fastened to the wrist (900, 936, 945) but this idea together with the possibility that they were strung in necklaces was rejected by Andrea Vaday, so that this position must also be explained by their belonging to a textile girdle.185 Finally, it should be noted that the loops of several specimens were often hooked together.186 However, as the hypothesis of having been worn on textile girdles is based on very little data,187 I will return to the evidence for the reconstruction below.

their place as cult objects in the worshop of Aphrodite/Venus and the Scythian Argimpasa which the Sarmatians had also adopted. The fact that their owners insisted on these shells with their characteristic shape and, as their finds show, did not find them replaceable with snails or shells native to the Carpathian Basin188 can be viewed as negative evidence. As pendants on girdles, cowries appeared together with other symbolic objects such as small bronze paint and rattling cases (883, 890, 911–12, 928, 949–50), hatchetshaped pendants (891, 906, 927, 950–51), knife-shaped pendants (936), bells (906, 928, 936, 889–91) and amber beads (920) which make it probable that cowries were also the amulets of adult women about to get married;189 I will return to this question below. The Sarmatian Iazyges (Iazyges Metanastae) appeared in the Carpathian Basin sometime before 50, maybe already in the second decade of the first millennium, as a result of the pressure from the westward migration of the Alans. Cowries, however, are not present in this early archaeological material but appear in the last third of the 2nd century and continued to be used until the second half of the 3rd century. Their appearance is connected to the legacy of one or two generations of more Sarmatian/Alan tribal settlement from the east following the defeat of the Dacian King Decebal (87–106) or again during the Marcomann wars (161–180)190 and not related to trade activities.191 The Iazyges distribution area was limited to the eastern bank of the Danube Bend and the middle zone of the Great Hungarian Plain,192 They favoured mainly large cowries (877, 879–81, 884, 892, 895, 901, 904, 911?, 924, 928, 940, 946)193 although small (883)194 specimens also occur in the find material from their sites. Some cowries could have crossed the Danube from the Sarmatian territory and come to the Roman province of Pannonia (888, 909) as well as to the Quads, settled north of the Danube, on the northern border of the province (885, 918,195 922) by way of peaceful personal contacts and not by trade. It is not clear whether a woman resting in a grave in a cemetery containing a find material indicative of both Roman

A special maner of suspension, mainly characteristic for the Germanic tribes, (922) was a looped band surrounding the shell, made of bronze wire (884, 895?). Unfortunately, the context for none of these specimens is known so that its location in the grave could ot be observed. Furthermore, in one case (884), it is evident that the cowrie was originally not banded but worn on a loop and only when the anterior end became fractured did its former owner render the cowrie thus suitable to be worn (934). 2.4.1.3. Evaluation Andrea Vaday has also stated that cowries were amulets related to female fertility. Based on this, it was her opinion that the Latin name of cowries, concha Venerea and thus,

Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 251. Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 264; compare Batistić-Popadić (1984– 85) 68 (see 897). 190 For the history of the Sarmatians in Hungary see Alföldi (1942); Barkóczi–Bóna–Mócsy (1963) 35; Vaday (1988–89) 205–10, 228–29; Istvánovits (1998). The dating and the chronological evaluation of the individual grave finds was carried out by Andrea Vaday, for which I would like to thank her, compare Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 259–62. 191 Andrea Vaday has pointed out that if these shells were transported by the Romans, then they should have been found in large numbers along the routes leading there, i.e. in Pannonia, Moesia or Dacia. Archaeological finds, however, contradict the possibility of trade contacts between the Iazyges and the Roxolans living on the eastern border of the province of Dacia: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 248–49. 192 On the different distribution areas in the two periods and on the annals history: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 259–60. 193 On the differences in the quantities of the finds in the two periods: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 265–66. 194 On the possible dating of small cowrie finds: Kovács–Vaday (1997– 1998) 255. 195 If her indirect dating is correct, this is the earliest specimen from the Germanic Barbaricum in the Carpathian Basin: Kovács–Vaday (1997– 1998) 257. 188

Andrea Vaday has pointed out that there was no correlation between the age, the ethnic affiliation, the date or the area and the number of cowrie finds. The most one can state is that burials with more than one large cowrie generally were those of wealthier women: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 262–63. 184 The reconstructions: Vörös (1981); Szőke–Vaday (1983) 103–10, 107–08: figs 22–23; Dübner-Manthey (1987) 92–94, fig. 8: 1; Vaday (1997) 12–13. In connection with the reconstructions, it should be noted: Gabriella Vörös did not include in the wearing of large cowries that large specimens hung by a suspension loop were rarely kept in a bag but could hardly have been sewn on the textile girdle either because of their size and weight. They rather hung quite conspicuously and decoratively on a separate ribbon, strap or plait. 185 Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 262–63. 186 The position in the grave is only rarely known in case of the listed multiple specimens: 889: 2 pieces (?) hooked together on the chest, 891: 3 pieces hooked together at the pubis, 946: 3 pieces next to the left pelvis, maybe around the wrist. Position not observed: 890: 2 pieces hooked together, 908: only one had a loop?, 935, 940: from the fill of the grave, 947: one each on separate (?) loops. 187 I have not considered the multiple specimens described only as authenticated assemblages: 877, 884, 893, 925, 938. 183

189

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads and Germanic contacts but still having an Iranian196 or Gepid197 (941) character had only adopted the Sarmatian custom of wearing a large cowrie or whether she herself was Sarmatian. An ethnic comparison shows that most of the cowrie specimens in the Sarmatian, Dacian and Quad territory appeared in the Sarmatian Barbaricum.198

probability that in find complexes where the shells of a similar size it seems reasonable to assume that they should all be of the same species because the environment where they developed imposed similar conditions on them. Ringed cowries, in small numbers, maintained their earlier area of distribution, partly along the coast of the eastern Mediterranean Basin (Egypt: 960, Israel: 979–80, Jordan: 985, 987, 989, Syria: 1088–89, Turkey: 1120, ), partly in adjacent areas closer or further away (Georgia: 970, Kazakstan: 992, Moldavia: 1009, Romania: 1037, 1039, 1047–48, 1056, 1055–57, 1061, Russia: 1066, 1076, 1079) and exceptionally in Poland as a continuation of Iron Age traditions (1016, 1020, 1031, 1034). They were probably still found mainly in women’s and girls’ graves as far as one can conclude from the few direct data and based on the grave goods (970, 985, 987, 989, 1034, 1037, 1051, 1061 1066, 1079?, and 1020, 1055, 1057) but their appearance in settlements (979–80, 1039, 1089) and even in a hoard find (1120) also show that they were in daily use. The majority were still worked by removing the dorsum (960, 970, 979–80, 985, 987, 989, 1009, 1066, 1079, 1039, 1047–48, 1051, 1055–57, 1088–89) but there were perforated specimens (1061, 1120, 1154; ?: 992, 1037), banded examples (1016, 1020, 1031, 1034) and ones hung from a loop (1037), probably mainly as elements in strands of beads. They were not found in large numbers; in graves where more than one specimen was present, there were generally still less than the large numbers found at Scythian Period cemeteries (103 pieces: 1076/altogether in 7 graves, 9: 1066, 7: 1055: 5: 970, 4: 992, 1031, 1009, 1061, 3: 987, 1048, 2: 1079).

At present it seems that these large cowries ceased to be used among the Sarmatians in the Carpathian Basin from the second half of the 3rd century, the reason probably being that they could no longer supply them through trade. Following an absence of about a century they only started to re-appear in the Carpathian Basin from the last quarter of the 4th century on, most probably in the archaeological material of the Germanic (Ostro- and Visigothic) and Sarmatian groups of the Černjahov–Marosszentanna/ Sîntana de Mureş Culture (ca. 220 -ca. 365) who had fled here after being decimated by the Huns. Their sites within the large Sarmatian fortification trench, the so-called Csörsz-/Devil’s-ditch, at the upper reaches of the Theiss, more densely in the central area of the Great Hungarian Plain and some between the Maros and the Lower Danube Rivers, have yielded many more small (899, 903, 919, 932, 944) and also more large cowries, suspended on a loop199 than sites from the previous period, as well as an unique glass cowrie (896). I have not listed the stray finds of uncertain date (877, 894, 902, 905, 925, 938) and the, so far, unpublished grave finds (913–17) from either chronological group. 2.4.2. 953–1155. Parallels Outside the Carpathian Basin The differences between the coeval wear of small and large cowries were more marked in the finds collected outside the Carpathian Basin. Therefore, it seemed appropriate to discuss them separately. However, as they could not be separated precisely enough due to the lack of identifications and illustrations, there is a bigger chance for mistakes in the following analysis.

The center of the similar distribution area of Money cowries (compare Egypt: 964, France: 965, Romania: 1055, 1059, Russia: 1070, 1075) seems to have shifted to Central Asia (Kazakstan: 993, Kyrgyzstan: 996–98, Tadžikistan: 1091– 93, 1108, 1110–15, Uzbekistan: 1150–53, 1155), closer to the area where they were found naturally. The majority were probably also found in women’s and children’s graves (with reference: 997–98, 1092–93, 1111, 1113 and 1055, 1115) even when they appeared in collective burials (1108, 1150–53). Based on the accompanying finds, however, there is also a chance that they were put in men’s graves, too (1091?, 1110, 1112, 1114). Only a few specimens were found in settlement materials (964–65, 1059, 1155). The descriptions indicate that they were generally elements in strands of beads. Occasionally, more than one cowrie appeared but generally in smaller numbers than during the Scythian Period (32 pieces: 1070–71 together, 7: 1055, 1112, 4: 997, 1151, 1153, 3: 993, 998+, 1148, 2: 1091, 1155?). A special find of cowries found among other amulets in a bag hung on a girdle (998) deserves mention. They were worked similarly to Ringed cowries; most of them had had their dorsum removed (993, 1070, 1055, 1091–93, 1108, 1110–12, 1114, 1152–53), the remainder were perforated through their anterior ends (993, 996–98, 1091, 1115, 1150–51, 1153, 1155), less frequently through

2.4.2.1. The Continuation of the Scythian Tradition As within the Carpathian Basin, the cowries from outside it show that of the two most widely spread species, Ringed cowries were more popular earlier on while Money cowries became almost exclusively the cowrie of choice later. One should be cautious, however, because in most cases only a few illustrations from find complexes have been published and it was only based on these that I could generalise my non-expert identifications to all the specimens in the assemblage. Besides the need to process this data, the Ich denke “an eine unter starkem germanischem Einfluß stehende, über römische Verbindungen verfügende, in die obere Theißgegend in der zweiten Hälfte des 4. Jh. einziehende iranische Einwohnerschaft, ...”: Istvánovits (1998) 140. 197 Bierbrauer (1998) 401–02. 198 Cowries were generally destroyed during Germanic cremation burial rituals: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 256, 256: note 77. 199 878, 882, 886–87, 889–91, 893, 897–98, 900, 906–08, 910, 912, 920–21, 923, 926–27, 929–31, 933–37, 939, 942–43, 945, 947, 949–52. 196

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin the middle (1153) or were hung on a loop (965). Cowries suspended in various ways could also appear in one and the same strand of beads.

cowries on Cyprus appeared as grave and hoard finds (956 and 957) but also in a child’s grave in the Ukraine (1147). Further, more recently found medium or large specimens may extend the above distribution area: cowries which seem to fall in this group (or even larger ones?) based on the scale provided for illustrations, mainly seem to be found in women’s burials in Georgia (971), in the Russian Caucasus region (1064, 1074?), in the Ukraine (1134, 1142), in Bulgaria (955), in Moldova (1003, 1012?) and in Romania (1045?, 1058). The majority were perforated, some hung on a loop (1045, 1058) were probably girdle pendants (1045, 1134, 1142). Since there was also a banded one (955) it is possible that the few small bands, now empty, formerly held shells (958, 1013).

The specimens mainly found in burials, referred to simply as small cowries or assessed as such based on the illustration or conjectured as such based on the find complex probably belong to one of these two species, both from habitats along the Mediterranean coast (Egypt: 962–63, Jordan: 986, 988) and further away (Georgia: 969, Germany: 972?–973?, Kyrgyzstan: 995, 999, Moldova: 1000, 1006, Poland: 1027, Russia: 1072–73, 1078, Tadžikistan: 1094–1107, 1109, 1116–18, Turkmenistan: 1121, Ukraine: 1138–39, 1144). They were much less common as settlement finds (Kyrgyzstan: 994, Russia: 1065, Turkmenistan: 1122) or in hoard complexes (Russia: 1080). What has been said above is relevant for these grave finds, too: the majority appeared in female burials200 and were perforated, perhaps to be worn on a face veil (1102?), in strands of beads (962–63, 994, 999, 1144), in the region of the trunk (1027, 1103–04, 1106–07, 1116), strung on a loop (972–73, 1027) and on a girdle band (1139?). One of the grave goods indisputably belonged to an armed man, with one perforated cowrie each on his belt ornaments and pendants (1073). Generally, one specimen was placed in the grave, although sometimes more appeared (11 pieces: 1102, 7: 1106, 6: 994, 5: 1116, 1138, 4: 1006, 1139, 2: 1073). Based on data from previous periods, it is also probable that specimens of one of these two species were imitated as ornaments on dishes in Egypt and Sudan (961, 1082, 1084), as well as imitated in gold sheet (1083–86, 1131?) limestone, bone and other materials in Eastern Siberia, an area under Chinese influence (1065, 1067–68, 1149).

The amulet role of small and medium cowries is generally not disputed in the scientific literature, even if it is not discussed separately. This view may be shown by other shells (985, 988, 1073, 1108?, 1134, 1144), murexes (955, 1064, 1039, 1142, 1147), top–shell (Conus sp.) and Columbella sp. (963) and a winged-shell (Strombus sp. – 986) also considered amulets and found in the same assemblages, as well as by perforated wild boar canines (955, 1074), animal teeth (993), carnivore claws (1139), as pendants, by ozocerite beads (997), bronze and iron pendants in various (open-work, club, cock’s head, double hatchet, cauldron) shapes (972–74, 984, 1074, 1037, 1103, 1121), Egyptian glass paste and faience pendants of various (amphora, frog, “fig”, double roll, lion, scarab, ureus snake) shapes (1074, 1061, 1104–05, 1144, 1155?), pyramidshaped bone pendants (1142), stone pendants (1019), bells (999, 1104), among the beads especially amber and coral ones (1023, 1037, 1051, 1055, 1152, 1155) or grave goods composed of 42 amulets are not listed here again (1134). Sometimes the imitations themselves were elements in complex amulets (1083, 1085–86) and once appeared on a face veil perhaps itself of magical significance (1102) and in a textile bag along with bronze and iron rings and mail armor links (998). In Andrea Vaday’s opinion the relatively frequent appearance of 4 small cowries each in burial complexes (944, 992, 997, 1006, 1009, 1031, 1061, 1151, 1153) may demonstrate their talismanic character.201 In view of the large number of find complexes, however, this view does not seem well-founded.

It is possible that earlier on, researchers did not differentiate between Ringed and Money cowries and the medium-sized cowries to be discussed below, since larger specimens of the former could fit within the size-range of the latter. The habitat of some of the small and medium cowries, e.g. of the Indo-Pacific Serpent’s head and Gnawed cowries coincided. On the other hand, Thrush cowries could only be collected along the east coast of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Pear, Dirty and Fallow cowries are only found in the Mediterranean. Where they appear archaeologically is incidental: an intact Serpent’s head cowrie was found in a Celtic Roman settlement (965), a Gnawed cowrie in Pompeii (983) and a Thrush cowrie in Jordan (990). A special specimen of the latter species was found in an early Sarmatian man’s grave in the steppe region along the Black Sea (1069): the girdle of the heavily armed young man was decorated with a gold clip depicting a pair of griffins and with 54 perforated Thrush cowries sewn on in 2 rows! The other group of medium-sized shells displays more connections to their natural habitats: a Pear cowrie was found somewhere in Italy (984), a Dirty cowrie in Israel but also in burials in Germany (974, 979), Fallow

2.4.2.2. The Spread in the Wear of Large Cowries For the period discussed here the wear of large-medium (5-6 cm) and of large ones (6- cm) was more characteristic than wearing small and medium cowries. Unfortunately, due to the absence species identifications or possibly uncertain ones202 the ratio of the two most popular species can only “The fact that they regularly occur may indicate the protective role of the four cardinal directions. Some of the talismans were associated with cardinal direction or some astral phenomenon in Antiquity.”: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 256: note 74. 202 On the results of the revision of the classification of precisely identified specimens see notes 12 on p. xi and 391 on p. 108.“Maybe ancient distribution different from today?”: note of David S. Reese. 201

962–63, 972, 973?, 986, 988, 999, 1027, 1078, 1102–04, 1106–07, 1116, 1121, 1138–39, but from a child’s grave: 1105. 200

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads be hypothesised, with Tiger cowries outnumbering Panther cowries as opposed to the verifiably identified finds from the Carpathian Basin. The distribution area of their 21 find complexes extends around the Mediterranean Basin (Egypt: 964, France: 966–68, Israel: 979, Italy: 982–83, Jordan: 991, Tunisia: 1119) and, mainly, in Central Europe (Germany: 976, Moldova: 1007, Poland: 1022–23, 1028– 29, 1032–33, Romania: 1041, Slovenia: 1011?, Ukraine: 1130? 1142). The 15 Panther cowries as well as those only referred to as “large cowries” and the specimens measured as large ones based on the scale provided on illustrations them came from similar areas (Austria: 954, Czech Republik: 959, Israel: 981, Germany: 975, 978, Italy: 983, Moldova: 1001–02, 1005?, Poland: 1030, Romania: 1040, 1042?, 1053?, Slovenia: 1081, Ukraine: 1145). Among the specimens whose size could only be measured based on the illustration, it is also conspicuous that the centre of their distribution seems to have shifted to Romania and Ukraine besides their appearance in Russia (Austria: 953, Germany: 977,203 Moldova: 1004, 1008, 1010, Poland: 1015, 1017, Romania: 1038, 1043–46, 1049–50, 1052, 1054, 1060, Russia: 1063, 1077, Ukraine: 1123–29, 1132– 33, 1135–36, 1137, 1143, 1148). It is also possible that the local ratio of the two species was accidental, related to the possibilities of obtaining them and that their former owners did not attach great significance to which species they wore, as is suggested by the fact that in some complexes both species co-occurred (983, 1081, and 1005?, 1127?). Naturally there might have been large enough specimens of other species among the unidentifiable shells (953, 977) and the empty bands (1018, 1021, 1035) but it is pointless to deal with this possibility in more detail. As a curiosity we should mention that a large fossil cowrie has been found in a Moldovan child’s grave (1010) from the Middle Miocene, its geological area of origin unknown to me.

one was worn regularly, as is shown by the majority of the grave finds. Compared to the finds from the Carpathian Basin, there are hardly any burials with two cowries in this extensive area (1005, 1081, 1127, 1145). There were several ways to suspend them. It was common to hang the cowrie, perforated once through its anterior end, on a loop with its ends twisted back (954, 975, 1040, 1042?, 1043, 1045, 1081, 1126–27, 1133, 1136, 1143, 1148) or to fasten the specimen pierced through both sides of the anterior end on a loop (977?, 1124). Unworked cowries were banded only in the North European Germanic territory (978, 1015, 1017, 1018?, 1021?, 1022–23, 1028–29, 1032–33, 1035?). In the rest of the cases there are either no traces of the suspension loop or the shell was hung directly on a leather strap or a cord. Three specimens deserve special attention: the large cowrie of unknown purpose from the blacksmith’s grave mentioned above had a hole in the middle of its dorsum (1063), a small box for cosmetic articles made from a Tiger cowrie was placed in another burial (991) while an intact Tiger cowrie was placed in another grave in a small box for cosmetic articles (976). There is little data on the way large cowries were worn but based on their position in burials, on the in situ observations on the finds from the Carpathian Basin discussed above as well as on Germanic cowries to be dealt with in the next chapter, they seem to have been worn as girdle pendants.204 This is also suggested by specimens found on the pelvis (1007, 1130, 1142), next to the left femur (1045–46), between the femurs (1054, 1126), next to the right femur (1135), in the region of and between the knees (1005, 1049, 1060, 1127, 1129, 1132) or on the legs (1008, 1022, 1050, 1136), while the hypothesised role of 2 large and 6 other specimens of uncertain size as neck ornaments (971, 1145) is probably debatable. In one case, a cowrie with a suspension loop was placed in the bag located next to the inner side of the lower arm (977), in another the cowrie was put in a small box placed next to the knees (1132).

The majority of the people wearing these large cowries were women. Beyond the 30 examples identified or conjectured as such, we know of 6 children’s, probably girls’ burials (954, 1002, 1008, 1010, 1042, 1129) and 15 without identification or lacking data (966, 978, 1017, 1029–30, 1032, 1038, 1040, 1044, 1050, 1053, 1125, 1128, 1137) as well as some stray finds (975, 982, 1148). In two cases, large cowries were found next to a man’s skeleton: once among the remains of a plundered double burial of two men (1126) and once among the weapons and tools of unknown purpose found next to the personal belongings of a blacksmith (1063). Another burial (1077) should rather be regarded as that of an armed woman rather than of a man in spite of the mixed nature of the finds. Some examples were found in settlements (964, 979, 981, 1119), among them a cowrie found in a Mithraeum in France (968) while the 48 Tiger or Panther cowries from Pompeii (983) deserve attention. Among these large cowries, only

While there may always be a suspicion that small cowries were not used as amulets but only as special beads,205 this does not arise in case of the large ones.206 The wearing of the large and heavy Panther or Tiger cowries, with their conspicuous shape, color and gloss and hung from the

On the wearing of amulets on girdles also see: Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 24–25. 205 Isaak Aleksandrovič Rafalovič (see next note), for example, when considering the large amulets, only differentiated between them in terms of their wear and size in the grave descriptions, calling small ones cowrie beads (busina iz rakoviny “kauri”) and the large ones cowrie pendants (podveska iz rakoviny “kauri”/cyprea), compare the descriptions from 1004–09. 206 Joachim Werner noted at the end of his analysis of the amulets from Dančeny that “Unter den übrigen Anhängern und Amuletten aus Dančeny sind die eimerförmigen Berlocken und die Cypräen [referring only to the large specimens – 1004–05, 1007–08 – with an incorrect grave number, 336, in case of the last one] in Raum und Zeit so weit verbreitet, daß sie nur in gesamteuropäischen Zusammenhängen untersucht werden könnten. ... Während die Cypräa-Amulette zweifellos Fruchtbarkeitsamulette waren...”: Werner (1988) 263–64, 263: note 58. Similarly: “Wegen ihren besonderen Größe nimmt sie [die Cypraea pantherina] eine 204

Based on the cowrie’s 5.8 cm length only a Mediterranean origin can be hypothesized. Thus, it could only be a very large Fallow cowrie, compare Schach-Dörges (1981) 646; yet it was more probably a small Panther cowrie. 203

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin cockle shells (1042),214 Acanthocardia tuberculata (985), Conus sp. (963), Columbella sp. (963), Nerita albicilla (1088), Strombus sp. (986), shells (988, 1044, 1073–74, 1077, 1122, 1134, 1144), red deer antler roses (1005, 1026, 1126, 1130)215 salmon jaws (1145), wild boar canines (955, 1008, 1026, 1074, 1079, 1129),216 dog teeth (1129), animal teeth (993), an otter humerus (1130),217 bear claws (1031), astragali (1001, 1026, 1111),218 etc.219 N. A. Bogdanova has devoted a separate study to the amulets from the cemeteries in southwestern Crimea from the first centuries of our era among which both edible land snails and marine gastropods appeared hung on loops. There were marine shells suitable for holding red paint in priests’ graves. In the Caucasus, their amulet role has been retained until the present day: ethnographers have found mother-of-pearl pendants used to protect children from ill fortune among the Chechnyans and the Armenians.220 Her statements were, in essence, repeated in Vitalij Mihajlovič Zubar’

girdle207 can hardly be explained as a fashion. It is more probable that whenever these shells were turned with their serrated aperture outwards, the analogy perceived by their wearer in connection with them became evident to onlookers as well. The quantities of certain accompanying finds may also show their amulet role.208 These finds include other talismans of various materials and shapes including: a gold double roll (1078), a bronze phallus (967), a little bronze club (1007), a bell (1135),209 small iron or bronze buckets (972–974, 1007, 1026, 1035, 1134–35),210 a set of keys (1026), stones, semi-precious stones (997, 1001, 1077, 1135) and Egyptian faience pendants in various shapes (1074, 1105–06, 1144, 1155),211 bone (pyramidshaped) pendants (1002, 1005, 1132), bone rings (977), other banded pendants (1027), amber beads (953, 974, 977, 1004, 1007–08, 1022–23, 1026, 1031, 1035, 1037, 1051, 1054–55, 1130, 1132, 1134, 1139),212 coral beads (974, 977, 1005, 1035, 1051?, 1055, 1060, 1066, 1073, 1133, 1143, 1152, 1155) and perforated murexes (955, 1001–02, 1007, 1038–39, 1042–43, 1052, 1064, 1077, 1125, 1129, 1132, 1142–43, 1147),213 eggshells (1004),

the Mediterranean Sea. The former are mainly known from the černjahov–�������������������������������������������������������� Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mures������������������������� Culture dated to around 220–375 of the Eastern and Western Goths in Southern Russia and Romania. The latter have been found in burials of the provincial Roman inhabitants of the Alpine region and Pannonia and from the second half of the 5th century from graves of Alamannian women and children. The reason for their popularity has not been handed on by tradition and though they have often been found with cowries, this has meant that they were considered amulets against the evil eye and witchcraft as opposed to the cowries: Schulze-Dörrlamm (1986) 347–53. Referring to this work, Joachim Werner pointed out that “Ihre Verbreitung [der Purpurschnecken] ist in der Tat in der jüngeren Kaiserzeit auf das Gebiet der Černjahov-Kultur beschränkt... Während die Cypräa-Amulette zweifellos Fruchtbarkeitsamulette waren, bleibt ganz offen, ob die MurexAmulette zum Schutz vor bösem Blick und Hexerei getragen wurden, wie dies M. Schulze-Dörrlamm für möglich hält.”: Werner (1988) 264, notes 61–62. (with further sites). In 9th century Avar burials and the Period of the Hungarian Conquest in the Carpathian Basin see 1623, 1773 and note 365 on p. 105. 214 According to Marija Ivanovna Vjaz’mitina, who has published the Late Scythian cemetery at Zolotaja balka (Hersonskaja oblast’, Russia) dated from the end of the 1st century BC to the 1st–2nd centuries AD (compare Stepi (1989) 142.) the dead buried there once used various small shells (rakuški) as amulets, too. A fan-shaped shell (veeroobraznaja rakuška, probably a cockle shell) was found by the man’s pelvis in grave 51 – such as is also known from other Sarmatian cemeteries. But cowries (rakuški kauri) are even more common. Marine shells were also used as amulets by the Geto-Dacian population: Vjaz’mitina (1972) 151, note 125. In a note she referred to the following text: “Obieste apotropaice de acest fel sunt apoi diferitele conchilii de molusce marine de import (Scoica de pe purpură, scoica cardium, ghiocul) şi dinţii de animale, mai ales de mistret (fig. 26, 4) şi de urs (fig. 26, 3).”: Vulpe etc. (1951) 508. 215 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22. 216 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 21. 217 Accepting it as a bone and shell amulet: Symonovič (1963) 58; similarly: Kravčenko (1967) 113 (1133); Vinokur (1969) 59. 218 Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 80–81, 84; Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 21. 219 With a detailed list of the above shapes: Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 80–81. Large marine shells suspended on girdles, i.e., though not specified as such, included cowries and murexes among the magical objects from the period such as bone cubes, bone pendants, “Hercules’ clubs”, animal canines and horncores, perforated bones of foxes, beech martens and otters, cocks’ legs, red deer antler rings, etc.: Slavjane (1993) 144. That some of the finds, the marine shells (morskie rakoviny), perforated animals’ teeth, perforated animal and bird bones probably had a magical importance was also stressed by: Sedov (1994) 237. A basic summary of the amulet-like objects from the 5th–8th centuries, including animal teeth, cowries, spindle whorls, antler roses, etc.: Arends (1978). 220 I have found no explicit reference to cowries in the work not including the scientific identification of the snails/shells, compare Bogdanova (1980) 82.

bevorzugte Stellung innerhalb der Gattung ein. Form und auffällige Färbung der Öffnung sollen Veranlassung gegeben haben, sie zu antiken Liebeskulten um Aphrodite und Tanit in Beziehung zu setzen. Mystischsexuelle Vorstellungen verbanden sich ohne Zweifel auch späterhin mit diesen Cypraeen, wie anders sollte ihr Auftreten ausschließlich in Frauengräbern zu erklären sein.”: Schach-Dörges (1969) 44; Knol (1988) 120. Also: “In Gebrauch waren auch prismatische Knochenanhänger, die eine apotropäische Funktion hatten... Eine ähnliche Bedeutung muss man den Muscheln [mainly cowries and murex!] zuschreiben; beide gehören nie zu den Halsketten.”: Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989a) 215. On the role of murex and cowrie pendants found in the graves of women of all age groups in the fertility cult: Bobrovs’ka (1999) 91–92; Bobrovskaia (2001) 224. 207 The girdle itself was of magical significance, see Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 24. 208 E.g. according to Isak Aleksandrovič Rafalovič “the complex of ‘rattling (šumjaščie)’ shells and small bucket-pendants [in grave 337 at Dančeny (1007)] might show that the deceased was a priest. Large marine shells were found in the region of the pelvis. The deceased had probably wore a girdle with a silver belt clip on which the knife, the shells and the rattling ornaments were hung.”: Rafalovič (1986) 97. The authors of the chronological appendix to his book, however, only noted when dating the amulets that “cowrie shells [rakoviny kauri] used as pendants were found in many graves”: Ščukin–Ščerbakova (1986) 195. Volker Bierbrauer has also noted that the černjahov Culture adopted the use of amulets from the Sarmatians, something reflected in burials which contain a wide range of them (e.g. 1129): Bierbrauer (1999) 227. Both small and large cowries were regarded as amulets by: Kokowski (1995) 75, 89, 165: nrs 2656–57, 198: nr. 5140. 209 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22–23. 210 Werner (1988) 262; Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 23–24. 211 Egyptian faience pendants shaped like scarabs, a lying lion, a bunch of grapes, human body parts (hand, phallus), Beth/Bes, i.e. statuettes of the Egyptian dwarf-god, a herm, etc. were elements in the strands of glass and half-precious stone beads given as burial offerings to the deceased of both sexes and of all age groups in this period. Egyptians ascribed apotropaic power to these religious-magical symbols and the Sarmatians may have adopted their use without knowing the concrete meanings behind them. That they fitted within the Sarmatians’ beliefs is shown by the amulet complex from a special burial find which also included cowries (1134). Egyptian faience objects were made in large workshops in Naucratis and Alexandria and were transported to the north either from the towns along the Black Sea coast or over land through the Derbent pass in Dagestan: Krupnov (1951) 224. 212 Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 65–67, 108–109, 127–34. 213 Several peoples liked amulets made from murex shells with a long or short syphonal canal (Murex brandaris and Murex trunculus) native along the Atlantic coast of Southern Portugal and North Africa and in

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads and V. F. Meščerjakov’s study on the beliefs of the 1st–4th centuries inhabitants of the Chersonesos peninsula221 as well as by Irina Ivanovna Guščina and Irina Petrovna Zaseckaja in their discussion of the coeval amulets from the Kuban region.222

a change in how they were worn.225 I have found small and unidentified cowries (969, 1066, 1072) reported from the 3rd–4th centuries Late Sarmatian Period and in the burials of those Caucasian Alans who survived the Hun attack. North of the steppe zone, cowries appeared only as Sarmatian influenced imported objects from the south: small, possibly Ringed cowries were found at sites of the Finno-Ugrian P’janobor (p’janoborskaja) Culture in the Ural-Kama region (1076), also small, possible Money cowries at sites of the 1st–3rd centuries Finno-Ugrian Čeganda (čegandinskaja) Culture in the Kama-Vyatka region (1070–71), a large specimen, not an amulet, found at a 3rd–5th centuries Proto-Udmurt/Proto-Mari Azelino (azelinskaja) Culture site (1063).226

As far as the references to unidentified cowries often lacking information on their size are concerned, I will only list them here223 and will not comment on the empty bands/band remains which might have covered cowries of various sizes, either (958, 1013, 1018–19, 1021, 1035). 2.4.2.3. Evaluation The finds along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea can be explained partly as the survival of an earlier tradition (956–57, 960–64, 979–81, 985–991, 1082–90, 1120,) partly with trade contacts to the Mediterranean or the Sarmatian settlement area resulting from the migrations of individual peoples and with sporadic, individual contacts (953–55, 965–68, 1081). It is a conspicuous innovation in cowrie wear that more medium and large specimens have been found than small ones. The same phenomenon can be observed in the steppe zone and in Central Europe. As already mentioned in connection with the chronological line between the Scythian and the Sarmatian Period, the Syrac tribes224 settled in the Caucasus, the Aorsoi east of the Don, the Roxolans between the Don and the Dnepr and, the Iazyges along the Danube within the Sarmatian Kingdom established at the turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC in the territory once ruled by the Scythian. Of these, the confederation of the Alan tribes gained hegemony from the third quarter of the 1st century which they maintained until the Hun attack at the end of the 4th century. In the early Sarmatian Period or the period of the Prohorovka (prohorovskaja) Culture before the end of the 1st century BC and coeval with it, as a continuation of the earlier Scythian tradition, small and medium cowries were found in the Caucasus region (970, 1064, 1069, 1073, 1079?, 1138), while in the 1st–2nd centuries Middle Sarmatian Period, i.e. the Suslov (suslovskaja) Culture of the steppe located between the Emba/Ural region and the Lower Danube and during the same period, medium and large specimens (971, 1074, 1077–78, 1128), in addition to small specimens (1078?, 1144) and their imitations (1131), were also found in the Caucasus and the Crimea, suggesting

Progressing eastwards mainly in the steppe, I have found publications reporting small, perhaps Ringed and Money cowries (992–93), in a 1st century BC–AD 1st century burial of the long-lived Saka Džety-asar (džety-asarskaja) Culture and from the 3rd–5th centuries in Kazakstan and possibly a Money cowrie (1075) from in a forest steppe cemetery dated to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC–AD 3rd–4th centuries of the Sargatka (sargatskaja) Culture to the north. This deserves attention because the ethno-cultural background of this archaeological culture has been explained as being Ob-Ugrians, comprising also Proto-Hungarians227 and the end of it has been connected to the separation of the Hungarians and the Ob-Ugrians, with the former moving westwards, to the East European steppe.228 In the 1st–5th centuries, Wu-sun (usun‘skaja)229 archaeological material from Uzbekistan I have found small, most likely Money cowries (1150–53) as well as from among the 2nd–3rd centuries finds from old Choresm (1155). Small cowries have been found in the southern and western archaeological material of former northern Bactria on the right bank of the Amu-Darya in Turkmenistan (1121–22), and small, maybe Money cowries also occured in the cemeteries of the middle archaeological group in Tajkistan too, dated to the last third of the 2nd century BC–middle of the 1st century (1091–93, 1110–16).230 Cowries were used as jewelry between the 2nd century BC and the 4th century AD In the area of Armenia or East Georgia (i.e. Iberia), of Caucasian Albania, etc.: “There were definitely imported marine shells (morskie rakoviny) and small river shells (rečnye rakovinki) in some burials”: Drevnejšie (1985) 75. On other snails: ibid. 91, 101 etc. If the publication is consistent then the above are not cowries, compare ibid. 195, 439: pl. CLI: 39. 226 Among the articles from this culture imported from the south, glass beads, chalcedony disks and large cowries from the Persian Gulf [referring to Tiger cowries? based on the habitat] were mentioned. Furs would have been given for them in exchange: Gening (1963) 29. 227 Stepnaja (1992) 292–311; on the ethnic supposition: ibid. 311. On cowries (precisely: see 1075) regarded as objects suggesting the southern contacts of the culture: Matveeva (1997) 74: fig. 6. 228 Finno-ugry (1987) 163. 229 From Central Asia, the nomadic Wu-suns and the Indo-European (but not Iranian) speaking Tocharians, called Yueh-chis by the Chinese, settled down among the Sakas. The Wu-suns subdued the Sakas and some of the Tocharians. The majority of the latter migrated to the southern part of Central Asia where they lay the foundations for the later Kushan Empire: Stepnaja (1992) 81; compare Czeglédy (1969) 150, 152. 230 Stepnaja (1992) 112–14; Drevnejšie (1985) 255. 225

The holes and the suspension loops provide evidence for the way they were worn. In some burials there were also gold pendants in the shape of miniature shells (1131). Ethnographic observations also show that both were probably worn for a ritual purpose as amulets-talismans (amuletamioberegami) and were also placed in graves as such: Zubar’–Meščerjakov (1983) 97. 222 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22. 223 953, 955, 962–63, 969–70, 974, 976, 978, 980, 988, 994–95, 997–99, 1003, 1006, 1010–12, 1019, 1023–27, 1035–36, 1038, 1040, 1043–46, 1049–50, 1052, 1054, 1056, 1058, 1060–64, 1072–74, 1077–81, 1087– 88, 1094–1109, 1113, 1116–18, 1121–30, 1132–35, 1137–41 1143–44, 1146, 1148. 224 The remains of molluscs, only referred to as rakoviny, also appeared in Syrac burials: Stepi (1989) 251. 221

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin in the area of ancient Ustrušana, along the Silk Road.231 The situation was similar around Lake Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan and to the west in the valleys of the so-called Semireč’e and the Inner Tien Shan with no small cowries likely to come from the Saka Period, only from both phases of the later Wu-sun Period: from the early period (3rd–2nd centuries BC–5th century AD – 599) and from the Asian Hunnic Ken‘kol (ken‘kolskaja) Culture of the middle-late period (1st–5th centuries – 996).232 Possible small (?) and Money cowries (994,233 997–999, 1094–1109) were also found in the later Wu-sun Period, i.e. in our era, in the Ketmen-tube Basin, i.e. among the nomadic population of the Naryn valley in the centre of Western Tien Shan and among the settled population of the Fergana Basin to the south in Tadjkistan, along with a small cowrie imitation marking a continuation of Scythian Period traditions (1149).234 In the same area, I have found probable small cowries, of unknown species,235 in publications on the 1st–4th centuries Saka Karabulak (karabulakskaja) (995) and the contemporaneous Marhamat (marhamatskaja) Cultures (1154). Further to the northwest, in southern Kazakstan and in the area of the Tashkent oasis, small cowries also appeared in find complexes dated to the beginning of our era,236 although none appeared east of here in the Pamir highlands237 or in central and eastern Kazakstan.238 Further to the east, (small?) natural cowries (1080) also appeared in the 2nd–1st centuries BC transition, the so-called Tes Period (tesinskij ètap) of the Pazyryk (pazyrykskaja) Culture in the Minusinsk Basin. Cowries may not have been present in the late 1st century BC–6th century AD Taštyk (taštykskaja) Culture emerging from the mingling of the surviving Pazyryk population and the Turkic-speaking population entering the area at the beginning of the Hun Period,239 although possibly small cowrie imitations did still appear (1067–68). Cowrie wear lived on south of the Minusinsk Basin in Tuva, in the eastern fringes of the Altai mountains and in northwestern Mongolia.240 The same is true of the area between Lake Baikal and the Gobi desert further to the east, where cowries were also in use during the Hun Period (2nd century BC–AD 1st century), as is shown by

the presence of both natural ones and their imitations in the archaeological material (1065, compare 641).241 This complicated and maybe superficial summary suggests that it was mainly or exclusively small cowries, possibly more likely Money rather than Ringed cowries, which were worn in this huge Asian area. Therefore, it is justifiable to conclude that the Scythian Period custom of wearing cowries and the beliefs connected to them lived on among this ethnically diverse population which always retained contacts with the Iranian-speaking Sarmatians and that the natural habitats of these shells were not far away.

231

Drevnejšie (1985) 295. The beads, cowries, silk and Chinese mirrors in the cemetery material suggest contacts with their neighbours: Kožomberdyev (1960) 75. Dealing with imported articles of the period, Han Period bronze mirrors, round bronze coins with a rectangular hole and cowries were mentioned: Stepnaja (1992) 83, 86, 90. 233 Stepnaja (1992) 91–92. 234 Based on the finds of the period, Eastern Turkestan, China, Bactria (= North Afghanistan and South Tadzhikistan), India or the eastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea and the Sarmatian settlement area all had trade contacts with the Fergana basin: Stepnaja (1992) 91–94. 235 Drevnejšie (1985) 306, 312, 439: pl. CLI: 39. 236 In the cemeteries from the north slopes of the Karatau mountain, mentioned together with Chinese bronze and nephrite objects: Stepnaja (1992) 104. 237 Although there were face-veil leafs made from large Indian shells and also Indian carnelian beads in the 8th–6th centuries BC burials and definite connections can be attested with the Ordos plateau, Central Asia and Tuva. The anthropological constitution of the inhabitants displays relationships with Asia Minor and Central Asia: Stepnaja (1992) 97–98. 238 Stepnaja (1992) 130–48. 239 Stepnaja (1992) 236–46. 240 Stepnaja (1992) 159, 203.

241

232

242

The particular composition of the archaeological material in Eastern and Central Europe call for a separate discussion. In the south, among the Geto–Thracian population in the area of Bulgaria (955), Moldova (1011–12), Romania (1039, 1047–48, 1051, 1057–58, 1061) and Ukraine (1134,242 1141), the survival of Scythian Period traditions could still also be observed in the 2nd century BC–2nd century AD, in the wearing of mainly small, probably Ringed cowries and, by this time, fewer medium-sized ones (955?, 1012, 1058?, 1061?, 1059). This situation, however, changed radically from the beginning of the 3rd century onwards. The Wielbark Culture is the legacy of two related peoples living in the wider area of the Vistula delta, dated to the first 4 centuries AD. Based on the archaeological characteristics of their find material, the Gepids243 occupied the lower reaches of the river and the area east of it while the Goths244 inhabited the area west of them. In the course of their southeastward migration starting around 150 while the latter reached the steppe north of the Black Sea at the beginning of the 3rd century. The legacy of the Ostrogothic population emerging from the mingling of the Gothic tribes, separated by the middle of the century and of the local, primarily Sarmatian population whose sites have been excavated between the Don and the Dnestr is called the Černjahov (černjahovskaja) Culture,245 was the Visigothic/Terving population between eastern Transylvania and the Danube Stepnaja (1992) 266, 458: pl. 108: 48, 61. Galina Tihonovna Kovpanenko has made the following somewhat vague remark concerning the medium-size, 4.4 cm long cowrie from the grave: “the shells of Cyprea (rakoviny Ciprea) found in the Indian Ocean do not appear in Sarmatian burials in the Ukraine. They were found in Sauromatian graves in the southern Urals as amulets for neck and head ornaments. [note 64.: Smirnov (1964) 165.] Pendants made from the shells of sea molluscs (iz rakoviny morskogo molljuska) have been observed in find complexes on the northern coast of the Black Sea [note 65.: Alekseeva (1982) 31, pl. 43: 18.] and in a child’s grave 1 in Kurgan 3 next to Kalmykovo (Western Kazakstan) dated to the Middle Sarmatian Period [note 66.].”: Kovpanenko (1986) 90. The last remark refers to a shell found in the burial finds of a small child buried in grave 1 of Kurgan 3 at Kalmykovo (Tajpakskij raj., Zapadno-Kazahstanskaja obl.) which was not a cowrie but a pendant made from a conch shell, compare Synicyn (1959) 151: fig. 51: 6. 243 Bierbrauer (1992) 19–20; Bierbrauer (1994) 96–98; Bierbrauer (1998) 395–99. 244 Bierbrauer (1992) 16–17; Bierbrauer (1994) 72; Bierbrauer (1998) 393–95. 245 It is interesting that cowries were not even mentioned in the analysis of the commercial contacts of the culture, compare Slavjane (1993) 157–61.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads called the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture.246 Both cultures dated from around 220 until around 375 but fell prey to the Hunnic attacks.247 It is certainly through the influence of the Scythian/Sarmatian component of this ethnically mixed population248 that small (Černjahov Culture: 1139, Marosszentanna Culture: 1000?, 1008–09, 1037, 1055?–1056?, 1059) and medium sized cowries (Černjahov Culture: 1132?, 1147, Marosszentanna Culture: 1003?, 1045–46) have been found over the whole area of the twin cultures although this was the time that large cowrie species began to come more into fashion (Černjahov Culture: 1123, 1124?, 1125–26, 1129–30, 1133, 1135–37, 1142–43, 1145, 1148, Marosszentanna Culture: 1001–02, 1004–05, 1007–08, 1010, 1038, 1040– 44, 1049, 1050?, 1052–54, 1060).249 It seems probable that their wear and their symbolism were adopted along with the shells themselves.250 As these cowrie (and along with them the murex) amulets are concentrated in cemeteries in the lower reaches of the Dnestr and the Danube dated to the third quarter of the 4th century, which reveal clear Sarmatian burial customs. Oxana V. Bobrovskaja explained their conspicious presence as the result of some individual trade activity which took place between 330/350 and 367.251 Concerning earlier times she did not question the influence of Carpathian Basin Sarmatians but thought that there was need for further research because “there is no chronological hiatus between the dates of the Sarmatian assemblages with Cypraea amulets on the Great Hungarian Plain and those of the early Černjahov assemblages. Sarmatians made up a certain part of the

population among the first generations of immigrants, so we would expect to find cultic objects among their personal things. However, there are no belt amulets in the material of the grave assemblages of the early stage of the Černjahov Culture [except for the »problematic« grave 1142].”252 Independent of this, the mixed Sarmatian-Goth influence from these cultures (mainly the Marosszentanna Culture) influenced the Masłomęcz Group, established at an earlier stage in the Goth migration, in the eastern Poland Hrubieszów Basin, (160–400) from the beginning of the 3rd century onwards.253 As a sign of this influence, cowries began to appear in the archaeological material of the Masłomęcz Group.254 Since, however, the majority or all were small specimens (1024?, 1025–27) something which is very rare in the Sarmatian material, these shells may have come from a Roman source (compare 965–68, 975?, 976, 982–83). A further consequence of this retro-action is their appearance in the area of the previously mentioned Wielbark Culture.255 A special characteristic of these finds is that the majority were worn with bands,256 as opposed to the custom in the Černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, influenced by the Sarmatians, where they were worn suspended on a loop. It was a characteristic trait

rivers was impede because of the 3rd century Gothic wars and military activities on the Danube. It only began to again gain ground during the time of economic stabilisation from the first half of the 4th century. However, this was to be disrupted by the military campaign of Emperor Valens (364–378) against the Visigoths by Athanarich (+381) in 367–369. These events are reflected in the archaeological material by the dates on Roman money in hoards hidden in the region on the one hand and by the fact that objects imported from Rome started to become rare: Bobrovs’ka (1999) 91–92; Bobrovskaia (2001) 223. 252 Bobrovskaia (2001) 224; compare Bobrovs’ka (1999) 92. 253 According to Andrzej Kokowski “Bereits in der Phase B [der Kultur = 160–220/230] treten im Hrubieszów-Becken Funde sarmatischen... Ursprungs auf. In der Phase D [260–280?] kommen die ersten Bestattungen von Sarmatinnen vor, welche direkte und nahe Kontakte der Goten aus dem Siedlungsgebiet der Masłomęcz-Gruppe mit den Sarmaten belegen. In der Phase F [300–350?] wird eine Intensivierung der Kontakte mit dem Territorium im Norden deutlich.”: Kokowski (1997) 700, 747; compare 2. Expansionsraum: Bierbrauer (1998) 395. 254 “Weitere Funde sarmatischen Ursprungs oder zumindest sarmatischer Tradition sind Amulette aus Wildschweinhauern und Schwarzmeermuscheln... Im Hrubieszów-Becken bisher unbekannt, jedoch in vielen Gräberfeldern, hauptsächlich der Sîntana de MureşKultur häufig nachgewiesenen, sind Muscheln Cyprea Tigris... Ihre Befestigung erfolgte an einem kleinen Ring mittels einer oben durchbohrten Öffnung. In der Wielbark-Kultur wurden solche Muscheln demgegenüber als Anhänger, die mit Blechbändern umhüllt waren, getragen... Die Muscheln Cyprea Annulus [1020]... wurden vielleicht auf die gleiche Weise getragen,... Die Beliebtheit solcher Anhänger im Gebiet der Sarmaten läßt sich aus der großen Zahl in den Gräbern der Jazygen erschließen [Vaday (1988–1989) 58, 299: Pl. 7: Map of the sites in the Carpathian Basin; Bichir (1977) 186: 1047–48, 1057–58, 1061]. Hier seien auch die vielen Kauri-Muscheln häufig mit geschliffenen gewölbten Seiten, erwähnt, die auch in Masłomęcz, Grab 20 und 84 [1024–25] nachgewiesen sind...”: Kokowski (1997) 720–21, 721: fig. 53 (distribution map). Ignoring the cowrie finds from sites of the culture: Bobrovs’ka (1999) 92. 255 Andrzej Kokowski: Grupa masłomęczka. Z badań nad przemianami kultury Gotów w młodszym okresie rzymskim. Lublin (1995) 46: based on Stanek (1999) 331: note 7; Kokowski (2004) 32–35, 50–51: map. 6: 44 sites of cowries from Wilhelmsaue (975) to Privolnoe and Sad (1139, 1143). 256 This is rarely found among Sarmatian finds from the Carpathian Basin, although not with cowries but with wrapped pendants of glass spheres and glass beads: Vaday (1980) 95–96.

Bierbrauer (1994) 98–134; Bierbrauer (1998) 390; compare Mączyńska (1997) 103, 114: pl. 9: a–c. 247 Some cemeteries of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture may have been in use until 400/410 AD: Bierbrauer (1994) 117–21, 133–34. 248 Besides the population of the immigrant Wielbark (vel’barskaja) and the ancient Slavic/Germanic Przeworsk (pševorskaja) Cultures as well as the mingling of the local Scythian/Sarmatian and the Thracian populations, Soviet/Russian research has also dealt with the influence of the ancient Slavic and ancient Baltic Zarubinec (zarubineckaja) Culture dated between 230/220 BC–AD 200: Slavjane (1993) 166 and 34–35, 63–66; Sedov (1994) 340–41. 249 The size is unknown to me (Černjahov Culture: 1062, 1140–41, 1146, Marosszentanna Culture: 1036). 250 Gheorghe Diaconu explained as a Sarmatian/Dacian influence the appearance in the černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of pendants made from shells and marine snails partly from the Persian Gulf: “In zahlreichen Gräbern der an der Donau gelegenen muntenischen Friedhöfe [1042–43, 1060] und weiter nach Osten [1130] sind diese Gegenstände häufig anzutreffen. Wie bekannt, ist solcher Schmuck in der Przeworsk- oder Lipitza-Kultur nicht belegt und bei den freien Dakern aus der Moldau und Muntenien, sofern er auftritt, als Einfuhr durch die Sarmaten zu erklären, mit denen die Daker zusammenlebten.”: Diaconu (1966) 363, 360: fig. 1: 11 (1130); Tempelmann- Mączyńska (1989) 80. My data shows that cowries did appear in the Przeworsk Culture (1019, 1032–33) but were not present in the 2nd century BC–2nd–3rd centuries AD Ukrainian Lipitza (Lypica) Culture. As far as their appearance in the černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture is concerned, there may have been some Sarmatian influence but hardly any Dacian! The appearance of both small (?) and large cowries in the cemetery at Balcaty (1000–02) classified as belonging to the černjahov–Marosszentanna/ Sîntana de Mureş Culture was also explained as being the result of Sarmatian influence by: Fedorov–Rošal’ (1981) 103; Bobrovs’ka (1999) 92; Bobrovskaia (2001) 204. 251 The Sarmatian component of the černjahov Culture may have been forced to give up imported cult objects, among others cowries and murexes, because long-distance trade by sea and mediating trade on 246

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin of the Wielbark Culture to band their apotropaic amulets257 comprising glass, clay or marble spheres, large amber or glass beads, walnuts, the stones of other fruits, bezoar stones,258 marine-eggs, tokens, dice or gems with a pair of often open-work silver, bronze or iron bands crossing each other, with their ends twisted like a spring forming an eared loop.259 It is, thus, not surprising that banded small (1013, 1016, 1020, 1031, 1034), medium (1019) and large (1015, 1017–18, 1021–23, 1028–29), cowries and exceptionally small and only perforated ones (1025–26) can be found in their archaeological material. Although cowries mainly circulated towards the former Goth territory, they also reached Gepid areas (1034). Banded amulets, including mostly large cowries,260 are shown to be such a characteristic object type of the Wielbark Culture that their appearance among neighbouring peoples are always regarded as signs that they were Wielbark imports.261 The possible medium-large banded cowrie pendant (1035) can be found in find material from the coastal Dębyczno Group as well as the specimens found in areas southwest of the Wielbark Culture, in the Burgundian Luboszyce Culture located along the middle reaches of the Oder ( 150–ca. 400) (978)262 and the medium (1019?) and large (1030?, 1032–33) specimens of the Lugi/Vandal Przeworsk Culture also located to the south down to the Carpathians ( 1st–4th centuries). I cannot find the source of the small cowries suspended on a loop (972–74) found west of the Luboszyce Culture in the northern group of the Elba-Germans, in a Langobard (?) cultural environment; the small bandaged Ringed cowrie (974) in their southern, Thuringian group and a large cowrie (977, compare 975?) suspended on a loop from an early Alamann burial found further on to the southwest. The banded medium-sized cowrie (958) and the large one suspended on a loop (959) found among Bohemian Markomann archaeological finds seem to have come from the north or the east. A medium/large cowrie (953) from a female Goth grave in Austria also suggests direct eastern connections. It is interesting that the HasdingVandals, settling in the Carpathian Basin in the early 180s, did not adopt cowrie wear from either the local Sarmatians or from the neighbouring Visigoths while their distribution among the Gepids263 reaching the northeastern area of the

Basin around 260 seems to have been very restricted. The only specimen found in Gepid cultural environment (941) should rather be regarded as the legacy of a Sarmatian woman married into a Gepid family; apart from that here is only one known Gepid cowrie find (1156). In view of the following, it is also important that the wear of large cowries was not yet wide spread in the “Central and East European Barbaricum”, i.e. from Germany to the Black Sea, apart from the areas discussed above.264 2.4.3. 896. The glass cowrie imitation from Hajdúböszörmény265 In 1926, an temporary sand-pit was opened next to Imre Erdős’ farm along the road to Balmazújváros–Hajdúnánás, in the western section of the northern border of Hajdúböszörmény and (Hajdú)Vid. The workers found an early Avar grave there and the museologists who arrived to verify the find, found a burial from the time of the Hungarian Conquest too.266 The following objects, regarded as an assemblage of the only Roman Imperial-Period grave could have come to light at any time from then until 1952– 53 when the next inventory was taken of them. However, there are no relevant documents in the city museum. Péter H. Fekete, director of the museum and the first to publish the finds267 did not mention when and how they were found and despite all my efforts I could not clear up these details.268 The finds were, thus, traditionally regarded as having been rescued from a destroyed Sarmatian female burial are the following: a bronze brooch,269 a strand of beads with the following elements: a large barrel-shaped, When discussing the archaeological material from women’s wear in the Roman Imperial Period in the 16 territories of the Barbaricum, Magdalena Tempelmann-Mączyńska mentioned wrapped cowrie pendants (Cypraea-Muschel) only among finds from the following regios: 5. The northern Germanic group along the Elba, connected to the Langobards (972–73), 12. The Burgundian/Elba-Germanic Luboszyce Culture (975), 14. The Wielbark Culture (the finds see in this text), 15. The Černjahov– Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture (for the finds, see this text): Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 30, 56, 71, 80, 103–04, 123. On the other hand, she dealt with cultures and concrete grave assemblages in which there were cowries but left them unmentioned: 5. The southern, Thuringian group of the Germans living along the Elba (974), 6. Czech Republic/ Bohemia (958–59), 7. Moravia (885: not Moravia but Slovakia) and Lower Austria: of Markomann origin in these three regions, 8. Slovakia (885, 918, 922), 11. The Dębyczno Group (1035), 13. The Przeworsk Culture (1019, 1032–33): ibid. 33–38, 41–47, 129–30. Finally, in other areas, she does not mention and I have also not found any cowries, which naturally may be the result of shortcomings in my own database: 1. southwestern Germany (Germanic), 2. The Netherlands, 3. The North Sea and the lower reaches of the Weser (Germanic), 4. Schleswig and the north Frisian islands, 9–10. The Gustow Group and the Lubusz Group on the coast of the Baltic Sea, 16. The West Baltic Culture: ibid. 14–22, 52–55, 84–93, compare map 1 at the end. 265 This sub-chapter has also been published separately. The most detailed text: Kovács (2001). Without data on the history of Hungarian research: Kovács (2001a); only concerning the glass cowrie: Kovács (2001c). 266 Kovács (1981); Kovács (1984). The contemporary literature on the excavation: ibid. 19–20: notes 1–6.; Istvánovits (1997–1998) 135. 267 H. Fekete (1959) 10–13. 268 M. Nepper (1973) 16; Istvánovits (1997–1998) 135. The detailed history of research was published in Hungarian: Kovács (2001). 269 Based on a poor photograph, probably a single piece, the brooch can be dated to the second half of the 3rd and the 4th centuries: Istvánovits (1997–1998) 135: nr. 4, 137. 264

Mentioning their amulet role and as a clear example of this phenomenon (1031): Stanek (1999) 341, note 49, 361. From the earlier literature: Blume (1912) 95–96, 96: fig. 124 (with a cowrie ca. 2.8 cm long: 1020); Gossen-Steier (1921) 614; Kostrzewski (1955) 261, 260: fig. 780; Beckmann–Capelle (1973) etc. 258 A stone-like spherical formation mainly from the stomach of ruminants, made up of vegetable fibres, hairs, calcium phosphate and organic acids which was once believed to be effective against poisoning. 259 For a summarising evaluation: Stanek (1999). West of the area of the Wielbark Culture, on the Jutland peninsula, the Danish islands and in the Elba region, wrapping was carried out with wires instead of bands or ribbons, ibid. 352, 361, 353: fig. 2.; compare Tempelmann- Mączyńska (1985) 63–64: Gruppe XXVII; Kokowski (1997) 720–21; Martin (1997) 364. 260 Concerning the origin of the fashion for small cowries, specimens on face-urns distributed partly in the same area and ones in cremation burials must be considered (see chapter 2.3.2.1.). 261 Stanek (1999) 332, 361. The settlement maps of the afore-mentioned cultures: Bierbrauer (1998) 394: fig. 3. 262 Domański (1998) 208. 263 Bóna (1984) 231, 240, 294. 257

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 47. Wiews of the Sarmatian-period glass cowrie amulet from Hajdúböszörmény (2–896) and a comparable wiews of a Tiger cowrie (1) – after Kovács (2001c) 173: figs 1–2

milk-colored, lightly bluish chalcedony bead,270 8 prismatic carnelian beads with hexagonal bases,271 as well as “barrelshaped, spherical and other paste beads” which have been lost. The former composition of the strands of beads is a matter of conjecture based on the published, poor-quality photograph: some 70-80 flattened, spherical-, irregular sphere-, cone- and disk-shaped glass paste beads in various colors,272 some 50-60 mainly dark, roll-shaped and 12 dark spherical glass paste beads, 1 small barrel-shaped chalcedony and 12 possibly limestone beads,273 some 100 dark polygonal and 8 dark flattened spherical glass paste beads,274 a dark glass spindle whorl with a rosette pattern, a ram-shaped brick-colored terracotta dish painted red275 and finally a glass cowrie imitation.276 Only some of the finds could be identified in the museum. In the 1990s, Eszter Istvánovits could only identify the ram-shaped dish and the 8 carnelian beads; based on their examination and the

interpretation of the illustration of the brooch, she dated the find complex to the very end of the 3rd century.277 Andrea H. Vaday also considered it possible that all of the finds had come from one grave and dated the complex to no earlier than the second half of the 4th century.278 Many colleagues helped me when they learned that I was attempting to study archaeological cowries, among them Károly Mesterházy who had the two objects from Hajdúböszörmény – I believed they were lost – the cowrie imitation and the spindle whorl since he intended to publish them. He granted me access to them in 1999.279 It became clear at the first sight that the glass cowrie was a unique specimen so that besides describing it I needed to date it based on the accompanying finds. There were two alternatives. Without the black glass spindle whorl, all the other finds traditionally regarded as having been found together, with or without the ram-shaped dish, were shown to be late Sarmatian; as variously dated by the experts sometime at the end of the 3rd–to the end of the 4th centurires. The glass spindle whorl, however, seems not to belong to this cultural environment and should rather to be dated from the end of the 5th or the 6th centuries. Therefore,

Probably a single specimen. Measured from the illustration based on the diameter it may be about 4.1 cm long: H. Fekete (1959) 11: fig. 3 (bottom right). 271 Almandine beads in the first publication: H. Fekete (1959) 11, 11: fig. 3: in the middle large strand of beads, at the bottom; correctly: Istvánovits (1997–1998) 135, 137, 137: fig. 2. 272 H. Fekete (1959) 11: fig. 3: to the left. 273 H. Fekete (1959) 11: fig. 3: in the middle and above and in the middle of the center. 274 H. Fekete (1959) 11: fig. 3: to the right and in the center. 275 This worn specimen of the dish type used in the 1st–3rd centuries dates to the very end of the 3rd century: Istvánovits (1997–1998) 135: nr. 5, 137, for its detailed examination: ibid. 137–48. 276 Hajdúsági Museum, Hajdúböszörmény, acc. nrs.: 52.519.1., 521.1–522.1., 525.1., 529.1., 586.1–588.1. It is possible, but cannot be proven, that the following beads were also part of the grave complex: 52.526.1–528.1., 530.1–532.1. 270

Istvánovits (1997–1998) 137. In her opinion, the carnelian beads were from the necklace, the dark spherical beads were from the bracelet, the small beads could have been ornaments on the legs while the smaller chalcedony and limestone beads were sewn on the girdles. The large chalcedony bead was also possibly a girdle pendant. I would like to thank her for her kind help. 279 I received the two objects on 4th October 1999; I wish to thank him for his help. 277 278

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin it seemed necessary to examine in more detail whether the two objects really belonged together.

archaeological material I have collected, either.284 As far as I know, the specimen from Hajdúböszörmény is unique and I have only found indirect parallels for it: partly in the subject for the depiction, partly in the production method and partly concerning its decoration.

2.4.3.1. 896. The Glass Cowrie Imitation (Fig. 47) A hollow glass object imitating a cowrie could have been produced in the following way:280 the master took a piece of molten, light green opalescent glass on the glowing end of the ponty which had been blown into a small spherical bubble by his apprentice. Another apprentice held a molten conical white opalescent glass drop on the end of an iron rod. By touching the bubble with the iron rod281 and pulling and, at the same time, twisting the ponty, the spiral pattern was stuck onto the bubble. Heating and heating it again, the strands of this spiral were stretched eight times in changing directions with a hooked tool, thus, forming a double wave. Then the apprentice blew the bubble bigger because, in this way, the spiral pattern completely melted into its surface. With a few more swings, the oblong shape of the object was also achieved. Then the surface was pushed in with the back of a knife, yielding an indentation similar to the shell’s aperture. Next, he pressed the loose end of the object with his pliers to produce an irregularly shaped neck until he reached its hollow part and having marked this neck with the cooled edge of a knife plunged into water, he chipped off the solid end with one blow of the tool. He stuck the object at this holed end onto an iron rod with the help of a drop of glass and separated the other end from the ponty with a blow after marking it with the edge of a wet knife. Finally, at the loose end of the object now sitting on an iron rod, he formed the upper opening of the glass shell by pinching the other end into a point. Then, the master laid the cowrie imitation in the annealing oven above the furnace, having separated it from the rod in a single movement.282 As at this point the object was still some 500º C (≈ 932º F) and it could only be held in hand a day later. The size of the find: 5.5x3.6x3.1 cm, its weight: 22.0 g. Hajdúsági Museum, Hajdúböszörmény, inv. nr.: 52.519.1

First, the vas diatretum from Szekszárd (Tolna megye, Hungary) should be recalled. It appeared among the grave goods – 6 amber beads, 2 bronze styles, a marble votive leg, a little wooden box with bronze fittings, glass, clay, marble and bronze dishes – of a woman buried in a sarcophagus in the first half of the 4th century, found in 1845 when digging the foundations of the local workhouse. It was probably produced in Cologne/Köln.285 Its cup-shaped wide body is encircled by a controversial Greek inscription in relief, with an open-work collar running below it. Three perch-like fish, worked three dimensionally and perhaps the shell of some kind of spear-shell species, a “cerithium-like” shell also native to the Mediterranean Sea, are fastened to the semispherical bottom of the cup as legs: diameter: 15.7 cm, height: 11.6 cm (Fig. 48).286 Since, however, these “legs”, that is the fish and snails, were not blown and then annealed to the bottom of the dish287 but were pulled plastically from the wall of the dish. Inside, they were hollowed out with a small grinding wheel (Schleifrädchen).288 It is only the similarity of the topic that is of importance here, not the similarity way of the production method. The glass cup in the Roman collections of the museum in Cologne is a better parallel: its walls were blown and then decorated with applied glass fish and shells.289 There are other blown dishes in the shape of molluscs (Conchylien-Becher) in this collection.290 Glass dishes shaped like the shells of another Mediterranean species, perhaps cockles (Cardium sp.) or scallops (Pecten sp.), produced probably not in Cologne/ Köln but in the East or in the Black Sea region were found in the Late Roman (4th century) cemetery at Intercisa while291 parallels in different shapes are known from

The model for this finely worked glass object was probably Panther or Tiger cowries. These large cowries were frequently found as grave goods in the Sarmatian Period and the Migration Period, although this specimen lacks the color or the arrangement of the spots of the colorful spotted shells of the natural shells. The master craftsman followed the form of the natural model but decorated his work the way other glass objects were because there is no natural cowrie with such a net pattern,283 although there are no such glass cowries anywhere in the published

I do not know of similar glass objects in the archaeological material of the černjahov Culture. Either is there any variant mentioned in the overview of glass finds, compare Lihter (1998). 285 It is difficult to identify the workshop. Cologne seem the most probable although the Near East, Alexandria and Italy may also be possibilities: Barkóczi (1996) 218, 219–20: nr. 556, pl. LXVIII: nr. 556. 286 Wosinsky (1896) II: 742–51, 743: pl. CLXXVII. 287 For the opinions of Anton Kisa, Antal Hekler, Lajos Nagy, Edit B. Thomas and László Barkóczi see Hekler (1912) 61–62; Nagy (1930) 116; B. Thomas (1957) 253–54; Barkóczi (1988) 218; Welzel (1999) 155. Here, I would note that there are some incorrect references in Barkóczi (1988) 218, correctly: Hekler (1912) 161–62; Nagy (1938) 48–51: nr. 7, 51: fig. 17. 288 Franz Fremersdorf’s opinion, stated already in 1930, was verified when a copy of the dish was made in 1998: Welzel (1999). Lajos Nagy also agreed with this opinion: Nagy (1930) 123: note 2. 289 Welzel (1999) 157, fig. 4, 158: fig. 5. 290 Fremersdorf (1961) I: 23–28: I. A. 6: Freigeblasene Gläser in Gestalt von Tieren und Früchten: Conchylien-Becher, II: pl. 14–23. 291 Grave 38 from the South-Eastern cemetery at Dunaújváros (Fejér megye, Hungary): together with 3 coins from the 4th century: Vágó–Bóna (1976) 24, 189, 213: pl. 3: grave 38/4., pl. 1; graves 494 and 570: Vágó (1971) 118, pl. XXXVI: 2–4; Barkóczi (1988) 212–13, pl. LXIII: 1. 284

Márton Horváth, professor of glass studies at the Hungarian University of Applied Arts, showed me how the glass cowrie could have been made in the glass workshop in Bárdudvarnok (Somogy megye, Hungary) on 6th October 2000; here I would like to thank him for his kind help. 281 The wide glass drop at the place of contact is still visible. 282 The point of soldering, the so-called naval, is still visible. 283 Lorenz–Hubert (1993). 280

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Fig. 49. Bottle of dark green glass of 2nd–3rd c. in the form of a fish with pincered decoration – after JGS 11 (1969) 110: fig. 6

a four-legged creature etc. comprise the second group of parallels.294 The third and final group of parallels is based on the pattern of glass fibres applied to the surface of hot glass objects and pulled in one or in alternating directions. This is how the rosette pattern of the spindle whorls discussed below was made and this decoration has been observed on Roman dishes from Hungarian sites.295 The method itself generally widespread,296 however, it goes back to much earlier times.297 2.4.3.2. The Glass Spindle Whorl A flat, black spindle whorl is pierced in the middle and shaped like a truncated spherical section, decorated with a five-petalled red-white rosette. The whorl could have been made as follows:298 the craftsman twisted some molten black glass around a prepared iron rod, i.e. it was covered with a thin layer of clay and, with the help of another iron rod, heated continuously so that it would remain soft enough to be formed into a spherel either by turning it around and around or by using a semi-spherical mould. Then in the same way as described above for the manufacture of the

Fig. 48. Vas diatretum of 4th c. from Szekszárd with 3-3 fish- and shell-like legs – after Barkóczi (1996) 556: pl. LXVIII

Fremersdorf (1928) 4, 13 and figs 4, 41; Fremersdorf (1961) I: 19–23, II: pls 1–13.; 1st–2nd centuries animal-shaped dishes: Calvi (1968) 106–08, 108: nr. 261, pl. 18: 2, 3rd century animal-shaped dishes: ibid. 131–32, pl. 19: 2–3. Other specimens: a fish-shaped bottle from the 1st century AD, Roman provincial product: JGS 16 (1974) 125: fig. 4; 1st–2nd centuries blown glass Roman bird figure: JGS 4 (1962) 141: 11; 2nd–3rd centuries Syrian fish-shaped bottle: JGS 11 (1969) 110: 6 (Fig. 49); = JGS 15 (1973) 188: fig. 9; 3rd century Near Eastern fish-shaped bottle excavated at a site in Israel: JGS 2 (1960) 139: Nr. 7, 138: fig. 7; 3rd century Syrian dish shaped like a four-legged animal: JGS 5 (1963) 142: 10; 3rd–4th centuries Egyptian dish shaped like a four-legged animal: JGS 18 (1976) 241: fig. 4; 1st century Syrian fish-shaped dish, not blown: JGS 10 (1968) 181: 5, 180: fig. 5. 295 On glass beakers from the sites at Intercisa, Brigetio (Szőny, KomáromEsztergom megye, Hungary) and Mucsfa (Tolna megye, Hungary) dated to the end of the 4th–first half of the 5th centuries: Barkóczi (1988) 93–94: Nr. 136–38, pl. XIII. 296 Compare 1st–2nd century dishes: Calvi (1968) 47–48, pl. 5: 4–5. 297 Some examples hypothesizing the identity of the technique: from 15th century BC Egypt: JGS 32 (1990) 189: fig. 1.; among various glass dishes from Alexandria, Italy and Persia from between the middle of the 6th century and the 1st century BC: Barkóczi (1996) 21–25: Nr. 1–13, 117: nr. 375, pl. A., pl. I, pl. XXXVI., pl. XXXVII: 10, 13; from 5th–4th centuries BC northern Iran: JGS 27 (1985) 97: fig. 1; from 4th century BC Italy: JGS 21 (1979) 119: fig. 2; JGS 29 (1987) 113: fig. 1; from late 4th–3rd centuries BC Mediterranean: JGS 21 (1979) 119: fig. 1; JGS 31 (1989) 101: fig. 1, etc. 298 Again I wish to thank Márton Horváth for his kind help. 294

Cologne.292 The idea of Conchylienbecher can probably be traced back to a southeastern influence although a separate centre of production was established in Cologne.293 Blown, hollow animal figurines, including ones shaped like a bird (dove), a fish (Fig. 49), a pig, a cock, a crocodile,

Grave 3 from Cologne/Köln (Regierungsbezirk Köln, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)-Neußer Straße: 3rd century burial: Vágó–Bóna (1976) 189. The specimens from Cologne/Köln were blown in moulds: Fremersdorf (1961) I: 73–74: II. D. 4: In Hohlformen geblasene, figürlich gebildete Gläser der späteren Kaiserzeit: Fußlose Muscheln, II: pls 154–58.; I: 74–75: II. D. 5. Muscheln auf Stengelfuß, II: pls 159–65. Another shell-shaped dish also dates from the 3rd century: Dusenbery (1971) 15: r. 11, fig. 11. 293 Fremersdorf (1961) 8–10. 292

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin cowrie imitation he formed the spiral pattern on the whorl only using two glass fibres held together (i.e. a thicker copper-blue one reducing to red in the flame and a thinner cryolite yellowish-white one). The flat underside was worked by pressing and turning it on a wet board or marble slab. He made 12 radial indentations on the surface of the whorl with its already flattened base and heated the whorl again, yielding a wavy upper layer without damaging the pattern. Then the glass fibres in the spiral patterns were pulled radially five times so that the black background became visible, producing the wavy five-petalled pattern without affecting the red line along the edge of the whorl which is indented on the bottom. Finally, both ends of the middle hole were conically widened. The whorl, thus finished, was taken off the iron rod and when it had cooled down, the burnt clay was removed from the inside of the hole. The surface of the find is corroded, the bottom edge is fractured, diameter: 4.6 cm. height: 1.6 cm, diameter of the hole: 0.6 cm, diameter of the cone above: 1.2 cm, weight: 42.5 g. Hajdúsági Museum, Hajdúböszörmény, inv. nr.: 52.521.1 (Fig. 50. 1. a–c).299

1 small bronze clip. At the end of the tapering hilt “there is a black and white disk-shaped glass pommel with marbled pattern ... fastened with an iron whorl shaped like a shield at the top”.300 The sword was restored by Győző Baky and as far as Júlia Kovalovszki, an “eye witness” can recall, the hilt-end with the pommel was corroded with the glass pommel in the present position so that it could not have been applied or turned upside down later.301 My observations with Elek Benkő have confirmed this memory. The end of the hilt broke in two and was repaired intact, growing a little thicker under the pommel so that it could be mounted more easily. The pommel was fixed with a hat-shaped top through the end of the hilt, piercing both in the middle. It was bent like a split pin and hammered to hold the pommel and the top. The material of the glass whorl shaped like the segment of a sphere with a flat base, is opaque black with a dirty white festoon pattern formed by pulling the spiral line eight times downwards. The pattern also extends to the wide rim of the flat base of the whorl, roughly to the surface of the little ‘hat’. The whorl: diameter: 5.4–5.7 cm, height: 1.45 cm, the hat: diameter: 3.0–3.2 cm, the complete height: 1.5 cm, the height of the lower part: 0.3 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, inv. nr.: 65.49.3.a–b.B (Fig. 51).302

Below, I will not be dealing with either glass spindle whorls or the so-called pommels generally produced in a similar way, but only looking for good parallels to the specimen from Hajdúböszörmény. Fortunately, the best Hungarian and foreign parallels have come from the Roman Imperial period and the Germannic period.

The above dating of the find complex, however, need to be revised: based on the terra sigillata plate probably from Westerndorf or Pfaffenhoffen (Drag. 31),303 manufactured from the end of the 2nd–first half of the 3rd centuries, the complex should rather be dated to the 3rd century and so must have come from a Sarmatian rather than Hun cultural context.

2.4.3.3. The Dating to the Roman Imperial Period The possibility of dating the finds to the Roman Imperial period is suggested by two Hungarian and some foreign parallels which are older than the majority of similar finds and at the same time, attest the two ways of use: i.e. as pommels/sword beads by men and as spindle whorls by women.

Good parallels to the pommel from Tiszalök can be found in 7 stray finds of glass whorls from the Thorsberg marsh (Thorsberger Moorfund, Bundesland Schleswig-Holstein, Germany) dated to period C1 ( 2nd–beginning of the 3rd centuries). They were regarded as magic sword pearls (magische Schwertperlen) by their publisher because they were accompanied by stray finds mainly associated with men, by weapons.304 Based on the size and the decoration, 2 of the 7 whorls deserve mention: one is the fragment of a blue opaque glass sword bead shaped like the section of a sphere with a concave bottom and a white rosette pattern which seems to have been pulled radially five times, diameter: 5.3 cm, height: 2.0 cm,305 the other is the fragment of a black opaque glass sword bead of an identical shape, with a white rosette pattern, probably pulled 7 times

A unique specimen of the pommel-bead type was found in a Hun period male cremation burial at Tiszalök (SzabolcsSzatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Rázompuszta, destroyed when a hydroelectric power plant was built. The find was later verified and published as dating to the 4th–5th centuries dating. The collected finds include: 1 intact and 1 fragmented iron lance-head, 1 silver wire bracelet and the fragment of another, a fragment of a pair of silver tweezers, an iron knife, an iron sickle, fragments of a pair of iron sheep-shears, a small iron sheet, an intact terra sigillata pedastaled dish with the signature ATINIANVS (= Latinianus) stamped on the inside of its bottom, a suspension loop with an iron sheet, fragments of a wrought iron chandelier, fragments of an iron object, a stone scraper, a stone, a stone implement, a flint implement, a silver dinar issued by Emperor Titus (79–81), fragments of a wild boar canine and, finally, fragments of a doubleedged sword broken into two and an iron locket and the bronze chape of the sheath, its two bronze bell-fastener plates and 1 big and 299

300

6.

Méri (2000) 115–21, the pommel: ibid. 115, 116: fig. 5: 1, 117: fig.

I wish to thank Júlia Kovalovszki, a colleague of István Méri and the publisher of his study, for her generous help. 302 I could examine the object with the help of Piroska Biczó together with Elek Benkő. I wish to thank them both for their help. 303 Gabler–Vaday (1986) 28: nr. 137, 97: fig. 8: 2; Gabler–Vaday (1992) 96: note 13. 304 Raddatz (1957/58) 81, 84. Accepting the dating: Olczak (1972) 174–75, 175: fig. 4: c; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 63, 145–46, pl. 13: types 380–83; as from the Hun period: Werner (1956) 31. 305 Raddatz (1957/58) 82: nr. 5, 83: fig. 1: 5, pl. 6: 5a–b. 301

Arends (1978) I: 456: Schema A.

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Fig. 50. Black glass spindle whorls 3rd–6th c. decorated with a five-petalled red-white rosette from Hajdúböszörmény (1 – 896), Jánossomorja (2), Mohács (3) and a small example from Szentendre (4) – after Kovács (2001a) 288: fig. 3: a–d

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Fig. 51. Glass pommel of a double edged sword from the Hun period at Tiszalök – after Kovács (2001a) 290: fig. 4

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Fig. 52. Magic sword pearls of 2nd–3rd c. from the Thorsberg marsh (1–2) and a black glass spindle whorl from Kerč (3) – after Kovács (2001a) 292: fig. 5: 1–2, 4

in changing radial directions, extending to the rim of its base, diameter: 4.55 cm, height: 1.6 cm (Fig. 52. 1–2.).306

accidentally falling out from the scabbard309 or that they only had a symbolic role as sword-fetter (Schwertfessel) amulets.310 The first explanation seems completely unlikely, the second can be accepted traditionally but another solution also seems possible based on the specimen from Tiszalök. It might sound surprising that the Sarmatians used fragile glass whorls as pommels but they had many swords lacking pommels, metal ones being rare. The remainder of

According to Joachim Werner’s summary, magical sword beads in various materials and shapes appeared in the weaponry307 and the archaeological material of the Sarmatians of Southern Russian in the 1st century BC, maybe as a Persian influence and later became wide spread in Western Europe308 as a result of the Hun migration. Their role is not yet clear. It was earlier suggested that the belt loop with the sword bead attached to the hilt or the sheath was pulled over the cross-bar to keep the sword from

(450–560/570), 12 specimens were found in closed complexes, 6 dated to phase A (ca. 450–480), 2 each to phases B (480–520), C (530–570) and D (580–620): Menghin (1983) 25, 143; compare Werner (1956) 37; Evison (1967) 64. On Hun sword beads see below. 309 The suspension strap of the sword bead could be fastened to the hilt of the spatha or the sax or to the top third of the sheath: Arends (1978) I: 220–21, 227–28, 633: note 32. (the list of clay spindle whorls identified as sword beads); Menghin (1983) 142. 310 In the oft mentioned opinion of Joachim Werner: ”Als einzige Erklärungsmöglichkeit bleibt daher diejenige des A m u l e t t s übrig. Da weder praktischer Gebrauchszweck noch reine Schmuckbestimmung in Betracht kommen und die Zugehörigkeit zum Schwert nicht als zufällig sondern als sinnvoll zu begreifen ist, muß der Perlenanhänger in einer inneren Beziehung zur Waffe gestanden haben. Eine solche Beziehung beruhte auf den magischen Kräften, die dem Amulett innewohnten und deren Bestimmung es war, die Wirksamkeit der Waffe und das mit dem Schwert verbundene ‘Heil’ zu verstärken.”: Werner (1956) 35; in general compare ibid. 26–37, 120–29 (find lists); Raddatz (1957/58); Menghin (1983) 142–43, 355–57 (find lists); Evison (1967) 64–66, 81–84 (find list); Evison (1976); Arends (1978) I: 220–21, 227–28, 234; Meaney (1981) 195–200; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 62–63.

Raddatz (1957/58) 82: nr. 6, 83: fig. 1: 6, pl. 6: 6a–c. Werner (1956) 26–37. An early specimen, the black glass sword bead with a blue-white spiral pattern from a 3rd–4th century armed man’s burial in Kurgan 10 of the site known as “Kano bei Köppental” near Pokrovsk (earlier: Engelsk, Stavropol’skij rajon, Volgogradskaja oblast’, Respublika Mordovija, Russia), the capital of the former Volga German Soviet republic, east of the Volga, diameter: ca. 3.8 cm, was published by: Werner (1956) 26, 35, 127: nr. 64a, pl. 50: 12; Olczak (1972) 174, 175: fig. 4: 6; Arends (1978) II: 1043: nr. 614B; Menghin (1983) 194: nr. 16.c; Böhme (1994) 94, 93: pl. 17. Valéria Kulcsár has helped me to identify the Russian site and I wish to thank for her generous help. About the “magic sword pearls”: Gräfin (2005). 308 The 27 patterned magical glass sword beads of various shapes from England, Northern France-Belgium, Rhine-Hessian–South Western Germany can generally be dated to the early Merovingian period 306 307

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin the pommels were made from wood or chalcedony, amber, onyx, topaz, alabaster, bone, fired clay and, even glass and glass paste in various colors.311 Wooden or bone pommels of similar shape were also found on the sword fragments of the 1st–3rd centuries Roman auxiliary troops serving on the limes between Germania Superior and Rhaetia.312

rosette pattern. The whorl was probably made the same way as the specimen described above from Hajdúböszörmény. A master craftsman also applied a spiral pattern with the blue/red and white glass fibres held together over the whole surface of the still spherical whorl. The seven-petalled rosette pattern was made by pulling the spiral fibres from the bottom to the top of the slowly rotated sphere four times (in one case twice next to each other) and three times in the opposite direction. The finished whorl was re-heated and flattened so that the floral pattern was also retained on the flat base. The surface of the find is cracked, the rim is fractured, diameter: 5.2–5.4 cm, height: 1.7 cm, the diameter of the hole: 0.6 cm, weight: 47.5 g.317

As opposed to Joachim Werner’s hypothesis, Klaus Raddatz, analysing the finds from Thorsberg suggested that sword beads, including the specimens found there, might have appeared in Western Europe in the 2nd century well before the time of Hun influence, not through direct Sarmatian–Germanic military contacts but as later Ulf Erik Hagberg stated more precisely, with the auxiliary troops of the Roman “military culture” acting as the conspicuous mediator,313 either from a Sarmatian cultural context in the Danube–Tisza region or directly from Persia.314 On the other hand, there is also an opinion stating that these whorls may have a local Celtic origin.315 Without going too deeply into this question, we may point out that this sword bead type may have appeared as an exceptionally rare find in the Great Plain in Sarmatian cultural contexts during the Roman Imperial Period.

There are also parallels to the, thus decorated spindle whorl, namely among the finds of the “complex from Pantikapaion” discovered in 1877 in Kerč (formerly: Pantikapaion; Krymskaja oblast, Ukraine) dated to the 3rd century. There were 2 brooches, 3 herm-shaped Egyptian pendants, a spiral pendant, a pendant in the form of a human-shaped statuette, a small oblong disk with punch marks, a small oblong disk with the punched obverse depiction of a coin issued by Rheskuporis III, king of the Bosporus (210/211– 226/227)318 offering only a terminus ante quem non date and, finally, a black glass spindle whorl shaped like the segment of a sphere in the possible burial complex (Fig. 52. 3. a–c). Although the size of the spindle whorl is unknown, it may have been quite similar to the specimen from Hajdúböszörmény with its pulled up spiral pattern and its wavy upper layer.319

A nice specimen of the hypothesized spindle whorl role was found in disturbed grave 6 at the Imperial period cemetery dated to the 3rd century and was connected with Syrian immigrants at Jánossomorja316 (Győr-MosonSopron megye, Hungary)-Újudvar (Fig. 50. 2. a–c). An adult woman was buried here with the following finds: a bronze ornamental disk with a floral and chess board pattern using a millefiori enamel technique, an iron knife, a bronze auxiliary belt fitting, an omega-shaped bronze clip, a round iron clip, a bronze and an iron ring, bronze rivets, iron nails and, finally a black glass paste spindle whorl shaped like the segment of a sphere, with a white and red

Hansági Museum, Mosonmagyaróvár, inv. nr.: 68.7.1 I could examine the whorl with the generous help of András Figler and Rezső Pusztai. Compare Pusztai (1998) 46, 65 (fig. to grave 6). Pusztai wrongly called the spindle whorl a specimen of the millefiori technique; this name is reserved for those objects made from millefiori glass bars. This specimen was produced by dipping a thin glass rod into liquid glass of another color and left to cool (yielding a round pattern with two colors in crosssection). Millefiori glass bars were made by melting many thin glass rods into a bundle. Then they made a bar by twisting a sheet from the section which, thus, had a spiral pattern. Heated, the bar was cut into disks, from which objects of the millefiori technique were produced, compare Arends (1978) I: 198. A fragment of a millefiori spindle whorl is also known from a Langobard cemetery in Hungary: Tamási (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Csikólegelői homokbánya: I could examine this find from grave 49 of the unpublished Langobard cemetery with 52 graves (536–568) with the permission of István Bóna through to the kind help of Márta G. Vizi: Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, inv. nr.: 75.44.1, compare Bóna (1993b). 318 The pattern was chased on the sheet, put on the original coin and mounted in the middle of the funerary diadem: pers. comm. of Andrea Vaday. The king’s name appears as Riscuporis III (211–228) in: Pósta (1905) 447, fig. 249: 6 (without size or scale). Rheskuporis III, the son of Sauromates II ( 174/175–210/211) called himself “King of the entire Bosporus and of the Tauroscythians”; corrected data: Gajdukevič (1971) 353–54, 574. 319 Pósta (1905) 434, 447, fig. 249: 4. Károly Mesterházy has drawn my attention to this data. Unfortunately, I never received an answer to my letter to the director of the museum in Herson asking for information on the finds and on the size of the glass spindle whorl. 317

Hazanov (1971) 16. The oval, semi-spherical, spherical etc. or flat pommels of 1st–3rd century swords from the Bosporus region, besides being made from gold and silver, could also be made from the materials listed here: Sokol’skij (1954) 154. The 1st–2nd centuries sword found in chamber 2 of rock grave 3 in Tuzla (Taman’skij poluostrov, Krasnodarskij kraj, Russia) had a white glass paste pommel shaped like a flat cylinder: ibid. 158, 156: pl. VII: 1. The sword derived from the 4th century male burial of Kurgan D at the site known as „Alt-Weimar”, also near Pokrovsk (earlier: Engelsk, Stavropol’skij rajon, Volgogradskaja oblast’, Respublika Mordovija, Russia), the capital of the former Volga-Germanic Soviet republic, had a flat cylindrical chalcedony pommel, diameter: 7.5 cm which was crowned by a star-shaped silver fitting with a lilac glass inlay embedded in a bronze cell, fixed to the hilt with a copper rivet: Werner (1956) I: 27, 101: B 37, II: pl. 38: 3–3a. 312 Oldenstein (1976) 89–93, 240–41: nr. 11–13, 15, 32, 34, pl. 10: 11–13, 15, pl. 11: 32, 34. 313 Raddatz (1957/58) 84. 314 Based on sword beads from Sweden discussed in connection with the find from Skedemosse (Öland, Sweden) – which is not a parallel for me – Ulf Erik Hagberg also shares this opinion: Hagberg (1967) II: 45; compare Hagberg (1967) I: 65–66; Hagberg (1967) II: 43–45. I had access to the relevant parts of this publication with the kind help of Claus Carnap-Bornheim, for which I would like to thank him. 315 Meaney (1981) 196. 316 The map of the cemetery can be found with the previous name of the settlement, Mosonszentjános-Újudvar, compare Pusztai (1998) 59, Jánossomorja was formed in 1970 by uniting Mosonszentjános and Pusztasomorja. 311

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Glass spindle whorls probably also originated in the East320 because even clay spindle whorls were not as common in Hellenistic321 and Roman cemeteries as in Barbarian (Sarmatian, German) ones.322 Nevertheless, I have not found real parallels to the glass spindle whorls in the Sarmatian material.323 The Eastern European database only includes 7 imported specimens from provincial Roman workshops. For various reasons these specimens are of no interest concerning the origin of the type discussed324 so I must leave this question unresolved. Joachim Werner explained their hypothetical magical role in connection with later, 6th century specimens, in terms of the way they were worn, suspended on a strap hanging from the girdle, similarly to mountain crystal and smoky topaz amulet spheres and amulet cachets and compared it precisely with

how large cowrie amulets were also worn.325 This opinion was later accepted by other researchers as well.326 2.4.3.4. The Dating to the Germanic Age There are no parallels to the spindle whorl from Hajdúböszörmény among the Hun and Germanic period (ca. 425–568) sword bead finds from the Carpathian Basin.327 Some do exis, however, in Western Europe328 and two good parallels are known among the Langobard spindle whorls of the period.329 “In Hinblick auf die merowingischen Bergkristallanhänger, deren Amulettcharakter schon durch ihre Tragweise gesichert erscheint, wären alle jene große Bergkristall- und Glaswirtel in fränkischen und alamannischen Frauengräbern auf ihre magische Funktion zu überprüfen, die man bisher für Spinnwirtel gehalten hat. Sie stimmen nämlich mit unseren Schwertanhängern in Form, Größe und Musterung auffallend überein, so daß man auch von dieser Seite her einen Gebrauchszweck anzweifeln möchte. Wie die Schneckenhäuser der vom Roten Meer stammenden Cypraea pantherina und tigris [this place of origin only holds for Panther cowries, see below!], die immer wieder in merowingischen Frauengräbern gefunden werden, gehören die vermeintlichen ‘Spinnwirtel’ sicherlich in den Kreis der Talismane.”: Werner (1956) 36. Confirmed by: Hinz (1968) 220–22. 326 “Eine große Anzahl dieser Wirtel aus kostbarem Material werden als Abschluß eines Zierbandes getragen, welches von der Gürtelmitte herabhängt. Eine solche Trachtsitte, welche von gefaßten BergkristallAnhängern bekannt ist, legt dem Wirtel eindeutig Schmuck- oder auch magische Funktion bei.”: Arends (1978) I: 226–28, 234. “Nevertheless, the large glass beads found in Anglo-Saxon women’s graves, otherwise indistinguishable from sword-beads and usually with spindle-size holes, were almost certainly regarded as amulets.”: Meaney (1981) 201; Dübner-Manthey (1987) 59–60, 80. 327 Hun sword-beads were of another type: “these were cylinders or disks with rounded-off edges, with a diameter of 3–6 cm, carefully carved of chalcedony, mountain crystal, cornelian, amber, magnesite or limestone, decorated with smaller gold disks which were actually the heads of the suspension lugs running through the disks. Unfortunately, we do not have sufficient data on how they were fastened to the hilt of the sword, we only know from the grave finds that they hung some 15–20 cm from it. Their role is unclear but somehow they signalled the status of the sword and its owner.”: Bóna (1993) 165, 35: fig. 12: 1, 66: fig. 22: 2, 67: fig. 22: 3, 106: fig. 47, 115: fig. 51, 120: fig. 52; compare Bóna (1991) 175, 39: fig. 12: 1, 66: fig. 22: 2, 67: fig. 22: 3, 120: fig. 47, 126: fig. 51, 129: fig. 52; Aszt–Kovács (1999) 52, 67: fig. 16; compare Fettich (1953) 69–70, 175–76; Kovrig (1963) 193–95. The Gepid swords from Hungary generally had a cylindrical sword-bead made from limestone: Csallány (1961a) 259–60, 272 and 285–86. 328 From the beginning I have left those specimens out of consideration which had metal suspension loops and which were not made of glass but mountain crystal, chalcedony, amber etc. sword-beads. Some glass sword-beads with a rosette pattern from 6th–7th centuries graves with a sword: Grave 411 at Hailfingen (=Rottenburg am Neckar-Hailfingen, Landkreis Tübingen, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg, Germany): a specimen of a cobalt blue material with yellow pattern, dated to the turn of the 6th–7th centuries, diameter: 3.0 cm: Arends (1978) II: 861: nr. 266, II: pl. 31: 7; Menghin (1983) 236–237: nr. 80.b.; Grave 16 at Haillot (= Ohey-Haillot, province Namur, Belgium): a small specimen of a dark material with a white pattern, dated to the 6th century, diameter: 2.8 cm: Menghin (1983) 220: Nr. 50.c; Grave 319 at Lavoye (département Meuse, Lorraine, France): a specimen made of blue material with a white pattern, dated to the end of the 5th century, diameter: 3.6 cm: Menghin (1983) 218: 46.h; Little Wilbraham (Cambridgeshire, England): grave 44 from a 6th century Anglo-Saxon cemetery: a specimen made of a translucent middle-green material with a white pattern, diameter: 3.5 cm: Evison (1967) 83. nr. 12, pl. VIII: c; Menghin (1983) 355: nr. 17; Grave 96: a specimen made of a black material with a white pattern, diameter: 4.3 cm: Evison (1967) 83: nr. 13, 105: fig. 2: c–d., pl. VIII: d; Menghin (1983) 209: nr. 35.e, 355: nr. 18. 329 There were no specimens similar to the spindle whorl from Hajdúböszörmény among the clay, chalcedony, amber and glass paste spindle whorls of the Gepids in Hungary, compare Csallány (1961a) 285–86. István Bóna has drawn my attention to a possible exception 325

Glass spindle whorls and the examination of some spherical, biconical specimens were only mentioned in the overview of glass objects from the archaeological material of the Eastern European Ostrogoth/Ostrogoth– Sarmatian černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture (ca. 220–ca. 375): Lihter (1998) 41, 42, 44, 49; while glass spindle whorls of the same color as foundry-glass dishes worked by twisting were regarded as products from Italy or as having a European province: Lihter (1998) 50. 321 Many glass whorls were found in 1st–2nd centuries graves in the cemetery on Siphnos (Cyclades, Greece) dated to the 7th century BC–2nd century AD on Samothrace island (Greece). They have a spherical segment shape with a hole through their longitudinal axis as they were made by twisting a thick glass fibre of one color or an opaque and a transparent one around a central nucleus, diameter: 2.5–2.6 cm. They were probably buttons for clothes. Similar ones have come to light in Cyprus: Dusenbery (1967) 48–49: nr. 51, 48: fig. 51. 322 Vágó–Bóna (1976) 203; similarly: Dübner-Manthey (1987) 81, 92. There are no glass spindle whorls in the Sarmatian material. Based on the typology and the evaluation of clay spindle whols, specimens shaped like a segment of a sphere were rare: H. Vaday (1988–1989) 126–27, 320: fig. 28. There are no glass beads similar in size to the glass spindle whorls discussed here, only exceptionally large chalcedony beads are of comparable size: ibid. 104–05, 316: fig. 24: 7., 317: fig. 25: 6. 323 It is important to separate them from large glass beads. A glass spindle whorl was published, for example, from the cemetery at Marosvásárhely (prev. Maros-Torda megye, Hungary; Tîrgu Mureş, judeţul Mureş, Romania): Brajčevskij–Dovženok (1967) 160. but in fact the find was a large, transparent green, biconical (?) glass bead from grave 13 of the černjahov Culture cemetery at the site Marosvásárhely-Mikszáth Kálmán utca, length: ca. 2.5 cm: Kovács (1915) 288, 291: fig. 50: 2. 324 From the 7 finds published in Kropotkin (1970) 41. I have left the 3 biconical spindle whorls, imitating those made from clay, out of consideration, see Kropotkin (1970) 128: nr. 1255–57: 3rd–4th centuries settlement finds: ibid. 41; compare Brajčevskij–Dovženok (1967) 260. Another 3 data shown to be misprints. A clay spindle whorl found in grave 4, a cremation burial of the černjahov type cemetery at Vološskoe (Solonjanskij rajon, Ukraine): “steklannyj slitok i prjaslo, seroglinjanoe, bikoničeskoe, diametrom 4 sm, vysotoj 2 sm, s diametrom otverstija 0.7 sm.”: Brajčevskaja (1960) 178; compare Kropotkin (1970) 41, 128: nr. 1253. I have not found data on the glass spindle whorl found at the černjahov type settlement in Budešty (Dubossarskij rajon, Moldova) either on the page cited or among the published material from the excavation: compare Symonovič (1960) 207; Rikman (1960a) 307. and the illustrations; compare Kropotkin (1970) 41, 128: nr. 1259. In the publication of the site in Privol’noe (Zaporožskij rajon, Ukraine) there is a reference only with the number of the first page as “Kuharenko (1955) 125. etc.” I have only found data on and illustrations of clay spindle whorls; compare Kropotkin (1970) 41, 128: nr. 1254. The 7th specimen came from the Volhynia type settlement at Lepesovka (Belgorodskij rajon, Ukraine) and described as magnificent was made from transparent blue glass and was conical, with a diameter of 2.7 cm: Tihanova (1964) 54 (without illustration); Kropotkin (1970) 41, 128: nr. 1258. 320

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin One of the specimens from Hungary came from grave 4 at the Langobard cemetery of 7 graves at Mohács (Baranya megye, Hungary)-Farostlemezgyár (526/531–568). The grave was destroyed from the chest area of the deceased to the skull of the 63–72 year old woman buried with the following finds: a gold plated silver brooch of the Thuringian type with niello decoration, a small gold plated bronze, oval finger-biscuit-shaped brooch with almandines, a strand of beads composed of 7 white limestone beads of cone-frustrum, cylinder and flattened sphere shapes, 8 white, grey, yellow, brick-red cylindrical beads, a white and a yellow flattened spherical beads, a cube- and a prism-shaped brick-red bead and 4 black glass and glass paste beads, an oval iron clip, an iron knife, a one-sided bone comb, a brownish-greyish biconical clay spindle whorl (the last two objects from the southeastern foot end of the grave), bronze wire fragments and, finally, between the shins, near the knees a black glass spindle whorl with a white and ochre-yellow rosette pattern shaped like the segment of a sphere. Almost the whole surface of the still spherical whorl produced with the already described technique was first decorated with a very thin white and then with a wider ochre-yellow spiral. The order is shown by the fact that the starting point of the white spiral is covered by the ochre-yellow one by the upper opening of the whorl. The fibres were pulled upward slowly, while the whorl was continuously rotated in a counter-clockwise direction, yielding the eight-petalled rosette pattern. Finally, the whorl was heated again and flattened so that the pattern, more or less, extended to the rim of the bottom of the whorl. Diameter: 5.1 cm, height: 1.6 cm, diameter of the hole: 0.5 cm, weight: 52.5 g. Completely intact.330 Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, inv. nr.: N. 63.59.89 (Fig. 50. 3. a–c).

girdle pendant, was found among the grave goods in a female burial in grave 56 at a cemetery of 92 graves332 at Szentendre (Pest megye, Hungary)-Pannonia telep used throughout the Langobard Period (510–568). The whole surface of the still spherical whorl is smaller than the others and was decorated with dark green and dirty white glass fibre spirals which were applied and then probably pulled upwards six times, yielding the rosette pattern. Finally, the heated whorl was flattened so that the pattern almost completely covered the surface of the base as well. Only half of the spindle whorl broken into two pieces was put in the grave where its surface became fenestrated and the copper-blue material turned red on the fracture. Diameter: 4.0 cm, width: 2.3 cm, height: 1.5 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, inv.nr. : 65.1.227 (Fig. 50. 4. a–d).333 An extremely rich contemporaneous foreign Germanic material as connections with the two Langobard spindle whorls from Hungary. Ulrich Arends, in his discussion of 354 non-clay, 5th–7th centuries spindle whorls, stated that 29 % (104 pieces) of the finds with an average diameter of 2.3–4.5 cm were glass specimens with rosette pattern334 still rare in the 5th century, again rare in the 7th century and,335 most wide spread in the 6th century, in the Frankish and the Alamann regions. Most of them had biconical frustrum cross-section (26 pieces) or was oval cross-sections (“Rundoval” – 21 pieces) and he only referred to a few as flattened ovals (“Flachoval” – 7 pieces).336 Unfortunately, he did not handle whorls with a flat base similar to those from Hungary separately and one can only guess from the illustrations – mainly lacking cross-sections – that there were some, though not many, like that among them (Fig. 53)337 as among the other types, too.338 About 74 % of the rosetted spindle whorls accessible to him were made of greenish glass and less frequently of blue-black or black glass with white, sometimes with yellow and exceptionally

As Attila Kiss was mainly familiar with southern German and Frankish parallels to glass spindle whorls and found no parallels in Italy, he hypothesised that its former owner had acquired it through trade before 526 when the Langobards settled in Pannonia.331

MRT 7, 281–283: nr. 28/25; Bóna (1993a). The grave assemblage has only been published as illustrations in a preliminary report: Bóna (1970–1971) 45, 56: pl. 1B, 62–63: figs 7–8: 21. I could examine the object with the kind help of Éva Garam. 334 Type I: Rosettenwirtel: Arends (1978) I: 184–94, 228, 230, 455–82, 630–33, 664–67. Among the illustrations he shows examples of 3–7 petalled rosette patterns, compare II: 1188–1196: pls 25–33. 335 In Max Martin’s opinion they were superseded in their role as girdle pendant/amulets by the large cowries by the end of the 6th century: Martin (1976) 96. 336 Arends (1978) I: 461. 337 Grave 338 at Cologne/Köln (Regierungsbezirk Köln, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)-Junkersdorf: a dark green spindle whorl with a white pattern with a pie-shaped (“fladenförmig”) cross-section from a female burial dated to 526–600 (Böhner III), with a rare, mixed decoration of the rosette and the striped (Type II: Schlierenwirtel) ornament type; diameter: 3.4 cm: Arends II: 922–23: nr. 392, 1193: pl. 30: 14 (Fig. 53. 1. a–b); Grave 9 at Bülach (Kanton Zürich, Switzerland): a flat-conical (“flach-konisch”), a green specimen with a white pattern, from a contemporary woman’s grave, diameter: 4.3 cm: ibid. II: 768–69: nr. 84, 1194: pl. 31: 11 (Fig. 53. 2. a–b). 338 Among type II spindle whorls with a striped decoration compare: Arends (1978) II. 1197: pl. 34: 4, 7, 8?, 9?, 10, 1198: pl. 35: 2–3, 5, 8, 10, among type III millefiori spindle whorls: II: 1201: pl. 38: 4–7, among faceted glass and mountain crystal, amber and mainly bone spindle whorls compare ibid. II: 1206–08, 1210–13: pls 43–45, 47–50. 332 333

The other specimen from Hungary, probably worn as a coming from Grave 12 in the cemetery at Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Nagyhegy, next to a woman’s skeleton in the region of the right elbow, described as “scheibenförmige Kalksteinperle... (Wirtel?)”: Csallány (1961a) 47, pl. XXIII: 12. When I examined it, however, it turned out that the flat, disk-shaped spindle whorl was not made of glass but of a friable white material (limestone?) and the protrusions on its surface, similar to fragments of a pattern, were probably indentations caused by cereal grains, diameter: 4.2 cm. Koszta József Museum, Szentes, inv. nr.: 57.8.62. János József Szabó and Mrs. Ferenc Istenes have kindly allowed me to examine the find, for which I would like to thank them. A new parallel of the 7th–9th centuries settlement at Zsábár (prev. Krassó-Szörény megye, Hungary; Jabăr, judeţul Timiş, Romania), from the south part of the Carpathian Basin: Moroz-Pop (1983) 349, 350: fig. 1: 1. 330 Kiss–Nemeskéri (1964) 108–09, 102: fig. 4: 4, 110: fig. 9: 6; Pusztai (1998) 56: note 4, 65: fig. István Ecsedy and Borbála Maráz have kindly allowed me to examine the specimen, for which I would like to thank them. Attila Kiss was mistaken when he described the spindle whorl as beingmade using the millefiori technique, on that see note 317 on p. 99.. 331 Kiss–Nemeskéri (1964) 122.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 53. Spindle whorls of 5th–7th c. from Köln-Junkersdorf, Grave 338 (1), Bülach, Grave 9 (2), Juellinge (3), Long Wittenham, Grave 150 (4), Eislingen, Grave 5 (5–6 – 1871), Kingston, Graves 30 and 31 (7–9), Köln-Müngersdorf, Graves 105, 122 and 149 (10–12) – after Kovács (2001a) 297: fig. 6: 1–12

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin with red patterns.339 The majority of all the spindle whorls examined by Ulrich Arends came from female burials.340 Some specimens in spite of their more valuable material, i.e. glass, amber, mountain crystal and some bone whorls appear to be real spindle whorls on a wooden spindle,341 some are whorls for clothes342 or ornaments fastened to a ribbon hanging from the girdle,343 put in a bag344 or strung on a necklace and345 at the same time, some were probably amulets placed in the burials.346 Out of the 354 non-clay, 5th–7th centuries spindle whorls in his database, Arends dated only 3 specimens from the same cemetery to the earliest period between 451 and 525 (Böhner II)347 and I have found another glass whorl, even older, dated to the 4th–5th centuries, though its pattern was formed in another

way.348 Finally, a whole range of finds show that spindle whorls with this kind of pattern and sword-beads produced the same way, started to spread in the second half of the 5th century and had their heyday in the 6th century, i.e. the dating of the spindle whorl from Hajdúböszörmény should be based on them. 2.4.3.5. Summary: The Dating of the Glass Cowrie It has become obvious that if we, with some reason, removed the glass object regarded as a spindle whorl from the stray finds from Hajdúböszörmény where the find circumstances were not recorded, we could derive all the other finds without any difficulty from a Sarmatian burial datable to the end of the 3rd century. Thus, the isolated spindle whorl might have come from a German (Gepid?) female burial from the second half of the 5th century or rather from the 6th century, unusually preserved as the only object from the hypothetical later find complex.349 However, we have no reason at all to similarly isolate the unique glass cowrie imitation. Dating the spindle whorl exceptionally early, to the 3rd–4th centuries, however, would allow us to consider all the objects found, including the glass cowrie, as finds from one single female burial. It is also easier to believe that a woman wearing an amulet imitating a large cowrie in the Carpathian Basin had also seen amulets made from large natural cowries, which was only possible at that time in a Sarmatian cultural environment350 since, based on their archaeological material, the later, GermanAvar inhabitants of the Carpathian Basin wore such amulets only exceptionally.351 This unique specimen could have been produced either in one of the workshops along the north coast of the Black Sea during the time of the Černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture352 or in the Near East or Egypt and might be one of the new, eastern glassware types appearing in the Barbaricum after

Arends (1978) I: 187–91, 456, 461 (without mentioning the color red). The color red appeared only in 6 cases among the so-called Schlierenwirtel, mainly with a flat base, comprising 16 % (57 pieces) of the 354 examined specimens: 5 times as the color in the zigzag pattern, once as the color of the stripe running around the whorl: Arends (1978) I: 187, 196. 340 In female burials: 54%, next to a man: 3 %, unidentified: 43%: Arends (1978) I: 220. 341 A glass spindle whorl with a 3.8 cm diameter on fragments of a Roman spindle: Juellinge (Lolandia, Denmark): Olczak (1972) 177, 178: fig. 5; Arends (1978) I: 224–26, 233; Tempelmann- Mączyńska (1985) 63 (Fig. 53. 3). 342 Olczak (1972) 182; Tempelmann- Mączyńska (1985) 63. 343 Hinz (1968) 220–22; Arends (1978) I: 226–27, 234. 344 Grave 150 at Long Wittenham (Berkshire, England): A large glass spindle whorl very similar to that from Hajdúböszörmény was found along with an ivory and a terracotta specimen in the female burial 150 from the 6th century Anglo-Saxon cemetery near a large antler bag ring, i.e. it had originally been in the bag: Meaney (1981) 202, 201: fig. VI. k. 2 (Fig. 53. 4). Grave 11 at Shudy Camps (Cambridgeshire, England): the fragment of a spindle whorl was found together with a Roman coin in the bag between the femora of the female skeleton in the 7th century grave: Meaney (1981) 99, 200. Glass spindle whorls worn as girdle pendants were not in fashion in the Saxon area, either. A specimen was found on the pelvis of the skeleton in Grave H 13/A1 at Liebenau (Landkreis Nienburg/Weser, Bundesland Niedersachsen, Germany) dates to the middle of the 6th century. There was a clay whorl found under the left side of the pelvis: Dübner-Manthey (1987) 102–04. 345 e.g. Grave 5 at Eislingen (Landkreis Göppingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg, Germany): among others there was a large cowrie amulet with a bronze suspension loop and in the strand of glass and amber beads there were 3 large dark glass spindle whorls with a light rosette pattern in the rich 7th century Alamannian female burial. The diameter of the first specimen: 4.5 cm: Arends (1978) I: 228, II: 800: nr. 151, pl. 27: 2, pl. 32: 8 (Fig. 53. 5–6). Grave 30 and 31 at Kingston (Kent, England): a large and two smaller spindle whorls strung on a strand of beads from the region of the neck in the female burials: Meaney (1981) 204, 203: fig. VI. n: 1–2 (Fig. 53. 7–9). 346 Arends (1978) I: 227, 234; Meaney (1981) 204–10. The Anglo-Saxons ascribed healing power to the spindle whorls: they hung a spindle whorl on a wool thread around the neck against diseases of the face. The ill person also gargled with warm goat milk: Meaney (1981) 206. Sometimes there were several spindle whorls in the same grave: if all were made from clay, they suggested various forms of plaits, if they were of different materials, they suggested various functions as tools or amulets: Arends (1978) I: 220, 234; Martin (1976) 95: note 141; Meaney (1981) 200–01. 347 Köln (Regierungsbezirk Köln, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany)-Müngersdorf: good parallels with the glass spindle whorl from Hajdúböszörmény were found in 3 female burials with rich grave goods in the disturbed but later excavated 5th–6th centuries Frankish cemetery, dated to 451–525. Out of all the graves, 149 graves have been excavated. There was a greenish glass spindle whorl shaped like a segment of a 339

sphere, with a white rosette pattern pulled upwards radially four times in Grave 105 and found between the shin bones of the skeleton, diameter: ca. 3.8 cm: Arends (1978) I: 406, II: 929: nr. 401, pl. 31: 5. A blue-black glass spindle whorl shaped like a segment of a sphere, with a white rosette pattern pulled upwards radially five times was found together with an iron key next to the femur of the skeleton in Grave 122, diameter: 3.6 cm: Arends (1978) I: 406, II: 930–31: nr. 403b, pl. 33: 2. Finally, there was an opaque black glass spindle whorl shaped like a segment of a sphere, with a white rosette pattern pulled upwards radially four times in Grave 149 between the shin bones, diameter: 3.4 cm: Arends (1978) I: 406, II: 932–33: rr. 406, pl. 29: 4 (Fig. 53. 10–12). 348 Dobieszewice (gmina Janikowo, powiat inowrocławski, województwo kujawsko-pomorskie, Poland)-site 1/Stanowisko 1. osada: a stray find from a settlement dated to the end of the La Tène period, regarded as being of eastern origin: half of on object believed to have been an opaque green glass button from a dress, shaped like a segment of a sphere and decorated with a lighter linear pattern running around it like a “rotating wheel”, diameter 4.1 cm, height: 2.0 cm: Olczak (1972) 169–70, 175, 181–82, 170: fig. 1, 170: fig. 2. 349 Furthermore, if we considered it a sword-bead or a pommel instead of a spindle whorl, as suggested by Ibolya M. Nepper or Eszter Istvánovits. The lack, the loss of male finds, including the large sword, would be all the more conspicuous: compare M. Nepper (1973) 16; Istvánovits (1997–1998) 135: nr. 3., 135: note 10. 350 There are 75 assemblages in my database: 877–952. 351 There are only 2 such assemblages in my database: 1156–57. 352 Lihter (1998) 49–51.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads (1156) specimen and also a single cowrie was derived from an early Avar time burial (1157).359 Apart from the latter360 cowries are completely missing during the almost three and a half centuries between the beginning of the Early Avar Period and the time of the Hungarian Conquest (568–895).361

375.353 It might be possible to more precisely determine the origin of the glass imitation shell by examining the composition of its material.354 2.5. 1156–1587. Cowries in the Migration Period Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin and Their Parallels (Middle of the 5th–End of the 9th Centuries)

The large cowrie (1156), so far unique among Gepid finds in Hungary, was probably acquired from local Late Sarmatian groups by its owner at the end of the 5th century. The other specimen came from a Langobard cemetery which was re-used by the early Avars who replaced them at the beginning of the 7th century when the Langobards left Pannonia after Easter in 568.362 The burial under discussion (1157) dates from some time during the following three decades. The woman buried there may have acquired her cowrie somewhere in the southern Russian steppes and might have employed it in the fragmented, worn condition it was found in, as an amulet or even as a tool (a file?).

While cowries often appear in the Migration Period archaeological material of the discussed areas of Eurasia, even in Northern Europe, they are practically missing in the Carpathian Basin. Although other mollusc species were present, it was not my task here to collect them. 2.5.1. 1156–57. Finds from the Carpathian Basin The Huns, appearing in Eastern Europe in the mid-370s annihilated the Černjahov-Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture sometime after the last quarter of the 4th century, crushing Germanic rule in the Carpathian Basin and putting an end to the Roman dominion here. They extended their rule to the Rhine in the second half of the 430s, subduing in due course, the whole of the Middle Danube region. Although cowries (596, 634, 641) and their imitations (1065) were found as rare exceptions in the archaeological material culture of the Hsiung-nu, regarded as the Huns’ Asian ancestors,355 they do not appear in their European material and thus, in the 5th century Carpathian Basin. They were also almost completely absent from the Carpathian archaeological material from the century of Germanic hegemony (455–568) following the fall of the Huns in 453–455.356 However, a few were found in previous settlement areas of some tribes, e.g. in Gepid (941)357 or Langobard (972–73) cultural contexts.358 In the Carpathian Basin so far we know of only a single Gepid

The “Iranian Period” on the steppe came to an end when the Huns appeared.363 It is, thus, not an accident that cowries, primarily known earlier in the material steppe culture of Iranian-speaking Scythians and Sarmatians were missing in the finds of the Huns whose origins are unclear and of the Avar Period population in the Carpathian Basin whose origins are still debated.364 This is more surprising in case it is all the more important that after the Langobards moved to Northern Italy, they immediately adopted the custom of wearing large cowries – at least based on a single cemetery (1404–12). The cowries could hardly have come from the locals as I have found no evidence of cowries being present in either their cemeteries or in other North Italian cemeteries of the Langobards, compare Arends (1978) I: 178; see also next note. 359 “It may probably be explained by the fact that the two peoples [Gepids and Langobards] did not enter the Carpathian Basin from the East and, thus, the custom was not known to them. (Cowries can, however, be found with the Italian Langobards, e. g. in the graves from Castel Trosino [1404–12] suggesting that the custom was diffused through local contacts) The example of the Gepids and Langobards seems to support the view that the use of cowrie shell pendants were only common in the material of tribes who came from the East. The question is, why the same find type is missing from the material culture of the Avars, who also came from the East.”: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 258, note 100. 360 The absence of cowries in the Avar Period was already noted by: Szőke (1962) 54. Mentioned incorrectly dating to the Avar Period: 1156a–b. 361 Based on his observations at excavations in Hungary, Ferenc Móra noted correctly that the use of large cowries was replaced by the use of small ones in the Carpathian Basin following the Sarmatian Period. However, he dated this change too early, to the Migration Period, instead of the time of the Hungarian Conquest, writing that of the jewelry found in Migration Period cemeteries, beads regularly appeared. The beads were mainly made of glass, from the workshops in Alexandria and Aquileia. Others were made from limestone, shells, carnelian and even coral, cut without being polished. They were thus worn not so much for their beauty but rather because they were connected with some superstition. Even in Móra’s time this would not have been so unusual, especially with coral. In an early Hungarian grave at Kiszombor he also found amethyst beads. Chalcedony, so popular among the Iazyges, was no longer fashionable in the Migration Period and large cowries were replaced by small cowries: Móra (1932) 64. 362 Recently: Bóna (2000a) 154; compare Bóna (1956) 241. 363 Which does not mean the disappearance of individual Iranian peoples, e.g. of the Alans: Róna-Tas (1997) 174. 364 Reseachers today consider the early Avars (568–ca. 670) to have comprised two tribes, the Uar/Var of the Varhon/Ouarhonitai tribal confederacy (i.e. the Turkic-speaking Ugors led by one-time Žuan-Žuan

Barkóczi–Salamon (1968) 31–38. Lihter (1998) 47; Johansson (2005) 12; Mienis (2005) 6. 355 András Róna-Tas has lately hypothesised that the relationship between the Asian Huns (Hsiung-nu), with their mixed ethnic background and European Huns consisted only of the aristocracy of the former playing a leading, yet not necessarily decisive role, in the later European Hun Empire: Róna-Tas (1997) 171–72. 356 Between the death of Emperor Attila (445–453) and the defeat at the Nedao River in 455: Bóna–Cseh–Nagy–Tomka–Tóth (1993) 13–14. 357 During his collection of the Gepid corpus, Dezső Csallány mentioned only 3 mollusc (= shell) finds: 1–2. Kiszombor (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Cemetery B., graves 277 and 307: 1. Grave 277: 1 marine shell (Cardium/now Acanthocardia tuberculatum) in a female burial: Csallány (1961a) 187, 290, Pl. CXLIII: 1, 2. 2. Grave 307: a river shell found next to a woman buried in a prehistoric pit, yet belonging to the earth fill of the grave: ibid. 188, 290, Pl. CXLVII: 29. 3. Nagyszentmiklós (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Sînnicolau Mare, judeţul Timis, Romania): there was also a “Muschel” among the stray finds from the site: ibid. 195, 290. In the meantime, the origin of a Gepid cowrie (1156) as well as a further specimen (941), can be traced to a Gepid woman or a Sarmatian woman who married into a Gepid group. 358 István Bóna kindly pointed out that no finds of cowries appear among the Langobard finds in the Carpathian Basin. Bearing this in mind, 353 354

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin of the latter because there are other shells appearing as amulets (?) in their archaeological material culture.365

practicaly disappeared.366 Among small cowries, the shift from Ringed cowries to a preference for Money cowries, also characteristic later, was completed. The analysis was encumbered by the mixed-up in the names of the species and by the lack of precise identifications, as noted correctly by Ulrich Arends in his discussion of West European finds,367 something which holds even more true for East European specimens.

2.5.2. 1158–1587. The Parallels outside the Carpathian Basin The following, though not an exhaustive collection of parallels, may seem out of proportion with the 2 Migration Period cowries from the Carpathian Basin. It was, however, necessary in order to highlight the continuous use of cowrie amulets in the steppe, seldom included in previous studies. On the other hand, only in this way was it possible to shed light upon the extent of the Western European shift in the way they were employed.

Among the cowrie amulet material from over several millennia, the West and North European finds from roughly the 5th–7th centuries are the best studied, mainly owing to Arends who, concentrating on the Alemann tribal territory and the 6th–7th centuries, listed at least 157 specimens from 107 sites in a catalogue.368 Of these, the specimens correctly

It seemed more suitable to discuss large and small cowries separately because it was during this period that the wearing of large cowries became most popular although by the end of the period their use as items of wear

Period male skeleton: Kralovánszky (1963) 166, 167: fig. 2, 168: fig. 3: 6–8; Éry (1967–68) 104. An association with the Sun cult with the eggs and snails was suggested by: Kralovánszky (1963) 166, note 4. Land snails in graves should be considered intrusive. 9. Jánoshida (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Tótkérpuszta, Grave 24: the only grave good from an Avar Period female skeleton: around the head, a large amount of cracked snails, especially on the right side, extending down to the elbow. According to the publisher they were brought there by an animal: Erdélyi (1958) 10, 49. 10–12. Pilismarót (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary)-Basaharc: the snails from the cemetery which were not characteristic of the Avar Period were considered to belong to the cultural tradition of the earlier Gepid population: Fettich (1965) 116, 120–21. The snails in the cemetery were mentioned by: Kralovánszky (1963) 166, note 4; Éry (1967–68) 104. The appearance of the Turritella sp. in grave 124 might even verify the interpretation of the land snail finds in the cemetery as grave offerings. 10. Grave 20: 6 small snails among the grave goods of a cremation burial: Fettich (1965) 21, 17: fig. 19. 11. Grave 21: 45 snails, 2 of them large, mainly in the region of the skeleton of the 43–47 years old woman, among other grave goods: Fettich (1965) 21, 16: fig. 16: 9–11, 18: fig. 20, fig. 21: 1, 3, 129: Pl. III: 2–2a, 131: Pl. V: 1–2. 12. Grave 124: a rich strand of glass beads with a round amber bead and a Turritella sp. by the left collar bone of the skeleton of the 14–15 years old girl, among other grave goods: Fettich (1965) 44–45, 45: fig. 71, fig. 72: 6, 49: fig. 78: 1. 13–14. Snails in 2 graves at Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Kundomb, grave number not given: ibid. 15. Szomolány (prev. Pozsony megye, Hungary; Smolenice, okres Trnava, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)-Zahumenice dűlő, Grave 51: marine shells (mušle) among the grave goods of the adult skeleton from the cemetery dated to the second half of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries, i.e. based on the published photograph Dušek (1979) 366, 367: fig. 2: 7. 16. Tác (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Villa I: snails from the Migration Period grave excavated in the area of the villa: Kralovánszky (1963) 166: note 4. 366 This is shown by they are most frequent among ornaments “of animal origin”: Arends (1978) I: 168, 180. 367 Arends (1978) I: 168–71. 368 Together with the undatable finds, he included in his catalogue 5 specimens from 4 sites in England, 2 specimens from 2 sites in France, 53 specimens from 38 sites in Baden-Württemberg, 30 specimens from 16 sites from Bavaria, 14+ specimens from 12 sites in Rhine-Pfalz, 5 specimens from 4 sites in North Rhine-Westphalia, 3 specimens from 3 sites in Hessen, 7 specimens from 5 sites from the former German Democratic Republic, 7 specimens from 7 sites in Switzerland and, 9 specimens from 1 site in Italy: Arends (1978) I: 438–42, 444: map of the sites. On the chronological and spatial limitations of his work: Arends (1978) I: 16–17. For comparison, he has only adopted the first 2 French sites from the list of e.g. Edouard Salin, leaving the others unmentioned, just like the finds from Belgium and Sweden and the site at Světec in Czech Republic (1172) and several sites in England, compare Salin

Avars) and the Ephthalite Huns/Hjons: Bóna (1984) 310; Róna-Tas (1997) 174–78. Their rule in Eastern Europe shrank back to the Carpathian Basin in the 630s, where mainly Onoghuric Bulgarians had settled after 670. The ethnic identification of the Late Avar Period archaeological material from around 700 until the first decades of the 9th century is under discussion, compare Bóna (1984) 325–29; Róna-Tas (1997) 219–20. 365 Murex brandaris and Murex trunculus often appear in grave complexes together with cowries. They are also interpreted in the 4th–5th centuries Goth material from the Mediterranean area as fertility amulets and believed, probably, to be protection against the evil eye and witchcraft, compare Schulze (1986) 348–49: Fundliste I. Specimens of the former were as rare exceptions in the period under discussion, even in later times, see LVII. 1. Alattyán (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Tulát, Grave 490: the excavator considered the shell from the Avar Period female burial, referred to as “Muschel”, to be of so little interest that he did not even mention it in the chapter dealing with meat, egg, animal tooth and snail grave goods from the cemetery and, further, did not deal with it in the part discussing talismans and amulets in the female burial finds of group 2 at the cemetery, compare Kovrig (1963) 45, Pl. 33: 17 and 78, 171; Schulze (1986) 354: note 9. 2. Izvoru (judeţul Giurgu, Romania)-Deaulul Porcilor (Schweinerberg)/ La Draghiceanu, Grave 305: the perforated “marine shell”, probably some kind of murex (Murex sp.), was the only object accompanying the 19–20 years old woman buried in this grave from the 8th century cemetery: Mitrea (1989) 207, 208: fig. 48. 3. Uheršké Hradiště (okres Uheršké Hradiště, Zlínský kraj, Czech Republic)-Sady, Grave 95: a murex (Murex sp.) probably from a disturbed Germanic grave which was then re-used in the 9th century as an amulet: Hrubý (1975) 17; Marešová (1983) 109, Pl. 21; on the role of the amulet: Hrubý (1965) 362, note 68; Schulze (1986) 354: note 9. Some more 6th–9th centuries molluscs finds collected at random: 4–7. Alattyán (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Tulát: 4. Grave 347: a large number of shells found between the shins of an Avar Period male (?) skeleton, without other grave goods: Kovrig (1963) 35, 78. 5. Grave 476: fragments from one or more shells found beneath the spine of a female, together with other grave goods: Kovrig (1963) 44, 78. 6. Grave 518: shell/snail fragments (“Muschel/Schneckenfragmente”) found under and around the skull of a damaged skeleton: Kovrig (1963) 47, 78. 7. Grave 701: egg and a large river shell (Unio pictorum) found by the left side of the chest of the skeleton of a mature female along with other grave goods: Kovrig (1963) 59, 78, Pl. XLIV: 21. 8. Balinka (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Mecsér-puszta, Grave 1: a goose and a chicken egg and 3 intact land snails: 1-1 Cepaea vindobonensis, Helix pomatia and Turritella sp. found among the grave goods from an Avar

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads dated by him prior to369 or following370 the period under discussion should not be considered. Although among the remaining finds he has only dated 72 specimens precisely,371 there are some 141 cowries from 97 sites remaining as a rich material from this period. This work was later added to in Christoph Grünewald and Robert Reiß and by Birgit Dübner-Manthey’s review of the history of dress.372 The Anglo-Saxon finds have been processed by Audrey L. Meaney, with a later contribution to their evaluation by Jeremy W Huggett373 and Helen Geake.374 Cowries have been published, in greater and lesser detail from France and Belgium by Édouard Salin375 from Scandinavia by Ingmar Jansson and Birgitta M. Johansson and,376 from Finland by Ella Kivikoski,377 with complementary identifications by David S. Reese.378 Evalds Mugurēvičs` study based on an unexpectedly rich material was the largest surprise, although unfortunately, his brief publications379 were not followed by a detailed analysis.

traditionally identified as or considered by me to be Ringed cowries coming from the region of the eastern Basin of the Mediterranean Sea, from Jordan (1413–15), probably also from Georgia (1234–35), Kyrgyzstan (1416), Russia (1489, 1508, 1520), Ukraine (1566?, 1574?, 1595?, 1579), maybe Latvia (1448) and Poland (1454) as well as ones identified coming from Sweden (1536–37). Furthermore, in the two latter areas specimens of this species were found for the first time. Shells identified as Money cowries (or regarded by me as such) were found much more often, on the one hand, in their traditional areas of distribution such as Iran (1400), Kyrgyzstan (1416?), Russia (1455, 1457, 1475?, 1484, 1492–94, 1512, 1521), Ukraine (1567, 1569, 1571–72, 1580) and Uzbekistan (1581, 1583, 1585?, 1586), as well as Bulgaria (1165) and Georgia (1233, 1236), possibly for the first time. The concrete proof of their presence in North Europe comes from Finland (1204), Latvia (1417–50, 1451?), Norway (1452–53) and Sweden (1531–33, 1536, 1539, 1544–46, 1549–50, 1552). The small specimens still not recognized or published with the incorrect identification and illustration from Belarus (1159), Estonia (1202), Finland (1203), Germany (1251), Russia (1456, 1458, 1460, 1461–83, 1485–87, 1495–507, 1509–11, 1513–18, 1522–23, 1528, 1530), Tadžikistan (1563), Ukraine (1570, 1573, 1577–78) and Uzbekistan (1582, 1584) would probably not alter the above ratio significantly: the Migration Period is the boom time for the use of Money cowries. Finally, I must mention here the 5 Trivia sp. specimens (1177a) from a grave in England and 6 Trivia sp. (1224a) from an another grave in France which were probably used in the same way as cowries considering their resemblance to them. However, I have made a theoretical distinction between these two types of molluscs.

2.5.2.1. The Small Cowries Although the Migration Period was not the main time when small cowries were worn, the fact that these two species, i.e. Indo-Pacific Ringed and Money cowries, were also most popular in earlier periods,. Their appearance in small numbers may only be due to limitations in my data collection. Thus, small cowries retained their importance and in some regions even extended the area where they were earlier worn. The interpretation of the data not identified to species suggested that in the mean time there had been a shift, a change in which species were used. Namely, Ringed cowries were generally superseded by Money cowries. In spite of that I have collected specimens (1959) 74–76. In Ulrich Arends’ Eastern European collection there were 4 cowries from Czech Republic (his numbers first): 67/1172, 577/mistaken, compare 1171a, 578/1170, 829/1168, but 1167 was missing. He also knew of 4 specimens from Hungary, 3 of which – 51/881, 110/887, 333/902 – were actually older, leaving one contemporaneous specimen, 762/1157, just as in Austria, 449/1158. The Polish and the Russian specimens, 153/1016 and 205/1066, were also older. Finally, he listed an undated specimen as being from “Cerniachow oder Romaschki bei Kiew” which was probably also older, i.e. it may have been 96/1125 or 1141. 369 Ulrich Arends listed 6 specimens here from 6 sites, all dated from the 1st century to the middle of the 5th century (Böhner II) (his numbers first): 51/881, 110/887, 205/1066, 333/902, 432/953, 832/959, dating the seventh to 451–525 (Böhner III): 735/1376, a specimen dated to the 8th century by him but more probably dating from a time before the middle of the 5th century, too: 153/1016. 370 He listed 8 specimens from 2 sites of the conquering Hungarians, dated to the 10th century (his numbers first): 97/1818, 625/1777. 371 Incorrectly dating 31 specimens to the 2nd–4th quarters of the 6th century (Böhner III), 41 to the 7th century (Böhner IV) and 1 cowrie to the 8th century: Arends (1978) I: 177, 437. 372 Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278; Dübner-Manthey (1987) 62–64, 94, 96, 98–99, 116–17, 128, 131. 373 Meaney (1981) 123–28, 346; Huggett (1988) 72, 75–76, 78, 85; see Saxon (1931).. 374 Geake (1997) 62–63, 230: fig. 4.20. 375 Salin (1959) 73–77. 376 Jansson (1988) 589–92, 635–36; Johansson (1990) 48. 377 Kivikoski (1967); Kivikoski (1973) 73–74, 110–11. 378 Listing mostly known finds from Germany, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal and a large number of finds from England in a catalogue, compare Reese (1991) 176–82. 379 Mugurevič (1962); Mugurevič (1965) 54–59, 125.

The majority of the small cowries listed were grave goods. Leaving them and the unlisted stray finds from cemeteries, only 10 stray settlement finds (1202, 1400, 1413–15, 1512, 1536, 1563, 1584–86), and 3 hoard or stray storage finds (1204, 1569, 1580) can be regarded as exceptions. The graves were female burials, the majority probably adult women380 – I have not listed the burials where the sex of the deceased was identified or merely a matter of conjecture. I have found 20 graves of both young and older girls 381 (1165, 1426, 1457, 1462, 1466–67, 1476, 1485, 1493–94, 1505–07, 1511, 1516, 1521–23, 1549, 1566). The situation must have been similar for intact or disturbed collective burials, stray cemetery finds and finds lacking data (1419–21, 1424, 1426–27, 1452, 1492, 1496, 1498, 1502, 1504, 1510, 1514–15, 1531–32, 1544–45, 1552, 1577, 1579, 1581–83). Finally, archaeologists found small cowries in male burials in only 2 cases (1489, 1533, but it is possible that some of the cowries came from a male grave (1465, 1473, 1479?). Some data on their age: 16–17 years old (1483), young (1474), mature (1484), 40–45 years old (1456), 50–60 years old (1492). 381 Some data on their age: 2–4 years old (1493), 7–8 years old (1485), 12–13 years old (1457). 380

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin The number of small shells used as grave goods may have decreased compared to previous periods, although there were grave complexes with large numbers of cowries – in 2 cases along with medium-sized specimens (1456, 1458).382 The fact that cowries were possessed in larger numbers is also signalled by the numbers found in three hoard or storage or hoard complexes: 110 (1569), 10 (1580) and 4 specimens (1204). In spite of the extraordinarily spotty data, it seems that the majority of the known specimens were perforated. In many cases, this was done by the ancient method of removing the dorsum (1233–36, 1416, 1448, 1453–55, 1460, 1492–95, 1509, 1511, 1531, 1533, 1536, 1545, 1569, 1571–75, 1579, 1586) but even more often by rasping, perforating it at the anterior end. It is interesting that there were worked shells with removed dorsi in several hoard finds (1569, 1580). In some cases, intact cowries came to light (1498, 1500?, 1581?). Exceptionally, some specimens like the large species were suspended on a bronze ring (1537).

cowries may well have been amulets.385 This hypothesis is further strengthened by the surprising range and numbers of accompanying grave finds which were amulets or regarded as such, included in the below list which has not been collected completely consistently (compare 1570) regardless of the size of the cowries.386 2.5.2.2. The Medium-Sized Cowries The specimens of this not very large group from 30 sites appeared basically in the same area as large cowries: mainly in Germany (1260, 1265, 1272, 1274–75, 1287, 1313, 1318–19, 1337, 1340, 1352), and Russia (1456, 1458–59, 1491, 1519, 1524, 1529), as well as in England (1181, 1193), France (1209, 1211), Sweden (1543, 1553), in Czech Republic/Bohemia (1172), Iran (1400), Israel (1403), Tadžikistan (1562) and Uzbekistan (1584).

Small cowries were probably mainly worn as elements in strands of beads although the specimens with removed dorsi may have been sewn on.383 Because of the many unknown grave assemblages I have refrained from listing this data and will discuss some well documented special cases. As many as 25 small cowries were sewn onto the dress scarf of a young girl (1457),384 9 cowries in the neck ornament of a child who had been stabbed through the neck with a knife (1455), 6 specimens in an amulet-bag hung around the neck of a child (1224a), 2 specimens survived from the supposed 6 cowries on the earrings of a Finn-Permian woman (1527), 5 cowries together with other pieces of jewelry in the birch-bark box accompanying a woman (1475, compare 1477), 5 cowries removed dorsi (?) in addition to other objects were with sewn on a Finno-Ugrian woman’s wool hat (1460) and finally a small cowrie was put in the casket brooch of a young woman (1546), one was sewn on one of the corners of the pillow placed under the head of a mummified woman to ensure her eternal rest (1456) and one other was sewn on a possible female dress scarf (1484). Based on the probable survival of the tradition, as suggested by the above cases, these small

50 specimens (1165?), 25 (1457), 22 (1499, 1513), 20+ (1432), 18 (1233), 12 (1236), 11 (1453), 9 (1455, 1483), 7 (1448, 1583), 6 (1224a, 1452, 1454, 1456, 1527?, 1549), 5 (1460, 1475, 1497, 1581?–82?), 4 (1501, 1520–21), 3 (1445, 1494, 1507, 1528) or 2 specimens (1203, 1234, 1251?, 1486, 1496, 1503–04, 1522, 1539, 1571, 1577, 1584) and a grave contained an unknown quantity (1458). 383 A series of cowries found arranged in a line may also have been sewn on (compare 1443–51). 384 A linen dress scarf was put on, i.e. a large collar at the front, over the shirt of the little girl. In the back the shirt had a V-shaped neckline trimmed with silk. There were 5 rhomboid silk applications sewn onto the front, parallel with the neckline. A textile ribbon or a strap was sewn on and hung down from the lower corner of the two upper applications, Together with these, the chest ornament, a mixed strand of beads composed of beads and 25 small perforated Money (?) cowries could be tied but also taken off, e.g. when the scarf was washed. Maybe it is because of differing soil conditions that this form of fastening has not been observed elsewhere. It shows that we need to be careful not to interpret the beads 382

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It is very unfortunate that the majority of them are not identified, all the more so, because the few identified cases suggest surprisingly varied origins: instead of specimens found on the chest of the skeleton exclusively as neck ornaments. Anna Ierusalimskaja considered the rabbit calcaneis, bear claws (also a bronze imitation found), chamois horncore and the cowries found in the cemetery (1456–59) all to have been amulets which can be traced back to animal cults. In her opinion, the small cowries were worn in strands of beads not appreciated so much for their beauty but for their magical power against the evil eye, smallpox, snake poison, etc., the larger ones were fastened to the straps of the dress scarf, less frequently to the sheath of the knife, with a sinew thread or a small metal chain. The role of cowries as goodluck charms and apotropaics is traditional in the Caucasus and may also explain their frequent appearance in early Medieval grave complexes in the Northern Caucasus: Ierusalimskaja (1996) 29; Ierusalimskaja (2001) 95–96, 104–05: figs 6–7. 385 Regarding them as amulets against illnesses and the evil eye and referring to the ethnographic data published on Gušcina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22: Hajredinova (2000) 106. 386 Pierced or spoked coins (1176, 1160–61, 1167, 1237, 1243, 1252, 1258, 1260, 1270, 1282, 1290, 1299, 1313, 1321, 1325, 1329, 1332, 1340, 1341, 1358, 1374, 1379, 1383, 1395, 1404, 1407, 1409, 1455, 1520? 1555–56, 1560, 1567, 1581), amber beads (1160–61, 1167, 1186, 1188,1195, 1198, 1233–34, 1236, 1239, 1252, 1258, 1260, 1262, 1265, 1270–71, 1280, 1282, 1291, 1294, 1296, 1299, 1301, 1304–09, 1313, 1319, 1329, 1332, 1340, 1343–44, 1354, 1358, 1376, 1383, 1386, 1388– 90, 1407–08, 1453, 1462, 1468–69, 1472, 1476, 1501, 1513, 1546, 1555, 1558–60, 1565–66, 1571–72, 1575–76, 1587), coral beads (1468–69, 1472, 1476–77, 1513, 1517–18, 1520), shell pendants and shell beads (1193, 1256, 1287, 1294, 1380, 1458, 1488, 1490, 1497, 1503, 1509, 1514, 1524–25, 1529?, 1559), snails and snail beads (1177, 1178, 1187– 88, 1224a, 1329, 1411, 1537, 1539–42, 1551, 1546–47, 1549), a sea egg (1329), mother-of-pearl disks (1408, 1470, 1492, 1516, 1520, 1524–25), a chamois horncore (1458), a small animal’s skull (1221), bear canines (1240, 1309, 1325, 1329, 1521), wild boars’ canines (1176, 1235, 1525), a wolf canine (1529), a dog’s canine (1490), deer canines (1301, 1306, 1567?), animal teeth (1303, 1501, 1503–04, 1572, 1574), animal jaws (1521), fish vertebrae (1181, 1306), a bear’s claw (1457), an eagle’s claw (1173), antler roses (1329, 1387), an otter’s bone (1468), eggs (1171, 1258, 1308, 1319, 1330, 1354, 1378, 1390, 1408–11), rattles (1159, 1485, 1490–91, 1494, 1497, 1513–14, 1516–17, 1519–25, 1528, 1565, 1583), bells (1188, 1423?, 1428, 1444?–45?, 1448?, 1300, 1347, 1354, 1493, 1501, 1567, 1571, 1576), human- (1505), bear- (1462, 1472?), horse(1472?, 1482, 1485, 1505, 1509), duck- (1475), duck’s foot- (1462–63, 1476), animal- (1474) and crescent-shaped pendants (1278, 1492), a sawshaped pendant (1521), an amulet shaped like a double goblet (1523), animal bone pendants (1161, 1187, 1225, 1237, 1270, 1284), conical bone pendants (1248, 1299, 1328), banded mountain crystal spheres (1237, 1253, 1257, 1390, 1409, 1412), bullae (1300, 1383), sun amulets (1266, 1332, 1493), a bone Hercules’ club amulet (1387), silver and bronze

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads which at least in part originated in the Mediterranean,387 we read of such exotic species as the Giraffe cowrie native to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (1553), the Fawn cowrie native along the western coast of the Indo-Pacific Ocean (1403), as well as of Arabian (1193?) and Tummy cowries (1543) from the Far East. It is of course also possible that especially the specimens from Germany and France were, in fact, only a little smaller than average Panther cowries, as suggested by their identical wear.

2.5.2.3. The Large Cowries As opposed to the situation with medium-sized shells, large cowries represent the truely typical cowries for this the period.389 Despite possible shortcomings in my database, the appearance of cowries in large numbers clearly indicates that it was fashionable to wear them, especially in Western and Northern Europe. There are: 126 (!) assemblages in Germany, 29 in England, 30 in France, 10 in Sweden, 9? in Italy,390 6 in Switzerland, 5 in Belgium, 4 in Russia, 3 in Czech Republic, 2 in the Ukraine and finally a single assemblage each in Austria, Israel, Jordan and Tunisia. The majority were probably Panther and Tiger cowries, already the most wide spread species in the previous period:391 Panther cowries were found in 38 assemblages392 (1158, 1167–68, 1175, 1185, 1187–88, 1190–91, 1194–95, 1197–98, 1200, 1205–06, 1222, 1228, 1249, 1273, 1290, 1313, 1333–34, 1383, 1386, 1403, 1534–36, 1538, 1540–42, 1547–48, 1551, 1568), Tiger cowries from 69–71 assemblages (1174, 1192, 1160–61, 1212–13, 1215–16, 1220–21, 1225–26, 1229–31, 1238, 1240, 1252–53, 1258–59, 1268–69, 1277, 1288–89, 1296–97, 1299–301, 1304?, 1305, 1311, 1313?, 1314, 1317, 1321, 1324, 1326, 1332, 1357–64, 1368–69, 1371, 1373–77, 1379, 1382, 1384, 1387–91, 1399, 1414, 1554–55, 1561, 1564, 1576). The differences reflected in the data accessible to me deserve mention because Panther cowries seem to have dominated in England, Czech Republic (?) and Sweden, whereas they were outnumbered by Tiger cowries in Belgium (?), France, Germany and Switzerland. Exceptionally, some Indo-Pacific cowrie from Mauritius (1536) and large Arabian cowrie (1576, 1193) also came to light.

Except for a few settlement and stray finds (1400, 1403, 1337, 1562, 1584) the majority of these cowries were found as grave goods. Apart from some child burials (1181, 1274–75, 1519) or stray cemetery finds (1172, 1352, 1553?) where the sex cannot be determined, it is more or less certain that the cowries come from burials of women of all ages.388 Generally, just one, rarely more than one was placed in the grave: with 2 (1260?, 1524) or 3 (1181) medium cowries in a grave. Although there were specimens with removed dorsi among them (1403, 1524?), in most cases we know or we can infer only that they were perforated and some were suspended on an iron or bronze loop in the same way as large cowries (1168, 1211, 1318,1340, 1352, 1553). Customarily, as opposed to traditions in the Sarmatian and Roman Imperial Period, large cowries were suspended with a loop through the one hole made at their anterior end. Namely, there were a pair of holes at the sides of the anterior end and suspended from a loop. Such cowries were already present at least among the finds from Germany and France. Although a specimen each was found, as an element in a strand of beads, fastened to a dress scarf and then deposited in a wooden box and a leather bag (1519, 1456, 1193, 1211). The position of these objects in the region of the leg suggested elsewhere that they were girdle pendants like the large cowries (1265, 1272, 1274–75, 1287, 1318–19). Their role as amulets is generally accepted, although without differentiating in this respect between these medium-sized and large cowries. I provide a selected bibliography on the amulet role of large cowries at the end of the next sub-chapter.

Generally I have considered them to be 6.0 cm long at least and have included smaller ones only if they were identified as Panther or Tiger cowries in spite of their size or if the fragment suggested a large specimen (1187, 1160–61, 1206, 1208, 1296, 1338, 1343, 1347, 1490, 1558). 390 From the publication the size of only one specimen (1404) is known, with a length of 6.0 cm. Based on that and on the iron suspension loop of another (1411) and that a third one was hung at the end of a chain hanging from the girdle (1412) I have arbitrarily considered all cowries these as large ones. 391 We may expect still to be surprised concerning the identifications. A group of researchers, the malacologist Felix Lorenz (Giessen) and the archaeologist Antoine Heitz (Basel) and Karl Banghard have “zur Zeit die Kauris aus Reihengräbern Süddeutschlands und der Schweiz untersucht. Die Ergebnisse der bisherigen Bestimmungen sind monoton und deshalb interessant, – bei allen Exemplaren handelt es sich um die Art cypraea pantherina, die ausschließlich im Roten Meer und im Golf von Aden vorkommt. Bei sämtlichen durch Felix Lorenz bestimmten Stücken konnte das Herkunftsgebiet sogar exakter eingegrenzt werden, nämlich auf den Bereich des mittleren und südlichen Roten Meeres. Fossilfunde deuten an, dass sich die Habitate der Kauris im Lauf der letzten Jahrhunderte nicht wesentlich geändert haben. Nicht wenige der bislang untersuchten Exemplare wurden durch ältere Bestimmungen der Art cypraea tigris zugeordnet, die ein größeres, diffuseres und damit für handelsgeschichtliche Überlegungen weniger ausgekräftiges Verbreitungsgebiet im Indischen Ozean und im Westpazifik aufweist. Da diese Bestimmungen nun zu korrigieren sind, ist zumindest für den bisherigen Untersuchungsraum ausgeschlossen, dass die Cypraeen aus Indien kamen, wie dies vor einigen Jahren an prominenter Stelle vermittelt worden ist [Henning (1996) 795, 800: fig. 648.].”: Banghard (2001) 15; compare Banghard (2000) 345; see note 12 on p. xi. 392 In the identification of a large cowrie the names Panther and Tiger cowrie are mixed as Tigris vinosa (1313). 389

capsules (1258, 1291, 1300, 1306, 1394, 1555), amulet cases (1168, 1408, 1485), an amulet capsule (1389), toy pieces (1188, 1237, 1258, 1260, 1412), fragments of spurs, ringed armours and bits (1374, 1387, 1458, 1498, 1522, 1524), iron and bronze keys (1175, 1187, 1195, 1197, 1242, 1299–300, 1309, 1312, 1321, 1344, 1361, 1383, 1386, 1546, 1554, 1556, 1558), glass spindle-whorls or spindle-rings (1264, 1271, 1308, 1319, 1346, 1354), a bone spindle-whorl (1367), an amber spindle-whorl (1408, 1546), colander spoons (1354, 1494, 1497, 1457), small objects: pieces of stone, limestone, quartz, glass, jet, chalk, resin, fossils, pebbles, walnuts, other fruits, seeds, roots etc. (1176, 1183, 1187–88, 1193, 1221, 1237, 1247, 1257, 1260, 1262, 1300, 1306–07, 1313, 1321, 1330, 1332, 1342, 1386–87, 1454, 1456, 1458). 387 As from the 3 Mediterranean species which can come into question the largest measured length of 2 (Pear and Dirty cowries) was only 5.2 cm and Fallow cowries are mostly 4.8 cm, exceptionally 4.8–6.7 cm long, I have drawn the line between the medium and the large size at the minimal length of the smaller from the 2 most frequent large species, the Panther cowries, i.e. at 6.0 cm; compare Arends (1978) I: 171. The length of the 28 specimens listed here varied between 2.7 (1524) and 5.8 (1491) cm. 388 Aged 3/4–6 (1274–75), younger than 10 (1181) or as adults (1193), aged 27–30 (1318), around 30 (1265), 35–40 (1491) and 40–45 (1456).

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin The majority of the 216 large cowries were found in burials: all the specimens which I will not be listing here, as well as the stray finds from cemeteries (1166?, 1169, 1186, 1220, 1267, 1277, 1285, 1314, 1331, 1337, 1339, 1348, 1365–66, 1369–70, 1373, 1377, 1382, 1395, 1541, 1551), and maybe even some of the mere 20 specimens I consider exceptions. Some of these were found during settlement excavations (1191–92, 1199, 1534–36, 1564), or in hoard complexes (1568) although the majority were stray finds without data (1281, 1293, 1322, 1324, 1336, 1548) or ones excavated under circumstances unknown to me (1162–64, 1292, 1254, 1355). It seems equally certain that large cowries were worn primarily by adult women and buried with them so that the specimens found in double burials probably also belonged to them (1194, 1201, 1362, 1296, 1342, 1371, 1488). According to the data most of the owners were younger women,393 some buried pregnant (1176) or along with their small child (1158, 1184, 1195, 1237). Wearing large cowries, however, was not associated only with the fertile period in women’s lives. Cowries are, thus, also found in a variety of burials of children of all ages394 (1168, 1179–80, 1196, 1206, 1230, 1232, 1241–42, 1244–46, 1248–50, 1259, 1261, 1289, 1361, 1391, 1297, 1301, 1306, 1328, 1332–33, 1387, 1389, 1391, 1399, 1519, 1555). 395 After discounting the burials where no data is available (1162–64, 1166, 1213, 1218, 1224, 1229, 1254, 1268, 1292, 1349, 1355, 1398), only 3 specimens remain which were regarded as male grave goods. The identification of the sex of two of this skeletons has since been questioned (1182, 1412) while in the third case, archaeologists attempted to assemble a man’s grave goods, including a cowrie, in a rather unlikely way, from stray finds in a cemetery (1314 – see Annex 2369. Goblin Works). It is evident that the deceased usually wore one large and heavy cowrie; only 2 specimens are known from an assembled grave complex (1576). It is also evident that the shells were perforated at their thinner, anterior end for suspension. One hole was enough for direct suspension or for suspension with a metal loop. This was general among the Sarmatian/Goth etc. finds from the Roman Imperial Period. In the Migration Period, however, especially in the material culture of the Germanic tribes, the anterior of the shell was perforated on both sides and, thus, suspended on a metal loop (Fig. 54). Unfortunately, in most cases, it was not possible for me to observe the number of holes.

Therefore, besides some specimens surely perforated only once (1348, 1359, 1375?, 1547, 1551) I have listed those which were almost certainly perforated twice.396 The ratio of the two variants may indicate a manufacturing technique specifically characteristic of this period. The perforated large cowries were generally suspended on a bronze or an iron and rarely on a silver ring (1187, 1346). When neither a ring or traces of oxidation could be observed, the shell was probably suspended directly on a cord or a thread. The majority of the many fragmented shells were probably fractured during the excavation as there is even a specimen which was once re-perforated for a third time so it could be still be used because one of the holes had broken off (1383). A large (perforated?) cowrie should also be mentioned which was put in the grave with its serrated aperture sawed off beforehand, perhaps to make shell beads (1178). It is possible that the same purpose was intended with an intact specimen found at a settlement (1535), although some intact cowries were also found in graves (1166?, 1194, 1200, 1488?, 1576) – unfortunately in disturbed burials ones or under unrecorded circumstances. It is not impossible either that these were also worn, namely by suspending them with the help of a bent wire passed through their aperture.397 The main characteristic of cowrie wear was that most were worn conspicuously, almost provocatively, as girdle pendants: on a thread or a strap (1262, 1308–09, 1312?– 13?, 1325, 1353, 1554–55), a chain (1158, 1246, 1296?, 1379, 1412, 1559), alone (1246, 1308–09, 1325, 1412, 1555, 1559) or together with other objects – beads, knives with leather sheaths etc. – as is shown by many excellent costume reconstructions.398 The large cowries suspended next to the other objects399 from the girdle pendant, hung loosely by the thigh or between the legs of their wearer, attracting attention both with their colorful, spotted back and their bright white base with the serrated aperture. As far as one can tell from their position in the grave,400 the majority appeared in the region of the left lower body area, i.e. next to or under the pelvis, the femur, the knee 1158, 1222–23, 1237, 1243, 1245, 1266–67, 1270, 1272, 1277, 1280, 1282, 1293, 1297, 1299–300, 1307–09, 1311, 1336, 1339, 1342, 1348, 1358, 1364, 1368, 1374, 1383, 1388–89, 1391, 1395, 1399, 1536, 1538, 1548, 1554, 1559. 397 “Auch wenn eine Cypraea nicht gebohrt ist, kann in den Mundschlitz ein Draht eingeführt und durch Kröpfen gesperrt werden, was ausreichend Halt gibt.”: Arends (1978) I: 174. 398 Based on Vogt (1960) 88–89, 86: figs 60–61, 88/89: Pl. 33: 1–2; Arends (1978) I: 174–77 (compare 1353, 1312–13, 1386); Dübner-Manthey (1987) 62–64, 74, 75: fig. 2: 3 (977), 76, 77: fig. 3: 3 (959); SteblerCauzzo (1997) 259–60, 260: figs 12, 14, etc. 399 According to Ulrich Arends’ collection large cowries appeared together with the following objects as girdle pendants: with an ornamental disk in 15 cases, with an iron knife in 11, a bronze comb in 8, a large bronze ring, an iron ring and a bronze clip in 5 cases each, with a smaller bronze ring and a bronze strap end in 4 cases each and in 2 cases with an iron clip: Arends (1978) I: 173–74. 400 I could not classify some cases: 1237, 1261, 1272, 1296, 1317, 1332, 1342, 1353, 1364, 1376, 1392. According to Ulrich Arends’ suggestive description a large cowrie was found in the region of the head and the chest in 5 cases, of the hip and the hands in 7, of the abdomen and the pelvis in 9, of the femur, the knee and the shin in 11, 14 and 7 cases and in 4 cases at the feet: Arends (1978) I: 434. 396

Some data on their age: juvenile (1276, 1558), 20–25 years old (1308, 1388, 1559), 21–22 (1375), 21–30 years old (1243, 1299–300, 1343), 23–26 years old (1307, 1309), around 25 (1160), 25–30 (1490), 30–40 years old (1266, 1342), around 35 (1161), senile (1404, 1407). 394 Around the age of 1 (1245), around 3 (1399), around 5 (1249), around 6 years of age (1246), 6–7 years old (1248), around 7 (1244), inf. II (1391), around 8 (1168, 1180), around 8–10 years (1387), younger than 10 years (1196), 10–12 years old (1301), around 13 (1242). around 14 (1289), around 15 years old (1179). 395 Audrey L. Meaney suggested different reasons for the occurence of cowries in childrens burials. They probable wanted to help the gender ripening of the little girls still in their life, but this use could be the sign of their mothers aspiration too, to defend her child from illness or death. It could symbolize rebirth too, or only that the child could to take such objects to the other world too, which would rather belong to the adult woman: Meaney (1981) 127, 285. 393

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads grave (1311?, 1409) or in the earth fill of the grave (1229). In some cases, it is not the position of the cowrie which is of importance, but the manner of presentation along grave goods probably adopted from the Romans.407 Intact, cowries with simple perforations, specimens suspended on a loop and those lacking relevant data have all been found in various containers. These include: small wooden boxes, generally placed next to the legs (1175, 1187–88, 1195), in an unknown position (1173, 1197, 1201, 1384408) or in a bone casket (1407) and in textile or leather bags (1176, 1183–84)409 holding small objects, “souvenirs”, amulets etc. of their former owner. A specimen lost, without description, was found in a clay dish described as one of the grave goods (1320). The role of large cowries, primarily as fertility amulets, has become a commonplace and need not be demonstrated further.410 Max Martin believed that large cowries replaced large glass spindle-whorls, also of magical importance and popular in the first centuries of the common era and that they were rivals or successors to perforated bear canine amulets.411 Without repeating what has already been written by Ulrich Arends and Audrey L. Meaney I would only like to note that these large cowrie amulets also appeared in

Fig. 54. Large cowrie perforated on both sides from Gammertingen, Grave/1903 (1 – 1282) or with one hole from Hailfingen, Grave 318 (2 – 1359) – after Arends (1978) 1187: pl. 24: 1–2

or the ankle, depending on the length of the suspension strap or chain (1158, 1160–61, 1243, 1244?, 1245–46, 1247?, 1250, 1252, 1258, 1262, 1270, 1299–300, 1305?, 1306, 1308–09, 1325, 1328?, 1330, 1354, 1358, 1361?, 1374–75, 1379, 1383, 1386?–87?, 1390, 1399, 1410, 1554, 1556, 1558–599.401 The specimens found between the bones of the legs (1180, 1205–06, 1256, 1259,402 1263, 1273, 1294,403 1333, 1335, 1388, 1391, 1404, 1555) may have been actually worn this way but it is also possible that they were placed there only during the burial ritual. In some cases, they were found on the right side of the body (1237, 1276, 1359?, 1405). At other times, the traces which remain do not suggest that the cowrie was worn as a girdle pendant or that it had been placed in the grave based on this dress traditon.404 Large cowries have also appeared in the following positions: next to or above the skull (1179, 1189, 1196, 1329), in the region of the neck and, in spite of its size, possibly in a strand of beads which hung down to the chest (1186?, 1198,405 1167, 1206, 1232, 1519, 1540), on the chest (1357?, 1298, 1368?, 1525), on, under or in the region of the pelvis (1168, 1178, 1249, 1266, 1334, 1360?), next to the left hand or the left elbow (1239, 1248, 1301, 1344, 1408406), at the lower end of the

Banghard (2000) 345; Banghard (2001) 17; compare 973. As there were only cowrie fragments in the wooden box here, it is possible that it used to be employed as a rasper: Arends (1978) I: 176– 77. 409 Audrey L. Meaney explained why the cowrie was hidden with the following: “The Anglo-Saxon examples were very probably fertility amulets, since they were specifically associated with women, once pregnant, twice after the child had been born. In view of Miss Murray’s contention that a woman would not wear openly anything intended specifically to guard her private parts [compare Murray (1939)], it is noticeable that most of the early Anglo-Saxon women of child-bearing age who were buried with cowries had them in boxes or bags. Their purpose was possibly, therefore, somewhat different from that of the cowries worn on a necklace, which may simply have been intended to distract the glance of the fascinator.”: Meaney (1981) 127; Evison (1987) 122; Arnold (1997) 119. “In Anglo-Saxon graves, cowrie shells are found almost exlusively with women of child-bearing age and children. The whole cowries within the present sample were found in the graves of three women between 20 and 45, two teenagers betwen 14 and 16, a child of about eight and a ‘small child’, two unaged women, two unidentifiable individuals and one man (Goblin Works Sy S4 [see Annex 2369 ])... Two women, of 25-30 and 35-40 and one child of eight or nine, had booth [namely cowries and cowrie-shell beads]... It is noticeable, that cowrie shells have been found with women of child-bearing age, with children and with men, but not with older women. It is tempting to agree with Meaney that the osteological sexing of the two male graves may have been unreliable; the presence of cowries could then be assumed to be connected with female fertility. Their occurrence in the graves of young girls could be explained by the suggestion that the prophylactic effect of the cowrie shell was complex and also affected future fertility.”: Geake (1997) 62–63. 410 In the archaeological scientific literature alone e.g. Boulanger (1909) 161; Werner (1950a) 61; Voigt (1952); Salin (1959) 77; Ladenbauer-Orel (1960) 76; Vogt (1960) 88; Roosens–Alenus-Lecerf (1965) 129; Koch (1968) I: 58; Martin (1976) 95–96; Koch (1977) I: 85; Arends (1978) I: 178–80; Christlein (1978) 81, 115; Meaney (1981) 127; Schach-Dörges (1981) 646; Peschek (1983) 64–65; Dübner-Manthey (1987) 62–64; Grünewald (1988) 118–19; Pauli (1988) 274–75; Koch (1990) 163; Reese (1991) 189; Knaut (1993) 100–01; Reiß (1994) 129–30; Peschek (1996) 30, 103, 112–15; Fuchs (1997) 394: fig. 448; Rupp (1997) 94; Stebler-Cauzzo (1997) 262; Siegmund (1998) 82–83; in Caucasian cultural context: Ierusalimskaja (1996) 29; Geake (1997) 62; Banghard (2000) 344–45. 411 Martin (1976) 96. 407 408

“Häufig wird die Cypraea auf der linken Körperhälfte getragen. Dabei erscheint sie in der Gürtelnähe, oder links außerhalb von Ober- und Unterschenkel. Sie ist eingebaut in Gehänge mit anderen Gegenständen oder hängt allein an Riemen oder Kette.”: Arends (1978) I: 180. 402 The cowrie lay under a bow brooch“ in the young girl’s grave. The brooch may have been fastened to the ribbon hanging from the girdle further above and the shell, as a weight, at the end: Arends (1978) I: 176. 403 In this case Ulrich Arends thought that the cowrie found between the ankles could hardly have been suspended on the girdle but was put in the grave separately as were the glass spindle whorls in some cases: Arends (1978) I: 176. 404 Arends (1978) I: 176. 405 Meaney (1981) 125. 406 Cowries found next to the hand reminded Ulrich Arends of the tradition of putting glass spindle whorl in the hand of the deceased: Arends (1978) I: 176. 401

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin Christian burials: less frequently among the Germanic tribes on the continent (1212, 1394),412 more so among the Anglo-Saxons (1175–76, 1181, 1195).413

being first transported over the Mediterranean to Marseilles spreading up the Rhône valley, to southern Germany. From here they were taken by tradesmen northwards up the Rhine valley from whence they turned westwards, via northern France, to England on the one hand and eastwards, to Bohemia415 and Thuringia on the other.416 Joachim Werner, however, had already stressed the importance of the Italian connection half a century ago. In his opinion, large cowries imported to Italy along with other eastern articles were also transported to southern Germany over the Alps.417 Edouard Salin maintained a similar view later: according to him the fashion adopted by the peoples of the Migration Period coming from the east was transmitted via Italy and the Alps to the Rhineland and onwards. He explained the appearance of specimens in Sweden and England saying that they were separately transported418

2.5.2.4. Unidentified/Unknown Cowries The relative uniformity of the approximately identified cowries from Czech Republic/Bohemia (1170?–71?), France (1219), Germany (1216?, 1239, 1255, 1257, 1279, 1283, 1286, 1291, 1303, 1310?, 1315–16, 1341, 1350–51, 1356, 1372, 1380?, 1381, 1393, 1396) and Switzerland (1557, 1560) suggests that the majority of the finds there lacking data were probably also large cowries, more precisely Tiger or Panther cowries. A find from Estonia (1202) is probably an exception, including rather a small cowrie. Apart from the latter, all these cowries were found in graves and all were published as being female grave goods (1239, 1257, 1283, 1286, 1291, 1303, 1315, 1341, 1356, 1397) except for one child burial (1380). I could not identify two other finds (1401–02).

Since Maria Schilder dated the specimen from Merseburg (1334) to the 4th–5th centuries, which would have contradicted his theory of origination, Theodor Voigt modified the dating, correctly, to the 6th century, compare Schilder (1952) 22, 21: fig. 22: B–C; Voigt (1952) 178: note 27. 416 He named the habitat of Panther and Tiger cowries appearing mainly in wealthier Alemann burials correctly and suggested that they were amulets enhancing fertility and protecting against sterility and venereal diseases, worn as pendants exclusively by women (at times by girls). Finally he stated, “daß die Stücke zumeist aus Gräbern des 6. (7.) Jahrhunderts u. Ztr. stammen, welche ihrerseits wiederum in Zusammenhang mit Funden eindeutig koptisch-ägyptischer Herkunft stehen. Infolgedessen zwingt sich m. E. von selbst die Erkenntnis auf, daß auch die großen Porzellanschnecken mit dem übermächtig in Erscheinung tretenden Kulturstrom aus dem ägyptischen Räume auf dem Handelswege über Marseille–Rhonetal aufwärts einerseits nach Südostdeutschland und anderseits das Rheintal entlang nach Nordfrankreich und Südengland gelangten. So weist es jedenfalls die Fundkarte aus. Auf diesem Wege und auf diese Art gelangte ohne Zweifel auch der ‘fremde’ Kult- und Talismanglaube mit nach Südwestdeutschland. Von dort nur kann dann die weitere Streuung ostwärts nach Böhmen und Thüringen erfolgt sein.”: Voigt (1952) 176–78 (quotation: 178). In other words: “Der Gesamtfundkomplex, zu dem Gräber dieser Art [i.e. with large cowries] gehören, weist in stärkstem Maße Dinge auf, die eindeutig koptisch–ägyptische Erzeugnisse offenbaren, welche über Marseille und Rhone aufwärts hauptsächlich im 6. Jahrhundert u. Ztr. in das Rhein/ Main-Gebiet durch die Vermittlung ‘römischer’ Händler und christlicher Priester und Mönche einströmten.”: Voigt (1952) 178; LamiováSchmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105, 131. 417 “Die aus dem Indischen Ozean stammenden Tigermuscheln sind in den Reihengräberfeldern des merowingischen Kulturgebietes sehr verbreitet und wohl meist im Zuge der langobardisch-süddeutschen Handelsbeziehungen nach dem Norden gelangt. Auch in den langobardischen Nekropolen Italiens sind sie häufig.”: Werner (1950a) 61. It is only his last sentence that may be doubted because finds from merely one cemetery (1404–12) can come into question here; compare Werner (1950a) 61; Salin (1959) 76: note 9. 418 He suggested a similar origination for Central and West Germany, saying that the list of the finds “témoigne aussi que c’est en Allemagne centrale et occidentale, ainsi que dans la France de l’Est que la densité des trouvailles est la plus forte; nous retrouvons ici, semble-t-il, le cheminement des produits de l’Orient vers le Rhin à travers l’Italie et les routes des Alpes. Les cyprées trouvées en Suede (elles s’y trouvent associées à une peau de crocodile indien) et peut-être aussi celles du Kent [referring to Bryan Fausset’s excavations in Kent (1187–88, 1197) and more recent sites (1176, 1190, 1195–96)] évoquent au contraire, les communications avec l’Orient par la voie du Nord. S’agit-il d’une tradition héritée du monde romain ou, au contraire, d’un apport venu par le canal du monde des Steppes lors des Grandes Invasions? Il est malaisé d’en décider puisqu’on retrouve, avant le temps qui nous occupe, des cyprées dans des tombes appartenant à l’un et l’autre des deux mondes. Je suppose, pour ma part, qu’avec les Grandes Invasions une tradition, orientale d’origine, déjà en honneur, a repris, en Gaule mérovingienne, une vigueur nouvelle, consécutive à un apport qui a cheminé avec les nouveaux venus.”: Salin (1959) 77. However, the above reference to the 415

2.5.2.5. Evaluation I have not found an explanation for the fast spread of large cowries characteristic of this period, although it may be connected with a change in the way they were worn rather than in the system of beliefs. The distribution area of small Money and Ringed cowries largely coincided with that of large Panther and Tiger cowries so that this change can hardly be explained by a change in their availability. There are three opinions concerning the spread of the large species. One was presented by Theodor Voigt who, following Franz Albert Schilder,414 first reviewed finds from the previous period (113, 170, 966, 983). He suggested that with the exception of the 5th–7th centuries specimens, these amulets were of common origin with Coptic–Egyptian objects, “On serait encore plus surpris de les trouver dans des tombes certainement chrétiennes ... si l’on ne savait de quel singulier mélange de christianisme et de paganisme étaient souvent faites les croyances des hommes de ce temps.”: Salin (1959) 77. “Der Übergang zum Christentum währte auch im alamannischen Gebiet lange Zeit, in der ein gewisses Nebeneinander heidnischer und christlicher Vorstellungen bestand. Im archäologischen Befund offenbart sich dies z.B. im gleichzeitigen Vorkommen unterschiedlicher religiöser Symbole. So kommen am Gürtelgehänge der Frauen neben Kreuzen und kreuzförmigen Verzierungen auch Donaramulette vor. Gegenstände mit Amulettcharakter, beispielsweise Bärenzähne, Geweihrosetten, Gehäuse der Tigerschnecke, Bergkristallwirtel oder auch aufgelesene Objekte aus römischer oder keltischer Zeit, hatten teils unheilabwehrende Funktion, teils dienten sie dem Fruchtbarkeitskult, müssen aber nicht unbedingt als Zeugnisse heidnischer Vorstellungen gewertet werden. Vermutlich verbirgt sich dahinter oft nur Aberglaube.”: Quast (1997) 438, 439: fig. 504. 413 “Why should these cowries have been acceptable in Christian communities? We would expect them to have been quite as objectionable as amber. E. F. Letts observed, however, concerning a misericordie in Manchester Cathedral: «I find the subject of children emerging from shells and fighting beasts is a common one and represents purity conquering sin.» Although the shell depicted there is a conch, such an idea might easily be applied to the cowrie, the birth-shell par excellence and so make it acceptable to Christians.”: Meaney (1981) 127. 414 Schilder (1923). Walther Veeck considered all large cowries to be Tiger cowries originating from the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea: Veeck (1931) 50. 412

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads along a northern route.419 Max Martin also hypothesised that these shells were imported into Western European from the east but entirely over land. The Merovingian Period burials containing a large cowrie occurred mainly in the eastern part of the Frankish settlement area and in the Alemann region in southern Germany. He pointed out that apart from the two exceptions which could be dated to the first half of the 6th century (1329, 1376), the custom of giving cowries as grave goods only started to spread in the second half of the 6th century (1256, 1313, 1340). Martin suggested that the direction of the spread, as opposed to Theodor Voigt’s theory, was not from west to east but probably from Bohemia/Czech Republic, directly through the mediation of the Gothic population of the Černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture.420 In the last twenty-five years, there have been followers of all of these theories: Edouard Salin’s opinion was accepted

by Helmuth Roth,421 Ursula Koch,422 Dietrich Claude,423 Dieter Quast,424 Christoph Grünewald425 and Max Martin’s by Birgit Dübner-Manthey426 and Matthias Knaut.427 As regards Switzerland, Rudolf Moosbrugger-Leu regarded both the route along the Rhine and the by-ways around the Boden Lake and transport through Italian transport to be most likely.428 Others have not taken sides clearly429 Maintaining that large cowries “mit deutlichem Amulettcharakter konzentrieren sich im östlichen Merowingerreich, wiederum in Alamannien, das immer deutlicher als das Haupzentrum der merowingerzeitlichen Kultur im Osten hervortritt. Eine kettenartige Fundverteilung ist ferner am Mittelrhein und vereinzelt bis nach England zu beobachten, ferner im thüringischen Gebiet und an der Weichsel. Vor allem die rheinnahe Verbreitung läßt wiederum keinen Zweifel daran aufkommen, daß sich hier ein Handelsweg abzeichnet, der einerseits – belegt durch das Vorkommen von Tiegermuscheln in langobardischen Italien – über die Alpen kam, anderseits aber sicher auch über die Rhone führte, was ein Vorkommen bei Lyon wahrscheinlich macht.”: Roth (1971) 355. It should be noted that the specimen from Lyon (966) is mistakenly referred to as it is much older, probably dating to the 1st century AD. 422 Evaluating the other objects from Langobardic Italy in the graves with large cowries (1258–66) at the cemetery of Schretzheim she noted that “Amethystperlen, Cypreen oder andere Seeschnecken wurden aus dem Süden über die Alpen verhandelt... Seeschnecke schenkte man offensichtlich jungen Mädchen als Fruchbarkeitsamulett.”: Koch (1977) 186. 423 Without dealing with cowries but as a possible parallel he noted that there were objects appearing in the archaeological material which were not mentioned in the written sources: “Das gilt beispielsweise für Blättchenmillefioriperlen, die – wahrscheinlich aus Ägypten – nach Italien und in den nordalpinen Raum gelangten.”: Claude (1985) 103. 424 Quast (2000) 284. 425 He noted when discussing Millefiori beads “Daß aus Oberitalien in der Merowingerzeit Importe nach Norden möglich waren, liegt auf der Hand. Erinnert sei hier nur an Goldblattkreuze und langobardische Bügelfibeln sowie die vielfach in nordalpinen Gräbern gefundenen italischen Münzen der Ostgotenzeit und Justinians sowie für die Nord-Südrichtung des Handels die Nachricht Cassiodors, daß Donau- und Rheinkarpfen eine übliche Speise an der königlichen Tafel in Ravenna gewesen seien. Dies setzt einen schnell und reibungslos funktionierenden Handel und Transport voraus... Im 6. Jahrhundert fallen im archäologischen Fundgut vor allem Almandine und Cypraea-Muscheln auf, die zwar nicht direkt aus Ägypten kommen, sicher aber über diesen Weg in den Norden gelangten.”: Grünewald (1988) 85–86, compare 119. 426 Originating the custom of wearing small objects, amulets, symbolic pendants, cowries etc. as girdle pendants mainly from the East, with Gothic and Sarmatian mediation, the same way as large cowries and Donar amulets which were also fertility symbols: Dübner-Manthey (1987) 63, 92–94, 130–31; compare Werner (1964); Knol (1988) 122–24. – “Charakteristisch ist auch folgender Unterschied zwischen romanischer [5th–7th centuries] und germanischer Frauentracht: Während an der Gürtelgehängen germanischer Frauen Amulette (grosse Glasperlen, Bärenzahne und Tigerschnecken) vorkommen, so etwa in Herten, Bülach und Marktoberdorf [-, 1325, 1556], bleiben die ebenfalls von der linken Hüfte herabfallenden, sonst ähnlichen Gehänge romanischer Frauen von solchen offenbar doch abergläubisch-«heidnischen» Dingen frei.”: Martin (1979) 11, 18, fig. 16. 427 Knaut (1993) 101. 428 “Die wenigen koptischen Stoffe, die sich in den Kirchenschätzen finden, und mit ihnen auch Porzellanschnecken dürften zum Teil auf den Rhoneweg, zum Teil auf Umwegen über die Bodenseegebiete unser Land erreicht haben. Von Italien aus wurde das koptische Bronzegeschirr über die Alpenpässe nach Süddeutschland verhandelt, ferner Porzellanschnecken aus dem Roten Meer.”: Moosbrugger-Leu (1971) 41. 429 Christian Peschek founded his opinion below by referring to the data in Voigt (1952) and Martin (1976) 95 f., in a contradicting manner: Large cowries “dringen zur Merowingerzeit durch die gotischen Wanderungen nach Süddeutschland ein.”: Peschek (1983) 65; Peschek (1996) 30, note 299, 103. Ingmar Jansson, though dealing with large and small cowrie species together, noted that “Cypraea Schnecken der beiden erwähnten Arten sind oft in den merowingerzeitlichen Gräbern Englands, Mitteleuropas und Italiens gefunden worden, und eine Einfuhr über das 421

crocodile is incorrect. 6 graves were excavated at the Viking cemetery of 13–15 tumuli on Långön Island of the River Hoting (Ångermanland). In grave 6 dated to ca. 1100 a piece of skin measuring 5.5x3.0 cm was found stuck to an iron strike-a-light, yet it is not the skin of a crocodile but of a Bengali monitor (Varanus bengalensis), maximum 2 m long: Arne (1926) 95–96, 103, 97: fig. 72a. Also mentioned with incorrect identification, in connection with the Merovingian Period: Jansé (1935) 70 (“une peau de crocodile... provient d’un genre de crocodile, Varanus bengalensis”); Salin (1959) 77. 419 Salin (1949). According to Birgitta M. Johansson’s opinion, “the findings of Indo-Pacific shells indicate a concentration of shells on the islands of Gotland and Öland in the Baltic Sea and the island of Björkö, located in Lake Mälären, eastern central Sweden. From an archaeomalacological aspect, Björkö, Öland and Gotland indicate a clear difference in the source material. The large porcelain shells (Cypraea spp.), mainly from the Vendel period (AD 600–800) dominate on Gotland while the small real cowries (C. moneta) are dominating on Öland and in the Viking Age settlement on Björkö. The oldest finds are from Källa parish on Öland and Sanda parish on Gotland [1531, 1549] while the youngest find context is from Medieval Uppsala [2269], a time span from ca. AD 400–1300. Indo-Pacific shells appear in the archaeological record during the early Roman Iron Age. Six taxa have been identified in Sweden: Olivia inflata, Cypraea annulus, C. moneta, C. mauritina, C. pantherina and C. ventriculus. The cowries and large porcelain shells continue to be used as personal ornaments during the Viking Age and the Medieval period, as shown, for example, in Birka, the sites at Gotland and in Uppsala. The large porcelain shells occur only on Gorland during the Vendel period (AD 600–800), at the Viking Age.” Johansson (2005) 43, 59, 63, 82: nrs 15–20, 51: tab. 1, 84: Appendix II Part I: 15–20.. 420 “Da in der Straubinger Gräbergruppe Einwanderer aus dem östlichen Reihengräberkreis bezeugt ist [referring to Koch (1968) I: 122–24; compare 1364], darf man das frühe Vorkommen der Schnecke mit Böhmen zusammenbringen, wo Cypraeen offenbar seit dem 5. Jahrhundert getragen wurden [885, 959]. Die dortige Sitte hinwiederum geht vielleicht auf die Schneckenanhänger der gotischen CerniachovKultur Südrußlands oder ihrer rumänischen Schwester, der Sîntana de Mures-Gruppe zurück [1042–43, 1060, 1081], und wäre dann spätestens mit den Wanderungen, die auf den Zusammenbruch dieser Kulturen am Ende des 4. Jahrhunderts folgten, nach Nordwesten gelangt. Es ist eher so, daß die Sitte der Meerschneckenanhänger nicht, wie Th. Voigt meint, ‘auf dem Handelsweg über Marseille-Rhonetal’ an den Rhein und von dort auch nach Böhmen und Thüringen gelangte, sondern von Osten her dem alamannischen und fränkischen Kulturkreis vermittelt wurde.”: Martin (1976) 95–96. Andrea Vaday has also reminded of the Sarmatian influence besides the Gothic in connection with an early Central European find (959,): Vaday (1997) 11: note 84.

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin or at all430 in this question. Most recently it has been put forward as a general possibility that the northern Adriatic coast may have been the starting point of a route leading to the Eastern Alps.431

appears sporadically from the 4th and the first half of the 5th centuries in Austria (953) and Czech Republic (959) as well, they are still exceptional in the first half of the 6th century (1219, 1329, 1376). There presence only increased towards the middle and the end of the 6th century. The early burials of the Langobards who moved to Northern Italy in 568 (1405, 1407–08, 1410) are dated to this time however their archaeological material in Pannonia has not yet yielded any cowries. It is also from the second half of the 6th century onwards that finds from Merovingian (Böhner III/526–600) Germany,437 Switzerland (1554) and the early specimens of their contemporary populations in France (1205–08, 1210, 1214–18, 1121–26, 1129–31) and Belgium (1162–64) probably dated broadly to this time. It was in this period that the first ones appeared in England (1173, 1183, 1185–86, 1189–91, 1198–99) and Sweden (1538, 1541?–42?, 1547?, 1548). The peoples living in the Carpathian Basin, however, except for the Sarmatians and the Goths, did not wear any kind of cowrie amulets either in the Hun or the subsequent Germanic (Suewian, Scirian, Rugian, Herulian, Langobard) Period. With the exception of a single find from a Gepid burial, no cowries have been found in their archaeological material (1156). The same holds for the whole of the Avar Period 568–829438 with one exception (1157) and to the 9th century Bulgarian and Slavic archaeological finds brought to light here. As this observation also applies to the area of present-day Slovakia and Poland, north of the Carpathian Basin, 6th century Central and Western European specimens were probably no longer transported over land but across the Mediterranean.439 It is known that the Syrian priest Kosmas Indikopleustes, writing about his earlier experiences as a tradesman around 548 in the “Topographia Christiana”, noted that he had transported chank or cowrie shells worn as ornaments from Marallo in southeast India via the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea (Eilat and Alexandria).440 These shells have so far been regarded as Tiger cowries441 although the

Based on the material I have collected, the above opinions may be reconciled. Namely, although there are some large cowrie finds in Western Europe during the Roman Imperial Period dated with, more or less, certainty (954, 966–68, 958–59) it cannot really be demonstrated that they were continuously part of female dress. The situation is different in Central and Eastern Europe where the wearing of large cowries was generally widely spread both among the mainly Sarmatian, in part among the Germanic population in the Carpathian Basin (877–952) and among the mixed, Sarmato-Iranian–Visigoth population of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture (1001–10, 1036–38, 1041–46, 1052, 1060) and further to the east, among the mixed, Sarmato-Iranian–Ostrogoth population of the Černjahov Culture (1123–25, 1129–31, 1132–33, 1137, 1139–47).432 This is so much so that the appearance of this form of dress in the northern zone of Central Europe (959, 978, 1015, 1017–18, 1021?, 1022–23, 1028–29, 1032–33), has been explained by the influence of these populations. This may provide a solid enough to support Max Martin’s idea that we should look upon the Iranian/Alanian and Gothic population migrating from the east to the west at the end of the 4th century as the propagators of large cowrie pendants there. However, I have not found cowries in the archaeological material culture of the Alans433 and the Visigoths434 who reached Hispania via Pannonia and Western Europe. Nor did I find cowries in the material culture of the Ostrogoths,435 who first settled in Pannonia 456/457–473) and then settled in Italy in 488 via Lower Moesia.436 Although traces of the westward migration, also reflected in cowrie finds, und Mitteleuropa scheint glaubhaft für die skandinavischen Funde der Vendelzeit.”: Jansson (1988) 591; compare Schach-Dörges (1981) 646. Dietrich Claude maintained a similar view on the spread of Coptic bronze dishes which can be considered as a parallel: “Die Verbreitungskarte des gegossenen koptischen Bronzegeschirrs im nordalpinen Raum weist zwar auf seinen Transport über die Alpen, doch schließt sie die Möglichkeit eines Imports über einen provençalischen Hafen und durch das Rhônetal nicht mit Sicherheit aus.”: Claude (1985) 136–43, (quotation: 139). 430 Roth (1985) 165, 167; list of the “exotica”: Wilson (1985) 265: note 43; Reiß (1994) 129; Johansson (1995) 351; Rupp (1997) 94; Steuer (1997a) 396–97; Siegmund (1998) 83. 431 “Ein Blick auf die Verbreitung der Millefioris und des koptischen Bronzegeschirrs zeigt eine auffällige Fundhäufung jeweils in der Umgebung des Caput Adriae. Dies könnte für das Geschirr und die Perlen – falls diese aus Ägypten stammen – die Benutzung des Weges über die Ostalpen belegen...”: Grünewald (1988) 86–87; compare Claude (1985) 150–52, 166. 432 1-1 cemetery and settlement of the Černjahov–Marosszentanna/ Sîntana de Mureş Culture (1040, 1059). 433 Kouznetsov–Lebedynsky (1997) 35–54. 434 Mócsy (1984) 258–59; Bierbrauer (1992) 28–36; Bierbrauer (1994) 152–71. Possibly cowries do not appear in the 6th–8th centuries Visigothic cemetery of 1000 graves at Duratón (prov. Segovia, Spain), of which 666 have been excavated: Koenig (1985); compare Pérez (1948) pls 25–36. 435 Bóna (1984) 288–92; Bierbrauer (1992) 23–28; Bierbrauer (1994) 134–52. 436 There was a cowrie in the Crimean Gothic material, yet a small one (1567). Mittelmeer

1240, 1246, 1249, 1253, 1256, 1258, 1262–64, 1269, 1273, 1280, 1284, 1288–90, 1292, 1298, 1301, 1307, 1311, 1313, 1321, 1323, 1327?, 1334–35, 1338, 1340, 1344, 1346–47, 1354, 1355?, 1367, 1369, 1374, 1375?, 1378?–79?, 1382, 1390 [Graenert (2000) 425], 1395?. 438 Discarding the only Early Avar time burial (1157) lately dated to 600–630 it is all the more conspicuous that even though girdle pendants appeared in the wear of 6th century Gepidi, Langobard and even Avar women in the Carpathian Basin due to Merovingian influence, no cowries have been found among them, compare Vida (1999–2000). Yet cowries appeared in the 6th–7th centuries ethnically mixed steppe cultures partly emerging maybe as the survival of the Černjahov Culture. while they remained unknown in the related and contemporaneous Avar material. On the Černjahov Culture and the later, ethnically mixed steppe cultures: Bálint (1989) 77–88. 439 The same is probably supported by the appearance of medium-size cowries, too, as there must have been cowries of Mediterranean habitat among them. 440 Henning (1996) 795, 800: fig. 648. Uta von Freeden summarised that articles were transported from the south-western corner of the Arabian peninsula either by ships or along both coasts of the Red Sea: von Freeden (2000) 115–18, 117: fig. 5. 441 “And then again on the continent is Marallo, a mart exporting chank shells [Turbinella pyrum, Linné 1758]…”: McCrindle (1897) 367, note 5: “Gr. koxli/ouj.”. “In position and perhaps in name identical with Marava or Marawar opposite Ceylon. The fishing of chank shells hereabouts was till recently. I believe a government monopoly like the pearl-fishery.”: Yule (1866) clxxviii: note 5. The “Ziermuschel” mentioned in Kosmas’s 437

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads identification has been questioned.442 However that may be, the further route of the trade items brought by merchants sailing the Mediterranean443 must remain conjectural. The distribution of the finds does seem to suggest the Marseilles–Rhône–Rhine path hypothesised by Theodor Voigt. As opposed to this, isolated Langobard cowries appearing in Central Italy, in Nocera Umbra (1404–12) in contemporary Italian cultural contexts – including other Langobard sites – demonstrate only weakly that routes leading to Switzerland and Southern Germany passed through the Alps.444 The kinds of finds from Switzerland (1554–61) were also found in the Rhine region and the majority of the finds from Germany appeared further to the north, in the Rhine/Neckar region and along the Rhine. This seems to support the first of the two possibilities mentioned above. Furthermore, large cowries were found in surprisingly large numbers along the Danube and in the wider Danube region, demonstrating that this may have been another way that they spread.445 On the other hand, it seems possible that the large cowries found exclusively in the northern border areas of France,446 in the zone extending towards England from the Strasbourg–Stuttgart

line447 and in the Belgian area adjacent to that in the north (1160–64), are evidence of overland trade routes running westwards from the Rhineland, e.g. via Metz–Reims– Soissons–Amiens–Boulogne-sur-Mer.448 The absence of cowries observed elsewhere, e.g. in the Lower Rhine region is probably a consequence of the acidic soil. 449 The very small number of finds which do come from Burgundy (1208, 1211) and further to the south (1219) might indicate that their owners were foreigners who had settled there.450 All the cowrie finds from England came from a triangular region east of the Yorkshire–Leicestershire–Somerset line.451 They appear in high concentrations mainly in Kent opposite to Boulogne-sur-Mer and in Cambridgeshire.452 Thus, it is reasonable to suppose that they originate from the continent.453 This is also demonstrated by chronological differences. Namely, while the smaller part of the finds on the continent date to the 6th century,454 these large cowries found in England, with a few exceptions, date from the end of the 6th and 7th century.455 The route along which these From the east to the west: Doubs (1211), Haute-Rhin (1225), Bas-Rhin (1205, 1215, 1226), Vosges (1216), Moselle (1218), Meurthe-et-Moselle (1209, 1224), Meuse (1212–13), Marne (1206, 1223, 1232), Aisne (1210, 1221), Ile-de-France (1207), Oise (1229–31), Somme (1220, 1227), Pasde-Calais (1222, 1228), Seine-Maritime (1214) and isolated: Manche (1224a). 448 Salin (1949) 123: map 1; Banghard (2000) 346–47, fig. 32; Banghard (2001) 19–20; Drauschke (2008) 411, 415, 420–421, 423, 411: fig. 13. 449 “Die Fundlücke am Niederrhein erklärt sich durch die kalkarmen Böden, auf denen die Gräberfelder von Rödingen und Krefeld-Gellep angelegt worden sind. Sie boten nicht nur für die Skelette, sondern auch für die Kaurischnecke schlechte Erhaltungschancen.”: Banghard (2000) 347; Banghard (2001) 19. 450 Banghard (2000) 346; Banghard (2001) 19. 451 Progressing from the coast of the Channel to the center of the island: Suffolk (1199), Kent (1174, 1177–78, 1187–88, 1193–94, 1197, 1200– 01), Sussex (1173), Surrey (1184), then Cambridgeshire (1175, 1185–86, 1189, 1195–96), Bedfordshire (1179–81, 1190–91), Buckinghamshire (1182), Hampshire (1192), finally (North) Yorkshire (1177a, 1198), Leicestershire (1183) and Somerset (1176). 452 Huggett (1988) 72, 76, 78, 75: fig. 6, 85: fig. 11: B; quoted by Arnold (1997) 119, 121: fig. 5:12; see Evison (1987) 122. “Huggett has produced a distribution map of cowrie shells, both the small native Cypraea europa, found occasionally in sixth-century cemeteries and the larger imported seventh-century cowries, mostly Cypraea pantherina (1988, 72, fig. 6). There are a number of factual errors in Huggett’s description of the incidence of cowrie shells and he does not appear to include beads, but his comment that their distribution is sparse but widespread remains valid. In the present survey, the presence at Lechlade Gl of three graves with hole shells only and two graves with both whole shells and beads [Annex 2370–74], provides a new concentration on the map.”: Geake (1997) 63, 230: map. 28. 453 Audrey L. Meaney believed that since cowries only appeared in Central Europe in the 5th century, it may have been the Langobards settling in Italy in 568 who furthered the eastern trade towards the Germanic area and that the trade route from the Germanics on to Anglo-Saxon England led through the western Frankish territory to one-time Quentavic near present-day Étaples at the coast of the La Manche Channel: Meaney (1981) 125, 265–67, 266: map VII. q; Wilson (1985) 264–65; Huggett (1988) 63, 89; Arnold (1997) 119–22. The Coptic silver dish found in the burial at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) might either have been a present or acquired by its owner by trade. “Offen bleibt, ob sie [die koptische Bronzegefäße] England auf dem Seeweg durch die Straße von Giblaltar, oder über das Frankreich erreichten.”: Claude (1985) 95. 454 According to Ulrich Arends’ dating: 29 find complexes between 526–600 (Böhner III), 1 around 600, 41 complexes between 601–700 (Böhner IV), compare Arends (1978) I: 437. 455 “Most cowries are found in 7th century burials, although the example from Alfriston (Sussex) in grave 43 is assigned to the 5th [1173]. Other examples are considered to be late 6th century, including that in grave 73 447

book 11: Roth (1980) 320, note 57; Voigt (1952). “Die großen CypreaMuscheln, von [Alamannen] Frauen am Gürtelgehänge als Amulett getragen, kommen aus dem Mittelmeergebiet. Sie muten exotisch an und werden ihren Wert aufgrund besonderer Vorstellungen über die weibliche Fruchtbarkeit gehabt haben. Es sind sogenannte Panther- und Tigerschnecken (Lyncina pantherina und Cypraea tigris), die nur im Roten Meer und anderen warmen Gewässern wie dem Indischen Ozean existieren. Kosmas Indikopleustes erwähnt in seiner Topographie den Export derartiger Schnecken aus Marallo, einem Hafen in südlichen Indien.”: Steuer (1997a) 396–97. 442 The theory of the Indian import of cowries “wurde durch die Schriftquellen stimuliert: Die in der archäologischen Literatur als Quelle ungebrochen beliebte Topografia des Cosmas Indikopleustes erwähnt in der esten Hälfe des 6. Jahrhunderts den indischen Hafen Marallo als Cypraeen-Umschlagplatz. Hier könnte aber auch von einem Export in eine ganz andere Richtung die Rede sein. Auch die nicht gerade häufigen Erwähnungen von Kauris in lateinischen Quellen und bei chinesischen Pilgerreisenden der ersten Jahrtausendhälfte haben geringe handelsgeschichtliche Aussagekraft.”: Banghard (2001) 15–16. 443 Together with Coptic bronze dishes, Egyptian millefiori beads, etc. not dealt with here, compare Roth (1985) 182–83. If the identification of the majority of Western European large cowries as Tiger cowries is correct (?), – “maybe ancient distribution different from todays!”: kindly note of David S. Reese – an interesting question arises: why had the merchants not transported Panther cowries native in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden instead of Tiger cowries which could only be obtained from further away (maybe Marallo?), given that the shells of the two species are so similar that they can hardly be distinguished. Uta von Freeden’s comment is not precise enough in this respect, referring only to the transport of Red Sea cowries: von Freeden (2000) 119: note 111. 444 Yet it is interesting that there was also a large Tiger cowrie (1390) in the “Langobard horizon” of late 6th century Alemann female burials in Southern Germany, i.e. among the grave goods from a burial suggesting this contact. This specimen was, however, not discussed by the author of the study: Graenert (2000) 419, 424–25, 430, 434, 442–43: nr. 26, 446: nr. 85, 420–21: figs 2–3 (the Tiger cowrie: fig. 3: 8). On another Langobard grave with a large cowrie (1404) mentioned as a parallel: ibid. 427, 429: fig. 6. 445 Claude (1985) 160–65; Banghard (2000) 347; Banghard (2001) 17–20, 21: fig. 1. 446 This characteristic grouping does not, of course, exclude the possibility that large cowries were worn either along the Rhône or in other areas of France. Their absence from the archaeological material could be a result of the absence of the relevant burial custom, compare Grünewald (1988) 86.

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin large cowries were transported to Scandinavia456 may also have led from the Mediterranean across the Rhineland, towards Mainz–Dorsat–Hedeby–Birka.457 In Scandinavia, they appeared around the same time as on the Continent, though in much smaller numbers.458 Although Panther cowries are so far only known from Sweden, beads made of their shells have also been found here, as perhaps also in Denmark, increasing the amount of specimens which must have been imported.459

As already pointed out above, the fashion of wearing large cowries really became wide spread in Western Europe in the 6th century and this fashion was still booming in the 7th century. This was the main period when they appear as grave goods in England (1174–77, 1178–80, 1181?, 1182, 1184, 1187–88, 1193?, 1194–95, 1197, 1201), and perhaps also in Belgium (1160–61). France, earlier described as 5th–7th centuries specimens but here only naming a burial dated to the end of the 7th century (1212). A grave find from Austria (1158)464 and a stray cemetery find from Sweden (1551) should also be mentioned here. This period is also highly represented in the archaeological material in Germany465 and Switzerland (1555–56, 1557?, 1558–1559, 1560?, 1561). This dress tradition was also retained in the Langobard cemetery at Nocera Umbra in Italy (1404, 1406, 1409, 1411–12). Compared with this wealth of data it is especially conspicuous that cowrie finds almost completely disappeared in Western and Northern Europe from the 8th century onwards. We know of only 1 grave find of a cowrie in Germany from the 8th–9th centuries (1241) and of one dated to the 9th century from France (1228). The only exception seems to be Sweden where a number of settlement finds have been dated to the 8th (1540), the 8th–10th (1536) and the 9th–10th centuries (1534–35). This Western European phenomenon was earlier explained by the Arabic conquest,466 as a result of which the Western part of the Mediterranean became an Arab sea from the second half of the 7th century on. The Byzantine navy protected the merchants in the east but Arabic rule and the loss of the eastern provinces, including Egypt, were a final blow to the long-distance trade in large cowries. As a result all those articles – papyrus, spices, oil, silk and gold467 – which had been imported from the East by the Syrians and other tradesmen, disappeared.468 Nevertheless, shipping between Italy and Gaul did not stop after the last third of the 7th century either469 and although the complex reasons for the decrease cannot be discussed here,470 the supply of large cowries also need not have come to an

The distribution of sites with medium or large cowries in Germany is also very interesting. The majority come from Baden-Württemberg, an Alemannic area (assemblages 79/52,460 including: 1248, 1258–66, 1364–65) Baiuvarian Bavaria (36/28), Frankish Rhine-Pfalz (20/12-14?), Hessen (8/3) and North Rhine-Westphalia (6/4) or Saxon Sachsen-Anhalt (4/4) and Thuringia (3/3) Thus, there are 79 specimens from Baden-Württemberg and 77 specimens altogethr from other regions. Although Christoph Grünewald has questioned the results,461 considering Ulrich Arends’ collection incomplete, they seem to be verified by my results even when I include his and Robert Reiß’ suggestions462 in my list. Annette Lennartz has, however, recently re-evaluated Ulrich Arends’ data, probably based on a more extensive database than mine.463 at Linton B (Cambridgeshire) [1189] and those from Cheesecake Hill, Driffield (Yorkshire) [1177a]: Huggett (1988) 72; Arnold (1997) 119. 456 Jansson (1988) 591; Jansson (1999) 118. 457 Salin (1949) 196: fig. 35. 458 According to Birgitta M. Johansson’s letter to me the oldest specimens date from the Migration–Vendel Periods (1531), the Vendel Period (ca. 550–ca. 800 – 1542, 1546–47, 1549), and epoch VII:1 (ca. 550–ca. 600– 1548), VII:2 (ca. 600–ca. 650 – 1551), VII:3 (ca. 650–ca. 700 – 1538), VII:4 (ca. 700–ca. 750 – 1540) of the latter. The possibility of their import starting in the 6th century was already suggested by: Åberg (1926) 106: note 1. 459 Although Gustaf Trotzig has only identified the shell beads from Gotland as such –Trotzig (1988) – the earlier Vendel Period (550–650) finds from Denmark were probably also Panther cowries, compare Jansson (1988) 589–91, 636; Johansson (2002–2003) 101–102. 460 The first number of sites: according to my research, complemented based on mainly Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 and Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278, the second number: based on Arends (1978). 461 “Wenn auch den grundlegenden Ausführungen Arends im Prinzip zuzustimmen ist, so muß doch die äußerst fragmentarische Bestandsaufnahme die Aussagemöglichkeiten einschränken, insbesondere, was Fragen der Verbreitung und der Sozialstruktur angeht. Vielleicht wäre es möglich gewesen, durch Kartierung aller bekannten Vorkommen, auch der außerhalb des zeitlichen und geographischen Bearbeitungsraums von Arends, die Handelswege aufzuzeigen, auf denen die Cypraeen in das fränkische Reich gelangten... Es erscheint uns unverantwortlich, wenn nach einer nur auszugsweisen Recherche: Arends [(1978) I:] 16f. ein Kapitel über die Verbreitung der behandelten Gegenstände geschrieben wird, in dem dann selbstverständlich eine ‘auffällige’ Konzentration in alamannischem und bajuwarischem Gebiet auftritt (Ebd. 178), da die angrenzenden Gebiete nicht oder nur auswahlhaft auf Funde untersucht wurden.”: Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93. 462 Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278. 463 “Zwar gehört der alamannisch-baiuwarisch besiedelte Raum Süddeutschlands im Frühmittelalter auch meiner Untersuchung nach zu dicht belegten Gebieten, doch liegen Schwerpunkte vor allem im deutschen Mittelrheingebiet, in der englischen Grafschaft Kent und auf der schwedischen Insel Gotland. Auch die nordfranzösische Küste und das (ehemalige) Thüringerreich warten neben Süddeutschland mit zahlreichen Fundplätzen auf. Lediglich Spanien, Süd- und Westfrankreich sowie Norddeutschland sind Gebiete des frühmittelalterlichen West- und Mitteleuropas, die die Cypraea nicht überliefert haben.”: Based on Annette Lennartz’ e-mail in August 2000 for which I would like to thank her.

The Bavarians took on Christianity around 620 but fell back to paganism several times. Their contacts to Italian Langobards are also proved by written sources: Ladenbauer-Orel (1960) 83, 86. 465 1237, 1243–45, 1248, 1252, 1259, 1261, 1266, 1270–72, 1282, 1283?, 1286?, 1294, 1299–300, 1303?, 1304–06, 1308–09, 1315?, 1317, 1320, 1325, 1327–28, 1330, 1332–33, 1338, 1353, 1358–59, 1361, 1364, 1368, 1380?, 1383–84, 1386, 1391–92, 1394. 466 Articles from the East were transported to Alexandria either on land along the Silk Route or by sea or along the caravan routes along both coasts of the Red Sea from the latitude of Aden. The Silk Route was in the hands of the Sassanids who conquered the region of Aden, ending Byzantine rule around 570 and thus came to control the land routes as well. The Arabs maintained this situation: von Freeden (2000) 115–18; Banghard (2000) 345–46; Banghard (2001) 18; see for 1456–59: Savčenko (1999). 467 Further articles: silver (cinnabar), copper, bronze, large cowries, oyster shell beads, pumice and mountain crystal clips, ivory, red garnet (= almandin), amethyst, millefiori beads, glass dishes, Coptic bronze dishes, brocade, silk, etc., compare Steuer (1997a) 396–400. In detail: Claude (1985) 71–120 (without mentioning cowries). 468 Brønsted (1983) 18–19. On the founder of the theory and the followers: Claude (1985) 179–80, 283, etc. 469 Claude (1985) 135–36. 470 Claude (1985) 167–298. 464

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads end either.471 The wearing, or more precisely the custom of giving these provokingly pagan amulets as grave goods may have come to an end in 8th century Western Europe for reasons related to changes in burial rites caused by the spread of Christianity.472

cowrie and Arabian cowrie?), furthermore, the size of one specimen (1519) is also uncertain. Thus, the question of their origin does not even arise. Unfortunately, the same holds for medium-size shells, too from a similar cultural context: from 8th–9th centuries cemeteries of Caucasian Alans (1456?, 1458?, 1459, 1529) and from burials of the Onogur-Khazar Saltovo-Majaki (saltovo-majackaja) Culture (1491) and from a 6th–8th centuries settlement in Uzbekistan (1584). As here different shell sizes may reflect the presence of even more species, the place of origin of individual specimens would be all the more necessary. However, the area of the Saltovo-Majaki Culture extending to Kiev and Černigov and the settlement area of the Volga Bulgars reaching to the confluence of the Volga and the Kama475 are still too far away from Scandinavia to account for the 8th–10th centuries finds there (1534–36, 1540, 1541?, 1543?, 1553?). It also does not account with their having been transported along the major Eastern European trade routes (the Byzantium–Kerč–Dnepr (Kiev)–Dvina/ Daugava or the Volga–Dvina/Daugava route leading to the Gulf of Riga), in spite of the absence of sites in between. Nevertheless, the appearance of formerly missing special medium/large species in Eastern Europe (1576: Arabian cowrie) and Scandinavia (1543: Tummy cowrie, 1553: Giraffe cowrie) probably or certainly later than the Western European finds, may still be an argument for the use of these land/river trade routes.

In the meantime, a different situation evolved in Eastern Europe, formerly the main distribution area of large cowries. The wealth of Sarmatian, Ostro- and Visigothic cowrie finds during the Roman Imperial Period was succeeded a period where they were almost completely absent, even though, the mainly Iranian-speaking population, so fond of these shells, lived on. It is no accident that the amulets that are found, probably came from Sarmatian/Alanian cultural contexts, partly from Caucasian Alans (1525), partly from female burials of the Saltovo-Majaki (saltovo–majackaja) Culture – whose Alanian ethnicity is debated473 – (1488, 1490) and, as a sign of cultural assimilation in some Volga Bulgarian graves (1519, 1526). The late dating of these finds brings into question the hypothesis that cowries were continuously used in Eastern Europe from the 5th century on. Except for the latter, 8th–10th centuries burials, cowrie finds were deposited as grave goods in the 9th century. However, two ethnically uncertain steppe finds from the Dnepr region may reflect a chronological transition: 4 large specimens were found in a grave dated to the end of the 6th century (1576) and in a 7th century hoard find (1568).474 There are, quite unfortunately, no identifications concerning this small group of finds (except for 1576: Tiger

The existence of these eastern, land/river routes is absolutely certain in connection with the spread of small cowries. They were worn continuously, following a more than one thousand year old custom, even in the 6th–10th centuries. The exception are the finds from Uzbekistan (1584–85) and Kyrgyzstan (1416) which now at least seem to me isolated, mainly in Alanian (1456–57, 1486–87, 1494–96, 1497?– 504?, 1513–18, 1522–23, 1524?, 1528) and Georgian (1233–36) cultural contexts in the Caucasus region, in Alanian-Gothic (1566, 1571–75, 1578) cultural contexts in the southwestern Crimea and in Alanian (?) cultural contexts in the Ukrainian steppe (1570, 1579). Their wear and the beliefs connected with it may have spread from the peoples formerly occupying the Eastern European steppe from around the 7th century.476 This is reflected in the finds

“... schon Ende des 7. Jh.s, in frühummayadischer Zeit, scheint sich die Situation wieder zu beruhigen. Um 700 n. Chr. setzen auch Perlen aus ‘Muschelscheibchen’ in Massen ein, deren Provenienz im ostmediterranen Raum vermutet wurde [s. Siegmund–Weiß (1989).]. Spätmerowingerzeitliche Kaurischnecken und Muschelscheibchen können deshalb Anzeiger desselben handelsgeschichtlichen Phänomens sein. Vergleichbare Perlen dieser Zeitstellung aus England und Skandinavien wurden nachweislich aus Kaurischnecken gefertigt.”: Banghard (2000) 346; Banghard (2001) 18. 472 Although Dietrich Claude did not consider large cowries, his observations may also apply to them: “Das archäologische Material ostmediterraner Provenienz beschränkt sich im wesentlichen auf koptische Bronzegefäße und Mosaikaugenperlen. Da die Bronzen in Mitteleuropa nur als Grabbeigaben überliefert sind, kann ihr Verschwinden aus dem Fundgut des späten 7. Jhs. auch auf eine Änderung der Beigabensitte im Verbreitungsgebiet dieser Gefäße zurückgeführt werden. In diesem Fall wären Schlüsse auf die Entwicklung des Mittelmeerhandels unzulässig. Der von Reinhard Andrae angenommene Hiatus zwischen dem Ende des Imports des ägyptischen Millefioriperlen und dem Auftreten der Mosaikaugenperlen im späten 8. Jh. ist gleichfalls nur von begrenzter Aussagekraft für den Überseehandel, weil sich ihre Verbreitung nur über Teile Italiens sowie das Rhein-Donaugebiet erstreckt. Ihr Verschwinden ‘im fortgeschrittenen 7. Jh.’ aus diesen teilweise meeresfernen Regionen darf deshalb nicht überinterpretiert werden, ... Freilich ließe sich einwenden, daß die Überlieferung sowohl der ‘koptischen’ Bronzegefäße als auch der Blättchenmillefioriperlen eng mit der Reihengräberzivilisation verbunden ist, die nur in einem – überdies meeresfernen – Teil West- und Mitteleuropas im 7. und 8. Jh. nachweisbar ist und deren Verbreitungsgebiet sich nach Nordosten zurückzog.”: Claude (1985) 305, 120. 473 Róna-Tas (1997) 118–20, 169. – Cowries in the culture from the 2nd half of the 8th to the 1st half of the 10th centuries: Aksenov (2004) 210. 474 Ol’ga Alekseevna Ščeglova differentiated between two groups of object types among the 7th–8th centuries “ant type” finds/“Martinovka type hoard finds” of the Central Dnepr region. The second group, following the first, from the end of the 7th century to the middle of the 8th century is characterised by large anthropo-zoomorphic and anthropomorphic disk brooches, earrings of various types, bracelets with wide, hollow 471

terminals, torques with a saddle-shaped lock [and cowrie] shells [with an iron loop] and beads: Scseglova (1995) 376. In [] see ibid. 377. The earlier, Russian version of the study also confirmed the existence of cowries of different species in the two groups. “Tol’ko v kladah ètoj [i.e. the second; e.g. 1569] gruppy v bol’šom količestve najdeny rakoviny ‘cyprea monetae’, v to vremja kak edinstvennaja rakovina iz Hackovskogo klada [pervoj gruppy; e.g. 1568] otnositsja k tipu ‘ciprea pontiferinae’.”: Šceglova (1990) 174, also compare 171–73. I have not been able to identify the species, identified incorrectly, compare Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 532, 560; but it may be a distortion of ‘pantherina’? Although there are contacts between the female wear of jewelry in the first group and the Avar Period archaeological material from the Danube region, compare Scseglova (1995) 382, the cowries could not have originated from the latter as none have been found in Avar cultural context. On the difficulties of the “ant” identification: Bálint (1989) 109–11. 475 Róna-Tas (1997) 120: fig. 26, 184: fig. 57; Aksenov (2004) 210. 476 Cowries were not characteristic for the archaeological material of nomadic European Huns from the 5th century to the first half of the 8th century in Eastern Europe and the Central Asian steppe or for South Siberian 6th–10th centuries Turks, compare Stepi (1981) 10–23, 29–61.

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin hypothetically regarded as coming from an Ant cultural context (1569),477 in the Onogur-Khazar Saltovo-Majaki (saltovo-majackaja) Culture (1489, 1492–93) and further northwards, among the Volga Bulgars (1508–09, 1511, 1519?, 1520–21, 1530) living in the area of the confluence of the Volga and the Kama Rivers. Small cowries appeared in the 5th–6th centuries Kušnarenkovo (kušnarenkovskaja) Culture in the same area (1506–07), regarded as being Old Bashkirian.478 They also appear in the related TurbasliImen’kovo (turbaslinsko-imen’kovskaja) Culture (1505) as well as in the one cemetery, similar in many ways, dating from the end of the 8th century–first half of the 9th century, believed to be Old Hungarian (1483–85).479 Small cowries probably reached the Finno-Ugrian Muroma/Merya, Mordvin/Erzyan population settled west of the Volga bend (1460) along the Volga route480 and via Slavs living around Lake Ladoga (1512)481 on the Dnepr–Velikaja–Volhov route and the Latvians along the Dnepr–Daugava (Western Dvina) route. From there, transport route may have led on to the Lithuanians (1159),482 the Estonians (1202),483 the Finns (1203–04), and among the Swedish both to the island of Gotland (1531, 1544–46, 1552) and to the Swedish (1532–37, 1549–50), and Norwegian (1452–53)484 parts of the Scandinavian peninsula. From Scandinavia the Vikings brought their cowries to the Polish Baltic coast (1454). Latvian cemeteries, especially rich in cowrie finds, show that cowrie imports already reached the Baltic in the 7th century. The earliest burials with cowries appeared at this time485 and then in increasing numbers through a too broadly dated period in 7th–10th centuries graves (1417– 51).486 Eastern merchants transported cowries along with beads, crosses and, dirhams etc., for which the ancestors of the Latvians may have offered them Baltic amber.487 Compare note 474 on p. 116. Róna-Tas (1997) 105. 479 Finno-ugry (1987) 238–39. 6 examples from the Turbasli (turbaslinskaja) Culture of 5th–8th centuries are mentioned in: Sungatov (1998) 51: type XLIX, 48: fig. 4: 49. 480 Mugurevič (1962) 49. On the connections of finds from Finland with Perm, the Choresm region and of finds from Russia with the Kama and the Ural region: Kivikoski (1967) 40; Ujno (2002) 183. 481 They were not as widely spread among the Slavic population of the Dnepr region as among the Finno-Ugrians: Mugurevič (1962) 49. On the Dnepr route see Leont’ev (1984) 4: map 1. 482 Referring to the museum collections in Kaunas and Vilnius: Mugurevič (1962) 50. 483 Some 20 sites already mentioned by: Mugurevič (1962) 50. According to a later summary they mainly appeared in the southern part of Estonia and might have come there from the north-eastern areas of Latvia along the waterway of the Daugava or the Western Dvina: Valk (1999) 50–51. 484 It should be noted that, as opposed to Sweden, only small cowries were found in Norway and Finland. “It is rather remarkable, however, to find them represented in a grave [1453] far beyond the Arctic Circle.”: Sjövold (1974) 91. Also compare Finno-ugry (1987) 8–9: map 1. 485 The dating of the Money cowrie grave find (1425), regarded as the earliest, to the 7th century was only accepted after a shorter debate: Mugurevič (1962) 38, note 10. 486 The old data collection included a few hundred cowries from more than 30 assemblages from 14 sites dated to the 7th–10th centuries. The specimens in women’s graves occurred in necklaces composed mainly of beads, bronze jingles and bronze spirals or along with bronze torques in burials with less than 10 cowries in average, with maximum 12 pieces: Mugurevič (1962) 38; Mugurevič (1965) 54, 56; Kivikoski (1967) 38. 487 Mugurevič (1962) 49–50; Mugurevič (1965) 58–59; Finno-ugry (1987) 360; a map of the gathering, the transport and the distribution of cowries 58: fig. 26; Leont’ev (1984); Jansson (1988) 591. 477 478

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The conspicuously large number of cowries in Latvian graves compared to the other Baltic countries cannot be accounted for by a lack of research there.488 Rather, it seems that their former owners were, for some reason, much more inclined to use cowries as amulets, a custom adopted from the southeast in the 7th century. The reason may be connected to the snake cult discussed above in detail, first characteristic of the Baltic area (see chapter 1.3.3.2.3.) and later reflected in the increase and the spread of cowries from the next period onwards. 2.5.3. Cowries in the Archaeological Material of the Ancestors of the Hungarians The use of cowries was spread in the Carpathian Basin by Iranian-speaking peoples arriving from the east or through the mediating eastern influence of Scythians, Sarmatians and in the 13th century, the Jazygians. The question may arise as to whether the cowrie ornaments of the conquering Hungarians and the Iranian loan words in Hungarian were not the remnants of one and the same cultural influence. The influence of Iranian on the Finno-Ugrian languages appeared in the first half of the Proto-Iranian Period (ca. 4000–ca. 2000 BC), in the 3rd millennium and contacts remained even after the separation of the Ugric languages (ca. 2000–ca. 800 BC). At that time, however, cowries were not yet present in the archaeological material culture of the ancestors of the Scythians and the Sauromatians/ Sarmatians so they could not be handed over to the Ugrians. The situation changed in the Old/Ancient Iranian Period (8th–2nd centuries BC). Initially, this contact may have taken the form of trade but by the second half of the 1st millennium BC the Ugrian-speaking population no longer maintained close contacts with to the Iranian world. Nevertheless, cowries did reach contemporaneous FinnoUgrian tribes, as they are present in the early Iron Age Anan’ino (ananinskaja) and Kara-Abyz (kara-abyzskaja) Cultures (621–22, 678, 707, 710) between the Volga and the Urals, in the Kama, Vjatka and Bjelaja region. These populations are considered to have been the earliest ancestors of the Komis and the Udmurts. The amount of cowries which was imported cannot be identified due to the scarcity of finds, their unpublished state or the limits of my data collection. Nor can it be decided whether these special ornaments (compare 1075) had reached the ancestors of the Hungarians who had already separated from the ObUgrians. The high period of Iranian and, by then, ProtoHungarian contacts in the following period is shown by the Ēvalds Mugurēvičs’ study with a comprehensive outlook following the discussion of Fr. Kruse’s summary published in 1841, containing basically correct views – Mugurevič (1962) 38, notes 6–7 –, was unfortunately published in a very short form. However, he based his study not only on the material in all the museums and archives of Latvia but has also carried out research in museums in Vilnius, Tallinn, Minsk, Leningrad/St. Petersburg and Moscow etc. and in unnamed ones: Mugurevič (1962) 38. My colleagues in the Baltic have kindly informed me that the situation has not changed, at least as far as the beginnings are concerned: I would like to thank Jānis Ciglis, Vytautas Kazakevičius, Pirjo Uino, Heiki Valk and Anna Zariņa for their help. 488

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads many Middle Iranian (2nd century BC to 7th/9th centuries AD) loan words, apparently appearing in Proto-Hungarian in the second half of the period. The sources were probably either the Iranian-speaking Caucasian Alans (1486–87, 1494–504, 1513–18, 1522–25, 1528) who had probably assimilated with the Sarmatian Aorsi and Asi or the ethnically debated population, mostly regarded as Alans, of the northern group of the Saltovo-Majaki (saltovo– majackaja) Culture (1488–93, 1529). In this respect even the also Iranian-speaking Sarmatian-Saka population of the 7th–8th centuries Turbasli-Imen’kovo (turbaslinskoimen’kovskaja) Culture in the southern Urals region (1505) should also be mentioned489 as cowries are known from the archaeological material in all three regions.490 There may also have been indirect influences. These shells can be found both in the material culture of the 6th–7th centuries Old Baškirian Kušnarenkovo (kušnarenkovskaja) Culture (1506–07) and among the early, 7th–8th centuries (1508–09, 1511) and 10th century (1519–21) grave goods in Volga Bulgarian cemeteries. Both materials have conspicuous connections to the well-known 9th–10th centuries Bol’šie Tigany cemetery (1483–85) which has been regarded as the only remnant of the Hungarians of frater Julianus who did move westwards but remained in the Kama region.491 Most recently, István Bóna considered the earlier, 5th–7th centuries material culture of Old Hungarians who migrated on at the turn of the 8th–9th centuries to be reflected in the cemeteries of the population formerly living along the River Belaya in Northern Baškiria. Cowries appear here as early examples of their use (1461–82).492 This cemetery at Birsk is also important from our point of view because only mother-of-pearl disks were strung on the neck ornaments from the 2nd–4th centuries graves classified as early Bahmutino (bahmutinskaja) Culture,493 comprising a quarter of the excavated graves. Cowries appear in surprisingly large numbers and are all from the later, 5th–6th centuries archaeological material of the culture. It seems, then, that there was a break of a few centuries in the transport of cowries here following the P’janobor (p’janoborskaja) Culture (compare 1063?, 1076) and that cowries re-appeared along with coral beads, also of southern origin. Their use increased the number of objects also known to have adorned the dresses of conquering Hungarian women.494

István Bóna attempted to find out which finds appeared in Hungarian burials in the next area they occupied before coming to the Carpathian Basin, Etelköz (i.e. from the land between the Don and the Carpathian mountains), in the 9th century. However, cowries were absolutely missing from the parts of cemeteries dating to the 9?th–10th centuries graves in cemeteries listed by him which he considered Hungarian or possibly connected to the Hungarians.495 More precisely, cowries only appeared in the northern steppe zone of the Black Sea, in a female burial (1530) in a cemetery east of Severskij Donec, earlier regarded as Bulgarian, newly as The sites in alphabetical order: 1. Braneşti (Orgeevskij rajon, Moldova): there were no cowries in the common people cemetery of 98 graves from the 10th(–11th?) centuries, compare Fedorov–Čebotarenko–Velikanova (1984); Bóna (2000) 20. Because of the cremation burials of the cemetery Slavic influence was also suggested by: Fodor (1993) 24. 2. Bucureşti (Romania)-shore of the lake Tei: a man’s grave with a horse, no cowries, compare Fodor (1993) 22, 25; Bóna (2000) 19. Frikacej/Fricăţei – see Limanskoe Friedensfeld – see Mirnopole 3. Frumuşica (Floreşti rajon, Moldova): a man’s grave with a horse, no cowries, compare Fodor (1984) 100–02; Spinei (1985) 113, 207: fig. 35: 21–37; Fodor (1993) 18–20; Bóna (2000) 19. 4. Grozeşti (judeţul Iasi, Romania): a man’s grave with a horse, no cowries, compare Spinei (1985) 113, 201: pl. 29, 220: pl. 48: 6, 9–15; Fodor (1993) 20–23; Bóna (2000) 19. 5. Hanska (Kotovskij rajon, Moldova)-Kèprèrija: a common people cemetery of 75 graves from the 10th(–11th?) centuries without cowries, compare Hynku (1973); Bóna (2000) 20; hypothesizing a Bulgarian component, too: Fodor (1993) 24. 6. Hanska (Kotovskij rajon, Moldova)-Limbar’: a common people cemetery of 96 graves from the 10th–11th centuries: compare Hynku (1970); hypothesising a Bulgarian component, too: Fodor (1993) 24. Holboca – see Iaşi 7. Holmskoe (Odesskaja oblast, Ukraine)-Kurgan 7, Grave 1: a woman’s (?) grave with a horse, no cowries, compare Spinei (1985) 114, 210: fig. 33: 12, 30–35, 39, 41; Bóna (2000) 19. 8. Iaşi (judeţul Iasi, Romania)-Holboca: 1 burial without any grave goods and 1 male burial without cowries, compare Spinei (1982) 138–39; Spinei (1985) 114, 206: pl. 34: 1–11; Bóna (1986) 198; Bóna (2000) 19. 9. Kazanka (Bahčisarajskij rajon, Krimskaja oblast, Ukraine)-Kurgans 1 and 3: male burials believed to date from the 13th–14th centuries lacking cowries: Čerepanova–Ščepinskij (1968) 187–88, 188: fig. 5, 189: figs 6–7; Bóna (2000) 19. 10. Krylos (Haličs’kij rajon, Ivano-Frankovs’ka oblast, Ukraine): 2 9th century male burials with horse, lacking cowries, compare Pasternak (1937); Bóna (2000) 20.11. Kyrnaceny (Moldova): 11 common burials excavated in 8 kurgans from the 10th century, lacking cowries, compare Demčenko–Čebotarenko (1988); Bóna (2000) 20 12. Limanskoe (Renskij rajon, Odesskaja oblast, Ukraine)-“Fricăţei” Kurgan 1, Grave 1: a female burial with a horse, no cowries, compare Spinei (1985) 114, 210: fig. 38: 11, 15–29; Spinei (1994) 172–73; Bóna (2000) 19. Limbari – see Hansca-Limbar’ 13. Mirnopole (prev.: Fridensfeld; Odesskaja oblast, Ukraine)-Kurgan III: a man’s grave with a horse, lacking cowries: compare Spinei (1982) 138–39, pls 28–29; Spinei (1985) 112, 200: pl. 28; Bóna (1986) 198; Bóna (2000) 19. Moscu – see Tîrgu Bujor 14. Moviliţa (judeţul Ialomiţa, Romania): a disturbed man’s grave with a horse, no cowries, compare Fodor (1993) 22, 24; Bóna (2000) 19. 15. Pelageevka (Doneckaja oblast, Ukraine): a male grave dug in the earth of a kurgan, regarded to date from the 13th–14th centuries, without cowries: Šarafutdinova (1977) 85, fig. 5; Bóna (2000) 19. 16. Plavni (Renskij rajon, Odesskaja oblast, Ukraine): a male burial with 495

On the supposed ethnic make-up of the culture: Stepi (1981) 25. Róna-Tas (1997) 89–90, 163–69, 245–46. 491 According to another opinion the separation took place further to the south, with just one group of the Hungarians setting off to the West and the others, migrating northwards, joined the Volga Bulgars and reached the area of Bol’šie Tigany with them, compare Róna-Tas (1997) 105. 492 Bóna (2000) 19, 96–98. 493 There were 2 types of probable rather sea shell disks: 1: 1–6 specimens of smaller disks of 3–3.5 cm diameter with a jut left at the edge, perforated from the side for suspension as pendants (graves 8, 18 and 25), 2: 1–3 specimens of smaller–larger disks of 3.0–6.0 cm diameter, pierced in the middle (graves 31, 48, 53, 61, 89, 181, 186 and 189). There is no data on the shape of some pendants (graves 39, 59 and 183), one was trapezium-shaped (grave 140): Mažitov (1968) 13–14, 121: pl. 2: 25–26 and 27–28. 494 István Bóna has mentioned the common appearance of wire earrings, crescent-shaped pendants, plain and twisted bronze torques and bracelets with a snake’s head: Bóna (2000) 19. 489 490

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin that of 9th century Kabars who joined the Hungarians.496 An even closer example was found in a 10th century female grave (2158) indirectly in the outer zone of the northeastern Carpathians. Finally, regardless of the later history of the community viewed as early Hungarian, using the 9th–10th centuries cemetery at Bol’šie Tigany, the cowries from those graves (1483–85) demonstrate that our ancestors had, by then, at least a knowledge of cowries. Arabic dirhams were also found in this cemetery.497 Although they are from a completely different area and time than the specimens from the Carpathian Basin and although they possessed a special trait in terms of the way they were manufactured 498 which differentiates them from dirhams from Hungary, they do account for the appearance of cowries there. So far, no zone with either cowries or contemporaneous Arabian coins finds in the few Etelköz burials listed above has been discovered between Magna Hungaria and the Carpathian Basin. This fact, of course, does not imply that Islamic tradesmen no longer maintained contacts with the Hungarians who had left Magna Hungaria. Based on the dirham finds in the Carpathian Basin, however, they seem to have appeared here only after the consolidation period following the Hungarian Conquest, after 902–903.499 It

is possible that this chronological observation also holds true for one of their articles of trade articles, cowries, although it is uncertain that Hungarians had been aware of cowries before they settled in the Carpathian Basin. 2.6. 1588–2159. Cowries in the Carpathian Basin at the Time of the Hungarian Conquest and during the Early Arpadian Period (896–1200) and Their Eastern Parallels (10th–12th/13th Centuries) 2.6.1. 1588–838. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin The largest number of cowrie finds in the Carpathian Basin date to this period.500 At first I began to collect cowrie data from this period only believing that the shells and snails of other species used as grave goods like cowries or as independent grave finds, could also be collected. I have carried this out only in connection with this period because the gradual extension of the chronological limits of the collection has led to a concentration on cowries. However, this research was not in vain because what I discovered about the bigger variety of this species has also modified my view of their acquisition and use.

a horse, no cowries, compare Spinei (1985) 115, 210: pl. 38: 1–10, 13–14; Bóna (2000) 19. 17. Probota (judeţul Iaşi, Romania)-Grave 7: a 9th/10th centuries male burial with a horse, lacking cowries, compare Spinei (1982) 138; Spinei (1985) 116, 220: pl. 48: 5, 7–8; Bóna (2000) 19, 97. 18. Przemyśl (województwo podkarpackie, Poland): a cemetery of 16 graves from the 10th century, without cowries, compare Koperski (1996); Bóna (2000) 20. Sabalat – see Sadovoe 19. Sadovoe (Belgorod-Dnestrovskij rajon, Odesskaja oblast, Ukraine): a single grave with horse’s harness, no cowries, compare Spinei (1982) 138; 138 and 153: note 203, pl. 31: 3–4, 7; Spinei (1985) 117, 205: pl. 33: 3–4, 8; Bóna (2000) 19. 20. Selisţe (Orhei rajon, Moldova)-Graves 51–53: the finds from 3 graves lacking cowries, compare Spinei (1985) 116, 208: pl. 36; Bóna (2000) 19. 21. Subboticy (Znamenskij rajon, Kirovogradskaja oblast, Ukraine): a 9th/10th centuries family cemetery of 3 graves, lacking cowries: compare Bóna (2000) 20, 97; Bokij–Pletneva (1988); Bokij–Pletnyova (1989). 22. Tîrgu Bujor (jud. Galaţi, Romania)-Moscu: a male burial with a horse and a sabre, no cowries, compare Spinei (1982) 138; Spinei (1985) 114, 221: pl. 49: 3; Bóna (1986) 198; Bóna (2000) 97. 496 Bóna (2000) 20. 497 In the chronology of their minting: Grave 20: the drachma of the Iranian Umayyad governor (in the 50s/670s), Zijjad ibn Abi Suf’jan in the strand of beads of a 25–35 year-old woman: Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 30, 51, 58; Grave 28: a dirham minted in Vasit, from 91/709–710, in the neck ornament of a 45–55 year-old man: ibid. 38, 51, 58; Grave 8a: an Abbasid dirham minted in Basra, from 100/717–718, in a baby’s strand of beads: ibid. 18, 51, 58 (see 1483x); Grave 10: an Abbasid dirham minted in Vasit, from 125/742–743, in the strand of beads of a 45–55 year-old man (?, the identification of the sex is uncertain): ibid. 20, 51, 58; Grave 8: an eared Abbasid dirham minted in Vasit, from 127/745–746, in the grave material of a man: ibid. 18, 51, 58; Grave 27: a dirham minted in Basra, from 143/760–761, another dirham minted in al-Abbasiya, from 171/787–788 and a third dirham, minted also in al-Abbasiya, from 163/779–780 or 173/789–790 in the neck ornament of a young girl: ibid. 38, 51, 58. 498 No contemporaneous drachmas or such early dirhams minted in alAbbasiya, Basra or Vasit have been found in the Carpathian Basin and there were no eared specimens among the perforated coins either: Kovács (1989) 129–34; Kovács (1997). 499 The earliest burial specimen was derived from Grave 7 at Pap (Szabolcs–Szatmar–Bereg megye, Hungary) - Rózsadomb and was

2.6.1.1. The History of Research As already mentioned in the foreword, Ambró Lakner called the cowries from a female burial from the time of the Hungarian Conquest (1633) in Csorna, a “perforated cypraea”.501 The well regarded archaeologist József Hampel, writing about the same find, introduced the incorrect term “marine bivalve (ciprea)” which was used for almost a century.502 Later he generally used the misspolled and incorrect name “cyprea-bivalve”503 or merely “marine bivalve (cypraea)”504 or “perforated bivalve”.505 When using a more correct identification, he adopted it over from the scientific literature just referred to, sometimes correctly,506 sometimes incorrectly,507 reflecting the unstable Hungarian terminology and the indifference towards this find type.508 Others, e.g. János Reizner used “perforated snail” and “snail pendant”, Gyula Bartalus minted by the Samanid emir Ismail ibn Ahmad (279–295/892–907) in 290/902–903 in Balkh: Fomin–Kovács (1987) 57: nr. XV. 38, 61, 62; Fomin–Kovács (1987a) 61: nr. XV. 38, 66, 67; Kovács (1989) 52: nr. LXXXVII. 266; Kovács (1997) 238; Bóna (2000) 41–42, 103; Kovács (2005). 500 I have included one find (2190) dated by the perforated copper coin of King Bela III (1172–1196) with the Jazygian graves of the next period with similar grave goods. 501 Lakner (1889) 267. 502 xz. (1889) 267–68. 503 Hampel (1900) 794; Hampel (1907) 181, 206. 504 Hampel (1900) 560. 505 Hampel (1907) 192. 506 “Cowrie snail (Cyprea moneta – sic!) perforated”: Hampel (1907) 212; see “šest probušenih kauri-puževa (Cypraea moneta)”: Brunšmid (1903–04) 86. The Serbo-Croatian puž, plural puževi means ‘snail’. 507 “Cowrie shells (Cyprea moneta)”: Hampel (1907) 158; see “Kauripuževi (Cypraea-moneta)”: Brunšmid (1903–04) 47. 508 József Hampel was not too careful with the German spelling, either, as is shown by the variations in the names: “Cypraeenmuschel, Cypreamuschel, Cypreenmuschel, Cypressenmuschel”: Hampel (1905) I: 825, 843, II: 483, 660, 877.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads “a strand of snails” correctly,509 although “shell/bivalve” (1705, 1760–62, 1773–74, 1781, 1834),510 “cypr(a)ea shell” (1632, 1660, 1704) have become general, with “cowrie shell” (1729) and respectively “Kaurimuschel” (1649–58) also appearing. Although the authors had known/may have known of both their salt-water origin and their use prior to the 10th century, they did not consider these facts worthy of mention511 nor did they identy cowries or stress their appearance as elements in strands of beads (1768–70, 1772).512 Josip Brunšmid correctly named this find type cowrie snail (kauri puž/Cypraea moneta), without considering their origin.513 Lubor Niederle, based on a larger data set,514 recognized that Money cowries as well as Panther cowries from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean were not present among the finds of the period.515 He somewhat confusingly, repeating this view in both shorter516 and longer forms afterwards. At the same time, he pointed out that the shells of the Cyprea (kauri) genus may have come from the East together with Eastern silver objects, jewelry and, dirhams, i.e. from Byzantium, Persia, Samarkand and Bokhara and with Syrian glass objects and glass beads.517 Jan Eisner518 was later to agree with his view. He then repeated it with reference to Zdeněk Váňa.519 The latter has, in the meantime, processed the 10th–11th centuries archaeological finds from the Carpathian Basin mentioning “shells, small marine shells” (mušle, moršké mušličky) acquired from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. In her opinion these were transported, from the coast of the Black Sea together with glass beads, i.e. Money cowries,520 together with the Hungarian ornaments

of the so-called Bijelo Brdo Culture521 regarded as being of Slavic and Hungarian ethnicity. Following Lubo(mi)r Niederle, he even identified Panther cowries, incorrectly.522 When formulating his point of view based on an extensive collection of data 523 he had no knowledge that Josip Korošec’s opinion had just changed. Earlier, following the previously mentioned views of Josip Brunšmid and Lubomir Niederle, he suggested that the Money cowries from the Bijelo Brdo Culture came directly from their natural habitat.524 Later, he published the grave finds from the Slavic cemetery at Ptuj, including 23 Money cowries from 3 female burials (2145–47). He wrote that these cowries might also have been local specimens, i.e. fossils from Pannonia/the Carpathian Basin or ones imported from the eastern of the Mediterranean Basin525 as opposed to coming exclusively from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Jovan Hadži then immediately pointed out by that they could not be fossil specimens. Furthermore, as Money cowries are not native either to the Mediterranean or the Adriatic, they could only have reached the site through long-distance trade.526 The topic was also discussed by Herbert MitschaMärheim, in view of the above, who stated that these shells (Kaurimuschel) could have reached the Slavic population of Central Europe via Iranian or Byzantine territory from their original habitat.527 Following this discussion, Jiří Sláma could only make recourse to an archaeological “Bijelo Brdo Culture” sites (1606–11, 1722, 1726–28, 1753, 1765–66, 1768–74, 1782–92, 1821): Váňa (1954) 61, 91: note 66. Questioning the idea that cowries and glass objects, especially glass beads from the Black Sea had been transported together: Szőke–Vándor (1987) 62. 521 This is in fact the archaeological material of the common inhabitants of the Hungarian grand principality, to be dated to the second half of the 10th century and of the Hungarian kingdom, dating between the beginning of the 11th century and the first third of the 12th century. It is ethnically mixed but mainly of Hungarian background, with the ratio of the Slavic component varying from region to region. 522 “Z mušlí jsou to zejména 2 druhy rodu Cyprea, totiž Cyprea moneta, a Cyprea pantherina, žijicí na březích Indického oceánu a Rudého moře.”: Váňa (1954) 60. 523 In his rich data collection he pointed out the role of cowries, especially money cowries as currency in Africa and Southern Asia. He mentioned the appearance of money cowries in Europe in prehistoric times, their import from India following Marco Polo in the Middle Ages and, following the notes of Lubor Niederle, the cowrie finds from Russia and even their popularity among the Mordvins and the Chuvash’ into our days: Váňa (1954) 60–61, 71: Pl. V: 40–41. 524 Korošec (1947) 86, 134: notes 295–99. 525 His hypothesis is based on the misunderstanding of the opinion of the oceanographic institute in Split, stating in connection with some cowries from Ptuj sent to them to be examined that there were no cowries (here in the narrow sense of Cypraea moneta) in the Adriatic Sea but that they were native in the eastern Basin of the Mediterranean Sea (“da se kauri ne nahajajo v Jadranskem morju, pač pa se nahajajo na vzhodnem delu Sredozemskega morja.”): Korošec (1950) 84–85, note 147; Hadži (1953) 68; Szőke (1956) 92. 526 In his study dealing with this topic for the first time in the Central and Eastern European scientific literature he gave a relatively detailed overview. He also discussed the finds from Ptuj, then described the explanation of the name cowrie, the classification of the shells, their living forms, their habitat, their circulation with trade and the route along which they had reached the Balkans in view of the archaeological finds from the Paleolithic on and of the ethnographic and historic sources of their employment: Hadži (1953). 527 His ethnic partiality has led him to name the Slavic peoples as the destination of this trade based on the grave finds from Németóvár and Ptuj (1709, 2145–47), even though he also knew some of the many Hungarian sites with cowries in the burials of common people (compare 1633, 1726–28, 1735–36): Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 42. 8–9

Reizner (1891) 210. Yet he used “cypria shell” for the Panther cowrie from Szőreg (929): Reizner (1903) 46. The specimens from Eger (1637) have been lost, no description or drawing survived so that “a strand of snails” are only hypothetically cowries. 510 It is interesting that when Márta Széll mentioned shells and snails from a grave (1773), the first were cowries, the latter a murex: Széll (1941) 241; Kralovánszky (1959) 78. 511 As a rare exception Albert Nyáry remarked that the cyprea “had been a neck ornament from the earliest times on” and was probably still valuable in the 11th century: Nyáry (1902) 219–20. 512 Széll (1941) 234, 238, 241. 513 Brunšmid (1903–04) 47. 514 Listing sites from Czech Republic (1852, 1854), Croatia/Carpathian basin (1606–11, 1821), Hungary (1726–28), Russia (2098, 2103–14) and the Ukraine (1145, 2148–49, 2154–57) as well as Russian ones referred to by others later, some of which I could not get hold of. He also knew the works of Conwentz (1902) and Jacob (1891): Niederle (1913) 631–02: note 6. 515 “Poměrně hojné jsou mezi perlami i provrtané mušlicky druhu Cyprea [!] moneta, někdy i C. pantherina (také druh Cardium), jež byly patrně v té době bězným artiklem obchodním a pěkně nám dosvědčují spojení zemí slovanských s jížními mori Červeným a Indickým.”: Niederle (1913) 631, 631–32: note 6. As it becomes clear from this note he mentioned Panther cowries based on the specimen considered to be from Uwisla of the 5th–6th centuries, yet in fact from a grave of the Černjahov Culture (1145). 516 “Z mušlicek se stále setkáváme s druhem kauri (Cyprea moneta, Cyprea pantherina) importovaným z Rudého a Indického more.”: Niederle (1931) 199. 517 “Se šperky přicházely z Orientu i mořské mušle z rodu Cyprea (kauri) a sklo, hlavné ze Syrie...”: Niederle (1953) 374. 518 He noted that there were, among other objects, cowries from the Red Sea or the Indian Ocean in the neck ornaments of the women in the area of the Bijelo Brdo Culture (lately e.g.: 1729): Eisner (1947) 138. 519 This time only mentioning their Red Sea origin: Eisner (1960) 208 (referring to: 1715–20). 520 Listing 5 “Proto-Hungarian” (1633, 1637, 1704, 1735–36, 1834) and 509

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin argument. In his examination of 8th–12th centuries shell (kavri polž) finds, he found that 8th–9th centuries specimens are characteristic for the southern zone of Russia. In contrast, 10th–12th centuries cowries are more typical for areas to the north, for the region stretching from the Volga Bulgarian territory to the Baltic.528 The Carpathian Basin and adjacent areas to the west, an important way station in eastern trade, comprised an independent unit. Although cowries could have been imported here along the eastern trade routes (although there are no signs of Byzantine mediation), he considered it possible that some of the later specimens reached the Middle Danube Basin and Bohemia following a detour through Northern European.529 He also noted that Hungarians were already wearing cowries in the first half of the 10th century. Their use in the 11th century Bijelo Brdo Culture could be demonstrated with the specimens dated by coins issued by Hungarian kings. Apart from their use as currency and ornaments/jewelry, he mentioned their role, at least that of Panther cowries, in the Aphrodite cult.530 Béla Szőke’s monograph also marked an important advance in this subject. Its section dealing with “cowrie shells” was complemented with a catalogue including more sites than any before.531 In the Hungarian scientific literature dealing with this period he was the first to mention the appearance of cowries in Scythian and Sarmatian Period burials in the Carpathian Basin and their absence during the Avar Period. He stated that the conquering Hungarians re-introduced the wearing of these shells in strands of beads or as pendants. In his opinion, cowries were found in the Great Hungarian Plain in cemeteries of the nobility and the common people dated to the first two thirds of the 10th century while in Transdanubia/Pannonia and in adjacent areas they were observed in commoners’ cemeteries from the last third of the 10th century.532 In view of the arguments expressed in the “Ptuj debate” he accepted Jovan Hadži’s opinion and criticised the moderate view of Jiří Sláma. This was because although “the latter also maintained that it was probable that these shells spread to Austria and Bohemia from the Carpathian Basin, he did not dare state that cowries had appeared at the beginning of the 10th century together with the conquering Hungarians. Considering that cowries worn as jewelry were found exclusively at Hungarian sites or adjacent areas (e.g. Ptuj [2145–47]) – they were unknown in Moravia [still: 1854] or among the southern Slavs [but: 1841–51, 2079, 2127–47] – it is evident that

J. Hadži was correct. Cowries could have reached the conquering Hungarians only by way of Far Eastern trade. The fashion of wearing them appeared in the Carpathian Basin with them and came to an end at the end of the 10th century.”533 That his last remark, disagreeing with Jiří Sláma’s view, too, was incorrect became clear when the commoners’ cemetery at Halimba-Cseres was published in the same year. Gyula Török has observed cowries in all three chronological groups at the cemetery, also regarded as simple ornaments or, somewhat surprisingly, even as dress buttons also coming from the South seas as well.534 Subsequent publications of Hungarian finds – including those published by this author – have repeated the above views535 or even ignored these shells as simple elements in strands of beads536 without settling the question of their origin.537 Only a few studies have contributed to the subject, either with new arguments supporting the Hungarian import and dispersion of cowries538 or by correctly modifying the period they were used.539 Szőke (1962) 55. Török (1962) 29, 52–53, 104–05. Dating Period I until the 970s (1656–57), Period II from then until the middle of the 11th century (1649–50, 1652–55, 1658) and Period III from then until the middle of the 12th century (1651): Török (1962) 114–24. 535 With references to Scythian and Sarmatian Period finds in connection with the grave at Madaras (1691) and with the complementation of the list of 10th–11th centuries finds (1596–98, 1781): Kőhegyi (1980) 228. Referring to the Adriatic origination, a debated view at the time: Kovács (1985) 125. Quoting Margit Bohnné Havas’ opinion that the cowries from Tímár (1799–800) may be fossil specimens from the Miocene Baden or Sarmatian Period [16,5–14,5–12,6 Million years BC]: Kovács (1988) 148, 152: notes 5, 22; Langó (2000) 301. Calling for the procession of the group of finds: Kovács (1991–92) 62; repeatedly: Kovács (1994) 115–16. Referring to their wear at the end of the 10th century: S. Perémi (1986). Maintaining the possibility of their Adriatic origination: Révész (1996) 81. 536 The amulet role of cowries did not occur to the best expert of the subject, István Dienes, either, compare Dienes (1972) 47–56; Dienes (1972a), 101–05. Further references without any special emphasis: Rejholcová (1974) 443–44, 450: notes 22–25; Dąbrowska (1979) 349; Dąbrowska (1979a) 201–03 (leaving them unmentioned among the amulets); Kőhegyi (1980) 228; Kiss (1983) 160: fig. 73; Szőke–Vándor (1987) 62; Točík (1987) 210 (as items of necklaces imported from the east); Hanuliak (1992) 286: nr. 40; Hanuliak (1993) 104–05; Hanuliak (1994) 46, 43: fig. 41 and 59: fig. 53; S. Perémi (1994) 43, 44 (on a reconstruction of the wear); M. Nepper (1996) 54; Tomičić (1997) 81, 89, etc. 537 “Auch ein Teil der Kaurischnecken (Cypraea moneta), die im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert im Karpatenbecken gerne an Halsketten getragen wurden kam aus dem fernen Süden... Einige Exemplare stammen hingegen offensichtlich aus der Adria.”: Hanuliak (1994) 224, note 129. 538 Although Csanád Bálint has incorrectly repeated that some of these shells had come from the Adriatic Sea, he noticed that “due to this it is all the more important that they do not appear in the correctly dated 9th century material from Dalmatia and Carinthia, in Bosnia only in the second half of the 10th century, for the first time in the cemetery at Prijedor [1841] and Mahovljani [1842–43] showing also other traces of Bjelo Brdo influence.”: Bálint (1976) 244; Bálint (1979) 133; Bálint (1991) 183. Željko Tomičić explained the appearance of cowries in the area bordered by the Danube, the Drava and the Sava as the sign of direct contacts to the Arab caliphate. As he counted with isolated influences in the 10th–11th centuries – cowries (kauri pužica/kauri-Muschel/cowrie periwinkle) from the Persian Gulf area of the caliphate, coins and jewelry from Byzantium, weapons, coins and jewelry from the Hungarians, jewelry from the Croatian cultural area and from the Kiev Rus – he did not notice that the majority of these are together characteristic of commoners’ cemeteries in Hungary, compare Tomičić (1990) 88; Tomičić (1990a) 175, 189; Tomičić (1990b) 118; Tomičić (1991a) 104–06; Tomičić (1992) 117: fig. 3: type 41; Tomičić (1994–95) 76; Tomičić (1997) 81, 89. 539 Béla Miklós Szőke has pointed out that the finds at Halimba 533 534

This seemed to be the case only because of the insufficient data, see below! 529 This was later accepted by: Szőke–Vándor (1987) 62. An opposing opinion was offered by Jan Machula: “There are only two Bohemian sites [1852–53 and 1854] where cowries have been discovered and these are considered to testify for the interactions with Pannonia rather than with the North...”: Machula (1999) 7. 530 Sláma (1958–59). 531 Listing burials from 3 cemeteries of leader orders (1633, 1704, 1834) and from 9 commoners’ cemeteries (1632, 1637, 1660, 1705, 1729, 1735–36, 1760–62, 1765–66, 1768–74) believed by him to date from the first two thirds of the 10th century and graves from 7 sites among the commoners’ cemeteries from the last third of the 10th century (1606–11, 1649–58, 1715–20, 1722, 1726–28, 1821, 2145–47): Szőke (1962) 54. 532 This mistaken hypothesis was also accepted by Béla M. Szőke: Szőke–Vándor (1987) 62. 528

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads In the meantime, researchers began to emphasise the amulet role of the cowries in this period in addition to their general use as currency and jewelry. In his basic studies, Èvalds S. Mugurēvičs used the snake cult as an explanation for the surprisingly rich Latvian material.540 In the evaluation of 9th–12th centuries finds from Yugoslavia, Marija Birtaševič followed up their wear as jewelry or talismans until the 20th century.541 This use was later also accepted by Nada Miletić, based on new finds.542 Elżbieta Dąbrowska and Anton Točík543 have given a shorter, Ľubomira Kaminská and Ingmar Jansson a more detailed account of the above views.544 Slowly the amulet role started to be accepted in connection with the finds from the Carpathian Basin, too: as reflected by the less well-founded studies by the author 545 of these lines, by Mária Rejholcová546 and by Milan

Hanuliak.547 Željko Tomičić interpreted the appearance of cowries between the Danube and the Drava-Sava area as a sign of direct contacts with the Arabic caliphate.548 Other authors do not deal with the question of origination but rather note the finds or the parallels,549 or perhaps search for an explanation as to why they were worn, finding the explanation in the cowrie’s amulet role against sterility.550 It is evidently time to process the large archaeological cowrie material of this period.551 2.6.1.2. Evaluation The archaeological material collected from 248 assemblages at 118 sites in the Carpathian Basin known to have been located in the Hungarian principality in the 10th century and after 1000 in the Hungarian kingdom came from burials with three exceptions (1588, 1605, 1676). Only a few cases were stray finds from disturbed cemeteries or graves.552 Almost all of their former owners were probably women,553 although the sex of the deceased was seldom determined by a physical anthropologist. In most cases, it was the archaeologist who came to this conclusion based on the skeleton, or more likely, the grave goods, which could be generalised to the other complexes. Often, it was only the measurable height that distinguished girls from adult women but often not even this data was accessible. Altogether I have counted 119 female graves,554 64 child burials,555 46 cases are unpublished or doubtful556 and finally, there was one (1675) among the 4 burials published as male skeletons that could not be questioned. It is clear that there is no differentiation in terms of cowries based on the age of the deceased. The following age distribution has been observed based on the classification used in historical anthropology: infant I/1–7 years (14 cases: 1620–21, 1625, 1628, 1661, 1664, 1674, 1686, 1687,

and Pusztaszentlászló (1730–33) prove the employment of these shells beyond the turn of the 10th/11th centuries, namely until the last third of the 11th century: Szőke–Vándor (1987) 62. He agreed with Jirí Sláma’s opinion concerning the phase delay in the spread of the finds in Southern and Northern Russia but discarded Zdeněk Váňa’s hypothesis of the common import of these shells and glass beads from the Black Sea region, considering the latter younger and of local origin: ibid. I find only one detail debatable, namely that “the fashion of cowrie shells came to an end because at the end of the 10th century, due to the receding long-distance trade, they could no longer be obtained.”: ibid. This view only holds for the Arabic trade dispersing Samanid dirhams because the 10th–11th centuries finds from Southern Russia and even more so their at the time increasing numbers in the Baltic, primarily in Latvia (1865–2074) prove that the import from the east was continuous. Returning to the dating of their employment, Pál Medgyesi has also noted that although “the fashion ended [in the Great Plain] at the end of the 10th century in Béla Szőke’s opinion..., in fact they even appear together with coins of László [Ladislaus] I.”: Medgyesi (1995) 105 (in connection with 1647). 540 He only knew one of the contemporaneous cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin, compare Mugurevič (1962) 48: note 36 (1681); Mugurevič (1965). In the Hungarian scientific literature only Csanád Bálint has taken notice of the latter publication, yet without exploiting its potentials: Bálint (1989) 224, 225: fig. 114: 6, 224: note 129; Krumphanzlová (1974) 68. 541 Birtašević (1973). 542 “Ova skupocena perla [1841] upotrebljavana je više kao amulet nego kao ukras.”: Miletić (1967) 132; “...kauri-školjke, koja, kako je to već navedeno i za kauri-školjku iz Gomjenice [1841], ima magično, zaštitno dejstvo.”: Miletić (1980) 154 (1842–43).. 543 Hypothesising the import from their habitats in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea with Byzantine mediation but without commenting on the reasons for the wear of “coquilles kauri”: Dąbrowska (1979a) 192–93 (2158). Anton Točík referred to them as “Kaurimuschel” (1777) saying they mainly appeared in burials with rings with S-end, i.e. from the second half of the 10th century onwards: Točík (1987) 210, 204: fig. 15: 45. 544 Dealing with the views of Czechoslovakian authors, Jan Eisner, Zdeněk Váňa and Jiří Sláma, with the name “mušlicka kauri”: Kaminská (1982) 433–35 (1816). Differentiating between Panther and Money cowries when overviewing the Scandinavian objects imported from the east in the 6th–11th centuries by calling the former Cypraea-Schnecken and the latter Kauri-Schnecken: Jansson (1988) 589–92. 545 As an idea, without naming sources: Kovács (1988) 148. 546 “Muscheln [1616–29: not only cowries were found here!] bildeten nicht nur eine Ergänzung von Halsketten, sondern waren nach manchen Autoren [Hrubý (1965) 362: Anm. 68; Marešová (1983) 54] vor allem ein Amulett zur Vorbeugung seiner Besitzerin vor Unfruchtbarkeit.”: Rejholcová (1995b) 34, 88–89. The lines quoted from the work by Vilém Hrubý, however, do not refer to cowries but to the perforated Adriatic oyster (?mušla ostranky jaderské) found next to the female skeleton in grave 95 of the 9th century Slavic cemetery at Uherské Hradiště (okres Uheršké Hradiště, Zlínský kraj, Czech Republic)-Sady. These have been regarded in Italy as amulets against sterility until the present day: Hrubý (1965) 362, note 68. From the note by Kristina Marešová referring to the purple dye made from the fluids of the animal it becomes clear that the name ulita ostranky jaderské referred to some kind of murex (Muricidae): Marešová (1983) 54, 125; Reese (1987a)203–06.. (1649–58)

Among the “Gegenstände kultischen Charakters” without any explanation: Hanuliak (1997) 476, 479: fig. 7: 5; Hanuliak (1998) 59, 68, 61: fig. 4: 38. 548 Compare note 538 on this page. 549 e.g. Rejholcová (1974) 443–44, 450: notes 22–25 (1638); Hanuliak (1993) 105 (1612–14). 550 e.g. calling them “Kaurimuschel”: Rejholcová (1995b) 88–89 (1616– 29). 551 Fate intended it so that I have called for that earlier, without the intention of carrying it out myself: “the large amount of finds are still to be interpreted.”: Kovács (1991/92) 62: note 106. 552 15 cases: 1602, 1641, 1669, 1723?, 1748, 1766–67, 1782–83, 1796, 1801, 1834, 1837–38 553 Lacking anthropological and even bone analyses it is of course possible that there were young boys among the smallest children. On this chance see below. 554 Besides 111 skeletons more or less identified as female ones I have grouped here another 4 adult (1611, 1647, 1671, 1725) and 3 “male skeletons” (1660, 1721, 1769). 555 29 small children (1649–50, 1652, 1654–55, 1657, 1661, 1664, 1668, 1674, 1686, 1697, 1705–06, 1751, 1762, 1768, 1771, 1774, 1776–77, 1779, 1781, 1787, 1792, 1807–08, 1812, 1814), and 36 children (1597, 1600, 1612–13, 1616, 1618, 1620–22, 1625, 1628, 1632, 1642, 1663, 1670, 1689, 1724, 1731–32, 1739–40, 1745–47, 1752, 1770, 1772–73, 1784, 1790, 1794, 1797, 1805, 1810, 1829, 1832). 556 29 are unpublished (1589–96, 1598–99, 1603–04, 1635, 1643, 1648, 1682–84, 1710–14, 1722, 1737–38, 1741, 1756, 1820) and 17 uncertain (1601, 1630–31, 1637, 1644–46, 1688, 1736, 1821, 1824–28, 1830–31). In both cases the uncertainty most probably refers to the uncertain differentiation between an adult woman and a girl. 547

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin 1732, 1751, 1787, 1782, 1797), infant II/7–14 years (12 cases: 1597, 1616, 1618, 1622, 1663, 1668, 1670, 1689, 1731, 1740, 1790, 1832), infant II–juvenile (2 cases: 1739, 1833), juvenile/15–22 years (10 cases:1619, 1658, 1667, 1695, 1708, 1728, 1764, 1785, 1798, 1800), juvenile/adult (2 cases: 1665, 1685), adult/23–39 years (25 cases: 1617, 1624, 1627, 1636, 1651, 1653, 1658, 1666, 1675, 1694, 1696, 1698–701, 1730, 1733, 1742, 1755, 1763, 1786, 1788–90, 1799), mature/40–59 years (5 cases: 1626, 1659, 1672, 1693, 1744) and, finally senile/60- years (3 cases: 1623, 1629, 1673). It is possible that the relative ratios within this randomly chosen one third (71 out of 226 grave finds) also hold true for the whole material. The decreasing number of mature and senile burials cannot be explained by the decrease in the use of cowries in these age groups but by the smaller number of older cowrie owners related to early mortality.

of the 1073 cowries in my collection.559 However, I could identify a further 248 specimens of the remaining 598 with reasonable certainty based on the published illustrations. Thus, 239 (96.37%) were Money cowries, 7 Ringed cowries (2.82%) and 2 Money or Ringed cowries (0.81%). When these two of data were combined, 723 could be identified (67.38%) while only 350 remained unidentified (32.62%). The distribution of species among the identified specimens was even more marked. It included: 686 Money cowries (94.88%), only 22 Ringed cowries (3.04%) and 15 Money or Ringed cowries (2.07%). As the habitats of the two species are almost identical it is not impossible that this ratio is merely the result of collecting and trading them without selection. Nor is it likely that they originated in different localities given in this composition. Of course, Money cowries are generally distributed while Ringed cowries seem to appear sporadically. However, half of the 24 graves containing the Ringed cowries were located in two small regions, in Nyitra/Nitra and its neighbourhood (1620, 1622, 1624, 1711–13) and at Szob and its vicinity (1663, 1780, 1782, 1786, 1791). I did not attempt to draw any conclusions about this limited distribution.

Compared with the Scythian Period grave goods of the burial from the Carpathian Basin, which also contained small cowries and outnumbered the Celtic Period finds, burials in this period containing several specimens became more common.557 Although any number of cowries could be strung in a strand of beads, this quantitative argument may indicate that some of them were sewn on. The number of cowries per grave ranges from 51–52 pieces to 1 piece. This suggests as well that there were no quantitative expectations concerning their wear.

Compared to the archaeological periods discussed above, cowrie wear became much simpler from the 10th century on. In graves these shells generally appeared together with beads, suggesting that they were strung on strands of beads and worn around the neck, often hanging down to the chest.560 This view is also supported by the condition of the shells: the vast majority were only perforated at their anterior end, primarily allowing them to be suspended but also to be sewn on at the other end. No archaeological trace of the latter way of displaying them has been observed so far but it is possible that the cowries found in a few graves without beads were used that way. They could be sewn on the caftans down both sides of the chest. This is consistent with their positions in the graves, along the arms (1659). However, only a very small number of finds had had their dorsum removed, the way of working so common among earlier find complexes. This form of attachment permitted them to be sewn on at both ends. They even co-occurred with specimens perforated at their anterior end, suggesting that they were worn together.561 Noble women had one or

As large Panther and Tiger cowries disappeared558 and girdle pendants were no longer worn, the number of specimens found in graves practically decreased to two. Accordingly, with the new way they were used, small species started to gain ground as grave goods. Money cowries outnumbered Ringed cowries,. This is probably due to the fact that the area of the Maldive Islands, where they were collected, was more exploited and the cowries were also dispersed and traded more widely. This was clearly reflected in the ratios of the 475 specimens from the Carpathian Basin identified by Gyula Radócz: there were 447 Money cowries (94.10%) with only 15 Ringed cowries (3.16%) and 13 Money or Ringed cowries (2.74%). These, unfortunately, comprised only 44.27% In Scythian Period graves there were even 70 (496), 50 (478), 40 (514), 28 specimens (501). The relevant data on 10th–12th centuries burials: 51–52 specimens (1836), 34 (1690), 26 (1639?, 1782), 21 (1827), 20 (1806), 19 (1706), 17 (1742), 16 (1712), 15 (1597, 1689,1713), 14 (1624, 1669, 1711, 1715, 1724, 1744), 13 (1659, 1828), 12 (1637?, 1749, 1817), 11 (1693, 1739, 1750, 1813, 1832), 10 (1640, 1663, 1680, 1685, 1698), 9 (1593, 1708, 1716), 8 (1592, 1670, 1761?, 1773, 1785), 7 (1615, 1662, 1718, 1826), 6 (1606, 1681, 1697, 1703, 1756, 1792, 1821, 1837?), 5 (1607, 1609, 1622, 1679, 1683, 1688, 1717, 1768, 1770, 1772, 1777, 1786, 1794, 1799, 1805, 1814, 1822, 1824–25), 4 (1594, 1610, 1617–18, 1629, 1636, 1653, 1661, 1667, 1702, 1726, 1730, 1732–33, 1778, 1791, 1819, 1823, 1829), 3 (1627, 1631, 1633, 1654, 1673, 1677–78, 1728–29, 1747, 1754, 1766, 1769, 1774, 1776, 1780–81, 1784, 1797, 1804, 1818, 1833) and 2 specimens (1591–92, 1604, 1608, 1623, 1630, 1634–35, 1642, 1651, 1658, 1660, 1665–66, 1672, 1684–85, 1691–92, 1700, 1705, 1709–10, 1720–21, 1731, 1735–36, 1743, 1745–46, 1751, 1755, 1757, 1767, 1790, 1800, 1808, 1812, 1816, 1831). 558 Unfortunately the only find of a large (Panther? or Tiger?) cowrie was not accessible to me when completing the manuscript (1676).

I have not included some sites where an unknown amount of cowries were found (1599–600, 1648, 1657, 1722). 560 According to the only in situ observation (1754) the beads and the 3 cowries of a bead strand were found alternating. I have identified with more or less certainty the following 38 burials as the ones in which the cowrie(s) were not accompanied by a bead strand or bead(s): 1595?–96?, 1598?, 1620, 1638, 1643?–44?, 1646?, 1647, 1657, 1659, 1661, 1665, 1674, 1681, 1685, 1707, 1714?, 1721, 1729, 1734?, 1735–36, 1738?, 1743, 1745–46, 1755, 1758, 1762, 1764–65, 1793, 1795?, 1798, 1818, 1819?, 1830–31. 561 I have divided the assemblages into five groups: 1. cowries with removed dorsum together with perforated specimens and beads: 1670: at least one each from 8 pieces, 1712: 1 and 15 specimens, 1821: at least one each from 6 specimens, 2. the above but without beads: 1684?: one each, 1819: 2 specimens each, 3. cowries with removed dorsum only, together with beads: 1660: 2 specimens, 1725: 1 piece,

557

559

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads – 1777) and a Dijon denar issued by the French king, Raoul (923–936 – 1622). The newly minted Hungarian coins accompanying cowries are a proof of their use from the beginning of the 11th century onwards: a denar of Stephen I the Saint (1000–1038 – 1632, 1727567), Peter (1038–1041, 1044–1046 – 1779), Andrew I (1046–1061 – 1610, 1670), Bela I (1060–1063 – 1609), Ladislaus I the Saint (1077– 1095 – 1732, 1830),568 Koloman–Geza II (1095–1161 – 1690)569 and Stephen II? (1116–1131 – 1831). Some 11th century Hungarian coins were destroyed before they could be identified (1694?, 1698, 1805?). Naturally, there are fewer burials with cowries in the 10th century cemeteries of the upper and middle social groups which were in use only for a third or half a century. Cowries occur even more rarely in noble burials570 compared to the situation in the cemeteries of common people used for 150–200 years but with fewer and fewer grave goods571 in the later period.572 The grave goods from the graves of common people were generally poorer in terms their object types, material and quantity of goods than the grave offerings provided the leading and the middle strata. There were however, some outstanding female and child burials among the commoners (1607, 1617, 1624, 1653, 1681, 1687, 1694, 1715, 1732– 33, 1760, 1768, 1786, 1829). The range of wealth could end with grave goods containing a few or even only one cowrie, unaccompanied by any other objects. However, these burials seem to be isolated, dating rather to the 10th century (1637?, 1661?, 1671, 1736, 1800) than to the 11th century (1611, 1779), so that, the phenomenon may have had reasons other than poverty.

more cowries placed in their plaits which hung over their shoulders. Cowries could also appear among the various ornaments suspended on textile ribbons of ten, mounted with fittings. These fitting included metal rings, metal and shell ornamental disks, beads etc. (1597, 1600?, 1636?, 1660?, 1666, 1679?, 1681?, 1691?, 1732–33, 1739, 1740?, 1742, 1743?, 1744, 1760?, 1780?, 1802)562 In some cases, cowries may have been used as elements in earrings (1691, 1731, 1735–36, 1746, 1793?, 1800).563 In a few exceptional cases, the perforated cowrie was mounted on a ring-shaped piece of jewelry as a pendant: on a plait ring (1641, 1705, 1752, 1774–75, 1793, 1796), on a ring with a S-end (1638), on a single wire torque (1597, 1664, 1728) or on an ornamental chainlet (1619). In one case, the buried woman (1734) either wore a bracelet of large beads on both wrists/forearms or the beads had been sewn on the sleeves of her dress, with a Money cowrie appearing on her left side among the beads.564 Finally, I would like to mention three cowrie finds discovered in special positions in graves. Without commenting on the way they had been worn they include a cowrie on a bronze loop with an S-end placed near the legs (1638), loop-attachment buttons and 3 cowries by the waist (1679) and also 3 specimens on the ribs at the level of the elbows (1818).565 The social status of the former owners can only be analysed as a function of time. From the turn of the 10th/11th centuries was connected to the spread of Christianity. The nobility in Hungary no longer buried themselves in pagan cemeteries opened in the 10th century and still used. The archaeological find material became increasingly restricted to jewelry so that the few items of wear found no longer enable us to differentiate between the leaders and the common people. This is the case in the newly established cemeteries around Christian churches (1635, 1689–90, 1779, 1830–33, 1835). The coins accompanying burials with cowries have shown that these individuals were buried between the 10th century and as late as the middle of the 12th century. The earlier burials were dated with perforated coins from the era of incursions. They are listed here in the order of they were issued. They include a hammered Arabic dirham (1673),566 a Volga Bulgarian imitation of a dirham of the Samanid emir Ahmad ibn Ismail (907–914 – 1675), a dirham of the Samanid emir Nasr ibn Ahmad (914–943 – 1797), a Strasbourg denar of the German king, Henry I (919–936

Based on the archaeological finds of Eurasian cowrie amulets reviewed above and archaeological, ethnographic and cultural historical cowrie finds – observed even today – it seems probable even in the absence of concrete proof, that these shells were not merely a kind of imported bead decorating 10th–12th centuries Hungarian costume but also used as amulets. Hungarian women and children (mainly or exclusively girls), like others, probably considered cowries effective in protection of the female life cycle. They were particularly effective against the evil eye which could cause A coin lost, without having been identified, probably from the time between the rule of Stephen I the Saint and Ladislaus I the Saint. 568 Both coins are of the same type, Huszár-26 and were probably issued by the king at the beginning of the 1080s: Kovács (1997a) 162–63, 363, 162: Pl. 50. 569 Relying only on the coin of the certain (?) issuer, king Koloman among the coins of the grave! 570 Including here a women’s burials with the partial skeleton of a horse as well as a man (1675), whose graves were found in North Eastern Hungary (1802–03, and 1675), between the Danube and the Theiss (1685, 1691) and in South Eastern Hungary (1704), the only burial with fittings on the horse’s harnesss decorated with the rosette pattern (1633) as well as women or children with ornamental disks in their hair plaits or in clothes with a richer decoration of fittings (1597, 1600, 1615, 1659, 1679–80, 1702, 1739–40, 1742–43, 1778, 1799, 1819). 571 In the catalogue of 249 entries (not listed here as sites) there are 64 10th century cemeteries, 169 common people’s cemeteries and 13 churchyard cemeteries as well as 3 settlement finds. 572 The continuity is well reflected by the finds of the cemetery at Halimba, stretching over three periods: Period 1 (from the beginning of the 10th century to around 950 – 1656–57), Period 2 (until around 1030/1040 – 1649–50, 1652–55, 1658) and Period 3 (until the 1130s/1140s – 1651). 567

4. the same without beads: 1611: 1 piece, 1743: 2 specimens, 5. strung on a plait ring: 1748: 1 piece. 562 M. Nepper (1996) 53; Őseinket (1996), 188–89, fig. 7 (1802), 265, 267: fig. 25 (1742). 563 With contrary opinion to the earring role of these cowries: Langó–Türk (2004) 374–375. 564 M. Nepper (1993) 209–10, 223: fig. 8: 1, 225: fig. 10: 6, 226: fig. 11: 4. 565 I have been cautious with the data on the 3 beads and cowrie found in the oral cavity of the skull (1719) as these ornaments may also have lain below the jaw, in the region of the neck. 566 As far as we know, the earliest Arabic dirham found among Hungarian grave finds was issued by Ismail ibn Ahmad and minted in Balkh in 290/902–903: Rispling (1982/84) 131: nr. 266; Fomin–Kovács (1987) 57: nr. XV. 38; Fomin–Kovács (1987a) 61: nr. XV. 38; Kovács (1989) 52: nr. LXXXVII. 266; Kovács (1997) 238; see Kovács (2005).

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin the most harm in this respect. Given this belief, they were worn by both young and the old, rich and poor. The power of cowries was enhanced with other natural prophylactic objects such as other marine and river shells, land snails, fish vertebrae (1589, 1625, 1672, 1764, 1833), animal teeth and animal bone pendants573 and fertility-charm eggs.574 From the jewelry, I have only included magical amber beads,575 and beads with eyes (oculus beads),576 crescent- (1653, 1694, 1781)577 and saw-shaped pendants (1752)578 and bracelets with snake’s head ends (1694, 1698, 1837). Rattles579 deserve to be mentioned because, instead of accompanying the cowries of children (1621, 1670, 1751)580 as might be expected, they appeared in women’s burials.581 The 11th–12th centuries graves in cemeteries all come from the time Christianity began to spread. Objects connected to religious life, such as various crosses (1600, 1636, 1705, 1768, 1816), a bronze medallion with a depiction of the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus (1816) and finally, a plate with incised decoration and a bronze ring with a palm and cross (1607) are seldom found with cowries. It is possible cowrie wear was a conspicuously pagan custom connected to a system of beliefs known to everyone. They would have disappeared from find complexes and probably from contemporaneous costume and jewelry as well, by the beginning of the 12th century as a consequence of this – maybe due to pressure from the Church. The example of our Finno-Ugrian relatives, however, shows that this might have happened otherwise: they could have been preserved in Hungarian folk costume up to the present day.

of cowries need not have come to an end. As already mentioned, dirham finds show that eastern merchants had contacts with the Hungarians who settled in the Carpathian Basin after 902–903, supplying them with, among other things, cowries. These merchants could hardly have been Byzantine,582 could have been Jews,583 but were most likely Arabs or Volga Bulgars.584 Ibrahim ibn Yakub, the Jewish merchant, who was at the market in Prague in 965, has mentioned them. According to in the Gesta Hungarorum of Anonymus’ (notary of Bela III king of Hungary [1172– 1196]) debated, although rather accepted narration, some high nobles, Billa and Baks, arrived at that time with many Ismaelites, i.e. during the rule of Grand Duke Tocsun/ Taksony (ca. 955–ca. 970) from the land of the Volga Bulgars, called Bularland by him. The leader, Taksony, endowed them with land in various parts of Hungary, even granting them the castle called Pest. At the same time, a high noble warrior called Heten/Hetény from the same area arrived. The leader also granted him much land and also other property.585 The appearance of Volga Bulgarian dirhams and dirham imitations in the find material of the The shells are native only in the southern seas, from the Indian Ocean to the Red Sea, therefore they probably reached Central European cemeteries with Byzantine mediation: B. Mikes (1956) 123. Similar is the statement that “Les coquilles kauri arrivèrent de la Mer Noire au bassin des Karpates et en Bohème par la route du Danube,...”: Dąbrowska (1979) 349; she also suggested Byzantine mediation: “Za pośrednictwem Bizancjum docieraly też na Węgry znad Oceanu Indyjskiego i Morza Czarniego muszle kauri (Cyprea moneta).”: Dąbrowska (1979a) 192– 93. 583 “Der Handelsweg, der sowohl Kaurimuscheln als auch Kokosnüsse zu den osteuropäischen Slawenvölkern brachte, muß wohl über iranisches, z. T. vielleicht auch byzantinisches Gebiet gelaufen sein; es war wohl derselbe, vorwiegend von jüdischen Kaufleuten begangene, der auch die zahlreichen arabischen Silbermünzen nach Mitteleuropa gebracht hat, die z. B. in den Hacksilberfunden Ostdeutschlands und Polens des 10./11. Jahrhunderts häufig vorkommen.”: Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 42. – “Auf jeden Fall haben frühere archäologische Untersuchungen aufFundstellen, die dem 10. Jahrhundert zugewiesen wurden, hier und da exotische Überraschungen zutage gefördert: mal die Schale einer Kokosnuß, mal einige Kaurimuscheln.”: McCormick (2002) 175; see: McCormick (2001) 375, 384, 835–36: nr. B6. “The final itinerary is more vaguely sketched, for it only reaches the Islamic world at the end and then it is very extremity. It begins «behind Rome», in «the land of the Slavs,» and goes to the country of the Khazars and the Caspian Sea, to Balkh and Transoxania and beyond the Far East. The first segment sounds like the Danubian overland corridor which our travelers have traced. At some point, these particular travelers may have left the Dabubian path and cut overland toward Crimea. Alternatively, they could have stayed inside the Bulgarian empire as far as the Black Sea and sailed or ridden eastwards from there. At the very beginning of this route, on the upper Danube, we have seen merchants, including Jewish ones, paying tolls on merchandise as they transited the Carolingian frontier. Arab and Byzantine coins mark the Amber Trail, from the Danube south to the head of the Adriatic. At the intersection of the two routes a tenth-century cemetery yielded cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean as points east. Further south on the same trail, other cemeteries yielded a coconut shell and more cowrie shells.”: ibidem 692–693. Michael McCormick didn’t know all cowrie finds in the Carpathian Basin. 584 Željko Tomičić regarded cowries in the archaeological material traditionally called the Bijelo Brdo Culture as proofs of the contacts established with the caliphate, more precisely with the region of the Persian Gulf, without naming the transport route: “Cowrie-periwinkles are brought in connection with the area of caliphate, therefore, the areas around the Persian Gulf, from where this favoured jewelry artefact was brought by commercial routes also to the area between the rivers Drava, Danube and Sava.”: Tomičić (1997) 81, 89; compare Tomičić (1990a) 175, 189. 585 Anonymus, chapter 57: Györffy (1986) 180; KMTL (1994) 298, 733–35; Kovács (1997) 241–42. 582

Pressure from the Church seems to have been one possible reason for their disappearance because the supply e.g. a dog’s eye tooth (1829), a deer’s incisor (1606, 1707, 1799) and animal bones (1778), more precisely the talus of a small animal (1652), the detached joint of a young animal and 2 volute-bones of a dog (1829); compare Kovács (1981/92) 53, note 69; Hanuliak (1998) 59, 68, 61: fig. 4: 38. 574 e.g. goose eggs (1687, 1785), hen eggs (1694, 1696) or unidentified eggs (1727, 1790). 575 1601, 1622, 1651, 1653–54, 1664, 1667, 1691, 1700, 1709, 1715, 1717–20, 1778, 1789, 1833. 576 Based on a superficial collection compare 1597, 1601, 1618, 1621–24, 1626–27, 1629, 1633, 1640, 1658, 1660, 1663, 1666–68, 1672, 1675, 1678–80, 1688, 1691–92, 1702–03, 1705, 1739–40, 1742, 1744, 1753–54, 1760–61, 1770, 1774, 1776, 1780, 1797, 1799, 1802–03, 1805, 1822–23, 1833. 577 Szőke (1962) 90–91; Szőke–Vándor (1987) 65–66. 578 Bakay (1978) 140, note 113 and 44: Grave 73, 47: Pl. XXV: 3–5. 579 Every jewelry or object giving out sounds served to keep away evil spirits but had a concrete function, too: on the one hand the rattle hung around the child’s neck signalled where it was, so that they could not wander off, on the other hand it drew the attention to young girls. Ildikó Lehtinen noted in connection with the ornaments of Cheremis girls that “Die den Körperbewegungen folgenden und leise klingelnden Schmuckstücke waren dazu angetan, die Aufmerksamkeit der jungen Männer auf die heiratsfähigen Mädchen zu lenken. Aufmerksamkeit zu wecken war die vorrangige Aufgabe des Schmucks, und die Annahme liegt nahe, daß dies gleichbedeutend war mit der Betonung der sexuellen Anziehungskraft.”: Lehtinen (1994) 148; similarly: 167. 580 Szőke (1962) 59–61; Kovács (1988) 150–51, 153: notes 32–33. 581 Silver (1615, 1765), bronze (1609, 1627, 1632, 1639?, 1651, 1694, 1804?, 1817) and clay rattlers (1789), further bronze rattlers found in women’s or children’s graves (1630, 1669, 1734, 1768?) and a bronze bell, too (1662). 573

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Carpathian Basin may reflect archaeological proof of these contacts even if they appeared in Eastern Europe and the Baltic as signs of further trade connections.586 Whatever the case, it is certain that the coins in the big dirham hoard found in the former Hungarian county of Máramaros, were issued at latest in 324/935–936. Among the coins were 7 dirhams minted by the Volga Bulgarian emir, Almuš b. Šalkay Yaltawâr.587 The Arabic traveller Ibn Fadlān met the emir in Bulghâr in 310/922.588 Furthermore, it is probable that besides the 247 Samanid dirhams in the hoard there were another 117 pseudo-Samanid mints which were also, with one exception, dirham imitations made by Volga Bulgars589 similar to most of the 21 pseudo-Samanid dirhams from graves and 18 stray finds.590 The existence of a Volga Bulgarian “reloading station” is likely because cowries were transported to the Volga Bulgarian area (1483–85, 1508–09, 1511, 1519—21, 1526) either by their own merchants or by their southern partners. From there the transport route may have led along the Volga–Oka– Sejma Rivers, then through Kiev and Przemyśl and could have reached the Hungarian border through the San or the Wysłoka valley. From here the route may have marched through the Uzsoki or Dukla passes towards Bodrogköz (the territory between the Bodrog and Tisza/Theiss Rivers). This area can be regarded as the first or the main point for transactions in the exchange of goods, as suggested by the concentration of dirham finds there.591 Namely, the Hungarian grand dukes had their central abode in the Upper Tisza and in southern Zemplén592 region and neighbouring regions in the first half of the 10th century where such business could be most successfully concluded.593

may have run along the western coastal area of the Caspian Sea, more precisely from Ardabíl and Derbent, as well as the land of the Khazars and the Alans.594 This route may even have been connected to the path along which Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin maintained contacts with groups separated because of the Pecheneg attack before the Hungarian Conquest, the savartoi asphaloi. This event took place in the middle of the 10th century and lasted up, with the help of trade delegations (pragmateutas) who also carried official messages.595 A route leading from any of these places probably turned westwards at Saksin, a town on the western bank of the Volga delta and, crossing the steppe, it could have reached Hungary near the Verecke pass.596 However, it is well known that in 965, the Kievan Russian duke Svyatoslav occupied the Khazar capital and ravaged the land of the Alans and the western coastal region along the Caspian Sea.597 Afterwards the circulation of dirhams broke off in Scandinavia and among the Rus as well after the turn of the millennium. However, it was the Volga Bulgars who continued to maintain this route for several more decades.598 Although the dirham finds from Hungary came to an end with coins minted even earlier,599 the Muslims settled who here600 maintained contacts with their Eastern brethren until the Mongol/Tatar invasion. This permitted the continuation of trade, including the supply of cowries depending on the demand.601 Namely, it is not The places named were mentioned by the Arab traveller and scholar born in Baghdad, Mas’ūdī (ca. 893–956): Ardabil (now a town in Azerbajdžan: Györffy (1986) 101, 281: note 183) as the home town of a merchant who settled down in the land of the Pechenegs or the Hungarians, Al-Bāb (‘The Gate’ = Derbent, Respublika Dagestan, Russia, compare Györffy [1986] 102, 281: note 185) on the Caspian coast and the land of the Khazars and the Alans bordered by the Caucasus, the Azov Sea, the Don, the Volga and the Caspian Sea; merchants from there stayed in the land of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians, who had allied against Byzantium, in 320/932: Györffy (1986) 100–01; Róna-Tas (1997) fig. 57. 595 “One group of them lives in the East, in the Persian area, they are still called savartoi asphaloi with the old name of the Turks. The other group lived in the west, in an area called Etelküzü [Etelköz = the land between the Don and the Carpathian mountains (?)] with their voivod and leader, Levedi, where the Pechenegs live nowadays. These Turks living in the west have been sending trade delegates [pragmateutas – A. Róna-Tas] to the Turks mentioned first, living to the east in the region of Persia [literally: towards the borders of Persia – Róna-Tas], who visit them and bring official messages from them.”: Constantinus Porphyrogenitus: De administrando imperio, chapter 38: Moravcsik (1984) 44; Györffy (1986) 118–19; Róna-Tas (1997) 221–23, 322–26. 596 Róna-Tas (1994) 224–26, fig. 62; compare Bolšakov–Mongajt (1985) 14, 143. 597 Györffy (1984) 714. 598 Kovács (1997) 241–42. 599 The youngest specimen of the dirham finds in the “Máramaroscounty hoard”, at the same time in Hungary, was minted in Samarquand in 323/934–935, the youngest grave find was derived in Szomód (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary) and had been issued in al-Shâsh in 311/923–924: Rispling (1982/84) 120, 124: nr. 6; Kovács (1989) 68: CXXIV. 370; Kovács (2005). 600 They played an important role in Hungary. Royal toll collectors, money changers and the leaders of the salt chamber were chosen from among them. Their name “Ishmaelite” had referred to their religion, later, from the 12th century on, they were differentiated according to their eastern or western origin: Márton (1994); Harmatta (1994). 601 The Hungarians settled in the Carpathian Basin maintained longdistance trade contacts with the Volga Bulgarians, which is proved 594

The other route along which cowries were also transported Kropotkin (1990). As the coins of the unknown emir Barmal: Fomin-Kovács (1987) 29: nr. 251–57, 47; Fomin–Kovács (1987a) 33: nr. 251–57, 51; the correction: Rispling (1990); Rispling (1982/84) 121; Kovács (1997) 236. 588 Ibn Fadlān was the secretary of the legation, led by Muhammad ibn Sulaymān, sent to the Volga Bulgarian ruler by the Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadir (908–932): Kračkovskij (1939) 55; Validi Togan (1939) 1; Róna-Tas (1997) 68–69; see chapter 2.6.2.3. 589 “Meiner Ansicht nach müssen viele der Nachprägungen im Máramaros-Fund aufgrund des Beweises von Stempelkoppelungen volgabulgarisches Ursprungs sein, vermutlich sind es sogar alle.”: Rispling (1982/84) 121. The summary is based on the data of Aleksej Vladimirovič Fomin corrected by Gert Rispling. From the 124 pseudoSamanid mints I have subtracted 7 pieces (nrs. 251–57; see above) and a specimen believed to have been made in the Kievan Rus or in Novgorod (nr. 46), thus 117 pieces remained: Rispling (1982/84) 120 (data on the volume of the hoard), 121 and 125 (nr. 46). 590 The 117 specimens from the Máramaros hoard are joined by a further 20 from grave finds: “Nach Meinung des Rezensenten [Gert Rispling] beträgt die Anzahl der Imitationen 145..., wovon mindestens 137 wolgabulgarisch sind.”: Rispling (1982/84) 129. Verified identifications in the order of the numbers in Kovács (1989): nrs. 50, 88, 143, 145, 147, 152?, 368, 372, 455–57, 1057, 1059?, 1125–129: Rispling (1982/84) 129–33. 591 Fomin–Kovács (1987) 64–66; Fomin–Kovács (1987) 69–71; Kovács (1989) 133–34; Rispling (1982/84) 130; Kovács (1997) 239–40. 592 Based on the research carried out by László Révész, compare Révész (1996) 193–206; Révész (1996b); Bóna (2000) 41–42. 593 The Hungarian party could offer luxury articles and slaves taken during their plunders to the Eastern merchants. The biggest supply and range of these was probably to be found near the dwellings of the grand prince and his company: Kovács (1994a) 191–93; Kovács (1996) 119–21; Bóna (2000) 42; Kovács (2005). 586 587

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin likely that specimens used and buried by the inhabitants of the Hungarian kingdom even in the 11th century had all been acquired by the ancestors of their owners in the first half of the 10th century. The continuous transport of these shells, at least along the Eastern European routes, is demonstrated by the Baltic finds discussed below.

I have criticised this hypothesis and his arguments sentence for sentence in detail605 in earlier work even though I had just started my present study. Since I have retained all the important details of my criticism, I need not repeat them here. Of the 4 statements above only one, the second, had some almost secondary, though real, background. However, the consequences drawn from them have proved to be incorrect both globally and in the details: the conquering Hungarians became acquainted with cowries not as a measure of value but as amulets. Neither they nor their neighbours used cowries as currency, therefore they could not have demonetised their cowrie shells. All in all, István Gedai’s idea has only added to the unacceptable hypotheses discussed above (see chapter 1.3.4.3).

2.6.1.3 On the Hypothesised Cowrie Money of the Conquering Hungarians The hypothesis already mentioned in the introduction, formulated by István Gedai, which was published both in Hungarian and in English, had not been considered before either in the archaeological or in the numismatic scientific literature in Hungary. However, it was never further developed and thus, could only be viewed as an idea. He did not carry out any data collection and made rash statements concerning the 10th century cowrie material602 and how they were generally used.603 After that he concluded his results in the following way:

2.6.2. 1839–2159. Parallels to the Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.6.2.1. The Finds The vast majority of the several thousand cowries collected from at least 321 assemblages from 194 sites outside the Carpathian Basin,606 from England to Kyrgyzstan and from Finland to Israel, in often unidentifiable numbers because many of them are unpublished, came from graves, with some stray finds from disturbed burials (1851, 2131, 2137, 2085?, 1881, 1929, 2076, 2077?–78?). Compared to these the number of specimens from former settlements is insignificant including the especially rich Latvian finds (1872, 1891, 1907, 1994, 2043, 2055, 2057, 2064, 2067), with less frequent occurrences elsewhere (1845, 1857, 1862, 2081, 2086, 2123, 2126). Finally, I have only learned about one hoard find (1861?) although more may have been found, at least in the Novgorod area.607 I have no reason to believe that the ratio of the sexes among their former owners would have changed compared to the earlier periods. Almost all of the the people buried with cowries were probably women, as is suggested by the few identifications608 – rarely distinguishing them from children of various age groups609 – and by the composition of the grave goods. Only in three cases have references been made to men (1932, 1950, 2121) but due to the composition of the assemblage, including weapons and jewelry, the possibility that these were actually female burials cannot be excluded.

“Because of the paucity of sources it cannot be stated that cowrie shells were used as money by the 10th century Hungarians, it can only be stated that: 1.

2. 3.

4.

If cowrie shells appeared in the life of a nation, in almost every case they were used as money, i.e. cowrie shells were one of the most widespread forms of ‘primitive money.’ They were frequent additions in 10th century Hungarian graves, preceeding coinage. The occurrence of cowrie shells in 10th century Hungary is unique because nowhere in time or space can they be connected to the use of cowries by other peoples. Their acquisition could not have been very easy as even their closest natural habitat was really far away.

The co-ocurrence of the aforementioned phenomena – based on the above description – may form grounds for a hypothesis saying that 10th century (or even earlier) Hungarians knew the role of the cowrie shell as a standard of measure, apart from whether they were used or not. As coins were also pierced (demonetised), they must have considered them ‘money’.”604

In the absence of appropriate data on their numbers, it is impossible to show the number of cowries used in the

by written sources: by Hasdai Ibn Saprut’s letter [before 962], by AbuHamid al-Garnati [ca. 1080–1170], by Jaqut [1179–1229] and Anonymus and a mediate proof is the account of Julianus’ journey [1235]: Róna-Tas (1994); Zimonyi (1994); Fodor (1999). On the archaeological traces of the contacts: Fodor (2000); Kovács (2005). 602 This is why he did not know of the connection of cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin to the female sex, this is why he dated them all to the 10th century, did not come to know of their appearance not only among the Sarmatians as well as why he did not know of any earlier, contemporaneous or later parallels outside the Carpathian Basin. 603 With one single reference he suggested one single way of their employment, namely as money. 604 Gedai (1998) 462; compare Gedai (1994–1995) 156; Gedai (1996) 57.

Kovács (1999a); compare Kovács (1999). Including the depictions of horse’s harnesss on 2 frescoes (1855–56) and considering the unpublished cemeteries with possibly more than one burials with cowries as one assemblage each. 607 I have already referred to Ivan Georgievič Spasskij’s opinion not supported with notes, see chapter 1.3.4.3. 608 Adult: 1844, 2010, 2082–83, 2087, 2105, 2116, 2141, 2158, mature: 1998, 2001, 2007, 2084, 2090, 2093, 2097, senile: 2008. 609 Children whose age is determined: under 1 year: 2089, 2092, 2095, 1–7: 2088, 5–6: 2096, 5–7: 2091, 6–7: 2094, 6–8: 2153,young child: 2156, 11–12 years old: 1849, around 12: 2151, 14–15: 2005, children without data on their age: 1841–42, 1850, 1854, 1863, 1947, 1954, 1962, 1969–70, 1973, 2002, 2111, 2117, 2133–36, 2155. 605 606

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads even chosen according to their size (1902). The same has been found with alternating groups of rattles (maybe also rings) and cowries (1855–56, 1958, 2106, 2114), as well as with star-shaped pendants and cowries (2108, 2110, 2112). They could have been worn either strung on a cord or sewn on at one end, which cannot be decided based on in situ observations. Thus, mixed strands of beads found around the neck or the chest may represent both forms of attachment. Some cowries were used to decorate the head ornament (2122, 2148–49). In several cases, neck ornaments composed only of cowries have been observed, worn by Latvian women (1899, 1932–33, 1937–38,614 1941, 1944–45, 1951, 1956, 1959–61, 1965, 1992) and children (1962, 1969–70), with three exceptions (1844?, 2075, 2103). Special cases also occurred. There were some perforated cowries worn suspended on a ring (1860, 1886, 1907, 2099, 2148–49), on an earring (2098, 2141), on a ring with S-end (2135) and even together with a ring on a torque (2069: 15–17 specimens!), on a plait ring (2019), a bronze chainlet (1861). One cowrie was suspended from a girdle (1843). As opposed to this archaeological material, two Egyptian frescoes (1855–56) suggest that horse harnesses were also decorated with cowries in this period but I could not assess how wide spread this custom was. The remains of a Finno-Ugrian woman wearing a dress decorated with a row of 5 cowries sewn on (?) it, with another cowrie placed in her mouth cavity in its role as an obulus (2116), leads us to the question of the interpretation of cowrie wear. The rich variety of accompanying finds provided for a similar purpose also strengthens the amulet function (compare 1845) regarded as helpful in afterlife. Among the popular sorts of amulet were the rattles,615 together a dog-shaped pendant with a pair of rattles (1974), bells (1844), amber beads and pendants (1848, 1852, 1863, 1936, 2040, 2083, 2087–88, 1090, 2158–59), coral beads (2148), pearls (1863), beads with eyes (2084, 2088–89, 2091, 2158), bell-shaped, heart-shaped and other pendants (2121, 2154), miniature object pendants (2153), crescent-shaped pendants (1852, 2124, 2149, 2154, 2157), animal-shaped pendants (2040, 2100, 2104, 2116), goose foot-shaped pendants (2103–04, 2106–09, 2111–14, 2121), pendants made from animal claws (1952, 2104, 2122), bone pendants (1934, 1936, 1941, 2136), bear canines (2040, 2104, 2111), wild boars’ canines (2124, 2153), a dog’s canine mounted in bronze (2096), a deer canine (2129), a fish vertebra (2140), other shell pendants (1953, 2093, 2095, 2108, 2115?, 2127, 2133, 2140, 2153, 2155), perforated coins (1863, 2124, 2128–29, 2132, 2152–53),

costumes preserved in individual burials, although the scale is conspicuously large, starting with 150 specimens and possibly even more.610 The costume of adult women was undoubtedly decorated with more cowries.611 In accordance with the cowries from the Carpathian Basin in this period, the finds collected as parallels were almost exclusively specimens of the smaller species, with only 6, mainly unverifiable, references to larger ones.612 It is probable that the majority of the smaller specimens were Money cowries as in the Carpathian Basin. This is based on general notes,613 concrete identifications and certain illustrations, with perhaps some Ringed cowries among them (1848?–49?, 1862, 1929?, 2137?). As far as it can be determined based on the rare illustrations of generally undescribed cowries, which are even more rarely of help, there were only a few intact specimens (1891, 2124?). Almost all were perforated, the majority rasped and pierced at the anterior end so that I have observed many fewer, though probably not all, the specimens with removed dorsi (1862, 2000–01, 2005, 2009, 2020, 2088, 2092–93, 2096, 2117, 2132, 2134–35, 2157). Sometimes the thus worked shells were arranged in a horizontal line which may signal that they had been sewn on with their serrated aperture outwards (2001, 2116), with some cases actually observed in this position (1855–56). The majority of the cowries were simply pierced. These were not listed here because of their large number. Perhaps some of the specimens with removed dorsi (1902?) were probably worn strung on strands of beads, as shown by their placement among the beads, observed in situ. Sometimes beads and cowries were strung in regularly alternating groups (1890, 1897, 1903, 1914–17, 2100, 2109, 2116, 2131), with traces suggesting that they were 150 pieces 1902, 110 (1917), 83 (1844), 75 (1916), 71 (1914), 70 (1915), 50? (2005), 43 (1933), 42 (2136), 30 (2001, 2038), 28 (2019), 24 (2075), 23 (2142), 20 (1936, 1944), 19 (1953, 2015), 18 (2135), 17 (1890, 2069), 16 (1873, 2009), 15 (1956, 2137–38), 14 (2003, 2012), 13 (1866?, 1957?, 2000, 2017), 12 (1947, 1948?, 1977), 11 (2145), 10 (2132, 2143, 1939–40, 1949, 2089, 2100, 2153, 2156, 2158), 9 (1943, 2008), 8+ (2002) 8 (1978, 2021, 2127, 2144, 2147), 7 (1885, 2010, 2014), 6 (2020, 2104, 2116, 2140), 5 (1839, 1976, 1981, 2013?), 4 (1983, 2119, 2129, 2139, 2145, 2148–49), 3 (1846, 1849, 1861, 1863–64, 2018, 2023, 2083, 2128?), and 2 pieces (1998, 2004, 2006, 2022, 2082, 2093–94, 2097, 2112, 2121, 2133, 2151, 2155), larger amounts (1899, 1934, 1964). I have not listed here graves inconsistently labelled by me as containing “several” or “some” specimens. 611 Among the burials with 11–150 specimens only 4 were child burials, with not very many cowries: 42 specimens (2136), 18 (2135), 12 (1947) and 10 (2156). 612 1857: Panther cowrie, 2041: because of its length of 5.8 cm this could not be a Mediterranean Pear or Dirty cowrie, but may be a very large Fallow cowrie (4.8–6.7 cm), 2038: an undetermined larger specimen, compared also to the smaller 30 Money cowries of the burial, 2081: a specimen called Mediterranean but of unverifiable identification (compare above: 2041), 2156: 10 specimens called small Tiger cowries (the length of the smallest ones: 4.5–7.0 cm), unverifiable, 1845: a specimen about 3.2 cm in length which may be a large Ringed or Money cowrie (2.5–4.0 and 2.8–4.4 cm) or some other. 613 To indicate the degree of uncertainty I wish to note that from the cemetery at Ludzas Odukalns containing 55 graves with cowries (1932–85), the cowries were correctly identified only in the 10 graves excavated by Vladimir Iljič Sizov (1976–85) otherwise only rakovina “shell” appeared, without any of these finds being illustrated. 610

According to the excavating archaeologists there were neck ornaments made up only of cowries in 27 graves of the cemetery, with 20–24 pieces per neck ornament and there was also a woman wearing two neck ornaments (1933). Cowries appeared especially frequently with torques, otherwise they rather appeared in child burials. In 15 cases there were other items of jewelry in the neck ornament besides cowries: amber beads, animal claws, copper rings, glass and bronze beads, spirals, rattles, disk pendants, as well as duck- and dog-shaped pendants, crosses, bear bone and bear tooth amulets, lamb and other bones: Spicyn (1893) 26–27. 615 1843, 1849, 1855–56, 1863, 1925, 1933–34, 1936, 1939, 1941, 1944, 1946, 1952, 1954–56, 1958, 1974, 2001, 2020, 2038, 2092, 2094–96, 2098, 2102, 2106, 2111, 2113–14, 2136, 2142, 2148, 2150–51, 2158. 614

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin even crosses (1890, 1925, 1955, 2151), an open-work disk with cross-shaped decoration (1925), cross-shaped openwork medallions (2154–55) and bracelets with snake head terminals (1932, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1950–51, 1959, 2010), etc.

which converged in two directions. However, I have found many more sites in the European areas of Russia, in the Ukraine and Belarus. The role of the Volga(–Kama) route is shown by the range of sites belonging to peoples of various ethnic backgrounds which extended to the north–northwest. Examples of such sites include the Khazar border fortress with a mixed population including settled Slavs (2088– 97),622 the fortified Volga Bulgarian settlement (2123),623 the Bashkirian cemetery (2102), chiefly the cemeteries of Finno-Volgan peoples: the Mordvins (2100, 2103–14),624 the Komi-Permians (2101) and the Maris (2121–22). The later popularity of cowries even today reflects this distribution.625 Although Latvia seems to have been the destination for the transport of these cowries, they became more widely known among the Balto-Finnish Vots (2119) and the Slavic tribes living along the route. These tribes are represented by the Slovene cemeteries in Novgorod which contained burials of the Finno-Ugrian native inhabitants (2116?, 2118?, 2120) or the independent Krivič (2099, 2124–26) and Vjatič (2120)626 cemeteries. The sites in this vast area suggest a very sporadic dispersion (or the, so far, scarce information on a broader dispersion),627 especially when compared with the Baltic area, mainly with Latvia.

2.6.2.2 Evaluation In accordance with the 10th–12th centuries finds from the Carpathian Basin, this period was also the heyday in the wear of small cowries, more precisely in Eastern Europe probably Money cowries. This is the time cowries disappear from the archaeological material of Western Europe (1857) and almost completely in Northern Europe (1860–61). I lost sight of them, except for a few cases (1855–56, 1862, 1863–64), in the southern coastal region of the Mediterranean and in the whole of Asia probably due to the shortcomings of my collection.616 However, new use centres have evolved which also influence neighbouring areas: Hungary, discussed above and Latvia, mentioned above (compare 1865–2074).617 The main gathering area for Money cowries in the Maldive islands was already in operation.618 Thus, the transport routes most likely lead through India, Persia,619 Central Asia towards the Volga and from the south, across the Caucasus and, along the Volga up the Dnepr–Daugava (Western Dvina) in the way described in the previous chapter.620

According to Ēvalds Mugurēvičs’ chronology, the 11th–13th centuries is the heyday of the presence of cowries in the Latvian archaeological material.628 This is shown by the increase in the number of graves with cowries and the number of shells which were offered to the deceased. There is a marked increase in the number of relevant sites in the archaeological material. These are however, although only partly published and so difficult to contrast (compare 1417–51, 1865–969). The explanation for this is the fact

There are only a few finds which signal the survival of Central Asian (1863–64) and Caucasian Alanian (2115, 2117)621 cowrie wear traditions and the beliefs involved. These latter can be connected to the route along the Volga

Indo-Pacific Money cowries as well as not precisely identified Olividae and Nassariidae, maybe from the same habitat, all appear in neck ornaments here. Women had 1–2 Money cowries (2088, 2090, 2093, 2097), children 1–10 Money cowries (2089, 2091–92, 2094, 2096) and even 4 Nassa sp. (2095). No cowries were derived from the 235 graves along the south western wall but apart from 1 Nassa sp. there were also 2 Oliva sp. in the strand of beads in grave 92, a child burial: Artamonova (1963) 66, 74, 187–88, 185: fig. 122: 3. 623 On the cowrie(s) derived in Bolgar: Jastrebov (1893) 47, note 333. I had no access to Trudy 2 Arheologičeskago S’ezda, 37. quoted by him. 624 Jastrebov (1893) 47, note 330. 625 Mugurevič (1962) 49–50; compare Smirnov (1952) 132; Arhipov (1961). 626 In 1953 Valentin Vasil’evič Sedov noted that in the north western part of the region of Greater Novgorod cowries were characteristic for Vot burials. There were only few cowries found in Old Russian Vjatič kurgans, compare N. I. Bulyčev: Raskopki po srednemu tečeniju r. Ugry. Zapiski Moskovskogo arheologičeskogo instituta. Moskva 1913, Pl. XXXI: 15; F. Šitnikov: Otčët o raskopkah 36 kurganov v Lužskom uezde. Trudy Pskovskogo arheologičeskogo obščestva 10 (1913) 43–44 [Pskov]: noted by Sedov (1953) 198, note 9; Gurina (1953) 30, 33. I could not gain access to any of the works listed above. For the photocopy of Arcihovskij (1930) p. 100 I wish to thank Vytautas Kazakevičius. See Rabinin (1999) 79. 627 It is somewhat strange that the spread of cowries in Europe should be described as among “the Slavic peoples and their immediate neighbours (“mušlička kauri, rozšírená v ostatním slovanském světě i jeho blízkém sousedství...)”, in this order: Krumphanzlová (1974) 68. 628 Ēvalds Mugurēvičs has collected more than 7000 cowries from 155 sites from the 7th–18th centuries, among them 246 from closed grave assemblages: Mugurevič (1962) 39–45, map of distribution: 57: fig. 25; Mugurevič (1965) 56–59, 124–25. 622

Their further, possibly continuous use until the present day is supported by the stray ethnographic data. 617 Banghard (2000) 345; Banghard (2001) 17–18. 618 When evaluating the cowrie finds in the cemetery at Ljada (2103–14) Nikolaj Vladimirovič Jastrebov correctly noted that “Cypraea moneta shells had been gathered on the Maldive islands and had been employed in the east as currency from early on. Marco Polo mentioned this use of ‘porcelain snails’ in various regions of Asia and their import from India.”: Jastrebov (1893) 47. 619 Arabic caravans used the Maldive islands–India–Persia–Arabia– Egypt–Sudan–Timbuktu route in the 10th–13th centuries but from the 13th century on Venetians transported them by sea from the Maldive islands to Morocco, from there turning to the south, with caravans, to Timbuktu: Schilder (1952) 41. 620 Mugurevič (1962) 49. 621 On the cowries derived from the Caucasian cemeteries at Ladz and Dzivgis: Jastrebov (1893) 47, note 332. I had no access to Materialy po Arheologii Kavkaza I: 97. quoted by him. The trimming of the 9th–12th centuries Alanic female (?) headwear, mounted with metal fittings, derived from Zmejskaja stanica (Republic of North Ossetia–Alania, Russia)-Verhnyj Džulat catacomb cemetery is not decorated with cowries but with a strand of spherical and pear-shaped rattles (eared buttons?): Selmeczi (1992) 85, fig. 52. It was published as a man’s “helmet (šlem)” without any description: Kaloev (1973) 42: and 105: Pl. 60: 5. The 9th/ 10th–14th/15th centuries so-called spheroconical clay, glass, rarely metal dishes, in which various oils, medicine, cosmetics and other expensive fats were kept and transported, were widely spread in Asia and Eastern Europe. During the excavation of the 10th–13th centuries Armenian town, Ani there were even cowrie imitations among the sealed patterns of the dishes found: Džanpoladjan (1958) 203, 213, 204: fig. 3: strand 4, the second seal pattern from the left. 616

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads really popular among them (1839, 2075–78)637 or among the Finns (1860–61)638 either then or later. The authors of the latest encyclopaedic summary have not mentioned cowries among the jewelry and the amulets found in the generally discussed 6th–13th centuries graves. Neither are cowries mentioned with regard to reconstructions of dress as concerns the culture of Balto-Finnish Estonians, Ingrians/Ižors, Karelians, Veps and Transvolganian Čuds, of Volga-Finnish Meryas, Muromas,639 Meščers, of FinnoUgrians Mordvins and Maris in the Rjazan’-Oka region, of Kama-Finnish Komis/Zyryans and Udmurts, finally of the Ugrian and Samoyed tribes in the Ural region and Western Siberia.640 The summary mentions cowries only in connection with the archaeological material culture of the Livs and the Vots.641

that in the 11th century, besides continuing to use earlier cemeteries, many new ones were established. Cowries appeared in these cemeteries and, as a novelty, even in settlements.629 The location of sites also changed. Instead of being situated on the Latgal plateau in the eastern part of the Latgal settlement area in the eastern part of the country, along the Daugava, the majority of sites can be found in the western part of their settlement area, on the Widzeme plateau from the 12th century onwards. The change is also reflected in the observation that graves with even 10 cowries were rare in the 8th–9th centuries but from the 10th century on quantities over 20 are not uncommon with quantities of even 70–150 specimens found together in the 12th–13th centuries (1872, 1902, 1914–17). In the 11th–12th centuries, a third of the women (and girls) were buried with varying numbers of cowrie grave goods depending on how rich they were.630 The depositon of cowries was, of course, connected to developments in female wear. In the 11th–12th centuries, cowries were used in necklaces and chest ornaments with chainlets, from the end of the 12th century on. However, cowries were used in strands of beads, alternating with the beads and the pendants. The above was mainly characteristic of the archaeological material culture of the Latvian Latgal tribe of to the Baltic language family.631 It was less characteristic of the Sel (1925),632 Zemgal (1881, 1885, 1891, 1994–95) and Kurš (1910–11, 2035, 2069) tribes settled to their west toward the Baltic coast.633 The wearing of cowries is clearly connected to the amulet role associated with the hypothesised snake cult, mentioned earlier (see chapter 1.3.3.2.3.).

Another group of sites can be connected to the route and its side routes extending from the Caucasus towards the Dnepr. Cowries doubtlessly appeared among the Severyans in the Poltava and Har’kov region in the 10th century (2148–49, 2154–57) and in one of the centres along the route, in Kiev. Their eastern origin is suggested by their association with Arabic dirhams (2152–53). Another find came to light along a side route leading to the Carpathian Basin (2159) and a grave find in the outer foothills of the Carpathian mountains (2158). A find of cowries in strands of beads have contributed to the identification of a 9th/10th century burial as Hungarian. Cowries have been found northwest of Kiev, in the Dregovič area (1840) and further to the west in Polish territory (2080–85), too. In the latter case, northern Baltic influence642 and southern influence, from the Carpathian Basin is also possible. Other later finds come from a 12th/13th centuries cemetery surrounding a church in Kerč/Kerch (2151) and from a nomad Čërnye klobuki (Black Caps) grave near Kiev (2150). The rare cowrie finds from various periods in the vast area surveyed here, suggest that they were known but only sporadically used. The situation is completely different in the neighbourhood of the Carpathian Basin

It was probably the Latvians who spread the wear of cowries among their neighbours, certainly together with the beliefs connected to them. This is shown by the general use of name ‘snake’s head’ later. All this was adopted by the Balto-Finnish Livs from the Latgals around this time. The Livs inhabited the area between the Latgals and the Gulf of Riga (1866, 1873, 1898, 2038–41, 2053).634 The custom was also taken up by the Balto-Finnish Estonians who occuptied an area north of the Latgals (1858–59)635 as well as by the Balto-Finnish Vots living further to the northeast (2119).636 The latter two groups used cowries more often only from the 13th century onwards. The Latgals may have been the mediators of cowrie use for the Lithuanians settled to their south, although cowries never became

Small amounts of cowries and the beads made from them probably reached the eastern areas of Lithuania from the territory of Latvia: Kuncienë (1972) 182. 638 Kivikoski (1967) 41–43; Uino (1997) 375. 639 Finno-ugry (1987) 67–92; compare 1460. 2 specimens were mentioned from the Merya graves of the one-time province of Vladimir: Jastrebov (1893) 47, note 331. I could not gain access to Trudy 1 Arh. S’ezda, 702 referred to by him. It is interesting that there are archaeological remnants of the snake cult among the Meryas already from the 10th century: there were 5 snake depictions cut from an iron sheet under the calcified bones of the cremation burial of kurgan 134 at Vasil’ki (Vladimirskaja oblast’, Russia). There was the rest of a bronze snake on the left shoulder of a female skeleton lying under kurgan 22 of the cemetery at Romanovo (Kaliningradskaja oblast’, Russia) of 10th century, finally there were also 2 snakes cut from an iron sheet among the finds at Sarskoe gorodišče (Jaroslavskaja oblast’, Russia): Finno-ugry (1987) 77, 275: Pl. XXVII: 3, 7–8. 640 Finno-ugry (1987) 1–352, but see 28–29, 37. 641 Finno-ugry (1987) 28, 29, 37. 642 Maybe in connection with the later specimens, dated from the middle/ the end of the 11th century: Sláma (1958–59) 29–30; Szőke–Vándor (1986) 62. Regarding them merely as exotic ornaments from the Indian Ocean in women’s wear: Lega (1929) 333 (as cyprea monera L). Noting their origination from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean: Wachowski (1973) 58–59, 155. 637

Much less cowries have been found in settlements than in burials, enough to make up a necklace at the most: 83 pieces (1872), 35 (2057), 22 (1891), 20 (1907), 16 (2055), 12 (1994), 4 (2043): Mugurevič (1962) 45. In later periods even this amount was further reduced, compare 4 specimens (2209?, 2223), 3 specimens (2211): ibid. 630 Mugurevič (1962) 45–46; Mugurevič (1965) 58; compare the introduction to two cemeteries (1932–85, 1998–2023). 631 Finno-ugry (1987) 360. 632 Finno-ugry (1987) 368. 633 The summary is based on: Mugurevič (1962) 39–42; Mugurevič (1965) 56–58. 634 Finno-ugry (1987) 29. 635 Based on the kind letter of Heiki Valk; compare Valk (1999) 50–51. 636 Finno-ugry (1987) 37. 629

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin where the strong cultural influence of 10th–11th centuries Hungarians could be felt. One sign of this is the relative wealth, though not comparable with Hungary, of amulet cowries from contemporary cemeteries in the small Balcan and Middle European countries (1841–43,643 1852–54,644 1851, 2127–44,645 2079, 2145–48). Later, from the middle/ end of the 11th century they ceased tobe used to ornament Hungarian dress, although they continued to be available through trade conducted by the Arabic or Jewish merchants of the Arabic caliphate, maybe even via Byzantium, as hypothesised based on finds from Bulgaria (1844–50) and Romania (2086: from a Byzantine fortress, 2087).646

the steppe and made dishes from the horns of the captured animal.653 Then the text continues with: “And in fact I [i.e. Ibn Fadlān] have seen three large dishes654 with the king, resembling the shells from Yemen (ğaz). Of these (the dishes) he said that they had been made from the thick base of the horn of this animal. And some of the inhabitants of the (this) country have said that this (animal) was a rhinoceros.”655 The translation of the word ğaz in the quoted text as “shells from Yemen/iemenskie rakoviny’ was explained by the translator–glossist in the following ca way: ”tušbih l-ğaz l-yamānī. The ğaz‘ (collective name) – Venus shell (conque de Venus, rakovina), using another name al-yamānī [i.e. ‘from Yemen’], but also – small shells (rakoviny) used for the decoration of girdles and bridles (Kaz.).656 The older meaning of this word is, in particular, valuable little stones from Yemen. Ibn Fadlān was obviously suggesting a similarity in their shapes and not in their size.”657 This interpretation, however, disappeared in later editions; Ahmed Zeki Validi Togan’s translation published in the very same year no longer compared the 3 big dishes/trays to Venus shells/cowries but to onyx from Yemen,658 and in the annotation to this part of the text it is also stated that Ibn Fadlān could hardly have seen “ shell from Yemen” ornaments on the clothes of

2.6.2.3. On the Supposed Cowrie Data from Ibn Fadlān647 In Pirjo Uino’s work I have noted data appearing there without reference. Namely, as a member of the legation sent to the Volga Bulgars by the Abbāsid caliph of Baghdad, al-Muqtadir billāh (295–320/908–932), Ibn Fadlān mentioned cowries648 in his report on the journey which took place in 921–922.649 The notation seemed realistic as the author may well have observed these amulets on the costume of the inhabitants there as reflected among Volga Bulgarian archaeological finds (1483–85, 1508–09, 1511, 1519–21, 1526, 1530). Later, the probable place in the quotation was found by chance enabling me to verify its contents. According to Ildikó Lehtinen the traveller had noticed the “ shells from Yemen” which could be identified with Venus shells, i.e. cowries,650 on the costume of the Volga Bulgarian ruler. She also named the source of her hypothesis, one of the annators on Ibn Fadlān’s text.651 In the relevant part of the text, edited by Ignatij Julianovič Kračkovskij but translated and annotated by Andrej Petrovič Kovalevskij, who is left unmentioned,652 it is reported that the Volga Bulgars hunted rhinoceros on

The translator-glossist does not discuss the identification of the species of the animal, compare pages 208b–09a of the manuscript: Kračkovskij (1939) 76–77, 126–27: notes 724–30. Ahmed Zeki Validi Togan quoted below was not satisfied with the identification of the animal called rhinoceros in the text with the ox of the Kirghizes in the Yenisei. Based on Chinese sources and the hypothesis of a Russian traveller he considered it possible that there were rhinoceros living in the Siberian steppe and along the boundary to the forest area at the time mentioned: Validi Togan (1939) 216–17. According to the latest opinion “the royal dishes described by Ibn Fadlān could have been made either from the horn of a mammoth... or that of fossil rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis) appearing in the same area as mammoths...”: Lewiczki (1985) 185: note 408. 654 The translator-editor commented on the phrase “large dish” with the following words: “tayfūriyāt. This form tayfūriyāt was interpreted by Reinhart Pieter Dozy [Dozy 1881/1968, II: 48.] as: ‘plat creux et profond’. Yet here the word tayfūriyāh is a synonym only of the former. In Kaz. [Kazimirski 1860.] we also find the explanation ‘grand vase creux et profond’. Further meanings are ‘a special bucket in the bath’ and ‘a small military kettle (la gamelle)’.”: Kračkovskij (1939) 127: note 731. According to Ahmed Zeki Validi Togan the traveller had only exaggerated the size of the dishes with the chosen phrase since dishes carved from rhinoceros horn called qaltaq, from which they drank koumiss and other drinks, were also recorded by Mahmud al-Kāšgari: Diwān lugāt al-Turk. Ed. Kilisli Rifat. Istanbul 1918, I: 395: quoted by: Validi Togan 1939, 217. István Elter’s note: “tayfūr, tayfūrīyah ‘dish, large dish; dish with high rim’ – bucket with high rim, in which women add water to the fine clay powder used for washing their hair and bathing, sometimes to remove hair. Because of its shape (high rim) it resembles military mess-tins the most, compare Dozy (1881/1968) II: 48a.” 655 “I dejstvitel’no, ja videl u carja tri bol’ših miski,731 pohožih na iemenskie (rakoviny) ‘džaz’,732 o kotoryh (miskah) on mne soobščil, čto oni sdelany iz osnovanija roga ètogo životnogo. I soobščajut nekotorye (koe-kto) iz žitelej (ètoj) strany, čto (èto) životnoe nosorog.”: Kračkovskij (1939) 77. His note 732 is discussed in my text; compare Kračkovskij (1939) 127, 189, 184: A61. 656 Kazimirski (1860). 657 Kračkovskij (1939) 127: note 732. 658 “Ich [Ibn Fadlān] habe beim Könige drei große Präsentierteller (tayfūriye) gesehen, die dem jemenischen Onyx ähnelten; er eklärte mir, daß sie aus der Wurzel des Hornes dieses Tieres gefertigt seien. Einige von den Einwohnern des Landes haben erzählt, daß es das Nashorn sei.”: Validi Togan (1939) 77. 653

On their amulet role: Miletić (1979) 154; compare Miletić (1967) 87, 132. 644 Molluscs (cowries?, murexes?) played a role in the fertility cult of the Slavs: Marešová (1983) 54. She emphasised their role as fertility amulets based on Hrubý (1965) 362: note 68. 645 On cowries as imported objects: Bajalović–Birtašević (1960) 39. Milica Janković was mistaken when saying that neck ornaments made up of beads and cowries had been present in the area of the cemetery at Prahovo (2137–38) discussed by her from the Avar/Slav Period until the Late Middle Ages. In her list there were cemeteries with cowries (2128–30, 2132–36) and ones seemingly lacking them, based on the publication, without any distinction; the latter being: Donji-Milanovac (opšt. Majdanpek, Serbia)-Veliki Gradac: Minić (1970); Lešje (opšt. Paraćin, Serbia)-Vrelo: Milošević (1962); Janković (1973–1974) 239. 646 Tomičić (1990a) 175, 189; “Cyprea moneta vezuje se svakako uz Levant.”: Tomičić (1990b) 117–18; Tomičić (1992) 117: fig. 3: Type 41; Tomičić (1994–95) 76; Tomičić (1997) 81, 89. 647 This sub-chapter was written by István Elter and myself, it was published separately: Elter–Kovács (1998/2000). I wish to thank István Elter for his kind help and co-operation. 648 “Arabialainen tutkimusmatkailija Ibn Fadlan mainitsi kaurisimpukat matkakuvauksessaan v. 921.”: Uino (1997) 375. 649 Róna-Tas (1997) 68–70. 650 “In Zentralrußland werden Gehäuse von Kaurischnecken schon im Jahre 921 erwähnt. Ibn-Fadlan beobachtete ‘jemenitische Muscheln’ an der Kleidung des Herrschers der Wolga-Bulgaren.”: Lehtinen (1994) 118. 651 Lehtinen (1994) 322: note 6: referring to Kračkovskij (1939) 77, 127: note 732. 652 Validi Togan (1939) XXXIV; Lewiczki (1985) 15. 643

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads the Volga Bulgarian ruler659 because the girdle (ornaments) mentioned by him only resemble onyx from Yemen and were made of rhinoceros horn.660 Soon Andrej Petrovič Kovalevskij changed his mind, too and in the completely revised edition published in 1956, this time under his name, knowing Zeki Validi Togan’s work,661 he also referred to the onyx from Yemen and the rhinoceros identified as a mammoth.662 Comparing this with other Arabic sources he even noted that Ibn Fadlān might actually have seen at the Bulgar ruler dishes made of horn or the skull of mammoths663 which had a characteristic pattern664 and he also mentioned girdle ornaments with similar materials and patterns.665 The same opinion concerning these dishes

was later put forward by Marius Canard666 and most recently by Tadeusz Lewiczki667 as well. These scholars gave the following reasonable explanation for why the dishes wee compared with onyx from Yemen (al-ğazc al jamānī): “Ibn Fadlān could have based the comparison of dishes made from the horn or the bone of a rhinoceros with artefacts made of onyx from Yemen based on the similarity between the veins on the polished surface of the onyx type named here and the pattern of the (polished?) section of the horn of a rhinoceros. Ahmad Tūsī [Nadžib Hamadani] added in a note supplementing Ibn Fadlān’s text that black and white patterns shaped like humans, birds, lions or fish appear on the cross-section of the horns of Javanese rhinoceros, processed locally, into valuable works of art. A similar observation was made by Ibn Hurdādbeh as well.”668 Based on the above, it is evident that Ibn Fadlān was comparing the patterns in the dishes with onyx from Yemen. The only question remaining is how cowries first came to be mentioned in the commentary at all.

Lehtinen (1994) 118. Ahmad Tūsi – more precisely Nadžib Hamadani, compare Kovalevskij (1956) 307 – quoted a lost variant of Ibn Fadlān’s work at several places in his work written between 1173 and 1193, among others the part on the dishes/trays made from rhinoceros horn – Validi Togan (1939) IX–X – in the following way: “Ich bin zu einem König gegangen (und) bei ihm habe ich drei Präsentierteller gesehen die dem Onyx von Jemen ähnlich waren. Er (der König) sagte mir: Diese sind aus dem Horn des Nashornen verfertigt wurden. Aus diesem Horn macht man Gürtel, die die Könige für teueres Geld kaufen...”: Validi Togan (1939) 77: note 1. In the comments on this paragraph he did not explain the similarity to onyx, compare ibid. 216–17: Exk. § 74b. In the land of the Indian king named Dharma/Rahma people buy the belt-ornaments with animal images made of rhinoceros’ horn in China for cowries (bi’l-wadc): ����� Simon (2007) note 275 (pp. 78–79). 661 Kovalevskij (1956) 6, 303: the entry “Validi Togan”. 662 “Pravo že, ja videl u carja tri bol’ših miski,625 pohožih na jemenskij oniks,626 o kotoryh on mne soobščal, čto oni sdelany iz osnovanija roga ètogo životnogo.627”: Kovalevskij (1956) 140, 226: notes 625–27. 625 “Tayfūrīyāt – Based on the Arabic dictionaries [Kračkovskij (1939) note 731; ] I believe that they are [deep] dishes [miski] and not [flat] ones [bljuda]. It is really quite difficult to make a large flat dish from the skull of a fossil animal.” 626 “al-ğazc al-yamāni – here obviously used with its older meaning, as the semi-precious stone onyx.” 627 Andrej Petrovič Kovalevskij considered the animal a mammoth, maybe a fossil rhinoceros and added that “rog takogo životnogo ves’ma dlinnyj i vpolne dostigaet ‘trëx loktej’. Ibn Fadlān mog videt’ u carja miski, izgotovlennye iz čerepa takogo ili analogičnogo iskopaemogo životnogo. Konečno, živye nosorogi v desjatom veke v Vostočnoj Evrope uže ne suščestvovali.” He dealt with the identification of the animal called rhinoceros with a mammoth in detail, even based on archaeological finds. He also pointed out that they may have actually come across the bones of a fossil rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis), as old as the mammoths are. Here we cannot expound this subject, compare ibid. 61–67, 139–40, 227–28: note 628. 663 The word hutu in other Arabic sources may have meant both: Kovalevskij (1956) 62, 227: note 627, 227–28: note 628 (p. 228). 664 According to Ibn Hurradādbih/Hurdādbeh (820–911), whose work was written in two variants, in 846 and in 885, the section of the horn of a rhinoceros displayed various patterns, motifs resembling humans, animals, fish, peacocks and other birds. “It is obvious that Ibn Fadlān also had in mind these motifs when he compared the material of the mentioned dishes with onyx from Yemen. Although he talks of the skull and not the horn, Nadžib Hamadani [in his version, compare the next note] has the king mention the horn. It is evident that in the complete text there were dishes described with their sections resembling onyx... Onyx is a kind of agate or chalcedony which has black-and-white stripes. As far as I know, the comparison between the bone of a rhinoceros and this precious stone has not been made by any others apart from Ibn Fadlān. Thus it is probable that such an original comparison suggests that he had actually seen these bone objects at the Bulgarian court.”: Kovalevskij (1956) 227–28: note 628 (228), 284: N. HAM., Z, “NOSOROG”. 665 The work of the 12th century Persian writer Nadžib Hamadani includes excerpts of Ibn Fadlān’s text otherwise not preserved, among others about the dishes mentioned: “Ahmed ibn-Fadlan govorit: Ja otpravilsja k [odnomu] carju, [i] videl u nego tri bol’šie miski, pohožie na jemenskij oniks. On mne skazal: to, iz čego sdelany, – rog nosoroga [“karkadanna”]. Iz ètogo roga delajut pojasa, kotorye cari pokupajut za bol’šuju cenu... A rog [nosoroga] ljudi iščut [trebujut] do takoj stepeni, čto [za nego] berut tysjaču dinarov červonnogo zolota. Cari 659 660

Although the word ğazc means onyx in Modern Arabian,669 a range of dictionaries also list the old ‘Venus shell’ meaning, too, which may have evolved from a comparison670 with its black and white pattern also characteristic of onyx.671 This explanation has its origin, according to Edward William Lane, from the dictionary of the Dutch Arabist, Jacobus Golius (1596–1667), who naturally knew the meaning of the Arabian word for ‘onyx’ but who also listed the ‘muraena, Venus shell’ explanation.672 It is possible that the Dutch scholar really was referring to some cowrie species delajut iz nego pojasa. Esli [ego] raskryt’, to iz nego vyhodit naružu izobrazenie: čelovek, ili lev, ili ryba. I esli fon roga belyj, to [risunok] pokazyvaetsja čërnyj, a esli osnova roga čërnaja, to pokazyvaetsja belyj…”: Kovalevskij (1956) 154: Z. “NOSOROG”, 227–28: note 628 (227), 284: N. HAM., Z, “NOSOROG”. This is further strengthened by other Arabic sources. According to the notes of the merchant Sulayman from 851 “žiteli Kitaja vydelyvajut iz nih [rogov nosoroga] pojasa, i cena [odnogo] pojasa v strane Kitaja dostigaet dvuh tysjač dinarov i treh tysjač i bolee sootvetstvenno krasote risunki.” The same was reported by Ibn Hurradādbih (820–911), al-Masūdi (893–956), al-Birūni (+1048) and other authors: ibid. note 628 (p. 228). In the land of the Indian king named Dharma/Rahma people buy the belt-ornaments with animal images made of rhinoceros’ horn in China for cowries (bi’l-wadc): ����� Simon (2007) note 275 (pp. 78–79). 666 “J’ai vu chez le roi trois grands plats d’une matière ressemblant à l’onyx yéménite, et il m’apprit qu’ils avaient été faits avec la base de la corne de cet animal. Des gens du pays m’ont dit que cet animal était le karkadan [rhinocéros].”: Canard (1983) 52. 667 “Widziałem u króla trzy wielkie misy (tayfūriya) przypominajace jemeński onyks; [król] objaśnił mnie, że są one zrobione z nasady rogu tego zwierzęcia. Niektórzy mieszkańcy tego kraju uważają, że to nosorożec.”: Lewiczki (1985) 108. 668 Lewiczki 1985, 184–85: note 407, 238: notes 711–12. 669 Compare muğazzac: marble-like, veined, gaudy; spotted (stone): Wehr (1979) 147a. 670 Phrases derived from the pattern of onyx: muğazzac ‘triped, striped like a tiger’ e.g. a horse, ‘nerved’ e.g. a tree; lahm muğazzac ‘bacon-like meat with layers of meat and fat alternating’; ruhām muğazzac ‘marble with arabesque inlay from the same material of a different color’ etc., compare Lane (1980) I: 419–20. 671 Agate is made up of layers of chalcedony (SiO2) and opal (SiO2+ water). Its variants of different colors and ribbon-like patterns were given separate names, thus onyx is the kind of agate which is made up of parallel black and white layers: Bauer–Bouška–Tvrz (1989) 132; Pellant–Taylor (1998) 88–89. 672 He added to the explanation of the word that “here rendered by Golius ‘Muroena seu concha Veneris,’ though he also gives what I regard as the

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin by the name Venus shell since that used to be their scientific name although exactly which one he meant is unclear. It is, however, certain that this explanation could not have been based either on the typical shape of cowries673 or on the pattern of one or more species believed to be comparable to that of onyx, as no such species exist.674 Still, this meaning lived on even in the works of Reinhart Pieter Dozy675 and Georg Wilhelm Freytag (1781–1861).676

grave finds in the later decades of the 12th century and no evidence either of how they were worn. After a long break, cowries appeared again in the 13th century cemeteries of the Jazygians who had, by that time, moved to the Carpathian Basin from the East European steppe. According to the traditional view,679 the nomadic Jazygians, who spoke a dialect of Alanian from the Eastern-Central Iranian language family, were driven from their home in the northern foothills of the Caucasus and the Black Sea by the Mongols. They probably began to settle in Hungary in the 13th century. They may have appeared in small numbers perhaps together with the Cumanians680 in 1239 and 1243 or later, around 1283 when the Byzantine emperor Andronikos II (1282–1328) settled 10,000 Jazygians from Wallachia within the empire to protect the borders. Still later, they may have also come from Moldova. It was probably in the 14th century that, following some disruption, they arrived in Jazygia, i.e. to the area of present day Jász-NagykunSzolnok county along the Zagyva and Tarna Rivers.681

In conclusion it may be stated that Ibn Fadlān’s remark about the dishes and the girdle fittings made of mammoth or rhinoceros bone/horn seen with the Volga Bulgar emperor referred to onyx from Yemen. Thus, the text cannot be interpreted as being a mention of Volga Bulgar cowrie wear. Ibn Fadlān may have seen cowries among this population but was not reporting on it in his travel account. 2.7. 2160–2269. Cowries in the Jazygian Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin (13th–14th Centuries) and Their Parallels (12th/13th–14th/15th Centuries)

László Selmeczi revived research into their material culture. The excavation of Jazygian sites which had already been published (2161–87) or were so far unpublished (2160, 2188), is also connected with his name. Cemetery I at Jászberény-Négyszállás (2161–87) was probably opened in the middle of the 13th century, with a church built there a century later. It was probably used until the last third of the 15th century.682 In the particular archaeological material from the burials, cowrie amulets proved to be one of the object types signalling a Jazygian ethnic background.683 The majority of the cowries discussed below came from this cemetery. The other Jazygian finds are from a disturbed grave assemblage (2189) and two unpublished cemeteries (2160, 2188), supplemented by the stray finds

2.7.1. 2160–90. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin The latest cowries were found everywhere in early Arpadian Hungary in pagan cemeteries of the common people which were still used until the beginning of the 12th century. 677 They were dated here based on accompanying coins such as with denars of Bela I (1609) and Ladislaus I the Saint (1732). Cowries found in Christian churchyard cemeteries used from the 11th century on were found with coins of Ladislaus I the Saint (1830), Stephen II? (1831) and from the time of Koloman–Geza II. (1095–1161 – 1690).678 There is no evidence of cowries appearing as only correct signification, namely ‘onyx’.”: Lane (1980) I: 419, referring to: Golius (1653). Muroena possibly refers to snake-like carnivorous sea fish (Murenidae), compare Dudich–Loksa (1987) 539. According to the kind notice of Zoltán Korsós, the director of the Zoological department of the Hungarian Museum of Natural Sciences, murenas which can change their color do not have an onyx-like pattern. 673 Thus A. P. Kovalevskij’s note saying that Ibn Fadlān was suggesting that the dishes and cowries were similar in their shape, not in their size, is mistaken, compare Kračkovskij (1939) 127: note 732. 674 Several sub-species of Cypraea palmadusta (Iredale 1930) have a light zigzag pattern against a dark background: e.g. Zigzag cowries native in the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific Ocean (Cypraea palmadusta ziczac Linné, 1758) as well as Dawn cowries native along the east coast ˝of Africa (Cypraea palmadusta diluculum diluculum Reeve, 1845) and the Unblemished diluculum/Cypraea palmadusta diluculum virginalis Schilder et Schilder 1938: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 153, 352–53: Pl. 64: 1–19; 153, 350–51: Pl. 63: 1–20, 24–26; 154, 350–51: Pl. 63: 21–23, 31–31. Based on their habitats even Jacobus Golius may have seen such specimens but their pattern does not resemble the ribbon-like pattern characteristic of onyx. 675 “Conque de Vénus, Bc.” [= Ellious Bocthor: Dictionnaire françaisarabe. Paris 1864.3]: Dozy (1881/1968) I: 192. 676 1. Al-haraz al-yamānī “Glass bead from Yemen”, i.e. “Sphaerula seu Conchula veneris Iemanica, albo nigroque distincta: ita ut illi oculus comparetur apud poëtas”; ‘small Venus’ sphere or shell from Yemen with black-and-white pattern, due to which [Arabic] poets compare the eye to them’, 2. with the ğizc reading: “etiam Onyx (gemma), imprimis Arabica” ‘onyx (precious stone), originally Arabian onyx’: Freytag (1975) I: 274. 677 Kovács (1997a) 198, 292–94; Gaál (2002) 215. 678 Considering among the coins in the grave only the mint certainly (?) issued by Hungarian king Koloman (1095–1116).

Most recently it was János Makkay who hypothesised that the Jazygians were the descendants of Sarmatian-Alans, present in the Carpathian Basin until 568 and that they also retained their language: Makkay (1997) 54–55; compare Györffy (1987) 60. 680 Repeating László Selmeczi’s earlier statement – Selmeczi (1992ab) 156 = Selmeczi (1981) 175 – no cowries have been found in the Cumanian archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin. I have knowledge of 1 snail, not from the Great Plain but from Transdanubia: Perkáta (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Kőhalmi dűlő, Grave 171 from the late 13th–early 15th centuries segment of a Cumanian cemetery including 291 graves: the grave goods of the burial of a 30–55 years old woman remaining after it was almost completely destroyed in the modern age: a perforated dog tooth amulet in the region of the left knee and a perforated fossil snail (Clavatula sp.) next to the left pelvis, length: 4.6 cm. King Stephen I Museum of Székesfehérvár: Hatházi (1984–85) 661, 672: Pl. 4: 2. For the details I would like to thank the author who granted me access to Hatházi (1996); Hatházi (2004) 42, 121–22, 323: pl. 11: 171/1. 681 Györffy (1990); compare Kósa–Filep (1975) 121–22; Györffy (1987) 60–63; Pálóczi Horváth (1989) 54–57; Kouznetsov–Lebedynsky (1997) 132. 682 Selmeczi (1992) 15. 683 László Selmeczi has pointed out that the finds from cemetery I at Jászberény-Négyszállás display many archaic traces in the way certain object types are employed (women’s caps decorated with fittings, belts with a mid-shaft buckle, disks with blow-holed pattern, crystal beads, cowries and, rings), to hang the tools used by a nomadic herdsman (knives, needle cases etc.) from the belt, suggesting that the community, probably already converted to Christianity, still retained many of its ethnic traditions: Selmeczi (1992) 94. 679

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads from a non-Jazygian burial dated to the first half of the 13th century (2190).

where Jazygian cowrie amulets have appeared, though it is the richest. Some further data, unfortunately, comes from so far unpublished sites. The presence of another Jazygian cemetery in the eastern end of the same settlement is only known from a list. The cemetery was established in the place of the destroyed Arpadian Period churchyard cemetery: the cemetery (II) of the parish church was constructed in the second half of the 13th century–first half of the 14th century. László Selmeczi has brought to light 568 graves. These come from the entire time the cemetery was in use from between the end of the 13th century and the 16th century. Here, there were an unpublished number of cowries from a single burial (2188).690 A Jazygian cemetery was also opened at Jászágó in the second half of the 13th century, with a church being built there as late as in the 15th century. An unpublished number of burials contained an unknown number of cowries (2160). Based on the similarity of the remaining finds, among them 4 perforated Money cowries from a disturbed grave (2189) may also be part of the Jazygian material. Finally, a stray assemblage (2190) dated to the first half of the 13th century, before the Jazygian arrived is regarded as the remains of a grave. It seems to have contained one of the perforated Money cowries which was rusted to an also perforated copper coin of Bela III. here do not seem to be cowrie finds associated with coins minted between the rule of Stephen II and Bela III (1690?), although there were Byzantine type copper coins of the latter ruler in graves 64 and 86 of the Jazygian cemetery I at Jászberény-Négyszállás. There was also this coin in grave 59 in the Cumanian cemetery at Karcag (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)Orgondaszentmiklós.691 The coin accompanying the above cowrie may also have been put in the ground at that late date.

Given the above, it is evident that all of the Jazygian cowries are almost certainly grave finds. All of their former owners were probably women, the majority adults (2162?–63?, 2164, 2169?–73?, 2175–76, 2178, 2183, 2184?, 2186– 87), although conspicuously many children died between infancy and puberty.684 It may be no accident that in all three double burials the cowrie had been given to the (small) child.685 In the majority of the burials, in 6 women’s and 6 children’s graves, there was only one cowries each. In the other burials the number of cowries ranged between 2 specimens and 8, so that, no clear differences could be observed between the women and the girls.686 Since all were small cowries, it is quite possible that the majority or all of them were Money cowries, perforated at the anterior end.687 Thus, it is understandable that in 21 out of 26 cases with sufficient data, they were strung between beads, i.e. from 1–8 specimens were probably elements in strands of beads. In some cases, however, it may be that only the shell itself was strung on a thread or perhaps sewn on headwear (2162, 2166–67: 1 specimen, 2172: 1 specimen each, 2178: 1 specimen each, 2186). The excavator found only cowrie associated with a small child to be placed on its pubis (2180). Placing cowries on the genitalia strengthened the otherwise evident conclusion that these shells were not worn as ornaments but as amulets by the owner and that they were put in their graves as such.688 Compared with the 55 cowries found next to 26 skeletons, only a very few amulet types were found in a total of 4 graves.689 This reflects the wide spread custom of wearing cowries and the belief that they their powers were effective. Cemetery I, excavated at the western end of the settlement at (Jászberény)-Négyszállás (2161–87), is not the only site

The churches of the Jazygians although acquainted with Christianity but still retained pagan elements.692 The churches built in the cemeteries in the second half of the 13th century–first half of the 14th century (2161–88) and in the 15th century (2160) reflect the conversion of the community to Christianity. Thus, it is not unreasonable that the latest appearance of cowries, regarded as pagan amulets dated with coins, was at the turn of the 14th/15th centuries (2172, 2173?, 2178). The disappearance of cowries as an element in Jazygian dress can be counted with roughly from this time forward 693 as cowries were not adopted into Hungarian folk costume either.

Lacking anthropological data, one can draw conclusions on the sex of the deceased only from the height of the skeletons: 57 cm (2168), 60 cm (2179), 80 cm (2165), 90 cm (2174, 2182), 100 cm (2180), 115–120 cm (2166–67, 2177, 2185), 122 cm (2181). 685 Cowries were always placed next to the child in double burials of a woman and an infant/a small child (2179, 2182) or of an adolescent and a child (2185). 686 The first data refers to women’s grave goods, the second to children’s: 8 pieces (–; 2169), 5 (2183; –), 4 (–; 2166), 3 (2164, 2172, 2175; 2168) and 2 (2169, 2176, 2178, 2186–87; 2177, 2179). 687 In spite of all efforts on both sides, it did not prove possible to examine the shells with the exception of two specimens. Thus, it was not possible to identify the species. The illustrator of the publication, Árpád Szűcs, depicted the cowries with their serrated ventral side up, but even so the perforation on the dorsum can be observed in most cases. I could not decide for some specimens from some graves it was not possible to decide whether they had had their dorsum removed or whether their dorsum was merely fragmented (2164, 2166, 2169–70, 2173, 2175, 2179, 2186): Selmeczi (1992) 106: pl. II: 38, 107: pl. III: 62 (to the right), 109: pl. V: 36 (to the left), 109: pl. V: 50, 113: pl. IX: 10, 114: pl. X: 28 (the very left one), 117: pl. XIII: 25, 119: pl. XV: 1 (to the right). Two Money cowries with removed dorsi (size: 1.6x1.1–1.7x1.2 cm) from this cemetery are held in the Damjanich János Museum of Szolnok without an inventory number and thus, cannot be connected to a particular grave. The 4 cowries from one complex and the 2 cowries from another also proved to be perforated Money cowries (2189–90). 688 Selmeczi (1992) 89–90; Selmeczi (1992ac) 206–08. 689 Grave 1: 1 fish vertebra, Graves 87 and 185: 1 astragalus of a rabbit in each, Grave 337: unidentifiable animal bone: Selmeczi (1992) 87. 684

Selmeczi (1992ac) 208, compare 201–03; Selmeczi (1992) 15. Selmeczi (1992aa) 103–04, 105: figs 39–41; Selmeczi (1992ab) 147. 692 Selmeczi (1992ac) 203–09. László Selmeczi also believed that the Jazygians who settled here were mostly already Christianized although they had to be converted to the Roman faith from their Eastern (Byzantine) religion: Selmeczi (1992ad) 217–18. 693 It did not prove possible to demonstrate whether the continuous supply cowries to the Jazygians in the Carpathian Basin was disrupted or not or whether the disappearance of these amulets of theirs was partly a consequence of the lack of supply. 690 691

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin 2.7.2. 2191–269. The Parallels of the Finds from the Carpathian Basin 2.7.2.1. The Finds The vast majority of the, to me, incalculable number of ancient cowries, are unpublished. There may be several hundred specimens in at least 79 assemblages694 at 77 sites outside the Carpathian Basin, from Denmark to Georgia and from Sweden to Egypt, which came from burials. An additonal number of cowries came from a few disturbed burials (2194). The lack of (accessible) data on the Baltic finds has made these specimens less verifiable than the earlier ones. The majority of Latvian sites cannot be more precisely dated than sometime between the 13th and the 18th centuries. Furthermore, no classification is available of the 1700 cowries from 44 cemeteries in Estonia based on the find sites.695 Compared to the number of cemeteries there has been an increase in the proportion of settlement finds. This may reflect intensification in the trade in cowries. The Latvian sites with cowries ceased to outnumber the others (2195, 2202–04, 2231–32, 2236, 2244 and 2209, 2211, 2223). I have again found one “hoard complex”: although unusual, it is not impossible that at least 37 cowries alone were hidden in a clay dish buried in the ground (2192). Cowrie grave goods probably were given to women, as there has been no reference made to men in the data accessible to me. However, rarely was a distinction made in the literature between women and girls (2191, 2233, 2249, 2252). Based on the few pieces of adequately described data, it seems that fewer cowries were needed for various costumes than before and all these were small species in the European area.696 However, there may yet be some surprises in the, as yet, unpublished material. For example, the 154 (?) shells counted in a strand of beads (2197) from Estonia on the illustration are conspicuously greater in number than the largest amount of 40 shells, so far published and also more than the numbers given in general.697 The majority of the identified shells and the ones published at least with an illustration show or seem to show Money cowries perforated at their anterior end although there may have been some specimens with removed dorsi (2192, 2194, 2222, 2238, 2258) and some Ringed cowries too (2195, 2203, 2253?). I have found shells of other species mainly in publications on settlement sites outside

Europe: Tiger cowries (2195, 2202, 2204) and unidentified specimens (2195). Probably small cowries were mainly strung in strands of beads (2191, 2197, 2233–36, 2238, 2241–42, 2248, 2251, 2252?, 2264) or strung (perhaps sewn?) onto neck ornaments composed of beads, little tubes, rattles, pendants, coins etc., sometimes observed in situ in symmetrical arrangements (2214, 2218, 2220, 2222, 2227, 2230, 2239–40, 2250, 2258, 2262–63, 2266). Other ways of wearing them have also been observed in the region of the head (2193), on the chest (2247) or hung on a separate loop (2257) and as earring pendants of earrings, discussed below (2254, 2258, 2260, 2265). The silver cowrie imitations on the 14th century Mary-gown from Halberstadt (2200) represent a special exception. This find shows that cowries were known in areas where they no longer appeared in the archaeological material, while their Christian cultural context corresponds to their presence in grave complexes in Christian churchyards elsewhere (2191, 2194, 2214). In spite of that, there is hardly any doubt of their role as pagan amulets, indicated by the accompanying finds, also considered as amulets. These other amulet types vary very little, comprising mainly rattles (2218, 2222, 2227, 2239–40, 2249–50, 2262–63), although amber (2220) and astragalus pendants (2234), human-shaped amulets (2247), coins (2230) and also crosses (2214, 2240). The fact that the linguistic and later the ethnographic data on the Baltic snake cult connected to cowries can be traced back as early as the 13th century also supports their amulet role.698 2.7.2.2 Evaluation The wear of small cowries, more precisely probably of Money cowries, then, survived on in 13th–15th centuries Eastern Europe. Hungary ceased to be the centre of their use and Estonia became aligned with centre in Latvia. I have only found sporadic material from areas outside Eastern Europe, from Netherlands and Sweden (2231, 2269) down to the area of the Mediterranean (2195, 2201–04). However, the presence of cowrie imitations from Germany (2200) attests to the survival of shell amulets until the present, now no longer in the archaeological material, but in the form of a somewhat later goldsmith’s decorative art and on ethnographic objects spread over an area much larger than Europe. I could not add anything to the lines on the transport routes in the previous chapter and the shortcomings of my data collection have also become conspicuous. I have hardly been able to obtain any information over such vast areas. Eastern European cowrie finds partly came through the Volga route and from non-Russian cultural contexts. Such contexts include the area of the Mongolian-Kipčak Golden Horde (middle of the 13th century–end of the 14th century), from both settlements (2244) and female graves (2247,

Including the silver cowrie imitations (2200) as well. There are hardly any finds before 1225 (1202, 1858–59). The majority date to between that date and the middle of the 15th century. They are known in smaller numbers from the 16th century and the last specimens date from the beginning of the 18th century: Valk (1999) 51; additional data based on the kind letter from Heiki Valk. 696 The numbers given: 46 pieces (2240), 40 (2250), 30 (2261?), 28 (2258), 18 (2238, 2264), 15 (2222), 8 (2214?, 2230), 7 (2234), 6 (2251), 5 (2242, 2268?), 4 (2236), 3 (2235, 2266), 2 (2191, 2239, 2247, 2249, 2254, 2257). 697 “In Estonia, cowrie shells (...41 cemeteries, ca. 1750 finds) occur most frequently in south-eastern regions... The number of shells in the necklaces may range from a few to about a hundred specimens.”: Valk (1999) 51. He kindly informed me in a letter that this was the largest number which had been found in an Estonian grave, which normally contain less than 50 specimens. 694 695

698

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Mugurevič (1962) 46, note 19.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2253).699 Cowries also appear in cemeteries of various Finno-Ugrian peoples, the Mordvins (2248),700 the KomiPermis (2238, 2268) and the Meščers (2257). Nevertheless, the majority come from the land of the Novgorod Slovenes and are traces of the presence of Balto-Finnish Vots among the Slavs701 in the Slavic kurgans (2237, 2243, 2245–46, 2249–52, 2255, 2259–61, 2266)702 and žalnik703 cemeteries (2239–42, 2254, 2256, 2262–64). Naturally, they were also found in separate Vot cemeteries (2258, 2265). It is chiefly these earrings, decorated with from 3–11 sheet metal spheroids on their ring as well as cowries suspended on them, often from small wire loops (2254, 2258, 2260, 2265) in addition to the neck ornaments composed only or also of cowries which are regarded as signs of a Vot ethnic background (Fig. 55). In the 12th–13th centuries these earring often had no cowries suspended on them. However, with the decrease and disappearance of sheet spheroids, more cowrie pendants were suspended from these earrings. This form is also observed in the 18th–19th centuries ethnographic material.704

composed of beads, rattles and cowries (2205–97).705 Among the Estonians, the 13th–15th centuries was the high period in the wear of cowries and of their use as grave goods in burials in village and churchyards also tending towards Christianity (2196–97). This was the time when they adopted these amulets706 and the beliefs connected to the snake cult from their Latvian neighbours. Cowries did not spread among the Aukštajty and Lithuanian tribes of the Lithuanians and only appeared in the žemajty tribe in 14th–15th centuries burials (2230).707 Besides the Volga route cowries may also have passed along the Kiev route through the Caucasus or branching off in that direction. In this way, a continuous supply was insured for cowrie wear among the peoples of the Caucasus, indicated by an disproportionately small number of specimens (2198–99). The rare cowries from the land of the Krivičs (2191, 2267) may have been obtained from the Baltic from this direction, too. Compared with the previous period, the archaeological cowrie material from the Balkans sharply decreased. The survival of their wear among the Wallachians is only indicated by a few settlement finds (2232, 2236) and the material from 3 graves from one cemetery (2233–35). The Bulgarian grave find (2193) was thus rendered even more important because an unrivalled “cowrie hoard” of the period was also found here (2192). Its existence suggests that many more cowries were probably circulated via trade than is estimated based on the number of excavated finds. Croatia seemed to have been the destination of the route. Here, stray finds from a churchyard (2194) show that one or more cowries were given as grave goods and that their wear was tolerated by the Church.

The 13th–16th centuries was the time of the emergence of the Latvian nation under German rule. The dress of the inhabitants still preserved earlier pagan traditions. As a sign of this, pagan objects were still placed into graves of the half pagan–half Christian village cemeteries of the period as late as the 15th century. One third of the female burials, among other things, contained neck ornaments

The appearance of cowries is all the more interesting as there were no rows of large beads in the 12th–14th centuries Kipčak burials of the Southern Ural region. There were only rows made up of 1–2 large beads with eyes and spherical, barrel-shaped or too little biconical, white or yellow, glass and stone beads with cowries strung among them: Ivanov– Kriger (1988) 18, 17: fig. 4: 12, 35: fig. 11: 32. 700 Money cowries were also common in strands of beads in the 13th century archaeological material of the Mordvins: Smirnov (1952) 132. 701 Neck ornaments characteristic of the archaeological material of Novgorodian Slovenes were not particularly rich, mainly made up of glass and glass paste beads, less frequently of carnelian and mountain crystal, exceptionally from copper beads. Cowries are generally not present: Sedov (1982) 178. 702 Pronin (1988) 38, 40. 703 For an explanation of the word see 2239–42. This burial type of the Novgorodian Slovenes started to evolve in the northwestern part of Russia at the end of the 12th century. It spread into the region of Leningrad/St.Petersburg, Pskov and Novgorod in the 13th century. Its heyday were the 14th–15th centuries but it even survived until the early 16th century: Sedov (1982) 180–82, map 32; Pronin (1988) 12, 43, 56: fig. 11: 4. 704 Sedov (1953) 195–96, 197: fig. 2: II. 2–3. Ring pendants with many beads (7) and cowries (8) appear among the Slavic (1–5) and Vot (6–11) finds on the map of objects characteristic for the given ethnic group which he drew up: ibid. 194/195: fig. 1. The sites, including the 9 sites with cowries, are not numbered and could only be collected from among the finds which appear on the plates at the end of the study (2239–42, 2245, 2249, 2255, 2258–61, 2267): Finno-ugry (1987) 35, 37. Earlier on V. A. Kol’čatov debated the description of this process saying that there was a difference in the way the rings on earrings with many beads and earrings with cowries worked. On the other hand, he pointed out that the way the disk beads of earrings with cowries were fixed, namely with a wire twisted around the ring, did not resemble the rings signalling the presence of Vots/Ižors in the Ižor plateau but the 12th–13th centuries Finnish presence in the district of Vologda and Leningrad. For this reason he questioned both the dating and the identification of the ethnic belonging by Valentin Vasil’evič Sedov: Kol’čatov (1984) 172–76. 699

2.8. 2270–94. Cowries in the Southern Slav Archaeological Material of the Carpathian Basin and Their Eastern Parallels (16th–17th Centuries)708 The isolated wearing of cowries among the Jazygians in the Carpathian Basin came to an end by the turn of the 14th/15th centuries without it being adopted by the Hungarians or other inhabitants of the Hungarian kingdom, even temporarily. Its re-appearance is again connected to a foreign ethnic group, to the settlement in the region of the Southern Slavs (the Iflachs, the Serbs and, the Croats) in the 16th century.

Finno-ugry (1987) 378–79. There is a cowrie necklace with two strands on the drawing of the reconstruction of 13th century women’s wear: Latvijas (1974) 308: fig. 200. 706 “In Estonia, cowrie shells ... occur most frequently in southeastern regions. The map of their distribution indicates that they were most likely imported via Eastern Latvia.”: Valk (1999) 50–51. “V XIV–XV vekah ženščiny často nosili takže ožerel’e iz rakoviny kauri.”: Moora (1960) 19, 21: fig. 10; Mugurevič (1962) 48: note 34; compare Sedov (1953) 198, note 8. 707 Finno-ugry (1987) 385. Pagan and Christian cemeteries became separated in Lithuania only from the middle of the 16th century on. The graves of the latter contain rather uncharacteristic amulets: ibid. 708 Also published as a separate study: Kovács (2002). 705

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin Their amulet role connected to the female sex712 cannot be doubted, not even when they appear among the grave goods given to boys. The excavator Attila Gaál, carried out research into the parallels of the burials rites found at this cemetery. He found a similar ritual practiced among the Croats and the Bosnians in Baranya county in spite of the 300–350 year difference in their dates. Namely, “in case of children’s burials the head ornaments of the mother were put on the child’s head. This explains why head ornaments were found in the boys’ graves and why we find evidently quite valuable head ornaments in the graves of very small children – what is more, mainly in their graves.”713

Fig. 55. Earrings with cowrie pendants from Vot cemeteries of 12th–13th c. – after Sedov (1953) 197: fig. 2: 2–3

The Iflachs or Vlachs, i.e. the Romanised and then Slavicised, Orthodox descendants of the originally IllyrianCeltic native population were shepherds. They settled in the Southern Transdanubian areas conquered by the Turks, together with the Serbs and the Muslim Bosnians, in the middle of the 16th century, probably leaving this area following the liberation wars of 1686. Attila Gaál, who published their cemetery at Dombóvár (2276–81), accepted the opinion of the anthropologist Kinga K. Éry on their origins. She suggested that this population has come from the area of Crna Gora, or perhaps from the neighboring mountainous areas of Greece or Albania and had lived in isolation in Hungary for 120 years.714

2.8.1. 2270–87. The Finds from the Carpathian Basin The 97 cowries from 18 features on only 7 sites are from burials (2270, 2276–81, 2284–86), from assemblages excavated inexpertly which can be regarded as grave complexes (2271–73, 2282), from stray cemetery finds (2287) and from surface collection (2275, 2283). That they had once been worn by young women or girls (2270, 2279, 2281) cannot be questioned, although there were 2 skeletons identified by an anthropologist as boys among them.709 The graves and object groups contained from 1–14 cowries,710 with a surprising, unprecedented mixture of the two small species711 observed even on the very same costume, which suggests their wearers’ lack of concern as how the shells were gathered or selected. All the cowries present as grave goods had without exception been worked, more or less, by removing the dorsum of the shell, a custom rarely practised after the Scythian Period. This manufacturing style was so pronounced that that even the cowrie mounted by being banded with bronze wire had been worked in this way (2282). The cowries had probably been transported there intact, as suggested by 7 unworked specimens collected as surface finds from a settlement site (2283). Although the cowries with removed dorsi were mixed as far as the species are concerned they seem to have been strung on strands of beads (2271–72, 2273?–74?, 2284?–86?). In some cases, the cowries were also used in a special way. As observed in situ, the cowries were sewn on in a row, with their serrated aperture outwards on textile head ornaments. Such head ornaments, in distinctive patterns, come from the Iflach cemetery (2278, 2280) or are pesesent as separate forehead bands (2279).

The Orthodox Serbs and the Catholic Croats fleeing from the Ottoman Turks started settling in the southern part of the Great Plain as early as the 15th century, pushing the boundaries of the Hungarian population northwards towards a line formed by the towns of Baja–Szabadka/ Subotica–Arad. This situation remained stable until the turn of the 16th/17th centuries.715 This explains the appearance of cowries in cemeteries in the Southern Great Plain, connected by the excavators to the Serbs (2270) and the Croats (2271–74, 2284–87). Finally, a stray cemetery find complex, including a banded cowrie without any parallels (2282), is not related to any particular ethnic group and is of absolutely uncertain dating. Merchants transported cowries to the (whole?) area under Turkish rule, thus, to a Turkish palisade fortress (2283) and also to Ete, a Hungarian market town occupied by the Turks only after 1566 (2275).716 2.8.2. 2288–94. The Parallels to the Finds from the Carpathian Basin

Women: 16–17 years old (2276), age unknown (2284–85), girls: Inf. I (2270), 7–10 years old (2279), 12–13 years old (2281), 14 years old (2277), a woman or a girl (2286), boys: 3–4 years old (2278), 6–7 years old (2280). 710 14 pieces (2282?), 11 (2281, 2286), 10 (2279), 9 (2274, 2287?), 5 (2271, 2278), 4 (2276), 3 (2280), 2 (2273) and in 5? cases 1 specimen each. 711 In the whole archaeological material there were 34 + 17? Money cowries, 21 + 1? Ringed cowries and 24 Money or Ringed cowries; specimens of the two species occurred together in several cases, comprising a single unit of wear (2280–82). Their numbers might be increased if we had a precise species identification in more cases (2273, 2286–87). 709

My collection of 16th–17th centuries archaeological data outside the Carpathian Basin has yielded such a poor result “Small cyprea shells are definitely female grave goods ... It is very probable that a superstitious power was ascribed to them.”: Korek (1989/90) 183. 713 Gaál (1979–80) 171–72; Gaál (2002) 215; Vaday–Hancz (2002) 65. 714 Gaál (1979–80) 178–80; compare Éry (1979–80) 242–48; Fenyvesi (1985) 203–06. 715 Makkai (1985) 1440–44. 716 Miklós–Vizi (1999) 208. 712

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads that it does not even allow for a mosaic-like discussion. Furthermore I have not included specimens which appear fortuitously on jewelry and in goldsmiths’ work which were never buried in the ground, although such finds do suggest their continuous employment in Western Europe (Fig. 56).717 Yet, it is certain parallels do exist in the later parts (e.g. 2290–91)718 of 13th–18th centuries Latvian cemeteries (2205–29) as well as in graves with cowries. These decrease in number from the 16th century but may still be found up to the 18th century in Estonian burials (e.g. 2288). Even an Udmurt burial (2294) belongs among the parallels. From the 17th century onwards, the linguistic and ethnographic data on the Finno-Ugrians – except for Hungarians – and the South Siberian Turkish peoples (see chapter 1.3.3.2.3.) are the sources where one is most likely to find the extensive use of these kinds of amulets almost until the present time. Unfortunately, neither have I been able to find any data from the the Turkish empire. Nor have I been able to collect any data on the possible Ottoman Turkish origin of the use of cowries by the South Slavs in Hungary, apart from a few burials from the area of presentday Romania (2292–93).

as amulets from as early as the time of the Prophet Mohammed: Ibn Mukarram (630–711/1232-33–1311) noted in his lexicon entitled Lisān al-‘arab that “God will not prosper the man who hangs a necklace of cowries round his neck”. he comments “He [Mohammed] only forbade them, because they used to use them in necklaces out of fear of the evil eye.”720 From this it follows that not only did the Arabs use these shells during the lifetime of the prophet but also used them earlier on. In fact, E. G. Gobert has commented on a passage of al-Mustatraf in which he mentioned the use of cowries as talismans against love-sickness in the al-Jāhilīya, i.e. in the Arabic pagan times, during the pre-Islamic Period before 622.721 The use of cowries in early Islamic dress is also reflected in the following lines from the poet, Jamil Buthaynah (†82/701): “Do you not know, O mother of the boy with the cowrie necklace, That I laugh with joy at the thought of you, while you are hard-hearted?”722 The definition of the word samma in the work of Ismail al-Jahwarī (†398/1007–8) entitled al Sihāh fi al Lughah as ‘the knot on the girth/belt called wadīnc and as ‘something similar to cowries gathered from the sea (wadac)’ was also adopted by 15th and 18th centuries authors. Examples include the work of al-Firūzābādī (†817/1415) entitled al Qāmūs ‘The Ocean’ and the work of Sayyid Murtada al-Zabīdī (†1205) entitled Tāj al-‘arūs, completed in 1181/1767. There is a very unusual reference to cowries in al-Hamadhānī’s †525-533/1131-1139) Maqāmāt: “And behold, he was a monkey trainer, making his monkeys dance and amusing those who were with him. And I danced the dance of the dog with the cowrie collar.”723 The editor, Mohammad ‘Abduh, made the following comment on this in 1889: “‘al-muharray is the dog wearing a necklace of al-hirj, that is cowries (wadac). He is not given this necklace until he is trained and until, when he becomes strong in running, his whole strength is in leaping and bounding.”724

The situation of the later day use cowries in dress differed in the Balkans. This region remained for the most part under Turkish rule. Thus, these ornaments remained in use later, even into the 19th–20th centuries and can be seen in the neck ornaments of Gypsies wandering in Csángó-/Tsangoland (i.e. area of the Hungarian natives of Moldavia) even today (Fig. 57).719 Despite the lack of results, related to the extraordinary research limitations of working with material from Islamic countries, I nevertheless felt it necessary to broach the subject, for the sake of this sub-topic but also for a better understanding of the background to the next chapter on finds from outside the Carpathian Basin. 2.8.3. A View on Cowrie Use in Islamic Countries The Islamic tradition recognizes the use of cowries Some modern and contemporaneous amulets from mostly unknown sites: a smaller cowrie with a suspension loop mounted in a metal setting from the 16th century, a similarly mounted Panther cowrie from the 18th century and a child’s amulet composed of 2 cowries strung in a strand of blue beads from contemporary Greece: Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 108–09: figs 292, 289 and 283 (Fig. 56). A cowrie amulet with removed dorsum from Southern Germany from the 18th–20th centuries, a cowrie amulet with a suspension ring mounted in a plain silver setting from the 18th–19th centuries and a similar one mounted on a serrated silver setting from Upper Bavaria and Southern Germany: Hansmann–KrissRettenbeck (1966) 210–11: figs 700, 696 and 701, etc. 718 “As far as one can tell from J[ohann] C[hristoph] Brotze’s [1742– 1823] drawings and descriptions of the Latvian female folk costume from the district of Viljak (Viljakskij raj.), chest ornaments comprising four rows of alternating beads and cowries were worn even at the end of the 18th century.”: J. C. Brotze: Sammlung verschiedener Lieffländischen Monumente. Prospecte Wapen. VII: 128. Quoted by: Mugurevič (1962) 42. 719 Andrea Pölös was kind enough to inform me that in 1998 all the wandering Gipsy women who came to Külsőrekecsin (Fundu Răcăciuni, judeţul Băcau, Romania), inhabited by Csángó-Hungarians, wore a neck ornament of beads and cowries. 717

This data from written sources is supplemented by the data on the already discussed Arab trade in cowries. 725 We know that although they were aware of the role of these shells as measures of value, they only wore them as protection against the evil eye and as ornaments used because of their trust in the magical power of cowries.726 These sources from the Islamic world can only be complemented with a completely sporadic archaeological Hiskett (1966) 341. Gobert (1951) 8, note 9; Hiskett (1966) 341, note 21. See: al-Mustatraf fi kull fann mustazraf ‘The most appreciated precious topics from every art regarded as elegant’ by a 15th century Egyptian writer. 722 Hiskett (1966) 341. 723 Hiskett (1966) 341. 724 Hiskett (1966) 341–42. 725 See chapter 1.4.1.1; compare Hiskett (1966) 342. 726 Hiskett (1966) 342. 720 721

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50, 440–541. Archaeological Finds and Parallels to Cowries in the Carpathian Basin material (1413–15, 1862–64, 2195, 2201–02, 2204, 2289) even though burying women with jewelry was not prohibited by Islam.727 While trying to trace back a range of references in the scientific literature I have mainly found 19th–20th centuries ethnographic parallels reflecting the extensive use of cowries as amulets. Thus, the Swiss Johann Ludwig Burckhardt/“sheikh Ibrahim” (1784–1817) mentioned in 1813 or 1814 that Gipsy women in Cairo told one’s fortune with small white shells called woda. Edward William Lane (1801–1876) commented on this in 1860: “The small shells called cowries are especially considered preservatives against the evil eye; and hence, as well as for sake of ornament, they are often attached to the harnesss of camels, horses and other animals and sometimes to the caps of children.”728 This is how cowries bought during a pilgrimage to Mecca were found in the ears of Bedouin children.729 The amulet shaped like an open hand, also called Fātima’s hand,730 symbolising at the same time the 5 pillars of wisdom of the Islamic religion731 and also believed to be protective against the evil eye732 was generally known. It often ended in a strand of blue beads branching off into 5 loose strands with cowries at their ends (Fig. 58).733 “The color blue here also has a prophylactic role734 like the shells [i.e. the cowries]. Some of the shells used to be collected in the desert, by the grave of the veli Abu Sri`.735 The belief that there are spirits living in the shell and the fact that the shape of the shell resembles the female genitals definitely explains why they were used in this manner.”736 The shells were also elements in the so-called composite amulets comprising various objects hung on a chainlet.737 Others hoped for protection against female water and sea demons called Qarīna from a fish-shaped phallic amulet composed of rows of beads strung on a wire frame, from

Fig. 56. Child’s amulet composed of 2 cowries strung in a strand of blue beads from Greece of 20th c. – after Hansmann–KrissRettenbeck (1966) 108: fig. 283

The Kazaks, converting to the Islamic religion only in the 18th century, “buried extraordinary men in war ornaments and women wearing their jewelry.”: Bartha (1998) 48–49. 728 Hiskett (1966) 343; compare Andersson (1934) 309. 729 Brühl (1929) 189. 730 The Babylonians already considered the hand to be the symbol of the planet Venus. This symbol later appeared among Christians as the hand of the Virgin Mary and among Moslems as the hand of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet Muhammad; the attributes of the latter were Al-Zahra’ ‘Venus’ or, although she had children, Al-Batul ‘the Virgin’: El-Adly (1981) 27. 731 These being faith (šahada), prayer (salat), fasting (saum), alms (zakat) and pilgrimage (hağ): Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 2; El-Adly (1981) 27. 732 The hand was considered the most important tool of defence, the five fingers forming arrows pointing in different directions. The hand amulet stood for this movement. Its continuous use can be traced back as early as ancient Egypt: Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 2–3; El-Adly (1981) 26–27. 733 Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 7, fig. 12: 3–4; El-Adly (1981) 99: Fig. VI. 1. 734 On the prophylactic role of the color blue among the ancient Egyptians and later: El-Adly (1981) 16–17. 735 The velis (wali, plur. awaliya’), i.e. the miracle-workers venerated as saints are respected according to the reputation of their miraculous deeds. According to a general principle, the miraculous might of a local saint is smaller than that of one buried further away: El-Adly (1981) 44–45. As these shells had been gathered at the grave of the veli in the desert, they were fossil specimens. 736 El-Adly (1981) 28, 99: Pl. VI: 1. Based on the latter drawing, it is evident that they are cowries and if the scale is 1:1, they might even have been Ringed cowries based on their rounded outlines, length: ca. 1.3–1.8 cm. 737 Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 48–49. 727

Fig. 57. Gipsy woman with neck ornament of beads and cowries in Külsőrekecsin 1998 – Photo by Andrea Pölös

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Fig. 58. Hand-amulett of 20th c. of blue beads with cowries at their ends – after El-Adly (1981) 99: fig. VI. 1 = Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) fig. 12: 3

Fig. 59. Fish-shaped phallic amulet of 20th c. composed of rows of beads, cowries and a dried fish strung on a wire frame – after Kriss–Kriss-Henrich (1962) fig. 24

which cowries were sometimes also suspended (Fig. 59).738 The main, generally known symbolism of cowries, the most popular amulets of animal origin, is still connected to the female genitals. Based on formal analogy, they were primarily worn by women, also among the Muslims as fertility charms and by both sexes against the evil eye and against dangerous ğinns (Fig. 60). Pendants or series of pendants made from either the smaller of the larger species served the same purpose (Fig. 61).739 Cowries played and still play an important role in ornamenting the clothing of the performers of the ritual aimed at appeasing the evil spirits called zār, who possess the body (Fig. 62).740 However, since this ritual only reached Egypt from

Central Africa around the middle of the 19th century,741 it could hardly have played a role in the spread of cowries to the Balkans through the mediation of the Ottoman Turks. The tradition of wearing cowries by the peoples of the Balkans, survived until the 20th century. It has two origins. On the one hand, it can be traced back to the 10th century. The cowrie wearing tradition they adopted in part from the conquering Hungarians arriving from the steppe. This tradition, which survived at least sporadically according to some finds (1841–51, 2127–44, 2079, 2086–87, 2145–47, 2192–94, 2232–36, 2292–93) until the Turkish Period, is to date very poorly documented. On the other hand, it is certain that this custom, whether abandoned or latent, was strengthened during the time of Ottoman Turkish rule. The ethnic groups among them, settled in the Carpathian Basin and brought this custom with themselves from the Balkans (2270–87).

Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 30, fig. 24 (Fig. 59). Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 34, fig. 30: 1, 3 (Fig. 60); a “nailfetish” of Nkisi-Konde Zulus: ��������������������������������������������� a wooden statue with a number of sharp metal objects hammered into it and with ������������������������������������ a large cowrie shell pendant on its navel region: Schläger (2000) 121: fig. 5 (Fig. 61). 740 This is a ritual celebration to appease the angry spirits possessing the human body and thus, causing hysteria, organic diseases, calamities and other damage. These rituals are practised even today all over the Arabic world and in Turkey. Their use probably spread from certain Central African black tribes via Abyssinia and Sudan to Egypt around 1870, where it became a constituent ritual in the folk religion of the Muslims and the Copts: El-Adly (1981) 61. The ritual is led by a sorceress, the role being inherited from mother to daughter, the so-called kūdya. The instruments of the tumbūra player used by the musicians permanently accompanying the ritual were decorated with (cowrie?) shells among other things: see Phillips (1995) 132: fig.2.13. The “Sudanese demon” first dancer called the sutarī, wore a wide leather belt called a mangūr around his waist. It was trimmed with cowries, decorated with goat hoofs and bells, making an ecstatic noise. A black tarbūš decorated with two mirrors, was also trimmed with cowries. The decoration of another tarbūš consisted of 14 cowries. The sister of the leader of the “Sudanese demons” called sultān, the as-Sitt as-Sūdānīya/as-Sitt al Kabīra is the best known of the female demons. Several items of wear decorated with cowries belong to the costume of her bride: net-like headwear made like a net from rows of blue beads, with 22 cowries decorating its trimming (tāqīya), from the top of which there is a 20 cm long strand of alternatingly white-blue-red738 739

blue beads, again with a strand of cowries at the bottom; a 12 cm wide belt composed of bead rows arranged like a net with 34 cowries along the bottom; a torques, 2 bracelets and two anklets of white and green bead rows making up a thick plait, with a strand of cowries at their bottom; and amulet necklace of 3 bead rows, with a strand of cowries at the bottom of its amulets; a knife with its sheath entwined with 3 bead rows, with 6 cowries hanging from the sheath on gaudy strands of bead; a sceptre-like rod wrapped with rows of beads, decorated in two places with 3 cowries each which hang loose. The 50 cm long pointed leather hat (tartūr) of the “great sultan (as-Sultān al Gāddāh al-Kabīr)” is also decorated with strands of small blue beads and cowries, with 5 mirrors and some 200 cowries arranged in beautiful patterns mounted on his large leather apron with strands of blue and white beads hanging from the trim with a cowrie each at their ends. The forehead bands (wadya) of the female dancers in the ritual were decorated with a series of stars composed of 3–4 cowries, with cowries arranged in groups of 3 hanging on its sideribbons. The costumes of the ritual were kept in a large chest which also contained many small boxes full of beads and cowries. Details based on Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 144, 156–57, 159, 184–85, 187, compare ibid. fig. 127: 1–3, 5, 7–20, fig. 139; El-Adly (1981) 61–79 (Fig. 62). 741 El-Adly (1981) 61.

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Fig. 60. Fertility charms of cowries of 20th c. – after Kriss–Kriss-Henrich (1962) fig. 30

2.9. 2295–98. A Horse Harness Decorated With Cowries from the Carpathian Basin and Its Parallels (17th–18th Centuries)742

the straps decorated with snails as small as beans, called bead snails,744 with many-colored marine snails as big as a small apple scattered among them. The young gentlemen used straps with other kinds of cheaper snails.” 745 This description represents the most important reference to “horse harnesss with snails or shells”. It only remains to add some other earlier or later, although unfortunately very brief, sources.

In the 1736 cultural history of Transylvania presented by Baron Péter Apor of Altorja (1676–1752), there is a record of one variant in the decoration of the Transylvanian horse harness of that time. “Young men especially loved to deck their horses in bridles, breast-plates and “»farmatrings«/ ’cruppers’743 decorated with shells. The young masters had

“lószerszám/horse harness”: EMSZT III: Elt–Felzs (1982) 710; VII: Kl–Ly (1995) 1211. 744 The “bead snail”: “some kind of (sea) snail; un fel de cochilie de melc (de mare); Art (See)Schnecke”. In this explanation, Attila Szabó simply referred to Péter Apor’s text: ESZT IV: Fém–Ha (1984) 805. 745 Apor (1736/1972) 31.

Published also as a separate study: Kovács (2002). Attila Szabó only refers to Péter Apor’s description in the entry “farmatring/crupper” and to the data from the year 1754 in the entry 742 743

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Fig. 61. Wooden statue “nail-fetish” of Nkisi-Konde Zulus of 20th c. from Kongo/Zaire with a large cowrie shell pendant on its navel region – after Schläger (2000) 121: fig. 5

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Fig. 62. Ornaments of performers of the ritual celebration zār with cowries of 20th c. – after Kriss–Kriss-Henrich (1962) fig. 127

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads András Szirmay (†1754), secretary of the prince of Upper-Hungary (1682–85) and Transylvania (1690), Imre Thököly of Késmárk (1657–1705), bought a horse harness for 10 guldens in 1681.746 There is an item “a silver strap with snails” among the “parade straps” in the inventory of Imre Thököly’s horse harnesss in the care of his groom Ádám Vitkóczy, made on the 18th April 1684.747 On the 9th August 1686 a nobleman from old Hungarian Trencsén megye/county (okres Trenčín, Slovakia) taking part in the recapture of Buda, colonel György Ottlÿk (1656–after 1723), wrote the following in his account of the battle: “Having got close to each other, I first warded off the shot of the Turk, then I fired but, not standing in one place, I missed him,... As I turned my horse, wanting to put the empty musket in the case, my horse happened to jump into a knee-deep pit. It fell beneath me. My bridle, decorated with snails, fell from the horse’s head so I could no longer re-mount the horse...”748 According to the price list of a guild in Rimaszombat (prev.: Gömör and Kishont megye, Hungary; Rimavská Sobota, okres Rimavská Sobota, Banskobystrický kraj, Slovakia) from the 21st July 1706, “a pair of bridles decorated with embroidered flowers and snails, a breast-strap and a “farmatring” [cost] 7 guldens and 70 dinars”.749 In the collection of Attila T. Szabó the following later Transylvanian data appear: from 1709: “Noble Mihaly Rhedei ... had a silver trappings with snails made for a horse.”750 From 1754: “ …Silver dress ... A horse harness with snails of 13 standards and weight 41 halfves an ounce.”751 From 1821: “A saddle and horse trappings (!) with snails, without stirrup-straps.”752 This type of horse trapping appears in the poem by József Gvadányi (1725–1801) entitled

The above quotations indicate that Hungarians used horse harnesses decorated with snails or shells at least between 1681 and 1821, for some one and a half centuries, according to the written sources perhaps primarily from Transylvania. It is, however, also possible that this is only a result of the dwelling-place of the authors. Although the origin of the majority of the horse harnesses mentioned above remains unknown, the price-list of the guild mentioning their local production is not from Transylvania but from Felvidék/ Upper or Northern Hungary (now i.e. Slovakia). Given the ancestry of the bestower, even the horse harness of Colonel György Ottlÿk from Trencsén county as the only surviving such specimen (Fig. 63 – 2295), may also have been manufactured there. It should be noted that specimens of several snail/shell species were used. According to Péter Apor, young masters preferred the ones which were as small as a bean, then called “bead snails” (like e.g. 2295a?) and the larger, many colored marine shells with a round apple shape. Less wealthy young noblemen perhaps chose other species. In spite of the data presented here it would be almost impossible to reconstruct a horse harness with shells, more precisely cowries, had there not been a specimen held in the collection of arms in the Hungarian National Museum (2295). I have found no data on the origin of horse harnesses decorated with snails or shells754 but perhaps they came from the Balkans or further away, from the Turks or Arabs. Namely, it is well known that in the 16th–17th centuries, Transylvanian princes and noblemen in particular but even the nobility of the Hungarian kingdom acquired Eastern (Arab, Barbary, Syrian) horses by trade and as presents in such numbers that experts regard the 150 years of the Turkish rule as the time of the Arab horse.755 Again due to Turkish influence, Eastern tastes can be detected on contemporary horse harness. Hungarians mostly liked saddles produced in the Turkish fashion.756 In the 15th–16th centuries, Hungarian saddles seem generally similar to Arab ones. Turkish or Tatar styles appeared among the Eastern saddles used in the 16th–17th centuries757 and among the horse harnesses manufactured in Eastern workshops. Turkish, Porte style and Tatar ones were also fashionable, as well as the Eastern stirrup and bit types, decorated saddle and horse covers, among them ones embroidered with beads.758 Horse harnesses decorated with cowries probably belonged to this Eastern style harness type although they were not too expensive759 as suggested by

“The journey of a village notary to Buda” ... I thought when they sit on horses the steeds have saddles on their back embroidered with beads of type from Igmánd or Föred, covered with silver or gold rosettes, With a swallow-fringe tail hanging from their tails or there will be marine snails hung upon them, with trappings embroidered with flowers and fringes, embroidered with flowers in yellow, red and green.”753 ... While buying a horse for his man-servant for 25 guldens as well as a horse harness and saddle for a further 6 guldens: Karsa (1896) 45; Czuberka (1906) 137. 747 Thaly (1873) 207; Czuberka (1906) 136: note 10. 748 Thaly (1875) VII, 45. 749 Nagy (1872) 258; Czuberka (1906) 137: note 2. 750 Wass. Árva Matskási Erzsébet lelt./inv.: EMSzT II: Cs–Elsz (1978) 123. 751 Nagyszeben (prev.: Szeben megye, Hungary; Sibiu, judeţul Sibiu, Romania): the archives of the aristocratic family Toldalaghi 19. 15: EMSzT II: Cs–Elsz (1978) 124. 752 Backamadaras (prev. Maros-Torda megye, Hungary; Păsăreni, judeţul Mureş, Romania): the archives of the Sándor family from Csíkszentmihály: EMSzT II: Cs–Elsz (1978) 124. 753 Temesváry (1995) 12. 746

Mentioning their use in Hungary without naming any sources: Schneider (1905) 117; Schilder (1926) 316. 755 Ócsag (1988) 92–94. 756 “These were used particularly at pompous parades and weddings as their decoration exceeded that of any other horse harness.”: Czuberka (1906) 134–35. 757 Temesváry (1995) 10–12. 758 Temesváry (1995) 16, 21–27. 759 That the above-mentioned prices of 7 guldens and 70 dinars and of 10 guldens are, in fact, low is shown by the value of the princely golden bridle decorated with rubies which was mentioned in the inventory of the properties of the Rákóczi family from 1688, as being worth 1200 guldens: compare Czuberka (1906) 142 (with further data). 754

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Fig. 63. Harness embellished with Money cowries of 18th century (Hungarian National Museum – 2295) – Photo by András Dabasi

the appearance of copper crescent-shaped pendants on the horse harnesss.760

I found the earliest data on the decoration of horse harnesses with mainly Money or Ringed cowries, in finds from China from the time of the Shang/Yin and the Hsi (i.e. Western) Chou dynasty (1550–1050 BC and 1122–771 BC – 341, 343–44, 351, 365). Independently of them are the cowrie decorated harness equipment reconstructed in Sudanese princely burials from the first quarter of the 1st millennium BC (296–99) and in the somewhat later Scythian Period aristocratic graves (526–27, 638?, 649, 668?, 684?, 721?). Much later depictions have survived on the frescos of the 8th century Coptic church of the Egyptian Abdallah Nirqi painted at the turn of the 10th/11th centuries (1855–56). In Persia, cowries were mainly employed as ornaments on donkey harnesss and were called donkey shells

As I have not found a separate study on the history of horse harnesses decorated with cowries. I can only refer to a few examples reflecting the prophylactic character of these shells, protecting against the evil eye and evil spirits, was the reason why the owners equipped their animals with them.761 Temesváry (1995) 17. Muhammad himself believed in the power of the evil eye. He is believed to have said the following: “The eye can drive a person to the grave and a camel to the slaughter house.”: El-Adly (1981) 26, 84: note 75 based on Al-Baydawi: Tafsir. Cairo 1305. 755; compare Hiskett (1966) 343. It is, thus, not without reason that the Muslims wanted to protect their valuable animals from the evil eye. 760 761

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Fig. 64. Mule or donkey’s forehead pendant (1) and a camel neck band (2) of 20th century from Iran – after Tanavoli (1998) pls. 70, 97

(charmuneh) for this reason.762 In modern Persia, cowries are called khurmohnu or ‘horse shell’ when used to decorate horse harnesses. The harnesses of horses, donkeys, mules and camels763 produced here at the beginning of the 20th century are decorated in the same way as the published specimens (2295–98). Money cowries wee sewn on both in rows with their aperture outwards and arranged like petals around metal buttons (Fig. 64).764 There is data on their

similar use in Arabia, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Libya,765 Albania and Bosnia,766 too. From all this it may be justified to conclude that this manner of decorating horse harnesses was known extensively in the Islamic world mainly in the 17th–18th centuries.Thus it is reasonable to accept that the Hungarian specimens probably derive from this source until evidence to the contrary is found. Unfortunately, I have not found any references in the scientific literature767 nor received any information768 on whether the Hungarian hussars used such horse harness

Compare note 378 on p. 53. “Wo andere Tiere die Stelle des Pferdes als Zug-, Reit- oder Tragtier einnehmen, werden auch deren Riemen mit Kauri besetzt; so findet man sie in Persien besonders häufig bei Eseln, in Jünnan bei Maultieren, in Indien bei Elefanten und in Ägypten und Persien bei Kamelen.”: Schilder (1952) 32. As a point of interest, Sven Hedin (1865–1952), the renowned researcher of Central Asia, travelled on a camel decorated with cowrie ornaments on one of his journeys: Schilder (1952) 31: fig. 32. 764 The author merely used the term shells for what were definitely cowries as can be seen on from the illustrations: Tanavoli (1998) figs 65–66, 83, pls 70, 97, 99–100 (Fig. 64). I wish to note here that there is a possibly 20th century camel bridle acquired in 1989 in the harness collection of the Museum of Military History of Budapest, with cowrie ornaments arranged in rows and in flower patterns, acc. nr.: 93.383.1. 762 763

Kriss–Kriss-Heinrich (1962) 34, 43; compare Edward William Lane’s comments from 1860: note 1166. 766 Durham (1940). 767 This is not discussed in the latest Hungarian monograph on the subject either, compare A magyar (2000); HungHuss (2000). 768 Here, I would also like to thank Tibor Kovács S. (Hungarian National Museum), Emese Pásztor (Museum of Applied Arts), György Ságvári (Institute of Military History), Ferenc Temesváry (Hungarian National Museum) and Walter Hecker and Tamás Rombauer (Cavalry Academy in Kaposvár) for their kind help. 765

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Fig. 65. Headstall decorated with Money cowries from Haverő parish, Medelpad from middle of 19th c. – after Johansson (2005) Paper VI 111: fig. 14

and if they did, to what extent. In any case, this might be one explanation for their appearance in Northern Europe in the middle of the 18th century. The joint wars of the Europeans against the Ottoman Turks from the end of the 17th century on and later the Swedish–Russian war may also have encouraged the use of this Eastern way of decoration. From the end of the 17th century the mobile and effective hussar groups with their fancy harness gear became so highly appreciated in the armed forces of Western and Northern Europe that similar troops were organised under Hungarian leadership. Together with Hungarian hussars, such forces could be found in Bavaria in 1688,769 in France at the beginning of the 18th century, in Russia in 1707,770 in Prussia in 1721771 and in Sweden in 1742 and 1757.772 Hussars appeared in the armies of smaller rulers as well in various decades of the 18th century: in

the Baden Margravate, in the Duchies of Hessen-Kassel, Braunschweig and Württemberg, in the Electorates of Pfalz and Hannover, in the Duchy of Netherlands, in the Danish Kingdom and even in Ireland.773 Thus, the Hungarian hussars as a military ideal, may have been the mediators of horse harness decorated with snails or shells. Although I could not explore this process in depth, I have found the following data: Prussian staff hussars may have already used horses’ harness decorated with cowries in the first half of the 18th century. According to tradition, use by the Saxon hussars of this kind of ornamented harness equipment began in 1741.774 Both officers and troops used this kind of gear until the re-organisation of the regiment in 1809. After a long break cowrie decorated harnesses became fashionable again among the officers and were used as late as the beginning of the 20th century.775 It is possible that a specimen kept earlier in Berlin (2296) can

Zachar (2000) 78; Zachar (2000a) 78. Zachar (2000) 81; Zachar (2000a) 81. 771 Friedrich Wilhelm I (1713–1740) founded the first two hussar companies, mainly using Hungarian soldiers, in 1721: Zachar (2000) 74; Zachar (2000a) 74. The Prussian king, Friedrich the Great (1740–1786), not only ordered Hungarian saddles for the cavalry on the model of the Hungarian hussars but he even settled Hungarian saddlers from Tiszafüred in his country: Temesváry (1995) 8. 772 In Northern Europe, Baron Gábor Bellay-Bellawitz, for example, with his 150 hussars served the Dutch between 1704–1710 and later the Danes. The instructors of the first Swedish hussar troops were Hungarians who left the Russian army in 1742, compare Flandorffer (1988) 44; Zachar (2000) 81; Zachar (2000a) 81. 769 770

Zachar (2000) 79–81; Zachar (2000a) 79–81. According to József Zachar a Hungarian hussar regiment only appeared in the Saxon Electorate temporarily, between 1761–1763, following an unsuccessful military attempt in 1734: Zachar (2000) 79; Zachar (2000a) 80. 775 Schneider (1905) 111. His source was the summary by Hugo Conwentz, who received the latest data from the commander of the Saxon staff hussars, August von Mackensen. he later became a renowned general and author on military subjects (1849–1945): Conwentz (1902) 10. 773 774

147

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 19th century.779 I have found more ethnographic data, no longer connected to the hussars, from Greece,780 Germany (Fig. 66),781 Sweden,782 Finland783 and from Tyrol.784 From the above, it follows that although horse harnesses decorated with cowries may have become wide spread in Northern Europe through the mediation of Hungarian hussars, this hypothesis needs further, more detailed examination.

Fig. 66. Harness of a cavalryman from Danzig made in 1892 – after Pfeiffer (1914) 125: fig. 131

also be connected to them.776 Horse harnesses with this decoration probably reached Sweden in the 18th century, too, where they were used on special occasions even in the middle of the 19th century (Fig. 65).777 Original specimens probably survive in the Nordiska Museet in Stockholm (2297–98).778 Horse harnesses decorated with shells perhaps reached Norway later, only at the beginning of the

Schilder (1952) 32. “In Sweden, horse harnesses decorated with cowrie shells were still in use for special occasions in the middle of the 19th century”: Johansson (1995) 351. – In her latest article Birgitta M. Johansson summarized the data from Sweden: “Horse trappings decorated with cowrie shells, doubtless with the objects of averting the evil eye, were used in Persia, Egypt, Hungary, Norway and Sweden. In India elephants carry such ornaments. This custom has also been mentioned in the ethnographic records [Jackson (1917) 140; Johansson (1990) 40 f.]. The author has studied a set of horse trappings (headstall) with cowries from Haverö parish in Medelpad, dating from the middle of 19th century AD. There were originally 89 cowries on the headstall, but two are missing. The smallest shell is 14×10 mm and the largest 20×15 mm long. The dorsum hat deliberately been ground down on all shells. This modification of the cowries is necessary in order to attach the shells to the leather straps (Fig. 65). Four sets of horse trappings decorated with cowries are kept in the National Museum of Cultural History in Stockholm. These were used by members of the Hussar regiment at, e.g. the regiments in Skåne and Närke in Stockholm. One set of horse trappings is however, from Nederkalix parish in northern Sweden, where there has been no Hussar regiment. The four items date from the middle of the 19th century [Johansson (1991) 87; Braunstein (2002)]. The members of the «Brygger regiment», on eastern Gotland, decorated their horses with cowrie headstalls according to Säve (1978) 210”: Johansson (2002–2003) 110–111, fig. 14: headstall from Haverö parish (Ånge kommun, Västernorrlands län, Medelpad lääni, Finnland). 778 Andersson (1934) 309.

“In Norwegen..., wohin sie nach mündlicher Angabe des Herren Jacobsen erst während der Napoleonischen Kriege im Anfange des vorigen Jahrhunderts gedrungen sein soll.”: Schneider (1905) 117; Schilder (1926) 316; Schilder (1952) 32. 780 A horse amulet recorded in 1907: from 4 cowries sewn on a piece of leather in a cross, hanging from a wild boar’s canine: Andersson (1934) 309. 781 Ludwig Pfeiffer published “...[eine] Photographie eines noch im Jahre 1892 gebrauchen Pferdezaumes eines Danziger Husarenschimmels (Fig. 66). Ähnlicher Zierrat kommt noch von der Tirol, in Thüringien an dem Gehänge Wetzstahl der Fleischer (Städtisches Museum Weimar).”: Pfeiffer (1914) 123, 125: fig. 131. “Kauri befanden sich am Pferdegeschirr der großen Planwagen mit Leinenzug an der unteren Weichsel ebenso wie am Kummet der Getreidelastwagen, die um die Mitte des vorigen Jahrhunderts Mitteldeutschland durchquerten, und am Lederzeug der Pferde im östlichen Deutschland, ...”: Schilder (1952) 32. 782 Andersson (1934) 309. 783 In the modern age “haben die Finnen mit Muscheln [Kaurischnecken] Pferdegeschirre, vor allem Zaumzeug verziert.”: Manninen (1957) 171–72; compare Manninen (1934) 396. Horse harnesses decorated with cowries and usually associated with Gypsies are known from Northern and Eastern Finland. In the collection of the Finnish National Museum from the sites Alahärmä, Storkyro, Kuortane, Ylikiiminki (D. 180, 777, 970, 191), Rovaniemi (8379:15), Pielisjärvi (D. 871), Sakkola (D. 101): Kivikoski (1967) 43, 44: note 17. 784 Schilder (1926) 316.

776

779

777

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Chapter 3. Summary

Cowries – those multi-colored molluscs with their conspicuous shape, living in warm seas – had already been gathered and transported to areas several hundred kilometres away from their natural habitats during the Paleolithic. This is shown by presence of these shells in various cultural levels of cave sites and by a few burial goods in France and Italy, found together with other shells. Later, from the Epipaleolithic to the end of the first half of the Iron Age, i.e. between 10,000 and 700 BC, cowries gradually came to dominate among other shell finds, especially in the region of the eastern half of the Mediterranean, however many other shell species more common at most sites than cowries. They started to be found among finds in increasingly remote areas (e.g. the Caucasus region and Portugal). Their growing popularity is attested by the greater ratio of cowries, mainly in burials (of uncertain sex). One reason for their spread must have been the desire to own these objects which evoked associations to be discussed below. Even though Mediterranean species (Agate, Dirty and Fallow cowries) were also gathered – people tried to obtain Red Sea and even Indo-Pacific specimens (Arabian, Bobcat, Gnawed, Lamarck, Millet, Money, Ocellaite, Panther, Ringed, Tiger and Thrush cowries, etc.) through long-distance trade. These various species come in different sizes. Thus, they were probably used in different ways. In the course of time, however, smaller species became predominant, especially Ringed cowries and, to a lesser extent, Money cowries. The fact that the majority of the finds have been worked, mainly by removing the dorsum, seems to suggest that these flat cowries were sewn in horizontal positons on dresses, allowing the serrated aperture to be seen.

although possibly even earlier, until the present day. The precious metal cowrie imitations from graves of Egyptian ladies depicted the ventral side of the shell on both sides while the metal pieces rattling in their hollow cavity probably had a prophylactic role. On the statuettes of nude maidens wearing girdles with cowries hanging from them were presented as burial grave goods. The cowries hung to the groin and probably reflect the use of both natural cowries and their imitations as prophylactic amulets associated with the life cycles of girls and women. This role must have been familiar to the common people at the time as suggested by the general use of natural cowries and their imitations in burials. The prophylactic role might have evolved earlier. Around that time, the more widespread “function” of cowries, also retained till the present time, had already become autonomous. They were also used to protect against the evil eye, less frequently for men, but also for valuable animals. This can be seen in the use of cowries to decorate the harness equipment of contemporary Sudanese nobility or among the finds of harnesses of battle horses.

The base of a horizontally held cowrie could be taken as resembling a half-open/half-closed eye, as is shown by the eye inlays of plastered skulls modelled to heads and painted as faces from the 7th millennium BC. The same custom appeared much later with the eye inlays in modern and contemporary plastered skulls from the Far East and Oceania. It can also be seen on wooden statues from Africa and even on schematic face depictions on certain objects from Asia and Oceania.

The people, who later started to wear cowries themselves or hung them on their animals, must have also learned about the system of beliefs associated with them. The rapid spread of this custom beyond the Mediterranean into the Eurasian steppe region from Mongolia to the Balkans and the Carpathian Basin between the 7th and the 3rd/2nd centuries BC was triggered by the Iranian-speaking Scythians who had temporarily extended their rule to Asia Minor. This vast area was provided with cowries by means of booty, mainly by long-distance trade in the south. However, south Siberian cowrie imitations could also have been spread through the mediation of the Chinese, too. The Chinese knew of their roles as amulet and currency role. The dominance of Ringed cowries altered so they could be sewn on, was retained among the rich variety of various species. Cowries could also have a single hole for suspension. The suggestion that they had an amulet role is further strengthened by the fact that the ratio of women and girls increased among the burials whose sex has been identified.

The majority of people, however, were not reminded of an eye but of the female genitalia when the cowries were suspended vertically. There is evidence for this interpretation from the end of the 3rd millennium BC,

Cowries and their imitations may have reached the Polish coast via Central Europe either from the steppe or from the Carpathian Basin (to be discussed below) or from the Iron Age regions of Italy and the Balkans marked by 149

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads mainly women’s and girls’ burials including cowries. The possibility of a direct north-south connection is suggested, not only by the amber route, but also by the Etruscan face-urns and ones from Pomerania ones from the 5th–3rd centuries BC which had natural cowrie pendants in their ears.

The small cowries (mainly Money, less frequently Ringed cowries) which had been used almost exclusively, more or less, completely disappeared from Christian burials in Western Europe from the 10th century on but were retained, even if less frequently, in Eastern Europe. They came to Slavic, Finno-Ugrian and certain nomadic tribes through trade to the east. Latvia remained a centre for cowrie wear and a mediated cowrie wear in the Baltic. This is shown by the fact that in the 13th–15th centuries they were still quite wide spread in Estonia, too. However, from then on, wearing cowries throughout Eastern Europe and Asia has become a subject rather for ethnography rather than archaeology.

In the meantime, by the turn of the 3rd/2nd centuries BC, the Scythians were ousted by their relatives and descendants, the similarly Iranian-speaking Sauromatians, who were probably familiar with cowrie wear and, thus, with their amulet role from the 5th century BC onwards. This custom lived on among the Sarmatian/Alani tribes, even when the Huns seized power in the 4th century. This long period – during which in the earlier distribution area Money cowries came to outnumber Ringed cowries among the small specimens in bead rows – was the time of the spread of large species. These included species such as the Red Sea Panther and the Indo-Pacific Tiger cowries mostly in the Mediterranean area,. They also could be found in Eastern and Central Europe, appearing in conspicuously large numbers in the area of the Černjahov-Marosszentanna/ Sîntana de Mureş Culture of Gothic and Sarmatian mixed ethnic background dated from around 220 to about 375. That cowries were mostly worn by women and girls is supported by anthropological data from burials. They wore these large and heavy cowries perforated once or twice and hung on metal loops, less frequently wrapped in metal wires, as girdle pendants. Experts in the field unanimously accept that they were used as amulets.

I have followed some trins of thought which diverged somewhat from the main line of inquiry. I collected archaeological data on cowrie wear in the Far East, in Japan, India and mainly China. With the help of István Elter I have checked and rejected the suggestion that Ibn Fadlān noted the wear of cowries in his account of the journey to visit the Volga Bulgarians in 921–922. I have tried to review cowrie amulets from the Islamic countries. Finally, I have collected data on the origin of the cowriedecorated horse trappings of Western and North European hussars. * This monograph was actually conceived as a study meant to reject a numismatic hypothesis concerning the Period of the Hungarian Conquest (10th century) and the supposed cowrie currency of the Hungarians. In the beginning, I felt it necessary to carry out some research on cowries found in the Carpathian Basin in earlier and later periods and to find an explanation for why they were worn so as to gain better insight into the problem. I have attempted to verify all the data collected from outside the Carpathian Basin, outlined in the first half of this review, in light of archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin. Thanks to the kind help of my colleagues I have gained access to the majority of the find. These cowries were then identified by the malacologist Gyula Radócz and I have been largely successful in this respect.

As the result of the Hunnic invasion the custom of wearing large cowries was brought to Western Europe, most probably with the mediation of Gothic groups fleeing them or even through Mediterranean long-distance trade via Italy or France. The heyday of use as amulets worn by females was in the 5th/6th–7th/8th centuries primarily in the Alemann, Bajuvar and Frankish territories of present-day Germany as well as in parts of France and England. At the same time, the wearing of small cowries, almost exclusively Money cowries, also flourished in parallel to the decrease in East European and Eurasian archaeological finds of both large and small cowries. From the 7th century on, they appeared in new areas such as the Baltic (primarily Latvia) and Scandinavia. There, there is a totally new explanation for their spread along with the shells dispersed through trade from southeastern areas. From the Baltic via southern Siberia to China up to the present cowries are used as part of the snake cult. In the Baltic, there are written sources concerning this prophylactic cult from the 13th century on. Cowries can be associated with it at least from the 17th century. However, this interpretation can be traced back to the earliest finds, where cowries were regarded as female prophylactic amulets not because of their aperture but due to the resemblance of their dorsum to a snake’s head. They were generally perforated and strung on strands of beads or sewn on to clothing.

The only known burial find in the Carpathian Basin from the Middle Bronze Age is a fossil. However, contemporary recent cowries reached in the Scythian Period the Agathyrsoi and the Thracian tribes in Transylvania and the Syginnoi in the Great and the Little Hungarian Plain by means of longdistance trade. Cowries were strung in strands of beads worn by women and girls. Many cowries were also be sewn in patterns on clothing and were probably appreciated as amulets. When the Celts appeared in Transdanubia, they adopted the custom, spreading it over their settlement area and further to the east. There are some hints that cowries were worn in Roman Pannonia, but it spread in a different fashion by Sarmatian Jazygians, again from the east. The wearing of small Ringed, Money and even Dirty cowries 150

Summary greatly decreased and instead large Panther and Tiger cowries – interpreted as fertility amulets – became widespread. The large cowries suspended from metal loops, were worn on the girdles of girls and women. From the second half of the 3rd century, their use declined. However, cowries reappeared in the archaeological material of the Ostro- and Visigothic and Sarmatian tribe remnants of the Černjahov-Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, annihilated by the Huns, who settled in Eastern Hungary. A special find is the large glass cowrie imitation of the Sarmatian Period from Hajdúböszörmény. Following that period, cowries are absent in the wear of peoples arriving in the Carpathian Basin for half a millennium. They are not known in Hunnic burials and only exceptionally from Germanic (Lombard and Gepid) burials. Cowries are also totally missing in the Avar Period.

found until the middle of the 12th century. It disappeared from the archaeological material of Hungarians converting to Christianity and, as opposed to other Finno-Ugrian peoples, was not retained ethnographically either. Later, suspended or sewn on cowries (mainly Money, less often Ringed cowries) only appeared in the archaeological material of the pagan Jazygians who settled in the region in the 13th century and of South Slav girls and women who came to Hungary during Turkish times in the 16th century. Finally, Money cowries were also uniquely used to decorate horse harness equipment of the young masters in Northern Hungary and Transylvania. This custom seems to have been adopted and then handed on to hussar units in Western and Northern Europe by the Hungarian hussars.

In the region of the original old settlement area of the Hungarians in the east there are some hints of cowrie use in 5th–7th and 9th–10th centuries burials. There are no traces of cowries in the much debated archaeological material from the areas immediately east of the Carpathians. The Hungarians settling in Carpathian Basin, in part brought cowries along with them and also secured the supply of cowries through long-distance Arab trade. The wearing of Money cowries (exceptionally Ringed cowries) among girls and women, mainly strung in strands of beads as amulets – their role as currency can be dismissed with certainty – gradually decreased. Nevertheless traces of it can be

This monograph is to my knowledge the first attempt to summarise the archaeological data on the wear of cowries and the underlying system of beliefs so extended in space and time. This wide scope is reflected in the difficulties encountered in the data collection, in the large numbers of shells unidentified to species and the limits of my abilities. Nevertheless, I hope that it will serve as a starting point for further research aimed at correcting any errors. Future research should focus on the whole range of finds from particular regions or periods, thus, preparing the ground for a more complex analysis of the subject.

*

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Chapter 4. Catalogue

4.1 General Notes

Carnelian cowrie/Cypraea (Lyncina) carneola carneola (Linné, 1758), Read Sea, Indo-Pacific, lenght: 1.6–2.2–4.0–6.0 cm. Clandestine cowrie/Cypraea (Palmadusta) clandestina clandestina (Linné, 1767), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 0,7–1,3–2,0–2,6 cm. cowrie from Eritrea (Red Sea)/Cypraea (Bistolida) erythraeensis (Sowerby, 1837), Red Sea, Aden, Zanzibar, lenght: 1.0–1.6–2.2–2.9 cm. cowrie from Mauritius island/Cypraea (Mauritia) mauritiana (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 3.2–6.0–8.8–13.0 cm. Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica grayana (Schilder, 1930), Red Sea, western Indian-Ocean, lenght: 1,7–3,8– 5,8—8,0 cm.10 Cypraea (Erosaria) lamarckii (Gray, 1825), Indian Ocean, lenght: 1.8–3.0–4.4–5.5 cm.11 Cypraea (Erronea) caurica caurica (Linné, 1758), IndoPacific, 1.8–3.3–4.6–7.0 cm.12 Cypraea melanostoma – see Giraffe cowrie Dirty cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) spurca (Linné, 1758), Mediterranean, Atlantic, lenght: 1.2–2.2–3.0–4.0 cm.13 Dirty Yellow cowrie from the “Isabella” color/Cypraea (Luria) isabella isabella (Linné, 1758), IndoPacific, lenght: 1.2–2.3–3.4–5.5 cm.14 Fallow cowrie/Cypraea (Luria) lurida lurida (Linné, 1758), Mediterranean to West Africa, lenght: 1.4–3.0–4.8–6.7 cm.15 Fawn cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) nebrites (Melville, 1888), Northwestern Indian Ocean, lenght: 1.3–2.2–3.2–4.2 cm.16

4.1.1. Definition of Cowries In the catalogue, there is a * after those finds from the Carpathian Basin which were identified by Gyula Radócz for this book. For those cowries that were not identified by him, but where the description in the publication contained the name of the cowrie or the type of cowrie could be identified from the presentation, the species were consistently called by their specific English name (for example Ringed cowrie, Money cowrie, Panther cowrie, Tiger cowrie, etc.). If no English terminology exists for a special shell, then the object was referred to using the scientific name Cypraea sp. About terminology, see below. In the catalogue I marked the false references to cowrie shells by (repeating) the proper serial number and the letters of ABC, e.g. 37a. At adequate places of the catalogue I mentioned the data appearing only in the Annex and without any description, e.g. see Annex 2375, 2467. 4.1.2. Catalogue of Cowries Mentioned in the Volume Based on books by Felix Lorenz Jr. and Alex Hubert, I added data for existing, or arbitrarily formed English species names in alphabetical order in the following sequence: English- and scientific species names, extreme measure limits, medium measurements, and the natural habitat, which is also shown on a map. Agate cowrie/Cypraea (Schilderia) achatidea (Sowerby, 1837), Mediterranean to Angola and Gulf of Biscay, lenght: 2.2–3.0–4.0–4.7 cm. Arabian cowrie/Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica arabica (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 2.4–3.3–5.6– 7.5 cm. Bobcat cowrie/Cypraea (Lyncina) lynx (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 1.8–2.7–4.5–9.0 cm.  

32.

Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 68, 272–73: pl. 24: 1–12, 23–32, 274–75: pl. 25: b, 440–41: pl. 107: 19, 22.  Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 151, 352–53: pl. 64: 20–25.  Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 175, 376–77: pl. 76: 1–2, 7–9, 13–15.  Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 55, 246–47: pl. 11: 12–21. Like Big Serpent’s Head cowry in: Dance (1994) 72; like Humpback cowrie in: Johansson (1997) 221. 10 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 59, 250–51: pl. 13: 8–10. 11 Jean-Baptiste (Pierre-Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de) Lamarck, French natural scientist (1744–1829) named in honor of: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 190, 388–89: pl: 82. 17–32, 390–91: pl. 83: 1–10. 12 Its name originates from its similar appearance to the classical Money cowrie: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 136, 326–27: pl. 51: 1–4, 6–8, 11–15, 20–21, 332–33: pl. 54: c, 438–39: pl. 106: 20–22, 444–45: pl. 109: 19–20. 13 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 197, 396–97: pl. 86: 1–11. 14 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 82–84, 282–83: pl. 29: 1–5, 9–11, 16–18. 15 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 80, 284–85: pl. 30: 18–20. 16 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 188, 386–87: pl. 81: 15–28. 

See Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 26–28, 525–35. Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 72–73, 266–67: pl. 21: 1–8, 436–37: pl. 105:

Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 107, 312–13: pl. 44: 23, 28–36. Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 58, 248–49: pl. 12: 1–2, 5–7, 444–45: pl. 109: 7–8.  Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 67, 264–65: pl. 20: 1–14, 17–30, 440–41: pl. 107: 7–8.  

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Catalogue Five-Banded cowrie/Cypraea (Erronea) caurica quinquefasciata (Röding, 1798), Red Sea (northwestern Indian Ocean), introduced into the Mediterranean, lenght: 1.3–2.9–4.4–6.0 cm.17 Gangrenous cowry/Cypraea (Erosaria) gangranosa gangranosa (Dillwyn, 1817), Indian Ocean to West Pacific, 0,9–1,6–2,2–2,8 cm.18 Giraffe cowrie/Cypraea (Lyncina) camelopardalis (Perry, 1811), Red Sea, Aden, lenght: 3.1–4.8–6.4–8.9 cm.19 Gnawed cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) erosa (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 1.4–2.7–4.1–7.5 cm.20 Golden cowrie/Cypraea (Lyncina) aurantium (Gmelin, 1791), central and western Pacific, lenght: 5.8– 8.5–10.5–12.1 cm.21 Honey cowrie/Erosaria (Ocellaria) helvola (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 0.8–1.9–2.4–3.7 cm.22 Little Calf cowrie/Cypraea (Lyncina) vitellus (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 2.0–3.6–6.4–10.0 cm.23 Little Donkey cowrie, carrying three little bags/Cypraea (Palmadusta) asellus (Linné 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 1.0–1.2–2.0–3.1 cm.24 Map cowrie/Cypraea (Leporicypraea) mappa mappa (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 4.0–6.6–8.6– 10.1 cm.25 Marked Graceful cowrie/Cypraea (Purpuradusta) gracilis notata (Gill, 1858), Red Sea, Somalia, introduced into the Mediterranean, lenght: 1.3–1.5–2.5–3.0 cm.26 Millet cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) miliaris (Gmelin, 1791), Pacific, lenght: 1.7–3.0–4.2–5.6 cm.27 Minstrel cowrie/Cypraea (Mauritia) histrio (Gmelin, 1791), Indian Ocean, lenght: 2.3–5.0–6.8–8.8 cm.28 Mistaken cowrie/Cypraea (Erronea) errones errones (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 1.3–2.1–3.2– 4.3 cm.29

Mole cowrie/Cypraea (Talparia) talpa) (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 2.3–5.0–7.6–10.6 cm.30 Money cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) moneta (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 0.9–1.7–2.8–4.4 cm.31 Ocellate cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) ocellata (Linné 1958), Northern Indian Ocean to Melanesia, lenght: 1.0–2.0–3.2–3.8 cm.32 Pale cowrie/Cypraea (Erronea) pallida (Gray, 1824), Northern Indian Ocean to Philippines, lenght: 1.5–2.4–2.9–3.2 cm.33 Panther cowrie/Cypraea pantherina (Solander, 1786), Red Sea, Aden, lenght: 3.7–6.0–8.2–11.8 cm.34 Pear cowrie/Cypraea (Zonaria) pyrum pyrum (Gmelin, 1791), Mediterranean to Angola, lenght: 1.7–2.9– 4.0–5.2 cm).35 Ringed cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) annulus (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 0.8–1.7–2.5–4.0 cm.36 Serpent’s Head cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) caputserpentis caputserpentis (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 1.4–2.7–3.5–4.3 cm.37 Thrush cowrie/Cypraea (Erosaria) turdus (Lamarck, 1810), East Africa to Arabia, lenght: 1.6–2.5– 4.3–5.7 cm.38 Tiger cowrie/Cypraea tigris (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 4.5–7.0–10.8–15.2 cm.39 Tummy cowrie/Cypraea (Lyncina) ventriculus (Lamarck, 1810), Central Pacific, lenght: 2.6–4.0–5.8–7.6 cm.40 Turtle cowrie/Cypraea (Chelycypraea) testudinaria (Linné, 1758), Indo-Pacific, lenght: 6.8–8.8–12.0–14.5 cm.41 4.1.3 Nomenclature of Archaeological Sites All archaeological sites in this study which are located in the Carpathian Basin are written in Hungarian, which is followed by the abbreviated form for the modern day county name. For settlements with Hungarian names but which are now located in other counties, both the former Hungarian and present administrative classification is provided in parentheses, accompanied by recent place names, and, if necessary also the name of the country.

Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 137, 328–29: pl. 52: 1–4. Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 202, 406–07: pl. 91: 1–12 19 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 72, 266–67: pl. 21: 12–14, 26–28 For this variety, there is an old synonym, Cypraea melanostoma (Sowerby, 1825): ibidem 72. 20 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 188, 384–85: pl. 80: 1–16, 19–20, 442–43: pl. 108: 9. 21 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 76, 278–79: pl. 27: 1–4, 440–41: pl. 107: 1, 450–51: pl. 112: d. 22 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 200, 390–91 pl. 83: 23–28, 392–93: pl. 84: 17–24. 23 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 72–73, 266–67: pl. 21: 1–8, 436–37: pl. 105: 32. 24 This cowrie received its English name from the 3 black stripes running down its back. See Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 155, 354–55: pl. 65: 1–3, 6–8, 11–13. 25 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 62, 254–55: pl. 15: 1–8, 440–41: pl. 107: 10–11. 26 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 146, 340–41: pl. 58: 4–6, 9–10, 15. 27 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 190, 388–89: pl. 82: 4–6, 9–11, 14–16. 28 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 60, 250–51: pl. 13: 11–21. 29 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 121, 314–15: pl. 45: 4–6, 9–10, 13–14, 438–39: pl. 106: 19, 23–24, 444–45: pl. 109: 24. 17 18

Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 78, 274–75: pl. 25: c, 280–81: pl. 28, 440–41: pl. 107: 9. 31 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 205, 416–17: pl. 96: 17–22, 25–26, 28–33, 438–39: pl. 106: 13–18. 32 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 189, 402–03: pl. 89: 16–33; Dance (1994) 69. 33 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 123, 320–21: pl. 48: 14–16, 19–21, 22–24. 34 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 66, 262–63: pl. 19: 1–6, 8–15. 35 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 114, 342–43: pl. 59: 1–8, 17–22. 36 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 204, 418–19: pl. 97: 1–22, 26–29, 34–36, 438–39: pl. 106: 15–17, 442–43: pl. 108: 16, 21. 37 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 206, 416–17: pl. 95: 17–18, 418–19: pl. 96: 1–11, 14–16, 436–37: pl. 105: 22, 438–39: pl. 106: 8–9. 38 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 191, 412–13: pl. 94, 442–43: pl. 108: 17. A number of varieties were put forward under the name of Cypraea (Erosaria) turdus wickworthii (Schilder and Schilder, 1936): Reese (1988) 261–62, 197, 200. 39 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 65, 260–61: pl. 18: 3–6, 8–11, 262–63: pl. 19: 7, 436–37: pl. 105: 26–27, 29–31, 440–41: pl. 107: 3–4. 40 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 76, 278–79: pl. 27: 11–16. 41 Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 54, 242–43: pl. 9, 436–37: pl. 105: 25, 450–51: pl. 112: c. 30

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Fig. 67. Distribution of Upper Paleolithic cowrie finds (30,000–9000 BC – 1) and sites of cowries or cowrie imitations from the Mesolithic to the Scythian Period (10,000–700 BC – 2)

4.2. 1–49 (37a), 2375, 2467. Upper Paleolithic Cowries from Western and Central Europe (30,000–9000 BC) – (see Annex 2375, 2467)

4.1.3.1. Abbreviations of Administrative Units Amt: county, Denmark, dèpartement: France, gmina: commune or municipiality, Poland, ili: province, Turkey, judeţul: Romania, Kanton: Switzerland, Kommune: municipiality, Denmark, kraj: region, Russia, Slovakia, Kreis: district, Germany, län: county, Sweden, lääni: province, Finland, landskap: province, Sweden, maakond: county, Estonia, maakunta: county, Finland, megye: county, Hungary, mohafazat: governorate, Lebanon, obćina: municipality, Slovenia, oblast: province, Bulgaria, oblast’: Russia, Ukraine, obščina: municipality, Bulgaria, okres: district, Slovakia, opština: municipality, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, općina: municipality, Croatia, powiat: county, Poland, prev.: previously Hungarian county names from before 1922, provincia: province, Italy, province: China, Iran, Sweden, provincie: province, The Netherlands, raion: district, Belarus, rajon: district, Russia, rajons: county, Latvia, rajonul: district, Moldova, region: Italy, sahari: region, Azerbajdžan, seutukunta: district, Finland, socken: village, Sweden, spodnja: region, Slovenia, vilayet: province, Turkey, voblast: province, Belarus, welayat: province, Turkmenistan, województwo: voivodeship, Poland, županija: county, Croatia

The finds cited are from the territories of present day France, Italy, Libya and Slovakia (Fig. 67. 1). 1–41 (37a), Annex 2375. France42 1. Arcy-sur-Cure (département Yonne)-Grotte des Fées: undated, 2 Dirty cowries and 1 Pear cowrie and 1 fossil Cypraea sp., from the Miocene.43 2. Arcy-sur-Cure (département Yonne)-Grotte du Renne (V): from the Upper Perigordian (30,000–28,000 BC) or Gravettian period, 1 fossil Cypraea inflata, presumably from the Eocene.44 3. Bayac (département Dordogne)-Trou de Peyrol: among the finds dated to the late Magdalenian (15,000–9000 BC) or Early Azilian period (9000–8000 BC), 1 fossil Cypraea bernanya brocchii Grateloup from the Miocene.45

The unidentified finds from the Rivière collection are not included in this study. See Taborin (1993) 349, 458–59, keywords: M.A.N. (Musée des Antiquités Nationales à Saint-Germain-en-Laye) and I.P.H. (Institut de Paléontologie Humaine) 43 Taborin (1993) 461, 477. This is also discussed by Leroi Gourhan (1985) 19, 66: fig. (5) F–G. 44 Taborin (1993) 349, 461, 466; Müller-Karpe (1966) 257–58: nr.3. 45 Taborin (1993) 349, 433, 473. 42

154

Catalogue 4. Bayac and Bourniquel (département Dordogne)-Les Jean-Blancs: among the finds from the Magdalenian period, 1 fossil Cypraea sublinchoїdes d’Orbigny, from the Miocene.46 5. Bize (département Aude)-Petite grotte: 1 Fallow cowrie from the Solutrean (20,000–15,000 BC) or Upper Magdalenian period, and 1 Fallow cowrie from the Upper Magdalenian or Azilian period.47 6. Bruniquel (département Tarn-et-Garonne): among the cave finds from the Magdalenian period, teeth of carnivorous animals, and perforated see shells, including a 1 inch long (2.54 cm) cowrie, interpreted as a fossil.48 Fig. 68. 4 pierced Cypraea bernanya brocchii from CessacFaustin l’abri (7) – after Taborin (1993) 187: fig 2

7. Cessac (département Gironde)-Faustin l’abri: among the mollusc finds from the late Magdalenian period, 17 fossil Miocene cowries were found, each perforated at the ends: 13 C. bernanya brocchii and 4-5 (!) additional cowries, which were strung in pairs, probably with their dorsal side out (Fig. 68).49

from the Late Perigordian V period (30,000–28,000 BC), 1-1 fragments of Pear and Fallow cowries.54 12. Gourdan (département Haute-Garonne): among the finds from the Middle or Upper Magdalenian period, there is 1 fossil Cypraea brocchii subannulus d’Orbigny.55

8. Château des Eyzies (département Dordogne): among finds from the Azilian period, 1 fossil cowrie, maybe from the Miocene.50

13. Isturitz (département Pyrénées-Atlantiques): among finds from the Middle or Upper Magdalenian period 11 fossil cowrie and a C. brocchii subannulus, from the Miocene were found.56

9. Espèche (département Hautes-Pyrénées)-Le Bois du Cantet: 1 twice perforated cowrie, dating to the Middle or Late Magdalenian period.51 10. Eyzies (département Dordogne)-Laugerie-Basse: in the Magdalenian period (15,000–13,000 BC) grave, excavated in the cave, besides the contracted skeleton of a 16-18 years old male with Cro-Magnon features, among the surprisingly larget number of shells were 20 perforated cowries placed in pairs. From the approximately 4 cm long Pear and Fallow cowries, 1-1 were placed on the forehead and the right temple, 1-1 pairs on the upper arms, 2-2 pairs on the knees, and 1-1 pairs on the foot.52 17 of the cowries were redefined recently: 15 cowries are of Aquitaine origin, fossil, from the Miocene: 4 Cypraea sp., 3 Cypraea subovum d’Orbigny/subamygdallum/brocchii, 8 Cypraea polysurca Cossmann/dujardini/phisis, 1 Pear and 1 Fallow cowrie (Fig. 69. 1–2).53

14. Lacave, Grotte de (département Lot): among finds from the Upper Solutrean period, 1Pear cowrie and 1 twice perforated fossil cowrie from the Miocene were identified.57 15. Le Mas d’Azilian (département Ariège): 1 Cypraea brocchii subannulus and 3 cowries, moreover, one Pear cowrie were uncovered in the cave, from layers dating to the Middle Magdalenian period. All are from the Miocene. 58 Some Agate and Pear cowries and cowrie-pattern painted pebbles were found in the Upper Magdalenian period levels (Fig. 70).59

Taborin (1993) 350, 433, 485; Müller-Karpe (1966) 268: nr.38. Taborin (1993) 349, 444; Müller-Karpe (1966) 264: nr. 38. 56 Taborin (1993) 348, 349, 445–46, 475; Müller-Karpe (1966) 269–70: nr.55. 57 Taborin (1993) 348 (fossil or recent Cypraea sp.), 350, 442, 474, 496: mistakenly, the citation refers to Crozo Bastido; Müller-Karpe (1966) 270: nr. 57. 58 Taborin (1993) 348–50, 448–50, 476, 489. The Agate cowrie is mentioned as a recent Cypraea physis Brocchii/C. achatidea Gray: “Espèce des mers chaudes, vivant en Méditerranée sur les côtes d’Afrique et aux Baléares.” 449, but see also 490. Therefore, it is also possible that this cowrie may be a fossil one as well, something suggested by the following note: Cypraea (Schilderia) achatidea: “Original Reference: G. B. Sowerby, Jr. (1837), … Synonyms: physis Brocchii 1814 (describing fossil species, but used erroneously for achatidea), grayi Kiener 1843.”: Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 107. 59 Schilder (1952) 20, 20: fig. 21 (Fig. 70); Müller-Karpe (1966) 276: nr. 74. 54

11. Eyzies (dép Dordogne)-Pataud l’abri: among finds

55

Taborin (1993) 351, 429, 472. Taborin (1993) 350, 453, 499. 48 Jackson (1917) 135; Müller-Karpe (1966) 259: nr.13. 49 Taborin (1993) 186–89, 349, 439, 475, 495: but it is worth noting that on p. 187: fig.62, Cypraea nemoralis is mentioned instead of a land snail Cepaea nemoralis. 50 Taborin (1993) 348: Cypraea sp., 427, 472. 51 Taborin (1993) 348 (fossil or recent Cypraea sp.) 447, 448. 52 Jackson (1917) 135; Andersson (1934) 294; May (1962) 31, pl. 10: 2; Müller-Karpe (1966) 272–73: nr. 62; Egami (1974) 2; Meaney (1981) 123. Mircea Eliade calls them Mediterranean cowries: Eliade (1997) 176. 53 Taborin (1993) 184–86, 312, 348, 350, 351, 431, 473, 185: fig. 61; Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 96–97. 46 47

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Fig. 69. Contracted skeleton of male (1) with 20 perforated cowries (2) placed in pairs from Eyzies-Laugerie-Basse (10) – after May (1962) pl. 12: 2; Taborin (1993) 185: fig. 61

16. Lespugue (département Haute-Garonne)-Les Harpons: among finds from the Middle or Upper Magdalenian period, 2 fossil cowries from the Miocene, and 1 Fallow cowrie from the Late Magdalenian or Azilian period were found.60 17. Lespugue (département Haute-Garonne)-Les Rideaux: among finds from the Upper Perigordian or Magdalenian period, there are 3 cowries from the Miocene as well as more contemporary cowries.61 Fig. 70. Pebble painted with cowrie-pattern from Mas d’Azil and a contemporaneous Pear cowrie – after Schilder (1952) 20: fig. 21

60 61

156

Taborin (1993) 348, 350, 444–45, 492. Taborin (1993) 348, 445, 492; Müller-Karpe (1966) 273–74: nr. 64.

Catalogue 18. Lortet (département Hautes-Pyrénées): among finds from the Middle or Upper Magdalenian period there is 1 Cypraea columbaria Lamarck from the Miocene.62

a fossil or recent Cypraea sp. from the Middle Solutrean period.72 29. Saint-Germain-la-Rivière (département Gironde): beside a female skeleton from the Magdalenian period, 4 species of shells were identified, among them 3 similarly shaped Trivia burdigalensis accompanied by 1 fossil C. fabagina apice producta of Aquitanian origin, from the Miocene.73

19. Lussac-les-Châteaux (département Vienne)-La Marche: among finds from the Magdalenian III period, 1 Cypraea schilderia Dujardin/C. globosa Dujardin from the Miocene.63 20. Marcamps (département Gironde)-Grotte des Fées: among finds from the Middle or Upper Magdalenian period, there is 1 fossil Cypraea fabagina Lamarck from the Miocene.64

30. Saint Marcel (département Indre): 1 Cypraea brocchii and 1 C. brocchii subannulus was recovered from the Magdalenian period.74

21. Marcamps; Le Roc de (département Gironde)-C 2: among the finds from the Middle and Upper Magdalenian period, there are 2 cowries, probably from the Miocene.65

31. Saint Martin-d’Ardèche (département Ardèche)-Grotte du Figuier: among grave finds from the Magdalenian period, in additon to 4 molluscs, 1 cowrie from the Miocene.75

22. Marquay (département Dordogne)-Le Cap Blanc: a Pear and a Fallow cowrie are mentioned from the Early Magdalenian of the site.66

32. Sanilhac (département Gard)-La Laouza: 2 Fallow cowries were found in the Aurignacian period.76

23. Marquay (département Dordogne)-Laussel: Pear and Fallow cowrie among the finds from the cave are mentioned from the Early Gravettian period.67

33. Savigné (département Vienne)-Le Chaffaud/Grotte du Puits: 1 cowrie from the Miocene is mentioned among finds from the Middle and Upper Magdalenian period.77

24. Massat (département Ariège): a fossil cowrie from the Miocene was found in the Upper Magdalenian period.68

34. Sergeac (département Dordogne)-Blanchard: 2 PlioPleistocene or recent cowries came to light among finds from the Early Aurignacian period.78

25. Montesquieu-Avantès (département Hautes-Pyrenées)Enlène: 6 Miocene cowries were found, 2 small and 4 large among finds from the Middle Magdalenian period. Based on their size they represented two species. The age of one additional fragment could not be determined. Finally, 1 large cowrie was also found which was contemporary.69

35. Sergeac (département Dordogne)-Castanet: 1 fossil C. columbaria and 1 Cypraea burdigalensis Cossman et Peyrot came to light among finds from the Aurignacian period in addition to 2 fossil cowries from the Miocene.79

26. Mouthiers-sur-Boëme (département Charente)-Grotte des Rois: among finds from the Early Aurignac period, one core of a fossil cowrie.70

36. Sergeac (département Dordogne)-Labattut: more cowries were found beside the skeleton of a child, among them 1 from the Miocene as well as other cowries. All fossil cowries are Aquitanian in origin.80

27. Oullins au Garn (département Gard): 1 Pear cowrie is mentioned among finds from the Magdalenian period.71

37. Solutré (département Saône et Loire): 1 cowrie from the Miocene was found from the Solutrean period.81

Prignac-et-Marcamps (département Gironde, région Aquitanie)-Pair-non-Pair cavern – see Annex 2375.

37a. Sosy (département Lot)-Crozo Bastido: a Pear cowrie is mistakenly mentioned.82

28. Sainte-Anastasie (département Gard)-Grotte Sombre:

38. Terrasson-la-Villedieu (département Dordogne)Lachard: 1cowrie from the Miocene was found and

62

Taborin (1993) 349, 447; Müller-Karpe (1996) 274: nr. 67. Taborin (1993) 350, 439. 64 Taborin (1993) 350, 439, 475. 65 Taborin (1993) 348, 440, 475. 66 Müller-Karpe (1996) 184, 260: nr. 15; not mentioned in Taborin (1993) 426. 67 Müller-Karpe (1996) 184, 273: nr. 63; not mentioned in Taborin (1993) 432. 68 Taborin (1993) 349, 448; Müller-Karpe (1966) 276: nr. 75. 69 Taborin (1993) 348–349: Cypraea sp., 447–48, 476, 489: 8 more cowries from the Plio-Pleistocene? 70 Taborin (1993) 349, 438. 71 Taborin (1993) 350, 454, 499.

72

63

73

Taborin (1993) 349, 455, 500. Taborin (1993) 304, 307, 312, 350, 440, 475; Müller-Karpe (1966) 283: nr. 104. 74 Taborin (1993) 349, 441, 474; Müller-Karpe (1996) 283: nr. 106. 75 Taborin (1993) 349, 455, 477, 501. 76 Taborin (1993) 350, 454, 499. 77 Taborin (1993) 348, 438, 474. 78 Taborin (1993) 348 (fossil or recent Cypraea sp.), 426, 480. 79 Taborin (1993) 348–49, 426, 472. 80 Taborin (1993) 304, 307, 312, 348, 430, 472. 81 Taborin (1993) 349, 460, 477, 502; Müller-Karpe (1966) 284: nr. 111. 82 Taborin (1993) 496, 442.

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this skeleton and the young woman. The archaeologist interpreted these 2 cowries as the pair to the 2 cowries that were found near to the left knee. Most likely, they hung on a leather strap, or on a plait.90

39. Tursac (département Dordogne)-La Madeleine I: a burial of a 5–7 year old child was unearthed in the cave. The cowries were not found beside the skeleton, but in the layers from the Upper Magdalenian period: among these 1–2 cowries from the Miocene, 1 Cypraea columbaria sanguinolenta Dujardin from the Miocene, and 1 Fallow cowrie.84

44–45. Grimaldi-Bausso da Torre: cowries were discovered in both burials from the Aurignacian layers91 in the cave: 44. Grave 1: skeleton of an adult man, covered with ocher and the following finds: in the neck region, presumably strung, two perforated Cyclope/Nassa neritea and one perforated Pear cowrie. His arms and legs were adorned symmetrically with strands of Mediterranean molluscs. Among them, 32 unidentified turtle remains, 1 deer canine by the left elbow, 18 Cyclope/Nassa neritea, 2 Buccinum corniculum and 4 Pear cowries were discovered. By the right wrist were 15 Cyclope/Nassa neritea and 1 Pear cowrie, by the right knee were 15 Cyclope/Nassa neritea, 5 B. corniculum and 2 Pear cowries, while by the left knee were 21 Cyclope/Nassa neritea and 3 B. corniculum.92

40. Vilhonneur (département Charente)-Le Placard: 1 fossil C. subovum from the Miocene is mentioned among the finds from the Solutrean-Magdalenian period.85 41. Villardonnel (département Aude)-Canecaude I: 1 fossil cowrie from the Miocene as well as one Pear cowrie or Cypraea dollfusi among the finds from the Middle Magdalenian period.86 42–48. Italy

45. Grave 2: ocher covered grave of a Cro-Magnon type adult, the sex of whom is still debated in the scholarship. On the skeleton, symmetrically, a strand of perforated objects were discovered: as head- and neck decoration 7 deer teeth, 251 shells (89 were on the skull and 162 around the neck), of which 203 was identified as Cyclope/Nassa neritea. The number of other species was not detailed: Buccinum. corniculum, Cerithium vulgatum, Nassa incrassata, Nassa reticulata, Pear and Fallow cowries. By the right elbow 25 Cyclope neritea, 5 Nassa incrassata, 1 C. vulgatum and 1-1 Pear and Fallow cowrie. By the right elbow 22 Cyclope/Nassa neritea, and 1 Pear cowrie, and by the right as well as at the left femur 1 Pear cowrie each were found.93 These cowries hung from the waist on a plaited strap although this may be a special decoration for the burial.94

42. Finale Ligure (province Savona, regione Liguria)Grotta delle Arene Candide: in addition to several hundred CyclopeNassa neritea shells, accompanied by some Cypraea sp. the young man buried in the cave (grave Nr. 1) from the Épigravettian period wore deer canines.87 43. Grimaldi (comune Ventimiglia, province Imperia, regione Liguria)-Barma Grande: two burials were discovered in the Aurignacian period level:88 Grave 2: burial place for three skeletons of Cro-Magnon type, all covered with ochre. Perforated Cyclope/Nassa neritea, and a “Double-Olive” and Purpura lapillus each (?) were unearthed among the grave goods of the boy (1) and the young woman (2). The older man (3)89 had his stone knife with him in the grave, and wore a headdress, comprised of perforated fish vertebrae, Cyclope/Nassa neritea, and 14 deer canines, decorated with engraved motifs. On his forehead, were nearly semi-spherical, engraved ivory pendants, pierced fish vertebrae, and deer canines. His chest was decorated with the same sort of ivory pendants, perforated, salmon-sized vertebrae, and an engraved “Double-Olive” shell. Finally, on both sides of the left tibia’s upper end, there were 2 large, perforated cowries. Since then, a similar cowrie has been found near his right knee, and an additional one was discovered between

46. Grimaldi-Cavillon: Cyclope/Nassa neritea shells were discovered beside a Cro-Magnon type male skeleton from the Aurignacian period. However, the layers above this burial were rich in various types of cowries. Unfortunately, this strata is not discussed in the publication in detail although Fallow and Pear cowries are mentioned.95 47. Grimaldi-La Grotte des Enfants: the cowries were not found in the grave goods of the four graves from the Aurignacian period, although only 1 Cypraea is mentioned

Taborin (1993) 348, 430, 472–73. Taborin (1993) 34850, 432, 473, 485. Misleadingly, a fossil Pear cowrie is mentioned by Jackson (1917) 134–35. However, these cowries are not included in the description of the grave finds: May (1962) 31–32; Müller-Karpe (1966) 274–275: nr. 69. 85 Taborin (1993) 351, 436, 474; Müller-Karpe (1966) 279: nr. 87. 86 Taborin (1993) 350, 451, 477, 497. 87 Taborin (1993) 306–07, 312; Müller-Karpe (1966) 322: nr.273; here only Nassa shells are mentioned: Tinè (1983) 53–55. 88 Taborin dated it to the Épigravettian period: Taborin (1993) 305: pl. XI. 89 “Squelette no 4, homme adulte”: Taborin (1993) 305: pl. XII. 83 84

Jackson (1917) 136–37, Bogaevskij (1931) 3: Footnote 1; May (1962) 56–61, pls 19–20; Müller-Karpe (1966) 324–325: nr. 281; “4 grande Cypraea”: Taborin (1993) 458. 91 Taborin dated the layer to the Epigravettien period: Taborin (1993) 305: pl. XI; Müller-Karpe (1966) 323–24: nr.281. 92 May (1962) 64–66; Taborin (1993) 35, 307, 312. 93 May (1962) 66–69; Taborin (1993) 305, 307, 312, 350, 458. 94 May (1962) 68. 95 May (1962) 54; only Fallow cowrie is mentioned: Taborin (1993) 458; Müller-Karpe (1966) 323: nr.281. 90

158

Catalogue Grave 105: Middle Bronze Age101 (1700–1350 BC) contracted skeleton with the following grave goods: 2 reversed heart-shaped bronze pendants, half moon-shaped bronze pendant, faience beads, 4-handled bowl, a vessel, a cattle bone, 34 dentalium imitations102 lying mainly around the trunk, Cerithium beads between the right forearm and the knees, 44 Columbella rustica beads by the lower part of the ribs, and 2 perforated Pentunculus or Cardium shells, 1 perforeated double conical shell bead,103 and finally the 15 pieces of “beads made of cerythyum shell”, marked as Nr. 4. in the description of the grave which was catalogued in the inventory as “beads made of Cypraea shell”.104 In the latter group, there were also *2 fossil cowries; but their identification has not yet been published.105

in another layer, 3.15 m from the actual surface, which was not discussed in detail.96 48. Promontorio del Gargano (province Puglia, regione Foggia)-Grotta Paglicci: among the grave goods provided a 13 year old child from the Gravettien period: approximately 30 perforated teeth were found on the left side of his chest, accompanied by 1 cowrie which was once worn as a necklace.97 Libya: Haua Fteah Cave (Cyrenaica) – see Annex 2467. 49. Slovakia 49. Moraván (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Moravany nad Váhom, okres Piešt’any, Trnavský kraj)-Žakovska: among tools from the Gravettian period, 1 perforated Mediterranean cowrie (“Cypraea Muschel”) is mentioned.98

Munkácsy Mihály Museum, Békéscsaba, acc. nr.: 76.18.7 50a. Deszk (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-F. cemetery: in the inventory of Ferenc Móra’s unpublished cemeteryexcavation,106 where 69 Middle Bronze Age graves assigned to the early period of the Szőreg culture (last quarter of 3rd millenium BC ?) includes some entries of cowries which were introduced by mistake:

4.3. 50–326, (50a–b, 144a, 225a, 326a). Cowries and Cowrie Imitations from the Mesolithic to the Scythian Period (10,000–700 BC) – (see Annex 2312, 2329–43, 2356, 2358–67, 2376, 2394–98, 2401–06, 2408–14, 2416–30, 2432, 2434–38, 2446–53, 2459–60, 2465–66, 2474, 2506–08, 2512–16, 2519–21, [2309a] )

Grave 21: 8 bronze plate decorations and a necklace: 2 carved bone lunulae, 15 perforated animal teeth, 9 small shells included 2 Columbella sp., 6 dentalium beads and 2 shells.

The catalogued material comes from Abu Dhabi, Armenia, Azerbajdžan, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Portugal, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sudan, Syria, Turkey and Turkmenistan (Fig. 67. 2).99 In several cases it was not possible to define the lower limits of the period at 700 BC. In such cases, with the exception of some earlier Scythianlike (580, 592, 650, 656) material or finds from Anan’ino (ananin’skaja) Culture sites (621–22, 710) as well as some earlier cowrie imitations (626, 646–47, 665, 691), I have placed later finds among the finds from the 8th century BC to the Roman period. I placed the single Bronze Age grave good from the Carpathian Basin at the beginning.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: Ő.53.112.53.107 Grave 43: among the finds were listed 7 cylindrical and two spherical beads, 1 Glycymeris sp./Pectunculus sp., 7 Dentalium sp. and 1 Cardium (Cardiidae), and finally “3 cowrie -shells” appeared, but in fact, these three were all Columbella sp. Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: Ő.53.112.98.108 Emőd (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén Istvánmajor – see Annex 2309a.

50, (50a-b), Annex 2312 (2309a). Carpathian Basin 50. Battonya (Békés megye, Hungary)-Sand-Pit of the Vörös Október Agricultural Cooperative: Early and Middle Bronze Age cemetery with 131 graves (Fig. 67. 2):100

megye,

Hungary)-

50b. Gyulavarsánd (prev. Arad megye, Hungary; Vărşand, judeţul Arad, Romania)-Laposhalom: several cowries are mentioned in the 4 notes of the inventory books Szabó (1986) 133. One sample from the beads, identified as dentalium, was examined by Gyula Radócz using the X-ray defraction method in the Hungarian Geological Institute. It appeared that, in fact, these were glass beads, consisting of 96% quartz, 1% feldspar and 3% plagioklas. I would like to thank him for his help. 103 Szabó (1986) 69-70, 38. p. 4: “Cyprea sp. (grave 105., grave goods Nr. 4.)”. 104 Evaluating mollusc types, only Bóna (1975) 267–68 has mentioned them in a note as snails and shells living in warm sea water 176 (p. 151): Szabó (1986) 120. 105 Szabó (1999) 47, 104: fig. 38. (cowrie shaped shells: 4). 106 Bóna (1975) 85, 92. I was able to examine the inventory with the kind permission of Béla Kürti. 107 Vörös (1997) 134: pl. 22/IV; Bóna (1975) pl. 85: 14–17. 108 Bóna (1975) 103–04, pl. 84: 9–10, pl. 86: 17–23. 101 102

Jackson (1917) 136. The cowrie does not appear in recent publications, see May (1962) 44–50; Müller-Karpe (1966) 324: nr. 281; Taborin (1993) 458. 97 Palma di Cesnola (1974) 73–75, 74: fig. 5 B; Taborin (1993) 306, 312. 98 Müller-Karpe (1966) 185, 313: nr. 235. 99 Unfortunately, the extracts of the find inventory are not indexed; therefore some rarely mentioned cowries might be hidden under the name “Muschel” e.g. Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2, Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 717–905. 100 Gabriella Kulcsár brought my attention to this find. It is mentioned with the kind permission of József Szabó; I would like to thank all of them. 96

159

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads concerning the material of the eponymous settlement excavation, of the Gyulavarsány culture lead by Nándor Krammer in 1903–1904, dated to the Middle Bronze Age (early 17th century–mid 15th century BC). These shells are not mentioned in the scientific literature.109 There is a known remark by János Banner which was added to a drawing, published by himself and kept in the Museum of Békéscsaba, which was originally made by Béla Pósta on the Gyulavarsánd finds: “Zur Veranschaulichung der aufgefädelten saltaleoni [bronze rolls – according to István Bóna] – zusammen mit Caurischnecken – zeige ich eine Kopie der Originalzeichnung von B. Pósta (Abb. 25)”110 certainly there is a cowrie in that picture.

kurgan-cemetery, excavated approximately a century ago, and dated at that time to ca. 1500 BC.112 53–54. Ošakan (Aštarakskij rajon,): a cemetery of 5 graves (numbered up to 62) from the Urartu period (12th–6th centuries BC): 53. Grave 59: in the grave, robbed in the 3rd century BC, 11 skulls indicate the minimum number of buried individuals. Among other remains, “small numbers of cowries” were found of which 1 might be a Ringed cowrie, lenght: ca. 1.8–2.2 cm.113 54. Grave 62: at least 10–12 individuals were buried in a grave which was later robbed, where – among other remains – some cowries were found.114

Of all the Gyulavarsánd shells there was only one cowrie, most probably a Sarmatian cowrie (895), while the correct identification of the other molluscs are as follows:

Azerbajdžan – see Annex 2330–43.

1. “33 cyprea shells”, more precisely at the moment 28 *Melanopsis sp. and 2 *cone shells (Conus sp.), acc. nr.: 52.621.1

Mingečaur (Mingačevir Sahari) Graves 26/1946, 107/1946, 133/1946, 135/1946, 151/1946, 150/1947, 15/1950, 18/1950 – see Annex 2330–37.

2. “16 cyprea shells” more precisely at the moment 1 Columbella sp. coming most probably from the Mediterranean (*Columbella rustica), acc. nr.: 52.622.1

Mingečaur (Mingačevir Sahari) Kurgan I, Primary Grave, Kurgan II, Primary Grave, Kurgan II, Graves 3, 9, Kurgan IV, Primary Grave, Kurgan V, Primary Grave – see Annex 2338–43.

3. “81 cyprea shells”, more precisely at the moment 71 *Melanopsis sp., which might be *Melanopsis impressa, which lived in Miocene–Liocene brackish-water, 3 *Mediterranean cone shells (Conus sp.), presumably *Conus ventricosus = Conus mediterranens, and finally 2 *Columbella sp., acc. nr.: 52.634.1

Croatia: Danilo-Bitinj (Šibensko-kninska županija) – see Annex 2350. 55–76, Annex 2351–56. Cyprus Alambra-Mouttes – see Annex 2351.

Hatvan (Heves megye, Hungary)-North periphery stray find – see Annex 2312.

55–63. Amathus southcoast: 900 marine molluscs were found in 40 of the 276 graves115 at the cemetery, among them cowries: 67 of them are from Red Sea shells (Ringed and Money cowries), 19 examples from the Mediterranean Sea (Gnawed and Fallow cowries).116 Except for 1 Roman grave (956), cowrie shells were generally found in Archaic

Vărşand – see 50b. Gyulavarsánd Abu Dhabi: Umm an-Nar island – see Annex 2329. 51–54. Armenia 51. Dvin (Artashat region): a metal, semi-precious stone and glass beads producing workshop from the 10th–8th centuries BC was found in Dvin, the 5th–9th centuries BC capital of Armenia; not only were precious metal objects produced there but also shell jewelry: the latter ones were made of Ringed cowries.111

kauri). Some of them were sawn humped, leaving them with such an opening that it was possible to to strand them on either a wool or a metal hoop. The other cowries were left intact”: Kušnareva (1977) 80, 92–93; see also 28–35, 80–104, 107. Some hundreds of the shells were Ringed cowries (Monnetaria annulus –sic!), while the other molluscs were either snails (Dentalium, Collumbella), or shells (Unios stevenianos). The identifications were made by Ja. I. Starobogatov, associate of the Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences SSSR: Kušnareva (1977) 35: nr. 58, 35: note 28, 35: fig. 54. 2–3, pl. XXVII: 1. 112 Egami (1974) 2: with reference to J. de Morgan: Mission scientifique au Caucase. Paris 1889. I: 50, 106–09, fig. 10: 7–8. 113 Esajan–Kalantarjan (1988) 80, pl. LX: 27 (1 specimen), pl. LXII: 4 (8 specimens). 114 Esajan–Kalantarjan (1988) 81. (without illustration) 115 First 114 graves never published: note of David S. Reese; see Reese (1985a) 270–71, (1992d) 123. 116 Out of the 900 specimens, 826 pieces from 31 graves came from the Mediterranean while 74 specimens from 31 graves originated in the Red Sea: Reese (1992d) 123–24; see Reese (2000) 636.

52. Mouçi-yeri: more than 150 cowries, with perforations through their dorsi were found clustered together in the See also Domonkos (1908); Roska (1941); Popescu (1956). Banner (1974) 65: note 158., 66: 25 picture subtitled “Bronzefunde von Gyulavarsánd (nach B. Pósta)”. he referred to the same picture again as being two cone shells (Dentalium sp.) from the Békés (Békés megye, Hungary)-Várdomb, visible in the upper middle part of the picture: see also Reese (1992d) 123. 111 The archaeologists have found “some hundreds of various species of molluscs, living in the Indian-ocean; the majority was cowrie (rakovina 109 110

160

Catalogue Period (CA)117 graves. Of the latter ones, I classify here the graves of CA I (or started ones in this period), and discussed the later ones separately (550–58). The finds are kept in the District Archaeological Museum, Limassol.

ceramics was found 1 perforated Ringed cowrie. size: 1.7x1.3 cm.124 62. Grave 276/217: among the finds of CA I (750–600 BC), 3 Ringed cowries with open dorsum (1 ground-down, 2 neither clearly grund-down), size: 1.7x1.3 – 1.95x1.45 cm.125

55. Grave 142: among other CG IIIB – CA IB/IIA Period (ca. 800–600 BC) finds such as Egyptian amulets and a scarab, was a necklace comprised of 121 various specimens of perforated molluscs: 80 Arcularia, 17 Columbella, 5 Cyclope, 1-1 Glycymeris and Euthria as well as 14 Ringed cowries with their dorsum removed or perforated and having a length of 1.3–2.1 cm, 2 perforated Dirty cowries, length: 2.6–2.9 cm, and 1 perforated Fallow cowrie each, 118 length 3.1 cm.

63. Grave 294/18: among other finds from CA – CC I (750– 400 BC) such as Egyptian amulets, a scarab and Phoenician ceramics were found molluscs, mainly perforated: 15 Nassa gibbosulus, 3 cone shells (Conus mediterraneus), 1 Ringed cowrie s.: 2.6x1.7 cm, 1 unperforated Dirty cowrie size.: 2.5x1.5 cm, and 9 small unique cowrie imitations made of stone with open dorsi were found in this cemetery, size 1.0x0.74–1.2x0.85 cm.126

56. Grave 147: 1 perforated Ringed cowrie from the CA Period, size 1.75x1.2 cm, were found among other artifacts.119

64–66. Ayia Irini-Paleokastro: finds from the cemetery:

57. Grave 228: among finds from the CA Period, were found, apart from some Egyptian amulets, 1 perforated Ringed cowrie, size 1.7x1.2 cm.120

64. Grave 12: 2 Fallow cowries were discovered in the burial of the Late Cypriote (LC) IA:2–B:2 Period (ca. 1600 – ca. 1475 BC).

58. Grave 240: from the CA I period were found mostly perforated molluscs: 36 Nassa gibbosulus, 22 Nassa mutabilis, 1 cone shell (Conus mediterraneus) and 6 Dirty cowries, size 2.0x1.4 – 2.4x1.4 cm.121

65. Grave 20: 4 Fallow cowries were found in a contemporary burial. 66. Grave 21: 2 Fallow cowries were discovered in a burial of the LC IA: 2–B:1 Period (ca. 1600 – ca. 1500 BC).127

59. Grave 242: among the finds from CA I–IIA period (750–550? BC) were found Egyptian amulets, seals, a scarab as well as Phoenician ceramics and 26 perforated Nassa gibbosulus, 2 Columbella rustica and 2 Ringed cowries, size 1.9x1.3, resp. 1.7x1.2 cm.122

67. Ayios Epiktitos-Vrysi: 1 Fallow cowrie was uncovered in the Late Neolithic site (ca. 4500 – 3800 BC), at which more than 21,000 mollusc finds were identified.128 68. Ayios Iakovos (near Famagusta): Grave 14.: 1 or even a few Fallow cowries were found in the grave from the LC II (1550–1050 BC).129

60. Grave 243: among other finds from CA I such as Egyptian amulets and a scarab were found 1 perforated Nassa gibbosulus and the following cowries, mainly with open dorsi: 4 Ringed cowries, size 2.2x1.5 – 2.3x1.7 cm, 1 Dirty cowrie, size: 2.3x1.5 cm, 1 Fallow cowrie, size: 3.8x2.3 cm.123

69. Episkopi-Phaneromeni: an untouched Fallow cowrie was found among 113 molluscs of the MC–LC IA period (2000– ca. 1475 BC).130

61. Grave 276/92.3: among other finds from CA I (750–600 BC) such as Egyptian amulets, a scarab and Phoenician

70. Erimi-Pamboula: 1 untouched Fallow cowrie of the Chalcolithic (ca. 3500 BC).131

Abbreviations for the Cyprus excavation material: Cypro-Geometric (CG, I: 1050–950 BC, II: 950–850 BC, III: 850–750 BC). Cypro-Archaic (CA, I: 750–600 BC, II: 600—475 BC), Cypro-Classical (CC, I: 475–400 BC, II: 400–325 BC), Hellenistic Period (I: 325–150 BC, II: 150–50), Roman Period (50 BC-). According to David Reese “almost every tomb at Amathus with Red Sea cowries had also produced CA material. The exception is Tomb 130.”: Reese (1992d) 123. Therefore, in spite of his remark on the separation of Grave 130 – “CC; Hellenistic: Roman” – that he also repeated with some minor changes in case of several other graves containing cowries, I did not assign them to the Roman period, but rather to the CA I (56–57, 61–62), and the CA II (551, 554, 556); see also Reese (1992d) 130, 132–33. 118 Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128–29. 119 Reese (1992d) 124, 130. 120 Dated to CA; CC IB; Hellenistic I; Roman: Reese (1992d) 123–24, 132. 121 Reese (1992d) 124, 128, 133, 1 Dirty cowrie: pl. XXIV: 2. 122 Reese (1992d) 123–24, 133. 123 Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128, 133.

Erimi-Pamboula – see Annex 2352.

117

71. Khirokitia-Vounoi: 5 Fallow cowries of the Aceramic

Dated to late CA I–CC I; Hellenistic; Roman: Reese (1992d) 123-24, 133. 125 Dated to late CA I– CC I; Hellenistic; Roman: Reese (1992d) 133. 126 Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128, 134, cowrie imitations: ibid. pl. XXIV: 5; Reese (2000) 636. 127 Reese (1985) 349; Reese (1985a) 271; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 769: nr. 92; Reese (1992d) 124. 128 Reese (1985) 344, 349; Reese (1996). 129 Reese (1985) 349; Reese (1985a) 271; Reese (1992d) 124; MüllerKarpe (1980) IV/2: 969: nr. 93. 130 Reese (1985) 347, 349. 131 Reese (1985) 344, 349. 124

161

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Neolithic from the 1930s excavations.132 Among the finds were 1-1 Dirty (? Erosaria) and unidentified cowries.133

(1550–1292 BC), large numbers of Ringed cowries with open dorsi were brought to light.141

72–73. Larnaca-Kition, Vounar, sanctuary in Area II: 4 untouched and 3 pierced Fallow cowries were found among the 139 molluscs of the LC–CG periods (1550–1050 BC):

79. Grave E.47: a cowrie imitation is mentioned from the time of the 5th–9th/10th Dynasties (2465–2040 BC).142 80. Ringed cowrie(s) were mentioned as having been found in some graves of the Pre-Dynastic period (ca. 3100–3032/2982 BC).143

72. 2nd sanctuary: of the LC IIC–LC IIIA Periods 2 pierced Fallow cowries were found, size: 4.8x3.05–3.1x2.1 cm, and in the IIIA layer of the LC IIIA period 3 untouched Fallow cowries, length: 2.25, 2.4, 2.9 cm.

81. A cowrie was found dating to the 21st–25th Dynasties (1070/1069–664 BC).144

73. Room 12: 2 Fallow cowries were identified of the LC IIC–LC IIIA periods and the bedrock, 1 of them is narrowly pierced, size: 2.2x1.5 cm.134

82. el-Amrah (near Abydos, Upper-Egypt): Money cowries were found in some graves from the Pre-Dynastic Period.145

74. Larnaca-Kition, Sanctuary on the southern coast, yard C.: perforated Ringed cowrie, dated between CG III and CA I (850–600 BC).135

83–94. Aniba (Mi’m, near Dirr, Lower Nubia)-N. cemetery (= Nord Friedhof): from the time of the Late Middle Kingdom–New Kingdom (2nd millenium BC), a Nubian cemetery with 961 graves is cited as having frequent occurrences of cowries.146

Larnaca–Kition – see Annex 2353. Maa-Palaeokastro – see Annex 2354.

83. Grave N454a: among grave goods from the NM2 Period is mentioned a pendant, 2 bone bracelets, a jar and a perforated Arabian cowrie used as a pendant.147

75. Rizokarpaso-Anavrysi, Grave 1: some cowries were found in a grave of the CG I Period (1050–950 BC).136 76. Rizokarpaso-Apostolos Andreas Kastros: more than 350 Fallow cowries were discovered among the rich mollusc finds of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic site (7000—6000 BC), among which 28 were pierced at both ends, and 21 were pierced at one end.137 – see Annex 2355.

84. Grave N505c: among grave goods from the NM2 Period, beads, a girdle with beads as well as a necklace made from some beads and most probably some cowries.148 85. Grave N559: NM2 Period grave goods: beads and a bracelet made of cowries with open dorsi.149

Sotira-Kaminoudhia – see Annex 2356.

86. Grave N580: among the grave goods of a male from the NM1 Period, beads, a pendant and a necklace made of cone shells on which a cowrie with open dorsum was even strung.150

77–177, (144a), Annex 2358–67. Egypt138 77. Abu Roaš: a cowrie is mentioned from the 21st–25th Dynasties (ca. 1070/1069–664 BC).139

87. Grave N585b: in the grave probably from the NM2 Period, the head of the deceased lay on a linen pillow. Among the grave goods were described: beads, amulet beads, a necklace and an anklet (Fusskette) made of

78–81. Abydos (Arábah, Upper-Egypt):140 78. Grave D.114: from the time of the 18th Dynasty

Jackson (1917) 128. Peet (1912) pl. 7: E.47 – after Győry (1999). 143 Reese (1988) 262. 144 Peet (1913) II: Pl. 10: 8. – after Győry (1999). 145 Jackson (1917) 129; Müller-Karpe (1968) 398: nr. 5. 146 Originally, with the exception of 2 graves from the NM1 period (Nubische Mittelalter; graves N580 and N956a), the cemetery was dated to the NM2. Here, cowries from the Red Sea were more common; partly alone, partly together with beads, mainly strung with open dorsi on necklaces in order that their narrow end could be knotted to a twine: Steindorff (1935) 49, 55 (the inventory of graves); Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 1044–45: nr. 1154; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 720: nr. 5. 147 From the NM2 period: Steindorff (1935) 55, 154. 148 I translated the consistently used ”halbierte Cypraea-Schnecken” for the grave-descriptions from the cemetery, as ‘hump removed’, based on the representations from some pictures: Steindorff (1935) 55, 158 and pl. 27: a, pl. 29: d. 149 Steindorff (1935) 55, 163. 150 Steindorff (1935) 55, 165, pl. 27: a. 141 142

Reese (1978) 38; Reese (1985) 349. Reese (1996) 484. 134 Reese (1985) 340–42, 349. 135 Reese (1991) 167: nr. 39. 136 Reese (1992d) 124. 137 Reese (1985) 344, 349. 138 I catalogued the manuscript database of Hedvig Győry which was not included in her doctoral dissertation. In her material I found references to scientific literature which I could not attain; I cited each of them below: see also Győry (1999). I would like to thank the author for her kind help and permission to use her data. I must also mention that – in order to unify the material, I applied Wilfried Seipel’s chronology to the Egyptian finds. See also Seipel (1989) 366–67. and Beckerath (1997). 139 Bisson de la Roque (1925), pl. 22: 266– after Győry (1999). 140 Müller-Karpe (1966) 396–98: nr. 4; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 786: nr. 2; “In zwei Gräbern der XVIII. Dynastie zahlreiche Stücke mit abgeschliffenen Rücken.”: Falkner (1981) 141. 132 133

162

Catalogue cowries with open dorsi. Among the cowries, 8 Thrush cowries and some Honey cowries were found.151 88. Grave N756b: among the grave goods of a child presumably from the NM2 Period were beads, and probably the remnants of a girdle, consisting of 4 cowries with open dorsi.152 89. Grave N785a: a necklace made of cowries with removed dorsi is mentioned among the grave goods from the NM2 Period.153 90. Grave N794: presumably NM2 Period beads and 2 cowries with open dorsi was documented among the grave goods.154 91. Grave N824b: grave goods presumably of NM2 Period: a necklace made of glazed beads and most probably Gnawed cowries with removed dorsi.155 92. Grave N920: an amulet, 2 perforated pebbles and 2 cowries with open dorsi were found among the grave goods presumably from the NM2 Period.156 93. Grave N921: beads and a necklace made of Thrush cowries with open dorsi were foundamong the grave goods presumably from the NM2 Period.157

Fig. 71. 1-1 Panther (?) cowrie from Aswan (96), Ringed (?) cowrie from Tell-el-Yehudieh (163) and 2 faience cowrie imitations of undetermined location (177) – after Reisner (1958) pl. X: 12831, 12834, 12832–33

94. Grave N956a.: 2 cowries with open dorsi, worked into a bead necklace was found among the grave goods presumably from the NM2 Period.158

caurica? was found among the grave goods of the “Pan Grave Culture”, dated to ca. 2000 BC.161

95. Aniba-NN. cemetery: 2 cowries with open dorsi were found like strayfinds in a cemetery consisting of 13 graves, from the 3rd millenium BC, Nubian Period.159

98. Ballas (Upper Egypt): Cypraea (Erronea) caurica caurica, Calcedony cowrie, Gnawed cowrie and other cowries have been found in graves from the Middle and Late Predynastic Periods (Fig. 72. e).162

Aswan/Assuan (Upper Egypt)-Shellal-Cemetery 7, Grave 5, Grave in C-group – see Annex 2358–59. 96. Aswan/Assuan (Upper-Egypt): a large cowrie, possibly a Panther cowrie, was found in the stone-lined graves which were probably in use up to the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2119–ca. 1794/1793 BC). lenght: 7.7 cm (Fig. 71. 1).160

99. Dahsur (Lower Egypt): among other finds, there were 8 cowrie imitations made of gold plate, a necklace or girdle made of gold, lapis lazuli and green feldspar beads placed in the grave of Princess Sit-Hathor, daughter of the Pharaoh Sesostris III, of the 12th Dynasty (ca. 1976–ca. 1794/1793 BC) lenght: 70cm. The cowrie imitations copied the lower part of the cowries. Small metal grains clinked in their inner hollows (Fig. 73).163

el-Badari – see 147–52. Qau bay 97. Balabish (Upper Egypt)-“Pan-Grave”: a Cypraea Steindorff (1935) 55, 165, pl. 29: d. (down). Steindorff (1935) 55, 176. 153 Steindorff (1935) 55, 178. 154 Steindorff (1935) 55, 179. 155 Steindorff (1935) 55, 181. 156 “…zwei der Breite nach halbierte Cypraea-Schnecke.”: Steindorff (1935) 55, 188. 157 Steindorff (1935) 55, 188. 158 Steindorff (1935) 55, 191. 159 Steindorff (1935) 27, pl. 78: NNx; noted as being older than the N cemetery: Müller-Karpe (1968) 412: nr. 29. 160 Reisner (1958) 39. and pl. X, plate XXV: nr. 12831; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 786–87: nr. 4. 151

100. Dahsur (southernmost area of the Mephis Necropolis, Lower Egypt): it is thought that 2 girdles composed of gold

152

Jackson (1917) 129. The “Pan-Grave” cemeteries in Egypt may date to a time after 2000 BC. 162 Petrie (1914) 27, and pl. XIV: e; Jackson (1917) 129; Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 310–-11. 163 Aldred (1978) 115–16: nr. 19, pl. 19; Brühl (1929) 187; Wilkinson (1971) XX, 80, pl. XXII; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 790: nr. 8.V; Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 122, 153: note 268; Bogaevskij (1931) 55; Reese (1988) 262. 161

163

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 72. Worked natural cowries and cowrie imitations from Ballas (98), Mahasna (117), Nagadeh (145–46), Gheyta (960) and with insufficient informations (175, 177) – after Petrie (1914) pl. XIV: 107. a–k, pl. XLIV: 107. l, pl. XLVI: 107. m

Fig. 73. The girdle with gold cowries of Princess Sit-Hathor from Dahsur (99) – after Aldred (1978) color plate 19

164

Catalogue

Fig. 74. The gold cowrie girdle of Queen Mereret from Dahsur (100) – after Aldred (1978) color plate 31

a cowroid (102) was discovered among grave goods, dated to sometime before the 18th Dynasty (ca. 1550–1292 BC).167 Cowroids use had its heyday in the 18th Dynasty, in the form of beads with inscriptions or embossing on their dorsum (103).168

plate cowrie imitations were found in the grave of Queen Mereret from the 12th Dynasty. While the first one would have consisted of 9 large cowrie imitations, the second would have been made of 22 tiny cowries; however, it is more possible that they all belonged to a single set.164 Both sides of the gold plate shells, similarly to the cowries, were ribbed; inside the hollowed plate shells were tiny metal grains which clinked. One pair formed the catch of the girdle. It should be mentioned that some tiny gold plate shell-shaped pendants and a large shell-shaped pendant hung from the necklace (Fig. 74).165

Halfiah Gibli (near Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt) – see Annex 2361. 104–05. el-Harageh (Gebel Abusir, Lower Egypt): 104. Grave No. 306: glass cowrie imitation beads from after the 9th(/10)th Dynasties (ca. 2170/2120–ca. 2025/2020 BC).

Edfou/ancient Behdet-Tell Edfou – see Annex 2360. 101. Gerzeh (today al-Girza, Lower Egypt): a cowrie from the time of the 25th Dynasty (747–664 BC) is mentioned.166

105. Grave No. 509: glass cowrie imitation beads from after the 5th–9th(/10)th Dynasties.169

102–03. Gurob (Medina Gurob, reg. Fayum, Lower-Egypt):

106. Gebel Sedment/ancient Herakleopolis (Lower-Egypt): cowrie imitations are mentioned of the 5th–9th(/10)th Dynasties.170

Winlock (1934) 38–40 assumed that these were from two separate girdles; Wilkinson (1971) 80, on the other hand assumed they came from a single girdle. 165 Wilkinson (1971) 80; 117: nr. 31, pl. 31; Hornung-Staehelin (1976) 122, 153: note 268; Bogaevskij (1931) 55; Reese (1988) 262; Andrews (1995) 76: nr. 1.32. Presumably, the 12 small cowrie imitations are noted as as burial offerings from the graves of the Princesses Chnumet and Ita who both belonged to the family of the Pharaoh Amenemhet II (ca. 1994 –ca. 1879/1876): Müller-Karpe (1974) III/1: 82, III/2: 790: nr. 8: IV, III/3: pl. 110: 8. She was named like Princessin Merit/Mereret from 12th Dynasty: Lange–Hirmer (1975) 74; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 790: nr. 8. V. 166 Petrie (1912) pl. 31 – after Győry (1999). 164

Brunton-Engelbach (1927) pl. 40: 3 (bottom of page) – after Győry (1999); Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 722: nr. 18. 168 Brunton-Engelbach (1927) pl. 28: 4, pl. 40: 9, 11, 30, 35–40, pl. 41: 47, 52, 55, 80, 83, 87, 91–93. – after Győry (1999). 169 Brunton (1928) 12: Class. 55; Engelbach (1923) pl. 49: 34, pl. 50: 34, Grave 306. (= pl. 14) and Grave 529 – after Győry (1999); Müller-Karpe (1968) 401: n r. 12. 170 Petrie–Brunton (1924) I: pl. 12: 14 – after Győry (1999); MüllerKarpe (1974) III/2: 800: nr. 17. 167

165

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 75. Cords with pendants and cowries from Kafr Ammar (107–08) – after Petrie (1914) 131: pl. XVII: b–c

107–11. Kafr Ammar (Upper-Egypt): dated to the 23rd–25th Dynasties (ca. 756–664 BC), knotted strands, usually found around the neck or chest of the deceased on which were strung the following pendants:

Karnak – see 164–166. Thebes 112. Koptos/Coptos (Upper Egypt): presumably Pre- or Proto-Dynastic (ca. 3100 – ca. 2707/2657 BC) Ringed cowrie and Arabian cowrie.172

107. Cords with sard pendant, blue-gazed udžat open work, papyrus charm pendants…, udžat-eye and 2 cowries (Fig. 75. 1),

113. el-Kubanije/Kubanieh (Nubia): 1 Panther cowrie amulet was found in the cemetery of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2707/2657–ca. 2170/2120 BC); the identification was checked by Franz Alfred Schilder.173

108. Bronze Nefertum amulet, udžat-eyes and 2-3 cowries (Fig. 75. 2),

el-Lahun/Illahun/ancient Ro-hent (Faiyum oasis) – see Annex 2362.

109. Blue glass beads, bronze udžat-eyes, a magic papyrus as well as 4 Ringed cowrie-like shells, 1 of them with an open dorsum.

114. el Lahun/Illahun (Faiyum): the girdle of Princess Sit’-Hathor-Yunet, daughter of Pharaoh Sesostris II of the the 12th Dynasty (ca. 1829–ca. 1872 BC) comprised 8 gold plate cowrie imitations strung on two filaments, together with acacia seed-shaped gold, carnelian, lapis lazuli and

110. One sitting Tahoot-baboon-amulet, udžat-eyes, Taurt (goddess of fertility and childbirth with hippopotamus head)-amulet, a hyena canine, a magic papyrus and 1 cowrie.

Dynastie, zahlreiche Gehäuse mit abgeschliffenen Rücken, auf Amulettshnüre geknotet und einzeln.”: Falkner (1981) 141; Reese (1988) 262. 172 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 310; Jackson (1917) 129, Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 723: nr. 22; an undated example: Falkner (1981) 141. 173 Schilder (1923) 204, 205: note 3; Schilder (1926) 316; Voigt (1952) 176; Müller-Karpe (1968) 413: nr. 31; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 1045: nr. 1156.

111. Bast-amulet, a magic papyrus, udžat-eyes and, 1–2 cowries with open dorsi.171 Petrie (1914) 29. and pl. XVII: 131.b-c, pl. XVIII: e-f, pl. XIX: g. cowries, even with their dorsum removed, were hung or suspended on twine crossed alongside. See also Jackson (1917) 129. “XXXIII–XXV. 171

166

Catalogue Medinet Habu – see 167. Thebes-Medinet Habu

green feldspar beads; lenght: 84 cm. The cowrie-shaped beads are hollow, formed from 2 embossed gold plates; both sides imitate the denticulated, cracked bottom of the shell. Some silver alloy balls clinked inside the shells as the wearer moved.

Medûm (Faiyum oasis) – see Annex 2363. 120. Memphis (Lower Egypt): among other finds, a necklace of 22 small golden cowrie imitations was found in the grave of Prince Šešonk/Sheshonk, son of Pharaoh Osorkon II (?; 22. Dynastie, ca. 875–837 BC).181

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.174 115. el-Lahun/Illahun, Near (Faiyum): small, presumably Ringed and Money cowries, from the 12th Dynasty (ca. 1976 – ca. 1782).175

Meris (Faiyum oasis)-Cemetery 71, Grave 56 – see Annex 2364.

116. el-Lišt (Lower Egypt)-Southern Cemetery: the rich finds from the burial of a little girl named Hapi, was observed, in situ, a 78.5cm long girdle wrapped around her hips, consisting of 6 barrel-shaped carnelian and lapis lazuli beads strung on fibre and 8 hollowed cowrie imitations made of golden plate. Her mastaba was found and excavated near the pyramid of Pharaoh Sesostris III (ca. 1872–ca. 1853/1852 BC). One pair of the cowrie imitations were drilled to form a lock.176

121–36. Mostagedda (near Asyut, Middle Egypt): cowries (see 962–63) and their imitations were found in several graves in a cemetery where shells appeared in large numbers.182

117. el-Mahasna (near Abydos, Upper Egypt):177

122. Grave 448.B: 2 Columbella sp. and 2 cowries were found in a row around the pelvis in a child’s grave dated previously to the Tasa (now Badarian) Period (ca. 5400– 4500 BC).184

121. Grave 101: quartzite pumice and perhaps blue glass beads cowrie imitation were found in the grave, dated to the time of the (7)/8th–9(10)th Dynasties (ca. 2170/2120–ca. 2202/2020 BC).183

Grave 448.: green beads with long opening, imitating cowrie shells178 were found in the cemetery (Fig. 72. j). They belong to the 6th Dynasty (ca. 2347/2297–ca. 2216/2166 BC).

123. Grave 588: the following finds were discovered in the grave of an 18 year old woman, dated between the Late (712–332 BC) and the Ptolemaic Periods (332–30 BC): 1 bronze strap-ring and an additional one, made of an unknown material; 2 necklaces: one is made of beads imitating agate, amethyst, carnelian, onyx supplemented by a carnelian amulet shaped like the head of a negro woman. The other necklace consists of perforated cowries, complemented by various glass and carnelian beads.185

118–19. Matmar (near Asyut, Middle-Egypt): stylized plates (118)179 of cowrie imitations were found of the 5th–9th(/10)th Dynasties. These also appear in the 21st–25th Dynasties (119).180 Aldred (1978) 40, 116: nr. 22, pl. 22; see also ”Grab der Prinzessinnen”: Müller-Karpe (1974) III/1: 83, III/2: 800–01: nr. 19, III/3: pl. 111: 3; Hornung-Staehelin (1976) 122, 153: 268. notes; Bogaevskij (1931) 55; Winlock (1934) 37–38, pl. VIII; Reese (1988) 262. I could not find the place of the following reference: “Each cowrie is double sided showing edges on both faces. A few rattling pellets of a silver alloy are contained in each shell so that the wearer must have tinkled as she walked like the ‘daughters of Zion’.”: Aldred (1978) 116: nr. 22. There is no direct reference in the Bible in connection with the expression “daughters of Zion”; it is mentioned in the text only in connection with the introduction of the “daughter of Zion”: “Your cheeks are beautiful with ear-rings, / your neck with strands of jewels. / We will make you ear-rings of gold, / studded with silver.” Song of Songs 1. 10–11: The Holy Bible. New International Version. London–Sydney-Auckland 1993.5, 689. 175 Schilder (1926) 316: quotation. Referring to the Fallow cowrie, see also Bogaevskij (1931) 3; Andersson (1934) 298. „Zahlreiche Stücke in einem Brunnengrab der XII. Dynastie.”: Falkner (1981) 141. 176 Hayes (1990) I: 232, fig. 148; Roehrig (1995) 76: nr. 1.31; MüllerKarpe (1974) III/2: 802: nr. 24. 177 There is a mention of silver mollusc imitations in one of the oval graves from the cemetery of the Early Pre-Dynastic period (ca. 3100–3032/2982 BC): Bogaevskij (1931) 55: note 2.: “Krome kauri iz Dahšura izvestni eščë ožerel’e iz kakih-to melkih serebrjanyh rakovin v odnoj iz rannyh ovel’nyh do-dinastičeskih mogil Magasny.” Since it was not possible to find his work, I could not decide whether he is actually referring to a cowrie imitation. See also Edward Russel Ayrton-William Leonard Stevenson Loat: Pre-dynastyc cemetery at El Mahasna. London 1911, 15, pl. 16. 178 Petrie (1914) 27. and pl. XIV: 107.j; Brunton (1928) 12; MüllerKarpe (1968) 403–04; nr. 17. 179 Brunton (1948) pl. 32: 146–49 – after Győry (1999); Müller-Karpe (1968) 404; nr. 18. 180 Brunton (1948) pl. 60: 54Q – after Győry (1999). 174

124. Grave 600: blue glass beads and 1 serrated-edge, cutended, rombus-shaped cowrie imitation with a lengthwise opening and a perforation running through the body, were 186 found in the remains of a grave(?) of uncertain date. 125. Grave 1229: the following finds were found in the grave of a man, dated to the Badari Period (5400–4500 BC): 3 beads, a bowl, a pebble near the right leg of the deceased, an apparently fossil tooth, a piece of red ochre, a Badawi (1956) 177. According to László Török, the dating for the grave A 448B to the ”Tasa Period” is no longer accepted; the whole cemetery dates to the Badarian Period–The Old Kingdom (4400—2170/2120 BC); MüllerKarpe (1968) 405–06: nr. 21. It is also possible that there were even more cowrie imitations in other graves, but due to the small size of the photographs I could not recognise them; see Graves 28/514, 28/690, 28/694 and 2/2225: after Győry (1999). Brunton (1937) 107, 126. For additional information by Hedvig Győry: Brunton (1937) pl. 55: 28/600, pl. 57: 55. 183 Brunton (1937) 100, pl. LVII: nr. 55. K6. 184 Brunton (1937) 29. 185 Brunton (1937) 137. 186 Brunton (1937) 37, pl. LV: 28/600, pl. LVII: nr. 55. F2. 181 182

167

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads piece of resin, 2 quartz plates and 5 molluscs, one of which is a cowrie.187 126. Grave 1720: a probable cowrie imitation was found in the grave which dates to the time of the 9th Dynasty (ca. 2170/2120–ca. 2025/2020 BC).188 127. Grave 1832: ivory bracelet, palette, ivory needle, resin nugget, and finally 2 cowries on the left wrist were found in the Pre-Dynastic (ca. 3100–ca. 3032/2982 BC) grave.189 128. Grave 1942: a probable cowrie imitation was found in a grave dating from the 8th Dynasty (ca. 2216/2166–ca. 2170/2120 BC).190

Fig. 76. Cornelian flat-backed leg with foot and bone bucklebeads imitating cowries from Mostagedda (134) – after Andrews (1994) 71: fig. 74: g

129. Grave 3136: similarly to the age of the Pan tombs, this female skeleton was dated to 2000 BC. The finds from her grave were as follows: 2 silver earrings, a scarab, 5 vessels, 2 Apatharia shells, a bone spatula; finally, beads and 2 shells were lying between the skull and the knees suggesting that they had been placed separately in the grave. One is a cone shell (Conus miliaris) while the other is an Indo-Pacific Mistaken cowrie.191

134. Unknown Grave: a smooth backed, leg-shaped carnelian amulet and 8 shield-shaped bone cowrie imitations, each with stranding holes, were found in one of the graves, dated to the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2170/2120–ca. 22025/2020 BC) (Fig. 76).196 135–44. 4 unnamed burials of the graves dated to the 5th–6th Dynasties (ca. 2504/2454–ca. 2216/2156 BC) contained cowries (135–38). These were also found, sometimes strung (139–44), in 6 unnamed graves of the “Pan tombs”, dated to the 18th–12th centuries.197

130. Grave 5005: among the finds dated to the time of the 9th/10th Dynasties (ca. 2170/2120–ca. 2025/2020 BC) there was also a blue glass cowrie imitation (?) bead.192

144a. Grave 11747: the identification of 2 cowries, found in a Pre-Dynastic grave, was later modified by John Wilfrid Jackson to topshell (Monodonta dama) and dog cockle (Pectunculus=Glycimeris cf. lividus).198

131. Grave 10002: finds from the grave of a 10-yearold child, dated to the 6th Dynasty (ca. 2347/2297–ca. 2216/2166 BC): a horn bracelet, 13 alabaster urns with an ivory cosmetic spoon in one of them, and finally a great many of beads around the neck and on the head. An amulet and a 4-seal-amulet as well as several shells including at least 2 cowries were found.193

145–46. Naqada/Nagadeh (near Luxor, Upper Egypt): 145. A Ringed cowrie was found, perforated through its side, from the Pre- or Proto-Dynastic period (ca. 3100–ca. 2707/2657 BC) (Fig. 72. b).199

132. Grave 10103: the remains of a woman were found in one part of the double burial in a brick tomb, reused in the period of the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–ca. 1070/1069 BC). Among the finds there were some special beads as well as cowries strung on twine.194

146. 1 Panther cowrie perforated through its posterior end was found in the southern town (Fig. 72. a).200

133. Grave 11724: grave goods from a Pre-Dynastic male grave: 2 carnelian ring-beads, a flint knife like a fish-tail, a bowl, another vessel, a small basket with beads and a brown jasper pebble, and finally 3 perforated Panther cowries by the knees of the deceased.195

North Saqqâra (Lower Egypt – see Annex 2365.

Brunton (1937) 38, 52. Brunton (1937) pl. LVII: nr. 55. K3. 189 Brunton (1937) 71, 85. 190 Brunton (1937) pl. LVII: no. 55. K3. 191 The shells were identified by John Wilfrid Jackson: Brunton (1937) 117, 131. 192 Brunton (1937) 103, pl. LVII: nr. 55. K6. 193 Brunton (1937) 99, pl. LV: 10002. 194 Brunton (1937) 137. 195 Shells were identified by John Wilfrid Jackson: Brunton (1937) 74, 85, 91.

147. Grave 400: 1 perforated Nassa (Arcularia) gibbosula

North Saqqâra (Lower Egypt)-‘Anubieion’ – see Annex 2366. 147–52. Qaw el-Kebir/Qau bay (Upper Egypt)-Etmanieh:

187 188

Andrews (1994) 42, 71: fig. 74: g. Brunton (1937) 107, 126. 198 Brunton (1937) 86, 91. 199 Reese (1988) 262; “prähistorisch, ein unbearbeitetes Gehäuse”: Falkner (1981) 141. 200 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 311; Petrie (1927) 27. and pl. XIV: 107a–b; Jackson (1917) 129; Müller-Karpe (1968) 407: nr. 23; Reese (1988) 262. 196 197

168

Catalogue 156. Grave 3217: 3 blue glass cowrie imitation bead were found, perforated in the middle of the 6th Dynasty.211

and 1 Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum as well as 3 blue beads, all cowrie imitations, were found in this grave of the 6th Dynasty.201

157. Grave 3606: 6 blue glass cowrie imitation beads were found with lengthwise opening of the 8th Dynasty.212

148. Grave 412: a mentioned cowrie imitation, dated to the time of the 5th–9th10 th Dynasties (ca. 2504/2454–ca. 2025/2020 BC).202

158. Grave 4894: 3 blue glass cowrie imitation beads with lengthwise opening were found of the 6th Dynasty.213

149. Grave 542: a Cypraea caurica caurica (Linné, 1758) was found in the grave of a woman of the Proto-Dynastic period (ca. 3100–ca. 2032/2982 BC).203

159. Grave 4981: 6 blue glass cowrie imitation beads, perforated in the middle and with with lengthwise opening, were found, dated to the 9/10th Dynasty.214

150. Grave 557: 3 blue glass cowrie imitation beads with lengthwise opening were uncovered of the 6th Dynasty.204

160. Grave 5207: 6 blue glass cowrie imitation beads, perforated in the middle and with lengthwise opening, were found, dated to the 9/10th Dynasty.215

151. Grave 600: 6 blue glass cowrie imitation bead with lengthwise opening were found in the grave dating to the 6th–9th(/10) th Dynasties (ca. 2347/2297–ca. 2025/2020 BC).205

161. Rizakat (near Gebelen, Upper Egypt): an undated, perforated diorite Money cowrie imitation was found in one of the graves from the cemetery.216

152. Grave 961: 6 blue glass cowrie imitation beads with lengthwise opening were discovered in a grave dated to the period of the 6th Dynasty.206

Sedment – see 106. Gebel Sedment/ancient Herakleopolis Tell el Fara’in/ancient Buto (Lower Egypt) – see Annex 2367.

153–55. Qaw el-Kebir/Qau bay (Upper Egypt)-Southern Cemetery:207

162. Tell el-Maskhuta (near Ismailiya): more than 200 Ringed cowries, some of them with removed dorsi.217

153. Grave 7674: a cowrie imitation is mentioned of the 5th –9th Dynasties (ca. 2504/2454–ca. 2025/2020 BC).208

163. Tell el-Yehudieh (near Cairo, Lower Egypt): 2 small cowries with open dorsi, perhaps Ringed cowries, lenght: 2.1 and 1.8 cm were unearthed, probably from the time of the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1794/1793–ca. 1550 BC) (Fig. 71. 2).218

154. Grave 7923: the grave goods of a, most probably, female grave, dated to the 6th Dynasty and included: beads, a disk, golden bracelets, a large mirror, 5 vessels, 2 limestone as well as 2 alabaster vases and finally 2 sets of perforated gold plate cowrie imitations, strung on gold twine and separated by beads.209

164–66. Thebes (now Luxor, Upper Egypt)-Karnak temple:

155. Grave 7943: a Ringed cowrie, with an open dorsum was found, dating from the 6th Dynasty.210

164. 3 Ringed cowries with open dorsi were found in the Akhenaten temple, located in the eastern part of the site.219

156–60. Qaw el-Kebir/Qau (Upper Egypt):

165. 1 Tiger cowrie was found in the ditch of a temple, size: 6.0x3.7cm.220

Brunton–Gardiner–Petrie (1927) 10, 71 (identified by John Wilfrid Jackson), pl. X; Petrie (1928) 12: Class 55, pl. XCVIII: 55.C. 202 Brunton (1928) pl. XXXVI: 412 – after Győry (1999). 203 Brunton–Gardiner–Petrie (1927) 10, 71 (identified by John Wilfrid Jackson), pl. X; Bogaevskij (1931) 3: note 2. 204 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XXXV: 23/557, pl. XCVIII: 55.F. 205 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XCVIII, 55.F. 206 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XXXVI, pl. XCVIII, 55.F. 207 Müller-Karpe (1968) 399–400: nr. 7. 208 Brunton (1928) pl. XXXVI: 7674 – after Győry (1999). 209 Brunton–Gardiner–Petrie (1927) 37, 79, pl. XLVI; Brunton (1928) 12. 210 Brunton–Gardiner–Petrie (1927) 71. The scholar identifying the shells, John Wilfrid Jackson, pointed out that both Ringed cowries with open dorsi (147, 155) were dated only conditionally to the period of the 6th Dynasty, because they may also have come to light in a later cemetery where cowries became very common and were frequently worn together beads from older contexts: ibid. – The identified species from “Badari” and “Qau-el-Kebir”: Jackson (1926). 201

166. 2 perforated Arabian cowries from an undetermined location are mentioned; the size of the larger is 6.2x4.0 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XCVIII, 55. H. Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XCVIII,55. F. 213 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XCVIII: 55. F. 214 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XCVIII: 55. H. 215 Brunton (1928) 12, pl. XCVIII: 55. H. 216 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 110, fig. 75; Jackson (1917) 128. 217 Reese (1988) 262. Earlier he mentioned 199 Ringed cowries: Reese (1986) 329: nr. 13. 218 Reisner (1958) 40. and pl. X: 12834–12835; Müller-Karpe (1974) 816: nr. 40. 219 Reese (1986) 329: nr. 14; Reese (1988) 262. 220 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 108, fig. 70; “undatiert, vielleicht ptolemaisch, fünf Exemplare mit abgeschliffenen Rücken.”: Falkner (1981) 141. 211

212

169

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 77. Girdle around the hips of the mummy from Grave 480 at Thebes, with a gold frond-shaped lock, carnelian and amethyst beads in double-lines interspersed with 12 cowrie imitations made of gypsum and gold plate (168) – after Hayes (1990) I: 239: fig. 153.

cm,221 a Cowrie from Eritrea, size: 2.2x1.5 cm,222 a Little Calf cowrie, size: 5.6x3.7 cm,223 2 Money cowries with open dorsi, the larger one is 2.4x1.6 cm,224 5 Ringed cowries with open dorsi, size: 1.9x1.5 cm,225 as well as an Arabian cowrie, a Serpent’s-Head cowrie, a Minstrel cowrie and a Giraffe cowrie were found.226 Their dorsi were sawn in the same manner as done by some manner East African peoples.227 167. Thebes (now Luxor, Upper Egypt)-Medinet Habu: stylized, nearly squarish cowrie imitations are mentioned from the period of the New Kingdom (ca. 1550– ca.1070/1069 BC).228 168. Thebes (now Luxor, Upper Egypt)-West cemetery,

of the mummy: a 66 cm girdle around the hips, with a gold frond-shaped lock as well as round carnelian and amethyst beads strung in double-lines interspersed with 12 cowrie imitations made of gypsum and gold plate (Fig. 77).229 169. Thebes (now Luxor, Upper Egypt): a girdle is mentioned of the 12th Dynasty comprised of 2 rows of carnelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli and feldspar beads with evenly strung electron pendants: 2 beard- or tuft-shaped pendants, 2 fish-amulets (nekhau), glass- and carnelianmarquetry lotus-amulet (Heh), and finally 8 hollow electrum cowrie imitations, one of which also served as a lock; lenght: 46.5 cm (Fig. 78).230 170. Turah (near Cairo, Lower Egypt): a Panther cowrie amulet is mentioned as coming from the Old Kingdom; its identification was later verified by Franz Alfred Schilder.231

Grave 480: a rich mummy burial containing an electron Horus-falcon, 1 lapis lazuli and 1 amethyst scarab and long and short bead-necklaces was found in the partly robbed tomb, dated to the 12th Dynasty (ca. 1976–ca. 1794/1793 BC). The following remains were uncovered on the body

171. Upper Egypt: Arabian cowrie (Cypraea arabica var. reticulata), mentioned as from an old Egyptian tomb.232

Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 108–09, 108: fig. 71. Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 109, fig. 72. 223 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 109–10, 109: fig. 73; Keller (1913) 642: fig155; Schilder (1952) 21. 224 It was presumed on the basis of their perforated form that they were used as money: Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 110, fig. 74. 225 In their opinion, these were presumably used as money: Lortet– Gaillard (1909) 110–11, 110: fig. 76. 226 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 310–11. Repeating the enumeration and noting the new name of the Giraffe cowrie: Cypraea melanostoma = Cypraea camelopardalis: Jackson (1917) 128; Brühl (1929) 186. 227 Jackson (1917) 128; Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 108–11, 310–11. About the Little Calf cowrie: Keller (1913) 542; Schilder (1926) 316; Bogaevskij (1931) 3: note 2; Andersson (1934) 298. 228 Hölscher (1930-1970) II: pl. 58: K. 9, IV: pl. 29: m. – Győry (1999). 221 222

Hayes (1990) I: 237 (mentioned as silver plate cowries), 239: fig. 153; Seipel (1989) I: 119–20 (mentioned as golden plate cowries), 120: fig. 86. Since the author was usually accurate when he mentioned whether the sample was cowrie imitation, I did not catalogue the girdle around the hips of a Theban mummy, similarly excavated, on which a tiny shell imitation was applied at one junction of the double hematite-bead or the necklace of a child which is made of shell imitations and carnelian beads. See also Hayes (1990) I: 238. 230 Clark (1986) 23, 4/5: pl. C. Without provenience: Andrews (1994) fig. 69: a. 231 Schilder (1923) 204, 205: note 3; Voigt (1952) 176; Müller-Karpe (1968) 412: nr. 27. 232 Lortet–Gaillard (1909) 310–11; Jackson (1917) 129. 229

170

Catalogue

Fig. 78. 8 electrum cowrie imitations of a girdle from Thebes (169) – after Andrews (1994): fig. 69: a

172. Undetermined location (Nubia): most probably a Ringed cowrie, with open dorsum was discovered from the time of the Middle Kingdom.233 173–77. Insufficient informations: in the available literature, some specimens were mentioned either without location or date; presumably all of these cowrie imitations might be dated to the 2nd millenium BC: 173. Undetermined location: gold cowrie imitations were found. They were published as having been soldered in pairs and are dated to the Middle Kingdom.234

Fig. 79. Glass and faience cowrie imitations (174, 176) – after Andrews (1994) 45: fig. 49: g (= fig. 64: k), c

174. Green pierced glass cowrie imitation bead, from the Second Intermediate period, with the figure of a baboon, 233 234

171

Jackson (1971) 81, 80: fig. 46. Wilkinson (1971) 81, 80: fig. 46.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads which sits on its domed back under a (half-)moon, opposite to a winged uraeus snake holding a disk (Fig. 79. 1).235

presumably, Ringed cowrie with a partly open dorsum, lenght: 1.9 cm.244

175. Black and white porphyry cowrie imitation from the time of the 18th Dynasty, lenght: 2.4 cm (Fig. 72. l).236

180–81. Trel’ (Digomskij valley): dated to 14th–2/1st centuries BC, a portion of a cemetery with 137 excavated graves:

176. Grayish-green faience cowrie imitation from the time of the New Kingdom (1552–1070 BC). The lower part of the shell is an exact imitation of the mouth-like ventral side, while on the top is a sitting cat shown with an ostrich feather on its upper side (Fig. 79. 2).237

180. Grave 134: grave goods found with a male skeleton, dated to the 10th–9th centuries BC: 6 bronze arrowheads, an iron pike, an iron dagger with a bronze handle, an iron knife, 6 bronze loops, 54 tiny sewable decorations, bronze fittings from a belt, bronze edging from a sword belt, bronze tweezers, 7 ceramic vessels as well as bronze, carnelian and glass beads as well as 4 cowries. Presumably all are Ringed cowries; on the basis of the picture, 1 had an open dorsum.245

177. Cowrie imitations of unknown date made from various materials: a gilded silver plate cowrie imitation was found with denticulated openings on both sides as well as other cowrie imitations made from silver plate and carnelian as well as 2 dark-blue- and 2 green glass beads (Fig. 72. f–h, k, m),238 dark green glazed pottery,239 and objects imitating a cowrie with open dorsi: made from light aquamarine faience, lenght: 4.2 cm, and green faience, lenght: 4.4 cm (Fig. 71. 3–4).240 Another, pierced specimen, made of blue and yellow glazed faience is decorated by a monkey depicted in praying position, cowering on the altar with one raised uraeus-snake��������������� on both sides.241

181. Grave 136: the following finds were recovered from the grave of a male, dating from the 10th century BC: an iron sword with a bronze grip, an iron knife, a belt, the bronze edging from a sword belt, 8 fish-shaped bronze pendants, carnelian and glass beads, bronze tweezers, 10 ceramic vessels, the skull of a small horned animal, an iron object, and finally, 1 unknown shell, presumably a Ringed cowrie (rakuška).246

178–81, Annex 2376. Georgia/Gruzya

182–207, Annex 2394–98, 2401–06, 2408–13. Greece

178–79. Tli (Abashis rajon, Respublika Jugo-Osetija): there were no cowries in the 330 graves in the cemetery,242 from the middle phase of the Koban Culture, dating from the period between the 16th–5th centuries BC; they only appeared before the Scythian Period, in the 9th – 8th century graves:

Aghia Varvara (Crete) – see Annex 2394. 182. Aghios Stephanos (Laconia): a pierced Fallow cowrie was uncovered among the molluscs from the MH–LH periods.247

Grave 134 – see Annex 2376.

183. Akrotiri (Thera): 8 Fallow cowries were identified in the rich mollusc material of the Late Bronze Age (LC I).248

178. Grave 145: grave goods accompanying an adult skeleton of the 8th–first half of the 7th centuries: a beltclasp, decoration from a thin bronze plate and wiry pendant-earring, carnelian beads as well as 1 cowrie with a partly open dorsum on the left rib cageof the deceased. These were, most probably, Ringed cowries, lenght: ca. 2.9 cm.243

184. Alepotrypa (Mani, Attica): 6 Fallow cowries were found at the Early Neolithic site.249 185. Asine (Argolid)-Karmaniola area, Grave 1970–15: among the grave goods of a prematurely born child: 6 small land snails, one fragment of a Murex trunculus, and finally, behind the skull, 3 cowries were found, dated to the Proto-Geometric Period (ca. 1025–ca. 900 BC). The 2 smaller cowries had pierced perforations at the anterior

179. Grave 189: grave goods found with a 4–5 year old child: 26 bird-shaped antimony pendants, 1 large and 13 small wheel-shaped antimony pendants, bronze wirebracelet, and finally, beneath the skull tiny beads and 1, Andrews (1994) 42, 45: fig. 49, g; = ibid. fig. 64, k. Petrie (1914) 27. and pl. XLIV, 107.1; Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 211: 698. p. 237 Andrews (1994) 42, 43: fig. 49, ca. 238 Petrie (1914) 27. and pl. XIV, 107. f–h, k, pl. XLVI, 107. m. 239 Hildburgh (1942–43) 179–80, 184/185: pl. I.: 1–2. 240 Reisner (1958) 39–40. and pl. X: 12832–12833, pl. XXV: 12832. 241 Hayes (1990) II: 398, 399: fig. 252. 242 See also Tehov (1980). – Grave 134: earliest cowries of the 12th–10th centuries from the cemetery – see Annex 2376. 243 See also Tehov (1981) 37, 73 and pl. 108: 4; Brujako (1999) 49..

Tehov (1981) 43–44, pl. 120. (an incorrect reference was made to pl. 119 at the end of the grave description and also in the list of illustrations: ibid. 44, 173) 245 Abramišvili–Apresov–Kahiani–Okropiridze–Tatišvili (1979) 52, pl. XVI: above middle. 246 Abramišvili–Apresov–Kahiani–Okropiridze–Tatišvili (1979) 52, pl. XV: middle. 247 Karali (1999) 59. – “It is LH IIIB – from a burial. (my analysis, 8 cowries).”: note of David S. Reese. 248 Karali (1999) 56. 249 Karali (1999) 55.

235

244

236

172

Catalogue Myrtos (Crete) – see Annex 2405.

end, lenght: 2.4 cm while a third was drilled in the same place, lenght: 3.9 cm.250

Chania (Crete) – see Annex 2396.

193. Nichoria (Messenia, Southwest Greece): only 1 cowrie was found among the 596 shells from the settlement from the LH II–IIIA Period (2700–2300 BC), located only 2 km from the sea.258

Corycien cave (near Delphi) – see Annex 2397.

Palaikastro (Crete) – see Annex 2406.

186. Crete: unspecified references concerning cowries from different periods.251

194. Pan cave (Attica): 5 pierced cowries 2 stone axes, and a string of beads were found in the territory of the former Oinoe, in a Late Neolithic urn.259

Ayios Mamas (Chalkis) – see Annex 2395.

187. Dikili Tash (Thrace): among rich mollusc finds 2 cowrie were discovered from the Early Neolithic site.252

195–98. Perati (Attica): cemetery from the Late Helladic period:

188. Franchthi cave (Argolid): 2 pierced Fallow cowries were found of the MN–LN Periods, which were used as pendants.253

195. Grave 74: 3 cowries, and 1 Haliotis were among the grave goods.

189. Kamerios (Rhodes) Grave CVII: 1 Fallow cowrie is known from this site.254

196. Grave 100: in the burial of 3 adults and 1 child was discovered 1 large-sized, pierced cowrie, length: 3.7 cm.

Karphi (Crete)-“Temple” – see Annex 2398.

197. Grave 109: 1-1 Conus shell and cowrie were uncovered in the palms of the dead, who was buried in a chamber grave.

190. Kitsos cave (Attica): among pierced molluscs 10 Fallow cowries were identified, dated to the Late Neolithic Period.255

198. Grave 116: a tiny, pierced cowrie was found next to a broken urn, near the entrance of a child burial, length: 0.41 cm.260

191. Knossos (Crete): 5 small Fallow cowries were found in the rich mollusc material of the Neolithic Period, 3 of them pierced at the apex, and 2 at other parts.256

Phaistos (Crete) – see Annex 2408.

Kommos (Crete) – see Annex 2401–02.

Phylakopi (Melos island) – see Annex 2409.

192. Lerna (Argolid): 1 Fallow cowrie was found in a grave of the Geometric Period (900–725 BC).257

199. Poliochni (Lemnos island): 1 Fallow cowrie was found among other shells, at the Bronze Age site.261

Lerna (Argolid) – see Annex 2403.

200. Prosymna (Argolid) Grave XX: 1 small cowrie was identified in the cemetery dated to the Late Helladic (LH III).262

Malia (Crete) – see Annex 2404. Reese (1982a) 139–40; Reese (1992d) 124; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 871–72: nr. 123; Reese (2000) 636 (see also 570). 251 According to an uncertain reference, some cowries were occasionally found as either Neolithic finds or Mycenaean cemeteries: Bogaevskij (1931) 3. Black or Panther (?) cowrie variants were found in the Palace of Minos: Jackson (1917) 134; Andersson (1934) 298. Reflecting on the question of B. L. Bogaevskij, Spyridon Marinatos noted that no Cypraea from Knossos is held in the Heraklion Museum: Bogaevskij (1931) 3, 30–31, 53; Evans (1964) II/1: 10. A “specifically unassigned Cypraea have been found at Neolithic Knossos in Crete by Evans.”: Reese (1978) 39; “Cowries, sometimes holed, are known from Neolithic Knossos.”: Reese (1995c) 269. 252 Karali (1999) 55. 253 Reese (1978) 38; Karali (1999) 58) 87: fig. 5: nr. 1. – “My analysis: not 2 but 10 holed Luria [Fallow cowries]: 1 Early Neolithic, 3 Middle Neolithic, 3 early Late Neolithic, 3 Mixed date”: note of David S. Reese. 254 Reese (1992d) 124. 255 Karali (1999) 34, 58. 256 Karali (1999) 33. – “I have studied these + unpublished additions”: note of David S. Reese.. 257 Reese (1992d) 124; Müller-Karpe (1968) 449–50: nr. 113; MüllerKarpe (1974) III/2: 875–76: nr. 142; Reese (2000) 636.

Pyrgos (Crete) – see Annex 2410.

250

201. Saliagos island (Cyclades): 3 Agate cowries with open dorsum were found from the Late Neolithic (LN); an additional Agate cowrie in good repair was also find among other mollusc finds, 2 of them are fragmentary.263 Saliagos island (Cyclades) – see Annex 2411. 202. Sesklo (Thessaly): 1-1 pierced Cardium sp. and Reese (1992c) 774. Karali (1999) 34. 260 Karali (1999) 34. – “I restudied these in the Natural Museum in Athens”: note of David S. Reese. 261 Reese (1986a) 194; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 874–75: nr. 141; Karali (1999) 34, 58. 262 Karali (1999) 34–35. – “My analysis of material in Natural Museum, Athens – a Luria”: note of David S. Reese. 263 Karali (1999) 33. 258 259

173

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Cypraea sp. were discovered together with flint and obsidian tools, dated to the Early Neolithic Period.264

cowries: all or almost all were perforated. One of them, a Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum was illustrated.272

Syme Viannou (Crete)-Sanctuary of Hermes and Aphrodite – see Annex 2412.

Kazābād (Ostan-e Ilam Province) – see Annex 2418. 209. Shahr-i-Sokhta (Sistan): 1 Ocellaite cowrie with sawn open dorsum was identified at this urban site of the 3rd millenium BC, lenght: ca. 7.4 cm.273 Moreover, 1 Tiger cowrie dated to 2800–2300 BC, which was made into a small vessel, lenght: 5.2 cm, and 1 Bobcat cowrie with open dorsum, lenght: 2.0 cm were found.274

203. Sitagroi (Macedonia): Fallow cowries were found among molluscs of the Late Neolithic Period. Some had two parallel apertures on the ventral side, all the others had open dorsum.265 204. Skala Sotiros (Thasos island): 3 Fallow cowries and 36 other cowries were identified among the extremely rich mollusc material of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (LH III).266

Tal-e Malyan (Fars Province) – see Annex 2419. Tal-i-Iblis (Kerman Province) – see Annex 2420.

Syme Viannou (Crete) – see Annex 2412.

Tepe Ali Kosh (Khuzestan Province) – see Annex 2421.

205. Tharrounia (Euboea): 1 Fallow cowrie worked as pendant was found in the layer of the Late Neolithic Ia–II period.267

210. Tepe Yahya (Kerman Province): an unusually rich shell material was excavated in the VI–I period (4200–500 BC) of the settlement: a Tiger cowrie, used as a cosmetic vessel, Ringed, Bobcat, Millet, Thrush, and Lamarck cowries as well as an Arabian cowrie were found.275

206. Tsangli (Thessaly): 1-1 pierced Cardium edule (= now Cerastoderma glaucum) and Cypraea sp. were discovered at the Early Neolithic site.268

211. Umm Dabaghiyah (Jazira area, Northern Iraq): one cowrie with open dorsum is mentioned, presumably Neolithic (6000–4500 BC).276

207. Tylissos (Crete): some pierced cowries. were found among molluscs of the Late Minoan Period.269

212–15, Annex 2422. Iraq

Tzermiado (Crete)-Trapeza cave – see Annex 2413.

212. Khirbet Kharhasan (Northern-Iraq): the treasure hoard, found there, dated to the middle-Assyrian Period (1400–1200 BC), contained 633 molluscs of which only 3 were presumably Ringed cowries: 2 of them had open dorsi, and the third was perforated through the middle of its dorsum.277

India: Inamgaon (Maharasthra state)-Mound I – see Annex 2414. 208–11, Annex 2416–21. Iran270 Chagha Sefid/Choga-ye Sefid (Kermanshah Province) – see Annex 2416.

213. Kish (Tall al-Uhaymir, near Babylon): 4 Money cowries with open dorsi, as well as 1 perforated Ringed cowrie were found. Undated, probably from the 4th–2nd millenia BC.278

Hajji Firuz Tepe (West Azarbaijan Province) – see Annex 2417.

214. Nuzi (Yorgan Tepe, near Kirkuk) – A. temple: 1 perforated Money cowrie and 1 Mediterranean Fallow

208. Hasanlu (near Solduz, West Azerbajdžan)-Period IVB: Burnt Building II: the remains of 7,789 molluscs were found at the 9th century BC citadel.271 Of these, 592 were Karali (1999) 33. Karali (1999) 34. 266 Karali (1999) 36. 267 Sampson (1993) 373, pl. 258: 9–11; Karali (1999) 58. 268 Karali (1999) 33. 269 „Luria and a smaller cowrie are known from Tylissos,” mentioned as parallels to the Minoan fauna at Kommos: Reese (1995c) 269; Karali (1999) 34, 87: fig. 5: nr. 34. 270 Other small marine shells as well as freshwater and land snails were found at numerous Sumerian settlement sites and cemeteries; including some unprocessed cowries together with some specimens of the Mediterranean Fallow cowrie: Aynard (1966) 31, 33 and 32: note 1 (cowrie-like/Ctenobranchia? shell). 271 99% originated from the Persian Gulf, located 825 km away and only 1% was from the Mediterranean, located at a distance of 925 km from the site. The material comprised 73% Engina, 22% Conus and Cypraea, all with habitats in the Persian Gulf: Reese (1989a) 80–81. 264 265

In the 5th room 1, in the upper 7th room 468 and in the 10th as well as in the 12th room 123 cowries were found: Dyson–Voigt (1989) 83: pl. 1; Reese (1989a) 81: 3; approximately 650 cowries from the Persian Gulf, dated to 1000–800 BC: Reese (1986) 330: nr. 21. 273 Durante (1977) 335: 15–6, pl. 1. 274 Tosi–Biscione (1981) 39, 67: nr. 52, 78: nr. 84; Cataliotti-Valdina (1990) 79. 275 Durante (1977) pl. 1; : Reese (1986) 332: nr. 6. 276 Reese (1986) 328. 277 Most of the finds, 624 pieces (365 with holes), were identified as Arcularia (=Nassa) gibbosulus whose habitat is located at least 570 km away, while the Persian Gulf lies 900 km from the site: Reese (1992) 178–179, 178: fig. 19–21. 278 With Kish form: Reese (1986) 332: nr. 5, 331: nr. 4 (“Conus whorl” beads); Müller-Karpe (1974) 828–29: nr. 51. 272

174

Catalogue 221–23. Beth-Pelet (Israel): cowries are mentioned as having been found in graves from a cemetery dating from the 21st–22nd Dynasties (ca. 1070/1069–ca. 735 BC):

cowrie were found among the finds of a 16th–15th centuries BC sanctuary.279 Tell Arpachiya (near Niniveh)-Tepe Reshwa – see Annex 2422.

221. Grave 119: 1 cowrie shell.

215. Tepe Gawra/Gaura (near Khorsabad and Mosul, in Northern Iraq): there were more than 750 cowries in the deposit, dated to the Uruk Period (4000–3100 BC).280

222. Grave 201: an Olive shell and a cowrie among undetermined molluscs. 223. Grave 229: 1 cowrie shell.286

216–246, (225a), Annex 2423–30, 2432, 2434–38, 2446–53. Israel

Beth Shemesh (near Jerusalem, Mehoz Yerushalaim) Grave 14, necklace – see Annex 2425–26.

216. Abu Gosh (West Jerusalem): among the 247 Mediterranean shells found at this site, dated to 7300–6300 BC (PPNB), 1 was a cowrie with a perforated dorsum; of the 13 specimens, belonging to 7 Red Sea genera, there were 2 intact and 3 Ringed cowries with perforated dorsi.281

224–25. Betšan/Beth Shan/Beisân (North-Palestine): 1 intact cowrie (224) from the Early Bronze Age (EBA; 3050–2950 BC), and 2 cowries, with partially open dorsi, moreover, 1 intact cowrie (225) from the Iron Age, most probably from the Red Sea, were found.287

– see Annex 2423.

Elat (Negev) – see Annex 2427.

217. Abu Madi I (South Sinai): of the 419 molluscs found at the site, there were a very few cowries dating to 8500– 7300 BC (PPNA).282

225a. Fazael-XI: 25 mollusc finds were uncovered and 1 of them was identified as “Trivia (cowry)”, dated to the Upper Paleolithic Period (30,000-9000 B. C.).288 It does not belong to the Family �������������������������������� Cypraeidae, but it is like that contemporary people could not differentiate them.

218. Abu Salem (Negev): of the, 85 molluscs finds from the Harifian Period (8300–7000 BC), there were 12 intact and 5 cowries with open dorsi; the latter ones are known as the earliest examples of this manufacturing technique.283

Gebel Rubsa (Sinai) – see Annex 2428. 226–27. Gerar (South Israel): from the time of the 21st–25th Dynasties (1070/1069–664 BC), seal-shaped cowrie imitations (226).289 Additional cowries were found in the graves dated to the time of the 22nd –24th Dynasties (946–712 BC) (227).290

219. ’Ain Mallaha (Eynan): among some molluscs were found 1 perforated Money cowrie as well as 1 Panther cowrie, dating from the Natufian period (10,000–8300 BC).284 220. Ashdod (Southern Israel): a Red Sea cowrie with open dorsum was mentioned among the finds of the ancient town, dated from the 14th–10th centuries.285 – see Annex 2424.

228. Giv’atayim (near Tel Aviv): two perforated cowries were found among the finds of an EBA cave burial.291 229. Haj I (East Sinai): cowries are mentioned.292 Horvat Castra (near Haifa)-Cave no. 1800 – see Annex 2429.

In the catalogue of Bronze- and Iron Age sites: Reese (1986) 329: nr. 20; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 742-43: nr. 42. 280 The cowries originated in India and came through the Persian Gulf: Mallowan (1970) 389. In the same place, he mentioned that it was characteristic of these cemeteries to have huge amounts (e.g. more than 25,000, 8500, 3000 or a few thousands) of diorite, hematite, jade, carnelian, quartz, lapis lazuli, obsidian, ivory and faience beads in some of the graves, which were imported partly from Iran and Armenia; Müller-Karpe (1968) 420–22: nr. 51; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 837: nr. 56. – Note of David S. Reese: „I doubt they came from India!” 281 Reese (1991) 164: nr. 20; Reese (1991a) 618, 623; Müller-Karpe (1968) 433: 69a. 282 Reese (1991a) 624. 283 Reese (1986) 328; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991a) 622. 284 Reese (1991) 163–64: nr. 7. 210 of the finds came from the Mediterranean, while 4 came from the Red Sea; 95 specimens lacked provenience: Reese (1991a) 617, 623; Johansson (1995) 347; Mienis (2004c) 112, 114–15. The site is located ca. 20 km from the Mediterranean and ca. 340 km from the Red Sea: Reese (1989) 103; Müller-Karpe (1968) 434–35: nr. 72. 285 For Bronze and Iron Age sites: Reese (1986) 328: nr. 9; Reese (1988) 262. Ashdod: Müller-Karpe (1980) III/2: 750: nr. 54. 279

Horvat Galil (Upper Galilee) – see Annex 2430. 230. Horvat Qitmit (Negev): among the finds of the end of the 7th century BC Edomite shrine were discovered “18 This site is in Israel: note of David S. Reese; see Petrie (1930) pl. 36 – after Győry (1999). 287 Reese (1986) 328: nr. 3; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 750–51: nr. 56; James–McGovern (1993) 201, fig. 147: 4 (Cypraea sp.). 288 Reese (1991a) 615. 289 Petrie (1928) pl. 20: 27–28 – after Győry (1999). Gerar was in the south of Israel, near Egypt. 290 Petrie (1928) pl. 21: 4, 6 –after Győry (1999). – The species from Gerar in the Museum at Hull: Panther cowrie, 3 Ringed cowries: Jackson (1928). 291 Reese (1991) 164: nr. 23. 292 Reese (1991a) 621. 286

175

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Ringed cowries (17 of which have a ground-down dorsum and one has an irregular hole in the dorsum)”, and were interpreted as votive offerings,293 size: 1.5x1.1–2.6x1.8 cm, and 2 light brown clay cowrie-shaped objects. The piece “is identical to those which mark the fringe of the garment of statue No. 23.”294

found at this site, 23 were cowries, dating from 7300–6300 BC.300

Jerusalem-City of David (South of the Temple Mount) – see Annex 2432.

239. Rosh Zin (Negev): of the 304 molluscs, there was 1 Thrush cowrie from the Late Natufian (9th millenium BC).302

238. Rosh Horesha (Central Negev): of the 473 molluscs, there were 6 cowries from the Late Natufian (9th millenium BC).301

231. Jerusalem: 4 Ringed cowries with open dorsi, from the 12th–8th centuries BC.295

240. Tell Jemmeh (nortwestern Negev): undated Tiger cowrie.303

Kefar HaHoresh (Lower Galilee) – see Annex 2434. 232–34. Lachish/Lakiš (near Jerusalem), Tell ed-Duweir: 296 MBA/Iron Age cemetery (2000–100 BC): 232. Grave 218: many Red Sea cowries with open dorsi were found in an Iron Age grave (1200–100 BC). 233. Grave 4002: 2 Ringed cowries from the Late Bronze Age (LB IIA-B: 1400–1200 BC). 234. Grave 4004: 1 Ringed cowrie (?) was found in a MB III-LB IIB (2000–1200 BC) cemetery-part.297

241. Tell Keisan (Upper Galilee): of the mollusc finds, there were more than 20 cowries and, of these, 4 Red Sea cowries were found with open dorsi, dating from a time somewhere between Phoenician to Roman times (1200–64 BC).304 242. Tell Michal (north of Tel Aviv): seven Money cowries with removed dorsi were found in a Phoenician vessel, dated to the 10th century BC.305 Tel Michal (north of Tel Aviv) – see Annex 2446–49. Tell Ta’annek (West Bank) – see Annex 2450.

Megiddo (Carmel) – see Annex 2435–38.

243. Timna (near Eilat, Sinai): in the sanctuary of a mining settlement from the end of the New Kingdom (1552–1070 BC), more than 100 marine and freshwater molluscs, among others 2 Thrush cowries: 1 intact, and 1 with an open dorsum were discovered, size: 3.9x2.6, and 3.03x2.15 cm, 1 Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum, size: 2.8x2.1cm, 1 fragmentary Tiger cowrie, lenght: ca. 7.8 cm, and in 13 fragments, the remnants of 7, unidentifiable cowries, lenght: 2.1–5.0 cm, were found.306

235. Mugharet el-Wad (near Haifa, North-Izrael)-Mount Carmel: among other molluscs was 1 Money cowrie of the Natufian period (10000–8300 BC) cave site.298 236. Nahal Hemar Cave (southwest of the Dead Sea): some 17.8% of the molluscs came from the Red Sea, among they 16 Thrush cowries: 4 intact and 12 with removed dorsi, dating from 7300–6300 BC.299 237. Nahal Issaron (Southern Negev): of the 233 molluscs

244. Ujrat el-Mehed (South Sinai): of the 3,138 molluscs found at the site, there were 802 cowries dating from 7300–6300 BC (PPNB).307

Henk K. Mienis pointed to the fact, that pierced cowries were used as amulets for the protection of fertility, and against the witches’ glance, moreover he argued that similarly worked pieces are even today given to Bedouin brides in Saudi Arabia and other territories: Mienis (1995) 276–77, fig. 6:6; Reese (2003c). 294 Beit-Arieh (1995) 168, fig. 3.115: nr. 199. 295 Reese (1968) 328; Reese (1995) 268. 296 „A large number of cowries with body whorl worn away, so that they could be strung as ornaments. As the shells are bleached of all colour, it is no easy to decide between … three species [Cypraea annulus or C. turdus or C. moneta], though only one species seems to be present. As both C. annulus and C. turdus now live in the Indian Ocean area, it would seem that these cowries were imported from the south or south-east.”: Tufnell–Murray–Diringer (1953) 203. The data were kindly sent to me by David S. Reese 297 Reese (1986) 328: nr. 8; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 750–51: nr. 56. – In the Stratum II of the settlement was found 1 Carnelian cowrie, “and if perforated can be used as bead.”: Kertesz (1975) 84, pl. 14: 6; Reese (2002) 278. 298 Reese (1978) 39; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991) 163: nr. 15. The site is located 370 km from the Red Sea, the shells were not yet worked: Reese (1991a) 616, 623; Müller-Karpe (1966) 339–40: nr. 371; MüllerKarpe (1968) 435–36: nr. 75. 299 421 of the molluscs originated from the Mediterranean and 91 from the Red Sea: Reese (1991a) 617; Reese (1998a) 138; Mienis (1988) 47. 293

Wadi Jibba (Sinai)-I – see Annex 2451. Reese (1991a) 622; Reese (1998a) 138. Reese (1991a) 621; see also Reese (1988) 262. 302 Reese (1988) 262. 303 Reese (1988) 262. 304 Reese (1986) 328: nr. 2; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991) 165: nr. 29; Daviau–Judd–Beckmann (2002) 39; Reese (2002) 278. 305 Reese (1986) 332: nr. 1; Reese (1991) 165: nr. 25; Müller-Karpe (1980) 753: nr. 58a; Daviau–Judd–Beckmann (2002) 39. 306 Reese (1988) 261–62, see also Reese (1986) 329: nr. 12, Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: nr. 58a. 307 Reese (1991a) 624. – The identified species: Dirty-Yellow, Fawn, Graceful, Panther, Ringed and Thrush cowries, and Cypraea caurica, C. arabica grayana (Schilder 1930): Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 99; see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 59. “About half the shells from Ujrat el Mehed are Nerita sp. and Cypraea sp. Half of these were worked, and the rest are fragments. Some of the shells were broken after being worked.”: BarYosef Mayer (1997a) 100, 103, 105: fig. 7. “Few of the larger Cypraea sp... were made into ‘nose-rings’ (found at Ujrat-el-Mehed.”: Bar-Yosef Mayer (2000a) 219–20. 300 301

176

Catalogue Wadi Jibba (Sinai)-II – see Annex 2452. 245. Wadi Tbeik (South Sinai): among the 1,109 molluscs found at the site, 191 were cowries of the PPNB.308 246. Yiftah’el (Upper Galilee): among the 132 molluscs found at the site, there were only 2 Red Sea species identified: 1 perforated Nerita sp. and 1 Cypraea sp. dated to PPNB.309 Yizre’el Valley (near Hazorea)-Anati – see Annex 2453. 247. Italy 247. Anghelu Ruju (Alghero, province Sassari, regione Sardinia): a cowrie was found in a Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age cemetery.310 248–280, Annex 2459–60. Jordan Fig. 80. Cowries in eye sockets of female skull from Jericho (257) – after Kenyon (1981) II: pl. 57: c

248. ad-Daman I: of the 3 molluscs from the surface collection here 1 fragmentary cowrie was found dating to the late PPNB period (first half of the 7th millenium BC).311

255. Deir’ Allah (near Jabbok, Muhafazat al Balga’): 5 Ringed cowries with open dorsi were found at the settlement, dated from the Bronze or Iron Age (3500–100 BC).316

249. ’Ain Ghazal (northeastern outskitrs of Amman): from the 67 molluscs mainly dating to the PPNB, 22 came from the Red Sea, and among they 4 were perforated and 1 was an intact cowrie.312

256. Dhuweila (eastern Jordan): among the shells from the site there were 2 perforated Cerastoderma as well as a fragment of a cowrie of the PPNB.317

250. Azraq 31 (eastern Jordan): of the 17 molluscs found at the site, 2 were probably cowries dating the late PPN Period (7th millenium BC).313

257–63. Jericho/now Tell es-Sultan (West Bank):

251–52. Basta/Bastah (Southern Jordan):

257. Altogether 12 skulls were found in the 7th millenium BC (Late PPNB) levels at the settlement. These skulls were all molded into faces using gypsum and 7 of them were painted as well.318 The eyes were indicated mainly by perpendicularly broken bivalves, but “little cowrie shells”s was inserted into each orbit of skull D 111 (Fig. 80).319

251. Many molluscs including cowries were found at this PPNB site (7300–6300 BC): 252. Grave 4: at least 2 cowries with perforated dorsi were found.314 253–54. Beidha (South Jordan): there were 2 cowries (253) in the Natufian levels (10000–8300 BC) of the site; of the 651 molluscs finds from the PPNB (7300–6300 BC) 120 were cowries, some of them perforated (254).315

Red Sea of the 651 molluscs: Reese (1991a) 619; see also Reese (1989) 102, 103: pl. 33 (small edge fragment); Reese (1995b) 387 (reference to 1 Cypraea); Reese (1998a) 138; Müller-Karpe (1968) 429–30: nr. 63. Concerning excavations at the stone, bone, horncore, and shell processing workshop, where e.g. beads were made of the above-mentioned materials, see: Oates–Oates (1983) 81; Francis–Badam (1988) 666. 316 Reese (1986) 328: nr. 5; Reese (1992a) 155; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 714: nr. 62; Reese (2002) 278. 317 Reese (1991a) 620, 623; Reese (1992a) 155; Reese (1998a) 138. 318 Of the 14 skulls excavated there, 12 were molded and remnants of painting was also recongnisable on 7 specimens. Most of the skulls were from women (D110–114, D116–117, E20, E25–26); moreover, there were also 3 male (D115, D118, E 22) and 1 unidentifiable (E21) skulls. The top of the female skulls were crossed by 1–3 painted stripes (D114, E 26) while bear-shaped strips were found on one of the male skulls (D 118): Kenyon (1981) III. 1: 77; Kurth-Röhrer-Ertl (1981) III.1: 436–37, pls VIII: b–IX: d, III.2: pls 50–59. 319 Kurth-Röhrer-Ertl (1981) III.1: 437, pl. VIII: d, III.2: pl. 57: c. Mentioned as a Mediterranean genus: de Vaux (1970) 504; in other cases, the broken shell inlays are also identified as “cowrie-shells”: Mellaart (1978) 42, 43: fig. 21; Clark (1977)52; Clark (1986) 23, 24: fig. 8;

Reese (1991a) 624; Reese (1998a) 138. – The identified species: Clandestine, Dirty-Yellow, Fawn, Graceful, Panther, Ringed and Thrush cowries, Cypraea arabica grayana (Schilder 1930), C. gangranosa gangranosa (Dilwyn 1817): Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 99; Lorenz–Huber (1993) 59, 151, 202. There are Cypraea sp. 16% of the molluscs finds: Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 106, 105: fig. 8. 309 Reese (1991) 164: nr. 21; Reese (1991a) 617; Reese (1998a) 138. 310 Müller-Karpe (1974) III/1: 185, III/2: 907: nr. 304, III/3: pl. 447: B. 9. 311 Reese (1991a) 619. 312 Reese (1991a) 618. – „Now many more studied.”: note of David S. Reese. 313 Reese (1991a) 620: 2 Conus, 623: 2 cowries. 314 Reese (1991a) 619; Reese (1998a) 138. 315 At the site, located 175 km from the Mediterranean and closer to the 308

177

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 258. Grave A: a perforated Mediterranean or Red Sea cowrie was found in an Early Bronze Age (EBA; 3050– 2950 BC) grave.320

269. Sabra I (Southern Jordan): out of 17 sea molluscs at the site, 12 originate in the Red Sea and, of these, 2 were cowrie fragments of PPNB (7300–6300 BC).330

259–63. Stray finds: in the same place, in the stray finds, 3 perforated Fallow cowries, dated to 8500–6300 BC (PPN),321 2 of similar age (1-1 PPNA or PPNB–259), and 1 EBA (3050–2950 BC) Ringed cowrie with open dorsum (260),322 as well as 7 Gnawed cowrie fragments (261) from various periods (8500–1600 BC),323 1 Middle Bronze Age (MBA; 2000–1600) intact Dirty cowrie (262),324 and finally, 11 unidentifiable fragments from different periods (263) were found.325

270. Sahab (southeast of Amman, Trans-Jordan): grave goods from an undated grave: 29 Ringed cowries with open dorsi and 1 Money (?) cowrie were found.331

264. Jilat 26 (eastern Jordan): 1 Conus-bead, and 2 cowrie fragments were found dating from the PPNB (7300–6300 BC).326.

272–74. Tell es-Sa’idiyeh (central Jordan Valley): presumably the cemetery of Biblical Zarethan:

271. Saqarat Mas’ad I (Beidha region): out of 25 molluscs collected on the surface the site 1 cowrie with a removed dorsum was found, dated to 8500–6300 BC (PPNB).332 Tall Jawa (south of Amman) – see Annex 2459–60.

272. Grave 9: Ringed cowrie with open dorsum, from the Early Bronze Age (3050–2950 BC).333

265–66. Nebo Hill (west of Tell Hesbân): Iron II (1500–100 BC) cemetery:

273. Grave 120: four cowries were found in the Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age (1600–1050 BC) storage vessel graves of 3 children: at least one of them was a Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum.334

265. Grave No. 20: 9 perforated cowries were found. 266. Grave No. 84: 4 other species, and 3 cowries are mentioned.327

274. Stray finds in Area BB: probably a Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum, from the general Bronze Age (3050–2950 BC).

267. Petra (Desert of the Wadi Araba): without clear dating, a Ringed cowrie with open dorsum as well as a Tiger cowrie were found.328

275. Tell Hesbân (Northern Jordan): most probably a perforated prehistoric (?) Money cowrie and 2 more cowries.335

268. Ras en Naqb (Southern Jordan) J202 rock-shelter: among other finds, only 1 cowrie each was found among the 15 molluscs in one deposit and 41 molluscs in the other, dated to the end of the Hamran Period and its end (8th millenium BC).329

276–77. Umm ad-Dananir (Baq’ah Valley region, Mufahazat al Balga’): 276. B3 cemetery cave: among the shells there, 1 Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum was found from the Late Bronze Age (1400–1200 BC).336

among cowrie shells “Kauri- oder andere Muschel”: Müller-Karpe (1968) 292, 431: nr. 66: 4; Müller-Karpe (1968a) pl. 105: 3; “Muschelschale”: Lloyd (1981) 31–32, 31: fig. 4., or also mentioned as “sea-shells”: Strouhal (1973) 232, 235–36, 238, 241–42; Mellaart (1970) 265; Oates–Oates (1983) 80, 79: fig. 83; Meaney (1981) 123, 302: note 37; Antonova (1977) 18, pl. I: 9; Kurth-Röhrer-Ertl (1981) III.1: 436–38, III.2: pl. 50: b (down, right), pl. 57: c; Kőkori (1995) 127., 20: upper picture. Recently David S. Reese confirmed the cowrie of skull D111, dispalyed in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, see also: Biggs (1963) 127; in addition, in 4 cases (D113–D116) Unio shells, in one skull (127414) 2 Donax trunculus, while in two others (D112, ?) the only identification mentioned was shell eyes: Reese (1998b) 7; see also Reese (1986) 328. 320 Reese (1991) 164: nr. 22; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 851–52: nr. 82. 321 Biggs (1963) 126-27; Reese (1978) 37–38; Francis–Badam (1988) 666. One, very tiny specimen, dated to between 7300–6300 BC (PPNB), with dorsum removed and perforated; Reese (1998b) 2. Referring to a Fallow cowrie from the same location: Karali (1999) 33. 322 Biggs (1963) 127; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991a) 618, 623. 323 Biggs (1963) 127; Reese (1991) 164: nr. 22. According to David S. Reese; 1 PPNA, 2 PPNB, 2 EBA (1 EB III) and 2 MBA fragments: Reese (1998b) 3. 324 Biggs (1963) 126; Reese (1998b) 3. 325 1 PPNA, 5 PPNB, 1 PPN, 2 EBA (EB, EB III) and 1 undated fragment, in addition, 1 other cowrie without provenience : Reese (1998b) 3. 326 Reese (1991a) 620, 623; Reese (1998a) 138. 327 Reese (1986) 328: nr. 7; Reese (1992a) 155. 328 Reese (1988) 262. – “The Hammond excavations at Petra produced a number of holed C. tigris.”: Reese (2003c). 329 Reese (1989) 102–03 (1 specimen); Reese (1991a) 619.

277. A4 cemetery cave: altogether 71 Ringed cowries with open dorsi were brought to light here dating to the Early Iron Age (1200–1050 BC).337 278–80. Wadi Hisma (South Jordan): out of the 771 Reese (1991a) 619; Reese (1998a) 138. Reese (1991) 161: nr. 8. 332 Reese (1991a) 619. 333 Reese (1991) 161: nr. 6; Reese (2002) 278. 334 Reese (1986) 328: nr. 4; Reese (1991) 161: nr. 6; only reference: Reese (1992a) 155. 335 Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991) 161: nr. 7; Reese (1992) 155 (undated). In another place he mentions 1 perforated Money cowrie, 1 Red Sea Money cowrie, and 2 other perforated cowries were mentioned: Reese (1986) 328: nr. 6. 336 Reese (1986) 320, 321: pl. 50, 322–23: fig. 104, 2, pl. 39: b; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991) 160: nr. 5., with reference: 161: fig.; Reese (1992a) 155; Reese (2002) 278; Daviau–Judd–Beckmann (2002) 39. 337 Reese (1986) 320, 321: pl. 50, 322–23: fig. 104: 5., pl. 39: d; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1991) 161: nr. 5, with reference: 161: fig. 4. 330 331

178

Catalogue molluscs found in 12 test trenches, there were 11 cowries from a number of periods.338

Thrush cowrie, worn as a bead, was found, from levels I–VI.348

278. Qa Salab (J202) Rockshelter: one cowrie fragment from the Late Hamran Period (8th millenium BC), as well as 1 intact cowrie from the end of the Hamran-industry.339

286. Shahi Tump (near Turbat, Baludžistan): 1 Tiger cowrie was found which had been used as a cosmetic vessel (?), presumably from the Early Bronze Age.349

279. J406a: one cowrie edge fragment from the period of the Qalkhan complex.340

287. Unidentified site: west of India, in the Indus valley, mention of 2, undated non-Ringed, non-Money cowries.350

280. Tor Hamar (J431): seven Madamaghan industry (Early Mushabian) cowries: 4 perforated, 2 fragments, 1 burnt shells and 1 small, perforated Mushabian industry cowrie were found here.341

288. Portugal 288. Zambujal (Conc. Torres Vedras, Prov. Estremadura): a complete Money cowrie was found, most probably dating to the later part (?) of the Chalcolithic (2800–1850 BC).351

Kuwait: Failaka island – see Annex 2465. Lebanon: Kamid al-Lawz/Kamid el-Löz (Mohafazat Beqaa) – see Annex 2466.

289–291. Russia 289. Bel’ty (Nožaj-Jurtovskij rajon, Čečenskaja Respublika): 9 various sized cowries were in a bronze hoard found during construction work, dated to the the turn of the 2nd/1st millennia BC. Perhaps they were Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, 3 of which had bronze suspension loops.352

281–287, Annex 2474. Pakistan Allahdino (Sindh province) – see Annex 2474. 281. Amri (Baluchistan/Baludžistan): 3 Bobcat cowries are mentioned among the finds of a settlement from the Harappan Period of the second half of the 3rd millenium; 1 example is untouched, length: 3.1 cm, 2 others had removed dorsum, length: 3.7, and 2.4 cm.342

290. Seržen-jurt (Šalinskij rajon,, Čečenskaja Respublika): a cowrie was found in a level of the settlement dating to the 10th–7th centuries BC.353

282-83. Balakot (Las Bela District, Baludžistan): there is data for the occurrence of at least 4 Tiger cowries (282) from the first, Balakot Period (4000–3000 BC) at the settlement,343 while in its Harappan Period (2600/2500 BC–ca. 1700 BC), among other molluscs found, were 15–20 Tiger cowries used like a cosmetic jar,344 Thrush, and Lamarck cowrie beads,345 and 4 Ringed cowries with 346 open dorsi (283).

291. Verhnyj Koban aul (Respublika Severnaja Osetija– Alanija): 1 Money cowrie dating from a Late Bronze Age– Early Iron Age (1600–1050 BC) catacomb cemetery.

284. Mohenjo-Daro (Sind province): in the Harappian Period (2600/2500 BC–ca. 1700 BC) were found large numbers of molluscs; therefore, the 1 perforated Ringed cowrie (?) was considered insignificant and appeared only as an illustration, lenght: ca. 2.2 cm; 1 intact Arabian cowrie was also found, lenght: 3.1 cm.347

Spain: Antequera (Málaga, Andalusia)-Cueva de El Toro – see Annex 2507.

285. Sampur (Baludžistan): among other molluscs, a

292. Kerma (near Argo Island, northern Dongola)-P37: a girdle of 7 cowries was found around the pelvis of the

British Museum, London.354 Slovenia: Metlika (Bela Krajina)-Hrib Tumulus I, Grave 18 – see Annex 2506.

292–300, Annex 2508. Sudan El-Kadada (district Taragma) – see Annex 2508.

Reese (1995b) 387, 388; Beidha (254–55). Out of 15 and 41 molluscs: Reese (1995b) 385–86, 388. 340 Reese (1995b) 385–86, 388; see also Reese (1991a) 619. 341 Reese (1995b) 385–86, 388. 342 Tosi–Biscione (1981) 41, 78: fig 85. 343 Meadow (1977) 294: fig. 6: A. 344 Meadow (1977) 294: fig. 6: C. 345 Durante (1977) pl. 1. 346 Durante (1977) 339: fig. 19.: under the name of “cowries (Peribolus arabica)” which was not mentioned in the synonym-collection for cowries, see also: Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 532. 347 Kenoyer (1983) 339: fig. 11, 17, 343: fig. 14, 10. – See onward 1 Ocellaite cowrie too: Seymour Sewell–Guha (1931) 665. 338 339

Durante (1977) pl. 1. Durante (1977) pl. 1. 350 Quiggin (1949) 29, 29: note 1, 193. 351 Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1986) 330: nr. 22; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 138; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: nr. 744. 352 Vinogradov (1986) 86, fig. 85: 40. 353 Kozenkova (1977) 50: nr. 18; Kozenkova (1982) 65; Brujako (1999) 49. 354 Jackson (1917) 130; Reese (1991) 169: nr. 57. Presumably also connected: Schneider (1905) 115; see also 1079, 1529. 348 349

179

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads necklace with 14 blue and yellow faience cartouches with the name of the prince; a fifth necklace with 12 heavy spherical bronze beads strung in a graduated manner on a thick fibre; and finally, the first necklace with: udžat-eye beads and Ringed cowries with open dorsi in the following order: 1 udžat-eye bead in the middle of the necklace, and thrice intermittently 7-7 cowries with removed dorsi on side of it, and 3-3 small udžat-eye beads on both sides (Fig. 82).363

Fig. 81. 3 pierced silver cowrie imitations among the disturbed grave goods of Prince Shabako from Grave Ku. 203 at El Kurru (296) – after Dunham (1950) pl. LXIX: B. 19-4-41

skeleton in a presumably female grave dated to the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2119–ca. 1794/1793 BC).355

298. Ku. 211. Horse Grave: similar type of undisturbed grave of Prince Shebitku second beheaded chariot-pulling horse, including the same type of decoration; similar to the first necklace of the previous horse with all the udžat-eyes and Ringed cowries with removed dorsi.364

293–300. el Kurru (Nubia): cowries were found in royal graves and horse-graves at a Kushite/Nubian cemetery of Napata: 293. Ku. Tum. 2: finds of a royal grave, dated to the first quarter of the 1st millenium BC:356 stone arrowheads, golden necklaces with Egyptian udžat-amulets, an Egyptian gold pendant, gold nugget with inscription, fragments of a jar as well as Red Sea cowries.357

299. Ku. 212. Horse Grave: intact grave of Prince Shebitku third beheaded chariot-pulling horse: a necklace made of flower-shaped faience pendants and ring-beads, 5 pierced barrel-shaped udžat beads, 12 large, spherical bronze beads strung on a thick fibre, faience beads forming a net, and finally, 12 Ringed cowries with removed dorsi.365

294. Ku. Tum. 13: finds of a royal grave, dated to the 9th century BC:358 Egyptian calcite fragments, painted faience kettles, fragments of ivory and lapis lazuli marquetry as well as Red Sea cowries.359

300. Uronarti (near Semne) Grave 3: a necklace was placed around the neck of the skeleton, dating from the period of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2119–ca. 1794/1793 BC): in the middle an džet-column hung as a pendant with 1 sa each (’protection’) hieroglyphs on both sides in addition to spherical, striated, gold beads, and finally, 5 large and several small gold-plate cowrie imitations; lenght: 21 cm.366

295. Ku. Tum. 14: finds of a royal grave, dated to the 9th century BC:360 Egyptian calcite fragments, painted faience kettles, fragments of ivory and lapis lazuli marquetry as well as Red Sea cowries.361 296. Ku. 203. Horse Grave: disturbed grave goods of Prince Shabako (716–702 BC) chariot-pulling horse: more than 100 blue faience and 12 silver Hathor-heads, blue, white and red rings as well as spherical and ribbed beads, a blue faience flower-shaped pendant and finally, 3 silver cowrie imitations (Fig. 81).362

301–10, Annex 2512–16. Syria Hama (Muhafazat Hama) – see Annex 2512. 301. Mari (now Tell Hariri, near Abu Kamal): cowries were also found among the molluscs finds from the Istar temple, dated to 2600–1600 BC.367

297. Ku. 209. Horse Grave: intact grave of Prince Shebitku (702–690 BC) beheaded chariot-pulling horse; finds: hollowed fragments of a silver necklace, great numbers of faience loop-beads forming a net, hollowed gold and faience beads, 1 large hollowed, gold-plated silver bead, 1 pierced, blue faience bead, 2 blue faience udžat-eye beads, in addition to 5 necklaces, observed in situ: a second necklace with 36 blue udžat-eye beads and spherical faience beads; a third necklace with 28 flower-shaped blue faience pendants among clusters of ring-beads; a fourth

Palmyra (near Tadmur, Muhafazat Hims)-Sanctuary of Baalshamin Grave 3 – see Annex 2513. Ras Shamra/ancient Ugarit (near Latakia, Muhafazat Latakia) – see Annex 2514. 302–04. Tall Šeh Hamad (near Chabur, eastern Syria): the remains of 99 freshwater bivalves and 36 marine shells were found, of which 7 cowries from various periods were identified (see also 1088–89):

Mentioned in Derek A. Welsby’s letter, written to László Török; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 1045: nr. 1155. 356 According to the short chronology (sc) of Timothy Kendall, it is dated to 865–825 or 795–785 BC, while according to the long chronology (lc) of László Török it dates to 960–940 BC: Török (1997) 90, 92, 115. 357 Török (1997) 115–16. 358 sc 815–795 BC, lc 880–860 BC: Török (1997) 117 359 Török (1997) 117. 360 sc 815–795 BC, lc 900–880 BC: Török (1997) 117 361 Török (1997) 117. 362 Dunham (1950) 112, pl. LXIX: B. bottom, middle. 355

Dunham (1950) 113, pl. LXVIII: B. 19-4-72. Dunham (1950) 114 365 Dunham (1950) 114, pl. XXIX: D, pl. LXIX: A. 1. 366 Leclant (1996) 83: nr. 90; Leclant (1997) 83: nr. 90. Yvonne Markowitz brought my attention to this find, I would like to thank all of her; see Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 1045–46, 1157. 367 Reese (1991) 167: nr. 37; Reese (1991b) 135; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 838–42: nr. 60. 363 364

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Catalogue

Fig. 82. Thrice 7-7 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum and intremiddently udžat-eye beads of the horse trapping of Prince Shebitku from Grave Ku. 209 at El Kurru (297) – after Dunham (1950) pl. LXVIII: B. 19-4-72

302. Building P. Room A: among other molluscs, found in the building from the 13thcentury BC, 1 burnt and 1 fragmentary cowrie was identified.368

304. Lower Town, Building F: a Ringed cowrie with a removed dorsum was found, dating between the end of the 8th and the end of the 6th centuries BC.370

303. Building P: there was 1 Money cowrie with an open dorsum among other finds found in the building.369

Tell Beydar/ancient Nabada (Muhafazat al Hasakah) – see Annex 2515.

368 369

38.

305. Tell Brak (between Nasibin and Hasaka; northeast

Reese (1991b) 133, 136: pl. 35; Reese (2003c). Reese (1991b) 134, 136: pl. 35, and 134: fig. 90; Reese (1991) 167: nr.

370

84.

181

Reese (1991) 167: nr. 38; Reese (1991b) 133, 136: pl. 35, 134: fig.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Syria): a Thrush cowrie with a removed dorsum was found, dating to the middle of the 3rd millenium BC. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, inv. no.: 1939.564.371 306. Tell Chuera (between Beli’h and Khabur; northeast Syria): among the 91 marine molluscs found at the site, dated to the middle of the 3rd millenium BC, 54 were of Indo-Pacific origin: 1 of them was a Money cowrie with an open dorsum.372

Fig. 83. Fallow cowries set in eye sockets of female skull from Layer VII, Grave 2 at Çatal Höyük (319) – after Mellaart (1966) pl. L: b

307–08. Tell Hadidi (on the Euphrates, northern Syria):373 307. Grave L: 1 Indo-Pacific cowrie was found among other molluscs in the grave, dated to the Early Bronze Age (EBA: 3050–2000 BC).

a removed dorsum. Five specimens remain unidentified. Some cowries were also found during earlier excavations: in the Early Bronze Age (3050–2950 BC – 313), while 1 unidentified perforated specimen and 1 perforated Ringed cowrie were found mixed with Hittite materials (1200–333 BC – 314).377

308. A Ringed cowrie with a removed dorsum was found in a grave, dated to the Late Bronze Age (LBA: 1900–1775 BC).374

315–17. Aphrodisias (near Geyre, Aydin ili): 6 cowries were found at the prehistoric site. Of the 4 Dirty cowries 2 were dated to the end of the E–Middle Bronze Age (2200–1600 BC – 315), and 2 to the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 BC – 316); 1 is perforated. The Fallow cowrie fragment was contemporary with the above-mentioned finds, however, it was discovered in a layer mixed with Hellenistic–Roman material, while the irregularly perforated Money cowrie dates to the Early Iron Age (1200–1000 BC – 317).378

Tell Mastuma (near Idlib, Muhafazat Idlib, Northwest Syria) – see Annex 2516. 309. Tell Ramad-Kattana (near Damascus): in the upper, II layer of the Neolithic (6200–6050 BC) site 11 red colored, molded skulls were found, one of them probably with eyemarquetry made of cowries.375 310. Tell es-Salihiyeh (east of Damascus): at least 3 perforated cowries were mentioned.376

Boğazköy (Çorum ili)-Hattusha – see Annex 2519.

311–324, Annex 2519–21. Turkey

318–19. Çatal Höyük (Çumra, Konya ili):

311-14. Alişar Hüyük (Yozgat ili): among the molluscs from the site were 9 Hittite (1650–1200 BC – 311) and 2 Post-Hittite–Phrygian (1200–333 BC – 312) cowries. Among the first were at least 1 Fallow cowrie with a removed dorsum and 1 Fallow cowrie with a perforated dorsum, moreover, at least 1 Ringed cowrie with a removed dorsum. Among the latter there was 1 Ringed cowrie with

318. Some quite large379 cowries were found in the Early Neolithic VII levels (6200–6050 BC).380 319. Layer VII, Grave 2: a female skull, stained with ochre was excavated from under the No. VII 10 sanctuary. each eye was replaced by a Fallow cowrie,381 lenght: ca. 2.5 and 382 3.3 cm (Fig. 83).

Reese (1991) 167: nr. 35; Müller-Karpe (1974) 426–27: nr. 56; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 843: nr. 63. 372 Reese (1991) 167: nr. 33; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 843–44: nr. 64. 373 Altogether 9 cowries with removed dorsi were found at the site; 2 of them were from to the Early Bronze Age: Reese (1986) 328: nr. 1. 374 Reese (1991) 166: nr. 31. 375 Based on the personal information from Henri de Contenson: Mellaart (1966) 183. Concerning the finds from Çatal Hüyük, Michael MüllerKarpe mentioned that “ein Schädel war mit einer dicken Ockerkrüste überzogen und zeigte Kaurimuscheln in den Augenhöhlen, wie dies auch im syrischen Tell Ramad… bezeugt ist”: Müller-Karpe (1968) 350, see also 428: nr. 59: “ein übermodellierter, rot bemalter Menschenschädel in der oberen Schicht.” Since he did not mentioned the cowrie inlay, it is also possible that I misunderstood this comment: Contenson (1971) 281, it definetely cannot be seen on the photo of the 2 skulls: ibid. 281, bottom left; Strouhal (1973) 232; unclear in: Oates–Oates (1983) 81; the following quotation also mediates against the above-mentioned option: “A Ramad, la reconstitution de la face est entièrement exécutée avec une matière blanchâtre qui ressemble à de la chaux et sur laquelle se détachent en blanc la pupille et l’iris”: Contenson (1981) 62. 376 Reese (1991) 167: nr. 36; Reese (1991b) 135. See Osten (1956) fig. 77: TS 92, 96, 183. 371

Çayönü (Diyarbakir ili) – see Annex 2520. Reese (1986a) 194, 196; Reese (1991) 169: nr. 52; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 855–56: nr. 88; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 760: nr. 73. 378 The site is located 60 km from the Mediterranean (60 Dirty- and Fallow cowries) and 500 km from the Red Sea (1 Money cowrie): Reese (1986a) 191, 193, 192: pls 29 and 30, 195: fig. 195: 2–4; see also Reese (1986) 329: nr. 18; Reese (1991) 169: nr. 51. 379 Mellaart (1970) 264. 380 In the period discussed here, among the extremely rich variety of imported materials (lead, copper, malachite, lazurite, haematite, limonite, zinober, jade, obsidian, vulcanic rock and lava, marble, dolomite, white, blue and nervate limestone, calcite, alabaster, flint, pumice, sulphur, shells) large, now identified cowries were also mentioned: Mellaart (1970) 310; Müller-Karpe (1968) 438–39: nr. 85. “Level Pre-XII.D produced one with an open dorsum.”: Reese (2005) 125. 381 Reese (1986a) 193. “Mellaart is incorrect in calling these ‘Red Sea’ or ‘Red Sea –type’ cowries as they from the Mediterranean.”: Reese (2005) 125. 382 Mellaart (1966), 183, pl. L: b; Müller-Karpe (1968) 350, 438: nr. 85; 377

182

Catalogue 324. Troy/Tepe Hissarlik (near Çanakkale, Çanakkale ili): a Fallow cowrie was found among some molluscs from mainly Early Bronze Age contexts (3050–2000 BC) during Heinrich Schliemann’s excavations.388 325–26. Turkmenistan389 325. Džejtun (north-northwest from Ashabad, Ahal welayat): most of the cowries were found as stray finds at the Early Neolithic settlement, dated to the first half of the 6th–beginning of the 5th millenium BC. Since they were not identified, only the size suggests that either these are exceptionally large Ringed cowries or else the specimens found here come from other species. One specimen seems to be a Ringed cowrie with a removed dorsum, size ca. 2.8 cm.390 One Ringed cowrie-like fragment, lenght: ca. 2.9 cm, was located in room 7.391 326. Jaz-tepe (north-nortwest from Bajram Ali, Mary welayat): among the later finds from 900–650 BC at the citadel in the former settlement (Margiana) was, presumably, a Ringed cowrie with an open dorsum.392 Fig. 84. Faience figurine of a nude woman from Deir el Bahari (327), on her hips with a double-beaded girdle and 6 (?) large cowries – after Desroches-Noblecourt (1953) pl. I.

(326a). Ukraine 326a. Subbotove (Čigirinskij rajon,, Čerkassaja oblast’)earthen house/zemljanka 4.: three marine shells, used as pendants, were found in one of the pits of a 9th–7th centuries BC semi-subterranean house: this information was published without species identification.393

320. Gordion/Yassi-Hüyük at Dümrek (Çanakkale ili): Grave H4: 1 perforated cowrie among other molluscs in a pithos cemetery from the Chalcolithic to Hittite periods (2800–1850 BC).383

4.4. 327–338. Egyptian Female Fertility Statuettes with Cowrie Girdles (ca. 2119–1292 BC) (Fig. 67. 2)394

321. Gözlü Kule (Tarsus, Içel ili): 1 or more cowries were mentioned as having come from this Early Bronze Age site (3050–2000 BC).384

327. Deir el Bahari (north of Thebes, Upper Egypt): a faience figurine depicting the figure of a short-haired nude woman was found, decorated with painted-on tattoos and

322. Karkemiš/Carchemish/Kargamiš (now Jerablus, Gaziantep ili) R.W. Grave 1: 1 perforated Engina sp. and another perforated cowrie were found in necklaces from a Middle Hittite (1525?–1430? BC) burial.385

Reese (1986a) 194; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 865–67: nr. 104; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 768–69: nr. 91. 389 They are quite likely to occur at many contemporaneous in southern Turkmenistan because they appear both in the early and the late periods on the plate representing the types found at the excavations of all the 3 periods of the Džejtun (džejtunskaja) Culture: Masson (1971) 57: fig. 13; Mellaart (1970) 298. 390 The location of 4 cowries was indicated in the second settlement layer, which does not fit the picture captions, see also Masson (1971) 14: fig. 5. On the basis of another publication where it was not mentioned in the picture caption. Most were found as stray finds: Masson (1971) 200: pl. XXXVII: 11 (edge fragment, lenght: ca. 4.0 cm), 12 (edge fragment, lenght: ca. 3.5 cm), 18 (presumably Ringed cowries with removed dorsi, lenght: app. 2.8 cm). 391 Masson (1971) 200., pl. XXXVIII: (edge fragment from a Ringed cowrie ?); Müller-Karpe (1968) 533: nr. 566. 392 Masson (1958) 50–51, 58, 54: fig. 5: 26. 393 “…tri morskie rakoviny, služavšie v kačestve ukrašenij–podvesok”: Grakov–Terenožkin (1958) 169; date: ibid. 178. In the role of the 3rd century BC–5th century AD Roman import goods of Eastern Europe, it was catalogued among the marine shell pendants: Kropotkin (1970) 128: nr. 1249. 394 Collected by: Hornung–Staehelin (1976) 153–54: note 271; Winlock (1934) 40; Desroches-Noblecourt (1953); Wilkinson (1971) 81; Hayes (1990) I: 220–21. Among the examples from the scentific literature, I could not even find the picture of the specimen held in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston (331). 388

Öküzini cave (near Antalya, Antalya ili) – see Annex 2521. 323. Suberde (Southwestern Turkey, Konya ili): a perforated Money cowrie was found at this site, located 25 miles from the Mediterranean386 and dated to the Aceramic Neolithic (7th millenium BC) period. Also present is a perforated Fallow cowrie from the same period.387 Oates–Oates (1983) 96; quotation: Reese (1986a) 193; Francis–Badam (1988) 666; Reese (2005) 125. 383 Reese (1986a) 196; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 860: nr. 94; MüllerKarpe (1980) IV/2: 766: nr. 78. 384 Reese (1986a) 194. 385 Reese (1986a) 196; Reese (1991) 169: nr. 50; Reese (1991b) 135; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 767: nr. 83. 386 Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1986) 329: nr. 17; Reese (1991) 169: nr. 47; Müller-Karpe (1968) 440–41: nr. 88. 387 He mentioned that 148 molluscs were found at this site: Reese (1986a) 193; Reese (2005) 125.

183

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads bracelets, dating from the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2119–ca. 1794/1793 BC): modelled down to her knee, her right arm is incomplete. On her naked body she wears a girdle painted on her hips made of a double-rowed rope strung with 4 (?) large cowries. Paris, Louvre, acc. nr.: E 10942 (Fig. 84).395 328. Unknown provenance: a full-standing wooden figurine of a nude girl with a hair tail, with a broad necklace and bracelet as well as a belt probably of shells modelled on her hips, dated presumably to the Middle Kingdom. The belt is shown strung with 6 (?) large cowries, size 22.5 cm, probably on a rope or taking the place of several smaller cowries. Washington D. C., Dumbarton Oaks Collection (Fig. 85).396 329. Unknown provenance: the faience figurine of the figure of a long-haired nude woman, decorated with tattoos and wearing bracelets, modelled down to her knees probably dated to the Middle Kingdom. Both of her arms are incomplete. She wears a girdle painted on the hips, comprising a double-stranded cord with 2 (4?) large cowries. Cairo, Museum, acc. nr.: JE 47710.397 330. Unknown provenance: dated to the Middle Kingdom, a turquoise wooden figurine portraying a long-haired nude woman, modelled down to her knees, was found. She is painted with a black tattoo and a belt on her hips, comprised of a double-stranded cord and cowries, size 13.1 cm. Brooklyn, Museum, acc. nr.: 44.226.398 331. Unknown provenance: dated no earlier than the Middle Kingdom, a wooden figurine, portraying a nude woman wearing only a cowrie girdle.

Fig. 85. Wooden figurine of a nude girl, her belt is shown strung with 4 (?) large cowries (328) – after Breasted (1948) pl. 89: fig. b

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, acc. nr.: 00.607.399 332. Unknown provenance: dated no earlier than the Middle Kingdom, steatite figurine is portraying a nude girl, sitting back on her heels, holding a cosmetic vessel. Tied to a knob under her ‘pony-tail’ there is a fish on her back and a belt around her waist. She also wears a doublebeaded girdle made of large cowries around her hips. Due to the way she is positioned, only 3 of the shells are visible on her back.

British Museum, London, acc. nr.: 2572 (Fig. 86).400 333. Unknown provenance: the figurine of a long-haired nude woman, modelled down to her knees, was found in one of three possible cemeteries,401 dated to the 12th Dynasty (ca. 1976–ca. 1794/1793 BC). She is decorated Wilkinson (1971) 81. I’ve received the picture of the sculpture from Derek Anthony Welsby with the kind assistance of László Török; I am grateful to them both. With granted permission of Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan of the British Museum in this publication, I would like to thank Tana Watkins for her letter. 401 Most of the above-mentioned, approximately 50 sculptures, same depicted with cowrie-girdles and others not, were found in the 12th Dynasty cemetery of el-Lisht (south of Cairo), while 9 other specimens came from Thebes, 1 from Gebelen (Upper Egypt) and other 4 from unkown locations: Hayes 1990, I: 221. 400

Desroches-Noblecourt (1953) 7, pl. I. He attached the pictures of an example from Cairo to the related text: Vandier (1958) 238, (1958)/ Album, pl. LXXXII: 2, 5; the mistake was noted by Hornung-Stahelin (1976) 153: note 271. (see also 329). 396 Breasted (1948) 95: nr. 12, pl. 89: b–c; Reese (1988) 262. 397 Its picture was published with an incorrect caption (see also 327). 398 Described as the sculpture of a dancing woman with tattoo: Riefstahl (1968) 93. and 11: nr. 5. 399 Wilkinson (1971) 81. 395

184

Catalogue

Fig. 86. Steatit sculpture of a nude girl wears a double-beaded girdle made of large cowries around her hips (332) – (C) Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan of the British Museum, London, acc. nr.: 2572

with a painted tattoo; a double-beaded girdle in which 2 cowries can be seen strung at the front, surrounds her hips.

18th Dynasty (ca.1550–1292 BC). Her hair is braided. She is depicted wearing a broad collar while along the bottom of her hips was carved a string of small cowries on a band. Size: 20.4 cm.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.402

Museo Egizio, Turin, acc. nr.: 3107.405

334. Unknown provenance: blue faience figurine of a nude woman, modelled down to her knees, decorated with tattooe and bracelets; on her hips she is painted wearing a double-beaded girdle, strung with two large cowries in front, size: 12.1 cm, dated to the 12th Dynasty.

337. Unknown provenance: a round bronze mirror, dated to the first half of the 18th Dynasty (ca. 1550–1292 BC). The handle models a nude girl, whose arms have disappeared. According to the description, her hips were surrounded by a cowrie girdle which, however, cannot be seen on the picture; size: 22.9 cm.406

Puskin Museum, Moscow, acc. nr.: 5882 (Fig. 87).403 335. Unknown provenance: dated to the 12th Dynasty, blue faience figurine of a nude, short-haired woman, modelled down to her knees, decorated with tattooe and bracelets; on her hips was painted a double-lined black girdle, strung with three large cowries in front, size: 13.3 cm.

338. Unknown provenance: round bronze mirror, dated to the 18th Dynasty. Its handle is in the form of a nude girl with arms raised in an ornamental position., Presumably she is wearing a dense cowrie shell girdle which, however, cannot be recognized on the picture. Whole lenght: 30.0 cm.

Berlin, Ägyiptisches Museum, acc. nr. 10176.404

Aegyiptisches Museum, Berlin, acc. nr.: 13187.407

336. Unknown provenance: the fully modeled, nude, wooden figurine of a maiden called Nefrtmau dated to the

Scamuzzi (1965) pl. 40. “…nude girl wearing about her slender hips a girdle of cowrie shells…”: Hayes 1990, II: 189, fig. 105. 407 “Wahrscheinlich [trägt] ebenfalls Kaurigürtel die Spiegelträgerin…”: Hornung–Staehelin 1976, 153: note 271; Kaiser (1967) 56: nr. 586 (with picture). 405

Hays 1990, I: 220–21, fig. 137: 2 (the 8 illustrations are not counted separately). 403 Hodžaš (1971) fig. 13: 2. 404 Kaiser (1967) 45: nr. 458 (with picture); Seipel (1989) I: 112–13: nr. 79. 402

406

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 87. Blue faience figurine of a nude woman, on her hips with a double-beaded girdle, strung with two large cowries in front (334) – after Hodžaš (1971) fig. 13

186

Catalogue 4.5. 339–439. Cowries and Cowrie Imitations from South Asia (ca. 10,500 BC–1100 AD) (Fig. 67. 2)

344. Wu-kuan-ts’un (Hsiao-t’un): the numerous cowries, found in a sacrificial pit containing a horse, most probably decorated the harness, perhaps the bridle, from An-yanghsien, from the Yin period.414

339–416. China408 339–47. An-yang-hsien/Ta-i-shang (Hsiao-t’un, Ho-nan province.):

345–46. Hou-kang (Hsiao-t’un): 345. Six perforated cowries were found in one of the burials southeast of Hsiao-t’un, from the Yin period.415

339. (4 occasions). From the capital of the Late Shang/ Yin Period (1200–1050 BC): perforated cowries were uncovered; in 1928, 96 of them, and a cowrie imitation carved from a bivalve. In 1929 and 1931 additional many cowries (a lot with hole) were discovered. In 1932, 2 large and 163 small cowries were found.409

346. Bronze and jade objects were unearthed, accompanied by numerous cowries in a ritual pit excavated in 1958.416 347. Ta-ssu-k’ung-ts’un: scholars observed that cowries were put into the hands and mouth of the dead buried in the Yin period, opposite to Hsiao-t’un on the northern bank of the Yüan River.417

340–47. Hsiao-t’un: 340. Cowries were discovered on the southern bank of the Yüan River too, from a settlement of Yin period which belonged to the capital.410

348–51. Chang-chiao-po ( Shen-shi province): 348. (54 Graves, without 349–51). Cemetery from the Western Chou period (1122–771 BC), in which among both early and late burials cowries were usually found in the hands or mouths of the dead. Finally, more than 1000 cowries came to light, each perforated and filed on the back (with removed dorsi?). In 53 of the early burials were at least 2, but no more than 33 cowries, and in four late graves there were 2 or 3 cowries, the latter held in the hands of the deceased. Three concrete examples from the cemetery:

341–42. Cowrie finds from the cemetery excavated at the same place: 341. Grave No. 20: the burial of two high born men (?), whose skulls were separated from the skeleton. Grave goods: bow hilt, figural bow hilt decorated with turquoise and rattles, 10 bronze and 10 stone arrowheads, a richly decorated quiver handle, a dagger hilt, whip handles covered with golden plates, a jade pendant, a jade ring, a bronze knife, a fire-steel. In the mouth one’s of the deads was a jade balm cricket. Finally, a carriage with bronze mounts, accompanied by four richly equipped horses. The harness included among other things approximately 50 knobbed bronze mounts and more than one hundred cowries.411

349. Grave 188: there was a necklace near the skull, which consisted of 11 pebbles, 1 small jade, and 4 cowries. 350. Grave 463: around the pelvis, 11 partly perforated, partly untouched, polished cowrie imitations made of stone and jade.

342. The grave of Fu Hao/1976: the concubine of King Wu Ting/Kao Tsung, from the Shang/Yin Dynasty, her grave contained more than 440 (468?) bronze vessels, more than 550 jade objects (775), more than 560 bone objects, 70 stone objects, 3 marine shells(?), and more than 7000 (6880) cowries, identified as coins.412

351. The so-called “vehicle pit”: vehicles and horses found in a sacrificial pit, from the early Western Chou period. The harnesses of the horses were uncovered in situ. All the bridles of the horses were decorated with 2 or 3 lines of cowries, with their opening upwards, and positioned along there long axis. The straps were ornamented on both sides with several dozen cowries. There were 4 cowries in every second row. Finally, a double row of cowries was fastened to the reins (Fig. 88).418

343. Hou-chia-chuang (Hsiao-t’un), Grave 1001: altogether 127 perforated cowries from a harness were recovered, presumably connected to An-Yang-hsien from the Yin period (1550–1050 BC).413

352. Cheng-chia-tun (Inner Mongolia ): a Ringed cowrie with an oval hole was found together with microliths, 4 km west from the proposed location, on a sand dune. Its dating

The catalogue is mainly based on the work of Egami (1974). Egami (1974) 4, note 11; BHV 10 (1988) 474. In general, cowrie finds from Chin/Honan county are discussed by Quiggin (1949) 225; MüllerKarpe (1981) IV/2: 901–03: nr.1224. 410 Egami (1974) 5. 411 Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 902; Egami (1974) 5. 412 Chang (1986) 331, 363; Clark (1986) 24; The numbers in parentheses were taken from BHV 10 (1998) 474. The description and quantification of finds, and the mentioning of “fast 7000 Kaurimuscheln” is from: Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 902–03. Aleksej Andreevič Bykov argued that among the remains of the most ancient Chinese settlements and cemeteries hundreds more cowries were identified: Bykov (1969) 4–5. 413 Egami (1974) 4. 408 409

Egami (1974) 5, fig. 1 Egami (1974) 4. He mentions the cowries without detailed explanation: Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 903. 416 Egami (1974) 5. 417 Egami (1974)5; about the site: Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 903. 418 Egami (1974) 7, fig. 3. 414 415

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Periods (1122–771–255 BC), in graves 123, 211, 403, 506, 640, and 816. Sometimes they were found near the skull, and in two cases in the mouth, together with other grave goods, or they were found in the side ditch.425 359. Some 1008 additional bone cowrie imitations and 237 made of pang shell were discovered at the same site. Finally, a total of 173 natural cowries were identified showing that the proportion of natural cowries and their imitations notably increased as grave goods to the advantage of the latter.426 Hou-chia-chuang – see 343. An-yang-hsien Fig. 88. A harness decorated with cowries from a vehicle-horse pit at Chang-chia-po (351 – Restored drawing) – after Egami (1974) 7: fig. 3

360. Hou-ch’uan (Shen-hsien, Shenhsi province): altogether 984 natural cowries found as grave goods, from the Ch’un-ch’iu and Chan-kuo Periods.427

is debated, however, it may be the same age as finds from Hung-Shan-Hou (368–69), that is, 8th–3rd centuries BC.419

Hou-Kang – see 345–46. An-yang-hsien Hsiao-t’un – see 340–46. An-yang-hsien

353. Chêng-chou (Ho-nan province): approximately 460 cowries, from the Middle Shang/Last Phase of the Yin’s Erh-li-kang or Kung-yüan Period (16th century BC).420

361. Hsin-an-hsien (Ho-nan province): cowries and cowrie imitations from the Ch’un-ch’iu and Chan-kuo Periods.428 362–63. Hsin Cheng (Ho-nan province):

354. Ch’i-li-p’u (Shen-shien, Ho-nan province): a bone cowrie imitation from the Yin period (1550–1050 BC).421

362. Cowries and cowrie imitations are mentioned from the Ch’un-ch’iu and Chan-kuo Periods.429

355. Chi-hsien Ho-nan province): cowries and their imitations from the Ch’un-ch’iu- and Chan-kuo periods (770–255 BC).422

363. All in all, 317 cowries were discovered in a threelegged bronze kettle and two similar boiling kettles among the grave goods from the famous burial excavated at this site.430

356. (6 Graves). Chu-chia-sai (Hsi-ning-hsien, Kan-su province): altogether 24 cowrie imitations, found in 6 disturbed graves from a cemetery of questionable date; the graves were thought to date to the Yang-shao Period (3500–2200 BC), but recently scholars have argued that the burials are from the Lung-shan Period (2500–2000 BC).423

364–65. Hsin-ts’un (Chen-hsien, Ho-nan province): 364. (100? Graves). Altogether, 3,472 perforated cowries, and bone cowrie imitations were recovered from approximately 100 graves of nobility from the Wei Empire dating to the Western Chou and early Eastern Chou Periods (770–255 BC). There are only small holes on the cowries, but the latter’s dorsi were removed. Among cowries used as ornaments, 22–24–26 pieces were strung in a row, and two or three strands were fixed on a leather strap.431

357. Ch’u-fu (Lu-ch’êng, Shantung province): cowries and cowrie imitations from the Ch’un-ch’iu and Chan-kuo Periods (770–255 BC).424 358–59. Chung-chou-lu (Lo-yang, Ho-nan province): 358. (6 Graves). Altogether 115 filed cowries with perforated dorsi (maybe removed dorsi?) were found in a cemetery dating from either the Western or Eastern Chou

365. Grave 1: cowries used as harness decoration.432

419

Egami (1974) 48. Egami (1974) 4: note 11; Müller-Karpe (1980)IV/2: 903–04: nr. 1225; BHV 10 (1998) 474. This site may be the same as the one mentioned in this erroneous paragraph: “… while a hoard of 200 cowries was found in the old centre of Chinese civilization Cheng/Andersson (1934) 323, fig. 140.” : Quiggin (1949) 225. 421 Egami (1974) 4: note 11. 422 Egami (1974) 9. 423 Egami (1974) 3. The same site is mentioned as being in Ching-hai county: ibid. 45, 46: fig. 13; Andersson (1934) 323. 424 Egami (1974) 9.

425

420

426

366. Hui-hsien (Ho-nan province): cowries and their

188

Egami (1974) 8: note 24. Egami (1974) 9, 12. 427 Egami (1974) 12. 428 Egami (1974) 9. Presumably a picture of 3 cowrie imitations may be seen here: ibid. 11: fig. 7 a (right hand row) 429 Egami (1974) 9 430 Andersson (1934) 323; Quiggin (1949) 225. About the grave, with further literature: Chang (1977) 310, 320; about the Sha-ching site and the culture: ibid. 407–09. 431 Egami (1974) 8 432 Egami (1974) 9

Catalogue imitations made from various materials such as bone, stone, pang shell, copper, gold-plated copper and, lacquer from the Chan-kuo Period (475–256/255 BC).433

with an open dorsum, lenght: 1.4–1.7 cm was found among finds from various periods, from the house and the tati between this house and house No. K 702, 1 Ta-ts’üanwu-shï coin of Wang Mang (9–23), and 1 Wu-shu bronze coin (206 BC–618 AD), moreover, 3 unmodified (?) small cowries were also found, lenght: 1.4–1.7 cm).442

367. Hiu-tsui (Yao-sha-hsien, Kan-su province): fragments of cowries, from the Hsin-tien Period (1300–1100 BC),434 which were discovered together with painted pottery, bone needles, spatulas, bronze buttons, and knives. There is a fragment from the bottom and side of a large cowrie.435

372. Area encircled by a wall No. K 710: perhaps this quarter was the administrative center of the Kü-yen district. The research area extended over a territory of 135x130 m2. The finds can most probably be dated to the period between the Han (206 BC–220 AD) and Hsi-Hia (1038–1227) Periods. Among the finds: one Ta-ts’üan-wu-shï bronze coin, and a fragment of a Ta-ts’üan-wu-shï bronze coin, moreover, 8 Wu-shu bronze coins, and approximately 19 fragments of them were discovered. The investigation brought to light 3 Money cowries as well: the dorsum was removed from the longest of them (2.6 cm), the other measurable cowrie is 1.4 cm long, a third is damaged.443

368–69. Hung-shan-hou (Ch’ih-feng, Inner Mongolia): 368. Cowrie imitations from freshwater- and marine bivalves were found among the remains of a settlement and stone urn burials, dating from the Huang-t’ao Culture.436 These imitations were divided into two types: one is rhomboid, with a longitudinal hollow down the middle, and perforated in mid-section, while the other kind of cowrie imitation is an obtuse rhombus-shape, with a longitudinal, indented hollow, and perforated at the ends. Natural Money cowries and Ringed cowries were also unearthed at the same site. These had removed dorsi. It seems that imitations belonging to the first type were imitating Money and Ringed cowries while the other imitations were copies of larger and wider cowrie species.437 369. Most probably, 3 additional cowries from the collection of E. Licent can be connected to this site.438

373. Tati No. K 712: probably the recovered finds represent objects from some tati, which had existed continuously for a longer period of time. The earliest finds are signalled by 9 Wu-shu coins, while late finds were dated by Sheng-sung (t’ung-pao) bronze coins from the 12th century. 2 Money cowries were among finds from the late period, 1 of which is perforated and 1.8 cm long, while the other small (length: 1.4 cm) has its dorsum removed.444

370. Kashi (Khasgar/Kaxgar, East Turkestan)-Khan, Site VI: cowries, which have been processed to a certain extent are mentioned as coming from this site.439

374. Tati No. K 720: 1 fragment of a Wu-shu coin, a coral bead, and 1 cowrie with an open dorsum (lenght: 2.3 cm) was found among the few finds.445

371–79. Khara-khoto Region (Inner Mongolia): sites that were excavated in the western region of Mongolia, east from Ikhengol, namely in the northeastern part of the Etsina Oasis (= Kü-yen):440

375. House No. K 721: 1 coin fragment (probably from the Han Period) was found, 4 Wu-shu coins, 1 King-te-yüanpao coin (1004–1008), 1 Ch¨i-p’ing-yüan-pao coin (1064– 1068), and 1 Hi-(ning)-chungpao coin (1068–1078) were discovered. together with 1 cowrie with an open dorsum among the remains of a building and a tati of different periods.446

371. House and tati441 No. K 703: half of a Money cowrie Egami (1974) 9. The picture of the cowrie imitation made of lacquer: ibid. 11: fig. 7: e. 434 This culture is the same age as the North Chinese Late Yin (1200– 1045 BC) and Early Western Chou Periods (1122–771 BC) as well as the Inner Mongolian Early Sui-yüan Culture, and the Siberian Karasuk Culture (1200–700 BC): Egami (1974) 45–46; Anderson (1943) 172: pl. 120: 12; Chang (1986) 378. 435 Egami (1974) 45–46: fig. 14. 436 This Huang t’ao Culture is the same age as the North Chinese Ch’unchiu, Chan-kuo Cultures (770–255 BC), the Sha-Ching Period of Kansui, and the Inner Mongolian Sui-yüan Bronze Age Culture 437 Egami (1974) 47, fig. 15 438 Egami (1974) 47–48 439 Egami (1974) 49 440 The Chinese occupation of the territory from 121 BC is reported on in written documents. The oasis had dried out by the late 14th century and therefore became depopulated: Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 16–23. About the cowrie finds from the research: Egami (1974) 49, note 113. There are notes about the bronze coins in note 353 and fittings are discussed below. Here, I would like to express my gratitude to Mária Ferenczy, who helped me with the reading of the notes. 441 Tati presumably ‘ground, threshing-yard’(Chinese), kind information of Marta Kiripolska and György Kara in 2006. „Tati, romhely általános neve, -lik (a) = romok” [Tati is a common name for ruined places, tati-lik (Arabian) = ruins]: Stein (1903) 267. 433

376. House No. K770: 1 Hi-ning (yüan-pao) bronze coin (1068?–1078?) was recovered among the remains of the house. Other finds included 1 small cowrie with a removed dorsum (lenght: 1.7 cm).447 Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 110: nr. 14–17. Notes from Mária Ferenczy: the inscription on the bronze coin issued by the Regent Van Mang, who ruled as emperor: Ta-ts’üan-wu-shï ‘large coin, valued at fifty units’. The coins with the inscription Wu-shu ‘five semer [weight]’ were in use from the period of the Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) until the end of the Sui Dynasty (581–618). They can be dated more precisely on the basis of their quality and form. 443 Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 114, 115: nrs 42–44. 444 Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 121: nrs 28–29. 445 Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 126: nr. 3. 446 Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 127: nr. 26. 447 Sommarström–Bergen (1956) 155: nr. 9 According to Mária Ferenczy, this type of coin was issued by the Emperor Shen-tsung (1067/68– 1085/86) of the Pei (Northern) Sung Dynasty (960–1127), most probably in AD 1068, or within ten years of that date, because the coin includes the motto of the ruler. 442

189

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 380. Ku-ch’eng-p’u (Yang-kao-hsien, Shanhsi province) Grave 12: a burial from the Han Period (206 BC–220 AD). Among the grave goods were found, 1 strange, sheepshaped grave talisman: its body is like a large cowrie, presumably a Tiger cowrie, and its head and legs are made of bronze (Fig. 89).451 381. Ku-wei-ts’un (Hui-hsien, Ho-nan province) Grave 2: cowries, and bone cowrie imitations were discovered from the Chan-kuo Period (475–256/255 BC).452 382. Li-chiao-ts’ung (Jui-ch’eng-hsien, Shanshi province): Cowries are also mentioned along with painted pottery from this Yang-shao Culture site (3500–2200 BC).453 Fig. 89. Sheep-shaped grave talisman from Grave 12 at Kuch’eng-p’u (380), its body is a Tiger cowrie and its head and legs are made of bronze – after Egami (1974) 40: fig. 12

383. Lin-tzu-hsien (Chi-ch’êng, Shantung province): 7 cowries, 6 bivalve cowrie imitations and 6 bone cowrie imitations from the Yang-shao Culture were found near the wall.454

377. Several bronze coins including 3 unreadable fragments, 3 unidentified pieces, Î-yüan-t’ung-pao, yüanpao, and another coin with the inscription p’ing in its second sign, 1 Pan-liang coin (175–136 BC), 1 (or 2?) K’ai-yüan-t’ung-pao coin(s) (621–907?), 1 Huang-sungt’ung-pao coin (1038–1040), 1 Yüan-feng-t’ung-pao coin (1078–1086), and 2 Yüan-yu-t’ung-pao coins (1086–1094) were discovered among the rich remains from another feature. Finally, 1 Money cowrie with a removed dorsum was found.448

384–85. Liu-li-ko (Hui-hsien, Ho-nan province):

378. Room 28: 1 cowrie with a small opening, but without dating coin.449

386. Loulan (Xinjang Uygur Zizhiqu): 1 perforated Money cowrie, and 3 Money cowries with removed dorsi were found by Sven Hedin at the eastern edge of the Takla Makan Desert, near Lop Nor Lake, by the former Loulan station from the period 260–330.457

384. 2 pang shell cowrie imitations are mentioned among finds from a cemetery dating to the Chan-kuo Period.455 385. Grave 60: more than 1000 ormolu (gold-like brass) cowrie imitations were found among the grave goods of Chan-kuo Period (?). Several thousand natural cowries, 1548 ormolu, and 210 bone cowrie imitations were collected from the covering of the grave.456

379. 2 copper coins among the finds: 1 perhaps from the T’ang Dynasty (618–907) minted in K’ai-yüan, 1 additional is severely corroded, might be dated to the T’ien-shengyüan-pao Period (1023–1032), and 1 cowrie with an open dorsum, length: 2.1 cm.450

387. Lo-yang (Chung-chou-lu, Ho-nan province): imitations of cowries made of bone and pang shell from the Ch’un-ch’iu- and Chan-kuo Periods (770–255 BC).458

Sommarström–Bergen (1958) 209, pl. 21: 4. The second volume of this work cannot be found in Hungary. Here, I would like to thank Birgitta M. Johansson for sending me the crucial pages by fax. Mária Ferenczy noted that 1. three coins cannot be identified from the inscriptions, and without knowledge of the signs the coin cannot be identified (this latter information is not mentioned in the publication.), 2. From the late 3rd century to the 1st century several rulers issued coins with the inscription Pan-liang (meaning half-ounce [a bronze weight], which cannot be separated from each other based on their shape. The given dated can be connected with the reign of Emperor Ven-ti (180/179–157/156 BC), Ching-ti (157/156–141/140 BC), and Wu-ti (141/140–87/86 BC), from the Han Dynasty. 3. Bronze coin with the inscription K’ai-yüan-t’ung pao was first issued in 621 BC by the Emperor Kao-tsu (618 – 626) of the Tang Dynasty. His successors used the same form of money up to the middle of the eighth century. 4. A coin with a Huang-sung-t’ung-pao inscription was first issued by Emperor Jen-tsung (1022/1023–1063/1064) of the Pei (Northern) Sung Dynasty in 1039. 5. Emperor Shen-tsung, from the latter dynasty, issued a bronze coin with the inscription Yüan-feng-t’ungpao between 1078–1086. 6. Emperor Che-tsung from the same dynasty (1085/1086–1100) issued the Yüan-yu-t’ung-pao bronze coin between 1086–1093. 449 Sommarström–Bergen (1958) 234. 450 Sommarström–Bergen (1958) 249. For the K’ai-yüan coin see note 447: 3. According to Mária Ferenczy the bronze coin with the 448

inscription T’ien-sheng-yüan-pao was minted by Emperor Jen-tsung (1022/1023–1063/1064) from the Pei (“Northern”) Sung-Dynasty in 1023, “but it is also possible that it was issued between 1023–1031/1032, because the T’ien-sheng slogan was in use up to that time.” 451 Egami (1974) 40, fig. 12. 452 Egami (1974) 10: fig. 4. 453 Egami (1974) 3. 454 Egami (1974) 9, 10: fig. 5. Perhaps this is the same site Quiggin calls Ling Chi, Hsien, the earlier capital of Ch’i (Shantung): Quiggin (1949) 225. 455 Egami (1974) 11: fig. 7: c. 456 Egami (1974) 12. 457 Folke Bergmann argued that in the northern part of India, cowries substituted for money from about the birth of Christ up to the beginning of the Muslim occupation. This custom survived here until the 20th century. Therefore, the considerable quantity of cowries found there must have originated in the Indian- or Chinese Ocean. Finally, Bergmann said that this was the legacy of the local Indian population, but he also argued that because of the widespread use and spread of Chinese bronze coins, cowries ceased to be used as money. Bergman (1935) 112–13, pl. XV: 14–17; Egami (1974) 49. 458 Egami (1974) 9; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: nr. 1228.

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Catalogue 388. Lu-ch’eng (Ch’u-fu, Shanxi province): a cowrie from the Ch’un-ch’iu- and Chan-kuo Periods (770–255 BC).459

397. Grave 33: 2 possible Ringed cowries with open dorsi were found among the other grave goods (lenght: roughly 2.0 and 2.1 cm).467

389. Lu-chia t’un (Liaoning province): a necklace made of 12 Money cowries was found in a burial from the Han period (206–220).460 390. Nan-shan (Khôtan, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region)-Shisbil Fortress: on the southwestern verge of the Tarim Basin, archaeological research by Huang Wen-pi uncovered some cowries.461 391–92. Pai-ts’ai-p’o (Ling-t’ai, Kan-su province): two retainers’ graves of mythical kings, were preserved in good condition among the nine burials dating from the Western (Early) Chou Period (1122–771 BC):

400–05. (25? Graves, without 401–05). Shang-ts’un-ling (Shen-hsien, Shen-shi province): 400. Many strung ornaments were recovered put together from numerous cowries, stone cowrie copies, rhombic trinkets, and cylinder-shaped chi-hsieh-shih jade stone in a cemetery for high-ranking individuals of the Kou Empire, dating from the Western (Late) Chou (473–256 BC)–Eastern (Early) Chou Periods (770–255 BC). In 30 strung ornaments from 234 burials there were 275 cowries, 795 stone and 216 ceramic cowrie imitations. 12 of the strands of beads were uncovered next to the skull, 2 near the ear region, 3 by the legs, and 9 near the arms. An additional 3 strands of beads composed of rhombic-shaped ceramic, stone, and bivalve elements were discovered on the covers of 1 internal, and 2external coffins. Twenty-four other ornaments were placed between the outer and inner coffins.470

392. Grave furniture of King Chao-wang’s retainer: carriage with four horses, weapons, jade jewelry, knives, bronze vessels, and cowries.462 393. Pu-chao-sai (Minch-ch’ien-hsien, Ho-nan province): cowries were excavated at the settlement dating from the the Lung-shan Culture (2500–2000 BC).463 394. (2 Graves). P’u-tu-ts’un (Ch’ang-an-hsien): cowries are mentioned among grave goods in two pit graves from the Western (Middle) Chou Period (771–473 BC).464 (Min-ch’in-hsien,

399. Shan-rong (Inner Mongolia): around 500 graves of a Nomadic cemetery, excavated in 1989, dated to the end of the 5th century BC: A female grave: in an in situ exposed grave at the excavation site, a necklace is shown, composed from 20–25 gold sheet cowrie imitations.469

391. Grave furniture of King K’ang-wang’s retainer: weapons, jade jewelry, knives, bronze vessels, and cowries.

395–98. Sha-ching-t’sun province):

398. Grave No. 35: a bronze knife, and 5 Ringed (?) cowries, 2 of them with removed dorsi, lenght: roughly 1.7–2.2 cm.468

Kan-su

Five published examples:

395. Among the grave goods from the cemetery at Chenfan, dating to the Sha-Ching Culture (700–500 BC),465 there are numerous documented cases of cowries with removed dorsi. Unfortunately, only the next three of them are shown in the publication:

401. Grave 1052. Altogether 214 cowries were uncovered among the grave goods. 402. Grave 1624: altogether 144 stone cowrie imitations are mentioned.

396. Grave 17: strand of beads made of magnesiumsilicate, 1-1 cowrie each with removed dorsi, apparently Ringed or Money cowries (lenght: roughly 1.5 and 2.2 cm).466

403. Grave 1745:7: the strung ornament was composed from beads of chi-shieh-shih stone, and cylindrical jade stone beads, and 22 natural cowries. 404. Grave 1765:7: the strung ornament, discovered among the grave goods, was composed of 178 rhombic ceramic ornaments, and 92 stone cowrie imitations.

Egami (1974) 10: fig. 6. Egami (1974) 38, 50, 38: fig. 11. 461 Egami (1974) 49. 462 Müller-Karpe (1980) IV2: 904: nr. 1229. 463 Andersson (1934) 323: fig. 140: a; Bogaevskij (1931) 2; Egami (1974) 3; Eliade (1997) 175, 178. About the culture: Chang (1977) 91–126. 464 Egami (1974) 8. 465 In the first publication it was dated to the Han Period (206 BC–220 AD): Andersson (1934) 323; but it was re-dated in Chang (1986) 386. According to Namio Egami, it is equivalent to the Ch’un-ch’iu, and Chan-kou Periods (770–255 BC), and also parallel to the late Sui-yüan Bronze Age Culture from Inner Mongolia: Egami (1974) 47 466 Andersson (1943) 209, pl. 156: 6–7; Egami (1974) 46–47, fig. 14: second and third rows. 459 460

Andersson (1943) 209: pl. 157: 8; Egami (1974) 46–47, fig. 14: second and third rows. 468 Andersson (1943) 209, pl. 156: 2; Egami (1974) 46–47, fig. 14: second and third rows. 469 Unpublished. István Erdélyi saw it on the spot, and kindly reported to me (1999. IX. 28). 470 Egami (1974) 9 467

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 405. Grave 1785: altogether 216 ceramic cowrie imitations.471

Egami preferred to date the burial to the Lung-shan Period (2500–2000 BC).482

406–08. Shan-piao-chên (Chi-shien, Ho-nan province): among finds in the cemetery from the Chan-kuo Period (475–256/255 BC) were 2 cowries with open dorsi (406),472 and one three-legged bronze kettle, decorated by two embossed rows of cowrie-patterns (407).473

415. Yanqi Huizu Zizhixian (= Karashahr; Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region): Huang Wen-pi recovered cowries from sites south of the Su-shih-li-ch’eng desert, in Karashahr.483

408. Grave 1: more than 3000 cowries with open dorsi were found among the grave goods.474

416. Unknown provenance: undatable large or medium sized cowrie, along with 1 bronze and 1 bone cowrie imitations in the Far Eastern Antiquities collection.484

409–10. Shih-shai-shan (Chin-ning-hsien, Yünnan province): altogether 34 Bronze Age burials were unearthed, in which drum-shaped containers contained thousands of cowries (409).475 2 of the cowries are shown in the book, in which figures and objects, represented on their cover plate, display snake rites and ritual tribal ceremony.476

417–24. India

410. Numerous cowries were unearthed, together with bronze weapons and bronze disks in the burial place of a noble man from the Han Period (206 BC–220 AD).477

418. Damnagar (Amreli district, Gujarat state): undated stray finds: numerous fragmentary bracelets made of Turbinella pyrum,486 as well as a basalt millstone, a bloodstone hatchet, flint and agate cores and finally, 2 Money cowries.487

417. Bhaundri village (Lucknow district, Uttar Pradesh state): altogether, 9,834 cowries were found in the hoard find, in addition to coins issued by King Pratihāra’s Vināyakapāla/Mahīpāla (912–944 BC).485

411. Shou-shien (Anhui province)-Grave of Ts’ai-hou: cowries and their imitations from the Ch’un-ch’iu period (770–476 BC).478

419. Huvina (Huvina Hadagali, Bellary district, Karnataka state): undated fragment of a bracelet and 2 Money cowries were mentioned as having come to light on the north bank of a gully.488

412. Su-fu-t’un (Yi-tu, Shantung province): four graves dating to the Shang/Yin Period (1550–1050 BC) from this cemetery were excavated:

420. Manikyala tope (Punjab state): Mixed finds of Roman consul-coins, dated to shortly before the Christian era, gold coins of King Kaniška and King Kadhpises of the Kušan-Dynasty;489 as well as bronze coins of the Persian Sassanids (224–651) and finally, an uncertain number and species of cowries were found in 1830.490

Grave 1: bronze, ceramic, and jade objects, and 3,790 cowries were recovered from this robbed burial.479 Ta-ssu-k’ung-ts’un – see 347. An-Yyang-hsien 413. T’êng-hsien (T’êng-ch’êng, Shantung province): cowries and imitations of cowries from the Ch’un-ch’iu and Chan-kuo Periods (770–255 BC).480

421. Rang Mahal (Ganganagar district, Rajastan state): 1 Pale, 1 Money and 1 Ocellaite cowrie from the Arabian Gulf, were found at a Kušan period (30–365/385) site.491

Wu-kuan-ts’un – see 344. An-yang-hsien

422. Tungabhadra (Bellary district?, Karnataka state):

414. Yang Shao Ts’un (Honan province): 1 cowrie was discovered, dating from the late Neolithic Yang Shao Culture (3500–2200 BC), among the grave goods of a burial. This is regarded as unique for this period.481 Namio

Egami (1974) 3. Egami (1974) 49 484 Andersson (1934) 323, fig. 140: b–d. 485 Gopal (1965) 214. I found this data only through the kind help of Gyula Wojtilla. 486 Belonging to the Vasidae family, Turbinella pyrum is a holy shell in India, and in spite of its 13 cm length, and presumably great weight, jewelery and other knick-knacks were and are made out of it. 487 The site is located in the eastern part of the Kathiawar-peninsula, near Amreli: Jackson (1917) 165. 488 The site is located near Hadagalli, 65 km to the west of Bellary: Jackson (1917) 165. 489 Due to the lack of detail in the description, it is not clear whether the coins belonged to Kujula Kadhpises I (30–80) or Vima Kadhpises II (90–100 or 110–120), or Kaniška I (100–126 or 120–146) or Kaniška II (AD 200–222 or 220–242). About the dating of reigns see also Cribb (1995/1996) 106. 490 Jackson (1917) 166: the misread Kanerki or Kamerkou name was later corrected to Kaniška; see also Egami (1974) 33, note 86. 491 Egami (1974) 33: note 86. 482 483

Egami (1974) 8 Egami (1974) 11: fig. 7: d. 473 Egami (1974) 13, fig. 8. 474 Egami (1974) 12. 475 “Hundreds of thousands of cowrie shells were found in drum-shaped containers…”, “cowrie shells, perhaps used as media of exchange”: Chang (1977) 458–59, and 283, 363. 476 Kokubu (1984) 94–95, pls XXIII–XXIV. 477 Egami (1974) 33–34. 478 Egami (1974) 9. Together with the picture of 6 cowries open at the dorsum: ibid. 11: fig. 7:6. 479 Chang (1986) 371; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 905: nr. 1232. 480 Egami (1974) 9, perhaps 3 cowrie imitations made of bone: 11: fig. 7: a (left side row). 481 Andersson (1934) 323, fig. 140: b–d. 471 472

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Catalogue Money cowrie fragments found at a late Neolithic or Iron Age site: a Nerita sp. fragment, intact beads made from Paludina sp. as well as bracelet fragments of Turbinella pyrum.492 423. Unknown provenance: found at a previous site, stray finds most probably from different periods: Neolithic millstone fragment, fragments of pottery, 2 scraps of metal (one of them may be a bronze ring?), 3 bracelet fragments made from Turbinella pyrum, a fragment of the worked side of a Turbinella, 4 fragments of a scraper made from Unio sp., and finally 1 intact Money cowrie.493

Fig. 90. Cowrie from Kimhae shell mound (439) – after Egami (1974) 50: fig. 19

435. Suezaki-mura (Kesen, Iwate prefecture, Honshū)Hosoura shell mound: worked cowries were found at what was presumably a Jōmon Culture site.

424. Unknown provenance: undated Money cowrie with removed dorsum.494 425–38. Japan495

436. Tokyo-to (Honshū)-Azusawa: worked cowries were found at what was presumably a Jōmon Culture site.

425. Gotō (Nagasaki prefecture, Kyūshū)-Ōhama shell mound: some cowries were found in an earthen coffin, dated later than the Yayoi Culture (300 BC–300 AD).

437. Tokyo-to (Honshū)-Nishigahara: worked cowries were found at what was presumably a Jōmon Culture site.

426. Hateruma-jima island (Okinawa)-Shimodabaru shell mound: worked cowries were found at an undated site.

438. Tokyo-to (Honshū)-Shimonumabe: worked cowries were found at what was presumably a Jōmon Culture site.

427. Ie-jima island (Okinawa)-Gushibaru shell mound: worked cowries were found at an undated site.

439. Korea, Republic 439. Kimhae (Kyongshang Nando) shell mound: the site, where an worked Little Calf cowrie was found, was dated by the huo-ch’uan coins of Emperor Wang Mang (AD 9–23) (Fig. 90).496

428. Kamikuroiwa (Ehime prefecture, Shikoku)-rock: worked cowries were found at what was presumably a site of the Neolithic Jōmon Culture (ca. 10500 – ca. 300 BC). 429. Kume-jima island (Okinawa)-Janadō shell mound: worked cowries were found at an undated site.

4.6. 440–541, (540a). Cowries of the Carpathian Basin from the Scythian Period (7th–3/2nd Centuries BC) – (see Annex 2299-302, 2316, 2327)

430. Nakagami island (Okinawa)-Fensha-gushiku shell mound: worked cowries were found at an undated site

The material was collected from Hungary, Romania and Slovakia (Fig. 91).

431. Nakagami Island (Okinawa)-Gusuku-dake shell mound: worked cowries were found at an undated site.

Abony (Pest megye, Hungary)-Blaskó-dűlő – see Annex 2299.

432. Nakagami Island (Okinawa)-Katsuren-gushiku shell mound: worked cowries were found at an undated site.

Algyő (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Bartók Béla Street Graves 46, 59, 78 –see Annex 2300–02.

433. Ōguchi (Kagoshima prefecture, Kyūshū): some cowries were found in the urn of a cremation burial, dated later than the Yayoi Culture.

440–42. Alsótelekes (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)-Dolinka: 183 graves from a part of a biritual497 cemetery dated to the turn of the 6/5th century BC:498

434. Sagawa-machi (Kōchi prefecture, Shikoku)-Fudoga-iwaya cave: worked cowries were found at what was presumably a Jōmon Culture site.

440. Grave 81: grave goods from the burial of a young child: around the neck, a 2 strung bronze- and 1 electron rings, a small bronze tube, and 5 *Ringed cowries, in good

The site is located near Hampasagra, 53 km west of Bellary: Jackson (1917) 165. 493 The site is located north of Bellaguppa (?): Jackson (1917) 165. 494 Referring only to the pl. V: fig. 3456-13, published in the Madras Fisheries Bulletin 7 (1914): Jackson (1917) 165. 495 The whole material was collected by Egami Namio: Egami (1974) 51. In this context, the word ‘process’ might have had the meaning of either the perforation of the upper end of the cowrie shell or the removal of its dorsum. 492

Egami (1974) 50–51. Namely burials with skeleton, or unurned with cremation, or with cremated rituals. 498 Patay (1960); Patay (1962); the representation of the latter: Patay (1962a); Patay (1963); Patay (1965). I studied the unpublished material of Graves 166 and 178 with the kind help of Tibor Kemenczei. Patay–B. Kiss (2001–2002) 96, 98, 122, note 93, 117: fig. 22. 496 497

193

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 91. Distribution of the cowrie finds from the Scythian Period of the Carpathian Basin (7th–3/2nd centuries BC)

443. Grave 1: grave goods from the burial of a 8–10 years old girl: a bronze ring, a string of 14 kaolin-, 1 amber- and 1 bronze beads, a bowl, a pear-shaped vessel, pig bones, an iron artifact, lime grains, and between the pelvis and the femur, in the middle of an iron ring, 1 larger and 2 smaller cowries, on the illustration, likely Ringed cowries are depicted, with removed dorsum, size: approximately 1.6x1.1–2.5x1.8 cm.500

condition, their dorsi were removed to different, size: 1.5x1.15–1.8x1.35 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 2/1963.3.499 441. Grave 166 finds: 4 bronze spiraled wire-tube, a blue glass bead and 15 *Ringed cowries in good repair, but corroded, their dorsi were removed to a different, size: 1.55x1.15–2.3x1.65 cm.

444. Grave 4: grave goods from the burial of a young woman: a vessel, pig bones, and next to the right femur 1 cowrie, according to the illustration it was a Ringed cowrie with open dorsum, size: approximately 1.9x1.4 cm.501

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 44./1964.38. 442. Grave 178 finds: a bronze spiraled wire-tube, and 9 *Ringed cowries in good repair, and 1 broken, corroded Ringed cowrie, with differently removed dorsi, size: 1.45x1.1 cm–1.95x1.4 cm.

Balmazújváros (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)-Hortobágy, Árkus – see 460. Hortobágy 445–46. Békéscsaba (Békés megye, Hungary)-Fényes: 77 graves of a biritual cemetery, dated between, the 6/5th–4/2nd centuries BC:

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 44./1964.49.

445. Grave 5: finds from the contracted grave of a baby: a string of 2 cylindrical bone beads, 2 Cerithium sp. (?)

443–44. Balázsfalva (prev. Alsó-Fehér megye, Hungary; Blaj, judeţul Alba, Romania): 7 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the early 6th century BC:

In the text “Kaurimuscheln (Cypraea moneta)”: Vasiliev (1972) 66–67, 99: pl. V: 7; Vasiliev (1972a) 22, 28: pl. V: 7. 501 In the text “Kaurimuschel”: Vasiliev (1972) 68, 101: pl. VII: 7; Vasiliev (1972a) 26–27, 30: pl. VII: 9. 500

Patay (1962a) 13, 17, pl. IV: 11–15; Patay–B. Kiss (2001–2002) 122. 499

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Catalogue and 1 pierced, from the photo likely Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum length: approximately 1.6 cm.502

Budeşti (judeţul Bistriţa-Năsăud, Romania) – see 447–48. Budatelke

446. Grave 25: grave goods from the burial of a young child (length: 96 cm): a string of 11 blue glass beads, a pair of iron wire bracelets, abronze wire bracelet, a small cup, on the chest 2 pierced cowries, according to the photo, Ringed cowries, 1 of them had removed dorsum, length: approximately 2.0 cm and only the upper part of the others dorsum was removed, length: approximately 2.0 cm.503

Chotín (okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 451–58. Hetény 449–50. Csanytelek (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Tömörkényi Street: a biritual cemetery with 29 graves: 449. Grave 6: grave goods from a contracted female burial: a half of a spindle whorl, a bottle-shaped vessel, a highhandled mug, a clay vessel, and around both the neck and the knees wavy and oculus beads, flattened amber beads and 2 pierced cowries, which, according to the illustration can be identified as Ringed cowries, length: ca. 1.7 cm

Blaj (judeţul Alba, Romania) – see 443–44. Balázsfalva 447–48. Budatelke (prev. Beszterce-Naszód megye, Hungary; Budeşti, judeţul Bistriţa-Năsăud, Romania)Fînaţe: 10 remaining graves from a disturbed cemetery from the Hallstatt C–D Period (725–450 BC), dated to the second half of the 7th century, of which population was defined as local Thracian population with cultural influences of Caucasian or Iranian Pre-Scythian ethnic groups:504

None of the finds can be found in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes.507 450. Grave 12: the finds from a burial with unurned cremation of a woman (?): a clay spindle whorl, a string of 36 beads: blue round-, spherical-, and brown cylindrical oculus beads, decorated by wavy lines, and 2 fragments of a larger cowrie, length: ca. 3.0–3.5 cm.

447. Grave 5: grave goods from a female burial: a pair of bronze earrings, a cup with handle, a double conical pot with knobbed neck, a large double conical pot with a double row of knobs on the neck, and under the skull, on the pelvis and the chest more than 500 kaolin, 1 clay, and some glass paste beads, the fragments of a bronze wirespiral (saltaleoni), and lastly 12 cowries with open dorsum. Although they were interpreted as Money cowries, this hypothesis should be reconsidered, since according to the illustration, 5 of them seems to be rather Ringed cowries, length: approximately 1.0–1.4 cm.

None of the finds can be found in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes.508 451–57. Hetény (prev. Komárom megye, Hungary; Chotín, okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) - Cemetery I-A: a biritual cemetery with 371 graves, including horse burials:509 451. Grave 2-A: grave goods from a mature male burial: double conical spindle whorl, a vessel, besides, in the slanting grave ditch, opposite to the skull that was found near to the right elbow, a hollow bronze pendant, an iron decoration, a sandstone plate, a second spindle whorl, a brown, cylindrical and ring-shaped clay beads, and at last 3 pierced cowries. These latter were according to the illustration most probably Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.8–2.0 cm.510

Bistriţa, Museum.505 448. Grave 6: grave goods from a male burial: 2 three-edged bronze, 1-1 bone and iron arrowheads, 3 bronze suspension loops and iron suspension hooks of the bow case, an iron spearhead with beech handle, an iron dagger in a sheath decorated with bone plaques and bronze rosettes, a small cup with handle, a large double conical urn, remains of meat meal, ochre pigment, an finally dispersed near the left arm 25 pierced cowries (with open dorsum?). The cowries were not identified in the text, among the 4 illustrated items 2 were likely Ringed cowries, 2 others might be Money cowries, lenght: approximately 1.1–1.3 cm.

452. Grave 27-A: grave goods from an adult–mature female burial: an iron bracelet, 3 clay vessels, and near the skull, 1 pierced cowrie. According to the drawing it can be identified as a fragmentary Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 2.1 cm.511

Bistriţa, Museum.506 Párducz (1943a) 50, 57, pl. VIII: 3 and 1–2. Párducz (1943a) 52, pl. X: 18, 20. 504 Marinescu (1984) 47–49, 81, 83. 505 Marinescu (1984) 48, 55: fig. 4: 5b. The given scale is correct if the scale of the illustration nr. 5a is 1:1. If the scale is 2:3, which is given for the metal objects, then the length is approximately 1.4–1.5 cm, excluding the cowrie on the left edge, which is apparently larger, which in the latter case would be 2.1 cm long. 506 Marinescu (1984) 48–49, 56: fig. 5: 10. The given scale is correct if it is considered to be 1:1. If the 2:3 scale given for the metal object is applied, then the length: approximately 1.8–2.0 cm.

Párducz-Csallány (1944–45) 83, 101, pl. XXXIV: 13. Attila Türk gave me kind information about the later story of the shells. 508 Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 83, 101, pl. XXXI, 1–2. 509 The cemetery includes 249 (numbered from 1-A to 301-A) inhumation + 122 cremation (1-A–122-A) burials. Graves 51-A–102-A belonged to a cemetery of Hungarian commoners, dated to the 10th century: Dušek (1966) 9–10, 9: Map 1. The cowries are mentioned as “Muschel”. 510 Dušek (1966) 45, 107: pl. I: 4–6. Contradicting the anthropological definition of M. Prokopec (Ústav Hygieny, Praha) the presence of pendants, beads, and the 2 spindle whorls are worth to emphasize. 511 Dušek (1966) 48, 110: pl. IV: 20.

502

507

503

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 453. Grave 45-A: the grave goods from a female grave of an adult–mature woman and her embryo or newborn baby: fragments of bronze ornaments, a fluted spindle whorl, 2 clay vessel, the fragment of a vessel, fragment of a flattened iron artifact, and at last, in front of the skull, 1 pierced cowrie, likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.9 cm.512

459. Heves (Heves megye, Hungary)-Semmelweis utca: 27 graves from parts of a biritual cremetery of Scythian Age: Grave 2: finds from a burial with unurned cremation: elektron covered bronze, spiraled earring, a light blue glass bead, fragments of glass paste beads, a bronze band bracelet, clay vessels: 3 bowles, 1-1 pot and a mug, a bronze plaque, and 7–8 cm off the bracelet, the side fragment of 1 *Ringed cowrie (?), length: 1.7 cm.

454. Grave 124-A: grave goods from the burial of a mature: fluted spindle whorl, 2 clay vessels, a fragment of iron, a piece of red paint, a small stone, around the neck region a string of 25 light blue beads and 1 pierced cowrie. This latter is likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.8 cm.513

Dobó István Vármúzeum, Eger, acc. nr.: 68.4.11.519 460. Hortobágy (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)-Árkus: an unpublished biritual cemetery of Scythian Age with 45 graves,:520

455. Grave 145-A: grave goods from the burial of a mature male: small bronze wire rings, 2 bronze wire bracelets, a bronze wire finger ring, an iron knife, 2 clay bowl, 2 jugs, vessel, a double conical spindle whorl, fragment of a bronze object, and at last, in the neck region a string of 40 clay beads and 3 pierced cowries. Likely all Ringed cowrie, 1 of them has a round hole on the top of the dorsum, 1 is with removed dorsum, and 1 is with a small hole under the apex, length: approximately 1.7–2.0 cm. Meanwhile, one of them crumbled away.514

Grave 16: find from a child urn burial: bronze lockrings, bronze tubus, a clay sealer, 2 *Ringed cowries. Both are with removed dorsum, but one was broken at the apex, the other is uncompleted and broken into two, m: 1.9x1.5 cm, and length: 1.9 cm. Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: 77.151.6.521 461–64. Kesznyéten (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)-Szérűskert: a biritual cemetery with 89 graves dated to the 5th century BC:522

456. Grave 200-A: finds from the burial of a young child (inf. I): clay bottle, besides, on the neck, a small hollow bone cylinder, a brown clay bead with wavy decoration and 2 pierced cowries; both are likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.9–2.0 cm.515

461. Grave 12: in the unknown material of a cremation burial 3 untouched and 6 smaller and larger fragments of burnt, smoky *Ringed cowries with differently removed dorsi, size: 2.1x1.5–2.3x1.7 cm.

457. Grave 285-A: finds from a child burial (inf. II) in the neck region: a bronze wire spiral-disc with overlapped terminals, a pierced bear tooth and 1 pierced cowrie: likely Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.8 cm.516

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 90.1.25, 28–29, 38, 41–42, 44, 43, 53.523 462. Grave 13: in the unknown material of a cremation burial 3 burnt, smoky *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, size: 2.0x1.5–2.1x1.7 cm.

458. Hetény (prev. Komárom megye, Hungary; Chotín, okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) - Cemetery I-B: biritual cemetery with 97 graves, including horse burials:517

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 90.1.68, 71, 74. 463. Grave 20: in the unknown material of a cremation burial a burnt, smoky, *Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum, size: 2.5x1.8 cm.

Grave B: finds from an adult grave: a string of 32 glass and glass paste beads, 2 bronze wire bracelets, a clay spindle whorl, a disc with inclined rim, a fragment of a jug, and at last at the foots 3 clay sealers and 2 pierced cowries: most likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.7–1.9 cm.518

Szabó (1970a) 56. The fragment of the cowrie is not mentioned in the publication, but was noticed in the museum by István Bóna who kindly reported it to me, and I was able to study it with the friendly help of János József Szabó: see Bóna (2001) 14. 520 Horváth (1960). 521 Jerem (1979) 210, note 56; Kisfaludi (1977) 88: nr. 10. The cowries were studied with the kind help of Ibolya M. Nepper. – Kemenczei (2004)37, 39: fig. 6: 23–25. 522 B. Hellebrandt (1991); B. Hellebrandt (1991a). I would like here to express my gratitude to the project director, who allowed me to study the unpublished material of the cemetery. 523 In the preliminary report of the excavation, the author identified the cowries of Grave 12 and Grave 13 as snails, and also the freshwater snail of Grave 27. Among the parallels, the Grave 5 Orosháza (Békés megye, Hungary)-Gyopáros cemetery is incorrectly cited, since cowries were discovered in five graves of the cemetery: Hellebrandt (1991–92) 118; see Juhász (1972) 219; Kemenczei (2001–2002) 47, 50: fig. 13: 6–12. 519

Dušek (1966) 50, 113: pl. VII: 22. Dušek (1966) 52–53, 116: pl. X: 6. 514 Dušek (1966) 55, 119: pl. XIII: 7–9. The presence of the string of beads, the pair of bracelets, and the spindle whorl contradicts the anthropological sex definition. 515 Dušek (1966) 61, 128: pl. XXII: 15–16. 516 Dušek (1966) 69, 137: pl. XXXI: 2. 517 The cemetery included 97 inhumation and cremation burials (1B–97-B): Dušek (1966) 9–10, Map 1. The cowries are mentioned as “Muschel”. 518 Dušek (1966) 90, 163: pl. LVII: 9–10. 512 513

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Catalogue Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 90.1.116.

None of the cowries were inventoried in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes.529

464. Grave 82: in the unknown material of a cremation burial, 1 burnt, smoky *Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum, size: 1.9x1.4 cm.

469. 2) a string of blue glass- and white glass paste beads, and 4 pierced, identified from the photos as Ringed cowries. All cowries were with removed dorsi, length: approximately 1.6–1.9 cm.

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 90.1.333. 465. Kisdivény (prev. Trencsén megye, Hungary; Divinka, okres Žilina, Žilinský kraj, Slovakia)-Veľký vrch: 1 cowrie is presumed to have been found in the La Tène–Roman earthen fort’s settlement layer dated to the Hallstatt Period (8th–5th centuries BC), which might be a larger Ringed cowrie, length: approximately 2.8 cm,524 which is identified as one of the Thracian–Scythian object types entering the Lausitz Culture.525

None of the cowries were inventoried in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes.530

466. Kis-Ekemező (prev. Kis-Küküllő megye, Hungary; Proştea Mică/Tîrnăvioara, judeţul Sibiu, Romania)Schrauvenweg: 1 cowrie is mentioned among the finds from a female burial.526

Grave 30: Finds from the disturbed grave of a man: among the broken skull bones 3 glass beads and 2 cowries with removed dorsum,531 according to the publication Dirty cowries, length: 1.7 cm.532

467–69. Kunszentmárton (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Jaksor: disturbed cemetery, of which 59 graves were excavated.

471–75. Magyarózd (prev. Alsó-Fehér megye, Hungary; Ozd, judeţul Mureş, Romania)-Dégicsúp (Piscul Deagului): 16 graves from an inhumation cemetery, dated from the 6th century BC:

470. Madar (prev. Komárom megye, Hungary; Modrany, okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Nursery of the forestry: a biritual cemetery with 35 graves (31 unurned and urned cremation, and 4 inhumation burials), dated to the end of the 6th–middle of the 5th centuries:

467. Grave 24: grave goods from a female burial: a pair of spiraled bronze pendants, a string of 8 spherical and 1 cylindrical oculus beads, an iron bracelet, an iron awl/ needle, a clay spindle whorl, and in the pelvis region, and under the right arm 1-1 pierced cowries, identified from the photos as Ringed cowries. The dorsum of the more intact cowrie was cut deeper than the dorsum itself, the less intact is with a normally removed dorsum, length: approximately 2.0, resp.1.5 cm.

471. Grave 6: grave goods from the burial of a roughly 6 years old rickety girl: 2 bronze rings, 3 fluted conefrustum-shaped kaolin beads, 5 bronze spiral wounds, and fragments of it, 2 large bronze rings, 2 iron knife, 2 small biconic bowls, the scapula of a rabbit, and around the neck, perhaps from a string 4 pierced cowries: according to the drawing Ringed cowries, two of them had removed dorsum, size: approximately 1.5x1.2–1.8x1.2 cm.533 472. Grave 8: finds from an adult female burial: 2 bronze rings with conical terminals, 4 iron rings, the fragment of an iron plate, an arched iron knife, a biconic urn, a bowl with inclined rim, a high-handled mug, shin-bone of a sheep or a goat, and the rib of a similar-type animal, ad at last, around the neck a string of 350 tiny kaolin beads, 1 larger paste bead, a greenish-blue glass bead, and around the skull 14 pierced cowries, likely part of a string of beads or a diadem. 1 additional cowrie was found near the left

None of the cowries were inventoried in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes.527 Group of stray finds, which are treated as a grave assemblage:528 468. 1) 3 three-edged bronze arrowheads, bronze spiraled, spherical and cylindrical oculus beads, a fluted spherical clay bead, besides, 6 pierced cowries, identified from the photos as Ringed cowries. 2 cowries had their dorsi totally removed, the others’ dorsi were cut to various extents, length: approximately 1.6–2.3 cm.

Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 86–87, 104, pl. XXXVI: 7–12. Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 87, 104, pl. XXXIX: 14–17. 531 Dušek (1976) 407–09, 408: fig. 12: 1–2. He argued that in Slovakia, cowries appear in the earliest phase of the material, which was defined by him as Thracian (451–57, 458, 498–501): ibid 416. 532 The cowries were identified by Jozef Švagrovský, the head of the Department of Geology and Paleonthology at the Komenský University, in Pressburg. “Bei den zur Untersuchung... vorgelegten Typen handelt es sich um Vertreter der Familie Cypraeidae, Genus Erosaria spurca (L.), die am wahrscheinlichsten aus dem Mittelmeergebiet stammen. Es erscheint daher fraglich, inwieweit die in der Fachliteratur gelegentlich auftretende Bezeichnung «Kauri-Muscheln» mit der Kennzeichnung der Herkunft im Indischen Ozean und Pazifik (Vasiliev 1972, S. 79.) berechtigt ist.”: Dušek (1976) 416. It is not impossible that they were Ringed cowries. 533 Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 92, 130: pl. XI: 6–9. 529 530

Identified as “Meermuschel”: Pieta (1982) 59 (with further incorrect quotations of 2 pierced teeth: pl. XV: 26, 31, 257: pl. XV 7. 525 Pieta (1982) 151: mentioned as “Kauri”-Muschel. Interpreted as a surviving object, which was re-used in the Puchóv Culture: Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 254, Note 57. 526 The “Cypraea” was not illustrated: Reinecke (1897) 15–17, fig. 5; Pósta (1897) 519, fig. 45.bis. Referred to as “Copşa Mică”: Vasiliev (1980) 100: note 544. 527 Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 85, 103, pl. XXXV: 7–8. I would like here to thank the kind information of Attila Türk about the cowries. 528 The artifacts, which were exposed on separate plates during the exhibition of the Koszta József Museum, Szentes in the 1940s (?) were treated as connected grave goods: Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 86. 524

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Fig. 92. 22 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum and kaolin beads from Grave 9 at Magyarózd (473) – after Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 133: pl. XIV: 1–24

476. Marosgombás (prev. Alsó-Fehér megye, Hungary; Gîmbas, judeţul Alba, Romania): 1 Money cowrie is mentioned among the unpublished material of the cemetery.538

side of the chin. According to the drawing, likely a Ringed cowrie, whose dorsum was more or less removed, size: approximately 1.2x0.9–2.3x1.7 cm.534 473. Grave 9: finds from an adult burial: 2 bronze rings, 2 bronze wire bracelets, biconic urn, a high-handled mug, the shoulder blade of a sheep, rabbit bones, remains of coal, under the chin, a string of 14 yellowish green glass paste beads, 1 amber bead, and at last on and around the skull, 120 tiny kaolin beads and 22 pierced cowries in pairs, with their opening upwards. According to the drawing all were Ringed cowries, with differently removed dorsi, size: approximately 1.2x0.9–2.3x1.8 cm (Fig. 92).535

477. Medgyesegyháza (Békés megye, Hungary)Gyebrovszky tanya: 8 graves from a part of a cemetery: Grave 3: likely a female burial, in which a string of 1 round amber, 5 blue glass, 1 larger, 9 smaller, 2 clay beads, these last with yellow set, 3 barrel-shaped beads, and roughly 14 pierced cowries were found on the chest. Presently 11 of them are more untouched and 6 of them are fragments, and an additional 4 *Ringed cowries remained. Their dorsi are differently removed, their surface is severely destroyed, size: 1.5x1.2–2.1x1.5 cm.

474. Grave 13: finds from a female burial: a larger bowl with inclined rim, a smaller vessel with everted rim, a small high-handled mug, sheep bones, remains of coal, ochre, and on the skull, the string of 30 kaolin beads, and left of the jaw bone 11 pierced cowries. According to the drawing all were Ringed cowries, with differently removed dorsi, size: approximately 1.1x0.9–1.7x1.2 cm.536

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: Ő. 53.211.4.539 478. Mezőtúr (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)Újváros, Mészárostelep: the remaining grave goods from a probably female inhumation burial: bronze brooch (Fußzierfibel), 3 gold flitters, a bone cylinder, a bronze artifact, a clay vessel, and a string of 13 large glass beads with ocellus pattern, 16 additional glass beads and 50 pierced *Ringed cowries, size: 1.5x1.1–2.4x1.8 cm.

475. Grave 15: finds from a female burial disturbed by: 2 eyeglasses-shaped bronze brooches, 4 bronze spiral wounds, 1 urn, a small bottle, a clay spoon, sheep tibia, and at the chin, 2 fluted cone-frustum-shaped kaolin beads and 1 fragmentary, pierced cowrie. This latter is likely a Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum, size: approximately 1.7x1.2 cm.537

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok, acc. nr.: 63.263.2 (Fig. 93).540 479. Mihályfalva (prev. Nagy-Küküllő megye, Hungary;

Mărişelu (judeţul Bistriţa-Năsăud, Romania) – see 496. Sajónagyfalu Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 93, 132: pl. XIII: 1–15. Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 93–94, 133: pl. XIV: 1–22; Vasiliev (1980) pl. 18: 6. 536 Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 95, 134: pl. XV: 7–17. 537 Vasiliev–Zrínyi (1974) 96, 135: pl. XVI: 9. 534

Ferenczy (1969) 55; Vasiliev (1980) 100: note 544. Kőrös (1945) 56, 57: pl. I: 12–27. 540 Kisfaludi (1983) 69–71, fig. 1: 4c; Kisfaludi (1977) 89: nr. 16; Hellebrandt (1999) 230.

535

538 539

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Catalogue

Fig. 93. 50 pierced Ringed cowries among the finds of a female grave at Mezőtúr (478) – after Kisfaludi (1983) 71: fig. 1: 4c

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 94. 12 pierced cowries among the remaining finds from a disturbed burial at Nádpatak (480) – after Horedt (1941–43) pl. 2: 1–8

a blue glass bead, a bronze bracelet, a bowl, a handled mug or spherical-shaped small vessel, and around the neck and chest various-shaped paste beads and 5 pierced cowries. According to the photo, they were likely Ringed cowries, with differently removed dorsi.

Boarta/Sînmiclăuş, judeţul Sibiu, Romania): 6 pierced cowries, remained as stray finds. Brukenthal Museum, Sibiu, acc. nr.: 14898.541 Modrany (okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 470. Madar

Palóc Museum, Balassagyarmat, acc. nr.: 55.5.3.544

480. Nádpatak (prev. Nagy-Küküllő megye, Hungary; Rodbav, judeţul Braşov, Romania): the remaining finds from a disturbed burial, dated to the 6th century BC: a fragment of a silver earring or pin, 2 beads, a sheet bracelet, 2 bronze wire finger ring, fragments of a bronze band, clay and bone fragments, and 12 pierced cowries, among them a large item,542 and 9 additional pierced cowries, that means a total of 21 shells.

482–85. Nyáregyháza (Pest megye, Hungary)-Site 16 (= M5-4 motorway): under the Sarmatian settlement, 55 graves of a biritual cemetery:545

Brukenthal Museum, Sibiu, acc. nr.: 12047 (Fig. 94).543

Kossuth Museum, Cegléd, acc. nr.: 98.5.40–43 (40: 2 cowries).546

482. Grave 14: finds from the contracted grave of a newborn baby in the neck region: 1-1 paste, oculus and glass beads, and 2 *Ringed cowries in good condition, with removed dorsum, size: 1.7x1.25, resp.1.9x1.35 cm.

481. Nógrádkövesd (Nógrád megye, Hungary): 17 graves (numbered up to nr. 22) of a biritual cemetery:

Grave 19 – see Annex 2316. 483. Grave 23: finds that were found in an irregular ditch, without human bones: electron covered bronze lockring,547 a blue glass bead, an iron pin with coiled terminal, a pair of bronze bracelets, a fluted black spindle whorl, a piece of slate, and 2 *Ringed cowries in good repair, one of which is with removed dorsum, and only the upper part of the other’s dorsum was removed, size: 1.7x1.2 cm.

Grave 6: grave goods of a likely female burial: an iron knife, Horedt (1941–43) 175: note 56. Since Kurt Horedt interpreted the Scythian finds from Nádpatak (480) and Szépmező (528) as late Avar material, he quoted these 6 cowries as paralells to those, adding that from Zsiberk (prev. Nagy-Küküllő megye, Hungary; Jibert, judeţul Braşov, Romania) and Kőhalom (prev. Nagy-Küküllő megye, Hungary; Rupea, judeţul Braşov, Romania) Avar finds have already been published: ibid. These finds were mentioned at the end of Scythian cowrie’ register: Vasiliev (1980) 100: note 544. 542 As far as can be determined from the photo – Horedt (1941–43) 176–77: pl. II: 6. –, they are likely Ringed cowries (˝!zwölf Cypraeen!), with differently removed dorsi. The large shell’s roughly 4.0 cm length in case of a Ringed cowrie would me the larges size ever measured, see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 204; therefore, it is possible that this item belonged to another species. 543 Horedt (1941–43) 174: nrs 5, 9, 174–75, 176–177: pl. II: 6. Most finds were interpreted as Avar finds by Kurt Horedt, therefore he dated them without specifying the ethnicity, to the second half of the 7th century–8th century: ibid. 176. For his misleading interpretation, see Reinecke (1897) 17; Vasiliev (1980) 100: note 544. 541

Kossuth Museum, Cegléd, acc. nr.: 98.5.60–66 (64: 2 cowries).548 Patay (1955) 63, 72, pl. XII: 6. Tari (1997) The finds and all the data was studied with the kind help of Júlia Kisfaludi. – see Kisfaludi (2004)! 546 Kisfaludi (2004) 169, 188: pl. VIII: 11. 547 This appeared near the grave, from the earth deposit of the cluster. 548 Kisfaludi (2004) 170, 190: pl. X: 13. 544 545

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Catalogue 484. Grave 27: finds from the contracted grave of a 3–4 years old child: a pair of bronze wire bracelets with overlapping terminals, a black double conical small vessel, and 1 *Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, whose edge is broken, and corroded, size: 1.8x1.35 cm.

488–92. Orosháza (Békés megye, Hungary)-Gyopáros: 167 graves of a biritual cemetery, in which Scythian finds from the 5–4th century BC and earlier types of Celtic burials were mixed. The cowrie were discovered in the Scythian material:554

Kossuth Museum, Cegléd, acc. nr.: 98.5.69–71 (71: 1 cowrie).549

488. Grave 37: finds from a female burial: 2 bronze wire bracelets, a clay spindle whorl, a small vessel, and in the neck region, a string of 17 beads, among which 1 *Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum was found, size: 1.7x1.3 cm.

485. Grave 32: finds discovered among the mixed bones of a man and a woman: socketed three-edged bronze arrowheads, an iron knife with arched back, fragment of a fire-steel, a bronze plaque, iron fragment, wheeled, high-handed, black mug, hand-formed bowl with inclined rim (inside the ribs of a 10–15 years old person), a piece of sandstone, and a glass bead, amber beads, pierced freshwater shell and one *Ringed cowrie fragment with removed dorsum, corroded, size: 1.6x1.4 cm.

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 72.25.3. 489. Grave 63 grave goods: a three-edged bronze arrowhead, an iron knife, an iron ring, fragments of iron, fragment of a vessel, besides, 2 beads, 3 cowries, presumably Ringed cowries, which were inaccessible during the course of my study.

Kossuth Museum, Cegléd, acc. nr.: 98.5.78–88 (85: 1 cowrie)550

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 72.43.2.

486–87. Nyíregyháza (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Közvágóhíd: among the remaining finds of a disturbed Scythian urn cemetery, “1 dirty reddish, 1 yellow, 3 blue, 3 dirty yellow, 1 sulfur colored, undecorated beads; 2 cowries (Cyprea moneta)” are mentioned.551 Although the picture of the finds was published, on this, the cowries are unidentifiable.552 There are roughly 9 untouched and at least 4–5 fragmentary cowries in the museum, to the following order:553

490. Grave 71: the fragment of a small vessel, and in the neck region 2 beads and 1 *Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, size: 2.1x1.5 cm. Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 72.50.2. 491. Grave 87: finds from a female burial: a bronze ring, a spindle whorl, a needle, Y-shaped bronze artifact, and next to the skull, 5 partly fragmentary *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, size: 1.4x0.9–1.8x1.2 cm.

486. 1) 3 fragments of a smoky *Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, and 6 pieces of 3 lengthways broken, smoky *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, which were in a vessel, length: 1.6–1.9 cm.

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 72.63.1. 492. Grave 112:555 2 bronze wire bracelets, urn and vessel fragments, and at an undefined location, 2 *Ringed cowries with open dorsum, size: 2.0x1.6, and 1.8x1.2 cm.

Jósa András Museum, Nyíregyháza, acc. nr.: 62.80.15 (prev. acc. nr.: III.110, resp.III.120–25.).

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 72.81.5.

487. 2) 3 untouched, 2 more or less untouched, and 4–5 broken, smoky, *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, size: 1.8x1.2–2.2x1.7 cm.

Ozd (judeţul Mureş, Romania) – see 471–75. Magyarózd 493. Petneháza (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary): 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum is mentioned in the material of cremation burials, length: approximately 1.8 cm.556

Jósa András Museum, Nyíregyháza, acc. nr.: 62.211.1. Kisfaludi (2004) 170, 191: pl. XI: 3. Kisfaludi (200) 171, 192: pl. XII: 5. 551 Csallány (1961) 8. 552 Bottyán (1955) 59, 64: II. 4, pl. 2: 6. 553 In 2000, when the catalogue was closed, I obtained a letter discovered by Eszter Istvánovits, written by András Jósa in 1898 or 1899, in which he informed the National Inspectorate of Museums and Libraries (Múzeumok és Könyvtárak Országos Felügyelősége) arguing that: “Our region must have been intensively populated in the La Tène Period (first millenium BC), since we discovered 5 urn cemeteries in Nyíregyháza, 1–2 kilometer far from each other. – I received more than 50 urns from the territory of the Közvágóhíd [Slaugter-house], which I drew, and in one of which 13 pieces of pierced cowries (Cypraea moneta), used as beads originating from the Indian sea. These cowries in the eastern parts of Africa were used some decades ago, and they are still in use as coins. – The cowries could come only from the east, and from here, it spread 549 550

towards the La Tène pond situated at he northern part of the Neuschatel Lake, therefore, this culture flowered here earlier in our territories than in Switzerland.”: Jósa András Museum, Archives, Nyíregyháza. This allows to infer that all surviving cowries of the site might originate from one urn, though I perhaps incorrectly separated them into two groups, based on their separate access. I would like to thank here the kind information of Eszter Istvánovits. 554 Juhász (1972) 219. The drawing of a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum from the cemetery: Jerem (1986a) 179: fig. 62: 6. I would like to thank here the kind information and help of Irén Juhász and for permission to study the cowries. 555 In the publication it is incorrectly mentioned as Grave 102: Juhász (1972) 219. 556 Bottyán (1955) 59, 64: nr. II. 3, pl. I: 2.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 494. Piliny (Nógrád megye, Hungary): among the finds of some hundred graves of a cemetery, which became stray finds,557 according to the Find Inventory 7 “prehistoric” cowries. At present, 3 white and 3 smoky *Ringed cowries are known from the material, which showing cremation burials, and additional smoky fragments from roughly 3 cowries. Their dorsi were removed to different extents, size: 1.8x1.4–2.3x1.8 cm.

were illustrated and they rather seem to be Ringed cowries, length: approximately 1.0–1.3 cm. Bistriţa, Museum.561 Senec (okres Senec, Bratislavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 498–501. Szenc Simeria (judeţul Hunedoara, Romania) – see 495. Piskitelep

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, acc. nr.: 44./1898.1173–1179.558

Şona (judeţul Alba, Romania) – see 528. Szépmező

Pişchi (judeţul Hunedoara, Romania) – see 495. Piskitelep

497. Szabadszállás (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Józan: unpublished, 199 graves of a biritual Scythian cemetery, where sjhells and glass paste beads are mentioned. They (one part of them?) were likely cowries.562

495. Piskitelep (prev. Hunyad megye, Hungary; Simeria, judeţul Hunedoara, Romania): 3 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 6th century BC:

Grave 112: finds from a burial of unurned cremation: a bronze spiral pendant, a bronze bracelet, 2 clay sealers, clay bowl and clay cup, a grind stone, and glass paste beads as well as cowries.

Grave 2: finds from a female (?) burial: bronze spiral fragments, pieces of bronze tubes, iron fragments, a bronze suspension loop, a bowl with inverted rim, a cup, a mug with handle, bones in a double-conic vessel, and around the neck almost 100 cylindrical bone beads of one and more members, 1-1 paste and amber beads, and 6 likely Ringed cowries. 5 of them are with removed dorsi, and, if it is a cowrie at all, there is a round hole on the top of the 6th cowrie’s dorsum, length: approximately 1.7x2.1 cm.559

Katona József Museum, Kecskemét, acc. nr.: 62.2.377, 380 (2 sealers).563 498–501. Szenc (prev. Pozsony megye, Hungary; Senec, okres Senec, Bratislavský kraj, Slovakia)-Štrková kolónia dűlő: 23 graves from a part of a biritual cemetery (17 inhumation, 3 urn, 2 unurned crematon, 1 ?), dated to the 5—4th centuries BC:564

Proştea Mică (Tîrnăvioara, judeţul Sibiu, Romania) – see 466. Kis-Ekemező

498. Urn Grave 3/z finds: remains of human bones in an urn covered with a bowl, and at the same place 15 pierced cowries. The 3 cowries that were presented by drawing are likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsi, size: 2.0x1.4, 2.1x1.5, and 2.4x1.9 cm.565

Rodbav (judeţul Braşov, Romania) – see 480. Nádpatak 496. Sajónagyfalu (prev. Beszterce-Naszód megye, Hungary; Mărişelu, judeţul Bistriţa-Năsăud, Romania)Coasta Domneştilor: 8 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the Pre-Scythian period, that is the end of the 7th century to middle/second half of the 6th century:560

499. Grave 2/k: finds from an adult (female?) burial: a pair of gilt pendants, a string of 62 beads, an iron knife, a bowl, and on the left side of the spine, before the pelvis a string of 15 glass beads, 1 flattened clay pendant, and as a continuation of the string of beads, on the left pelvic bone, along the rump 8 pierced cowries. The 7 cowries presented on the photo are likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length: 1.6–2.2 cm.566

Grave 5: finds from a female burial: 3 three-edged bronze arrowheads, a bronze brooch, a bronze mirror, a small iron knife, a clay spindle whorl, small, double-conic pot, a large, biconic urn, ochre, remains of ash and coal, animal bones, thousands of tiny kaolin beads on the lower parts of the body, and at last, at the left side of the skull, under the jaw bone, as well as on the chest glass paste beads, some thousands of tiny kaolin beads and 70 pierced cowries. 3 cowries from among those identified as Money cowries

500. Grave 4/k: the remained finds from a disturbed grave Marinescu (1984) 50, 81, 61: fig. 10: 8a. The given size was calculated in case 1:1 scaled drawing. If the scale 2:3 is correct, then the length might have been approximately 1.5–2.1 cm; Kemenczei (2004) 81, 82: fig. 2: 18. 562 Horváth (1962). Elvira H. Tóth excavated the cemetery was, she published the preliminary reports, but did not give any details in the finds: H. Tóth (1963); H. Tóth (1964); H. Tóth (1965). 563 Kisfaludi (1997) 93: nr. 25D. 564 Graves 1–13 were excavated by Boleslav Chropovský, and Graves 14–23 (= 1–10/1957.) were researched by Magda Pichlerová. 565 Chropovský (1962) 131, 135: fig. 5: 2. 566 Chropovský (1962) 132–33, fig. 1, 136: fig. 6: 3. 561

The excavations of Jenő Nyáry produced graves from the Bronze Age, and also Scythian and Celtic burials, the Hungarian National Museum bought the collection of his material on 20 April, 1898., and inventoried 2501 entries. The publication of the notable Scythian objects continued in 1955 with the register of Pál Patay, who selected the Scythian objects from the Inventory Book, but did not pay attention to cowries: Nyáry (1870); Patay (1955) 66–67. 558 Together with the shells, 2 calcinated teeth of a young child. 559 Roska (1913) 235–37, 239: fig. 6: 1; Roska (1942) 226: nr. 53, 228: fig. 279: 1; Vasiliev (1980) 100: note 544. 560 For the ethnic character of the cemetery: Marinescu (1984) 83. 557

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Catalogue 505. Grave 15: 1 small cowrie was found as the only find from an urn, among cremated human bones.

with skeleton: 8 glass beads, vessel fragments, and 2 Ringed cowries, likely with removed dorsi, size: 1.8x1.4, and 1.7x1.2 cm.567

Lost.573

501. Grave 15 (2./1957.): finds from an adult burial: a fragment of carborundum, biconic urn with everted rim, vessel fragments, animal bones and in the right corner of the grave pitch 28 “pierced shells”, which can be identified from the published illustration as Ringed cowries.568

506. Grave 28: finds from a female burial: a ring-shaped iron artifact, a string of blue and red glass as well as 1 oculus beads, besides, right from the chin, and in the middle as well as lower part of the chest’s right side 3 pierced *Ringed cowries: one is more or less untouched, 1 fragmentary, and 1 fragment. Their dorsi were removed to different extents, size: 1.94x1.43–2.02x1.47 cm.

502. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Kistőke: 3 graves (of 99 numbered burials) from a part of a cemetery: Grave 98: finds from a “contracted male (?) skeleton”, but it was rather a female burial: burnt oculus bead, double cone-frustum-shaped urn with for knobs, fragments of a bowl with inverted rim, and at the left upper arm 1 pierced cowrie, according to the photo it can be identified as Ringed cowrie. The upper part of its dorsum was removed, length: approximately 2.1 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.48.574 507. Grave 31: partly burnt grave goods from a burial with unurned cremation of a female: 2 bronze wire bracelets with snake-head terminals, 5 triangle-shaped gold plaques, an iron knife, a high-handled mug, a small piece of sulfur, a string of 22–25 beads composed of yellow and blue oculus beads, 1 intrusive Viennese Banded Snail (Cepaea Vindobonensis), and 5 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum: 2 untouched and 3 various sized fragment, size: approximately 1.7x1.1–2.2x1.7 cm.575

No data is available about this cowrie in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes.569 503–27. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Vekerzug: 151 graves of the biritual cemetery dated between the end of the 6th—end of the 5th centuries, also including horse burials too:570

508. Grave 33: female burial, along the inner side of its right hand, a baby’s skeleton. Finds: an iron artifact, an iron plaque, a string of 19 colored glass and oculus beads, and above the right shoulder and under the baby’s skull 1-1 pierced *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, and corroded surface, size: 1.9x1.4 cm.

503. Grave 4: the remained finds from a disturbed female burial: spiral bronze pendant, a bronze wire bracelet, a vessel, and near the skull, together with bronze pendants 2 pierced cowries, which, according to the photo can be identified as Ringed cowries. Both dorsi were removed, one of the partly, the other totally, length: approximately 2.0 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.80.576 509. Grave 34: the partly burnt grave goods of a burial with unurned cremation of a female: 1-1 gold, and silver wire pendants, a pair of bronze wire bracelets, a bronze wire finger ring, nearly 50 stringed beads fluted, spherical, cylindrical, colored and spherical oculus glass beads, partly melted, besides, from the originally 5–6 pierced, partly fragmentary cowries, 1 untouched, 4 larger and 14 smaller fragments remained. Likely all were *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsi; the size of the untouched item: 2.42x1.74 cm.

Lost.571 504. Grave 10: in the urn of a cremation female burial the following items were discovered: a bronze wire finger ring, a clay spindle whorl, a burnt string of 35 beads, and 6, perhaps 7 pierced, calcinated and smoky *Ringed cowries: 4 untouched, 1 is broken into two, 1 fragmentary. Their dorsi were removed to different extents, size: 1.7x1.16– 2.56 x approximately 2.0 cm. Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 54.104.13.572

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.88.577

Chropovský (1962) 133, 135: fig. 5: 6. “28 prevŕtaných lastúr (Mollusca cyprea sp.)”: Pichlerová (1962) 79, 81, 75: fig. 5: 3. 569 The sexes were not made by an anthropologist: Párducz-Csallány (1944–45) 88, 105–106, pl. XLI: 5; based on the kind information of Attila Türk. 570 Chochorowski (1984) 135. 571 Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 88, 105–106, pl. XLIII: 1–2. According to the kind report of Gabriella Vörös, it cannot be found in the museum. 572 The largest item broke into two, only a fragment the second remained, and the photo shows only the lower part of the third: Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 89, 106, pl. XLIV: 1–8. 567

510. Grave 53: finds from a female burial with contracted legs: 2 electron covered spiraled bronze pendants, 2 small

568

Without illustration: Párducz (1952) 146–147. It cannot be found in the Koszta József Museum, Szentes, where the last inventoried grave is nr. 11. 574 Párducz (1954) 30, pl. V: 21–22, 25. 575 Párducz (1954) 31, pl. VIII: 16–21. The cowries are not available. 576 Párducz (1954) 32, pl. IX: 10–11. 577 Párducz (1954) 32, pl. XI: 26–32. 573

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads bronze spirals, fragments of iron, a high-handled mug, a small, barrel-shaped vessel, more fragments of 3 vesseltypes, a string of 6 beads: blue and brown, spherical and 2 oculus beads, a bird-shaped bronze pendant ornament, and near the left clavicle 2, at the sternum 4, on the right clavicle 2 pierced *Ringed cowries. Their dorsi were removed, one was perhaps smoothed away, the others were cut, size: 1.6x1.22–2.2x1.7 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.190.582 514. Grave 71: finds from a female burial: larger, spherical, fluted glass beads, 3 iron pendants, a bronze wire bracelet, 2 bronze spiraled finger ring, a bottle shaped vessel, a piece of sulfur, a spindle whorl, 2 open-work bronze discs surrounded by the followings: bronze spiral, 2 bronze sheet spiral beads, in the neck region and under the skull, the outer part of the left upper arm and at the pelvis 52 smaller and larger spherical-, and 1 cylindrical oculus beads, 67 spherical glass beads and 200 spherical, 1 disc-shaped amber beads, besides, around the skull and in the middle part of the chest originally near 40, presently 26 untouched and 23 fragmentary *Ringed cowries. All were pierced in a way that their dorsi were removed, size: 1.7x1.5–2.1x1.5 cm. On one of them even the most characteristic feature of Ringed cowries, the ring is visible.

Hungarian Nationalmuseum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.141.578 511. Grave 55: finds from a female urn cremation burial: Villanova-type urn, covered with a small bowl, and an additional large broken urn. The bones and the partly burnt grave goods were discovered in the smaller urn: 2 bronze wire finger ring, a pierced double-conic bronze artifact, a bronze bell (?), 2 iron knives, an iron artifact, 2 iron rings, fragments of vessels, nearly 38—40 partly melted oculus beads, a round stone bead, a bronze spiral, besides, roughly 3 pierced *Ringed cowries: 1 large, smoky colored item with removed dorsum, size: 2.55x1.9 cm, and 1-1 fragments of 2 additional cowries, length: 2.2 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.215.583 515. Grave 74: partly discovered finds from a burial with unurned cremation of a female: twisted silver wire pendant, a large oculus bead, and between them 1 broken cowrie. This cowrie was not inventoried.584

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.152.579 512. Grave 61: the partly burnt finds from a burial with the unurned cremation of a female: bronze bow brooch, 2 silver twisted wire pendants, 11 trapezoid pendats with rings, an iron pendant with a large ring, 1 untouched and 1 broken bronze wire bracelets, 2 bronze wire finger rings, 2 iron knives, a bronze suspension loop, 4 bronze rings, bronze sheet fragments, a bronze drop, iron artifacts, roughly 53 dispersed, burnt, or melted oculus beads from the grave soil, 1 spherical, 1 fluted glass beads, and originally 17 whole and 1 half, presently 16 pierced, blackish, smoky *Ringed cowries and 5 fragments. Their dorsi were removed, with slightly protruding, size: 1.58x1.16–2.63x1.17 cm.

516. Grave 87: grave goods from a female burial: a double-conical spindle whorl, a piece of green stone, and in the neck region, the string of 5 small spherical glass beads, 1 large round amber bead, an iron pendant (?) and 1 pierced *Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum, size: 1.63x1.24 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.280.585 517. Grave 96: finds from a female urn cremation burial: a double handled amphora covered with a bowl, a highhandled mug, a pair of bronze wire bracelets, a spiraled bronze wire finger ring, an iron knife, an iron ring, an iron plaque, and 1 spherical glass, 7 oculus beads and fragments of additional beads, besides, 2 pierced *Ringed cowries. One of them has a more untouched surface, size: 1.6x1.12 cm, the other is corroded, size: 1.82x1.42 cm, both were found with removed dorsi.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.170.580 513. Grave 63: finds from a female burial: 2 bronze, 1 iron wire bracelets, 4 spiraled bronze finger ring, a piece of realgar,581 dispersed 1-1 oculus and cylindrical beads, 3 spherical glass beads, besides, at the lower part of the spinal column, at the lower part of the left chest and in the right pelvis all in all 8 pierced *Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum, size: 1.7x1.15–2.23x1.59 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 51./1953.320.586 518. Grave 98: finds from a female burial: a spiraled bronze pendant covered with gold plaques, under the skull, on the Párducz (1954) 37, pl. XIX: 6. Párducz (1954) 38, pl. XXII: 10, pl. XXIII: 7–16, 20–21. 584 Párducz (1954) 38. There are no cowries on pl. XXIV: 1–5, and none were inventoried. 585 Párducz (1954) 40, pl. XXVIII: 3. 586 Párducz (1954) 42, pl. XXIX: 8. According to the grave description 1 cowrie was discovered among the grave goods. 582

Párducz (1954) 35, pl. XV: 3; Kemenczei (2004) 33, 34: fig. 3: 6–13. 579 Párducz–Csallány (1944–45) 35, pl. XVI: 9, 15–16, 18. 580 Párducz (1954) 36, pl. XIX: 3. 581 A realgar or arsenic-sulfide (AsS) is a ruby-red crystalline mineral which melts during heating, and has been used as body paint, and coloring matter of tattoo: Stepi (1989) 167. 578

583

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Catalogue neck and the right chest 26 spherical, 1 cylindrical oculus beads, 1 fluted glass bead, 25 small round glass beads, besides, 5 pierced *Ringed cowries, 1 is more untouched, 4 with corroded surface. Their dorsi were removed to different extents, size: 1.72x1.3–2.05x1.6 cm.

beads, 1 double, 2 larger spherical, fluted glass beads, and originally 9 untouched and 1 fragmentary cowries, that is 9 *Ringed cowries, and perhaps 3 fragments of 1 additional *Ringed cowrie. Their dorsi were removed at different heights, size: 1.62x1.15–2.16x1.64 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.2.587

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.59.592

519. Grave 102: partly burnt finds from a burial with unurned cremation of a female: a flowerpot-shaped vessel, an iron knife, a spindle whorl, 2 bronze plaques, clay dough, and 30–35 oculus beads, 2-2 spherical glass, and double-conical silver sheet beads, besides, the dark, smoky side-fragment of 1 pierced *Ringed cowrie, length: 2.2 cm.

524. Grave 134: partly burnt finds from a burial with unurned cremation: a three-edged bronze arrowhead, an iron knife, a high handled mug, a high-handled bowl, a piece of realgar, 7–8 oculus beads, and at last, the fragment of 1 cowrie. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.89: destroyed.593

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.14.588

525. Grave 137: finds from a female burial: a handled mug, a “paludal shell” and a spherical glass bead, besides, at the right temple, and at the two hands 1-1, that is 3 pierced *Ringed cowries, with a differently removed dorsi, size: 1.6x1.0–2.1x1.7 cm.

520. Grave 108: finds from a burial with unurned cremation of a female: an iron pendant, 5 bronze wire wound and fragments of additional wire wounds, connected bronze rings, a bronze band bracelet, an iron ring, the fragment of a vessel, and at last 1 pierced *Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, dark, smoky, size: 2.00x1.45 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.99.594 526. Grave 139: finds from a horse burial: 3 bronze phalera, an iron bit, 4 oculus beads, besides, near one of the phalera 1 pierced *Ringed cowrie, with open dorsum, size: 1.63x1.36 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.29.589 521. Grave 111: finds from a female (?) burial: an iron band bracelet (?), 2 high-handled mug, a bowl with inverted rim, a vessel fragment, a piece of realgar, besides, in the mouth and on the shoulder-bone a string of larger fluted, 3 smaller spherical glass, 2 glass paste, and 5 oculus beads, besides, 2 pierced *Ringed cowries. Both dorsi were removed, size: 1.9x1.4, resp.1.8x1.3 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.106.595 527. Grave 146: finds from a horse burial: an iron bit, a pierced bear tooth, and at last, at the right side of the horse’s jaw bone, a small flint blade and 1 small cowrie, which was destroyed after it was inventoried

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.39.590

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.128.596

522. Grave 112: finds from the burial of a young child (length: 65 cm): a high handled mug, the lower part of a mug, iron fragment, and from the grave soil, a flint spall, 4 spherical glass beads, a “paludal shell”, and at last 1 pierced *Ringed cowrie, with open dorsum, size: 1.65x1.25 cm.

528. Szépmező (prev. Kis-Küküllő megye, Hungary; Şona, judeţul Alba, Romania): finds from a disturbed inhumation (female?) burial: 1-1 untouched, and fragmentary bronze wire bracelets, a bronze bead, 2 oculus beads, one bead with two sections, an urn with bone remains, besides, 1 “Muschel”, which was identified as a cowrie.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 14./1955.47.591 523. Grave 115: finds from a disturbed female burial: 2 spiraled bronze pendants covered with gold plaques, an iron bracelet, a piece of realgar, a vessel fragment, and in the neck, as well as along the left arm a string of 26 oculus 587 588 589 590 591

Párducz (1955) 4, pl. IV: 11. The sex of the skeleton is uncertain, but despite the presence of the bronze arrowhead and the iron knife the person might have been a woman: Párducz (1955) 8, pl. VI: 11; Fodor (1998). 594 Párducz (1955) 8, pl. VI: 6–8. 595 Párducz (1955) 8–9, pl. VI: 19. 596 Párducz (1955) 10, pl. XII: 8. 592 593

Párducz (1955) 1, pl. I: 7. Párducz (1955) 2, pl. III: 3. Párducz (1955) 2, pl. II: 6. Párducz (1955) 3, pl. II: 30. Párducz (1955) 3, pl. II: 35.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 533. Grave 47: a bronze lockring, 2 bronze wire bracelets, 2 spindle whorls, 2 jugs, a mug, 2 yellow glass paste beads, 1 cylindrical bead, and originally 1 untouched and 3 fragmentary *Ringed cowries, from which today only 2 corroded, and a bit smoky cowries exist, with removed dorsi. One of them broke into two, size: 2.15, resp.1.7– 2.6x1.9 cm.

Brukenthal Museum, Sibiu.597 529. Tápiószele (Pest megye, Hungary): 467 graves of the biritual cemetery, dated between the end of the 6th to the middle of the 2nd centuries BC, including a horse burial: Grave 170: finds from a child burial: in a string of beads, bronze wire wounds, bronze ring beads, a sheet bronze ring, 7 pierced wolf teeth, a bronze rod, a human shaped pendant, and 2 bivalves (“small shells”), 1 pierced cowrie, which can be identified from the photo as a Ringed cowrie (“small shell”), which was open lower than the dorsum, length: approximately 1.1 cm.598

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 41./1975.68. 534. Grave 48: a socketed two-edged arrowhead, a gilt bronze sheet ring, a bronze lockring, a clay pendant, 2 twisted bronze bracelets, 2 spindle whorls, a whetstone, a clay sealer, an urn, a bowl, a jug, a mug, vessel fragments, and beads: 5 flattened glass paste beads, 2 shell beads, and at last originally 2, today 1 *Ringed cowrie in good condition, with a bright black smoked surface, its dorsum is removed, size: 1.7x1.3 cm.

Tîrnăvioara (judeţul Sibiu, Romania) – see 466. KisEkemező 530. Tiszaeszlár (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Kunsír: finds from a burial with unurned cremation of a likely female: a bronze bracelet, a clay sealer, a spindle whorl, a vessel, and at last glass beads and 3 cowries, likely Ringed cowries with open dorsum.599

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 41./1975.77.602 535. Grave 52: 2 bronze wire rings, 2 iron knives, 2 iron fragments, a mug, 2 vessel fragments, besides, 9 *Ringed cowries in good repair, of which dorsi were removed to different extents, size: 1.45x1.05–1.9x1.3 cm.

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: 1925.21.1–6.600 531–35. Tiszavasvári (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Csárdapart: 55 graves of the biritual cemetery:601

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 41./1975.104.

531. Grave 14: a bronze wire bracelet, an urn, a mug, vessel fragments, and at last 3 Ringed cowries in good repair, and a half *Ringed cowrie with differently removed dorsi, 1 with more, 3 with less smoky surface, size: 1.9x1.4–2.25x1.7 cm.

536–37. Tiszavasvári (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Dózsatelep: biritual cemetery:603 536. Grave 23: finds from likely a female burial: fragment of a gold rosette, bow brooch, 2 clay sealers, 2 spindle whorls, a bottle, a mug, a cup, a small vessel, a piece of stone, pebble, vessel fragments, a string of beads composed of 8 glass paste beads, 4 blue, and green glass beads, and at last the half of 1 slightly smoky *Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: 2.1 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 11./1968.79. 532. Grave 46: a bronze ring, an iron ring, 3 pots, a cup, 2 flattened glass paste beads, 1 similar glass bead, and at last 5 corroded, 2 of which smoky *Ringed cowries, to different extents removed dorsi. Two of them are broken and incomplete, the sizes of the untouched items: 1.4x1.05–1.85x1.45 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 50./1962.46.604 537. Grave 55: finds from a female burial: her lower arms were hold together with number-eight-shaped iron shackles, beads, pull over bronze rings: 2 blue, 14 tiny light blue glass paste beads, 3 amber beads, an iron knife, a spindle whorl, 5 pieces of limestone, ochre, a miniature vessel, vessel fragments, and at last 3 *Ringed cowries with open dorsum and corroded surface, size: 1.7x1.4–1.9x1.4 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 41./1975.56. Horedt (1941–43) 175–176: He argued that these finds are contemporaneous with the Nádpataka material (480). As Scythian: Vasiliev (1980) 100: note 544. 598 Párducz (1966) 51, 89, pl. XXII: 25; the other part of the material: pl. XXII: 1–24. For the dating: Chochorowski (1984) 135. 599 According to the kind information from Ibolya M. Nepper, the cowries were not inventoried but were documented in the grave description: “Shells (3 pieces), with a round hole on their dorsi, 1 broken. Length 30 mm,...”. 600 Kisfaludi (1997) 98–99: nr. 32. 601 Lengyel (1966); Lengyel (1973). The material of the unpublished cemetery is being studied by Tibor Kemenczei, who kindly informed me about the finds. 597

Kemenczei 2001–02) 45, 46: fig. 11: 17–18. Lengyel (1960); Lengyel (1961); Lengyel (1963); Lengyel (1964). The material of the unpublished cemetery is being studied by Tibor Kemenczei, who kindly informed me about the finds. 604 Kisfaludi (1997) 99: nr. 34. 602 603

206

Catalogue 4.7. 542–785, (548a, 719a, 764a-c). Finds of Scythian and Scythian Aged Cowries and Cowrie Imitations on the Territory East and South from the Carpathian Basin (7th–3/2nd Centuries BC) – (see Annex 2377–82, 2399–400, 2433, 2439, 2461–64, 2468, 2476–77, 2483, 2486, 2491–92, 2498, 2500–03, 2512–16, 2519–21)

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Prehistory, acc. nr.: 29./1963.66. Tolna (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Mőzs, Icsi-dűlő – see Annex 2327. 538–40. Törökszentmiklós (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Surján-Újtelep, Ady TSz. homokbányája/Sandpit of the production co-operatives named Ady: 82 graves (numbered up to 101) of the biritual cemetery:605

The finds grouped here originate east of the Carpathian Basin, to Mongolia, and to the south through the Balkans to Egypt and Tunisia, including the following countries: Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbajdžan, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lybia, Moldova, Mongolia, Romania, Russia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and beside cowries, includes 2 Egyptian statues (568–09, and cowrie imitations612 from Mongolia (603, 605–06) and Russia (624–28, 632, 634, 639, 641–42, 644, 646–47, 663, 665, 687, 691–93, 697–99, 702, 704, 711) (Fig. 95). The beginning date for this group was the earliest appearance of Scythians on the steppe, in the 7th century BC, the closing date to separate Scythian and Sarmatian finds was defined based on the fact that in the Danube region the usage of cemeteries of the Scythian Period ends at latest around the turn of the 3/2nd centuries BC, therefore, eastern parallels were listed up to that date.613 At the same time, younger items discovered on the steppe, were grouped among the material of the Sarmatian Period, despite that this period begins in the Carpathian Basin much later, from the 1st century AD.

538. Grave 9: finds of a contracted skeleton: cylindrical incrusted glass beads, blue spherical oculus bead and in the neck region 4 pierced cowries, according to the drawing Ringed cowries, with removed dorsi, length: 0.7–1.1 cm. Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok, acc. nr.: 62.4.1– 204.606 539. Grave 24: 1 cowrie was found near the chest of the contracted skeleton of a young child. Perhaps destroyed.607 540. Grave 40: finds from a contracted adult burial: a wheeled vessel, and in the neck region, pierced cowries. They were likely destroyed.608 540a. Grave 100: among the grave goods, cowrie beads were incorrectly mentioned.609

Finds from the western part of the Carpathian Basin, from the Hallstatt–La Tène transitional period to the end of the Celtic Period (5th century BC–AD 10), and therefore partly parallel finds of the Scythian Period, besides, its northern- and western European parallels were collected in a separate catalogue (4.8–9).

541. Vámosmikola (Pest megye, Hungary)-Istvánmajor (?): 56 graves (numbered up to 64)610 of the cemetery: according to the museum inventory, a string of beads belonged to the published find assemblage, which was not mentioned in the publication: 18 various beads and 4 pierced *Money cowries; a smaller, with a pointing, oval hole, and 3 others are with a large-sized, sewed opening and, broken edges, size: 1.35x0.9, 1.45x1.0, 1.5x1.0 and1.65x1.1 cm.

542. Afghanistan 542. Dil’berdžin (North Afghanistan, near Balkh)Dil’berdžin Kazan: probably a sanctuary that was built in honor of the Dioscurides in the town Eukratideia of Bactria. Among the finds of the inner, southern corridor, 2 objects that were identified as cowries were discovered, dated to the first period of the sanctuary (3rd century BC), length approximately 1.9–2.3 cm.614

This string of beads can only be connected to the finds conditionally, its dating is uncertain. Börzsönyi Museum, Szob.611 It had also a Sarmatian grave with cowries (946). Csalog–Kisfaludi (1985) 309, 321, 308: fig. 1: 8. 607 Csalog–Kisfaludi (1985) 309, 321. 608 All in all 5 pierced cowries are mentioned from the cemetery, but beside the 5 items of Graves 9 and 24, “Kauriperlen” are mentioned in connection with the Grave 40: Csalog–Kisfaludi (1985) 311, 321. 609 Kisfaludi (1997) 99: nr. 36C. Actually 1–more (?) tiny pierced (?) “konische, spitze Schneckenperlen” were discovered: Csalog–Kisfaludi (1985) 317: Grave 100: nr. 13, 318: fig. 6: 7. 610 Graves 40, 45, 52–54, 56 and 59–60 were more or less surely (early?) Avar burials: Laczus–Párducz (1969); with smaller numbers: Kőszegi (1963); Kőszegi–Laczus (1964). 611 Laczus–Párducz (1969) pls LIII–LXIV; Párducz (1969). I studied these finds with the kind help of Klára Kővári, Zsuzsa Miklós and István Torma.

543. Armenia

605 606

543. Erevan-Tejšelbani, Karmir-blur mound: among the Scythian-type objects that were discovered in the Urartu Contemporary Polish and Italian cowrie imitations of Croatia, Italy and Poland (810; 818–20, 822, 833, 835, 837–38, 840–41; 860). 613 Since the dating of the sites are wide, it was often impossible to decide how, to what extent the dating of the cemetery from around the second century relates to grave(s) with cowries.. 614 Kruglikova (1986) 26: fig. 24: 9; Reese–Simpson (1995) 53. The site is located in Afghanistan, 40 km northwest of Balkh, and 20 km northeast of Akča: Kruglikova–Sarianidi (1976) 12, 14, 16: fig. 13. 612

207

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 95. Distribution of Scythian and Scythian Age cowries and cowrie Imitations on the territory East and South from the Carpathian Basin (7th–3/2nd centuries BC)

fortification, dated to the 7th century BC, 1 necklace was uncovered which was likely made up of Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.615

1.7–1.9 cm.617 This definition is questionable because of the apparently small size of the cowries. 546. Duvanlij (obščina Kalojanovo, oblast Plovdiv)Mušovica mogila: the base burial of the mound is a female burial dated to the early 5th century BC, with extremly rich grave goods around the skull, because only 1 clay vessel was found at her legs. Gold ornaments: chest ornament, 3 bow brooches, two of them with chained pendants, 20 globe-shaped pendants, 19 beads, 10 earrings with filigree decoration, 2 suspension loop-shaped earrings, a silver omphalos cup, a bronze hydria, a bronze mirror, a clay female statuette, a black-figured vase from Attica, 2 black two-handled kylix, a clay cup without handle, a small clay urn, 3 clay objects for unknown purpose, 3 tiny colored glass jugs, 7 small alabaster bottles, and small artifacts: 2 bronze finger rings, 3 clay, 2 large achat, 1 oculus glass, 1 amber beads, besides, 1 Cardium sp., 2 Murex sp., and at last, 2 cowries, perhaps Ringed cowries, pierced at their apex.618

544. Azerbajdžan 544. Kazah (northwest Azerbajdžan)-Sary-Tepe: a hoard discovered in the valley of the Kura river, dated to the 7–6th centuries BC: bracelets hidden in a vessel, among carnelian, glass paste, bronze beads and snails, 10 pierced cowries, which, according to the illustration were perhaps Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.616 545–49, (548a). Bulgaria 545. Dobrina (oblast Varna)-Kărčan Tepe: Geta-Thracian urn cemetery dated between the end of the 6th–beginning of the 5th centuries: Grave 8: 3 Fallow cowries with removed dorsum are mentioned from the female burial of the first urn, length

547. Duvanlij (obščina Kalojanovo, oblast Plovdiv)Odryses Bessi (= Arabadžijskata mogila): the identification of a Money or Fallow cowrie mentioned from a rich female kurgan grave dated to the third quarter of the 5th century BC is unsure,619 because in the original publication

Esajan–Pogrebova (1985) 29–30: nr. 39, 128, 127: pl. XX: 15. This necklace was interpreted as a Scythian-object by B. B. Piotrovskij, but other experts questioned this opinion: “Still, it has to be considered that, on the one hand similar shells are typical of the Scythian material of the North Caucasus, on the other hand, numerous items are discovered in the Trans-Caucasus region [Zakavkaz’e], in the material of the preceding period. Therefore, the appearance of such necklaces in Tejšelbani cannot be exclusively connected to the Scythian population.”: Esajan–Pogrebova (1985) 128; Brujako (1999) 49. 616 Halilov (1960) 75, 74: fig. 9; Brujako (1999) 49. 615

Mirčev (1965) 40–41, 68: pl. XV: 52, (3, 20, 8); Moscalu (1981) 30. Filow–Welkow (1930) 306–20, 321: figs 33, 35; Filow–Welkow– Mikow (1934) 82–97, 76: fig. 121: 33, 35; Kull (1997) 344, 346: fig. 69, Find Group 6. 619 Moscalu (1981) 30. 617 618

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Catalogue

Fig. 96. Large Tiger or Panther cowrie from Grave 1at Varna (549) – after Ivanov (1956) 103: pl. II: 1

probably 2 Cardium sp. and 2 Murex sp., as well as an unidentified shell are mentioned as “Meeresmuschel”. The identification of 1 fragmentary item is not clear from the illustration.620

Grave 1: finds from a female? burial beside – 2 gold buckles with lion-head decoration, a bezelled gold finger ring decorated with the figure of Eros, clay lucerna, perfume bottle, an undefined Greek bronze coin – at the left hand, a large, pierced cowrie was found strung on an iron ring taking its shape into consideration. It may be a Tiger cowrie, length 8.2, width: 4.0, height: 4.5 cm. Although the author did not identify the cowrie, according to his probably incorrect note, such cowries still exist in the Mediterranean Sea;623 but most probably it was rather a Tiger or Panther cowrie not from that area, whose appearance in the Scythian period is not usual (see 783 – Fig. 96).

548. Ravna (obščina Provadija, oblast Varna): 42 Geta urn graves, dated between. 450–300 BC: Grave 17: finds from a cremation burial of a child: a highhandled cup, a cup with filter bottom, 4 clay cups, 3 glass spindle whorls, in the high handled urn which contained the ashes 1 Cerithium vulgatum fragment, besides, 9 rather small shells identified as Fallow cowries, whose dorsi were removed to different extents, length 2.0–2.5 cm.

550–65. Cyprus

Narodnijat muzej, Varna, acc. nr.: I-777.621

550–58. Amathus: 276 graves of the long-used cemetery624 (see 55–63, 956, from which burials dated to the CA II (600–475 BC) are collected here. The finds are kept in the Limassol District Archaeological Museum.

548a. Vărbica (obščina Varbiza, oblast Šumen)-Čerešak: “2 Meeresmuscheln” were found in the cremation grave of an armoured man buried into a tumulus grave, but this identification is questionable.622 549. Varna (oblast Varna)-Odessos: 4 Thracian graves from a cemetery dated to the 4th–3rd centuries, which belonged to the colony founded by population from Miletos in 587 BC:

“Tozi vid morski ohljuvi živejat i sega v Sredizemno more.”: Ivanov (1956) 90. nr. 4, 103: pl. II: 1. With the length 2.0–3.6–6.4–10.0 cm perhaps a correct sized Little-Calf cowrie originally living in the IndoPacific Ocean, and only in the Modern Period was it spread into the middle part of the Mediterranean Sea: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 72–73. The other species living in the Mediterranean Sea cannot be considered due to their small size. It is worth mentioning here that Ulrich Arends argued that shells longer than 6.5 cm cannot originate from the Mediterranean Sea, but only from the Red Sea or the Indo-Pacific Ocean, while all other shells that are shorter than this size may come from all named seas: Arends (1978) I: 171. 624 The first 115 graves never published; it is the material of Graves 116–321, which is not identical with Grave 276: Reese (1992d) 123. 623

Filow–Welkow–Mikow (1934) 139, 141: fig. 166: 5, and 1–4, 6; Kull (1997) 343, 345: fig. 68 (without the cowrie). 621 Mirčev (1962) 108–09, 146: pl. XIX: 1; Moscalu (1981) 30. 622 Lacking illustration, the only available information about these finds are that “solche Muscheln sind... auch im Grabhügel Muschowitza und in Arabadžijskata Mogila bei Duvanlij gefunden worden.”: Filow–Welkow– Mikow (1934) 180. 620

209

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 550. Grave 130/87.5: among the finds from burials of the reused tomb CC to Hellenistic–Roman Period (475 BC–4th century AD) 1 Nassa gibbosulus and 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.625

mainly with removed dorsum, size: 1.2x0.9–1.9x1.3 cm.633 559. Ayia Marina-Skyllouras: from the Cypro-Classical II burial (400–325 BC): 1 pierced Fallow cowrie was found.634

551. Grave 199/141: among finds from the CA II, including Egyptian amulets and Phoenician pottery, 1 pierced Ringed cowrie, and 1 additional item with removed dorsum, size: 1.9x1.4, resp.1.8x1.4 cm.626

560. Larnaca-Kition, Astarte sanctuary: from sacrifical pit (bothros) Nr. 1 of 600–450 BC: faience scarabs, pendants an amulets, besides, among various pierced shells 25 Ringed cowries were found with removed dorsi.635

552. Grave 200/15: among finds from the CA II, including Egyptian amulets 10 pierced Nassa gibbosulus and 25 pierced Ringed cowries, size: 1.45x1.05–2.3x1.6 cm, at last, 1 pierced Fallow cowrie, size: 3.0x2.3 cm were discovered.627

561–65. Salamis: in 5 Graves of the cemetery were cowries uncovered:636 561. Grave 9: a pierced Fallow cowrie and a Money or Ringed cowrie were found in the burial of the CA II (600–475 BC).

553. Grave 232/55: among finds from the CA IIA (600–550? BC), including Egyptian amulets, a scarab and Phoenician pottery, 326 pierced Nassa gibbosulus, besides, 1-1 pierced Ringed cowrie, size: 1.9x1.5, and Dirty cowrie, size: 3.0x2.0 cm was found.628

562.Grave 40: a Money or Ringed cowrie was found in a burial dated to CA II. 563. Grave 59: a Money or Ringed cowrie was found in a burial dated to CC I (475–400 BC).

554. Grave 237/15: among finds from the CA IIA, including Egyptian amulets and Phoenician pottery, 1 pierced Cyclope neritea, 1 pierced Ringed cowrie and an additional item with open dorsum, size: 1.9x1.3, and 2.0x1.3 cm, furthermore 1 untouched, likely Fallow cowrie, size: 2.8x1.8 cm was discovered.629

564. Grave 62: 7 pierced Fallow cowries and a Money or Ringed cowrie were found in a burial of CA II. 565. Grave 73A: 7 pierced cowries were found from an early burial of the CC I, 1 of them was identified as Fallow cowrie.637

555. Grave 237/80: among finds from the CA IIA, the following pierced shells were uncovered: 2 Nassa gibbosulus, 3 Cyclope neritea, 3 Ringed cowries, size: 2.1x1.6, 1.9x1.3, 1.7x1.4 cm, 1 Dirty cowrie, size: 2.7x1.8, 1 Fallow cowrie, size: 4.2x2.5 cm.630

566–69. Egypt 566. Kom Ge’if/ancient Naukratis (western Nile-delta): a pierced Ringed cowrie, and a stray find Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum probably date to the 3rd century BC.638

556. Grave 250/66: among finds from the CA II? 3 pierced Nassa gibbosulus, besides, 1 pierced Fallow cowrie was found, size: 4.0x2.3 cm.631

567. Tell Defenneh/ancient Daphnae (north-eastern corner of the Delta): mentioning of cowroids from the Ptolemaic Period (323–30 BC).639

557. Grave 297/5: among finds from the CA II, including Egyptian amulets, a scarab, sealer, the following pierced molluscs were uncovered: 9 Nassa gibbosulus, 1 Nassa mutabilis, 12 Columbella rustica, 2 Mitra ebenus, 2 Gibbula varia, 1 Cerithium cf. rupestre, and at least a 1 Thrush cowrie, size: 3.6x2.2 cm.632

568. Unknown provenance: bronze statuette of a sitting cat from the Saite Period (664–525 BC), which was originally the sarcophagus of a cat. On the neck of the animal, an

558. Grave 297/30: among finds from the CA II 6 pierced Nassa gibbosulus, and 6, Ringed cowries were identified,

Reese (1992d) 135. Reese (1985) 349; Reese (1985a) 271; Reese (1992d) 124; Reese (2000) 636. 635 Karageorghis (1976) 97, 101–02, 111, 102, and 104: pl. XX; Reese (1986) 329: nr. 15; Reese (19897b) 75; Reese (1991) 167: nr. 39; MüllerKarpe (1980) IV/2: 771: nr. 96; Reese (2000) 636. 636 Mentioned with graves, 3 CA II and 1 CC I: Reese (1985) 349; Reese (1985a) 171; Reese (1987b) 75. – “A total of 21 holed cowries are known from three Cypro-Archaic II and the Cypro-Classical I tombs at Salamis, with Erosaria, Luria and 3 Red Sea cowries present...”: Reese (2000) 636. 637 7 Fallow and 3 Dirty cowries: Reese (1978) 39; Reese (1992d) 124; see Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1986) 329: nr. 16; Reese (1991) 168: nr. 41. 638 Reese (1998) 359. 639 After Győry (1999). 633 634

This reused grave was interpreted as the only burial from the Roman period among other graves of the CA period: Reese (1992d) 123, 129. 626 Dating: CA II; CC II A; Hellenistic; Roman: Reese (1992d) 123–24, 131. 627 Dating: CA II A–Early II B: Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128, 131, pl. XXIV: 4 (4 illustrated Ringed cowries). 628 Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128, 132. 629 Dating: CA IIA; Hellenistic: Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128, 132. 630 Dating: CA IIA; Hellenistic: Reese (1992d) 132. 631 Dating: CA (II?); Hellenistic: Reese (1992d) 124, 128, 133. 632 Reese (1992d) 123–24, 128, 134. 625

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Catalogue

Fig. 97. Bronze statuette of a sitting cat with a depicted onerowed cowrie necklace, in which middle part an eye-tooth amulet (568) – after Mogensen (1930) II: pl. 53

Fig. 98. Head of a larger-sized bronze statue of Godness Bastet with neckband decorated by a row cowries (569) – after Seipel (1989) I: 318: nr. 486

one-rowed cowrie necklace is depicted, in which middle part, an eye-tooth amulet is; heigth: 37 cm.

of one or two additional items were found with removed dorsum (length approximately 2.2–2.5 cm), which are illustrated, but not mentioned in the text. The grave was dated to the 6th century BC.642

Ny Carlsberg-Collection, Copenhagen, acc. nr.: 620 (Fig. 97).640

Tli (Abashis rajon, Republika Jugo-Osetija) Graves 15, 21, 134, 146, 175, 253, 300 – see Annex 2377–82.

569. Unknown provenance: the head of a larger-sized bronze statue of Godness Bastet, in her ears a pair of gold earrings from the Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC). On the neck a band is depicted, which is decorated by a row cowries, in the middle part, the head amulet of Lion Godness Sechmet is placed; height: 16.5 cm.

571–77, 2399–400, 2407. Greece 571. Asine (Argolid)-Karmaniola plot, Grave 50: 1 Fallow cowrie, with corroded surface was found in a burial dated to the Hellenistic Period (325 to 1st century BC).643

National Museum, Copenhagen, acc. nr.: 13818 (Fig. 98).641

572. Athenian Agora, Altar of Aphrodite: 2 pierced Ringed cowries, 1 of them burnt, dated to 500–425 BC.644

570, Annex 2377–82. Georgia/Gruziya

573. Isthmia (Corinthia, Pelopponesos)-Poseidon sanctuary: 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum was

570. Ešerskoe gorodišče (Abhazia): among the grave goods from a double burial with 3 horses and 1-1 bull and pig, excavated west of Suhumi, 2 cowries, and the fragments 640 641

642

Mogensen (1930) I: 57: nr. A 392, II: pl. 53.. Seipel (1989) I: 318: nr. 486.

643 644

211

Šamba (1983) 33, 34: fig. 1, 16–19. Reese (1992d) 124. Reese (1991) 171: nr. 75; Reese (2000) 636.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 581. Iraq

found in votive material from the archaic sanctuary (6th century BC), size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

581. Nimrud/ancient Kalhu (southeast of Mosul, northern Iraq): Money and Ringed cowries are mentioned of the 7th century BC.653

Isthmia, Museum, acc. nr.: IM 590.645 574. Kamiros/Kameiros (Rhodes): 1 Fallow cowrie was found among other shells from a Grave CVII of an Iron Age cemetery.646

582–83, Annex 2433, 2439. Israel 582. Jerusalem: 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum is mentioned, dated around 586 BC654

575. Kamiros/Kameiros (Rhodes): 1 untouched Fallow cowrie, and one smaller pierced cowrie were found among the shell material of an Iron Age votive offering.647

Kadesh Barnea (Eastern Sinai) – see Annex 2433.

Kastro Hill (Syphnos island, Cyclades) – see Annex 2399.

Nessana (Auja [al-] Hafir)-Northern church (Field K) – see Annex 2439.

Knossos (Crete) – see Annex 2400.

583. Yafit (near Sartaba, West Bank)-Tumulus B: 20 cowries with removed dorsum were identified, originating from the Red Sea, dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC.655

Perachora (Attica)-Hera Sanctuary – see Annex 2407. 576–77. Vrulia (Rhodes):

584–91, Annex 2458–62. Jordan

576. 2 untouched, and 1 pierced Fallow cowries are mentioned among grave and stray finds, probably of Iron Age date.648 577. “The infant Tomb P ... produced 2 cowries.”649

584. Busayra/Buseirah/ancient Bozrah (southern Jordan): 56 cowries were found, mainly Ringed cowries, among them 14 were pierced, and dated to the 7th–6th centuries BC.656

578–80. Iran

Tall Jawa – see Annex 2459–60.

578. Hasanlu Tepe (near Solduz, Azerbajdžan province, northwest Iran): cowries with open dorsi are mentioned, originating from the Persian Gulf, dated 1000–800 BC.650

585–86. Tawilan (southern Jordan): among the 68 shells found, 27 items were cowries from the Red Sea, mainly Ringed cowries, dated to the 7th–6th centuries BC.657

579. Susa (Khusestan province): Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum are mentioned, some dating from the 7th century BC (?).651

585. Area III West: 8 cowries were discovered together at the floor level, among them 5 Ringed cowries. 586. Grave XXXI: 1 pierced Ringed cowrie is mentioned.658

580. Tepe Sialk (near Kašan, Ešfahan province): among jewelry discovered in the cemetery of the settlement, next to a strung tower shell, Ringed cowr(ies) was/were found, dated to the 8th–7th centuries BC, but in layer VI. B, which shows Iranian-Scythian features.652

587. Tel el Ghrareh ( southern Jordan): 3 Ringed cowries were uncovered, 1 of them is with removed dorsum, the

Reese (1991) 171: nr. 76; Gebhard (1998) 106. 107: fig. 12: c; Reese (2000) 636. 646 Reese (1986a) 196; Reese (1992d) 124. – “Kamiros, Tomb CVIII produced Luria”: Reese (2000) 636. 647 Reese (1986a) 196. – “...the votive deposit yielded 3 cowries, with at least 1 holed and 1 Luria...”: Reese (2000) 636. 648 Reese (1986a) 196; Karali (1999) 59. – “Date is wrong – Iron Age”: note of David S. Reese 649 Reese (2000) 636. 650 Reese (1986) 330, nr. 21; this is only on one period at the site: Reese (1989a). Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 897: nr. 1192. 651 Jackson (1917) 131. Cowries with many different dates: Reese (1991) 169: nr. 58; Müller-Karpe (1968) 538: nr. 595; Müller-Karpe (1974) III/2: 1037: nr. 1131; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 898: nr. 1196. 652 Aliev (1960) 204, pl. CIV: at the bottom, in the second string from the left; Členova (1971) 328, 356. and pl. XLII, 13; Mallowan (1970) 447–56; Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: nr. 1199; Francis–Badam (1988) 666. 645

Schneider (1905) 118; Jackson (1917) 131; Schilder (1926) 316. Perhaps the mentioning of 2 additional Ringed cowries with open dorsum, and 2 other cowries from a different species: Reese (1986) 329: nr. 19. About the site: Müller-Karpe (1980) IV/2: 741–42: nr. 39. 654 Reese (1995) 268; Reese (1995a) 93. – Reese (2002) 278. Other cowries not yet published (note of David S. Reese) 655 Reese (1991) 165: nr. 28. 656 Reese (1986) 329: nr. 10; Reese (1992a) 155; Reese (1995a) 93. – “...56 small-sized cowries (19%), with at least 19 definitely C. annulus and 14 holed. There are 4 burnt, 4 with an open dorsum, and one with a ground-down dorsum.”: Reese (2002) 278. – The new summary of the molluscs material see Annex 2458. 657 Among them 12 were not kept, 1 was not studied, 1 item was identified as Ringed cowry with partly removed dorsum, 11 others were unmodified Ringed cowries: Reese (1995a) 93, 94: pl. 10, 1; ser Reese (1995) 268; Reese (2002) 278 (585–86); Reese (2003c). 658 Reese (1995a) 93. 653

212

Catalogue 2 others are unmodified, dating from the 7th–6th centuries BC.659

2 children), dated to the 6th–3rd centuries BC. Finds from the partly disturbed child burial, from the southwestern resting place: remains of the garment, with 5 bronze mounts, bronze wire earring, 1 amber and 91 small glass beads, an iron artifact, a bronze mirror, at last, near the skull a mother-of-pearl shell, on the chest 2 coral beads and 2 pierced cowries, length approximately 3.2, and 1.8 cm. The third cowrie was found inside the child’s skull, its dorsum was squared removed, length approximately 2.7 cm. The fourth cowrie was not described.666

588. Tell Deir ’Alla/ancient Succoth (North Jordan): at least 5 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum were discovered on an ornament, found in a hollow pit, dated around 700 BC.660 Tell-el-Kheleifeh/ancient Ezion-Geber (near Aqaba) – see Annex 2461. 589–90. Tell el-Mazar (North Jordan)-Cemetery A: a cemetery dated to the 6th–5th centuries BC:661

595. Džety-asar 11/3/(West-Kazakstan) Kos-asar 2: cemetery with 78 kurgans, dated to the 3rd–4th centuries AD, that is the second phase of the Džeti-asar Culture:

589. Grave 47: among many shells 4 pierced Ringed cowries were uncovered in the burial of a 1–2 year old child in a storage vessel.

Kurgan 72: among the grave goods from a child burial, a cowrie with round piercing was discovered, length approximately 1.8 cm.667

590. Grave ?: 1 pierced Money cowrie.662

596. Kara-Su (West-Kazakstan) - I. cemetery: a Sarmatian– Hun cemetery:

591. Umm al-Biyara/ancient Sela (southern Jordan): among the 119 molluscs, 104 were cowries, mainly Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, but also 32 unmodified examples were uncovered, dated to the 7–6th centuries BC.663

Kurgan 7, Grave 4: finds from a girls burial, dated to the second half of the 4th century–early 1st century BC: clay vessel, glass paste beads, sheep bones, among them 2 pierced cowries. 1 of them illustrated is a Money cowrie removed dorsum, length approximately 2.1 cm.668

Um Udaina, Amman – see Annex 2462. 592–97, Annex 2463–64. Kazakstan

Kok-Mardan or Mardan-Kujuk (Otrar oasis, near Karatou) – see Annex 2463.

Altyn-asar – see 593–94. Džety-asar 3

Kos-asar 2 – see 595. Džety-asar 11/3

592. Džety-asar (West Kazakstan): 1 cowrie, perhaps a Ringed cowrie is mentioned from the name-giving site of the culture, from the fortified settlement (gorodišče), of the first half of the 1st millenium BC, length ca. 1.7 cm.664

597. Kyr-čebakty (South-Kazakstan): 1 cowrie is mentioned from the kurgan cemetery of the 3rd–1st centuries BC.669 Unknown site – see Annex 2464.

593–94. Džety-asar 3/(West Kazakstan) Altyn-asar: Saka kurgan cemetery dated between the 7th century BC–4th century A.D.:

598–99. Kyrgyzstan 598 Džal-aryk-II: among finds from the Saka kurgan cemetery dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC, 1 cowrie was also found, with removed/broken dorsum, length approximately 4.0 cm.670

593. Kurgan 290: among disturbed bones, 1 medium-sized, fragmentary cowrie was found at the northern resting place, in the robbed crypt from the 6th–3rd centuries BC, the length of the cowrie is approximately 3.9 cm.665

599. Džele-Tjube: in one of the graves of an early Vusun cemetery in the Talas-Valley (3rd–1st centuries BC), a double burial was observed. Among finds with one of the skeletons: gold mounts, a gold medallion set with precious stone, 2 bronze bracelets with animal head terminal, a bronze hook, and a cowrie are mentioned.671

594. Kurgan 382: the robbed crypt of 5 persons (3 adults, Reese (1992a) 155; Reese (1995a) 93; Reese (2002) 278. „Ghrareh yielded an unmodified C. annulus and a fragment of a C. tigris.”: Reese (2003c). 660 Reese (1991) 161–163: nr. 10. 661 8 pierced items originating from the Red Sea were mentioned, but without dating: Reese (1986) 332: nr. 2; Reese (1992a) 155; Reese (2002) 278. 662 Reese (1991) 163: nr. 11; Reese (1995a) 93. 663 Reese (1986) 329: nr. 11; Reese (1988) 262; Reese (1992a) 155; Reese (1995) 268; Reese (1995a) 93; Reese (2002) 278. “They are found in groups of 35, 32 and 11 and are largery unholed.”: Reese (2003c). 664 Stepnaja (1992) 70, 343: and 374: pl.244. 665 Levina (1993) 75, 90–91, 118: and fig. 64: 1 (among the 5 items the first is surely neither a Ringed, nor a Money cowrie). 659

Levina (1993) 78, 91, 118: and fig. 64: 1 (among the 5 published items, nr. 2–4 are still need identification). 667 Levina (1993a) 75–76, 152: fig. 5: 17. 668 Kušaev (1978) 80–81, 79: fig. 3: 4. 669 Stepnaja (1992) 103, 343–344: and 387: pl. 37: 37. 670 Stepnaja (1992) 87, 343: and 382: pl. 32: 17. 671 Stepnaja (1992) 83. 666

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 600. Libya

of the pelvis, beside the bow, a bronze cowrie imitation was discovered.678

600. Shahhât/ancient Cyrene-Demeter and Persephone sanctuary: in the material of the sanctuary dated to around the 7th century BC, beside 18 bivalves, 2 unmodified Tiger cowries and 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum were uncovered.672

606. Grave 33: in a timber-structured grave 9 skeletons were found. Finds from the burial of skeleton Nr. 3, a young man: a bronze axe-adze, iron and bronze daggers, 1 bronze and 4 bone arrowheads, a bronze suspension loop of a bow case, a bronze awl, bronze buttons, a bone belt suspension, a bronze mirror, a wooden rod, a wooden cup, a bronze cauldron with ashes and sheep bones, and a cowrie imitation of glass paste, which resembles a Ringed cowrie, length approximately 3 cm.679

Moldova: Giurgulesti/Džurdžulešt (rajonul Cahul) – see Annex 2468. 601–10. Mongolia

607. Grave 35: in a timber-structured grave a man and a woman were buried. Finds beside the Nr. 1 female skeleton: an iron awl, a sheep-finger joint with handle, a bronze belt buckle with hair-remains, clay vessel, 2 wooden cup, sheep skull and bones, and in a bundle under the pelvis 29 glass paste beads, 6 glass oculus beads, 7 maral deer teeth, and 11 rodent teeth like amulet, and 2 tiny cowries.680

601–10. Ulangom (Uvsunur ajmak, Northwest Mongolia)Ulaan-uul: a wholly excavated cemetery with 56 graves dated to the 4th–2nd centuries BC, in which beside natural cowries and also cowrie imitations were found:673 601. Grave 4: burials of an adult and a child, in one stonechest. The grave goods of the latter: a bone awl, a bronze buckle with remains of the strap, a bronze hook, a small bone tube, 2 clay vessels, besides, under the skull, 1 white oculus bead and 1 small cowrie, which can be perhaps identified as a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum.674

608–09. Grave 47: in a timber-structured grave 9 skeletons were found, and 1 cowrie was placed between them: 608. Skeleton 2: finds from a female burial: a bronze plait clamp, a bronze pendant, besides, 1 small cowrie, perhaps a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum.681

602. Grave 6: among the remains of a stone-chest burial, fragments of a vessel, as well as 1 small cowrie were discovered.675

609. Skeleton 3: finds from a male burial: an iron artifact, 2 clay vessels with sheep bones, and a small cowrie, perhaps a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum.682

603. Grave 12: the remained finds from the disturbed burial of 3 adults and 1 child: an iron knife, in a clay vessel sheep/goat bones, a broken clay vessel, and at last, a bronze cowrie imitation with two holes.676

610. Grave 53: in a burial in stone chest were uncovered two skeletons. Male-type finds from the burial Nr. 2: a bow, an iron axe-adze with wooden handle, a large learther sheath, on which a smaller sheath was fitted, in the first an iron dagger, a bronze mirror with horse-depiction, black powder in a leather pouchet, in the latter a small bronze knife; an iron knife in leather sheath, a bronze buckle with strap remains, and at the ribs 1 bead and 1 small cowrie.683

604. Grave 22: in a timber-structured grave, one adult and a child were found. The grave goods beside the latter: a bronze buckle, beside and under the chest an iron knife and 3 small cowries.677 605. Grave 23: in a timber-structured grave, 6 adults and 1 child were uncovered. Maletype finds beside Skeleton 1: a bow, arrowheads with wooden arrow, 6 iron and 1 bone three-winged arrowheads, iron suspension loop of the bow case, a clay vessel, a wooden vessel(?) painted in red, and at last on the right side of the skeleton, at the level

611–18, Annex 2476. Romania 611. Buneşti (judeţul Vaslui): a hoard was discovered in a clay vessel in the Geto-Dac settlement, which was strengthened with an earthen fortification, and dated to the 4th–3rd centuries BC: an ornamented bronze disc, 2 silver arm wounds with animal-head decoration, iron adze (Hohlbeil), besides, a string of beads: 2 gold, 70 coral, 71 amber, and 4 colored glass paste beads and 2 pierced

Besides, 8 Tridacna were found with engraved decoration, and 10 unworked Tridacna squamosa imported from Red Sea: Reese (1991) 172: nr. 87; Reese (1992b) 349. 673 The authors did not pay too much attention to cowries; they were mainly not illustration, none of the items were identified in the text, and the scale size is not given. They were evaluated in one sentence: “Einen betrachtlichen Teil des Inventars aller Gräber bildet der persöhnliche Schmuck, Kaurischnecken, zylindrische Perlen aus Paste, Augenperlen aus Glas sowie Perlen aus Zedernüssen, aus Karneol und Türkis.”: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 40. 674 Without measure: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 5–6, 51: fig. 8: 4. 675 Without illustration and measure: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 6. 676 Without measure: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 9, 55: fig. 12: 3. 677 Without illustration and measure, only on the grave’s drawing: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 14, 66: fig. 23: 3. 672

Without illustration and scale: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 15. Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 21–22; 84: fig. 41: 36; Členova (1993) 35, 39: fig. 7: 36. 680 Without illustration and measure: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 24. 681 Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 31, 108: fig. 65: 2 (At nr. 2, there are 2 cowries, the other might originate from skeleton 3). 682 Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 31, 108: fig. 65: 2; see the latter footnote. 683 Without illustration and measure: Novgorodova–Volkov (1982) 33. 678 679

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Catalogue cowries which can be identified from the published photo as Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.684

a miniature, cup-shaped pendant, a white metal bracelet, a bronze mirror, an iron finger ring, fragment of a bone comb, an urn, and 1 likely Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length 2.0 cm.690

612. Cimbala (judeţul Bacău)-Dealul Morii: 4 cowries, pierced with small holes, perhaps Ringed cowries were uncovered in a female grave dated between the end of the 6th and the 5th centuries BC. If their photo is published at the scale of 1:1, then their length is approximately 1.6–1.8 cm.685

618. Grave Z67C14. M.1: finds from the cremation urn burial, dated to the 2nd century BC: 2 blue oculus beads, an urn with lid, 2 jugs, a cup, and 1 perhaps Ringed cowrie, length 1.85 cm.691

613. Enisala (judeţul Tulcea)-Valea Netului: 142 biritual graves from a Geta cemetery, dated to the 4th century BC:

619–712, Annex 2477, 2483, 2486, 2491–92, 2498, 2500–03. Russia

Tumulus 2-B: finds from the cremation chief burial: ashes in an urn, 5 shells (cochilii de Cyproca moneta [sic!], ghioc), identified as Money cowries, but likely rather Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.686

619. Alandskoe (Orenburgskaja oblast’)-Kurgan I from the Kurgan Group II, Grave 2: in a Sauromatian cremation burial, dated to the 5th century BC accompanied by bronze arrowheads, a mirror, and a bone tube, 1 small pierced cowrie was discovered, which, according to the illustration was likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.0 cm.692

Huşi (judeţul Vaslui) Grave 4 – see Annex 2476. 614. Mileştii de Sus (com. Parincea, judeţul Bacău): 2 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 6th–5th centuries BC:

620. Aleksandrovo (Kurskij rajon, Stavropol’skij kraj)hutor Krasnaja Znamja, Kurgan 1: from the kurgan dated to the third quarter of the 7th century BC, the remains of two harnessed horses, and the remains of a vehicle with bronze mounts, this later item must have originated from Asia Minor, or Assyria. Among the grave goods of the skeleton of undefined sex, 1 cowrie (Ringed cowrie?), with removed dorsum was found.693

Grave 1: beside the skull of a small, likely female skeleton likely 4 Ringed cowries were discovered, with removed dorsum. The given length 1.9, resp.2.4–2.4 (3 ex.) cm.687 615. Poiana (near Tecuci, judeţul Galaţi)-Cetâtuia: likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum were identified in the Geta material of the 4th century BC. The lengths of 2 items are approximately 2.0–2.1 cm.688

621–22. Anan’inó (Respublika Tatarstan): cowries was found in Grave H (621) and Grave K (622) dated to the 7th century part of a cemetery dated to the 8th–3rd centuries BC.

616–18. Zimnicea (judeţul Teleorman): 170 graves of a biritual cemetery dated to the 4th–1st centuries BC (166 cremation, 4 inhumation burials):

622. In Grave K, where the cowrie was an integral part of a female headdress ornament, an lozenge-shaped bronze mount, 486 Egyptian paste, and 64 bronze beads and the set of cowries.694

616. Grave Z68C10. M.55: finds from the cremation urn burial of an adult, perhaps woman, dated to the second half of the 3rd century BC: 2 bronze brooches, 8 oculus and fluted beads, an urn, the upper part of a vessel, a handled cup, and 1 likely Ringed cowrie (petit coquillage) with removed dorsum, length 1.8 cm.689

Anapa (Krasnodarskij kraj)-Gorod II/Gorgippija, Grave 2/1954 – see Annex 2477. 623. Argalykty (Respublika Tyva)-Kurgan cemetery I, kurgans 16–17: among finds from the 3rd–2nd centuries BC, 2 cowries were also reffered to, with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.2–2.4 cm.695

617. Grave Z69C10. M.74: finds from the cremation urn burial of an infans II person (or adult woman?), dated to the 3rd century BC: 4 Thracian bronze brooches, 3various shaped stone pendants, 1-1 clay and glass bead,

Atagai – see 694. Starye Atagi

Veturia Bazarciuc (1987) 39, 38/39: fig. 6: 7. 685 Căpitanu (1968) 71, 70: fig. 1: 5: at the right edge; Vulpe (1970) fig. 10: 9. The shell was probably incorrectly identified as Cypraea moneta or Cypraea lurida: Moscalu (1981) 30. 686 Simion (1971) 126, 127: fig. 32 (right, up); Simion (1974) 298: fig. 5 (at the bottom, in the middle); Simion (1976) 155, 105: fig. 25: 156: fig. 8: 5; Moscalu (1981) 30. 687 Mitrea (1983) 59, 61, 63: notes 22–24, 64/65: fig. 2: 3, 5–7; Mitrea (1983a) 117, 120–121, 123: fig. 3: 3, 6–7, fig. 4: 1–4. 688 Colectivul (1952) 202, 206: fig. 24: c. 689 Alexandrescu (1972) 21: pl. I: 13; Alexandrescu (1980) 27, 52, 102/103: fig. 53: 9. 684

Alexandrescu (1980) 29, 52, 102/103: fig. 53: 15. Alexandrescu (1972) 22: pl. II: 14; Alexandrescu (1980) 32, 52, 102/103: fig. 53: 16. 692 Moškova (1961) 122, 118: fig. 47: 10; length approximately 1.2 cm: Smirnov (1964) 145, 363: fig. 71: 7; Smirnov–Petrenko (1963) 17: nr. 187, 32: pl. 25: 27; Stepi (1989) 301, and 376: pl. 71: 16. 693 Kossack (1986) 127–28, 372: pl. 2: 14. 694 Zbrueva (1952) 36, 38, 80; Kivikoski (1967) 38; Halikov (1981) 13, 161–62: nr. 793. 695 Trifonov (1976) 118, 117: fig. 5: 7–8. 690 691

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 624. Baj-Tal (Respublika Tyva)-Ozen-Ala-Belig: a kurgan cemetery in Western-Tuva, dated to the 4th–3rd centuries BC: Kurgan 7, Skeleton 4: 1 cowrie was discovered in a female burial, and a wooden carved pierced cowrie imitation was discovered at the western wall of the grave building.696 625. Barsučiha (Krasnojarskij kraj)-Cemetery V, kurgan 2, Grave 2: an unknown number of cowries as well as cowrie imitations, dated to the 7th century BC were discovered.697

Fig. 99. Bronze cowrie imitations from an Asian Hun cemetery at D’erestujskoe (634) – after Rudenko (1962) 46: fig. 41: g–d–e

626. Batena (Krasnojarskij kraj): 3 glass paste cowrie imitations were found in graves from the Karasuk Period (1200–700 BC).698

631. Skeleton I finds: a bone arrowhead, a silver belt loop, cover of a gold pin, an iron knife, leather-remains, birch-bark beads, a clay vessel, 2 deer eyetooth-amulet, and at last, 2 cowries. Perhaps both are Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.3, and 1.2 cm.703

627. Belyj jar (Krasnojarskij kraj): an unknown number of cowries as well as cowrie imitations, dated to the 6/5th–4th centuries BC were found.699 Berezovskij mogil’nik –see 651–52. Kislovodsk

632. Skeleton III finds: 1-1 bronze and bone arrowhead, a bronze clasp, a bone button, a bronze buckle, deer toothamulet, and 2 bone cowrie imitations. 1 of the latters is Ringed cowrie-shaped, the other is lozenge-shaped, at both cowries’ ends suspension loops, length approximately 1.5, resp.1.2 cm.704

628. Bol’šoj Jar ulus (Krasnojarskij kraj): some cowrie imitations were discovered in the kurgan cemetery dated to 600–300 BC.700 629. Čeganda (Karakulinskij rajon, Udmurtskaja Respublika)-I. gorodišče: the name-giving site of the Čeganda (čegandinskaja) Culture, situated in the Kama– Bjelaja Region, and dated to the 3rd century BC –2nd century AD. Some stray finds are mentioned from the territory of the less known fortified settlement (gorodišče), which, according to the poor-quality illustration can either Ringed or Money cowrie, length approximately 1.7 cm.701

633. Skeleton IV male-type finds: 2 bone arrowheads, a bronze dagger, a bronze axe-adze, the bronze buckle of the bow strap, and its bronze as well as iron hooks, 2 bone buckles, 2 bone buttons, a bronze mirror, and 2 cowries. Perhaps both are Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.2, and 1.5 cm.705

630. Česnokovskoe (Altajskij kraj, Respublika Altaj): “Russian archaeologists in the territory of the Altai Republic, near Cesnokovskoje, found rich tumulus burials from the Early Scythian Period. The archaeologist of the Altai State Universty, Pjotr Sulga told that the tumulus graves are dating between the 5th century BC and 7th century AD.... In one... grave the burial of a boy was discovered... beside the boy, an arrow was uncovered with bronze arrowheads and numerous shells, which served as ornamentation as well as means of payment. Specialists argued that these shells reveal the commercial connections with India and China.”702 631–33. Dagan-Teli (Respublika Tyva)-Cemetery I, kurgan 1: kurgan with remains of 7 skeletons, dated between the end of the 3rd–2nd centuries BC:

634. D’erestujskoe (Zabajkal’skaja oblast’, Respublika Burjatija): bronze cowrie imitations were discovered in an Asian Hun cemetery dated between the end of the 3rd–1st centuries BC,706 which are perhaps identical with the cowrie and bronze cowrie imitation finds from Grave 7 (Fig. 99).707 635–36. Dužerlig (Respublika Tyva)-Chovozu, Cemetery I, kurgan 2: a kurgan with two burials and one find assemblage dated to the end of the 3rd–2nd centuries BC: 635. Skeleton I: finds from a likely male burial: 4 bronze Grač (1980) 117, 197: fig. 59: 2 (probably items 3–4 of the upper row, because nrs 1–2 are cowrie-imitations, see 632); Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nr. 67. 704 Grač (1980) 117, 197: fig. 59: 2 (the 12th item of the upper row); Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nr. 69. 705 Grač (1980) 117, 197: fig. 59: 2 (likely the 2nd–3rd items of the lower row); Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nr. 70. 706 The 3 depicted items were identified as Money cowrie imitations: Rudenko (1962) 47, 46: fig. 41: d, e, g. This interpretation is questionable if the representation is analyzed. 2 of them (d, g) are rather resemble Ringed cowries, while the third (e) because of its oval-pointed shape, does not resemble any species. 707 Davydova (1956) 295. 703

Vajnštejn (1966) 152, 170, 173, 175: pl. II: 5–6. Členova (1972) 54. 698 Teplouhov (1931. 699 Členova (1972) 54. 700 Teplouhov (1931. 701 Gening (1970) 14–16, pl. XXIV: 3. 702 Juhari (1998). According to Zsuzsanna Juhari this news appeared on the Internet-homepage of the CNN News for a short time. 696 697

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Catalogue arrowheads, 2 bronze bow suspension hooks, an iron axeadze, a bronze dagger with ringed handle, 2 bronze knives, a bronze button, a silver torques, a bronze chest ornament, bronze belt mounts depicting a scene where female lions are mauling goats, a bronze belt loop, an iron knife, a bronze mirror, a clay vessel, maral deer griffin head-amulet, and 1 cowrie, which is likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.8 cm.708 636. Skeleton II: finds from a presumably male burial: an iron axe-adze, an iron dagger, bronze, and bone buttons, round gold garment ornament mounts, a silver earring, a stone bead, gold and bronze bands, a bronze mirror, maral deer griffin head-amulet, and 3 cowries. All 3 are likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.7–1.9 cm.709

the headdress ornament: claw-shaped turqoise pendants from nefrite, fluorite, limestone, red jasper, agate, and glass beads, a pair of bronze openwork bracelets with the depiction of an animal fight scene, 2 bronze buttons depicting bears, 1 iron button, a small bronze buckle with an iron pin, 3 clay vessels, sheep bones, besides, at both elbows 1-1 ornament-bunch: claw-shaped limestonependant, nefrite, fluorite, limestone, carnelian, red jasper-, agate and glass beads, stone rings, and at last, at the hands 21+6, at the left elbow 1, under the skeleton at the level of the waist, in a double row 16, that means all in all 44 sewable cowrie imitations made of clayish-limestone, length approximately 2.1–2.9 cm. The lower garment of the woman was attached by a belt with the small buckle, the upper cappa was held by the pair of large buckles, and the noted ornaments were likely fixed on two objects.714

637. Elizavetovskaja stancija (Rostovskaja oblast’): among grave goods uncovered in a female burial of a kurgan dated to the Scythian Period, 12 cowries (rakoviny) were discovered.710

642. Izye gory (Krasnojarskij kraj): “from a hoard”, one cowrie, and 10 bronze cowrie imitations were discovered, perhaps dating from the second half of the 1st millenium BC.715

638. Hankal’skoe gorodišče (Čečenskaja Respublika or Respublika Ingušetija): among the finds of a hoard containing mainly harnesses, likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum was also found. The finds date to the 5th–2nd centuries BC, and were presumably hidden around the 3rd–beginning of the 2nd centuries BC. The length of the cowrie was approximately 1.9 cm.711

Jasenovaja Poljana (Krasnodarskij kraj) Grave 3 – see Annex 2483. 643. Jasyrev, hutor (Cimljanskij rajon, Rostovskaja oblast’)-Cemetery I: 9 kurgans from different periods, including 130 graves: Kurgan I. Grave 2: grave goods that were connected with the horse burial from the Sauromatian Period of the robbed kurgan (4th century– turn of the 4th/3rd centuries)716: fragments of an iron lance head, fragments of a sword or dagger, its sheath decorated with bone plaques, 16 untouched and 15 fragmentary iron arrowheads, 2 socketed bone arrowheads, two types of smaller iron armour plates, the fragments of bronze and iron wire bracelets, fragments of a red amphora, the remains of a wheel-made clay vessel, and 2 pierced cowries, perhaps Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.717

639. Idra (Krasnojarskij kraj): in the once Tovostincollection, 3 cowrie imitations preserved. Among them 1 was illustrated which is a nice example made from stone, but undated item, length approximately 2.5 cm.712 640. Inozemcevo, poselok (Stavropol’skij kraj)-Česnok gory Cemetery 1: cowries are mentioned among the material from 11 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC.713 641. Ivolga (Respublika Burjatija): 216 graves of a Hun cemetery, dated to the 3rd–end of 1st centuries BC:

644. Kadat (Šarypovskij rajon, Krasnojarskij kraj)Kadatskoe pole: cemetery with 4 kurgans:

Grave 100: finds from a female burial: in the northwestern corner of the grave pit, ornaments and objects, which will not be discussed here. On the skeleton, the remains of

Kurgan 2, Grave, 1: among 24 burials dated to the 6th century BC – among them 14 children – beside the 8. female skeleton were found a clay vessel, on her chest a string of agate (?), bone and glass paste beads, a bronze

Grač (1980) 118, 208: fig. 70: 1: in the upper left corner (likely the first cowrie from the left); Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nr. 86. 709 Grač (1980) 118, 208: fig. 70: 1: in the lupper left corner (likely the second, third and fourth cowries from the left); Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nr. 87. 710 Mentioned as parallels to the Mastjugino kurgan finds (664), dated to the end of the 4th–early 3th centuries: Mancevič (1973) 37, 45: note 281; see IAK 35 (1910) 10, 100: fig. 6. 711 Petrenko (1975) 257, fig. 10. 712 In the collection, an undated Money cowrie was also available of unknown provenance: Tallgren (1917) 64, 84, and pl. XI: 17; Ferenczy (1969) 55; the published imitation was called limestone: Egami (1974) 50, fig. 18. 713 “grobnica III”: Iessen (1940) 48: note 2; Kozenkova (1989) 45: nr. 136.1. 708

Davydova (1971) 98–102, 99: fig. 5: (21 items), 21b (1 item), 29 (16 items), 100: fig. 6: 31ž (6 items). 715 Teplouhov (1931). 716 The first grave is late nomadic, from the 2nd millenium AD, and the leaders of the excavation did not discuss the third skull: Moškova– Fedorova-Davydova (1974) 26–27. 717 “Dve rakoviny Cauri s otverstijami dlja podvešivanija”: Moškova– Fedorova-Davydova (1974) 27, 94: Pl. IV: 3 (its scale is uncertain, see the difference between the scale given and the published measurement of the bone arrowhead on pl. IV: 4b.). 714

217

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads pin, a bronze mirror, and 1 cowrie imitation, length approximately 1.7 cm.718

identified as Money cowries (Ciprea moneta), which are more likely Ringed cowries.726

645. Kamen’-na-Obi (Kamen’skij rajon, Altajskij kraj)Cemetery II, kurgan 15, Grave 5: 1 pierced cowrie was found dated to the second half of the 1st milleneum BC.719

652. Stray find: some shells were identified as Money cowries.727 653–55. Kislovodsk ( Pjatigorskij rajon, KaračaevoČerkesskaja Respublika)-Klin Jar: 25 graves of a PreScythian cemetery of 800—675 BC., and attached to the western type Koban (kobanskaja) Culture, of which graves including artefacts from Trans-Caucasian and Asia Minor were dated between 700–675:728

Kamenskoe –see 661. Kyzyl-Kala 646–47. Karasuk (Krasnojarskij kraj)-Cemetery I, Grave Enclosure 42 and 48 (ograda): unknown number of argillite cowrie imitations were discovered, dated to the 8th–6th centuries BC.720

653. Grave 9: a contracted burial lying on the left side of the body, therefore it was interpreted as female: a string of glass paste beads with an anthimon pendant, a bronze bracelet, a needle, a vessel, and finally 7 “Kauri-Muschel”. The only item published in drawing seems to be a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 2.0 cm.729

Karras (previous Scottish colony) – see 640. Inozemcevo 648. Katanda (Respublika Altaj): 1 Money cowrie is mentioned among the finds from a Scythian Kurgan dated to 5th–3rd centuries BC, but this object, according to the photo, is likely identifiable as Ringed cowrie, length approximately 2.0 cm.721

654. Grave 11: a burial with unmarked position, but perhaps a female: a string of carnelian beads, 2 bronze bracelets, a vessel, and 1 “Kauri-Muschel”. The drawn item has an open dorsum, perhaps a Ringed cowrie, length: approximately 1.8 cm.730

649. Kelermes (Giaginskij rajon, Respublika Adygeja)Kurgan 24./1983:722 In the Kurgan dated to the second half of the 7th century BC, also 9 horses were buried. On the harness of horse Nr. 4 among other artifacts pendants from wild boar canines, on the bridle, beside faience beads, some cowries were also. The illustrated 2 items are probably Ringed cowries, size: approximately 1.7x1.1, and 1.7x1.3 cm.723

655. Grave 25: contracted burial lying on the left side of the body, therefore it was interpreted as female: a string of beads composed from carnelian and glass paste beads, 2 bronze discs, bronze needles, 2 bronze bracelets, a spindle whorl, and some “Kauri-Muscheln”.731

650. Keskem/now Khurikau and Psedeh (Malgobekskij rajon, Respublika Ingušetija) Grave 5: in the cemetery dated to the first half-middle part of the 1st milleneum BC, some cowries are mentioned among grave goods.724

656–57. Kislovodsk (Pjatigorskij rajon, KaračaevoČerkesskaja Respublika)-“Lermontovskaja skala (u reki)”: 9 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 8th–6th centuries BC:

651–52. Kislovodsk (Pjatigorskij rajon, KaračaevoČerkesskaja Respublika)-“Berezovskij mogil’nik”: nearly 10–11 stone-chest burials were uncovered at the bank of the Berezovka stream, dated to the 7th–6th centuries BC:

656. Grave 1/1985: finds from the stone-chest burial of a woman dated to the end of the 8th–mid 6th centuries BC: 2 iron knives, an awl, flint, 5 lozenge-shaped, “facedepicting” bronze sheet pendant, an unique double bronze necklace from flat chains: the ornament was most probably taken on by pulling it over the head, and was worn on the neck as well as the outher side of the chest. In the middlepart, at the outer side 5 eyeglass-shaped bronze pendants, to which from the right and from the left, at the place of the arms (?) 1-1 similar-shaped pendants were attached. One of the chain-made “sleeves” is grooved, and was closed with a miniature bronze brooch. The terminals of the ornaments were closed with bronze pins, decorated with

651. Stone chest 1: finds from likely a female burial: 3 bronze sheet bead-braid ornament, clay spindle button, a clay vessel, 1 corksrew-shaped, pierced freshwater snail (Buliminus sp. – rakovina),725 and 3 unmodified cowries, Plamenevskaja (1993) 77–79, fig. 3: 9. Mogil’nikov (1997) 80, 186: fig. 55a: 51. 720 Členova (1972) 54, 53: note 246. 721 Rudenko (1960) 354: and pl. XXI: 8; probably with incorrect citation: Ferenczy (1969) 55: note 365. 722 This kurgan was excavated partly by D.G. Šul’c and N. I. Veselovskij in 1903/1904, and the research was finished in 1983: Galanina–Alekseev (1990) 34. 723 Galanina–Alekseev (1990) 40: fig. 6: 22; Galanina (1994) 99, 105, 96/97: fig. 2: 72. 724 Krupnov (1960) 207; Kozenkova (1977) 51–52: nr. 51; Kozenkova (1982) 65; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 725 In the Caucasus, fossil Buliminus or Biluminus sp. are known: Krupnov (1960) 187, 207–208. They belong to the Rissoacea family: Kilias (1977) 248. 718 719

Krupnov (1960) 187. Since one of the objects is cited under p. 189: fig. 28: 5, illustrations 1–4 were likely depict the other grave goods of the burial, but the shell depicted under nr. 2 is a Ringed not a Money cowrie. 727 Krupnov (1960) 190. 728 Berezin–Dudarev (1999) 216; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 729 Berezin–Dudarev (1999) 180, 203, 208, 186: fig. 5: 27. 730 Berezin–Dudarev (1999) 208, 186: fig. 5: 26. 731 Berezin–Dudarev (1999) 180, 209. 726

218

Catalogue 662. Lizgor (Respublika Severnaja Osetija–Alanija): it is mentioned among the Northern Caucasus sites where cowries were discovered (see 640, 651–52).738

4-4 oval knobs as well as iron stings. Perhaps 5 narrow, lozenge-shaped, mask-decorated bronze sheet pendants. Additional finds: 4 bracelet fashioned from a bronze rod, with snake-head pattern, a clay spindle button, a large clay pot, 2 clay dishes, a clay cup, a string of beads: 70 unworked but pierced amber pieces, 200 tiny glass beads, 3 glass oculus beads, one ring-shaped bead, and at last, 15 shells, likely Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum. The length of the published item was approximately 1.8 cm.732

Mahkety (Čečenskaja Respublika) – see Annex ����������� 2486. 663. Malaja Inja (Krasnojarskij kraj)-Kurgan 2, Grave 1: unknown number and quality of cowrie imitations were uncovered in the burial, dated to the 6th/5th–4th centuries BC.739

657. Grave 1/1989: remains of a sacrificial gift (?), placed on the top of the ston-chest of a female burial, dated to the second half of the 7th–beginning of the 6th centuries BC: 1-1 round bone and clay objects, 2 cup fragments, vessel fragments. Finds from the burial inside the stone-chest: 11 bronze, 1 iron- (among them 8 three-edged) arrowheads, an iron knife, a bone-handled iron awl, a pebble whetstone, a bone perforator (?), 2 bone objects, an iron object, a bronze sheet belt ornament, a bronze earring loop, a string of beads: 8 large and at least 30 small glass beads, a large clay urn, a cup with ear, 2 large bowls, in one of them a large, double-edged, socketed bronze arrowhead, in the other, a piece of limestone, incised into the clay-material, and at last, at the upper part of the chest, in the neck area, lower than the string of beads, 6 shells, perhaps Ringed cowries with removed dorsum. The length of the illustrated item was approximately 1.5 cm.733

664. Mastjugino (Voronežskaja oblast’): kurgan cemetery dated between the end of the 4th–first half of the 3rd century BC: Kurgan 4: in the robbed grave of a man and a woman, the finds from the latter: a bronze three-edged, socketed arrowhead, 2 lion-depicting squared, 6 lozeng-patterned triange-shaped, 11 round and 6 semishperical small gold mounts, 12 glass paste beads, 6 gold finger rings, 2 small iron hooks, and from the grave soil, 2 fragments of a pierced Money cowrie (rakovina cyprea moneta), identified as a pendant. This identification should be proofed, it might be also a Ringed cowrie, length approximately 2.3 cm.740 Mogil’nik po doroge iz sovhoza v Saragaš/Cemetery beside the road from the sovhoz to Saragaš – see 691–93. Saragaš, Road to

658–59. Komarovo (Mozdokskij rajon, Respublika Severnaja Ossetija-Alanija): 10 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 6th century BC:

665. Mohov ulus (Krasnojarskij kraj)-Cemetery I, Grave II: 2 glass paste cowrie imitations dated to the 8th–6th centuries BC.741

658. Grave 7: among the grave goods of a female burial 15 cowries were discovered, the illustrated item is likely a Ringed cowrie, length approximately 1.9 cm.734

666–67. Mozdok (Respublika Severnaja Ossetija-Alanija): a kurgan cemetery dated to the 6th century BC:

659. Grave 8: among the grave goods of a female burial 15 cowries were discovered, the illustrated item is likely a Ringed cowrie, length approximately 2.0 cm.735

666. Site 1, Segment E/4: one clay vessel was found, and beside it, a pierced cowrie was placed, similar items were found in the nearby stone-pit by workers.742

660. Kuren-benoj (Nožaj-Jurtovskij rajon, Čečenskaja Respublika): in a stone-chest, dated to the 6th –5th/4th centuries BC, among the finds cowries were found.736

667. Segment V/3–4: finds from the contracted 20-30 years old female burial: a clay- and lead pendants, a bronze pin, a brooch, a bronze bracelet, a bronze ring with spiral bezel, a bronze mirror, a large clay vessel, in which a handled jug, 3 clay bowls, pig bones, 726 tiny beads were discovered, besides, on the chest large glass beads, a carnelian bead, 20 paste beads, 25 glass rosettes, and 24 shells, likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, which probably were part of the string of beads.743

661. Kyzyl-Kala (Prikubanskij rajon, KaračaevoČerkesskaja Respublika): cowrie finds are mentioned in the material of 9 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 6th century BC.737 “Lermontovskaja Kislovodsk

skala

(u

reki)”

–

see

656–57.

668–77. Nartan (Kabardino-Balkarskaja Respublika):

The grave was not excavated by an archaeologist: Berezin–Dudarev (1998) 168, 180–81, 192: fig. 5: 10. 733 The grave was not uncovered by an archaeologist: Berezin–Dudarev (1998) 168–69, 183–84, 195: fig. 8: 12. The finds are under the incorrect nr. 2/1989. 734 Abramova (1974) 195, 204, 198: fig. 3: 9. 735 Abramova (1974) 195, 204, 197: fig. 2: 26. 736 Kozenkova (1977) 56: nr. 144; Kozenkova (1982) 65. 737 Kozenkova (1989) 51–52, and 60: nr. 182. 732

Iessen (1940) 48, note 1. Členova (1972) 54. One item was cited: Teplouhov (1931). 740 Mancevič (1973) 35, 37, 36: fig. 10: 9. 741 Kiselev (1949) 77, note 105; the illustration of one item: Členova (1971) pl. XLII: 24; Členova (1972) 54, 162, and 188: pl. 18: 4. 742 Piotrovskij (1940) 9, 20; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 743 Piotrovskij (1940) 9, 20, pl. V: 2 (with the photo of 10 items); Zbrueva (1952) 174; Mancevič (1973) 37. 738 739

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 24 kurgan graves of a cemetery, dated to the 7th/6th–5th centuries BC:744

bronze strap distributors, the end of a bronze bar, 2 bronze bells, a cup fashioned from bronze sheet, 2 miniature clay bowls, 2 clay jugs with handles, the fragments of 3–4 larger clay vessels, with those finds 84 glass beads of one and two members, 42 fluted glass paste beads, and 1 bone bead, 1 bronze finger ring and 110 cowries were discovered. According to the only published item, they were probably Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.8 cm.748

668. Kurgan 5: disturb burial of a woman with a horse and the following finds: 4 iron and 36 bronze, two- and threeedged arrowheads, 3 small semispherical gold mounts, a string of beads: 9 globular amber, bone and carnelian beads, beside 3 gold sheet beads, a bronze wire bracelet, an iron knife, a clay spindle button, a small bone tube, fragments of 2 large vessels, an one-handled jug, bronze plaques, a bone pin. Beside the horse, 2 bronze strap distributors, iron bit with sidebars, and 1 m from the eastern corner of the grave, a bronze wire ring and 1 cowrie were uncovered, likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.0 cm.745

672. Kurgan 14: finds from the burial, in which only very few bone remains survived, and which was accompanied by not more than three horses: 3 an iron bit with bone sidebars, 2 bronze strap distributors, a bronze vessel, 2 clay vessels and the fragments of 1 bowl, bone-remains of food, a sand-stone plate, besides, south of the vessels, 3 round gold garment ornaments, 4 smoky spherical pebble, more than 50 amber beads, 2 bone distributors and 19 cowries. The illustration of one item shows Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.2 cm.749

669. Kurgan 9: unseparated finds from a double burial: an oval sacrifical stone plate, bones of sheep and a larger animal, and 7 globular pebbles. At the first skeleton, a spiral bronze bracelet, a bronze pin, a small bronze lace, 5 clay vessels were found, the other grave goods probably belonged to the second, presumaby female burial: an iron spear, 2 gold earrings, 1-1 square, round, and lion/ panther-shaped gold garment ornaments, a string of beads: approximately 20 amber, 3 carnelian and 5 gold sheet beads, a bronze cup, a larger bronze vessel, a cylindrical bronze pyxis, 3 bronze bells, a bronze three-legged table on which two miniaure bowls, 2 clay vessels, a clay bowl, a bronze ladle, a bronze object, and at last, dispersed around one of the clay vessels 38 bronze and 2 bone arrowheads, besides, 60 cowries. According to the published illustration of 1 shell, they might be Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.6 cm.746

673. Kurgan 15: finds from a double grave, with horse: 53 bronze arrowheads, 130 iron and 50 bronze leafs of the armour, an iron bit with bone sidebars, a bronze and bone strap distributor, 2 round gold garment ornaments, 3 bronze bells with iron tongue, 2 bronze pins, a bronze vessel, 6 large clay vessels, 2 clay bowls, a miniature bowl, 3 vessels with smaller handle, bull bones, 10 spherical pebbles, and at last, dispersed on the bottom of the grave, together with the vessels, 200 small bone, 4 glass paste, and 8 amber beads, besides, 32 cowries. One item, according to the illustration is a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.4 cm.750

670. Kurgan 12: finds from a robbed cremation burial, with 4-5 burnt horse-skeletons: 10 socketed, doubleedged, 11 socketed three-edged bronze, and 1 bone arrowhead, 2 end of a wooden object, a bronze bit with sidebars, 4 iron bits, an iron ring, an iron knife, 5 round gold garment ornaments, a gold pendant, 40 various sized and various shaped amber, glass paste, bone, and silver sheet beads, 4 gold sheet yarn distributors, a bronze bowl, a clay vessel with handle, a clay bowl, 15 globular pebbles with smoky surface, and at last, dispersed between the clay vessels and and the north-eastern grave wall 11 cowries. According to the one illustration published so far, they are perhaps Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.0 cm.747

674. Kurgan 16: finds from a male burial, accompanied by some burnt horse-remains, and marked with an anthropomorph tufa gravestone: 189 bronze arrowheads, 2 iron swords, an iron spear, iron plaques of the armour, numerous iron bits, some of them with bone sidebars, a bronze bell with iron tongue, 2 bronze cups, a granite plate, a piece of realgar, besides, at the skull of the skeleton, the following objects: 3 four-lobed, and round gold garment ornaments, a bronze mirror, a granite plate, a large clay vessel, a clay jug with small ear, a clay bowl, and 1 cowrie, which, according to the illustration is a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.7 cm.751 Near the northwestern edge of the grave, 25 pebbles, vessel fragments, a clay bowl and additional 11 dispersed cowries were discovered.752

671. Kurgan 13: finds from a robbed cremation burial, with 1-2 burnt horse-skeletons: a bronze bit with sidebars, 2

675. Kurgan 17: finds from a robbed burial, marked with a gravestone: 36 bronze arrowheads, an iron dagger, a bronze sidebar, 4 bronze strap distributors, an iron knife, the bronzesheet end of the scabbard’s end, 9 round gold

In the total of 10 burials 276 cowries were found, but the author only shortly commented their appearance: “numerous KamennomostkoBerezovka-type burials included cowries. In Nartan every twice of the early grave group [6th century BC] included such shells”: Batčaev (1985) 51; Krupnov (1960) 207; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 745 Batčaev (1985) 24, 72: pl. 19: 13. 746 Batčaev (1985) 29, 82: pl. 27: 38. 747 Batčaev (1985) 32, 88: pl. 33: 17. 744

748 749 750 751 752

220

Batčaev (1985) 34, 90: pl. 35: 25. Batčaev (1985) 34, 92: pl. 37: 17. Batčaev (1985) 35, 94: pl. 39: 18. Batčaev (1985) 36–37, 97: pl. 41: 20. Batčaev (1985) 37.

Catalogue garment ornaments, 3 round gold sheet buttons, 2 wire rings with golden riveted terminal, 35 glass, glass paste, bone, amber and gold sheet beads, a bronze wire bracelet, 2 bronze pins, a bronze bell, a bone object, 2 large clay vessels, a sandstone plate, a piece of realgar, bones of a large animal as the remains of a food deposit, 3 spherical pebbles, and at last, in the southern corner of the grave, a clay vessel fragment, 2 bronze pendants, and 20 cowries. According to the illustration, 1 of them is likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.7 cm.753

were also discovered. The illustrated item is likely a Ringed cowry, length approximately 2.3 cm.758 680. Norilkov ulus (Krasnojarskij kraj): unknown amount and quality of cowrie imitations, dated to the 7th–6th centuries BC.759 681. Novotroick (Orenburgskaja oblast’): in a burial, uncovered in a kurgan, dated to the 7th–4th centuries BC, 2 shells, seemingly Ringed cowries were found, with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.2, and 1.4 cm.760

676. Kurgan 18: finds from a grave accompanied by three horse skeleton: an iron spear, 1 bone, 2 iron bit with sidebars, a bronze strap distributor, 2 bronze pins, and nearly 50 amber, glass paste and faience beads, a daggershaped pendant, a bronze mirror, a bronze disc, a bell, a small bronze object, a granite plate, remains of fire, and at last, in the south-eastern corner of the grave 4 clay vessels and 6 cowries. The only published photo depicts a Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.0 cm.754

682. Novozavedennoe (Stavropol’skij kraj)-II: 16 graves of a kurgan cemetery: Kurgan 12: remained finds from a robbed female burial, dated to the end of the 7th century BC: a bone huntingarrowhead, 2 iron knives, 2 round gold sheet-mounts, gold sheet cover, a bronze pin with flat head, a string of beads: 35 double-conical amber, 11 carnelian, 2 gagate, 11 Egyptian faience, and 1 glass beads, 7 gold sheet beads of 4, and 4 of 1 members, a large round gold sheet harness mount, a bronze vessel and the fragments of a large clay pot, clay vessels, a handled jug with depiction of three deer, 1-1 miniature and larger handled bottle, a handled jug, a pot, the handle of a vessel, and in the south-western part of the grave, 7 cowries. 3 were on the bottom of the grave, between fragments of knives, and a bronze vessel. In the illustration, 10 are with removed dorsum, likely Ringed cowries, length approximately 1.7–2.5 cm (Fig. 100).761

677. Kurgan 19: finds from a symbolical grave with a horse burial: 5 bronze arrowheads, an iron spear, 2 bronze strap distributors, an iron knife, a bone cylinder, smoky pebbles, and at last, in the corner of the ditch, among fragments of clay vessels and bowls 5 cowries. The only item illustrated in the publication is a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.3 cm.755 Nedvigovka (Rostovskaja oblast’)-Tanais Kurgan/1870 – see Annex 2491.

Kurgan/1975 – see Annex 2492.

678. Nesterovskaja stancija (Sunžinskij rajon, Čečenskaja Respublika or Respublika Ingušetija): 53 graves from a cemetery dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC:

683. Paškovskoe-6 (Krasnodarskij kraj): cowries were found in the cemetery of the fortified settlement (gorodišče), dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC.762

Grave 32: grave of two women and one man. Finds from the burial of the old woman, who was uncovered in the middle: an iron buckle, on the chest 20 glass, and 1 glass paste beads, fragments of ribbed clay beads, and 4 shells identified as Money cowries.756 According to 1 illustrated item, they might be Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.757

Pazylyk763 – see 684. Pazyryk 684. Pazyryk (Respublika Altaj): kurgan cemetery from the. 5th–3rd centuries BC :764 Kurgan 6: the robbed burial of an adult woman and a pubescent girl with 3 horses, and the following finds: gold suspension-belt loops, numerous white, cylindrical marble beads, carnelian and glass beads, a chinese mirror, a red

679. Nižne-Džulat (Kabardino-Balkarskaja Respublika): 4 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 5th century BC:

Abramova (1974) 208, 206: fig. 6: 7. Among the numerous graves of the cemetery, only 4 burials were dated to the Scythian Period: ibid. 205. 759 Členova (1972) 54. 760 Smirnov (1964) 145, 363: fig. 71: 8. 761 Maslov–Petrenko (1998) 213, 219, 224: fig. 5: 30, 225, fig. 6: 15 (not included in the references of the plates). 762 Stepi (1989) 237. Not mentioned in any publications that I read: Kameneckij–Rjabova (1980); Kameneckij 1984. 763 Egami (1974) 49. 764 According to the opinion of the excavation director, Cypraea moneta usually appear 1-1 from the kurgans: Rudenko (1953) 135. He likely meant the other sites of the period, because from the by him published 8 kurgans only the 6. included cowries, see Rudenko (1953) 335, 362–76. 758

Grave 84: among the finds from a female burial, 2 cowries

Batčaev (1985) 38, 102: pl. 43: 29. Batčaev (1985) 39, 104: pl. 45: 8. 755 Batčaev (1985) 39, 106: pl. 46: 12. 756 Krupnov (1960) 411–12. 757 Krupnov (1947) 104, 103: fig. 44: 18; Kozenkova (1977) 49: nr. 2; Kozenkova (1982) 65. 753 754

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 100. 10 likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum among the finds of a female burial from Novozavedennoe-II, Kurgan 12 (682) – after Maslov–Petrenko (1998) 225: fig. 6

222

Catalogue lacquer-plaque, gold piece, horn-plaque supports and pendants of the saddle, an iron knife, an iron pin, 2 clay bottles, and near the horse skull 2 cowries with removed dorsum, which were identified as Money cowries.765 The cowries presented in the illustration – length 4.1, and 2.6 cm – should be investigated, because the size of the larger item seems to contradict that it was a Money cowrie. 685. Pokrovka (Orenburgskaja oblast’)-Kurgan 2: in the string of bead, cowries were found, which were identified as Money cowries, but seem to be Ringed cowries. The finds are dated to the early 5th century BC.766

Fig. 101. 6 likely Ringed cowries and 5 bone arrowheads among the finds of a male burial at Sagly-Baži-Cemetery IV Kurgan 2, Skeleton II (689) – after Kenk (1986) 116: Abb. 12

686. Prohorovka (Šarlykskij rajon, Orenburgskaja oblast’): shell (rakovina) was found in the kurgan cemetery dated to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC.767

likely all Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length approximately 1.6–1.7 cm (Fig. 101).770 690. Kurgan 2, Skeleton II–III: in the material of two adults, 3 bear teeth and 1 cowrie was discovered.771

Prohorovka (Šarlykskij rajon, Orenburgskaja oblast’)Kurgan B, Grave 1 – see Annex 2498.

691–93. Saragaš, Road to (Krasnojarskij kraj)-Cemetery 3:

687–88. Sagly-Baži (Respublika Tyva)-Cemetery II: 13 Kurgans from a cemetery dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC:

691. Grave 5: 23 glass paste cowrie imitations are mentioned from the 8th–6th centuries BC.772

687. Kurgan 3: in the double male burial, finds of Skeleton II: bronze and bone arrowheads, a bow case with bronze fittings, a bronze dagger, a miniature bronze mace with wooden handle, a bronze finger ring, a bronze pendant, a bronze mirror, a wooden comb, a wooden knife-imitation, felt and woolen textile fragments, 2 drilled bear canines, and a bone cowrie imitation. This latter is likely a copy of a Ringed cowrie, flat, at both ends there are stick-holes, length approximately 1.7 cm.768

692–93. Grave 4. and 42: unknown amount and quality of cowrie imitations, dated to the 6th/5th–4th centuries BC.773 694. Starye Atagi (Čečenskaja Respublika or Respublika Ingušetija): cowries are mentioned from this site, dated to the 6th–5th centuries BC.774 Stavropol’skij kurgan (Stavropol’skij kraj) – see Annex 2500.

688. Kurgan 13, Skeleton III: finds from the adult burial, dated to the 5th–4th centuries BC: a clay vessel, an animal tooth-hook, an iron artifact, 2-2 maral deer, musk deer and wild boar teeth, and 2 cowries.769

695. Suglug-hem (Respublika Tyva): a cemetery with timber-structured graves, dated to the end of the 3rd–2nd centuries BC: Grave 26, Male burial I finds: a dagger, an axe-adze, a headdress: 1 large, 22 smaller eagle-shaped gold sheet ornament, mouth and eyes covering plates (?), 1 gold foliated iron torque, 16 gold garment ornament mounts decorated with a cowering panther, gold sheet-ornaments of the foot. The belt was ornamented with a larger panther-

689–90. Sagly-Baži (Respublika Tyva)-Cemetery IV: a cemetery with 2 Kurgans, dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC: 689. Kurgan 2, Skeleton II: finds from a male burial: 5 bone arrowheads, an iron axe-adze with wooden handle, a bronze bead, bronze and iron buckles, 3 clay vessels, in one of them the leg bones of a sheep, and at last, 6 cowries, Rudenko (1953) 40, 135, 40: fig. 14: 4, 392: and pl. XXVII: 4, 400: and pl. XCIC: bottom. These finds quoted by: Rudenko (1960) 213. As a site at Pazylyk, dated to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC, and at last, incorrect, pl. XXV–114. - shaped reference: Egami (1974) 49: note 116. Incorrectly too, mentioning Pazyryk, but actually meaning kurgans of Tuèkta (703) cited by Valentin Vasiliev follows: “Die Kauri-Muschel... erscheint auch in den berühmten Kurganen der skytischen Epoche von Pazyryk.”: Vasiliev (1972) 79: pl. 105 = Rudenko (1960) 19, fig. 7; Vasiliev (1976) 36–37. 766 Smirnov (1964) 309: fig. 16: 2 m. 1. 767 Grakov (1947) 118; see Rostovcev in MAR 37, pl. VI: 15. – it was cited by Kiselev (1947) 164. 768 Grač (1980) 111, 173: fig. 35: 9. 769 Kenk (1986) 79, pl. 3: nr. 29. 765

Grač (1980) 116, 188: fig. 50: bottom, left; Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nr. 56. Kenk (1986) pl. 3: nrs 62–63. It should be noted that inside the kurgan only 2 (1 male and 1 child) burials were mentioned without any other cowries: Grač (1980) 115–16. 772 Kiselev (1949) 77, note 105; 3 illustrated items: Členova (1971) pl. XLII: 26–27; Členova (1972) 54, 162: and 188: pl. 18: 9–11. The same site was perhaps mentioned: Teplouhov (1931). The original name of the site: “Mogil’nik po doroge iz sovhoza v Saragaš/Cemetery beside the road from the sovhoz to Saragaš.” 773 Členova (1972) 54. 774 Kozenkova (1977) 56: nr. 112. Dated to the 10th–7th centuries BC: Kozenkova (1982) 65. 770 771

223

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads head shaped gold mount, and 20 Money cowries.775 The identification of the shell is uncertain.776

and a leather pouch, hung on the belt, decorated with spiral pattern, in which only two unmodified (?) cowries were discovered. Both are likely Ringed cowries, length approximately cm.781

696. Sultan-gora (Predgornyj rajon, Stavropol’skij kraj)Cemetery III-1, Grave 1: In the burial of a 30–40 years old woman dated to the 6th century BC, 2 pierced cowries were discovered, which from the illustration can perhaps be identified as Ringed cowrie, length approximately 1.9, resp. 2.1 cm.777

702. Tes’ (?, Krasnojarskij kraj)-Bol’šoj Tesinskij Kurgan, Grave 3: unknown amount and quality of cowrie imitations were found, dated to the 6th/5th–4th centuries BC.782 Torik (Krasnodarskij kraj) – see Annex 2503.

697–98. Syda (Krasnojarskij kraj)-Site V, Grave XIII (697) and stray finds (698): unknown amount of glass paste beads, and bronze cowrie imitations were discovered. Dating from the 6th century BC.778

703. Tuèkta (Respublika Altaj): among the excavated four kurgans (nrs 6, 8, 10, 11) of the cemetery, in the grave material of the sixth kurgan twice pierced 11 Money cowries (11 rakovin Cyprea moneta) were found, dated to the 7th–3rd centuries BC. but these finds, according to the illustration, are rather Ringed cowries.783

699. Tabat (Bejskij rajon, Respublika Hakasija): in the outskirts of the settlement, in the second grave of the Bol’šoj Tabatskij kurgan, 2 argillite cowrie imitations were uncovered, dated to the 6th century BC, length approximately 1.0–1.1 cm.779

704–05. Turan (Respublika Tyva) Cemetery IV: a small cemetery of 4 kurgans which was numbered variously:

700. Tallyk (Prikubanskij rajon, Karačaevo-Čerkesskaja Respublika): cowries are mentioned among the finds of the disturbed kurgan, dated to the 6th–5th centuries BC.780

704. Kurgan 121: in the grave soil of the robbed base burial, likely 1 shell was found, identified as Money cowrie, dated to the 5th–3th centuries BC In the destroyed base burial, beside 5 skeletons, among other finds, 29 shells, identified as Money cowries were uncovered with removed dorsum. Among the 2 illustrated items, the first is a Ringed cowrie, the other might be also a Money cowrie, size: approximately 2.2x1.6, and 2.0x1.7 cm.784

Taman’ peninsula (Krasnodarskij kraj) – see Annex 2501. Tamgacik cemetery (Karačaevo-Čerkesskaja ����������������������������������� Respublika) Grave 5 – see Annex 2502. Tamgacikskoe poselenie – see 709. Žako

705. Kurgan 128: in the robbed kurgan burial including at least 11 persons’ as well as a sheep’s burial, among the remained finds, 1 shell identified as Money cowrie preserved, which might be Ringed cowrie according to the photo. The finds were dated to the end of the 3rd century BC, the size of the shell: approximately 1.8x1.4 cm.785

701. Tašanta (Respublika Altaj)-Ulandryk I: a cemetery with 16 kurgans, dated to the 6th –1st centuries BC: Kurgan 5: finds from a male burial, who was resting on a bench weaved from willow twigs and leather straps, in a chest of stone-plates, and was dated with C14 to around 390 BC: a leather quiver with bronze hook and wooden base, including 6 bone and 1 bronze arrowheads, whose rod was painted, the wooden button of the quiver, a bronze adzeaxe with painted handle, hanged on a strap on the belt, with a bone strap loop, a bronze dagger in a leather-covered wooden sheath, the bark handle of the (board?)shield, woolen cloth, the leather belt with square, mounts-shaped leather supports, a bone strap loop, a small wooden button, 2 different silver or lead earrings, an oculus bead, an iron knife, a bronze mirror wrapped into textile and leather, a wooden ladle, 1-1 wooden and clay vessel, horse bones,

706. Turan (Respublika Tyva)-Site II, Kurgan 5, Grave 2: unknown amount and quality of cowrie imitations were found, dated to the 6th/5th–4th centuries BC786 707. Ufa (Respublika Baškortostan): cowries were discovered in Grave 15 of a cemetery of the Kara-Abyz The cowries were interpreted as amulets, and on the basis of their rare appearance in the 8 kurgan cemeteries of the surrounding territory: Kubarev (1987) 90, 93, 158–159, 213: pl. XII: 11. 782 Členova (1972) 54. Perhaps one additional item is mentioned from the same site: Teplouhov (1931). 783 Kiselev (1947) 164, fig. 3: d; Kiselev (1949) 172, 171: pl. XXVIII: 16, length approximately 1.4 cm; Rudenko (1960) 20, 19: fig. 7: d. Karl Jettmar interpreted these items as glass paste imitations, which were typical in the second half of the Tagar Period. He argued that similar objects were produced in China in that period, and it was money substitute in that area. Archaeological material of the Volga-region shows how far these connections could reach: Jettmar (1951) 165; Jettmar (1950) 94: at the same time, he called the sample for the cowrie-imitations in the Tagar-Period Money cowries. 784 29 “rakovin cyprea moneta, so srezannymi spinkami”: Poltorackaja (1966) 86, 85: fig. 5: 20. 785 Poltorackaja (1966) 88, 97, 89: fig. 7: 12. 786 Členova (1972) 54. 781

Semenov (1992) 118–19, 121, 125: fig. 4. The reconstruction of the garment marked cowries as sticked to the strap: ibid. fig. 4: 2. 776 In the text rakovina kauri, in the summary Cypraea moneta is written. If one of the cowries from this site is presented in Semenov (1992) 124: fig. 3: 11, then it is rather a large Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 3.2 cm. 777 Členova (1984) 238–39: fig. 2: 19; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 778 Kiselev (1949) 132, note 25, 155, note 127; Kiselev (1947) 164; Členova (1972) 54. 779 Pšenicyna–Poljakov (1989) 59, 61: fig. 3: 9–10. 780 Kozenkova (1989) 52, and 60: nr. 185. 775

224

Catalogue 715–16, Annex 2517–18. Turkey

(kara-abyzskaja) Culture (4th century BC–2nd century AD) dated to the 4th–3rd centuries BC.787

715. Alishar Hüyük (Anatolia)-Layer VI: 1 cowrie with removed dorsum was found in the Hellenistic-Roman layer of the site.795

Ulandryk I – see 701. Tašanta 708. Vorošilovsk (Stavropol’skij kraj): it is mentioned among the sites where cowries were discovered in the Northern Caucasus (see 640, 651–52, 662). Here cowries were found in the kurgan excavated in 1924.788

Balat (Aydin ili)-Kalabak Tepe and Zeytin Tepe – see Annex 2517–18. 716. Selçuk (Izmir province)-Efes/ancient EphesosArtemision/sanctuary to Artemis: 1 Arcularia sp. and 4 pierced cowries, among them at least 1 Fallow cowrie, dated between 700–550 BC.796

709. Žako (Karačaevo-Čerkesskaja Respublika)Tamgacikskie bugry: among finds from the settlement, dated to the 6th–5th centuries BC, “bowls, filled to repletion with Money cowries [Cyprea moneta] were in particular interesting, whose dorsi were removed in order to string them. It is evident that these were like special «money» hoards It is noteworthy that these bowls with shells – according to the report of the excavator E. P. Alekseeva – were found on and under the floor of the living-rooms as they had been buried.”789

717–84, (719a, 764a–c), Annex 2522–23, 2525, 2529–30, 2534, 2538–40, 2544, 2553–55, 2559. Ukraine 717. Aksjutincy (Romenskij rajon, Sumskaja oblast’): on 1 of the 2 photos preserved of the material of the 6th century BC of excavations by V. V. Hvojko in 1897–99, a necklace, composed of nearly 50 cowries is presented.797

710. Zuevo (Karakulinskij rajon, Udmurtskaja Respublika): cowries were discovered in the Scythian Period of a cemetery from the Anan’ino (ananin’skaja) Culture (8th–3rd centuries BC).790

718. Bašmačka (Dnepropetrovskaja oblast’): cowries (rakoviny) are mentioned from the kurgan cemetery dated to the Scythian Period.798

711. Unknown provenance (Minusinsk): a copper cowrie imitation, as an example of the Chinese Pre-Ch`in Culture’s (before 221–206 BC) influence in Siberia.791

719. Bel’skoe gorodišče (Poltavskaja oblast’): 1 cowrie was uncovered in the material of house Nr. 1-11-1958 in the town of ancient Gelon, in the western fortification, which was dated to the 7th–3rd centuries BC: probably a Ringed cowrie, its condition is not apparent from the illustration, length approximately 1.5 cm.799

712. Unknown provenance (in Museum of Stavropol): 6 cowries were found in a stray find-assemblage dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC792

Bijuk-Muskomja – see 775–76. Širokoe

713. Syria

719a. Brilevka (Hersonskaja oblast’) Kurgan 26, Grave 1: finds from the burial of an 1-year old child: among beads, silver ring of an earring at the neck area, a series of amulets were uncovered: a miniature comb, perforated jasper, 2 pieces of limestone, the canine of a wild boar and a horse tooth, and 2 pierced shells.800

713. Deve Höyük (near Carchemish, northern Syria): 1 pierced cowrie was discovered among shells from the cemetery, mainly dated to the 5th century BC.793 714. Tunisia 714. Carthage (near Tunis): cowries were discovered beside glass, carnelian, agate, bone, and ivory beads, spindle whorls, bone and wooden phalli, terracotta dog heads, Anubis- and jackal-heads during the excavation of the tophet of the 7th century BC.794

720. Čeremušna (Har’kovskaja oblast’) Kurgan 1: 1 likely Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.17 cm was found among the finds from the ash pit from the Scythian Period: bronze arrowheads,

Zbrueva (1952) 17, 43; Bader (1976) 125: nr. 1021. 788 Iessen (1940) 48, note 4. 789 Krupnov (1960) 140. Without illustration the identification is uncertain; see Kozenkova (1989) 53: nr. 190; Brujako (1999) 49: note 3. 790 Zbrueva (1952) 17, 182; Ivanova (1994) 28, 32: mentioning shells from the Mediterranean Sea (sredizemnomorskie rakoviny). 791 A. Salmony: Sino-Siberian art in the collection of C. T. Loo. Paris (1933) 11: cited by Egami (1974) 50, note 118. 792 Kozenkova (1989) nr. 209.4. 793 Reese (1991) 169: nr. 56; Reese (1991b) 135. 794 Preisendanz (1932) 2197–98, 2205; Schilder (1923) 204, 206: note 5; Gobert (1951) 6; Hiskett (1966) 340. – Excavations here in the 1980s also produced Red Sea cowries with the dorsum removed (Note of D. S. Reese).

796

Reese (1986a) 196. Reese (1986a) 196: four holed Luria and Cypraea. – “The Artemision at Ephesos produced at least 4 holed cowries (at least 2 Luria) from the Basis..., and the Artemis Altar produced 2 Cypraea pyrum [Pear cowry].”: Reese (2000) 636. 797 Il’inskaja (1968) 38–39, pl. XXV: 16. 798 Mentioned as a parallel of the cowries discovered in kurgan 4 at Mastjugino (664), dated to the end of the 4th—first half of the 3rd centuries: Mancevič (1973) 37, 45: note 282: the unpublished (?) excavation of 1897: Ermitage, Dn. 1897 7/67. 799 Šramko (1987) 42, 41: fig. 11: 6. The author did not mention this object among the import objects of the town: ibid. 122–26. 800 Rolle (1991) 101. The definition “Muschel” may be identified as cowry shell, because the author referred to cowrie amulets on a child hat from Kashmir: ibid. 98: fig. 1: b. 795

787

225

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads fragments of iron bits, a bronze pin, clay and bone spindle whorls, iron artifacts, glass paste, glass, clay and stone beads, a perforated animal canine-amulet.801

finger ring, glass and glass paste beads, and 3 cowries, likely all Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.5–2.1 cm.809

Čerkes-Kermen – see 745–56. Krepkoe

727. Grave 8: 3 three-edged bronze arrowheads, a bronze earring with a sheet button, 2 bronze plait clamps, a bronze mace-pendant, 4 bronze wire bracelets, a flint, and 1 cowrie, length: probably 2.1 cm. 810

721. Čertomlyk (Dnepropetrovskaja oblast’): 6 unmodified and 9 fragmentary shells (rakoviny) were discovered in the earth of a kurgan, dazed to the turn of the 4th/3rd centuries BC,802 in a depth of 3.4 m, together with handle-ends (naveršie), arms and harnesses.803

728. Grave 13: 2 three-edged bronze arrowheads, an earring with a spiral wound, a bronze plait clamp, glass and glass paste beads, 1-1 bronze tube and sheet, a pierced animal canine-amulet, and 1 cowrie, probably Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: probably 1.5 cm.811

722. Čmyreva mogila (Zaporožskaja oblast’): shells (rakoviny) mentioned in the kurgan cemetery dated to the Scythian Period.804

729. Grave 14: a three-edged bronze arrowhead, the bronze jointed mouthpieces of the horse bridle, a bronze button, a bronze plait clamp, glass paste beads, fragments of two types of vessels, and 1 cowrie, probably a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: probably 2.0 cm.812

723. Dolinjany (Hotinskij rajon,, Černovickaja oblast’): 1 cowrie was uncovered among the finds of the Scythian settlement, dated to the 6th–early 5th centuries BC, in pit Nr. 12, size: approximately 2.3x1.6 cm.805 724. Družnoe (Krymskaja oblast’)-Cemetery I: 3 small cowries were discovered in the disturbed cemetery of the Pre-Scythian Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture of the end of the 7th–5th centuries, perhaps all were Ringed cowries with open dorsum, length: probably 1.8–2.7 cm.806

730. Grave 18: a three-edged bronze arrowhead, 3 bronze plait clamps, 3 bronze fingerrings, glass and glass paste beads, glass pendants, bronze mace-pendant, an iron knife, the point of an awl (?), a clay spindle whorl, a flintstone, and 1 cowrie, perhaps a large Ringed cowrie, length: probably 2.7 cm.813

725–30. Družnoe (Krymskaja oblast’)-Cemetery II: 18 graves of the Tauros population of the Prescythian Kizil Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, where the following graves were dated between the end of the 7th and the 5th centuries:807

Fanagorija/ancient Phanagoria (Taman’ peninsula) Graves 75/1951, 259/1965 – see Annex 2522–23. 731. Fljarkovka (Kamenskij rajon,, Čerkasskaja oblast’)“Červona mogila”: in the robbed Scythian kurgan the burials of a cremated male, and the contracted skeleton of a woman were identified, dated to the 6th century BC. At the latter’s neck area, in the string of 1564 beads 2 pierced cowries were discovered, one of them, according to the photo may be a Ringed cowrie, length approximately 1.5 cm.814

725. Grave 2: 4 three-edged bronze arrowheads, an iron knife, 5 bronze buttons, 3 bronze earrings with spiral pendants, 4 bronze earrings with sheet pendants, a bronze, eyeglass-shaped double spiral pendant-amulet, 2 spiral pendants, 8 bronze wire bracelets, 3 bronze wire finger rings, remains of glass and glass paste beads, 2 vessels, and 1, likely Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: probably 2.1 cm.808

732–738. Gaspra (Jaltinskij rajon,, Krymskaja oblast’): 15 stone-chest burials from the southern part of the KizilKoba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated to the 7th–first half of the 5th centuries BC:815

726. Grave 3: an iron dagger, 1 bronze spiral pendant, and 1 bronze sheet pendant, 2 bronze mace-pendant, 2 bronze plait clamps, 4 bronze and 2 iron wire bracelets, a bronze

732. Stone Chest ?: remained finds: iron sidebars, 2 iron bits, 1 number eight-shaped bronze mount, a bronze spiral bead, a glass bead, and some cowries.816

Liberov (1962) 10, 45, 43: fig. 11: 12; 33: fig. 4: 5–20, 37: fig. 7: 1, 6, 10–11, 14, 17, 22, 39: fig. 8: 1–5, 41: fig. 9: 1–2, 42: fig. 10: 1–6, 8, 17–19. 802 About the dating: Alekseev (1981) 82. 803 Excavation finds, mentioned as parallel to the Kurgan 4 of Mastjugino (664), perhaps this material originates from year 1862: Ermitage, Dn 1862 2/92: “nejasno naznačenie šesti celyh i devjati oblomkov rakovin...”: Mancevič (1973) 37, 45: Note 283. 804 Excavation finds, mentioned as parallels to the Kurgan 4 of Mastjugino (664), dated to the end of the 4th–first half of the 3rd centuries: Mancevič (1973) 37, 45: note 283: unpublished(?) excavation of 1898: Ermitage, Dn 1898 1/318. 805 Likely a Ringed cowrie, its condition is not mentioned, and it is not apparent in the illustration: Smirnova (1981) 50, 51: fig. 8: 1. 806 Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 148: fig. 48: 29–31. 807 Kolotuhin (1996) 47. 808 Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 149: fig. 49: 46. 801

Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 150: fig. 50: 31–32. Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 152: fig. 52: 5. 811 Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 153: fig. 53: 19. 812 Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 153: fig. 53: 32. 813 Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 155: fig. 55: 40. 814 Kovpanenko (1984) 112, 111: fig. 214; dated to the 2nd half of the 7th century BC: Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 5.. 815 The excavation of V. I. Sizov without grave numbers, and later A. S. Uvarov, then in 1950 Havva Josifovna Kris investigated at least 7-7 stone-chest graves, often with more than one burial: Kris (1981) 34–35, 57: nr. 30, 71: pl. I. 816 The excavation of V. I. Sizov, without grave numbers: Kris (1981) 34–35, 71: pl. I. 809 810

226

Catalogue 733. Stone Chest 1: remained finds: 2 number-eight-shaped bronze mount, and 8 cowries.

742. Jaroslavka (Saratskij rajon, Odesskaja oblast’)Hadžider I: 3 excavated kurgans:

734. Stone Chest 4: remained, female-type finds: 2 bronze beads, 1 bronze mace-amulet, 2 bronze wire bracelets, a bronze wire finger ring, and 27 cowries.817

Kurgan 3: in one of two burials dated to the 4th–3rd centuries BC, in the adult female burial of Grave 1 excavated finds: 2 bronze pendants, a clay pot, on the chest as well as at the feet 26 various glass beads, 4 tiny beads, a glass gemma, behind the skull, as well as on the chest, 5 cowries. According to the published illustration all are likely Ringed cowries, two with removed dorsum, but unknown for the others, length approximately 1.9–2.8 cm.822

735. Stone Chest 2: remained finds: bronze bead, bronze sheet beads, glass beads, and some cowries. 736. Stone Chest 4: remained finds: iron arrowheads, an iron bit, a bronze ring, 13 number eight-shaped bronze mounts, a small bronze chain, bronze beads, bronze sheet beads, glass beads, some cowries.

Južno-Čurubanskoe (Krymskaja oblast’)-Nimfea Grave 11 – see Annex 2530.

737. Stone Chest 6: remained finds: 3 number eight-shaped bronze mounts, mace-amulet, 2 bronze sheet beads, 12 cowries.

743. Kapak-Taš (Krymskaja oblast’): 2 small cowries were discovered in the remains of a cemetery from the Prescythian Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated between the end of the 7th—5th centuries. Perhaps both were Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 2.1. and 2.4 cm.823

738. Stone Chest 7: remained finds: 5 numbereight-shaped and 1 plain bronze mount, 12 bronze beads, little bronze clasp, 4 cowries.818

Kirovo (Krymskaja oblast’)-Kurgan 2/1966, Grave 1 – see Annex 2534.

739. Grušino (Pervomajskij rajon,, Krymskaja oblast’): two burials were uncovered in the kurgan, dated to the end of the 5th–beginning of the 4th centuries BC. In Grave 2, among other grave goods of the female skeleton, at the neck a string of beads was discovered, and 1 additional bead, and 1 cowrie was found at the left hand. This latter is likely a Ringed cowrie, length approximately 2.5 cm.819

744. Knyševka (Gadjačskij rajon,, Poltavskaja oblast’): among the material of the gorodišče dated to the a 6th–4th centuries BC, 1 likely Ringed cowrie was found with removed dorsum, but it was not mentioned in the publication, length approximately 2.1 cm.824 745–56. Krepkoe (prev. Čerkes-Kermen; Kujbiševskij rajon,, Krymskaja oblast’): 32 stone-chest burials from a part of a cemetery, ranged to North-Bajdar Group of the the Tauros Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture and dated to the 7th–first half of the 5th centuries BC:825

Il’ičevo (Krymskaja oblast’)-Kurgan 9/1965, Grave 3 – see Annex 2525. Ivankoviči (Vasil’kovskij rajon, Kievskaja oblast’) – see Annex 2529. 740. Jalta (Krymskaja oblast’)-Mordvinov farm/Usad’ba Mordvinova, Stone Chest 3: 3 cowries, iron and bronze arrowheads, 2 earrings, a bronze buckle, 4 bronze sheet beads were uncovered in the remained finds of a burial, dated from the 7th to first half of the 5th centuries BC, which was ranged among the material of the southern group of the Taurus Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture.820

745. Row A, Stone Chest 1: remained finds: an iron ring, a whetstone, 2 bronze mounts, 5 number eight-shaped bronze mounts, 2 bronze beads, glass bead, 5 cowries. 746. Row A, Stone Chest 2: remained female-type finds: an iron bit, a mushroom-shaped bronze pendant, a bronze plait clamp, a whetstone, a number eight-shaped bronze mount, 2 bronze mounts, 10 bronze beads, a wire finger ring with sheet bezel, 2 twisted bronze wire finger rings, a bronze sheet bead, a glass bead, 8 cowries.

741. Jalta (Krymskaja oblast’) Stone Chest 2: 12 stonechest burials from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 7th–first half of the 5th centuries BC, and ranged among the material of the southern group of the Taurus Kizil-Koba (kizilkobinskaja) Culture:

747. Row A, Stone Chest 3: remained female-type finds: an iron ring, a bronze plait clamp, 5 earrings, 3 bronze beads, a mace-amulet, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, a bronze sheet bead, 11 glass beads, 2 cowries.

Stone Chest 2: remained female-type material: a bronze mace-amulet, and 10 cowries.821 817 818

I.

819 820 821

748. Row A, Stone Chest 4: remained finds: 2 bronze

The excavation of A. S. Uvarov: Kris (1981) 34–35, 71: pl. I. The excavation of Havva Josifovna Kris: Kris (1981) 34–35, 71: pl.

Subbotin–Ostroverhov–Ohotnikov–Redina (1992) 23, 45: fig. 20: 5–9. 823 Kolotuhin (1996) 47, 49, 156: fig. 6: 41–42. 824 Il’inskaja (1957) 247: fig. 7: 10. 825 Kris (1981) 59: nr. 64. 822

Vdovičenko–Koltuhov (1986) 235, 237: fig. 3: 11. Kris (1981) 57: nr. 25, 71: pl. I. Kris (1981) 57: nr. 26, 71: pl. I.

227

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads arrowheads, 2 number eight-shaped bronze mount, bronze bead, 3 glass beads, 1 cowrie.

a small double hatchet-shaped iron artifact, and a large (?) cowrie with cut dorsum (krupnaja rakovina kauri). The reference contradicts itself, because according to the badly planned three scales of the illustration, the length was approximately 2.2 cm, therefore, the item was likely a larger Ringed cowrie.829

749. Row A, Stone Chest 6: remained finds: some cowries. 750. Row B, Stone Chest 1: remained female-type finds: a bronze arrowhead, mushroom-shaped bronze pendant, 3 earrings, a number eight-shaped bronze mount, 8 bronze beads, 2 bronze bracelets, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, 9 bronze sheet beads, 2 glass beads, some cowries.

759–60. Medvin (Boguslavskij rajon,, Kievskaja oblast’)Gorčakov les: 759. Kurgan Group I, Kurgan 3: 14 pierced cowries, perhaps Ringed cowries (with differently removed dorsi) were discovered among the grave goods of a robbed double burial (one of the dead was a 35–40 years old man) dated to the end of the 7th–first half of the 6th centuries.830

751. Row C, Stone Chest 1: remained female-type finds: 3 bronze earrings, 6 bronze beads, 2 bronze clasps, 2 bronze bracelets, 3 twisted bronze wire finger rings, a bronze sheet bead, 3 cowries.

760. Kurgan Group III, Kurgan 3: 11 shells were discovered from a robbed set of four burials (22–28, 25–30, 45–50 years old women, besides, a 25-30 years old man): 1 pierced undefinited shell, and 10 Ringed cowries with differently removed dorsum dated to the end of the 7th–first half of the 6th centuries BC.831

752. Row C, Stone Chest 2: remained female-type finds: an iron ring, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, a bronze sheet bead, 2 stone beads, 1 cowrie. 753. Row C, Stone Chest 4: remained female-type finds: a bronze ring, 2 mushroom-shaped bronze pendant, 2 earrings, 3 bronze clasps, 2 twisted bronze wire finger rings, 10 bronze and 3 glass beads, 6 cowries.

761. Nagornoe (Dnepropetrovskaja oblast’): kurgan with 3 burials from a kurgan cemetery:

754. Row E, Stone Chest 1: a remained find: 1 cowrie.

Kurgan 11, Grave 3: remained female-type finds from the middle of the 4th century BC from the robbed burial: a bone pendant, 3 beads, besides, dispersed tiny beads, bronze and silver bracelets, a silver finger ring, bone handle of a knife, 1 lead and 2 clay spindle buttons, a silver vessel and its separeted buttom, a bronze ladle, 42 various vessels: a red-figured oinokhe, lekythos, black-glazed kylix and bowl, a black-glazed skythos, a black-glazed kantharos, an amphora broken into two, 2 wheeled, one-, and two-handled jug, 1 plastered cup, and the fragment of one additional cup, a globular stone, a stone plate, iron fragment, bones of a larger animal, and 1 small cowrie (rakovinka kauri), length approximately 2.0 cm.832

755. Row E, Stone Chest 3: remained finds: a bronze plait clamp, 4 number eight-shaped bronze mounts, maceamulet, 1-1 bronze and glass bead, some cowries. 756. Row E, Stone Chest 4: vessel, mace-amulet, 2 bone beads, some cowries.826 757. Mačuhi (Poltavskaja oblast’): a cemetery with 11 kurgans dated to the 6th century BC: Kurgan 8 finds: a three-edged bronze arrowhead, an iron knife, a bronze earring, a bronze wire bracelet with globular terminals, and 6 pierced cowries among a string of beads, on the illustration lengthways strung.827

Nikonij/ancient Niconium (Odesskaja oblast’) Kurgan 5 Grave 2, Pit 170 – see Annex 2538–39.

758. Matusov (Novomirgorodskij rajon, Čerkasskaja oblast’)-Repjahovataja Mogila: in Catacombe 1, in the burial of a woman and a pubescent dated to the second half of the 7th century BC, at the northern side of the grave pit beside 75 disc-shaped paste beads and 5 paste beads, 4 cowries with removed dorsum was also discovered. Among the 3 illustrated items, 2 are probably Ringed cowries, length approximately 1.1–1.2 cm.828 On the band that was attached to the right arm of the woman, 3 large spherical crystal beads, a bone hook, 3 barrel-shaped, fluted paste beads, a drilled wolf canine, fragment of a dog jaw bone,

Odessa (Odesskaja oblast’)-Peresyp, Tiramba Graves 120, 130 – see Annex 2540. Ostraja Mogila – see Annex 2544. 762. Pastyrskoe (Zlatopol´skij rajon,, Čerkasskaja oblast’): in Grave 2 of Kurgan 447 of the kurgan cemetery, Il’inskaja–Mozolevskij–Terenožkin (1980) 39, 34: fig. 3, 35: fig. 4: 9; Skoryj–Soltys–Belan (2001) 135; Brujako (1999) 50, 52 830 The incorrect identification of the Cipraea, transcribed as Ciprea with mixes Latin-Cyrillic letters: 14 busin iz rakušek Sirčea: Kovpanenko (1981) 38–39, 128, 141: nr. 111, 148: nr. 16, 38: fig. 27. 9; similar confusion: see footnotes 825, 835; Brujako (1999) 50, 52. 831 The shells with the following confusing definition: “11 busin iz Kauri i Sirčea.” On the illustration 8 cowries are presented: Kovpanenko (1981) 45, 128, 141: nr. 118, 148: nr. 23, 46: fig. 35: 3; Brujako (1999) 50, 52. 832 Andruh–Suničuk (1987) 39, 42: fig. 4: 1; Stepi (1989) 52: nr. 23. 829

Kris (1981) 73–74: pl. II. Kovpanenko (1961) 71, 75: fig. 4; Kovpanenko (1970) 153–55, 154: fig. 3: 8. 828 Il’inskaja–Mozolevskij–Terenožkin (1980) 37, 36: fig. 5: 1; Kossack (1986) 131–33, 378: pl. 8: 9. 826 827

228

Catalogue from the burial of a young girl, separated from the string of beads at the neck, around the pelvis and the knees 25 pierced cowries (with cut dorsi?) were discovered, dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC. The length of one item was 2.5 cm.833

torques, 2 bronze wire torques, 2 bronze mushroom-shaped bronze pendant, 15 bronze beads, 4 twisted bronze wire bracelets, 4 twisted bronze wire finger rings, a sheet finger ring, a bronze sheet bead, 41 glass beads, 9 cowries. 768. Stone Chest 22/6: remained female-type finds: an iron dagger, iron and bronze arrowheads, an iron sidebar, a bronze ring, 26 bronze beads, 2 eyeglasses-shaped bronze pendant, a bronze plait clamp, 7 bronze earrings, 9 bronze wire bracelets, 2 twisted bronze wire finger rings, a sheet finger ring, 88 glass beads, 10 cowries.838

763–64. Peredovoe (prev. Urkusta; Krimskaja oblast’): some cowries were found in two stone-chest burials from Cemetery I or II of the North-Bajdar Group of the Taurus Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated to the 7th–5th centuries BC. According to the illustration, one item was likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.0 cm.834

769–772. Rodnikovoe (prev. Skelja, Krymskaja oblast’): 15 stone-chest burials of the North-Bajdar Group of the Taurus Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated to the 7th–first half of the 5th centuries BC:839

Pesočin (Har’kovskaja oblast’) Kurgans 21, 22, 25 – see Annex 2553–55. 764a–c. Petuhovka (Hersonskaja oblast’): in 3 burials among the 59 graves of a cemetery dated to the 5th–2nd/1st centuries BC were shells (Muschel) discovered:

769. Stone Chest 2: remained finds: bronze bead, 1 cowrie. 770. Stone Chest 3: remained finds: 8 bronze arrowheads, 2 bronze mount, a mushroom-shaped pendant, a bronze earring, a bronze bead, a bronze buckle, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, a sheet finger ring, 5 glass beads, 2 cowries.

764a. Grave 19: among the finds from a female burial, a kleine Muschel was listed among the ornaments of a string of beads.835 764b. Grave 33: among the beads of a double female burial 1 4.2 cm long Muschel is mentioned.836

771. Stone Chest 8: remained female-type finds: 3 bronze arrowheads, a bronze ring, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, 3 sheet finger rings, 9 bronze sheet beads, 27 glass beads, some cowries.

764c. Grave 49: among the finds from a female burial, next to the skull, a 4.5 cm long Muschel was found.837 765–68. Rodnikovoe (prev. Skelja, Krymskaja oblast’)Mal-Muz: stone-chest burials of the North-Bajdar Group of the Taurus Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated to the 7th– first half of the 5th centuries BC:

772. Stone Chest 15: remained finds: 6 bronze arrowheads, 1 cosmetic spoon, 7 bronze beads, a bronze sheet bead, 23 glass beads, 1 cowrie.840 773. Sinjavka (Kanevskij rajon,, Čerkasskaja oblast’)-100. Kurgan (=“Mogila Ternovka”): finds from the second female grave in a set of 4 burials (high-born woman, and a second woman beside a man, and a child) dated to the late 7th–early 6th centuries BC: a small bowl curved from sandstone, filled rouge, a bronze mirror with iron handles, and at last, at the neck area, a string of 52 oculus glass beads, bone, and numerous tiny glass past beads, besides, 160 (-more than?) cowries, which are not imitations. but rather Ringed cowries.841

765. Stone Chest 22/1: remained female-type finds: an iron dagger, 4 bronze arrowheads, a whetstone, cosmetic spoon, 73 number eight-shaped bronze mounts, 3 bronze mushroom-shaped bronze pendant, 3 bronze earrings, a bronze torques, 3 bronze wire bracelets, 3 bronze twisted wire finger rings, 5 bronze sheet beads, 1 glass bead, 3 cowries. 766. Stone Chest 22/3: remained female-type finds: a bronze arrowhead, a whetstone, 4 plait clamps, 3 bronze earrings, 2 bronze mushroom-shaped bronze pendant, bronze bead, bronze clasp, a bronze mace-amulet, 6 bronze wire bracelets, 3 twisted bronze wire bracelets, a bronze wire finger ring, 5 twisted bronze wire finger rings, 56 glass beads, 3 cowries.

774. Širjaevo (Putivil’skij rajon,, Sumskaja oblast’): in the Sejma-valley, among the finds of the Scythian fortified Kris (1981) 72: pl. II. Kris (1981) 58: nr. 39. 840 Kris (1981) 72: pl. II. 841 From the grave description, also cowrie-imitation can be read: “ožerel’e v neskol’ko rjadov iz bus v vide rakovin [160], stekla [52] i melkih pastovyh”, but when the objects are analyzed, which name was created from the Cyrillic mistype of the Latin word Cypraea that these items are correctly natural cowries: “v ètoj že mogile takže nahodilos’ neskol’ko ožerelij: iz rakovin Sirčea [bolee 160], stekljannyh glazčatyh, kostjanyh i melkih pastovyh bus želtogo i černogo sveta...”: Kovpanenko (1981) 51, 119; dating: 131, 142: nr. 139, 152: nr. 100, 53: fig. 42: 19. In the publication, the number of the shells were originally presented in []brackets; Brujako (1999) 50, 52; Skoryj–Soltys–Belan (2001) 131, 135. 838 839

767. Stone Chest 22/4: remained female-type finds: 3 bronze plait clamps, a bronze earring, a twisted bronze wire 833 834 835 836 837

Galanina (1977) 29, 33: pl. 14: 11; Mancevič (1973) 37. Kris (1981) 41, 58: nr. 43–48, pl. 39: 35. Ebert (1913) 47–48, 106—07. I could not identify the site. Ebert (1913) 55–57, 108–09. Ebert (1913) 65, 108–09.

229

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads settlement (gorodišče), small pierced cowries (čerepaški samčì/užìvki) were also found, dated to the 6th/5th–4th centuries BC; among them 1 seems to be a Ringed cowrie, according to the illustration might be the item of a larger-sized species, accordingly the scale, its length was approximately 3.6 cm.842

781. Umani (Čerkasskaja oblast’): 11 Kurgans of a cemetery dated to the 5th–4th centuries BC: Kurgan 5 finds: a small two-handled amphora, the bottom of a vessel, besides, 2 pierced cowries. According to the unscaled illustration, the dorsum of this item was removed.848

775–76. Širokoe (prev. Bijuk-Muskomja; Krymskaja oblast’): 20 stone-chest of the North-Bajdar group of the Taurus Kizil-Koba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated to the 7th–first half of the 5th centuries BC:843

Urkusta – see 763–64. Peredovoe 782. Vasil’kov (Špoljanskij rajon,, Čerkasskaja oblast’): 1 cowrie was found in the mouth of a skeleton, in a burial of a kurgan cemetery dated to the 4th–2nd centuries BC849

775. Stone Chest 3: the remained female-type finds: a small bronze chain, bronze bead, 5 glass beads, 9 cowries.844

783. Volkovcy (Romenskij rajon, Poltavskaja oblast’): a kurgan cemetery dated to the 7th–4th centuries BC:

776. Stone Chest 1: the remained female-type finds: bronze bead, 3 little bronze clasps, a twisted bronze wire bracelet, 2 bronze sheet beads, 10 glass beads, and some cowries.845

Kurgan 2/1886: finds from a robbed double burial, dated to the 6th century BC: 4 pairs of iron bits, 4 pairs of bone sidebars, 6 bone buckles, 4 harness fittings from drilled canines of wild boar, bronze belt loops, a bronze bracelet, a drilled animal-tooth amulet, a string of beads: a large oculus bead, 4 glass paste beads, glass paste rosette, more hundreds of limestone tiny beads, pieces of red paint, besides, 3 large, undefinable cowries (3 bol’šie rakoviny kauri). One of the illustrated items is with removed dorsum, the length calculated from the given scale was approximately 7 cm.850

Skelja –see 765–72. Rodnikovoe 777. Surmačevka (Glinskij rajon, Sumskaja oblast’): a cowrie is mentioned in the female find material of the unpublished kurgan excavation of I. A. Linničenko, which was dated to the 6th century BC.846 778–80. Taš-Džargan (Krimskaja oblast’): a cemetery, excavated in the south-western part of the Crimea, belonging to the submontain group of the Taurus KizilKoba (kizil-kobinskaja) Culture, dated to the 7th–mid 5th centuries BC:

784. Unknown provenance (previous Poltava province): a necklace, composed of Money cowries is mentioned from an unidentified kurgan in the report of Joseph de Baye written in 1893, Moscow, as an attendant of a conference.851

778. Grave 1: remained finds from a robbed female (?) burial: twisted bronze wire finger ring, glass beads, and 2 cowries.

785. Uzbekistan

779. Grave 2: remained finds from a robbed female (?) burial: bronze beads, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, and 5 cowries.

785. Ak-tam (Ferganskaja oblast’): a kurgan cemetery dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC: Kurgan 76, Grave 4: finds from a female (?) burial: an iron pin, 2 vessels, and on the chest a white glass paste bead and likely 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.3 cm.852

780. Grave 3: remained finds from a robbed female (?) burial: 1 bead, 2 mace-amulets, a pair of bronze wire bracelets, a twisted bronze wire finger ring, 2 glass beads, and 5 cowries.847 Tuzly (Odesskaja oblast’) Grave 5 – see Annex 2559.

Pokrovs’ka–D`idenko (1970) 169, 170: fig. 2: 11. Onajko (1970) 67, 118–19: nrs 827–48. It must be noted that beside the cited finds from the Dnepr- and Middle Bug region he mentioned, pierced shells (identified as Money cowries) from the lower region of the Bug, which were involved in string of beads, and were appreciated by Scythians: Onajko (1970) 54; 107–08: nrs 509–32. 850 Il’inskaja (1968) 45, 193, pl. XXXIV: 7; dated to the 7th century BC: Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 6. 851 Baye (1893) 38: note 1. 852 Gamburg–Gorbunova (1957) 80–82, 86, 83: fig. 29: 17. It is probable that 2 cowries were listed from the same cemetery, 1 is illustrated, and perhaps a Ringed cowrie: Gorbunova (1962) 102, 100: fig. 3: 33a. 848

Íllìns’ka (1953) 117, 118: pl. III: 2; Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 10.. 843 Kris (1981) 58: nr. 49–50. 844 The excavation of Ju. D. Filimonov: Kris (1981) 58: nrs 49–50, 73–74: pl. III. 845 The excavation of A. M. Leskov: Kris (1981) 58: nr. 49–50, 73–74: pl. III. 846 Il’inskaja (1968) 62, pl. LIV: 12. The publication mentions under this nr. a paste bead, an object with wavy-fluted surface under nr. 27 was defined as the cowrie. Dated to the late 7th century–1st half of the 6th century BC: Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 7. 847 Kris (1981) 43, 50, 75: tpl. IV (/2). 842

849

230

Catalogue 4.8. 786–98. Cowries Among Late Iron Age and Celtic Archaeological Finds from the Carpathian Basin (600/550–10 BC)

Mukačivskij rajon, Zakarpats’ka oblast, Ukraine)Gallishegy (Gallišovka) or Lovácskahegy (Lovačka): on the hill, northwest of the town, stray finds were discovered during deep plough at the end of the 19th century, besides, Tivadar Lehoczky collected material from the La-Tène Period (460/440–10 BC). Among the finds are cowries: 1 unmodified Money cowrie, 1 Money cowrie with narrow sawn opening, and a larger, unmodified, unidentified cowrie, length: approximately 1.6, 1.7, and 3.8 cm.

The material was collected from Hungary, Slovakia and Ukraine (Fig. 102). 786. Besenyőtelek (Heves megye, Hungary)-Szőrhát: disturbed cemetery of the La-Tène B2–C Period (330 BC–160/140):

Lehoczky collection, Užgorod/prev. Ungvár, acc. nr.: L-528 (Bz-237/350.), Bz-237-347, L-1349/7 (Bz-237/348).856

Grave/1960: Scythian-type finds disturbed during the excavation of János Győző Szabó: a grooved bronze wire bracelet, string of glass paste beads: 25 flattened spherical, 1 white oculus, and cylindrical beads, 2 round beads decorated with wavy lines, 1 round bead, and 5 fragmentary cowries, with partly or completely removed dorsum, which were likely Ringed cowries, length: 1.7–2.7 cm.

790. Munkács (prev. Bereg megye, Hungary; Mukačevo, Mukačivskij rajon, Zakarpats’ka oblast, Ukraine)-Bábika (Babika): unmodified stray Money cowrie from the LaTène Period (460/440–10 BC), stray find, length: appr. 2.6 cm.

Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger, acc. nr.: 61.28.1.853

Lehoczky collection, Užgorod/prev. Ungvár, acc. nr.: L866 (Bz-715/1.).857

Divinka (okres Žilina, Žilinský kraj, Slovakia) – see 465. Kisdivény

791–93. Pilismarót (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary)-Basaharc: 111 (300 numbered) graves of a biritual Celtic cemetery excavated next to the Scythian settlement. Cowries were uncovered in three graves of the La-Tène B1 Period (400–330 BC):858

787. Gyoma (Békés megye, Hungary)-Egei halom: 73 graves from a Scythian–Celtic cemetery, among which 23 burials were dated to the first half of the La-Tène B2–C Period (330–200 BC), and 50 graves from the end of the 1st century AD–end of the 2nd century. The burials were in a sandpit and among the stray grave goods 2 *Ringed cowries with open dorsum, size: 2.0x1.6 cm; the apex of one cowrie is broken. The white cowries can originate equally from Scythian or Celtic inhumation burials.

791. Grave 371: from an inhumation burial: a clay cup, another clay cup with broken rim, a bronze Certosa brooch under the chest, next to it one pierced wolftooth, on the left pelvis a marine shell (Turritella sp.), and above the left clavicle “a marine shell”, that is a *Ringed cowrie, whose dorsum have been removed with an irregular cut, and the opening at the apex is broken, size: 2.1x1.5 cm.

Munkácsy Mihály Museum, Békéscsaba, acc. nr.: 91.9.2.854

Archaeological Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, serial nr.: 2784.859

788. Muhi (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Kocsmadomb: 45 graves from a Scythian-Celtic biritual cemetery of the La-Tène C Period (270–160/140 BC):

792. Grave 373: from a likely female (?) cremation burial: I would like to thank for the information data and the drawings of the shells to József Kobály; see Sova-Gmitrov (1958) 132, 135. Only two items are mentioned in: Bìdzìlja (1964) 128, 124: pl. VIII: 12. In general, Tivadar Lehoczky wrote the following when he listed the finds: “perforated cyprea shells, which were worn strung. Similar cypraea beads with such porcelain light were discovered at other sites, and I have additional items in my collection.”: Lehoczky (1995) 53. These cowries, and cowries from Bábika (790), are mentioned by Jan Eisner as well: “a z Mukačeva a z Babičů tam mají mušle Cypraea.”: Eisner (1933) 178. Vojtech Ondrouch misunderstood this information, and referred to all cowries as Panther Cowries: “Mušle Cypraea pantherina našli sa aj v Mukačeve a v Babičoch na Zakarpatskej Ukrajine.”: Ondrouch (1957) 58. About the historical and ethnic context: Slavjane (1993) 82–84. 857 I would like to thank József Kobály for the information data and drawing of the cowrie. 858 Fettich (1970) 122; Bognár-Kutzián (1975) 37; MRT 5, 286–87: Site 17/10. The material is not inventoried, but the Archaeological Institute preserved the find-inventory of the excavation director Nándor Fettich – Fettich (1972) –, which includes the list of numbered grave goods, descriptions and drawings. István Torma drew my attention to this inventory book, here I would like to express my gratitude for his kindness. The material was kindly dated by Erzsébet Jerem. 859 About the grave: Fettich (1972) 185.

Grave 25: from a female inhumation burial: 2 Dux-type bronze brooches with a small chain, iron brooch, bronze torque, 2-2 iron, and bronze wire bracelets, 2 bronze wire anklets, clay mug, omphalos mug, and a separated at the left edge of the grave, some fragments of 2 fossil freshwater snails (Melanopsis? and Theodoxus?) and 1 Ringed cowrie with open dorsum, length: 2.0 cm.

856

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 73.40.15.855 789. Munkács (prev: Bereg megye, Hungary; Mukačevo, Hellebrandt (1999) 163, 175: pl. LIV: 1a–1e. Maráz (1971); Maráz (1973); Maráz (1974); dating: Maráz (1975), and the kind information of the excavation director. 855 Hellebrandt (1973); Hellebrandt (1974); Hellebrandt (1975); Hellebrandt (1977); 1978); Hellebrandt (1999) 218–19, 268: pl. LXXVIII: 15–16. I studied the material in photos through the kindness of the excavation director. 853 854

231

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 102. Distribution of Late Iron Age and Celtic cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin (600/550–10 BC)

794. Radostyán (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary): 16 disturbed Celtic graves from a cemetery, dated to the LaTène B2–C1 Period (330–140 BC). Among the stray finds, one Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, and the indented side fragment of an additional shell are mentioned, length: 2.4, and 2.1 cm.

a bronze brooch, 2 iron brooches, a bronze animal-shaped pendant, torque twisted from bronze strands with hookending, bronze wire bracelet from thick rod, the handle of a clay cup, beads: 6 amber, 73 coral, 15 blue glass, 1 yellow, blue oculus and 3 black-dotted paste beads and 5 fragments, 2 patterned, longish paste beads, 1 white funnel-shaped (Dentalium?) bead, and “a marine shell (amulet)”, which is a *Ringed cowrie with obliquely removed dorsum, length: 2.1x1.5 cm.

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, 862 795–98. Sopron (Győr-Moson-Sopron megye, Hungary)Krautacker-dűlő: 202 graves of a biritual Celtic cemetery, dated between the beginning of the 6th century–first third of the 4th century BC. Cowries were exclusively uncovered in the early burials, which were dated to the Hallstatt D2/3–La-Tène A Period (end of the 6th century–5th century BC).863

Archaeological Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, serial nr.: 2802.860 793. Grave 375: from a likely male (?) cremation burial: a bronze brooch, an iron buckle, an iron sickle, urn and urn cover-bowl, and a “marine shell”, which, according to the illustration is a Ringed cowrie, length: approximately 2.6 cm.

795. Grave 1: from the burial of a 7–8 years old girl: string of beads: 8 blue, 1-1 yellow, and brown glass bead, 1 burnt oculus bead, 1 Turitella duplicata, 1 Turris crispa, and in

Archaeological Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, serial nr.: 2817 (lost?).861 860 861

Fettich (1970) 122; about the grave: Fettich (1972) 186–87. About the grave: Fettich (1972) 187.

862 863

232

Hellebrandt (1999) 275: pl. LXXXV: 3–4. Jerem (1984); Jerem (1987).

Catalogue a string of 10 beads 1 Ringed cowrie with open dorsum, size: 1.9x1.5 cm.

skeletons were found in a double burial dated 400–350 BC. The richer male nr. 2 lay in his two-wheeled vehicle with his weapons (sword, 2 spears, 3 arrowheads), and at the feet next to the bronze helmet, a pierced cowrie was discovered which, according to the illustration, was probably a Ringed cowrie with open dorsum.868

Liszt Ferenc Museum, Sopron, acc. nr.: 93.2.1.5.864 796. Grave 13: from the burial of a 4–5 years old girl: a bronze wire bracelet, 2 tiny bronze fragments, fragment of a bivalve, a string of beads: 2 blue glass beads, 1 cylindrical glass bead, 1 pierced wolftooth, and 9 *Ringed cowries, whose dorsum were removed to different degrees, size: 1.6x1.1–2.3x1.7 cm.

Hallein – see 799. Dürrnberg 800. Neunkirchen (Bezirk Neunkirchen, Bundesland Niederösterreich): among grave goods, a bronze chain, blue glass beads, one pierced bear tooth and one cowrie are mentioned.869

Liszt Ferenc Museum, Sopron, acc. nr.: 93.2.13.3.865 797. Grave 18: the single grave good from the burial of a 1–2 years old girl: a string of beads: 2 oculus beads, 1 glass bead, 1 punched bronze tube decorated with rattlepiece, and 9 *Ringed cowries with differently removed dorsum, size: 1.7x1.3–2.3x1.6 cm.

801. Wagram ob der Traisen (Stadtgemeinde Traismauer, Bezirk Sankt Pölten-Land, Bundesland Niederösterreich): 28 graves from cemeteries of various periods (Neolithic, Hallstatt C, and La-Tène B, D Periods): Grave 28: from a disturbed burial of a child: a small bronze ring, animal bone, a vessel fragment and one pierced 870 marine shell (Meeresmuschel), which might be a cowrie, therefore, it is listed in the cowrie inventory of Erzsébet Jerem.

Liszt Ferenc Museum, Sopron, acc. nr.: 93.2.18.3.866 798. Grave 29: from a robbed burial of a 31–40 years old female: 4 bronze Pontus-type electron-covered lockrings with conical terminals, 4 trapezoidal bronze pendants, a bronze mirror, 2 high-necked vessel, a bottle, a highhandled cup, a graphite-clay situla, 1-1 larger and smaller cups, a small vessel, and among dispersed gold, amber, glass and coral beads, 28 Ringed cowries, with differently removed dorsum, size: 1.6x1.2–2.7x1.9 cm.

802–08. Bosnia and Herzegovina 802. Donja Dolina (opština Bosanska Gradiska)-Gradina: 1 urn was excavated at the tell on the bank of the Sava River, in which hundreds of amber, glazed and colored glass beads, 2 pierced animal teeth, a large undecorated clay bead and 7 pierced cowries were uncovered.871 In the publication, 10 cowries are mentioned instead of the 7 shells. It is treated nowadays as a stray find. Based on similar strings of beads, the grave was dated to the end of the Hallstatt–beginning of the La-Tène Periods or roughly the 5th century BC. The 2 illustrated shells are most likely Ringed Cowries with open dorsum.

Liszt Ferenc Museum, Sopron, acc. nr.: 93.2.29.5 (Fig. 103).867 4.9. 799–876. Central European Parallels to the Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin in the Celtic Period (6th–1st Centuries BC) The material includes finds from Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Poland, Serbia and Slovenia (Fig. 104. 1).

Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo.872 803. Glasinac (opština Rogatica)-Čitluci: cemetery, dating from the Hallstatt D Period (600–460/440 BC):

799–801. Austria Bad Dürrnberg – see 799. Dürrnberg

Tumulus IV: among stray finds of some scattered-ash burials dated to the period between the Hallstatt D3 Period and the La-Tène B2 Period (475–270/250 BC) one cowrie was uncovered.873

799. Dürrnberg bei Hallein (= Hallein, Bezirk Hallein, Bundesland Salzburg)-”Moserstein” Grave 44: 2 male

804. Gorica (opština Grude): among votive offerings in the

The cowries of the cemetery were identified by Endre Krolopp: Jerem (1979) 211: note 58. I could study the material and the anthropological investigations of Silvia Renhart with the kind help of the excavation director, see Renhart (n.d.) 2. 865 Jerem (1979) 211, 217: pl. 3: 11; Renhart (n. d.) 5. 866 Defined as 10 month-old: Jerem (1979) 209–10, 217: pl. 3: 13; Renhart (n.d.) 7. According to the kind information of the excavation director, beside the published 8 items one additional shell was discovered among skullfragments. 867 Jerem (1981) 114, 115: fig. 7: 5. The skull of a 1-3 year old child was also uncovered in this grave: Renhart (n.d.) 9. Dated to the middle of the 5th century: Kemenczei (2001–02) 51, 69, 77, 58: fig. 18: 10–11. 864

Penninger (1972) 79, pl. 43: 10; Pauli (1975) 128, 25, 19: fig. 4: 7; Pauli (1980) 227–29: nr. 35, 228: fig. in the upper part, left. 869 Based on the notes of Erzsébet Jerem. 870 Gattringer (1974) 95; Gattringer (1971); Gattringer (1973). 871 It is quoted after R. Munro: Palaeolithic Man and Terramara Settlements in Europe. Edinburgh 1912, 473. cited by: Jackson (1917) 131. 872 Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82, 87, pl. I: 3–4; Reese (1991) 171: nr. 78; Clark (1986) 26; Filip (1966) 301. 873 Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82–83, 87; Filip (1966) 407–08. 868

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 103. 28 Ringed cowries among the finds of Grave 29 at Sopron (798) – after Jerem (1981) 115: fig. 7

234

Catalogue

Fig. 104. Distribution of Central European parallels to the cowrie finds of the Carpathian Basin in the Celtic Period (6th–1st centuries BC)

treasure room of an Illyrian Delmata shrine dated between the 1st century BC –first half of the 1st century AD were 2 medium-sized cowrie pendants, likely with removed dorsum. One of them had a Hellenic-type suspension loop wound with silver rod, and can presumably be dated to the middle–late phase of the La-Tène period (250–10 BC), length: approximately 2.9 cm.874

are suspended on larger rings that are connected to the small rings with their double rewound terminals. Total length: 4.5, length of the cowrie: 3.5 cm (Fig. 105). Zemaljski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo.875 806. Ribić (opština Bihać): scattered-ash Japod cemetery with flat graves, dated from the Hallstatt D Period (600– 460/440 BC):

805. Ošanići (opština Stoca)-Gradina: treasure find with more than 160 pieces, weighing 34 kg. It includes smiths’ and goldsmiths’ tools and smith and goldsmith artifacts, discovered in the neighboring area of the former Illyrian Daors town, dated to the middle of the 2nd century BC

Grave 250: female-type grave goods from a scattered-ash burial. The presence of brooches (among them one brooch whose foot was formed as a boat-shaped arch) suggest that the grave dated from the La-Tène B2–C Period (330–140 BC): 3 bronze brooches, a string of amber beads, 5 bronze suspension loops, and 1 unmodified (?) cowrie.876

Bronze finds: 5 Middle La-Tène-type wire brooch, situla, cup, 4 mould forms, scales and weights, jewelry case (full of amorphous, half-prepared, prepared semi-precious stones and stone beads); silver objects: 2 earrings, Omega-pin; iron finds: 10 hammers, 8 anvils, 4 so-called Platthacke, 2 axes, 6 cold chisels, 3 square-sectioned files, other chisels, 3 long saws, 2 wire-drawer, 2 crowbars, 4 smiths’ pliers, 1 kettle suspension, a pair of compasses, sickle, iron knives, the half figure of a dog soldered from two parts and 2 cowrie pendants. These larger cowries were on a double silver rod bandage whose rods were slipped through an opening on the middle part of the cowrie and terminated in the small ring of the bandage. The two rods at the base of the shell forming two rhomboid ornaments. Both pendants

807–08. Sanski Most (opština Sanski Most): a large Japod Marić (1979) 211–13, 224, 225: fig. 3: 3 (1 cowrie). It has to be mentioned that on both moulds or dies, there were 6 hollows for the moulding or casting small strips, which according to the opinion of Zdravko Marić were symbols like female genitals: the middle part of the square hollow with rounded corners is crossed by a pointed-oval-shaped, in the middle spined, at the sides indented (?) pattern. He could not detect any parallels to the objects, but considering their quantity – on the two moulds all in all 133 patterns were observed – and claimed that these patterns had a significant role in the religious beliefs of the surrounding population: Marić (1979) 224, see 219: Gußform nr.1: 34, 36, 38, Gußform nr. 2: 5, 8, 222: 84, 233: pl. V: the middle part might resemble a cowrie, 234: pl. VI, 237: pl. IX, 240: pl. XII, 241: pl. XIII: 34, 36, 38, 242: pl. XIV: 5, 8, 84. 876 Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82–83, 87, pl. I: 9–9a. The drawing appears to be an unmodified shell, but it cannot be excluded that it had a narrow sawed opening. 875

Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81–82, 87, pl. I: 12; Truhelka (1902) 44: nr. 3, 44: fig. 113. Dated to the second half of the 2nd century BC: Marić (1979) 224–25. 874

235

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads the brooch (Graves 3, 9, 19, 31, 39, 44–45, 52.). Lacking a cross-section illustration I could no decide which was the bead interpreted as a cowrie imitation by Ružica 882 Drechsler-Bižić. 811. Sali (Isle Dugi Otok, Zadarsko-Kninska županija) Čuh: from a contracted female burial: brooch with twisted arch, Early La-Tène type (460/440–270/250 BC) bronze brooch, 2 spiral bracelets, pin, vessel fragment, 2 small oxen, and 6 snails, 6 sea-cucumbers, and 1 cowrie.883 812. Czech Republic

Fig. 105. Cowrie pendant on a double silver rod bandage of the treasure find from Ošanići (805) – after Marić (1979) 225: fig. 1: 3

812. Milčice (okres Nymburk): 5 graves from a cemetery: Grave 2/1977: from the burial of a roughly 25 years old woman, dated to the La-Tène B1a Period (around 370–330 BC): bronze torque twisted from two strands, closed bronze wire bracelet, a bronze plain finger ring, a small iron ring, fragment of a larger iron ring, bone awl, and 1 Pear cowrie, which was pierced or with removed dorsum. According to the report, the cowrie was perhaps suspended on the torque, size: approximately 2.4x1.6 cm.884

cemetery with flat graves dated from the Hallstatt D Period (600–460/440 BC): 807. Grave 92: from a child burial: a spiral bronze bracelet, 3 email beads, and 2 pierced cowries.877 808. Grave 117: perhaps male burial, taking into account the presence of a bronze Certosa-brooch, the burial was dated to the La-Tène A–B Period (460/440–270/250 BC), additional finds: 2 iron spearheads and 2 cowries with longitudinal opening (?) at their bases.878

813–17. Germany 813. Asperg (Landkreis Ludwigsburg, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Baden-Württenberg)-Grafenbühl 14/15. Double female burial: strung arm ornaments of two approximately 20 years old women: a small bronze triangle-shaped frame, 3 bronze discoid rings, 2 closed bronze wire finger rings the fragment of a brooch, a small stone axe, a small holed stone, a flint, a pierced horse tarsal, 2 wild boar canines, 1 bone, 4 amber and 3 oculus glass beads, and 1 pierced cowrie. According to the illustration likely a Ringed cowrie with open dorsum.885

809–11. Croatia 809. Kompolje (Ličko-senjska županija) - Cemetery II (Vlaško Polje): among stray finds from the Japod cemetery was discovered 1 cowrie-shaped (?) amber bead.879 810. Prozor (Ličko-senjska županija): among finds of the Japod cemetery (now kept in Vienna), there is a unique torque, dated to the Hallstatt D3–La-Tène C Period (approximately 475–160/140 BC),880 and one twisted bronze torque with hooked terminals. This had a bronze wire pendant, bent as a cross, on whose horizontal and lower ends there are strung 1-1, all in all 3 perhaps Fallow cowries pierced at the apex.881

814. Egloffstein (Landkreis Forchheim, Regierungsbezirk Oberfranken, Bayern)-Dietersberg-Höhle: from early burials dated to the La-Tène period pierced Money cowries are mentioned which were presumably used as jewelry; correctly 4 Ringed cowries with open dorsum were found, length: approximately 1.8–2.2 cm (Fig. 106).886

It has to be noted that during excavations in 1971–72 76 additional graves were unearthed of 800 BC–10 BC. In numerous graves large oval amber beads were found combined into a string of beads or strung on the arch of

815. Frankfurt-am-Main (Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Hessen): 1 Money cowrie with corroded surface was found, presumably near the La-Tène Period site, in the

Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82, 87. Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82, 87, pl. I:. 15–16. 879 Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81, pl. I: 8–8a. The illustration presents an oval bead with convex base, and on the flat bottom a longitudinal hollow is depicted. At the same site, in the female Grave 24 of the authenticated Cemetery I a small, flat, round amber plate was uncovered, with similar transverse hollow: Drechsler-Bižić (1961) 99, pl. XXIII: 5, but it can be excluded that it was a cowrie imitation; Filip (1966) 622). 880 Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 84–88. 881 Schilder (1952) 20; Johansson (1991) 87. The description of Ružica Drechsler-Bižić mentioned neither the third cowrie hung at the bottom, nor the classification of this shells, the text rather allows us to infer that all were Money cowries: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 84, 87, pl. I: 2; Filip (1969) 1098–99. 877

Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81; Drechsler-Bižić (1972–73) 11–12, 25–27, 29, 32, 34–35, 37, pl. VIII: 17, pl. X: 1, pl. XI: 7, pl. XIX: 3, pl. XXI: 4, pl. XXIII: 6, pl. XXIV: 1, pl. XXVII: 6. 883 Batović (1973) 101–02 (without the illustration of the cowrie); Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82–83. 884 The shell was identified by Václav Ziegler (Muzeum Poděbrady) as “Cypraea rufa”: Sedláčková–Waldhauser (1987) 148, 184: fig. 22: 8., which is an old synonym for the Pear cowry living in the Mediterranean Sea and along the shore of West Africa up to Angola: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 114, 533, 342–43: pl. 59: 1–8, 17–22. 885 Pauli (1975) 42, 39: fig. 12: 22. 886 Kersten (1933) 138: note 83; Erl (1953) 254–55: nrs 72–74, 110, pl. 3.

878

882

236

Catalogue sand layer bellow the Tertiary Period,887 but in my opinion its age is uncertain. 816. Halle (Regierungsbezirk Halle, Sachsen-Anhalt)Diakonissenhaus (Mühlweg): from an inhumation burial 1 cowrie was found, incorrectly identified as Money cowrie. It is approximately 5.0 cm long, brownish, and pierced at the apex.888 817. Unprovenanced: 1 bronze ornament from the Niessencollection in Germany, but surely originating from another country: a ring hung on a delicately twisted wire-chain ending in rings at both ends, from which 4 cowrie-shaped pendants are strung; length: 9.5, lenght 1-1 pendants 3.0 cm. The author cited parallels from the late 7th–early 6th centuries BC in Italy. Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Köln, acc. nr.: N 4081– 83 (Fig. 107).889 Fig. 106. Beads and Ringed cowries with open dorsum von Egloffstein (814) – after Erl (1953) pl. 3

818–41, Annex 2454–57. Italy890 818. Alfedena (province L’Aquila, regione Abruzzo)Aufidena: 1 or more bronze cowrie imitations are mentioned among the grave goods from an Iron Age cemetery, strung on rings.891 819. Ancona (province Ancona, regione Marche)-Numana: bronze cowrie imitations strung on rings were discovered in the cemetery of the former Picenum dated to the Early Iron Age.892 820. Ascoli (Piceno?, province Ascoli Piceno, regione Marche): 1 or more bronze cowrie imitations hung on rings are mentioned among the grave goods from a Copper Age (?) cemetery.893 821. Atri (province Teramo, regione Abruzzo)-Petrara: Grave XXIII: from a female burial: a necklace, composed Reese (1991) 176: nr. 97; Jackson (1916) 8; Jackson (1917) 130; Schilder (1926) 315 888 Claus (1942) 78, 136–37; Pauli (1975) 128. The classification is probably incorrect, because the length of the shell would be 0.6 cm longer than the longest documented Money cowrie, see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 205, 416–17: pl. 96: 17–22, 25–26, 28–33, 438–39: pl. 106: 13–18. 889 “Obere Öse des langen Kettenglieds abgebrochen. Ein langes, sehr kunstvoll aus dünnem Draht gewickeltes Kettenglied ist oben und unten schlaufenförmig umgebogen. In der unteren Schlaufe steckt ein schlichter Ring, an dem mittels Ösen vier muschel- bzw. vulvaförmige Anhänger aufgereiht sind.”: Franken (1996) 181: nr. 250, 181: fig. 371. 890 When I completed the catalogue I could only rely on sixty year old data from Vladimir Dumitrescu whose information is cited without any comments by Ružica Drechsler-Bižić: Dumitrescu (1929) 146–47; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. All the complementary notes were kindly added by Elisabetta Starnini. 891 Dumitrescu (1929) 146–47; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. Aufidena “Stadt im Samnium,... jetzt Alfidena.”: Hülsen (1896/1970). 892 Dumitrescu (1929) 146–47; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. Numana “in Picenum eine Art Vorgängerin von Ancona, danach eine unbedeutende Station der Küsten, am Fuße des M[onte] Conero, das heutige Umana.”: Philipp (1936/1962); Filip (1966) 29. 893 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 887

Fig. 107. Bronze ornament with 4 cowrie-shaped pendants from the Niessen-collection (817) – after Franken (1996) 181: fig. 371

237

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads from small bronze tubes and pendants, 4 bone artifacts, and 5 cowries. The illustrated medium-sized, pierced cowrie is strung on a ring, length: approximately 3 cm.894

Samnis-type belt with gilded mounts, a silver finger ring, a strigil, 10 vessels, 2 alabaster dice of a chess-like game, and 8 cowries in good condition having the function of pawns, likely all Ringed cowries.900

Grave ? – see. Annex 2454.

828. Cavallino (province Lecce, regione Puglia) Grave 1: 1-1 cowries were found in a grave on both sides of the neck, dated to the 6th century BC.901

822. Belmonte (Piceno?, province Ascoli Piceno, regione Marche): 1 or more bronze cowrie imitations strung on rings are mentioned among the grave goods from a Copper Age cemetery.895

829. Cerveteri (province Roma, regione Lazio): 1 cowrie, pierced and strung on a bronze ring was discovered in the grave of the Etruscan town Chaire/Caere, length: approximately 2.4 cm.902

823. Bologna (province Bologna, regione EmiliaRomagna)-Arnoaldi: 1 bronze brooch was discovered in a pre-Etruscan cemetery, on whose pin two bronze rings were hung. On one of the rings an oculus bead was strung while on the other a medium-sized cowrie, length: approximately 3.8 cm.896

830–32. Ficana (province Roma, regione Lazio): unpublished cemetery of Italian and Scandinavian excavations:

824. Bologna (province Bologna, regione EmiliaRomagna)-Certosa: Etruscan cemetery:

830. Grave 2: 1 Ringed cowrie with open dorsum was uncovered “in the lower abdominal area” of a 1 year old girl buried between the mid 7th century and late 6th century.

Grave 304: from a female (?) inhumation: a small iron axe, an axe blade, a bell, a lying lion-shaped bronze pendant, 2 red-painted vessels, 2 black vessels, wooden remains, and 1 Tiger cowrie pierced with 3 tiny holes.897

831. Grave 3: 2 Ringed cowries from the grave of a 1 year old girl from the same period, in the pelvis area. 832. Grave 9: A fragment of a Ringed cowrie in the grave of a 1 year old girl, near the pelvis. The burial was dated between the mid 8th century–late 7th century BC.903

825–26. Campovalano (Commune di Campli, province Teramo, regione Abruzzo): Grave 115 – see Annex 2455.

833. Fermo (province Ascoli Piceno, regione Marche): 3 looped bronze bells as stray finds, dated to the 6th century BC, their shape resembles cowries, longish-oval, the back is curved, on the flat base a longitudinal, plain hollow, length: 3.0–3.2 cm.904

825. Grave 127: among the grave goods of an older boy dated to the 6th century BC, 2 larger, unspecified cowries are mentioned (due grosse conchiglie cypree). The illustrated shell is pierced with a small round hole and has a suspension loop. It is perhaps a Tiger cowrie, size: approximately 9.1x5.8 cm.898

834. Golasecca (province Varese, regione Lombardia)Castelletto Ticino: a cowrie necklace of the late 7th century–early 6th century from a likely cemetery dated to the Late Bronze Age–beginning of the La-Tène Period.

826. Grave 214: from the burial of a 6–8 years old girl, at the neck with a bronze chainlet stapled, 4 middle-sized, unspecified cowries (quattro conchiglie cypree) were uncovered. The illustrated shell is pierced at the apex, size: approximately 3.0x1.9 cm.899

Il Museo Civico d’Arte Antica, Torino.905 Grottazzolina (province Ascoli Piceno) – see Annex 2456.

827. Capua (province Caserta, regione Campania)-Ponte S. Prisco: 16 painted chamber-graves, dated to the 4th century BC:

Montegiorgio (province Ascoli Piceno) – see Annex 2457. 835. Novilara (province Pesaro, regione Marche)-Servici: 1 or more bronze cowrie imitations strung on a ring from a cemetery dated earlier than the 6th century BC.906

Grave 3: from the burial of an armed man: iron lance-head, Montelius (1910) 754, Montelius (1904) B. pl. 158: 3; Pauli (1975) 209: note 497; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81, pl. I: 11; Seidel (2006) 136. 895 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 896 Montelius (1895) I. 1: 399. and I. 2: B. pl. 83: 12. This, or the next item, is cited by: Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81; Filip (1966) 142–43. 897 “Coquille (Cypraea tigris), perforée de trois petits trous.”: Montelius (1895) I. 1: 480. and I. 2: B. pl. 102: 3 (without size or scale). 898 d’Ercole (1997) 51, 53: fig. 5. Erzsébet Jerem kindly drew my attention to the finds. 899 d’Ercole (1997) 54, 55: fig. 3.

“Un altro anello d’argento `e stato, inoltre, trovato nella tomba 3, di cavaliere, insieme con un gioco costituito da due dadi d’alabastro e da 8 cypraeae in funzione di pedine...”: Johannowsky (1972) 376, 378–80, pl. CVI: 2. 901 Reese (1992d) 124. 902 Montelius (1904) B. 15, B. pl. 343: 4; Pauli (1975) 209: note 97. 903 Reese (1991) 172: nr. 90; Reese (1992d) 124. 904 Pupili (1990) 28: nr. 65, 26: figs 63–65; Franken (1996) 181: note 1. 905 “Collana con pendenti a ciprea.”: Franken (1996) 181: note 1; Filip (1966) 419. 906 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81; Filip (1969) 935.

894

900

238

Catalogue 836. Otranto (province Lecce, regione Puglia) Grave 7: 1 unmodified Tiger cowrie from a cinerary urn of the 1st century BC, size: 7.3x4.5 cm.907

844. Borzestowska Huta (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.916 845. Buszkowy (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.917

837. Ripatransone (province Ascoli Piceno, regione Marche): 1 or more bronze cowrie imitations strung on rings in a Copper Age (?) cemetery.908

Czapeln/Czapelin – see 846. Czaple

838. Rome (province Roma, regione Lazio): 1 bronze cowrie imitation strung on a ring from an Iron Age cemetery.909

846. Czaple (prev. Czapeln/Czapelin; województwo pomorskie): 1 burnt Money cowrie was uncovered in a face urn.918

839–40. Tolentino (province Macerata, regione Marche)La Bura:

847. Darłowo (prev. Rügenwalde; powiat Sławno, województwo zachodnio-pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.919

839. Grave 5: in the dual burial of an adult and a child dated to the 6th century BC, goods from the child’s burial: 3 bronze pendants, some glass and bone beads, a bronze disc, and 6 Dirty Yellow cowries in unknown condition, which were perhaps pierced at the apex, length: approximately 3.2 cm.910

848. Frąca (prev. Fronza, Kreis Marienwerder; powiat Tczew, województwo pomorskie): in the urn of a stonechest grave one Ringed cowrie was discovered.920 Friedenau (Kreis Neustadt) – see 857. Karczemki

840. stray find: 1 or more bronze cowrie imitations strung on rings which might originate in the same cemetery.911

Fronza (Kreis Marienwerder) – see 848. Frąca 849. Garczyn (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.921

841. Unknown provenance (Umbria): 1 or more cowrie imitations from an Iron Age cemetery.912

850. Glińcz (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.922

842–71. Poland913 842. Bielice (województwo skierniewickie): cowries are mentioned.914

851. Gniewskie Młyny (prev. Jakobsmühle, Kreis Marienwerder; powiat Świecie, województwo pomorskie): 1 Ringed cowrie was uncovered in a face urn.923

Borkau on the river Radaune (Westpreussen) – see 843. Borkowo

852. Gniewskie Młyny (prev. Jakobsmühle bei Mewe, Kreis Marienwerder; powiat Świecie, województwo pomorskie): fragments of a burnt Ringed cowrie were found in the face urn of a stone-chest burial.924

843. Borkowo (prev. Borkau on the river Radaune, Westpreussen; województwo pomorskie;): fragments of a cowrie, which cannot be identified due to the severe destruction on its surface caused by fire.915

853. Gołębiewo Średnie (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.925

Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1991) 173: nr. 92, 174: fig. 20; Reese (1992b) 349, 351. 908 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 909 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 910 Called Cypraea Isabella: Montelius (1910) 749; Montelius (1904) B. pl. 157: 3. For dating see: Bianco-Peroni (1979) 112. 911 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 912 Dumitrescu (1929) 147; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 913 The sites were dated to the Wejherowsko-Krotoszýnska Culture (600–125 BC): Łuka (1979) 166–67, fig. 90: according to the legend of the map; Malinowski (1982) 118, 121: note 38, 119: fig. 3 (the map does not have numbering and the sites are not named). In earlier literature the site is referred to in a German form after Conwentz (1902): Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1916) 10; Jackson (1917) 132. I would like to thank the help of Marian Głosek and Kinga Stanek who helped me to identify the name of the sites. 914 Łuka (1979) 167: fig. 90: nr. 26. 915 Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115 (after this publication the site is quoted as Bockau!); Jackson (1916) 10; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: fig. 90: nr. 1; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 98. Since Hugo Conwentz cites finds that were discovered in 1900, I could not decide which item among the possible material is discussed here: La Baume (1963) 47: nr. 55–59. 907

854. Gorzędziej (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.926 Jakobsmühle – see 851. Gniewskie Młyny Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 2. Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 3. 918 Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 4. 919 Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 131. 920 Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 5; Reese (1991) 172: nr. 86. 921 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 6. 922 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 7. 923 Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 8. 924 Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Reese (1991) 171: nr. 81; La Baume (1963) 70: one of nrs 330–33. 925 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 9. 926 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 10. 916 917

239

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Jakobsmühle bei Mewe – see 852. Gniewskie Młyny

band-ears with 3-3 perforations on them. On both sides in the upper holes there are 1-1 smaller, in the other holes 1-1 (?) larger bronze rings are hung with 2-2 clay beads. The pierced cowries were strung on the middle ring on the right, and on the lower at the left, and an unique clay cowrie imitation was hung from the middle ring on the left side.932 One closed torque made of rounded squaresectioned bronze wire was around the lower part of the neck.

855. Jeleń (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.927 856. Jodlowno (prev. Stangenwalde, Kreis Karthaus; powiat Kartuzy, województwo pomorskie): 2 face urns were uncovered among the 7 urns in the stone-chest grave. One of them stands on a separate, cup-shaped bottom, the lower part widens and the cylindrical upper part narrows upwards, the lid is decorated by lithic ornament. The face is represented on the neck of the vessel: as a double arch of the eyebrow running to the nose, 2 small eye sockets and 2 band ears. One ring is strung in one hole from the two on the left ear, and two rings are hung from the right ear. On the latter 2-2 blue glass beads are strung, and from the lower, on a tiny suspension loop (?) one additional pendant 928 is hung which is a Money cowrie.

Museum of Gdańsk/prev. Danzig, acc. nr.: 13117 (Fig. 108).933 861. Niepoczołowicze (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.934 862. Osiek (prev. Kommerau, Kreis Schwetz; powiat Świecie, województwo kujawsko-pomorskie): 1 Bobcat cowrie and fragments of an unidentified cowrie were discovered in a face urn.935

857. Karczemki (prev. Friedenau, Kreis Neustadt; powiat Wejherowo, województwo pomorskie): 1 “C. erronea” in excellent condition was found in a face urn.929

863. Ostróżki (gminia Kolbuky, powiat Gdański, województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.936

Kommerau (Kreis Schwetz) – see 862. Osiek

Praust – see 865. Pruszcz Gdański

858. Łapino (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.930

864. Pręgowo (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.937

Löblau (Kreis Danziger Höhe) – see 860. Lublewo

865. Pruszcz Gdański (prev. Praust bei Danzig; powiat Pruszcz Gdański, województwo pomorskie): 1 Money cowrie was found in a face urn.938

859. Lubasz (powiat czarnkowsko-trzcianecki, województwo wielkopolskie): cowries are mentioned.931 860. Lublewo (prev. Löblau, Kreis Danziger Höhe; województwo pomorskie): a double cone-frustum-shaped face urn with narrowing neck. The face is represented on the hemispherical lid with bordered rim, which fits on the neck of the urn. The face is made up of a nose that was formed as the continuation of the eyebrows’ border, the eyes are two small elliptic hollows and it has two large flat

866. Przyjażń (prev. Rheinfeld bei Karthaus; powiat Kartuzy, województwo pomorskie): fragments of a burnt Ringed cowrie were found in a face urn.939 Rügenwalde – see 847. Darłowo 867. Słupsk (prev. Stolp; powiat Słupsk, województwo

Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 11. The description, which is not identical with the text of the publication, was written on the basis of the enlarged illustration, and according to this, this item was a Ringed, rather than a Money cowrie, see La Baume (1963) 131. and pl. 23: nr. 1068; see also: “...im rechten Ohre [der Urne hat] ein interessantes Gehänge, das aus zwei mit blauen Glasperlen besteckten Bronzeringen besteht, von deren unterem eine weisse Kaurischnecke (Schlangenköpfchen, Cypraea moneta) herabhängt. Da diese Conchylie aus dem Oriente (Afrika, Indien) stammt, kann sie nur durch einen der Geschichtsurnenperiode gleichzeitigen Handel mit dem Morgenlande an die Ostsee gerathen sein, durch den auch wohl die Glasperlen ihren Weg hieher gefunden haben.”: Mannhardt (1870) 248: 4; Virchow (1870a) 257; Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 12. 929 Conwentz (1902) 9. The definition Cypraea erronea is the name of the genus, therefore it is not possible to identify any of the numerous species. Still, it remains certain that all of them originate from the Indo-Pacific Province, include Red Sea: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 120–42. Since Hugo Conwentz mentioned only the discovery of the finds in 1901, I could not decide which among the following finds are discussed: La Baume (1963) 59–61: nrs 196–214. 930 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 15. 931 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 27. 927 928

“...jederseits eine Kaurischnecke, links außerdem eine durchbohrte Nachbildung einer solchen aus Ton (!).”: La Baume (1963) 89. 933 The description was written on the basis of the enlarged illustration of the small drawing. According to this, the shells are rather Ringed, than Money cowries, see La Baume (1963) 89 and pl. 13: nr. 544; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 14. 934 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 16. 935 Conwentz (1902) 9; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 17; perhaps identical: La Baume (1963) 81: nr. 449. 936 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 18. 937 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 19. 938 Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Reese (1991) 171: nr. 82, 172: nr. 83; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 20. According to Hugo Conwentz the find was discovered in 1882, therefore, the discussed shell can be any of the following material: La Baume (1963) 110–11: nr. 815–18. 939 Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 21. Since according to Hugo Conwentz the material came to light in 1884, it may be identical with the following: La Baume (1963) 116: nr. 881., but see ibid. nrs 882–83. 932

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Catalogue

Fig. 109. Tiny globular urn from Wysin with 5 rings, on the both side 1 pierced cowrie on a suspension loop (869) – after La Baume (1963) pl. 25: 1194

cowries are strung with the help of a tiny suspension loop. Museum of Gdańsk/prev. Danzig, acc. nr.: VI, 654 (Fig. 109).942 870. Żabno (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.943

Fig. 108. Face urn at Lublewo with 6 bronze earrings, on the both side 1 pierced cowrie and on the left side an unique clay cowrie imitation (860) – after La Baume (1963) pl. 13: 544

871. Żukczyn (prev. Suckschin, Kreis. Danziger Höhe; powiat Gdańsk, województwo pomorskie;): 1-1 Ringed and Caledonian cowries were found in a face urn.944

pomorskie): 1 cowrie was discovered in the urn of a tumulus (Hünengrab).940

872. Serbia

Stangenwalde (Kreis Karthaus) – see 856. Jodłowno

872. Pećine (opština Kostolac): Thrac-Moesian triballus cemetery with flat graves dated to the 5th–4th centuries:

Stolp – see 867. Słupsk

Grave 987: 1 iron lance, 1 iron knife, 2 bronze rings, 2 pendants, a bead, and 1 cowrie, presumably Ringed cowrie, with removed dorsum, length: approximately 2 cm.945

Suckschin – see 871. Żukczyn 868. Swarzewo (województwo pomorskie): cowries are mentioned.941

873–74. Slovenia

Wischin /Willschen? (Kreis Berent) – see 869. Wysin

873. Vače (občina Litija): 2 pendants with cowries from the biritual cemetery dated 800–100 BC. The cowries are usually dated to the 5th century, therefore they can be treated as contemporary material with the Scythian Period:

869. Wysin (prev. Wischin/Willschen?, Kreis Berent, Regb. Danzig Ribbe; powiat Kościerzyna, województwo pomorskie): tiny, nearly globular urn with cone-frustumshaped neck and flattened hemispherical, bordered lid. Both the lower part of the neck and the lid are decorated with herringbone pattern. The face is depicted through two band loops, in the two holes of the right loop 1-1 smaller and larger, in the three holes on the left loop 2 smaller and 1 larger rings were hung. On the smaller rings 1-1 glass beads are strung, while on the larger rings 1-1 pierced

1) a pierced cowrie, according to the illustration a Ringed cowrie with open dorsum, length: approximately 1.6 cm, The description was written on the basis of an enlarged version of the tiny illustration, on which this shells are rather Ringed, than Money cowries, see La Baume (1963) 140 and pl. 25: nr. 1194; Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 23. 943 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 24. 944 Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 132; La Baume (1963) 135: nr. 1114; Reese (1991) 172: nr. 84; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 25. 945 Vasić (1987) 657–58, pl. LXVII: 8. 942

Schneider (1905) 115; Jackson (1917) 131; Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 28; Filip (1966) 518. 941 Łuka (1979) 167: Abb. 90: nr. 22. 940

241

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads strung on a smaller, thin bronze ring, diameter: 0.8 cm, that is hung on a larger, thicker bronze ring, diameter: 3.2 cm;

on its flat base a longitudinal hollow, and the rim of the protruding back side is scaled (?); length: 3.0 cm.

2) a pierced cowrie, likely a Ringed cowrie with a tiny hole at the apex, length: approximately 2.3 cm, strung on a smaller bronze ring, diameter: 1.0 cm, that was hung from a flat sheet-bronze ring, diameter: 3.5 cm.946 The later cowrie was filled with lead so that it could swing harder.947

Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg.951

874. Vintarjevec (občina Litija)-Šumperk: from a female grave of a double burial uncovered under a tumulus dated to the Hallstatt D3–La-Tène A Period (BC 475–400): 3 bronze rings, 4 basket-shaped bronze pendants, 9 drumshaped bronze pendants, 2 bronze Certosa-brooches linked with a tiny chain, bronze-silver animal brooch with lead inlay, a string of beads: oculus and amber beads, bone discs, boar/ram-shaped pendants, oval iron belt buckle, 2 hollow bronze bracelets, 3 hollow bronze anklets, vessel fragments, and 6 pierced cowries strung on 1-1 small bronze rings. The 2 shells illustrated are approximately 1.7 cm long, and are likely Ringed cowries with removed dorsum. The cowries might have been part of the string of beads, but might have hung on the chains of the brooches.948

The material was collected from Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia (Fig. 110. 1).

4.10. 877–952, (900a, 940a). Sarmatian Cowrie Finds from the Carpathian Basin (1st–5th Century AD) – (see Annex 2317, 2319)

Algyő (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Serkedi major952 – see 928. Szeged 877. Alsónémedi (Pest megye, Hungary)-Falurétidomb: from the disturbed cemetery of the 2nd century 1e fossil *Cerithium sp., whose top was broken and its length: 3.8 cm, diameter: 1.7 cm, and 2 stray cowries which according to their lenght are Panther cowries (?). One arrived in the museum unmodified, but now the right ventral side is missing, size: 8.4x5.0 cm. The other shell broke in two, the right ventral side is missing, it was pierced at the apex originally; size: 7.2x4.3x3.6 cm.

Narodni muzej, Ljubljana, acc. nr.: P 6679.949

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Migration Period, acc. nr.: NN 5c./1949.19.953

875–76. Provenience unknown 875. A square sheet bronze ornament, dating presumably from the 1st millenium BC. There are four holes at the rim of the plate. Through the two outermost perforations two rings were strung – only the left side ring remains – and these were linked to a bronze chain, in whose middle part a bronze ring was hung. Along the lower rim of the plate, 12 perforations are visible, from which the following pendants are hung: a knobbed pendant stick bound into a suspension loop, terminating in rings at both ends and at the lower ring a suspension loop is fitted, from which a looped vulva-shaped pendant is hung. The remains of 2 other similar pendants were identified as a complete pendant without upper suspension loop, besides a vulvashaped pendant piece. Width: 12.9 cm, the length of the vulva-pendant: 3.03 cm.

878. Antalfalva (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Kovačica, opština Kovačica, Serbia)-Stare jame: 7 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery dated to the 2–4th centuries:

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Res. 08.32u.950

Grave 2: from the burial of a child buried between the late 2nd century and early 3rd century: lyre-shaped openwork brooch, 2 silver denars of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161–180), a string of beads: barrel-shaped and cylindrical limestone beads, prismatic, polygonal and globular

Grave 5: from a disturbed burial of the 4th century: a bronze brooch, bronze ring, rhomboid sheet bronze, spindle whorl, globular beads, and fragment of a large cowrie strung on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, length: approximately 2.5 cm. Narodni Muzej, Pančevo, acc. nr.: 3.6677.954 879. Bácskeresztúr (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye; Ruski Krstur, opština Kula, Serbia): 5 graves from a disturbed cemetery:

876. Bronze vulva-shaped pendant with ringed loop, Star`e (1955) 100 and 136: nr. 470–71, pl. LVIII: 1–2. Presumably only this latest object was mentioned in: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81, 87, pl. I: 18. 947 Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 81. 948 In Picenum province, Italy, onto the three tiny knobs of a contemporary brooch’s bow 1-1 cowries were hung through a suspension loop: Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82. 949 Star`e (1953) 266: nr. 12, 270–72, 274: pl. II: 3; Drechsler-Bižić (1991) 82–83, 87, Pl: I. 5–6. 950 “...At the lower edge are attached twelve rods, terminating in charms, probably female members.” Dated conditionally to the Roman Period: Comstock–Vermeule (1971) 238: nr. 349; mentioned among the parallels of pendants from the late 7th century–early 6th century: Franken (1996) 181, note 2. 946

Discussed among antique acquisitions: von Mercklin (1935) 115: nr. 38, 116: fig. 41; quoted as the parallel of pendants from the period between the late 7th–early 6th centuries: Franken (1996) 181, 181: note 3. 952 Incorrect citation instead of Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Jánosszállás Grave 13, misinterpretation of the illustration in Párducz (1956) pl. II: Vaday (1985) 370; Vaday (1988–89) 13. and 299: nr. 1. 953 Korek (1980) 41: nr. III, 43, 41: fig. 14: 5, 7; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 252, 695: fig. 2: 1. The drawing and the size of the finds were kindly given by Andrea H. Vaday. 954 Barački (1975) 33–34, fig. 15; Đorđević (1994) 43, 54: pl. II: 12. 951

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Catalogue

Fig. 110. Distribution of Sarmatian cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin (1st–5th Century AD - 1) and of the Migration Period (5th-7th Century - 2)

carnelian beads, an incrusted glass bead, and the side fragment of a large cowrie.

Migration Period, acc. nr.: NN 14./1949.3 (lost?, only the sketch of the shell remains).957

Gradski Muzej, Sombor, prev. Zombor, acc. nr.: 535.955

Banatski Despotovac (opština Zrenjanin, Serbia) – see 892. Ernőháza

880. Bag (Pest megye, Hungary): finds discovered during earthwork and treated as grave. The assemblage was dated to the last third of the 3rd and the 4th centuries: brooch fragment, an iron knife, a string of beads: 1 agate, 17 white limestone, 5 red coral beads, and a medium-sized cowrie inventoried as “bivalve”, length: approximately 4.0 cm.956

Banatski Karlovac (opština Alibunar, Serbia–) – see 921. Nagykárolyfalva Bánhida (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary) – see – 940a. Tatabánya

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of

881. Békés (Békés megye, Hungary)-Vizesfás, Végtő: from a destroyed Sarmatian cemetery of the 3rd century preserved in the collection of Ernő Emperl, one large cowrie, perhaps

Párducz (1950) 36: nr. 103, 165: nr. 103, pl. CXI: 2 (the former inventory number is visible on the object); Párducz (1931) 136: nr. 252. 956 Since it is neither Panther nor Tiger cowrie, other species living in the Mediterranean Sea like Pear or Fallow cowrie can be considered, and other Indo-Pacific forms that are present in contemporary material in Central Europe such as Gnawed or Thrush cowrie.

957

One coin of Gallienus (253–268) was discovered among the finds, but this was not donated to the museum. At the same time, 2 stray Sarmatiantype vessels were delivered to the museum, which means that more burials were likely disturbed. The authors of the publication called the cowries as “bivalves”: Istvánovits–Kulcsár (1994) 78. About the dating: Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 261.

955

243

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads a Panther cowrie, likely with removed and broken dorsum, length: approximately 6.5 cm.

ring preserved as strung on the second shell, diameter: 10.2x4.5 cm. Andrea Vaday recognized that the ring, which was bent from a narrowing bronze band and had a twisted terminal fashioned as a loop, preserved its original shape and was previously fitted on the stoma of the second shell. Its primary position is shown by the trace of the stripe with original surface-pattern. It is possible that the bandage, which is unique in the Sarmatian material of the Carpathian Basin was tied on the shell whose first perforation was broken because the second piercing became cracked, and the owner wanted to prevent another break.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Migration Period acc. nr.: RN 16./1912.191.958 882. Békés (Békés megye, Hungary): 1 large cowrie, accompanied by a string of beads from a destroyed site of the 4th century. The shell is pierced at the apex, and in the hole a bronze suspension loop with twisted terminals is hanged. Municipal Museum, Gyula.959

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, acc. nr.: 37./1894.1 (= 61.126.1.) (Fig. 111. 1–2).962

883. Bojt (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)-Sandpit of the Aratás Agricultural Cooperative: 7 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery of the 3rd century:

Čačov (okres Senica, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 885. Csácsó

Grave 4: from a disturbed female burial: a bronze pixis, a hand-made mug, iron fragment, numerous beads, especially in the chest area, 1 carnelian bead, 1 barrelshaped limestone bead, and a broken *Ringed cowrie (?) presumably with open dorsum, length: 1.5 cm.

885. Csácsó (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Čáčov, okres Senica, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia): almost selected import objects from a Quad female burial dated to the turn of the 2ndand 3rd centuries – a Vend bronze brooch, a Roman bronze finger ring with opal intaglio, 2 clay mugs, Chinese silk remains, bronze coins of Hadrianus (117–138), and a delicate necklace: 7 silvered bronze kaptorga/amulet container-pendants, other pendants, two of them twisted from iron and one from sheet bronze, 1 Italian alabaster, 14 Italian gilt marble, 4 Baltic amber and 4 glass paste beads, and 1 Panther cowrie with a bronze suspension loop whose terminals were twisted together, size: 7.0x3.8 cm, ring diameter: 2.3–2.7 cm.963

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.59.4.3.960 Brigetio – see 909. Komárom 884. Budapest-Railway Station Rákos: among finds from destroyed Sarmatian burials dated to the end of the 1st–2nd centuries,961 one small Murex trunculus, strung on a wire-ring and 2 large cowries, hung on wire-ring. These cowries were declared lost in 1961 by the Archaeological Department of the ������������������������������������� Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, but I identified them among the reinventoried material. One is a *Panther cowrie, under its apex a sawed hole whose edges are broken. The left side is partly weathered, partly preserving its spotted pattern, but the right side is corroded and now holed, size: 8.6x5.1x4.3 cm (Fig. 111. 1). The second shell is also a *Panther cowrie. The edge of the perforation under the apex was broken, and the broken rim was polished, and on the right side an additional hole was pierced whose edges were polished, size: 8.5x5.1x4.3 cm (Fig. 111. 2).

Csanád (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary) – see 893. Érsekcsanád 886. Csongrád (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Gedahalom: 3 (45 numbered) graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery: The inventory book of the HNM contains a strikingly accurate entry: “shell-pendant composed of two Cypraea tigrina strung on bronze mail” and “the same bronze mail with ear, from a Murex trunculus.”: Hungarian National Museum, acc. nr.: 37./1884.1–2. This text was repeated correctly referring to their provenance, but wrongly classifying all items as bivalves – “...two bivalve pendants. One of them is composed of two hung Cypraea tigrina (Indian Sea), the other is a small Murex trunculus (Mediterranean Sea), which is strung through a chain-mail.”: Hampel (1894) 262, 263: figs 1–2; mentioned as “bivalve-ornament”: Pósta (1897) 511, 529: fig. 55; Pósta (1905) 501–03, 501: fig. 278: 1; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 254, 261–64, 701–04: figs 8–11. 963 Tejral (1971) 78: nr. 22, 50, 74, 90–92, 53: fig. 11: 9; Tejral (1970) 197: fig. 5: 15; Kraskovská (1983) 135: fig. 2 at the left side, in the middle. Discussed in details: Ondrouch (1957) 53–80, 216–18, 238–40, about the cowrie: 58, 217, 239, pl. 13: 10a–b; Martin (1976) 96: note 150; Tempelmann-Mąnczyńska (1985) 265: nr. 564; Tempelmann-Mąnczyńska (1989) 106; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 256–57. – “Durch die große tonneförmige Perle aus Alabaster, die bei der Bevölkerung der Großen Ungarischen Tiefebene aus Kalstein (Kalzium) gefertigt und in der Regel am Gürtel angenäht wurde, und die Cyprea-Anhänger verweist das Grab von Čačov auch auf anders ausgerichtete Verbindungen und belegt eine teilweise Beeinflussung durch die sarmatische Frauentracht bzw. die vielseitigen Kontakte der im Gebiet nördlich der Donau ansässigen Germanen [Mesterházy (1986) 146; H. Vaday (1988–1989) 58, 105 u.a.].”: Tejral (1999) 168, 170. 962

In 1894 the discoverers delivered both Panther cowries as strung on a large, flat-oval broken bronze ring with twisted and handled terminals to the museum. Later this bronze Mentioned under the Békés (Békés megye, Hungary)-Vizesbánom site-name: Párducz (1944) 25, 37, 62, pl. LIV: 3. The site was identified in: MRT 10, 670. The presence of the Vandal-type brooch and the ringpendants with globes inclined scholars to argue that the finds should be dated earlier, to the period after the Markomann wars: Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 261: Lamiová-Schmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105, 131. 959 Párducz (1931) 108: nr. 109; Párducz (1950) 48: nr. 251, 179: nr. 251: without size and illustration, but it was probably a large cowrie; MRT 10, 132. 960 The unpublished data was kindly reported by Eszter Istvánovits; see Kulcsár (1998) 122. 961 Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257, 260–61. 958

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Catalogue

Fig. 111. 2 pierced Panther cowries from Budapest-Railway station Rákos; one of them (2) with bronze bandage (884) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 702: fig. 9, 704: fig. 11

Grave 40: from a robbed female coffin, dated to the 4th century: a bronze brooch with curved-back foot, an iron bracelet, a hand-formed vessel, a string of beads: barrelshaped limestone, polygonal carnelian and glass beads, and a fragmentary large cowrie that was broken in two.964 887. Csongrád (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Határút: disturbed part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

Fig. 112. Unmodified Dirty cowrie from the territory of the vicus at Intercisa (888) – after Kovács (1999/2000) 476: fig. 2: 3

Grave 8: from a female grave dated to the 4 century: 2 bronze bracelets with widening ends, a string of beads composed of polygonal carnelian, disc-shaped amber and large barrel-shaped limestone beads, and a large cowrie, perhaps a Panther cowrie, whose dorsum is probably 965 broken, length: 7.6 cm. th

Intercisa Museum, Dunaújváros, acc. nr.: 77.101.1 (Fig. 112).966 889–91. Endrőd (Békés megye, Hungary)-Kocsorhegy: 29 (57 numbered) graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery

888. Dunaújváros (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Víztorony: an unmodified Dirty cowrie was discovered in the territory of the vicus at Intercisa, in trench nr. 1/4. The shell was dated to the Roman Period, size: 2.2x1.4 cm.

967

889. Grave 3: In a female grave of the 4th century, in the Friderika Horváth draw my attention to the shell exhibited at the Intercisa Museum in Dunaújváros, and I studied it with the kind help of Jolán B. Horváth. See B. Vágó (1970). Represented as an example of the species, not an archaeological find: Kovács (1999) 65: fig. 2: 3. 967 Juhász (1978); Most of the graves presumably belong to the Bodrogkeresztúr Culture of the Copper Age. Additional information about the cemetery: MRT 8, 129–32: Site 3/7. 966

Párducz (1944–45) 135–36, pl. IV: 7. Párducz (1944) 20, 37, 55, pl. XXX: 13. The publication does not refer to the location of the find. The published illustration suggests that it was pierced at the apex; Lamiová-Schmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105, 131; 964 965

245

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads neck area and on the chest the following string of 134 beads was uncovered: polygonal carnelian, red, yellow and blue glass paste beads, 1 light blue chalcedony bead, which was attached to a cowrie through a “bronze wire (diameter.: 2.5 cm).”968 One large cowrie was delivered to the museum whose dorsum is fragmentary, length: 7.6 cm, but it was destroyed.969

Once it was the part of the private collection of Dr. Gery Awender, a local physician, but it has probably been lost in the meantime.972 893. Érsekcsanád (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary): string of limestone beads with 2 large cowries from the last third of the 4th century–first half of the 5th century. According to the published illustration, the shell (Tiger cowrie?) whose apex was pierced at both ends, was hung from the left side of the string of beads, length: approximately 7.6 cm. Since the right-side cowrie turned to a lateral position during stringing, it was probably pierced in the middle of the apex, length: approximately 7.5 cm.

890. Grave 7: from a destroyed female burial dated to the late 4th–early 5th centuries: silver brooch fragment, iron knife, spindle whorl fragments, gilt bronze plate-casket/ pyxis, terra sigillata cup, 115 glass paste and limestone beads, 2 bronze rings with terminals twisted on each other. The phrase “bronze rings on which shells were strung (length: 2.5 cm)” probably refers to the suspension loops of 2 shells which were affixed to each other. Regrettably, only the fragments of the cowries are available, length: 2.0–3.8 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, destroyed.973 Gyoma (Békés megye, Hungary)-Egei halom – see 787. 894. Gyoma (Békés megye, Hungary)-Őzedi halom (or Őzed area): 1 *Panther cowrie found during earthwork was delivered to the museum in 1927, from likely disturbed Sarmatian burials. The find cannot be precisely dated. The shell is pierced in the middle of the apex, and strung on a bronze suspension loop whose terminals are twisted on each other, its dorsum is broken, length: 7.2, width: 4.3, the diameter of the ring: 3.2 cm.

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 73.18.4.970 891. Grave 41: from a female burial of late 4th–first half of the 5th century: iron knife, 2 silver earrings with carnelian beads, a silver torque, 1-1 silver, bronze and iron hatchet-pendants with chalcedony bead, 4 silver brooches, fragment of an additional brooch, a string of beads: limestone, marble, carnelian, amber and glass paste, separately glass paste and amber beads, and more than 400 beads next to the legs and the ankle, 2 sheet silver bracelets, a twisted silver wire bracelet, 2 bronze and 1 iron wire bracelets, 2 bracelets from strings of beads, 8 silver and 1 bronze rings strung on one another, terminals are twisted on each other, 1 additional bronze ring, sheet silver loop, bronze wire loop, in the pelvis: marble, limestone, carnelian and glass paste beads, before the pelvis 3 large cowries, which were strung by 1-1 affixed bronze rings with wound terminals. The available smaller shell is likely a Panther cowrie, its suspension hole is broken, the dorsum is completely missing, and on the left side of the stoma a round perforation is visible, size: 6.7x3.6 cm. The larger shell might be a Tiger cowrie, whose dorsum is completely missing. There is a round perforation at the apex, size: 7.7x4.35 cm. The third cowrie was destroyed.

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: 94.1927.974 895. Gyulavarsánd (prev. Arad megye, Hungary; Vărşand, judeţul Arad, Romania)-Laposhalom: 1 “Jazyg shell pendant” not mentioned in the archaeological literature (see 50b), but according to an inventory entry, it originates from the excavation of Nándor Krammer in 1902–03, whose “bronze setting” (bandage that had no oxidation remaining?) is missing. The pendant is a *Panther cowrie, with broken dorsum, dating from the late 2nd–early 3rd centuries, size: 5.9x3.9 cm. Munkácsy Mihály Museum, Békéscsaba, acc. nr.: 52.1760.1. 896. Hajdúböszörmény (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)Vid, Farmstead of Imre Erdős: from a female grave that

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 73.29.13.971

(1997–98) 262. It was impossible to remove the items from the exhibit case, therefore Gyula Radócz not being present could not study them. 972 I could not find any reference in the text to the attached illustration, therefore, it is not clear, which – among the four cited sites – is the provenance of the item. Still, objects 1–11 on pl. XLV originate from the cited site, and 12–27 on pl. XV are from the Klee-fields, the unmentioned, unscaled cowrie could originate from the first site, see Párducz (1940) pl. XLV: 10 (? or without number). 973 Párducz (1931) 125: nr. 192; Párducz (1950) 31: nr. 33, 159: nr. 33, pl. C; H. Vaday (1988–89) 58. It is possible that the beads and the 2 large shells were strung together only in the museum: Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 262–63, note 122. 974 “From N. Szilágyi, chemist (Gyoma): bronze earring, on this a cypraea-shell. Provenance: Gyoma-Dévaványa fields”: Zoltai (1928) 22; Párducz (1950) 27: nr. 22, 154: nr. 22, pl. LXXIX: 19. According to the donor, the finds were collected in the field of a landowner called Csáky, but the location of this area is unknown; it is possible that it is identical with the Sarmatian site near the Őzedi hill: MRT 8, 279, 280: note 4.

892. Ernőháza (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Banatski Despotovac, opština Zrenjanin, Serbia)-Claypit at the field of Lőrinc Kollinger: 1 large cowrie pierced at the apex was discovered, likely a stray find from a burial that can be dated to the late 2nd–early 3rd centuries. Juhász (1978) 87. Kind information from Irén Juhász. I could study the material through the kindness of the excavation director. See Juhász (1978) 87–89. 970 Juhász (1978) 91, 107: pl. II: 3: one of the bronze rings that affixed the shells, diameter: 2.5 cm. 971 Juhász (1978) 97–100, fig. 17, 109: pl. IV: 4, 6 (the 2 shells), 3 (the 5 rings with wound terminals, affixed to each other); Kovács–Vaday 968 969

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Catalogue Erzsébet, new parish cemetery: 6 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

was disturbed during earthworks, dated to the end of the 3rd century: a bronze brooch with pointed foot, composed from one segment, a ram-shaped, Roman terracotta handled vessel, and barrel-shaped chalcedony, rounded prism-shaped carnelian, cylindrical, globular and other glass beads, “large, decorated, blackish-brown, spherical section-shaped glass spindle whorl?, according to Ibolya Nepper the pommel of the sword-hilt” (Fig. 50. 1), and at last, 1 “large ornamented glass bead imitating a cypraea shell” (Fig. 47. 2). Among the cited objects, Eszter Istvánovits who prepares the publication of the material could only find the ram-shaped vessel and 8 carnelian beads. Hajdúsági Museum, 52.529.1.975

Hajdúböszörmény,

acc.

899. Grave 4: 1 *Money cowrie was discovered probably among the unpublished grave goods of a burial dated to the second half of the 4th century, pierced at the apex with an irregular round hole, size: 2.0x1.4 cm. Tornyai János Museum, Hódmezővásárhely, acc. nr.: 55.15.31. 900. Grave 5: from the disturbed burial of a young girl of the late 4th century–first half of the 5th century: a pair of bronze earrings with wound terminals, a drop-shaped silver brooch, glass paste beads, in a leather (?) case, amber and glass paste beads, a knife, a clay vessel, on the left arm amber and polished almandin bead-bracelet, from which through a silver ring a *Panther cowrie in good condition, with dotted surface was hung, with a round perforation on the upper part, size: 6.6x4.0, height: 3.4 cm.

nr.:

Among the objects which were considered to be lost, 2 were borrowed by Károly Mesterházy in order to publish them, and when he heard about the preparation of this book he relinquished the material to me:976 the description of the glass cowrie imitation and the glass spindle whorl required a separate chapter (2.4.3).

Tornyai János Museum, Hódmezővásárhely, acc. nr.: 55.15.22.979

Hajdúsági Museum, Hajdúböszörmény, acc. nr.: 52.519.1, 521.1.

901. Hódmezővásárhely (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Fehértó: 22 graves from a Sarmatian cemetery:

897. Hertelendyfalva (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Vojlovica, opština Pančevo, Serbia)-Oil Refinery/Rafinerija nafte: 54 graves of an inhumation cemetery dated to the 3–4th centuries:

900a. Grave 7: incorrect data.980 901. Grave 22: from a robbed female burial of the second half of the 2nd century: a mirror with circle-and-dot ornament, a spindle whorl, beads, and 1 *Panther cowrie, sawn till it was holed at the apex, strung previously on a bronze ring with terminals twisted on each other, size: 7.4x4.4 cm.

Grave 4: the burial of the 4th century: fragment of a stinglike object, a string of 51 beads of variously shaped and colored glass, almandine and limestone beads, and the stoma fragment of a large cowrie, length: approximately 8.0 cm.977

Tornyai János Museum, Hódmezővásárhely, acc. nr.: 125./43.981

898. Hódmezővásárhely (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Aranyág: 1 *Panther cowrie (?) with broken suspension hole, preserved together with a round-sectioned bronze wire bracelet of the 4th century as stray finds. The shell is wide, the dorsum is missing, size: 8.1x5.1 cm.

902. Hódmezővásárhely (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Gorzsa, the leased field of Mihály Mózes: 1 *Money cowrie found near to a Sarmatian male burial. The shell is narrow at the apex, has nearly parallel edges, with sawn opening, size: 2.1x1.4 cm.

Tornyai János Museum, Hódmezővásárhely, acc. nr..: 73.2.13 (previous acc. nr.: 2365).978

Tornyai János Museum, Hódmezővásárhely, acc. nr.: 318./1936 (Fig. 113. 1).982

899–900. Hódmezővásárhely (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-

Intercisa – see 888. Dunaújváros

H. Fekete (1959) 11, 13: figs 4–5 (the ram-shaped vessel), 11: fig. 3 (poor quality photo of all other finds; the shell is on the right, above, the spindle whorl is at the bottom, left). This report is repeated, and the material is dated to the turn of the 1st–2nd centuries AD: M. Nepper (1973) 16: nr. 34; dated to the end of the 3rd century: Istvánovits (1997– 98) 135–37. 976 I received the objects on 4th October in 1999; I would like here to express my gratitude for this. 977 “... pridaje mu se kultno značenje.”: Batistić-Popadić (1984–85) 59, 68, 71: pl. 1: Grave 4, 9. 978 Párducz (1937) 134. 975

Nagy (1984) 209, 211–12 (he classified the Panther cowrie as marine bivalve), 211: fig. 13; Vaday (1994) 109, 123: pl. IX: 5; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255, 699: fig. 6. 980 Andrea Vaday quoted Párducz (1946–48) p. 286, but there the large cowrie from Grave 22 is cited, in Grave 7 no cowries were uncovered, see ibid. 284: Vaday (1974/75) 85. 981 Párducz (1946–48) 286, pl. L: 4, Vaday (1974–75) 85. 982 Párducz (1937) 82–84, 76–77: pl. VIII: 3; Párducz (1944) 17, 37, pl. XLVI: 12. It is impossible to determine more exact date: Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255: note 61, 695: fig. 2: 2. 979

247

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 906. Kiszombor (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Cemetery B: 22 (416 numbered) graves from a Sarmatian cemetery: Grave 112: from a female burial dated to the 4th century: a torque, a necklace connected from silver rings with spiralled terminals, an axe pendant, beads, a bead bracelet, a belt bead, a spindle whorl, bronze triple holding-stick, weathered silver denar of Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161) or Marcus Aurelius (161–180), and in the left palm, between 2 bronze bells 1 *Panther cowrie with a round piercing at the narrow sawing on the apex, strung on a bronze suspension loop with remains of green silk. The dorsum is corroded elliptically in layers, the right and ventral sides remained in quite good condition, size: 7.6x4.3 cm.

Fig. 113. Money cowrie (1) with sawn opening from Hódmezővásárhely (902) and a Dirty cowrie (2) of a female grave from Jánoshalma (903) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 695: fig. 2: 2–3

903. Jánoshalma (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)Dézsmakert: from a female grave dated to the first half of the 5th century: silver brooch, silver earrings with applied ornament, a twisted silver torque with barrelshaped limestone bead, sheet bracelets with engraved decoration, large wounded and carnelian beads, tubular and barrel-shaped limestone and shell beads, and 1 small Dirty cowrie, hung from a thin bronze ring with terminals twisted on each other, size: 2.5x1.4 cm.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.5.263.986 907. Klárafalva (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Cemetery B: 7 (61 numbered) graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery: Grave 54: from a female burial dated between the late 4th– first half of the 5th centuries: large, cylindrical and flattened prismatic limestone beads, rounded prismatic gray beads, flattened globular beads, a clay bowl, a censer, and 1 large cowrie strung on a bronze ring with terminals twisted on each other, its dorsum is broken, length: approximately 6.7 cm. Due to its elongated shape, it is more likely to be a Panther cowrie.

Local History Collection, Jánoshalma (Fig. 113. 2).983 Jánosszállás (Csongrád megye, Hungary) – see 928. Szeged 904. Kiskunfélegyháza (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)Pákapuszta, Dósa tanya: 31 graves from a Sarmatian cemetery, dated to the 3rd century:

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.44.93a (destroyed).987

Object 47: the broken side fragment of 1 large cowrie, perhaps a *Panther cowrie along with a bone fragment from a robbed burial, length: 7.3 cm.

908. Klárafalva (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Railway Station, fields of Dezső Lakatos: 7 graves from a Sarmatian cemetery

Katona József Museum, Kecskemét.984

Grave 7: from a female burial dated to the 4th century: flattened prismatic bone beads (?), cylindrical and barrelshaped limestone beads, a spindle ring, a vessel, and 2 large cowries. One of them was strung on a silver suspension loop with their terminals twisted on each other. Today only 1 *Panther cowrie can be found in the museum, which is broken into three. Its surface corroded in layers, length: 7.2 cm.

905. Kiskunhalas (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary): 6 Money cowries in good condition are recorded as stray finds from the Sarmatian Period, with narrow, sawn openings at the apex; size: 1.45x1.0, 1.6x1.2, 1.8x1.35, 2.0x1.45, 2.2x1.6, 2.35x1.85 cm. Thorma János 55.160.127.985

Museum,

Kiskunhalas,

acc.

nr.:

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.278.3.988 gift in 1950. I would like to express my gratitude to Zsolt Gallina for his kind information and sending me the shells. 986 Párducz (1931) 83–84; Párducz (1950) 16–17, 84, 142, 210, pl. XLVII: 4; Sulimirski (1979) 163, Pl: 50. 987 Párducz (1950) 19, 145, pl. LVI: 1; Vaday–Medgyesi (1993) 83–84, 82: fig. 16: 36. 988 Párducz (1950) 31, 159. The shell was neither illustrated nor scaled, but both its suspension loop and the description of Mihály Párducz allows us to infer that it was more likely a large cowrie. In the inventory book of the Szeged museum only the grave goods from Graves 2–6 were inventoried: the kind information of Attila Türk; see Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 262.

I would like to thank Andrea H. Vaday for information about the unpublished grave, which was discovered after 1964, and the kindness of Ferenc Karsai (Jánoshalma), the curator of the collection, who sent me the shell; see Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 695: fig. 2: 3. 984 The grave was not numbered as a burial, because during the excavation it seemed to be a settlement feature. The data was kindly reported by Valéria Kulcsár; see Kulcsár–Somogyvári (1991); Kulcsár–Somogyvári (1992); Kulcsár–Somogyvári (1993); Kulcsár (1994); Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 261. 985 Nothing is known about the circumstances of the finds’ discovery, likely the shells got to the collection of the state secondary school from the legacy of the old school, and it was delivered to the museum as a 983

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Catalogue

Fig. 114. Pierced Panther cowrie of Grave 54 from Komárom (909) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 700: fig. 7

Kovačica (opština Kovačica, Serbia) – see 878. Antalfalva

find, with a bronze suspension loop whose terminals were twisted on each other.

909. Komárom (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary)Szőny/Brigetio, Sörházkert: 212 graves from a cemetery of the Roman Period:

Previously in the private collection of Baron Imre Fechtig, now lost.990 911. Lajosmizse (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Kónya major: 27 graves from a Sarmatian cemetery dated to the 3rd–4th centuries:

Grave 54: grave goods: a one-handled mug, greenish whetstone, *Panther cowrie perforated with a drop-shaped piercing under the apex. Only the fragments of its original surface remained, otherwise weathered and became holed, its left side is incomplete, size: 8.2x5.0x4.1 cm.

Grave 23: from a robbed female burial: fragments of an iron pixis (?), and numerous glass beads, scarab-shaped paste bead, and 1 *Panther cowrie with cracked dorsum, and with a large, likely broken perforation at the apex, size: 6.5x3.9 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Migration Period, acc. nr.: 2./1946.183 (inventoried as “bivalve”) (Fig. 114).989

Katona József Museum, Kecskemét, acc. nr.: 90.1.145.991

910. Kunszentmárton (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Körtvélyespart: 1 large (?) cowrie as stray

Hampel (1899); Reizner (1903) 46–47; Párducz (1931) 115; Párducz (1950) 56; H. Vaday (1988–89) 58, 250: nr. 168. Neither was illustrated nor scaled, but according to Mihály Párducz it was a “Cypraea shell”, and the suspension loop rather belonged to a large cowrie. 991 The unpublished data was kindly reported to me by Valéria Kulcsár; see Kulcsár (1991); Kulcsár (1998) 132. 990

The unpublished excavation of Aladár Radnóti in 1946; I studied the shell through the kindness of Mihály Nagy; see Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 700: fig. 7. 989

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 115. 8 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum from Mezőberény (919) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 696: fig. 3: 1

912. Lovrin (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Lovrin, judeţul Timiş, Romania): 2 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

Türr István Museum, Baja, acc. nr.: 77.1.1910. 917. Grave 535: inner labium’s ventral fragment of perhaps a *Panther cowrie, with a broken small piercing, length: 4.2 cm. It is possible that it was worn in such fragmentary condition as a pendant.

Grave 1: from a 4th century female burial donated to the museum: a brooch with sidelong curved-back foot and wide spiral arms, thick twisted torque with a string of beads, 2 spindle whorls, a bronze pyxis, and the fragment of 1 large cowrie, length: 6.6 cm. The bronze ring with terminals twisted on each other was presumably its suspension loop.

Türr István Museum, Baja, acc. nr.: 77.1.2021. 918. Magyardiószeg (prev. Pozsony megye, Hungary; Sládkovičovo/Veľký Diosek, okr. Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)-Nové diely: 88 graves from a biritual Quad cemetery dated to the second half of the 1st century, 1 *Tiger cowrie was discovered as a stray find, slightly damaged by fire, without perforation, length: 6.3, width: 3 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, lost.992 913–17. Madaras (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Halmok: 666 graves of a wholly excavated Sarmatian cemetery, dated partly to the Hunnic Period too.993

Archaeological Institute of the Slovakian Academy of Sciences, Nitra, acc. nr.: 18/67.994

913. Grave 63: side fragment of 1 large cowrie, presumably a *Panther cowrie (?), length: 4.9 cm.

919. Mezőberény (Békés megye, Hungary)-Dimitrov Street: 3 disturbed late Sarmatian burials:

Türr István Museum, Baja, acc. nr.: 77.1.371.

Grave 1: iron brooch fragment, a bronze bracelet, an iron artifact, a small handled vessel, a string of 59 variously colored beads and 8 *Ringed cowries with dorsum totaly removed, size: 1.6x1.35–1.95x1.45 cm.

914. Grave 66: fragment of a large cowrie outer labium. Due to the delicate and longer denture, the shell is identifiable as *Panther cowrie, length: 5.5 cm.

Munkácsy Mihály Museum, Békéscsaba, acc. nr.: 70.70.5 (Fig. 115).995

Türr István Museum, Baja, acc. nr.: 77.1.385. 915. Grave 175: broken, *large cowrie. The length of the longest inner labium: 5.35 cm.

920. Mezőszemere (Heves megye, Hungary)-Kismarifenék: 14 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery dated to the 4th century:

Türr István Museum, Baja, acc. nr.: 77.1.792.

Grave 44: from female burial of the late 4th–first half of the 5th centuries: a bronze buckle, a bronze strap end, a string

916. Grave 499: large cowrie, the outer labium’s ventraland side fragment of perhaps a *Panther cowrie, length: 4.7 cm.

Three meters southwest of the disturbed urn grave nr. 54, at a depth of 20 cm, likely remains from a disturbed burial: Kolník (1980) 148, 313: pl. CL: i; Vladár (1983) 55 (107, 115–16): fig. 42. I could study the shell through the kindness of the excavation director. The date of the shell is unsure. If the early type one knobbed, strongly profiled brooches dated to the second half of the 2nd century uncovered in the neighboring cremation Grave 54 can at all date the stray shell, then this is the earliest appearance in the German Barbaricum of the Carpathian Basin: Kovács– Vaday (1997–98) 257. 995 Nagy (1970a); Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 696: fig. 3: 1 994

Párducz (1931) 86; Párducz (1950) 22–23, 149, pl. LXIX: 12. Attila Türk kindly informed me about the fate of the shell. 993 In the yearly reports of the excavations started in 1963 the discovery of the cowrie was not mentioned. On the completion of the excavation: Kőhegyi (1976). The director of the excavation gave the right of publication to Gabriella Vörös, and I studied the shells with her kind permission. 992

250

Catalogue of beads: a large amber, segmented bone, carnelian, and 3 types of glass beads (biconic, incrusted, and round, crossperforated), at both wrists bead bracelets, around the legs rows of beads, silver denar of Antoninus Pius (138–161), iron knife, iron plaque, 1-1 bone needle cases with iron, and bronze needles, biconic spindle whorl, and next to the iron artifacts, at the outer part of the left femur, among the two rows of amber and glass beads, above the knee, 1 fragmentary large cowrie strung on a bronze suspension loop, length: 6.0 cm. One sheet bronze pendant with wound edges was stuck in the stoma of the shell.

within bronze bands (Cypraea sp.). It fell apart during excavation and was destroyed.1000 Onceşti (judeţul Maramureş, Romania) – see 948. Váncsafalva 923. Orosháza (Békés megye, Hungary)-Kristó Brick Factory: stray finds from three possible graves of a cemetery: Grave C–D. (2.): possible grave goods of a 4th century female burial: a large, round, bronze pendant with wound tube, a string of 36 beads of prismatic, prismatic with facets at the corners, and cylindrical glass beads, 1 larger barrel-shaped limestone bead, and the side fragment of 1 large cowrie, length: approximately 6.8 cm.

Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger.996 921. Nagykárolyfalva (prev. Temes megye, Hungary; Banatski Karlovac, opština Alibunar, Serbia): 3 large cowries from the probably disturbed cemetery, which, according to additional stray finds, can be dated to the 4th century:997

Collection of the previous higher elementary school, Orosháza, destroyed.1001

1: large, but fragmentary cowrie, the dorsum is missing. It was strung on a densely wound bronze ring hung from the perforation, length: 6.5 cm.

924. Orosháza (Békés megye, Hungary)-Tanyák: 23 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery dated to 2nd century:1002

Narodni Muzej, Vršac/prev. Versec, acc. nr.: 12678 = Aa 3279,998

Grave 18: a silver brooch with curved-back foot, 2 silver pendants with wound terminals, a silver wire bracelet with widening terminals, a spindle whorl, and around the neck a string of beads: 11 amber beads with facets at the corners, other beads and 1 large cowrie, perhaps a *Panther cowrie, whose ventral side is entirely missing, length: 7.7, width: 4.5 cm.

2: half of a large cowrie, length: 6.1 cm. Narodni Muzej, Vršac/prev. Versec, acc. nr.: Aa3278. 3: fragmentary cowrie, with dorsum missing, a bronze suspension loop with wound terminals hung from the perforation at the apex, length: 7.7 cm.

Szántó Kovács Museum, Orosháza, acc. nr.: 55.102.4.1003 Osztópatak/Osztrópatak (prev. Sáros megye, Hungary; Ostrovany, okres Sabinov, Prešovský kraj, Slovakia)Object nr. 177/90 – see Annex 2317.

Narodni Muzej, Vršac/prev. Versec, acc. nr.: 12676 = Aa3277.999

925. Öttömös (Csongrád megye, Hungary): 2 cowries were delivered to the museum as stray finds. One is a *Tiger cowrie with surprisingly thin shell, both at the suspension piercing and near the broken inner indented stoma, between the holes became cracked, the original surface is only preserved at places, length: 7.5, width: 4.9, height: 3.9 cm. The other is a nice *Panther cowrie with thick shell, the original shade of the surface remains at many places,

Očkov (okres Nové Mesto nad Váhom, Trenčianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 922. Ocskó 922. Ocskó (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Očkov, okres Nové Mesto nad Váhom, Trenčianský kraj, Slovakia): partly destroyed Quad urn cemetery, dating from the Roman Imperial and the Early Migration Periods (late 2nd/early 3rd centuries–early 5th century):

The kind verbal message of Títus Kolník, see Kolník (1964) I: 229, pl. XXXIV: 150. Grave: d; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 14. 1001 Referred to as Grave nr. 2: Párducz (1950) 52: nr. 293, 184, pl. CXXXIV: 8. The finds were classified as graves by István Bóna on the basis of photos taken in the 1930s, and he conditionally identified a pair of earrings as grave goods from Grave D: Bóna (1965) 118, 129: note 21. I would like to thank Zoltán Rózsa for the information on the shells. 1002 12 graves of the cemetery were excavated by Elemér Zalotay, 11 additional burials were uncovered by Ernő Olasz Jr., but the preliminary reports – Zalotay (1953) 63; Zalotay–Olasz (1954); Olasz–Nagy (1955); Olasz (1959). – did not mention the the large cowrie. 1003 The shell is not published, it was identified from the drawing sent by Zoltán Rózsa. In addition, he kindly informed me that the object represented in Mócsy (1965) 108, pl. I, at the right edge, in the middle, is not a cowrie, but a bead.

Urn grave Nr. 150: among the finds a large, burnt cowrie

1000

The unpublished material was kindly placed at my disposal by László Domboróczki and Andrea H. Vaday; see Domboróczki (1997); Domboróczki (1997a); Vaday–Domboróczki (2001) 28–30, 72, 171: fig. 49: 5. 997 The kind information of Andrea Vaday. These cowries were cited to verify the Jazyg occupation of the Bánát area between 100–250: Alföldi (1939). 998 Barački (1975) pl. 10: 1. 999 Barački (1975) 16: fig. 5, pl. 10: 3. 996

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 116. 1-1 pierced Tiger and Panther cowries from Öttömös (925) – after Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 697: fig. 4, 698: fig. 5

and has a round suspension hole in the sawing at the apex, length: 6.5, width: 3.7, height: 3.1 cm..

Gradski muzej, Subotica/prev. Szabadka.1005 927. Grave 77: from the disturbed double burial of a younger and an older female dated between the late 4th–early 5th centuries: an iron knife, the pin of an twosegmented iron brooch, a bronze belt loop, 6 silver and an additional bronze chain of so-called elastic links, 49 amber, 4 carnelian beads, white beads, fragments of glass beads, silver axe-pendant, bronze sheet pendant, silver bezel of a finger ring with blue glass inlay, carnelian jewelry inlay, eggshell fragments, and “fragments of a cowrie, crumbled away”, probably reference to a large cowrie.1006

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.307.5–6 (Figs 41. 4–5, 116. 1–2).1004 Ruski Krstur (opština Kula, Serbia) – see 879. Bácskeresztúr Sládkovičovo/Veľký Diosek (okr. Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 918. Magyardiószeg Subotica (opština Subotica, Serbia) – see 926–27. Szabadka

928. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Jánosszállás, near the railway station: 7 (17 numbered) graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

926–27. Szabadka (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; Subotica, Serbia)-Veresegyháza (Verusić): 63 (124 numbered) graves from a Sarmatian cemetery:

Grave 13: from a female burial of the 2nd century: a bronze ring, a bronze pyxis, a bronze bell, a spindle whorl, and fragment of 1 *Tiger cowrie (?), strung on a bronze ring with wound terminals. The shell has dull surface, the right side is missing, at the right side of the apex, a drilled round hole, length: 7.8, width: 5.2 cm, the diameter of the ring: 3.0 cm.

926. Grave 13: from a female coffin burial dated between the late 4th–early 5th centuries: a pair of bronze nodusornamented earrings with hook-and-eye terminals, a cylindrical amber bead, and a large side fragment of a large cowrie became destroyed during restoration, but whose plaster moulding survived, its length was 5.5 cm..

Szekeres–Szekeres (1996) 7, 20, 22, pl. II: 6. Szekeres–Szekeres (1996) 11. According to the opinion of Ágnes Szekeres it was a large cowrie.

They were published to represent the species not the given item: Kovács (1999) 65: fig. 2: 4–5; see Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 697: fig 4, 698: fig. 5. 1004

1005 1006

252

Catalogue Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.248.1.1007

perhaps Ringed cowries, length: approximately 1.5, 1.5, 1.3 cm.

Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Kiskundorozsma, Daruhalom dűlő III – see Annex 2319.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, lost?1012

929. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Szőreg, Iván Brick Works: a 4th century male burial with sword, and several female-type objects: a bronze belt loop,1008 an ovalsectioned, cylindrical Spondylus bead, 1 *Panther cowrie, whose surface corroded in layers, the apex is polished, and there is a square perforation in it. The weathered shell became holed at several places, length: 5.6, width: 3.5 cm. Previously it was strung on a bronze ring (diameter: 2.0 cm) with terminals wound on each other.

933. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Zákány: stray finds that were delivered to the museum, presumably from the 4th century: a bronze torque, a bead, 2 bronze bracelets with thick terminals, 2 iron buckles, a belt loop, iron knife, an iron plate, a spindle ring, and fragment of a *Panther cowrie with corroded surface, the dorsum is missing. The shell is strung on a bronze ring with terminals wound on each other, length: 7.5, width: 4.4 cm, the diameter of the ring: 2.7x3.0 cm.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.317.19.1009

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.247.1.1013

930–31. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Tápé, Malajdok Cemetery A: 53 graves from a Sarmatian cemetery:

934. Szegvár (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Vasút Street: from a disturbed female burial, dated to the 3rd–4th centuries: 2 limestone beads, 2 bronze bracelets, 1 spindle ring, and 1 *Panther cowrie, perforated at the apex, but this part of the shell irregularly broken off and later a small hole was pierced at its left edge. The original surface survived to some extent, otherwise it is corroded, and covered by loadings, length: 7.2, width: 4.5, height: 3.8 cm.

930. Grave 47: from a child’s iron cramp-coffin burial of the second half of the 2nd century: amber and incrusted glass beads, iron knife, and 1 *Panther cowrie, whose ventral side is weathered, but the original surface partly remained. Under the apex, in a sawing, a larger perforation. The shell became holed at several places, length: 6.7, width: 4.2, height: 3.4 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes.1014 935. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Sárgapart, Adobe-place: 2 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.431.25.1010 931. Grave 50: from a young female burial dated to the 4th century: lozenge-shaped locket pendant, a spindle whorl, a cylindrical limestone bead, and 1 *Panther cowrie with incomplete dorsum and corroded surface, at the apex on a polished surface a nearly rectangular perforation, length: 6.9, width: 3.9, height: 3.3 cm.

Grave 2: from a 4th century female burial: the pin of a brooch, iron belt loop, string of beads from glass, limestone and carnelian beads, bronze bracelet with thick terminals, iron knife, and 2 large (?) cowries, one with a bronze suspension loop with twisted terminals in the perforated apex.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.431.30.1011

Destroyed.1015

932. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Tápé, Malajdok Cemetery B: 10 (44 numbered) graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

936. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Sárgapart, Ignác Török sor/passage: 46 graves of a Sarmatian cemetery:

Grave 34: from a burial, age and sex of the skeleton is not known, presumably from the 4th century: a bronze wire finger ring, a bronze ring, 3 globular clay beads (2 with inlay), 3 small cowries, according to the illustration 1007 1008

88.

Grave 35: from an iron cramp-coffin female burial dated to the end of the 4th century: two bronze brooches, a pair of silver earrings with hook-and-eye terminals, bronze torque with hook-and-plate terminals, burnt beads from

Párducz (1956) 16, pl. II: 3. About the function of its bronze ring see: Párducz (1946–48) 287–

Párducz–Korek (1946–48) 297, pl. LIII: 15–17; H. Vaday (1978/79) 57–58, 311: pl. 9: 6; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255. According to the kind information of Attila Türk, the material of the grave was not inventoried. 1013 Párducz (1931) 102, pl. XV: 10; Párducz (1950) 27: nr. 24, 154: nr. 24, pl. LXXXIV: 15. 1014 The find discovered in 1998 was studied with the kind permission of Gabriella Vörös. 1015 Around 1931 it was exhibited in the museum of Szentes: Párducz (1931) 107: nr. 104. Mihály Párducz published it without illustration or scale, and refers to it with the stock phrase “Cypraea shell” and the suspension loop reasonably, which both suggest a larger cowrie.. 1012

The “larger cypria shell..., which is 7 cm long, and was attached to a bronze ring, which is 2 cm in diameter. The highly colored shell during the times lost its brightness and color, in addition, the protruding part is cracked and broken.”: Reizner (1903) 46, 47: fig. 2; Párducz (1931) 88: nr. 47; Párducz (1950) 35: nr. 89, 163: nr. 89. The shell was correctly defined as “a larger cyprea-shell” by: Milleker (1908) 251, fig. 2. The site is also cited in the literature under the name Újszentiván (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Téglagyár: the kind information of Andrea Vaday. 1010 Párducz–Korek (1946–48) 296, pl. LIX 3. 1011 Párducz–Korek (1946–48) 296, pl. LIX: 5; Párducz (1950) 87, 223. 1009

253

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads the Scythian Period, a spindle whorl, polygonal carnelian, glass and amber bead bracelet, iron knife, a vessel, and next to the left wrist a bronze bell and a small bronze knife-pendant, onto which remains of textile were stuck. Together with these objects 1 large cowrie, probably a Panther cowrie, strung on a bronze ring with twisted terminals. The dorsum broken out, length: 6.0 cm.

the inner side of the labium, size: 8.0x4.15x4.1 cm. The fragments of 1 additional large cowrie was found at the gravel bottom of the grave, a thin side fragment survived from it, length: 5.3 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, destroyed.1016

Szőny (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary) – see 909. Komárom

Tragor Ignác Museum, Vác, acc. nr.: U. 96.86.1 (complete), 9 (fragment).

937. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Vekerhát: 24 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery:

940a. Tatabánya (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary)Bánhida: according to Mihály Párducz under the “entry of the National Museum’s inventory, numbered as R. N. 37/1884 are inventoried the following objects from this site: 1. Glass and paste beads. 2. A bronze bracelet, approximately 7 cm in diameter. Its analogue is among the finds from the Rákos cemetery... 3. Two large Cypraeashells with bronze mail pendants. 4. A bronze ring, similar to the item with bracelet nr. 2, but smaller, and the missing animal-figures are replaced by knobs. Its external diameter is 3.5 cm.”1021 This report based on mixed inventory numbers, because under these numbers the prehistoric finds from Környe and Berhida (37./1884.1–3., and 4–7, 12–17),1022 and the Roman material from Berhida (37./1884.8–11) are listed, the (Budapest)-Rákos-finds (884) were incorrectly quoted because of their inventory number 37./1894.1–82.

Grave 2: from a presumably 4th century female burial that were delivered to the museum, a brooch with curved-back foot, an earring, limestone beads, a pair of bronze bracelets, bronze and iron rings, and 1 large *Panther cowrie (?), perhaps hung on an iron ring. The dorsum is missing, the bottom is fragmentary, length: 7.4, width: 4.4 cm. Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 61.8.8.1017 938. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary): according to the inventory book “2 snail-jewelry, one with a small bronze ring.” From the 2 additional stray finds, which, according to this short comment, were likely the same type, presently only the fragmentary inner part of a *large cowrie stoma is available, length: 6.5 cm.

941. Tiszadob (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)Sziget: 36 graves of a Gepid cemetery, dated to the 4–5th centuries:

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, acc. nr.: 311./1876.4.1018 939. Szolnok (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)Vegyiművek: from a 4th century female burial: bronze tweezers, a clay spindle whorl, a bronze mirror with white metal coating, a string of amber, coral and glass beads, and 1 large, fragmentary cowrie, perhaps a Panther cowrie, length: approximately 7.2 cm.

Grave 18: remained finds from a robbed and later disturbed Sarmatian-type female burial of the first third of the 5th century: a pair of octahedric silver earrings, a string of beads: 7 polygonal, 4 prismatic, 4 other glass, 3 yellow, 1 green, 1 brown fluted-conic glass, 1 similar and 5 discoid amber beads, 4 polygonal, and round carnelian beads, iron buckle-pendant, copper plate brooch, 2 bronze brooches, a knobbed bronze pin, bronze spiral, an iron knife, an obsidian, and the apex fragment of 1 *Panther/Tiger cowrie, the ventral, the dorsum and both sides are missing. At the apex, there is a large oval hole, length: 5.1, width: 3.5 cm.

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok, acc. nr.: 63.311.5.1019 940. Sződliget (Pest megye, Hungary)-Csörög, MRT Site 29/8: 40 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery dated to the lat 2nd–early 3rd centuries:1020 Grave 40: from a robbed female stump-wood coffin burial: bronze spangles, silver and iron remains, dozens of glass, some hexagonal carnelian, and 1 chalcedony beads, and in the grave soil, during the excavation a *Panther cowrie in good condition was discovered. The edge of the perforation at the apex broken off and it became holed on

Jósa András 95.515.10.1023

Museum,

Nyíregyháza,

acc.

nr.:

942–43. Tiszaföldvár (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Brick-works: 101 graves of a Sarmatian cemetery:

Párducz (1950) 12, 136, pl. XXI: 11. Párducz (1950) 47, 177, pl. CXXIX: 8; Nagy (1997) 60: Site 35. 1018 On the 30th of December in 1876 the finds are cited among the material donated by Béla Szívós, a teacher from Szentes. Quoted as bivalves: Nagy (1997) 60: Site 36. 1019 Vaday (1988–89) 267: nr. 286, pl. 91: 13. 1020 The kind information of Valéria Kulcsár; see Kulcsár (1997); Kulcsár (1999). 1016

Párducz (1931) 123–24: nr. 183. Mentioned under the number 17: “bivalves, diam.: 2.5 cm; polished and drilled”, 2 pieces. This was presumably the origin of the mistake; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 264. 1023 Istvánovits (1993) 100, 131, 139, 101: fig. 8: 5; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 695: fig. 2: 4; Bierbrauer (1998) 401; Lamiová-Schmiedlová– Tomášová (1999) 105, 131.

1017

1021 1022

254

Catalogue 942. Grave 61: from a 4th century female burial: large barrel-shaped shell beads, discoid amber and polygonal carnelian beads, iron knife, and the fragment of 1 *Tiger cowrie (?) in bad condition: the inner labium is strung on a bronze ring, which was twisted together with the apex, diameter: 6.0x1.3 cm. Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok, uninventoried.1024 943. stray find/1977: the inner labium fragment of 1 *Panther cowrie (?) with several perforated smaller and larger holes, length: 6.6 cm. Fig. 117. Ringed cowrie among the finds from Grave 1/1933 at Törökszentmiklós-Surján, near the Barta-puszta (944) – after Vaday (1988–89) pl. 153: pl. 7–10

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok. 944. Törökszentmiklós (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Surján, near the Barta-puszta: disturbed Sarmatian cemetery: Grave 1/1933: from a likely female burial, dated no earlier than the late 4th century: silver brooch with curvedback foot, a bronze wire bracelet, the cover of a bronze casket, bronze plate, the bottom of a clay cup, a Roman silver coin of 2nd century, and a string of beads: barrelshaped limestone, cylindrical amber, 5 glass beads, and 4 tiny cowries, they are (based on the illustration) Ringed cowries, 1 with removed dorsum. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest? (Fig. 117).1025 945. Törökszentmiklós (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Surján-Szőlők dűlő, communal sandpit: Grave 1/1932: from the solitary grave of a girl, dated to the 4th century: brooch with curved-back foot, bead, spindle ring, wheeled bowl, and outside the left pelvis, which might be the surrounding of the left wrist as well, 3 large cowries. All have their dorsum removed and all were hung from 1-1 bronze rings with twisted terminals; length: approximately 6.5, 6.7, 7.6 cm. Presently 2 *Panther cowries (?) are available: the entire dorsum of one is missing, and the edge of the perforation broken, the suspension loop with twisted terminals is also missing; size: 6.3x3.8 cm. The other fragment is similar, but the inner side of the labium is also lost; but at the apex, the bronze suspension loop with twisted terminals survives, length: 7.4 cm, the diameter of the ring: 3.2–3.4 cm.

Fig. 118. 2 Panther cowries and 1 large cowrie among the finds from Grave 1/1932 at Törökszentmiklós-Surján-Szőlők dűlő, communal sandpit (945) – after Vaday (1988–89) pl. 153: 2–6

946. Törökszentmiklós (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Surján-Újtelep, Kastélydomb (Site 21), Ady Agricultural Cooperative, sandpit: 24 graves from a Sarmatian cemetery:1027

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Collection of Migration Period, acc. nr.: NN 15./1932.2 (Fig. 118).1026

Grave 54: from a robbed and disturbed female burial of the second half of the 2nd century: gilt silver box-brooch, Great Plain-type cross bow brooch, an enameled Peltashaped brooch, a gold torque, a locket, a pendant, beads, and 3 large fragmentary cowries. Previously all were

I became acquainted with the unpublished material with the kind help of Andrea Vaday. 1025 Párducz (1950) 24–25: nr. 15, pl. LXXII: 8; Vaday (1988–89) 281: nr. 396, pl. 153: 10; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255, 262–63, 696: fig. 3: 2. 1026 Párducz (1950) 24: nr. 14, 151: nr. 14, pl. LXXIII: 1–3; H. Vaday (1978/79) 57, 310: pl. 18: 5; H. Vaday (1988–89) 58, 280–81: nr. 395b, pl. 153: 6. The shell pendants were interpreted as usual belt-pendants rather than bracelets: Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 263. 1024

1027

255

Scythian graves with cowries of the same cemetery see 538–40.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads strung on 1-1 bronze rings with twisted terminals; 2 are smaller-larger apex fragments, the third item, which was restored from numerous pieces, but is still incomplete, is pierced crossways, length: approximately 4.5 cm.

Narodni Muzej, Vršac/prev. Versec, acc. nr.: Aa2550.1031 950. Grave 11: from a 4th century female burial: axe pendants, a lavish string of beads: flat hexagonal, prismatic carnelian and glass beads, polygonal carnelian, incrustedand millefiori glass, discoid beads, a bronze pyxis, 2 bells, iron knife, a spindle whorl, a small jug, and near the inner side of the left elbow 2 bronze bells, a bronze pyxis, and with a cylindrical bead the right fragment of 1 large cowrie, length: approximately 5.1 cm.

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok, acc. nr.: 62.4.1– 204.1028 947. Törökszentmiklós (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Surján, Újtelep, Kis-Büdös Brook, Sandpit: from a disturbed 4th century cemetery, the fragment of 1 large cowrie, hung from a bronze suspension loop, length: approximately 5.1 cm. Based on the photo, it is a Panther cowrie.

Narodni Muzej, Vršac/prev. Versec, acc. nr.: Aa2584.1032 951. Grave 16: from a female burial dated to the second half of the 4th century: brooch with a knob head, large box-brooch with filigree decoration, belt loop, a pair of earrings with large wounding, a limestone axe-pendant, large globe and barrel-shaped incrusted glass, cylindrical amber, barrel-shaped limestone and polygonal carnelian beads, andat the inner part of the left elbow 1 decorated bronze bell, 1 biconic clay spindle whorl, and 1 large cowrie, based on the illustration perhaps a Tiger cowrie, strung on a suspension loop with wound terminals. The dorsum became cracked and broken, length: 5.4 cm.

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok1029 Újszentiván (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Téglagyár – see 929. Szeged Unknown Provenance– see 884. Budapest-Rákos 948. Váncsafalva (prev. Máramaros megye, Hungary; Onceşti, judeţul Maramureş, Romania): 2 cowries hung from a string of beads from a grave of the 2nd–3rd centuries. The shells, depicted on an unscaled illustration, compared to other objects are small, perhaps Ringed cowries.1030

Narodni Muzej, Vršac/prev. Versec, acc. nr.: Aa2638.1033 Vojlovica (opština Hertelendyfalva

Vărşand (judeţul Arad, Romania) – see 895. Gyulavarsánd (?)

Pančevo,

Serbia)

–

see

897.

Vršac (opština Vršac, Serbia) – see 849–51. Versec

Veľký Diosek (okr. Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 918. Magyardiószeg

952. Zagyvarékas (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Szolnoki Road: from the burial of a young girl, dated between the late 4th–first half of the 5th centuries: truncated silver bulb-headed brooch, silver strap end and buckle of a belt, a string of beads: 1 amber, 7 chalcedony, 14 limestone, 3 almandine, 45 coral, 3 white and blue glass beads, incrusted glass bead, a pair of silver bracelets with hook-and-eye terminals, iron knife in wooden scabbard, silver tweezers hung from a silver loop and ear-pick, a spindle ring, wheeled jug, and on the chest 1 large cowrie, hung on a bronze suspension loop with wound terminals. The surface crumbled away, length: approximately 8.6 cm. Based on the published illustration, it was perhaps a Tiger cowrie.

949–51. Versec (prev. Temes megye, Hungary; Vršac, opština Vršac, Serbia)-the yard of the Orthodox Bishopric of the Banat (Dvorište Eparhije banatske), Cemetery II: 16 graves from a part of a Sarmatian cemetery: 949. Grave 9: from a 4th century female burial: an earring with rhomboid-pendant, crescent-shaped pendant, a lavish string of beads: barrel-shaped limestone, polygonal carnelian, large amber, barrel and globular incrusted glass, foliated double and discoid beads, torques, a bracelet, 2 disc brooches, 1 chased box-brooch, a belt loop, a bronze pixis, a bronze bell, a spindle whorl, a small jug, and at the inner side of the left elbow along with 2 cylindrical beads, the exterior labium fragment of a large cowrie, hung from a suspension loop with wound terminals, length: 6.6 cm.

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok1034

H. Vaday (1985) 350–51, 355: fig. 8: 10, 12–13; H. Vaday (1988–89) 58, 285–88: nr. 415: as sandpit of the Ady Agricultural Cooperative; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 262. 1029 H. Vaday (1978/79) 61, 322: pl. 30: 2; H. Vaday (1988–89) 58, 288–89: nr. 416, pl. 149: 8. 1030 Bichir (1977) 186, 179: pl. 14: 10–11; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255 (this site is also referred to as Oneşti (judeţul Bacau): Harţuche (1980a) 244).

Barački (1961) 120, 128: pl. VII: 4. In three female graves of the cemetery large cowries were discovered, two of which (Graves 9 and 16) were incorrectly listed among the smaller cowries: H. Vaday (1974/75) 85. 1032 Barački (1961) 120, 130: pl. IX: 22. 1033 Barački (1961) 121, 128: pl. XII: 1; Barački (1975) fig. 15. 1034 H. Vaday (1974/75) 83, pl. 24: 3; Vaday (1988–89) 290: No. 424, pl. 157: 5.

1028

1031

256

Catalogue 4.11. 953–1155, (959a, 1014a, 1017a–d, 1038a–c, 1073a, 1130a–d, 1139a, 1147a). Parallels to the Sarmatian Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin (2nd century BC–5th century AD)�������� – ����� (see Annex 2393, 2415, 2470–71, 2473, 2475,�������������������������������������� 2526–28, 2542–43, 2545–52, 2558, 2561) �������������������������������������

(?) burial, as a stray shell strung on a bronze ring from the Roman Period.

In this catalogue all finds discovered outside the Carpathian Basin – Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, France, Georgia, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Montenegro, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Sudan, Syria, Tadžikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan (Fig. 119) – are listed without distinguishing the geographical location of the sites, but with special regard to the temporal context of the material. Namely, connected to the parallels of the Scythian Period the eastern-southeastern analogues were collected from the beginning of the Sarmatian hegemony in Eurasia (the beginning of the 2nd century BC), while the Central and Western European material is gathered here from the period after the Celtic catalogue (stops around the birth of Christ). The present catalogue ends at the end of the Hunnic Period (453/455),1035 and all finds whose dating reach the post-5th century are registered in the of Late Migration Period catalogue (4.12–13) (5th –9th centuries).

955. Bulgaria

Praehistorische Abteilung des Naturhistorischen Museums, Vienna, acc. nr.: 16.147.1038

955. Varna (oblast Varna)-Morskata gradina (= Odesos): from a rich Thracian female burial, dated to the late 2nd century–early 1st century BC, which was disturbed during earthworks: 4+1 (?) terracotta Eros statuette, Nike statuette, 2 terracotta heads, gold plaque with embossed decoration, 2 fragments of silver applied ornament, a silver lamp, a bronze mirror, fragment of a megara-type vessel, and in the neck region 2 rows of beads of various types and colored glass beads, among them a pierced boar canine, a bronze medallion, 1-1 murexes without an iron bandage, and cowries, 2 of them with iron bandage, all are unidentified. Compared to the scaled canine, the length of the latter: approximately 3.9 cm.1039 956–57. Cyprus 956. Amathus: majority of the cemetery’s cowrie finds were dated between 750–475 BC (see 55–63, 550–58):

953–54. Austria Bernardin – see 954. Wels

Grave 423: a pierced Fallow cowrie was uncovered in a burial of the Roman Period.1040

953. Laa an der Thaya (Bezirk Mistelbach, Niederösterreich): male and female burials from the 5th century:

957. Kourion-Apollo Hylates sanctuary: 1 pierced cowrie, likely a Fallow cowrie was discovered in a deposit-find assemblage, dated to the first century.1041

Grave 1: from the burial of an Ostrogoth woman with deformed skull, whose finds als resemble Sarmatian material, dated to the first half of the 5th century: almandine and gold polihedric pair of earrings, a string of glass, chalcedony, crystal and amber beads, a pair of silver plate brooches, a silver belt buckle with almandine, 2 silver bracelets with horn-shaped ends, the half part of a mirror from white metal, fragments of silver wires, a biconical cup, and a larger cowrie, length: approximately 5.3 cm.1036

958–59. Czech Republic 958. Pňov (okres Nymburk, Středočeský kraj)-Na Doubici: 73 Marcomann urn burials dated between 170–300: Grave 42: from a female urn burial, dated to the first half of the 3rd century:1042 fragment of a cross-bow brooch, a comb, a cup, the remains of a triple knobbed band, which terminates in a ring. Fragmentary length: 4.3 cm; therefore if it was a bandage of a cowrie, than it included a mediumsized, at about 3.0–3.5 cm long shell.1043

954. Wels (Bezirk Wels, Bundesland Oberösterreich)Lichtenegg, Bernardin: 1 Panther cowrie1037 from a child

959. Žiželice u Žatce (okres Louny, Ústecký kraj)-Jánský “Schneckengehäuse mit Bronzering ist als Einzelfund (1890) zu uns gekommen, «angekauft von J. Obermair in Haag, Hausruck» Fundort: Bernardin (dürfte ein Gehöftname o.ä. sein - im heutigen Amtskalender nicht mehr genannt), Gemeinde Lichtenegg, Gerichtsbezirk Wels, politischer Bezirk Wels, Oberösterreich. Der Ort Lichtenegg selbst ist nur als «Einschicht u. zerstreute Häuser» bezeichnet. Klassifiziert wurde es (im Inventar) als «römisch».”: information kindly provided by Angelika Heinrich with the assistance of Falko Daim. 1039 Tončeva (1961) 27–28, fig. 4: a, g, ž. 1040 Reese (1992d) 124; Reese (2000) 636. 1041 Reese (1985) 349; Reese (2000) 636. 1042 As a child burial: Stanek (1999) 350: nr. 63a. 1043 Rybová (1970) 13, 38–39, 43, 46, 57, 87, pl. XIV: 2; “prawdopodobnie po muszli cypraea”: Stanek (1999) 350: nr. 63a. 1038

Spring 453: the death of King Attila (445–453); 455: the battle at the Nedao river, the death of King Ellak (453–455), the dissollution of the Hunnic Empire: Bóna (1991) 99, 207–09; Bóna (1993) 92, 191–93. 1036 Werner (1956) I: 14, 84, 93, 110: nr. L 132, II: pl. 10: 3; for the dating see: Böhner 1 (= 400–450): Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 945–46: nr. 432; Istvánovits (1993) 131: note 149; Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 258, note 99. 1037 “Wir finden C.[ypraea] vinosa... in einem Kindergrabe zu Bernardin bei Wels in Oberösterreich”: Schilder (1923) 205, 206: note 10: “Naturhist. Staatsmus. Vienna, prähist. Abt. Inv. No. 16.147, leg. [legato] Obermayer: noch nicht publiziert, von mir untersucht.”; Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 8. 1035

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Fig. 119. Distribution of parallels to the Sarmatian cowrie finds of the Carpathian Basin (2nd century BC–5th century AD)

vrch: from a female burial from the C3 Stufe (300–370/380): a cross-bow brooch, bronze lunula, a nut pendant bezelled in silver wire, a copper bead, a string of beads, a silver needle, a bronze rattle, a silver finger ring, a bronze ring, a clay spindle whorl, fragments of the belt pendant, 4 clay vessels, the bones of a rooster, and on the pelvis, a pierced Panther cowrie (ulita Cypraea), hanging from a bronze ring, length: approximately 6.5 cm (Fig. 120. 2).1044 959a. Denmark 959a. Espe (Ringe Kommune, Fyns Amt): 1 cowrie is mentioned among finds from the Imperial Period,1045 actually, it is a pendant, composed from some kind of Terebra sp pendant.1046 960–64. Egypt 960. Gheyta/Tell Yehud (near Bilbeis, southern Delta): 2

Svoboda (1965. 69, 316, 207, Cypraea pantherina: 352, pl. XIII: 11; dated to the second half of the 5th century (Böhner II): Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1158–59: nr. 832; Martin (1976) 96: note 150; dated to the Stufe C3 (around 300–370/380): Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 43; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 262: nr. 544; reconstructed between the pectens: Dübner-Manthey (1987) 76, 77: fig. 3: 3. 1045 Quast (2000) 288: nr. 11: quoted by: Aarbøger (1871) 448. 1046 Stanek (1999) 353: nr. 72 (as “wisior z muszlą terebratula”); see Tyahun (1988) 45; Dance (1994) 195–99. According to the kind information of Kinga Stanek it is correctly cited from Almgren: Aarbøger (1871) 448, but there the following text states: “Haengesmykke eller en Amulet... bestaaende af en fortenet Musling (Terebratula) i en Omfatning af Broncetraad.” 1044

Fig. 120. Sketch of the position of finds in two female graves: Grave 2 at Lauffen (977) and a grave from Žiželice (959) – after Dübner-Manthey (1987) 77: fig.3: 3, 75: fig. 2: 3

258

Catalogue Ringed cowries with removed dorsum from the Roman Period (Fig. 70. c–d).1047

Church, when a Mithraneum from the Roman Period was excavated, size: 8,3x3.4 cm.

961. Karanog/ancient Nalote (Lower Nubia), Grave 546: a painted cowrie-row decorates the neck of a water sacrifice vessel from Meroe, dated to the first century AD.1048

Musée Archeologique, Strassbourg, acc. nr.: 22622.1055

962–63. Nazlah al-Mustadijjah/ancient Mostagedda (Upper Egypt): cowries from burials from the Roman and Coptic Period (5th–12th centuries) (see 121–36):

969. Cebel’da (Abhazija): 1 cowrie was found in a cemetery used between the 2nd –first half of the 4th centuries AD, and was interpreted as an import object.1056

962. Grave 420: from a female grave: 2 bone bracelets, a bead bracelet (?), and at the neck a string of beads made from carnelian, glass and pearl imitation beads and cowries.1049

970. Dallag Monaster (Chinval’skij rajon, Respublika Jugo-Osetija): 9 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated between the 1st century BC–1st century AD:

969–71. Georgia/Gruziya

Grave 6: from an equestrian female burial, which were not described, only published in drawing, 5 Ringed cowries were uncovered.1057

963. Grave 10109: from the burial: a lead earring, 5 bronze bracelets, a string of carnelian and “Coptic” beads, Conus sp., Columbella sp. and cowries applied to a yellow wool.1050

971. Šapka (Abhazija)-Steklannyj holm Grave 1: from a female burial dated between the 2nd –early 3rd centuries: 2 bronze buckles, a silver wire bracelet, an iron knife, in the neck region 8 carnelian and 30 glass beads, and 6 cowries. The length of the published shell (according to the given scale): approximately 5.6 cm, means that it was neither Ringed, nor Money cowrie.1058

964. Quseir al-Qadim/ancient Quseir (al Bahr al Ahmar/ Red Sea coast, southern Egypt): 1-1 Tiger and Money cowries, and 2 other cowries from this Red Sea port among finds from the Roman Period.1051 965–68. France

972–78, Annex 2393. Germany

965. Grand (département Vosges, région Lorraine): 1 Serpent’s Head cowrie and 1 Money cowrie hung from an iron ring were found at the Gallo–Roman settlement.

972–73. Bargensdorf (Landkreis Neubrandenburg, Bundesland Mecklenburg - Vorpommern) - Christina/ Krestienberg: 7 excavated graves from 40 disturbed burials of a Langobard (?) cemetery, dated to the 3rd–4th centuries:

Musée d’Épinal.1052 966. Lyon (département Rhône, région Rhône-Alpes)Trion: 1 Tiger cowrie from the Gallo–Roman cemetery of the 1st century AD.1053

972. Grave 1./1932: from a most likely female burial: silver cross-bow brooch, glass beads, a bronze bucketpendant, a bronze beaded wire ring, fragments of bronze plates and wires, fragments of an urn, and 1 pierced cowrie (Cypraea-Schnecke), hung from a loop with rewound terminals. According to the surviving photos, compared to the beads, it was a small cowrie.1059

967. Nîmes (département Gard, région LanguedocRoussillon): 1 phallus (amulet?) and 1 Tiger cowrie were from a female grave of the Gallo–Roman Period.1054 968. Strassbourg (département Bas-Rhin région Alsace)Königshoffen, Mithraeum: 1 Tiger cowrie was discovered in 1911/12 during the construction of the Saint Paul

973. Grave 1./1934: from a most likely female burial: 2 bronze bucket-pendants, 2 bronze chains, 12 spherical glass and stone beads, 2 cylindrical glass beads, a bone comb, and a pierced cowrie (Cypraea-Schnecke), hung from a bronze loop with rewound terminals. According to

Petrie (1914) 27. and pl. XIV: 107 c–d; one is mentioned by: Reese (1988) 262; Falkner (1981) 141. 1048 Wenig (1978) 47, fig. 3. 1049 Brunton (1937) 139. 1050 Brunton (1937) 142. 1051 Reese (1982) 379, 381. Material from the Ayyubid-Mamluk/Islamic period: 2194. 1052 Identified by J. Fromols. He incorrectly states that Money cowries live in the Mediterranean Sea, in the neighborhood of Palermo and Corsica: Fromols (1935) 71: nr. 3. Tiger and Money cowries were mentioned without referring to his work: Salin (1959) 74. A large cowrie from a Merovingian cemetery: 1216. 1053 Jackson (1917) 133; Schilder (1923) 205, 206: note 8; Voigt (1952) 176, 181: nr. 44; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 128. 1054 Fromols (1935) 71: nr. 1; Salin (1959) 74; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 127. 1047

Salin (1959) 74; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 129. The territory of the Mithraeum, situated west of the Rhine river, remained under Roman control in the 5th century, and was inhabited by Christian population for centuries onwards: Sauer (1996) 62–63. Lacking specific dating, I considered the Tiger cowrie as from the Roman period. 1056 Without classification, measure and scale: Voronov (1980) 86: fig. 23: 9, I did not find it in: Voronov (2003). 1057 Gagloev (1979) 178, 255 and pl. LXXV: 20–24. 1058 Voronin–Jušin (1979) 181–82, 182: fig. 1: 43. 1059 Schach-Dörges (1970) 162, pl. 71: 7 (lower neck ornament); the burials with cowries are also mentioned in: Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 30. 1055

259

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads the surviving photos, compared to the beads, it was a small cowrie.1060 974. Großbadegast (Landkreis Koethen, Regierungsbezirk Dessau, Bundesland Sachsen-Anhalt): 54 urn graves from a Late Roman (240—350) Thuring cemetery part: Grave 1: from the burial of a mature woman: bronze crossbow brooch, 4 iron hooks, a comb, bronze needle, 4 bone needles, an iron knife, a cup, glass beads, an iron bucketpendant, resin, and a bandaged Dirty cowrie-pendant. The bronze band runs through its ventral side and dorsum, and its terminals forming two loops are twisted on the neck-part, length: approximately 2.5 cm, the length of the pendant: 3.7 cm.1061 975. Heidenheim an der Brenz (Landkreis Heidenheim, Region Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg): 1 Panther cowrie from the Roman or the Migration Period, with bronze suspension loop. Museum, Heidenheim, acc. nr.: 348.1062 976. Hürth (Landkreis Erftkreis, Regierungsbezirk Köln, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen)-Hermühlheim: cemetery of the Roman Period: Grave 1: sarcophagus tomb of a 40–50 years old woman, dated around 300: outside the tomb, the remains of the funeral meal: a glass cup, one-eared jug, bones of chicken, inside the sarcophagus a cylindrical glass bottle, a clay vessel, and in a small case box: silvered bronze mirror, a tiny glass scent bottle, a bone needle, and a Panther cowrie, which was found near the mirror, and was interpreted as an amulet, length: 7.8 cm.1063 977. Lauffen am Neckar (Landkreis Heilbronn, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Brunnenäcker: 2 early Alamann noble female graves:

Fig. 121. Upper part of a women’s skeleton in Grave 2 at Lauffen (977) and her large cowrie amulet – after Schach-Dörges (1981) 624: fig. 9, 626: fig. 11: 6a–b

Grave 2: grave goods of a 20–30 years old woman of the Early Merovingian Period (350–around 400): 2 bronze cross-bow brooches, silver decorative pins, bronze buckle and strap end, a string of 112 glass, 6 amber, and 10 coral beads, S-shaped bronze hook, another string of beads composed from 48 amber and 27 glass beads, with 3 silver and 1 bronze loops, a silver wire finger ring, a bone comb, a terra sigillata cup, a terra nigra bottle and dish, 4 additional vessels, 1 other fragment of a vessel, a wooden case box with iron mounts, grape seeds, the remains of two suckling

pigs, and in the bag put between the left lower arm and the body, more amulets: a bone ring, 2 large fluted beads, a Roman case box mount, and a large cowrie pierced crossways twice at the apex hung on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, length: 5.8 cm (Figs 120. 1, 121 ).1064 Letschin – see 978. Wilhelmsaue Trier (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-St. Matthiaskirche Grave 3 – see Annex 2393.

Schach-Dörges (1970) 163, pl. 71: 7 (upper neck ornament). The shell was identified by A. Schilder: Schmidt (1960) 258: nr. c, 258: note 3a, 295, 255: fig. 3: b; Schach-Dörges (1969) 43: note 242; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 12. It was incorrectly mentioned as Ringed cowrie: Stanek (1999) 351: nr. 88. Ethnic definition: Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 126. 1062 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 874: nr. 296. 1063 Gottschalk (1995) 8, 7: fig. 7. I received a copy of this essay with the kind help Karl Banghard; see Banghard (2001). 1060

978. Wilhelmsaue (prev. Letschin, Landkreis Märkisch-

1061

Schach-Dörges (1981) 624: nr. 10, 646, 655, 626: fig. 11: 6a–6b; Dübner-Manthey (1987) 75: fig. 2: 3; Planck (1990) 71, 76: fig. 5b: 6a–b; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.); Fuchs (1997) 90–91: fig. 72; Martin (1997) 360, fig. 9: 7; Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 258–59. 1064

260

Catalogue Oderland, Brandenburg): nearly 100 graves of a cemetery of the Luboszyce Culture (ca. 150–ca. 450):

Nazionale, Naples, (16 pieces, and the 2 Gnawed cowries).1070

Grave 32: from the only urn grave of the cemetery, which were dated to the early phase of the younger Imperial Period (ca. 175–250): silver brooch fragment, iron buckle, bone comb, 2 clay spindle whorls, 2 iron keys, an iron catch plate, iron mounts of a casket, iron nails, 2 iron knives, 4 clay vessels, and 1 Panther cowrie bandaged with a fourbranched, fragmentary bronze band with dot motif, which became deformed in the fire, size: 7.2x4.3 cm.1065

984. Unknown Provenance (south Italy): a child’s amulet: a rooster-shaped pendant in the middle, at both sides 4-4 Pear cowries strung lengthways.1071

India: Rang Mahal (Rajasthan state) – see Annex 2415.

985. Grave 58: from the burial of a 25–40 years old woman and her fetus or baby one complete Acanthocardia tuberculata shell and 1 Ringed cowrie with open dorsum were found.

985–91. Jordan 985–89. Amman-Queen Alia International Airport Cemetery: Roman Imperial period (1st–4th centuries AD):

979–81. Israel 979. Jerusalem-Site A: 2 Dirty cowries and 2 Ringed cowries with open dorsum probably from the 2nd–1st centuries BC, and 3 additional undated cowries: 2 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum and 1 Tiger cowrie fragment.1066

986. Grave 60: from the burial of a 16–22 years old female 1 pierced Strombus sp. fragment was uncovered, and 1 fragmentary cowrie with incomplete dorsum, which is not a Ringed cowrie.

980. Jerusalem-Site L (Armenian Garden): 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, dated before 40 AD, and 1 cowrie from the Red Sea, dated between 40–70 AD.1067

987. Grave 66: from an adult female (?) burial 3 weathered Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.

981. Jerusalem: labium fragment of a Panther cowrie’s apex dated to the 1st century AD.1068

988. Grave 67: from the burial of a 35–60 years old female, a small shell and 1 cowrie.

982–84. Italy

989. Grave 112/102: from the burial of a 16–19 years old female 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, size: 2.5x1.7 cm.1072

982. Ercolano (prev. Herculaneum; province Napoli, region Campania): 1 Tiger cowrie dated to the 1st century AD, and 2 Pear cowries.

990. Nayel No. 5 (Wadi el-Hasa): 1 Thrush cowrie with removed dorsum, dated to the Byzantine Period.1073

Herculaneum deposito, acc. nr.: 2743, 2800.1069

991. Tell Hesbān (North Jordan):

Herculaneum – see 982. Ercolano

Grave 8: more than 100 objects from a robbed burial dated to the Roman Period, among them a gold earring and a shell container with cover. The body of this container is a Tiger cowrie with removed dorsum, to which a swan neckshaped handle of ivory, a fan-shaped tail and a cover to hide the opening on the base, are attached (Fig. 122).1074

983. Pompeii (province Napoli, region Campania): the data of the previous excavations were studied David S. Reese. Accordingly, in the material of the town dated to the 1st century AD, among the rich mollusc finds, there are 48 Tiger or Panther cowries (some are holed), and 2 Gnawed, 18 Fallow, 1 Dirty, 4 Pear and 39 undeterminable cowries.

992–993. Kazakstan Bedaik-asar – see 992. Džety-asar 2

Pompeii deposito (32 items), Museo Arcaeologico

992. Džety-asar 2 (= Bedaik-asar; west Kazakstan�� ����������� ): a Saka kurgan cemetery from the Džety-Asar (džety-asarskaja) Citing literature: Jackson (1912) 308, (1917) 133; Schilder (1923) 204; Schilder (1926) 318; Fromols (1935) 71: nr. 2; Sheppard (1939); Schilder (1952) 22; Voigt (1952) 176; Reese (1991) 173–74: nr. 93; Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1992b) 349; Reese (2002a) 295: nr. 4, 306: nrs 38–39, 295: figs 241–42, 307: figs 249–50. 1071 Schilder (1952) 23, 22: fig. 23. 1072 Reese (1987). Its photo in the book: pl. XLII: 3; Reese (1995) 268. 1073 Reese (1988) 262. 1074 Thompson (1971) 28 and fig.; Reese (1991) 161: nr. 7; with kindly help of Barbara Porter (Amman). 1070

Schach-Dörges (1969) Laser–Voß (1994) 82, pl. 13: 5; DübnerManthey (1987) 181: note 102; Schach-Dörges (1981) 646: note 113; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 56; Stanek (1999) 350: nr. 60, 366: note 7: 5; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 13. 1066 Reese (1995) 267–68, 273–76; Reese (2003c). 1067 Reese (1991) 165: nr. 26, 165: fig. 13; Reese (1995) 267, 277, 278. 1068 Reese (1995) 268. 1069 Reese (1991) 174: nr. 94; Reese (1992b) 349; Reese (2002a) 295 (at the end of nr. 4), 306 (at the end of nr. 39). 1065

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 122. Swan-shaped container from Grave 8 at Tell Hesbān (991), its body is a Tiger cowrie with ivory neck-shaped handle, fan-shaped tail and cover – after Thompson (1971) 28: fig.

995. Karabulak: 1 cowrie from a kurgan of the Karabulak (karabulakskaja) Culture, dated to the 1st–4th centuries AD.1078

Culture, dated between the 8th century BC–4th century AD: Kurgan 1: among the remained grave goods of at least four persons’ (2 male, 1-1 female and child) robbed crypt dated to the last century BC–first centuries AD, perhaps 4 cowries were discovered. It is possible that all were Ringed cowries, length: approximately 1.6, 1.4, and 2.5, 2.7 cm.1075

996. Kenkol’: cowrie(s) were discovered among finds from the Hunnic (?) graves of the partly excavated kurgan catacomb cemetery, named after the Kenkol’ River in the Talas Valley, dated to the 1st–5th centuries AD. Probably 1 Money cowrie was discovered perhaps in Kurgan nr. 11/56, with a round, sewn opening at the apex, length: approximately 2.0 cm.1079

993. Konyr-Töbe (Otrar-oasis): in one string of beads published from the cemetery dated between the 3rd–5th centuries AD among crystal and glass beads, pierced animal tooth, 3 likely Money cowries; 1 is pierced, the dorsum of the second is removed and the condition of the third is not visible on the illustration.1076

997–99. Tašravat: 63 kurgans of a wholly excavated kurgan cemetery on the northern slope of the Majdan-tau ridge, whose burial are largely dated to the middle of the 1st millennium:1080

994–99. Kyrgyzstan

997. Kurgan 13: in the catacomb a double burial was discovered. The finds of the elder, 2. skeleton: left from the entrance of the catacomb a large earth-vax/ozocerite bead amulet, 2 large beads and 3 cowries. Additional goods: a bronze (bit?) pin, a string of beads, an iron rattle, a bronze finger ring, 2 spindle whorls of the 1st century BC, a Chinese bronze coin with rectangular perforation, and on

994. usad’ba/farm Kajragač: from a building dated to the 1st centuries AD (?) glass, crystal and pearl beads, and bronze pendants are mentioned, but on the published illustration 6 cowries are also visible in the string of beads.1077 In the confused essay I could not find any references to them, see Levina (1993) 45–47, 92, 118 and 177: fig. 58: 28, 30, 118 and fig. 64: 1 (perhaps the 2 last shells among the six in this illustration). 1076 Under Konyr-Tobe site-name: L’uomo (1998) 242: figs 526–28: in the inner, right string of beads. 1077 It can only be suspected that the cowrie originates from the quoted site in south-Kyrgyzstan, because two references are related to the same color illustration, where 4 strings of beads are depicted: fig. 58: “Beads

from Tagop” [Lajlakskij rajon] and fig. 59: “Beads from Kajragač”, at the same time both references were cited in the text connected to the description of the building in Kajragač: Brykina (1982) 89, 80/81: figs 58–59. 1078 Mokrynin–Lubo-Lesničenko–Šer (1977). 1079 Kožomberdyev (1960) 72, 75, 73: fig. 15: 12; Stepnaja (1992) 86, and 73–75, 85; Berlizov–Kaminskij (1993) 104: pl. VIII: 39. 1080 Brykina–Trunaeva (1995) 78.

1075

262

Catalogue (perhaps a Murex brandaris) and 1 Panther cowrie, length: approximately 6.6 cm.1086

the vertebrae, a cowrie fragment. From the 4 cited cowries 1 was illustrated: a Money cowrie with a longitudinal opening at the apex, length: approximately 1.5–1.6 cm.1081

1002. Grave 14/1973–75: from the burial of a 10–12 years old girl: 2 pyramidal bone pendants with bronze suspension loop, a string of 77 glass beads composed from five types of glass, 2 bronze brooches, a bronze hook, 2 wheeled and 1 hand-made pot, one-handled jug, bowl, Roman glass, 10 amphora sherds, 118 wheeled Černjahov-type vessel fragments, and 2 marine shells (2 rakoviny-priveski) with suspension loops, similar to the pieces found in Grave 11, which allows us to infer that possibly in this grave a Murex brandaris and a Panther cowrie were placed, the length of the latter: approximately 6.4 cm.1087

998. Kurgan 20: a double burial, with the second skeleton buried later over the first one. The finds of the younger, presumably a female skeleton in the middle of the catacomb: iron arrow, large round iron (girth) buckle, small iron buckle, hemispherical bronze mounts of the headdress ornament, a bead bracelet, a bronze wire finger ring with terminals twisted over each other, on the neck a string of beads: variously shaped glass, carnelian and pearl beads, and more than 1 cowrie. At the waist, around the height of the belt, probably hung from the belt, in a textile-case the following objects: a bronze finger ring with flat-head, 3 small iron finger rings, rings from chain-mail, and more cowries. On the published illustration likely 3 Money cowries, pierced at the apex, length: approximately 1.4 cm.1082

1003. Budešty (Dubossarskij rajon): 1 medium-sized fragmentary cowrie from a burial of a biritual cemetery with 362 graves of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, dated to the 3rd–4th centuries, length: approximately 3.0 cm.1088

999. Kurgan 33: two skeletons buried on each other. From the second, likely female skeleton: iron buckle, 3 iron rings, bronze bell, iron artifact?, 3 rings from chain-mail, antimonial clods, Chinese u-šu/Wu-shu-type (206 BC – 618 AD) bronze coin with rectangular opening, and under- and below the skull glass and carnelian beads, 1 cowrie.1083

1004–09. Dančeny (Kišinevskij rajon): 338 graves of a biritual cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, dated between the mid 3rd century and the late 4th century:1089 1004. Grave 176: from a destroyed probable female burial: 2 bronze plaques strung on a bronze ring, segmented bronze brooch, bone comb, 3 pots, a bowl, fragment of a jar, eggshell, bird bone needle case, a clay spindle whorl, a silvered bronze sheet, a string of beads: 4 amber, and 15 small blue glass beads, additionally 4 glass beads with spiral trailing, and a large cowrie probably pierced at the apex, but at lower parts also became holed (podveska iz dannoj rakoviny), perhaps a Tiger cowrie, length: approximately 8.0 cm.1090

1000–1012, Annex 2470. Moldova 1000–1002. Balcaty (Kriuljanskij rajon)-Cemetery 2: 113 graves from part of a cemetery of the Marosszentanna/ Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the 4th century:1084 1000. Grave?/1956: from the 12 graves a likely small cowrie was perhaps found.1085 1001. Grave 11/1973–75: from the double burial of an adult female and a child: bronze brooch fragments, 16 bone beads, glass bead, spindle whorl, bronze tweezers, 3 fragments of a bronze globe, bronze plaque with yellow linen pieces, bronze rivet, loops of a wooden bucket, iron fragments, 3 jugs, 30 amphora sherds, 91 wheeled and 6 hand-made Černjahov-type pottery sherds, 2 jug fragments, a pierced, white, oval stone piece, lamb astragalus, a Murex brandaris pierced for a bronze suspension loop and a similar pierced marine shell with longer siphon

1005. Grave 224: from a destroyed probable female chamber grave: a silver brooch, 55 coral and 5 carnelian beads, tiny glass beads, a bone pendant, an antler rose pendant, 2 clay spindle whorls, a bronze pin and a bone comb in a needle case, cattle bone, 2 hare skeletons, a Kowalk-type glass beaker, clay vessels: three-handled pot, a large jug, 2 bowls, additional broken vessels, and Fedorov–Rošal’ (1981) 97–98. The reference to the Panther cowrie and the murex was likely changed, correctly: 95: fig. 4: 5, 8; Kokowski (1997) 777: nr. 9, 822: find list 13d, nr. 9. 1087 Fedorov–Rošal’ (1981) 98–99, 95: fig. 4: 7 and 6; Kokowski (1997) 822: find list 13d, nr. 9. The cowrie classifications of the authors are correct, they defined the origin of the Panther cowrie as the Red Sea Persian Gulf, and that of the murex as the Mediterranean Sea. They pointed to the fact that large cowries are often discovered in the material of the Černjahov Culture, and Sarmatians might have imported them from the south: Fedorov–Rošal’ (1981) 97–98. 1088 It is not mentioned in the text, and the caption does not refer to the grave number: Rikman (1960) 201: fig. 4: 2; Kropotkin (1970) 128: nr. 1250; Kokowski (1997) 779: nr. 42, 821: find list 13b, 42; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 29. 1089 Kokowski (1997) 781: nr. 76, 821: find list 13b, nr. 76, 822: find list 13d, nr. 76; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 27. 1090 Rafalovič (1986) 65–66, 149: pl. XXXII: 5; Slavjane (1993) 218: and 296: pl. LXXVI: 4; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 258. 1086

Brykina–Trunaeva (1995) 76–77, 86: fig. 5: 11. Brykina–Trunaeva (1995) 75, 83: fig. 2: 15 (with a unique legend: rakovina “caury” with cyrillic letters). 1083 Brykina–Trunaeva (1995) 77. The cowries were not illustrated. 1084 Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 28. 1085 Without scale and grave number on the illustration, which suggests that it originates from Cemetery 2, perhaps a Money cowrie is represented: Fedorov (1960b) 232: fig. 10, in the middle, right. The shell is not included in the grave - description, in which no references were provided for the illustrations: Fedorov (1960b) 229–39; Kokowski (1997) 777: nr. 9, 821: find list 13b, Mr. 9. 1081 1082

263

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads at the skeleton’s knee 2 cowrie pendants (dve podveski iz rakovin “kauri”), perhaps both are Panther cowries, length: approximately 7.3, and 6.3 cm. The illustration suggests that the larger cowrie became holed at the bottom columella and the side, while the smaller broke out, or was pierced also at the columella, therefore the method of their suspension is uncertain (Fig. 123. 1).1091 1006. Grave 239: from a destroyed burial: a clay spindle whorl, a handled mug, a string of beads: 2 tiny and 1 blue glass paste beads, 1 blue glass bead, and 4 small cowries (busy iz rakoviny “kauri”). According to the illustration, the latter might be Ringed or Money cowries, length: approximately 1.3–2.0 cm.1092

Fig. 123. 2 Panther (?) cowries among the finds of Grave 224 (1) and 4 Ringed cowries among the finds of Grave 375 (2) at Dančeny (1005, 1009) – after Rafalovič (1986) 156: pl. XXXIX, 173: pl. LV. 4–5)

1007. Grave 337: from a destroyed, likely female burial, one of the richest graves of the cemetery: iron knife, cylindrical and conic iron bucket-pendants linked with bronze covered iron sheets, a silver buckle, a bronze strap end, a clay spindle whorl, a bone comb, an iron needle, at the foot 8, at the head 2 vessels, besides the dispersed sherds of 3 additional vessels, bronze mace amulet, lavish string of beads, including glass, glass paste, carnelian, chalk and amber beads, and at the pelvis 2 murex strung on a bronze ring (podveska iz rakoviny myrek: the last word is written in Latin letters), and 1 large cowrie (podveska iz rakoviny cyprea: the last word is written in Latin letters), perhaps a Tiger cowrie, likely pierced, length: approximately 7.3 cm.1093

Grave 27: from the disturbed burial of a young girl: glass beads, bone comb fragments, a clay spindle whorl, 8 various clay vessels, and in the grave soil 3 fragments of a vessel from the Scythian Period, and a large fossil cowrie from the upper, so called Torton-floor of the Middle Miocene (rakuška tipa cipreja tortonskogo vozrasta), length: 6.0 cm.1096 1011. Nadušita (judeţul Soroca): one pierced cowrie (Cypraea) from a Sarmatian burial, with a copper suspension loop with twisted terminals.1097 Podoima – see Annex 2470.

1008. Grave 366: from the slightly disturbed burial of an adolescent girl: 2 bronze brooches, a string of beads and mushroom-shaped amber pendants, a boar canine amulet, 2 bone pendants, clay spindle whorl, 9 clay vessels, bronze rivet, animal ribs, and at the foot, among the vessels, a large cowrie (podveska iz rakoviny “kauri”), perhaps a Panther cowrie with open dorsum, length: approximately 6.4 cm.1094

1012. Taraclia (Taraclijskij rajon)- Cemetery II: Tumulus 2, Grave 9: medium-sized, pierced cowrie, dated to the second half of the 1st century, length: approximately 5.4 cm.1098 Montenegro: Podgorica-Duklja, ������������������������������������������ Zagorič Grave 113 – see Annex 2471.

1009. Grave 375: from a destroyed burial 4 small cowries (businy iz rakoviny “kauri”) remained; according to the illustration they were Ringed cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.6–2.3 cm (Fig. 123. 2).1095

The Netherlands: ������������������������������ Ferwerd (Provincie Friesland)Burmania I – see Annex 2473. 1013–35, (1014a, 1017a–d). Poland1099

1010. Malaešty (Faleštskij rajon): 39 graves from a part of a cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, dated between the late 3rd century–early 5th century:

Borkenhagen (Kreis Cöslin) – see 1013. Borkowice

Fedorov (1960) 274–76, 302: fig. 17: 3; Kropotkin (1970) 128: nr. 1251; Kokowski (1997) 792: nr. 217, 821: find list 13b, nr. 217. 1097 Kropotkin (1970) 128: nr. 1252; see Nikolaj Antonovič Ketraruy– Èmmanuil Abramovič Rikman: Novye dannye o pamjatnikah pervyh vekov n.è. na territorii Moldavii. Izvestija Moldavskogo Filiala AN SSSR No. 4 (70), (1960); Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 23. 1098 Grosu (1995) 157: nr. 122, 162, 147: fig. 11: 7; as a Tiger cowrie: Bârcă (2006) 137, 362: nr. 144.1, 395, 582: fig. 123: 3. 1099 The majority of the Polish information kindly provided by Kinga Stanek, I added only minor information. The cited literature was not available in Hungary. After the completion of my catalogue entries Stanek published a new book: Stanek (1999), and some of this data has been included in the supplementary register. 1096

Rafalovič (1986) 76–77, 156: pl. XXXIX: 1–2; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 258. 1092 Rafalovič (1986) 79–80, 158: pl. XLI: 5; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255–256. 1093 Rafalovič (1986) 95, 96, 167: pl. L: 3 (the two murex are ibid. 4–5); Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 258. 1094 Rafalovič (1986) 105–08, 171: pl. LIV: 7; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 258. 1095 Rafalovič (1986) 112, 173: pl. LVI: 5; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 256, incorrectly as Grave 376: Kokowski (1997) 822: nr. 76. 1091

264

Catalogue 1013. Borkowice (prev. Borkenhagen, Kreis Cöslin; gmina Będzino, powiat Koszalin, województwo zachodniopomorskie): “embracing wire rings”1100 discovered in a grave pit, and interpreted as a broken bandage of a pendant, as a stray find among the material of a disturbed cemetery of the Wielbark Culture, and dated to the Periods B2/C1–D (80/260–400), a narrow bronze band bandage, with rewound terminals on the neck-part, and shaped to be loops, which might included a small cowrie, length: approximately 2.7 cm.1101

1017a–d, 929?. Gródek nad Bugiem (powiat Hrubieszów, województwo lubelskie): I mentioned that 1 cowrie with cut sidet was found in the cemetery of 150 excavated graves, which are connected with the Masłomęcz Group (around 150–around 350/375).1106 Since I could study the cited pages of the publication only as a photocopy due to the kindness of Kinga Stanek, the classification may prove incorrect, since “Anhänger aus Muschel” were discovered in four graves, but perhaps none are cowries: 1017a. Grave 56: from a child burial 1 pierced shell, perhaps Spondylus.1107

1014a. Chelm Zarski (gmina Lubsko, powiat żarski, województwo lubuskie): incorrect reference to a cowriefind.1102

1017b. Grave 61: a pierced murex strung from a ring from a child burial.1108

1015. Czarnówko (gmina Nowa Wieś Lęborska, powiat Lębork, województwo pomorskie):

1017c. Grave 86: from an inhumation burial a shell cut in trapezoidal form and with a longitudinal perforation, length: 1.8 cm.1109

Grave 371/96: 1 bandaged large shell (Panther or Tiger cowrie?) pendant from a burial of the Wielbark-Culture (1st century – around 450).

1017d. Grave 158: a shell pendant, length: 5.8 cm.1110 1018. Grubno (prev. Kreis Culm; gmina Chełmno, powiat Chełmno, województwo kuyawsko-pomorskie): among the stray grave finds dated to the Wielbark Culture a bandage, formed from a knobbed bronze ribbon, folded in half. It closes with a loop, folded (?) onto it, of whose egg shape might formerly have included a large cowrie, length: probably 9.3 cm.1111

Muzeum Archeologiczne, Gdańsk.1103 Elbing-Neustädter Feld – see 1016–17. Elbląg-Pole Nowomiejskie 1016–17. Elbląg (prev. Elbing-Neustädter Feld/Neufeld; powiat Elbląg, województwo warmińsko-mazurskie)-Pole Nowomiejskie/Nowe Pole: stray finds from the more than 273 (182 inhumation, 91 cremation) graves of the Wielbark Culture:

1019. Kryspinów (gmina Liszki, powiat Kraków, województwo małopolskie) Grave 74: from a cremation burial of the Przeworsk Culture (around 175 BC – around 450 AD): fragments of 2 brooches, melted colored glass beads, a spiral ring, bronze band of a stone pendant, a knife, a spindle whorl, a casket, urn and vessel sherds, and a bandage that enclosed a medium-sized cowrie, length: approximately 3.0 cm.1112

1016. Bandaged Ringed cowrie pendant. The fourbranched plain bronze band ends in a vertical spiral, and at the tips there are round loops.1104 1017. 1 bandaged large cowrie pendant with a Panther or Tiger cowrie. The ends of its plain bronze bands resembles the Kuchnia piece (1020).1105

The data of Kinga Stanek, see Andrzej Kokowski: Gródek nad Bugiem. Cmentarzysko grupy masłomęckiej. I–III. Lublin (1993). 1107 “Wisior-amulet z muszli z przewierconym otworkiem”: Kokowski (1993) I: 43: nr. 7, II: 53: fig. 43: b (note: “bez analogii”/without parallels). The classification was attempted by Gyula Radócz, on the basis of the published illustration. 1108 Incorrectly classified as Cardium: “wisior... z dużej muszli »sercówki«”: Kokowski (1993) I: 47: nr. 24, II: 60: fig. 49: 15 (citing numerous parallels). “Anhänger aus einer Muschel...”: Kokowski (1995) 165: nr. 2654.» 1109 “Amulet wycięty ze skorupy muszli, w formie trapezu z wypukłymi bokami, z podłużnie przewierconym otworkiem.”: Kokowski (1993) I: 70: nr. 11, II: 99: fig. 81: f (note: without parallels). According to the published illustration it cannot be classified, it is likely a worked limpet shell. “Anhänger aus einem geschliffenen, durchbohrten Stück einer Muschel...”: Kokowski (1995) 165: nr. 2660. 1110 “Anhänger aus einer Muschel...”: Kokowski (1995) 165: nr. 2655. 1111 Łęga (1954–1956) 72: “wisiorki muszelkowe” nr. 14, 42: map VII: nr. 88, 83: nr. 88; Mathes–Schmidt (1898) 33, 34: fig. 1; Stanek (1999) 348: nr. 48, 366: fig. 7: 8. 1112 Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 288: nr. 803: without mentioning cowrie; the length of the bandage without the shell, which is bent from two knobbed bronze bands, and at the twisted upper end shaped as a crosswise spiral: approximately 4.4 cm, see Stanek (1999) 343: nr. 4, 362: fig. 3: 10. 1106

Graudenz (= Rondsen, Kreis Graudenz) – see 1029. Rządz “Reste von umschlungenen Drahtringen (zerbrochener Hängeschmuck).”: Schumann (1894) 596: nr. 6. 1101 Stanek (1999) 345: nr. 29, 365: fig. 6: 2. 1102 “15. Chelm Zarski (Woj. Zary) (ehem. Kulm) Lit: Blume” (1912) 96: note 2: Quast (2000) 288. According to the kind information of Kinga Stanek, Erich Blume wrote at the cited parts only about sites in north Poland, therefore the quotation of a site from the southwestern part of the country must be the mistake of the translation. 1103 The unpublished material of Dorota Rudnicka. The pendant belongs to type II?: Stanek (1999) 345: nr. 24. 1104 “Cypraea annulus, durch Bronzeblechstreifen als Berlock gefasst, wurde auf dem ausgedehnten vorgeschichtlichen Friedhofe des Neustädter Feldes bei Elbing... ausgegraben (1888)”: Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 116; Blume (1912) 96; Jackson (1917) 132; Łęga (1954–1956) 72: wisiorki muszelkowe nr. 12, 42: map VII nr. 54, 82: nr. 54; Schach-Dörges (1969) 43: note 242; about the site: Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 278: nr. 681; type-IIIA, its analogue: 1020: Stanek (1999) 346: nr. 31a, 348: 31b; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 16. 1105 Stanek (1999) 348: nr. 31b; Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 2. 1100

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1020. Kuchnia (prev. Seehof bei Kulmsee, Kreis Briesen; gmina Chełmźa, powiat Chełmno, województwo kujawskopomorskie): 1 Ringed cowrie, bandaged by a bronze band with punched-dot-motif together with a cross-bow brooch from a burial of the Wielbark Culture.1113

Hrubieszów, województwo lubelskie)-Site 15: 351 graves from an early Goth cemetery of the Masłomęcz Group (around 150–around 350/375):

Ladekopp (Kreis Marienburg) – see 1021. Lubieszewo

1025. Grave 84: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum of the second half of the 3rd century, length: 2.3 cm.

1024. Grave 20.: 1 cowrie.1117

1021. Lubieszewo (prev. Ladekopp, Kreis Marienburg; gmina Nowy Dwór Gdański, powiat Malbork, województwo pomorskie):

Muzeum Okręgowe w Zamościu, acc. nr.: 135/GM.1118 1026. Grave 200: from a female burial disturbed by Grave 134, dated between 230–260: 2 bronze brooches, glass and amber beads, 9 bronze umbrella-shaped pendants, 10 bucket-pendants, 3 bronze miniature key-sets on 1-1 bronze rings with recoiled terminals, bronze spiral, a heart-shaped pendant, 2 metal rings, a hooked needle, 1 Sarmatian and 3 other spindle whorls, wax, vessels, bronze subaeratus of Antoninus Pius (138–161), astragalus amulet, a pierced boar canine, hollowed antler rose, the plain bronze band bandage of some large pendant, and next to the right arm a small pierced cowrie, length: approximately 2.6 cm; its wound suspension loop might have separated from the shell.

Grave VIII: among the grave goods of a female cremation burial dated to the B2/C1 Periods (80–220/230) of the Wielbark Culture, the remains of a bronze band with rewound terminals and closes with a loop, which might have been the bandage for a larger cowrie pendant.1114 1022. Lubowidz (prev. Luggewiese, Kreis Lauenburg; gmina Nowa Wieś Lęborska, powiat Lębork, województwo pomorskie): biritual cemetery of the Wielbark Culture: Grave 109: 2 brooches, a bronze buckle, an iron belt clasp, bronze belt mounts, a bronze strap end, S-shaped bronze clasp, a bronze fastener-chain, silver, amber, glass and clay beads, a stone pendant in bronze bandage, silver pendant fragment, 2 bronze wire bracelets, a bronze pin, bronze mounts and keys of a casket, textile fragments, and at the legs a Tiger cowrie pendant, bandaged by a bronze band with punched-dot-motif. The points of the fourbunched band twisted around the neck formed a crosswise spiral.1115

Katedra Archeologii Uniwersytetu Skłodowskiej, Lublin.1119

Muzeum Okręgowe w Zamościu, acc. nr.: 280/GM.1120 1028. Odry (gmina Czersk, powiat Chojnice, województwo pomorskie): 615 graves from a cemetery of the Wielbark Culture:

1023. Malbork (prev. Willenberg; powiat Malbork, województwo pomorskie)–Wielbark: cemetery of the Wielbark Culture:

Grave 127: from a likely female burial: 2 brooches, buckle, belt mount, strap end, 2 S-shaped belt-fastener, 2 crescent-shaped pendants, nearly 170 glass beads, 2 silver beads, a pair of sheet bracelets with animal heads, spindle whorl, scissors, hooked-needle, sewing needle, clay vessel, and at the end of the skeleton’s left foot a cowrie (muszla kauri) pendant with twisted loop, and wound with a bronze band decorated with three-bunched-dot-motif, which is identified in recent literature as Tiger cowrie, length: approximately 7 cm.1121

Grave 32./1934: from a female burial: 2 silver and 1 bronze brooches, strap end, strap distributor, 2 silver S-shaped fastener, 2 silver beads, 54 glass, clay and amber beads, 2 twisted bracelets, needle, comb, bowl, and a large cowrie pendant bandaged with a bronze band with dot motif.1116 Masłomęcz

(gmina

Hrubieszów,

Curie-

1027. Grave 320: 1 small pierced cowrie pendant from the grave of mid 3rd century, length: 2.1 cm.

Luggewiese (Kreis Lauenburg) – see 1022. Lubowidz

1024–27.

Marii

powiat

Conwentz (1902) 9; Schneider (1905) 116; Blume (1912) 96, fig. 124; Jackson (1917) 132; Łęga (1954–56) 39, 72: wisiorki muszelkowe nr. 15, 39: fig. 45, 42: map VII nr. 97, 83: nr. 97; mentioned as “Seehof and Kulmsee area (Briesen district) in the Gdansk area”: Reese (1991) 172: nr. 85; the presence of the previous bandage was concluded by: Kokowski (1997) 721, 789: nr. 187, 822: find list 13d, nr. 187; type IIIA: Stanek (1999) 346: nr. 38, 365: fig. 6: 4; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 17. 1114 Łęga (1954–1956) 72: “wisiorki muszelkowe” nr. 11, 42: map VII: nr. 41, 82: nr. 41; Stanek (1999) 345: nr. 25, 364: fig. 5: 4. 1115 “wisiorek z muszli kauri”: Walenta (1980/81) 139; TempelmannMączyńska (1985) 292: nr. 842 (not mentioning the cowrie); Kokowski (1997) 791: nr. 209, 822: find list 13d, nr. 209; type-IC: Stanek (1999) 343: nr. 6, 362: fig. 3: 12. 1116 Fremersdorf (1955) 65; Salin (1959) 76; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 294: nr. 859; Stanek (1999) 345: nr. 26, 364: fig. 5: 5. 1113

“Kauri-Muscheln mit geschliffenen, gewölbten Seiten wie aus Masłomęcz, Grab 84”: Kokowski (1997) 822: find list 13d. 1118 Kokowski (1995) 165: nr. 2656. 1119 The grave goods were grouped to the C horizon of the Masłomęcz Group, and to the IIA subgroup: Kokowski (1997) 675, 678: fig. 21: 13; ibid. 680, 679: fig. 22: C. 26, 685, 684: fig. 25: IIA, 20, 703, 700: fig. 40; Stanek (1999) 349: nr. 39a. 1120 Kokowski (1995) 165: nr. 2657. 1121 This shell, discovered west of the Vistula River was incorrectly assigned in the publication to the Mediterranean Sea, but came from the Red Sea or Indian Ocean: Kajzer (1968) 60, 154: pl. XIV: P, pl. XLII; Wołagiewicz (1981) 146: pl. XXIII: 69; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 49: fig. 7: in the middle, mentioned as 301: nr 902: Grave 127; 1117

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Catalogue Ramsau (Kreis Gnesen) – see 1032. Witakowice

1032. Witakowice (prev. Ramsau, Kreis Gnesen; gmina Kiszkowo, powiat Gniezno, województwo wielkopolskie): in a burial of the Przeworsk Culture, 1 Tiger cowrie bandaged by a four-bunched bronze band with dot motif at the edges, and with a bronze wire handle at the end, length: approximately 4.7, the total length: approximately 5.5 cm.

Rondsen/Rondson (Kreis Graudenz) – see 1029. Rządz Ronsden – see 1029. Rządz 1029. Rządz (prev. Rondsen, Kreis Graudenz; gmina Grudziądz, pow, Grudziądz, województwo kujawskopomorskie) Grave II: 1 Tiger cowrie, bandaged with a plaque hanged from a bronze ring, linked to the Wielbark Culture.1122

Muzeum Archeologiczne, Poznań (Fig. 124).1125 1033. Wymysłowo (gmina Piaski, powiat Gostyń, województwo wielkopolskie) Grave 291: from a cremation burial of the Przeworsk Culture: 2 brooches, complete and broken beads, 2 finger rings, fragments of bronze ornaments, knife, casket, urn, and 1 bandaged Tiger cowrie (?) were discovered.

Sadlana bei Ojcow – 1030. Siedlana pod Ojcówem Seehof bei Kulmsee (Kreis Briesen) – see 1020. Kuchnia 1030. Siedlana pod Ojcówem (prev. Sadlana bei Ojcow; gmina Ojców, powiat Kraków, województwo małopolskie): 1 Panther cowrie from a grave of the Roman Period (?).1123

Archaeological Museum, Poznań.1126 1034. Zwierzewo (prev. Thierberg; gmina Ostróda, powiat Ostróda, województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) Grave 9: from a cremation burial of the Wielbark Culture: buckle, glass beads that crumbled away, urn, and a Ringed cowrie pendant in a plain bronze band bandage.1127

Sydow (Kreis Schlawe) – see 1035. Żydowo Thierberg – see 1034. Zwierzewo 1031. Weklice (gmina Elbląg, powiat Elbląg, województwo warmińsko-mazurskie)-st. 7: cemetery of the Wielbark Culture:

1035. Żydowo (prev. Sydow, Kreis Schlawe; gmina Polanów, powiat Koszalin, województwo zachodniopomorskie): cemetery of the Western Pomeranian Dębczyno-group (260–380): from an inhumation burial: a bronze buckle, torque from twisted silver wire, a string of 10 glass and 1 amber beads, 5 bronze bucket-pendants, 2 bronze finger rings, 4 bronze rings, a bronze noose, a clay spindle whorl, and two overlapped, four-pointed bandages from plain bronze band, on its top there are rewound loops and rewound terminals. Due to its oval form, it might have included a medium-sized cowrie, length: approximately. 5.4 cm.1128

Grave 150: from the burial of a nearly 60 years old female: 3 silver and 1 bronze brooches, 3 bronze buckles, 2 mounts, 2 silver and 3 bronze strap ends, 25 bronze rivets of the belt, 34 amber and 13 glass beads, an iron knife, the iron spring of a casket’s lock, bear cub claw amulet in bronze bezel, and on the chest 4 bandaged Ringed cowrie pendants. All were made of 2-2 overlapped bronze bands put crossways and riveted at the bottom, 2-2 bandages are plain, and the 2 others are decorated with dot motif. The ends of their round wire-ears were twisted on the necks formed from the band ends, total length: approximately 5.1, 4.0, 5.1, 4.8 cm.

1036–61, (1035a, 1038a–c), Annex 2475. Romania 1035a. Alexandru Odobescu (judeţul Călăraşi): 22 graves of a biritual cemetery of the 4th century:

Instytut Archeologii Universiteta, Warsaw.1124

Grave 11: from a likely female burial: 8 vessels, a glass cup, 2 silver brooches, a bronze buckle, a bone needle case, a bone comb, 3 clay spindle whorls, carnelian and coral beads, cattle and sheep/goat bones, and beside the

Willenberg – see 1023. Malbork-Wielbark Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 71 (eine Kauri-Muschel in Bronzefassung), fig. 27: 11 (Muschelanhänger); Kokowski (1997) 794: nr. 251; Stanek (1999) 345: nr. 11b, 364: fig. 5: 2; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 18. 1122 Łęga (1954–56) 39, 72: wisiorki muszelkowe nr. 13, 39: fig. 44, 42: map VII nr. 79, 83: nr. 79; Kokowski (1997) 799: nr. 318, 822: find list 13c, nr. 318. Mentioned as a large cowrie from the Migration Period, under the site name Rondsen: Conwentz (1902) 9. As a grave find from Graudenz: Schilder (1923) 205, 206: note 11; as a grave good from Rondsen dated to the 1st century: Voigt (1952) 176, 180: nr. 1; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 311: nr. 1001. 1123 Schilder (1923) 205, 206: note 12. According to Franz Schilder, in the book of “Roemer, Palaeontographica at XXIX, p. 230 (1883)” it was identified as Tiger cowrie, but according to the illustration in that publication it was a Panther cowrie; Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 3. 1124 Stanek (1999) 347: nr. 28c, 365: fig. 6: 1, 6, 12–13.

Kostrzewski (1955) 261, 260: fig. 780. The author wrote about Money cowries in general, but this example, due to its size, cannot be classified as such. See Blume (1912) 96; as the best parallel to the Wilhelmsaue shell (978): Schach-Dörges (1969) 43; Kokowski (1997) 805: nr. 396, 822: find list 13c, 396; type IA: Stanek (1999) 344: nr. 19, 362: fig. 3: 1; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 19. 1126 Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 324: nr. 1136: 291 (no mention of cowrie). 1127 Blume (1912) 96, fig. 123; Łęga (1954-1956) 72: wisiorki muszelkowe nr. 16, 42: map VII nr. 128, 83: nr. 128; Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1985) 325: nr. 1151 (the cowris is called Muschelanhänger); Stanek (1999) 347: nr. 44, 365: fig. 6: 5; Quast (2000) 288: nr. 20. As the analogue of the bandage, see 1031. 1128 Stanek (1999) 347–48: nr. 45, 365: fig. 6: 15. 1125

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the second half of the 4th–early 5th centuries: One probable Panther or Tiger cowrie was uncovered in one grave, one additional similar fragment, besides, a murex.1132 1038a–c. Copozu (judeţul Ialomiţa)-Deluş: from Graves 1, 6 and 16 from the biritual cemetery of the 4th century were found some kind of shells (ghioc) which might have been cowries.1133 1039. Crăsani de Jos (com. Balaciu, judeţul Ialomiţa)Piscul Crăsani: from the Geto-Dak fortified settlement dated to the 2nd –1st centuries BC, beside 2 Murex were 1 presumably Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum (melc marin/Cypraea), size: 1.3x1.0 cm.1134 1040. Deduleşti (judeţul Brăila): cemetery of the Černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the 4th century: Grave 3: a Panther or Tiger cowrie, pierced at the apex, with oxide remains of the previous bronze suspension loop, size: 6.1x3.7x3.0 cm.

Fig. 124. Tiger cowrie bandaged by a four-bunched bronze band from Witakowice (1032) – after Stanek (1999) 362: fig. 3: 1

Brăila, Museum, acc. nr.: II – 6409.1135

left femur 2 shells (două cochilii de gasteropode), one surely a murex.1129

1041. Doina (judeţul Neamţ)-Girov: 2 graves from a part of a cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the 4th century:

1036–37. Barcea (judeţul Galaţi)-Tecuci: 132 graves of a cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the 4th century:

Grave 2: from a likely female burial: a bronze brooch, 2 cups, a handled jug, a two-handled oval amphora, 2 flat bowls, 2 pots, and 1 Tiger cowrie (scoică marină/ghioc din specia Cypraea tigris) with a tiny round hole at the apex, length: 6.0 cm.1136

1036. Grave 84: from a female burial: a bronze brooch, a string of 77 beads, a bone comb, a clay spindle whorl, 12 clay vessels, bitumen clod, and a cowrie (cypraeya ) strung on a bronze ring with overlapped terminals.1130

Giurcani – see Annex 2475.

1037. Grave 129: from a probable female burial: a brooch, an oval bronze buckle, at the right side of the pelvis, a string of beads: glass beads set with white and yellow inlays, amber beads, beads strung on bronze rings, kettleshaped iron pendants, a silver pendant, and a small pierced cowrie, perhaps a Ringed cowrie, strung on a small loop in the middle of a string of beads.1131

1042–43. Independenţa (judeţul Călăraşi): 35 graves of a biritual cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the 4th century:1137 1042. Grave 3: a child grave: iron knife, 2 bronze brooches “precum şi scoicile de mare (fig. 7/1,4)”: Palade (1973) 179, 177: fig. 7: 1 (Panther or Tiger cowrie), 3 (indented fragments, which might have been, according to the kind information of Gyula Radócz, another type of shell, even a bivalve), 4 murex?); the illustrations are unscaled; Kokowski (1997) 778: nr. 25, 822: find list 13d, nr. 25; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: 1. á: nr. 35. 1133 Muşeţeanu (1986) 219. 1134 Conovici (1994) 64, 82; 77: fig. 9: 81; 64, 81 and 77: fig. 9: 79–80, with cultic–magic symbolism. 1135 “cochilie de scoică marină/coquillage marin”: Harţuche–Anastasiu (1976) 259: and 353: nr. 534, besides, pl. 83 presents two dissimilar illustrations; Kokowski (1997) 822: find list 13d, Add. 2. 1136 Buzilă–Hălăucescu (1972) 100–01, 103, at the end of the publication fig. 5:4; Kokowski (1997) 782: nr. 84, 822: find list 13d, nr. 84; Kovács– Vaday (1997–98) 258. 1137 Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 37. 1132

1038. Bogdăneşti (judeţul Vaslui)-Fălciu: 83 graves from a Mitrea–Preda (1966) 99, 142, 182, 367: fig. 236: 2. This data is uncertain, because large cowries, murex, as well as Cardium were cited under the term shell (scoicile). Lacking illustrations the species cannot be determined.. In the illustration of the grave, between the left hand and left femur probably only 1 murex can be identified: Mitrea–Preda (1966) 142, 367: fig. 236: 2; Lamiová-Schmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105, 131. 1130 The species of the item cannot be decided from the semi-lateral, unscaled photo, see Nicu–Ţau (1980) 376, 384, 387: fig. 6: 6. The authors argued that large cowries worn on the belt are usual among the Sarmatians, and suggested that they originate in the Persian Gulf: Nicu–Ţau (1980) 384, 397: note 33; Diaconu (1965) 114; Mitrea–Preda (1966) 151. 1131 Ţau–Nicu (1982) 172, 177, 178: fig. 5: 1; Kokowski (1997) 777: nr. 11, 821: find list 13a: nr. 11. 1129

268

Catalogue with curved foot, 9 different clay vessels, a clay spindle whorl, 2 needles, a bone comb with arched back, above the skeleton, in the middle, 1 cockle shell (Cardium sp.), 1 fragmentary Murex and 1 large cowrie, probably a Panther cowrie, length: approximately 6.6 cm, all with suspension holes, and 2 twisted bronze ring fragments, which might belong to them.1138

legs 1 cowrie, presumably a Ringed cowrie with open dorsum.1144 1048. Lişcoteanca (com. Bordei Verde, judeţul Brăila)Movila Olarului: 10 graves of a cemetery of the 2nd century: Grave 3: 3 cowries, likely Ringed cowries, with removed dorsum.1145

1043. Grave 19: an adult, probably female burial: a bronze brooch with curved foot, a clay vessel, beads, a bronze strand, from the filling a murex, and 1 large cowrie with bronze suspension loop.1139

1049–50. Lunca (judeţul Galaţi)-Rîpa cu oale: 33 graves from a part of a biritual cemetery of the 4th century,

1044. Iugani (judeţul Vrancea): 15 graves from a part of a cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture of the 4th century:

1049. Grave 2: from a female burial: 2 silver plate brooches with hemispherical head, a bronze buckle, 8 clay vessels, ash and charcoal pieces, bird skeleton, an iron knife, 2 spindle whorls, a bone needle case, a bone ring, green and blue beads, and between the knees, 1 large cowrie (ghioc) strung from the belt.1146

Grave 2: three pendants were uncovered: 1 marine shell and two additional shells (trei pandantivi unul din scoică marină şi două din melci care). The marine shell is a large cowrie.1140

1050. Grave 11: 3 clay vessels, ash and charcoal pieces, mammal bone, blue and green glass beads, and 1 large cowrie (ghioc) likely similar to the item found in Grave 2, found at the right ankle.1147

1045–46. Leţcany (judeţul Iaşi): 48 graves of a biritual cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, of the 4th century:1141

1051. Medgidia (judeţul Constanţa): from a probable female burial, dated to the 2nd–1st centuries BC: a silver wire bracelet, a bronze mirror without handle, bronze tweezers, an iron knife, a spindle whorl, a handled pot, a handled jug (lagynos), a small vessel for keeping oil, a small pink stone, and glass, agate, real pearl (?), coral (?), amber and quartz beads, silver sheet bead, and 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum and broken apex, size: 1.9x1.4 cm.

1045. Grave 10: an adult (female?) burial: a bronze brooch, 49 beads, a clay pot, a clay bowl, and at the upper end of the left femur a large cowrie (ghioc) strung on a bronze loop whose ends were wound on each other, its length: perhaps approximately 5.4–5.9 cm. It could be a small Panther or a Tiger cowrie, or a medium-sized cowrie.1142 1046. Grave 36: from the burial of a 25–30 years old woman: a lavish string of beads, a silver brooch, 2 spindle whorls, iron knife, a bone comb, 2 pots, 2 bowls, and beside the left femur a large fragmentary cowrie (ghioc).1143

Muzeul Constanţa, acc. nr.: 39675.1148 1052. Mihălăşeni (judeţul Botoşani)-Şesul Başeului: 62 graves from a biritual cemetery of the Marosszentanna/ Sîntana de Mureş Culture of 4th century:

1047. Lişcoteanca (com. Bordei Verde, judeţul Brăila)Movila din baltă: 3 graves from a part of a cemetery of the 2nd century:

Grave 2: from a probable female burial: silver and bronze brooches, iron pendants, an iron knife, a bone needle case, a bone comb, a pot, a handled jug, and 1-1 murex and large cowrie (două scoici). The latter was perhaps a Tiger cowrie with removed dorsum.1149

Grave 3: from an adult grave: iron knife, and at the The size of the cowrie was not given, I determined the size of the shell from other published scaled objects: Mitrea–Preda (1966) 47–48, 142, 170, 278: fig. 105, 280: fig. 107: 7–9; Martin (1976) 96: note 51; Kokowski (1997) 786: nr. 143, 822: find list 13d, nr. 143; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257, 257–58: note 90. 1139 Lacking information concerning both its size and the scale of the illustration, we cannot draw any conclusions about the species of the shell: Mitrea–Preda (1966) 52, 142, 172, 292: figs 131, 132: 2–3; Martin (1976) 96: note 151; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257, 258: note 90. 1140 Due to the laterally taken photo, no determination can be made about the snail species, see Bobi (1977–79) 209, 212: note 22, 223: fig. 11: 5 (unscaled); Kokowski (1997) 786: nr. 146, 822: find list 13d, nr. 146. 1141 Kokowski (1997) 790: nr. 196, 822: find list 13d, nr. 196; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 34. 1142 Bloşiu (1975) 234, 240, 248: fig. 11: 4, 5, and 278: fig. 41: 2 (approximately 5.4 cm long drawing and approximately 5.9 cm long photo, both unscaled). 1143 Bloşiu (1975) 237, 240, 267: fig. 30: 1, 6; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257–58. 1138

Harţuche (1980a) 216, 239: fig. 28: 2, 2a (the illustration is unscaled). The illustration nr. 2a depicts a bone awl, skewed with 2700, without the site name, grave number, or specifying that the finds are from Lişcoteanca (1047) and Rimnicelu (1057–58): Harţuche (1980) 76–77, 82: fig. 25: 4–6; Bichir (1977) 186. 1145 I could not find any references in the text: Harţuche (1987) 69: fig. 23: 4 (unscaled, without grave number); reference to the grave number and size (T. 3: le coquillage Kauri): Bichir (1977) 186; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255. 1146 Dragomir (1971) 63, 80: fig. 7: 16; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 258. 1147 Dragomir (1971) 63: Dragomir (1970) 63. 1148 The identification of Gabrielei Andrei, suggesting Indo-Pacific Ocean origin: Papasima–Mihail (1997) 300–02: nr. 11, 298: pl. III: 6. 1149 Among the classifications of the caption – melci de mare, Cypraea tigris, and Murex – the first definition, lacking scale, is uncertain, see Şovan (1986) 55, 57: fig. 1: 4; Kokowski (1997) 792: nr. 226, 821: find list 13b, nr. 226. 1144

269

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1053. Năneşti de Jos (judeţul Bacău): from one among 3 graves of a cemetery-part of the 4th century: handled cup and 1 large cowrie (ghioc) pierced at the apex, perhaps a Panther cowrie, used as an amulet, length: approximately 6.6 cm.1150

Money cowrie (Monetaria or Cypraea moneta L.) among the finds from a Černjahov–Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture settlement of the 3rd–4th centuries.1156 1060. Spanţov (judeţul Olteniţa): 69 graves ) of a cemetery of the Marosszentanna/Sîntana de Mureş Culture, dated to the 4th century:

1054. Nichiteni (judeţul Suceava): from a female burial among 3 graves of a cemetery-part of the 4th century: 2 silver brooches, 2 spindle whorls, a bone comb with arched back, 7 clay vessels, a glass cup, a rich string of beads: amber, carnelian and glass beads, and between the femora, nearly under the pelvis, a bronze buckle and 1 large cowrie (ghioc).1151

Grave 63: from a likely female burial: 10 different clay vessels, crescent-shaped silver brooch, a spindle whorl, a double-conic bronze artifact, a bronze file, a bronze needle, coral and carnelian beads, and between as well as above the knees a large cowrie, pierced at the apex, length: 6.3 cm.1157

1055–56. Piatra Frecăţei (judeţul Tulcea): 228 burials of the 2nd–7th centuries from the cemetery with 1139 graves of the 2nd–13th centuries:

1061. Ştefăneşti (judeţul Botoşani)-Vatra Tîrgului: from a probable female grave of the 2nd–3rd centuries: a whitemetal mirror, a bell, a spindle whorl, a handled jug, various paste beads, 1-1 scarab and frog amulets, and 4 pierced cowries, perhaps large Ringed cowries, or another types of middle-sized shells, which were incorrectly identified in the publication as Tiger cowries (Fig. 125).1158

1055. Grave C 42: from a child burial of the 4th century: a gold ring, a silver medallion, a silver pendant fragment, a lunula, and on the chest parts of a necklace: 1-1 coral, amber and glass paste beads, discoid glass pendant, a loop, and 7 small cowries with removed dorsum, mainly Ringed cowries, but it is possible that Money cowries were also present.1152

1062–80, (1073a). Russia 1062. Aksaj (Aksajskij rajon, Rostovskaja oblast’)Kobjakovo gorodišče, Grave 45: 1 cowrie is mentioned among the grave goods.1159

1056. Grave B 10: an adult burial of the 4th century, the grave is framed with tegulae, and at the right side of the skull 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum, perhaps Ringed cowrie.1153

1063. Azelino (Malmyžskij rajon, Kirovskaja oblast’): 22 graves of the ancient Mari/Udmurt cemetery, dated between the 3rd–5th centuries AD, which is the denominator of the Azelino (azelinskaja) Culture:

1057–58. Rimnicelu (judeţul Brăila): 18 graves of a cemetery of the 2nd century: 1057. Grave 3: from a child grave: 2 glass beads, and 1 cowrie, likely Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum.1154

Grave 1: from the burial of a 30–35 years old male,1160 identified as a smith: 3 iron three-edged and 13 flat bone arrowheads, a lance head, a horse bridle with copper mounts and iron as well as copper buckles, iron bit, a copper belt buckle and 12 copper belt mounts with loops, sheet copper decorations of the leather pouch, its iron hanger, 2 iron buckles and strap ends at the feet, 3 round copper buckles, iron buckle, 2 copper belt loops, copper finger ring, iron

1058. Grave 6: from the burial of a young child: a piece of chalk and on the sternum 1 larger cowrie (scoica Kauri). At the apex of the shell, there is a larger hole and iron corrosion, likely the remain of the iron suspension loop.1155 1059. Ripiceni (judeţul Suceava)-Izvor: 1 small cowrie from the Indo-Pacific or East African coast, perhaps a

Identification by Prof. Al. V. Grossu: Păunescu (1965) 28–30. Preda (1965) 266–68, fig. 4: 20 (unscaled, without measurements): Mitrea–Preda (1966) 37–38, 142, 169, 257: fig. 81: 3, 263: fig. 87: 6; Buzilă–Hălăucescu (1972) 103; Martin (1976) 96: note 151; Kokowski (1997) 800–01: nr. 337, 821: find list 13b, 337; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257, note 90; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 38. 1158 Bichir (1977) 186, 189, pl. 16: 14–17 (unscaled). His data was repeated and illustrated with a scaled drawing, which suggests that the length might have been approximately 3.0, 2.8, 2.8 and 2.6 cm: Bichir (1993) 147: fig. 7: 14–17. They were also classified as Tiger cowries but this can be discarted because of the measurements between 2.2–2.4 cm: Zaharia–Petrescu-Dîmboviţa–Zaharia (1970) 281, 524: pl. CXLVIII: 9, 16, 20, 24; Bichir (1972) 166: “patru cochilii de melc (specia Cypraea tigris)”, 148: pl. VI: 14–17 The name is perhaps explained by the fact that the authors, including a malacologist defined “Cypraea tigris L. (the cowrie)”: Grossu–Blăjan–Botezatu (1993) 217; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255; Bârcă (2006) 137, 369: nr. 138.4, 395, 579: fig. 118: 14–16. 1159 This was discussed by the leader of the excavation, S. I. Kapošina: Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1237. 1160 Akimova (1963) 145. 1156 1157

The suggested length is correct if the photo is 1:1 scale, but the caption incorrectly gives 1:3 scale): Florescu–Căpitanu (1969) 233–34: 29b., 263: fig. 36: 6; Kokowski (1997) 822: find-list 13d, nr. add. 1. 1151 Dragomir (1971) 70: note 7. 1152 Petre (1987) 27, 132: nr. 61, 136: nr. 35, 141: nr. 11, pl. 53: 71 d–i (unscaled). 1153 Petre (1987) 28, 132: nr. 62, 136: nr. 36, pl. 53: 72 b. 1154 Harţuche (1980a) 217, 239: fig. 28: 5, 5a (unscaled); see “le coquillage Kauri”: Bichir (1977) 186; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255. 1155 Harţuche (1980a) 217, 239: fig. 28: 1, 1a (unscaled). It is worth noting that both unpublished, small-sized cowries from Lişcoteanca (1047–48) and Rimnicelu were incorrectly classified by the author as Tiger cowries (“specia Cypraga Tigris şi Kauri”): Harţuche (1980a) 244. In the same article on p. 239: fig. 28: 8 a likely Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum is visible, but I could not find any reference in the text concerning this shell. Mentioned only as cowrie (“le coquillage Kauri”): Bichir (1977) 186. 1150

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Catalogue

Fig. 125. 4 Ringed (?) cowries from a probable female grave of Ştefăneşti (1061) – after Bichir (1977) 180: pl. 16: 14–17

knife in a case with copper mounts. Between the edge of the grave shaft and the feet numerous artifacts were placed: mail made from iron rings with copper buckle, a bent knife for cutting leather, awls, wooden spoon-gouge (ložkar/kočedyk), chisels, a small anvil, a forge hammer, a file, a scythe, hammer claws, a whetstone, a bone punch, a copper buckle, mounts with iron loops, quartz, iron piece, above them an iron plough with incomplete end, and numerous corroded, unidentified iron artifacts. Among these objects, at the line of the left foot a large cowrie, perhaps a Panther cowrie, pierced with a round hole in the middle of the dorsum, the length might have been: approximately 7.1 cm.1161 Since the shell was discovered among the tools of the smith, and its piercing is unusual, it is possible that it was utilized as a tool (Fig. 126).

Fig. 126. Large perforated cowrie from a smith’s grave at Azelino cemetery (1063) – after Gening (1963) pl. XXIII: 1

1064. Čegem II (Kabardino-Balkarskaja Respublika)Kurgan Šhališhov: a large Kurgan including 135 burials of the 2nd century BC–2nd century AD:1162

Catacombe 16: from 5 burials, beside the adult skeleton nr. 1 from layer 2, the following grave goods were uncovered: glass beads, at the left elbow chalk and realgar pieces, and presumably 1 pierced Murex and 2 cowries (rakovina tipa Cauri). The only illustrated example is a narrow pierced shell, length: approximately 3.3 cm.1163

Gening (1963) 98–99, 32: fig. 12, pl. XXIII: 1. It is most probably identical with the large cowrie, also pierced with a round hole at the dorsum, which is quoted without reference to a site, and mentioned as found west of the Ural, in the Vjatka Basin, in the material of the P’janobor community’s Vjatka Variant grouped to the Hudjakovo (hudjakovskaja) Culture length: approximately 7.1 cm: Leščinskaja (1995) 92, 99, 108: fig. 8: 24. Since this burial is cited among the sites of the so-called third chronological group, the identification is certain: ibid. 91. As an artifact “of early outlook” from the third chronological group (4th century AD): Leščinskaja (2003) 30, 44: fig. 8: 24. 1162 In 4 of the kurgan’s burials shells were discovered, believed to have magical importance: Cardium from the Grave 2, and other larger shells, from Graves 16, 52 and 73. Two of them are illustrated (one is from Grave 16 see below), these are perhaps Murex: Kerefov (1985) 204, 240: fig. 13: 17, 241: fig. 14:11. 1161

1065. Ivolgino gorodišče (Burjatskaja Respublika): among the finds of the gorodišče (fortified settlement), which is located at the same site as the cemetery, a small cowrie was uncovered, dated to the 2nd–1st centuries BC, length:

1163

271

Kerefov (1985) 143, 204, 235: fig. 8: 16, 241: fig. 14: 11.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads approximately 2.4 cm, and also a white limestone cowrie imitation, length: 2.4 cm.1164 1066. Kluhori (Stavropol’skij kraj)-Giljač Cemetery I: cemetery with 30 graves located 18 km from the ton, above the gully running to the Giljač/Kül-Tübe Stream (the Kuban’s left tributary), dated to the 4th–5th centuries: Grave 3: from a female burial: a copper brooch with iron pin, a bronze incrusted disc brooch with four bird heads, gold earring, glass bracelet, iron knife with bronze wearing-plate, a bronze mirror, a silver toothpick and ear-stick strung on a silver loop, a sheet bronze artifact, 4 different clay vessels, and a string of beads: variously shaped and colored glass and glass paste beads, 1-1 carnelian, coral and stone beads, and 9 pierced small cowries, interpreted as beads. Based on the illustration one of them is likely a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.6 cm.1165 1067–68. Lugavskoe (Krasnojarskij kraj) Grave 70 and 76: 1-1 cowrie imitations are mentioned from two burials of the Taštyk (taštykskaja) Culture, dated to the late 1st century BC–6th century AD.1166 1069. Novaja Martinovka (Rostovskaja oblast’): a cemetery with 126 kurgans, 193 graves, mainly dated to the Sarmatian Period (3rd/2nd–1st centuries BC): Kurgan 70 Grave 5: double burial with sidewall niches of two 18–20 years old males, dated between the 1st century BC–1st century AD. From the grave of the western sidewall niche: a sword in wooden sheath decorated with 2 gold mounts, at least 80 three-edged arrowheads, iron knife, an alabaster button, a bronze kettle fragments, and a gold buckle depicting a pair of griffins, and sewn in two rows 54 pierced Thrush cowries. According to the illustration, the length of one shell is approximately 2.2 cm (Fig. 127).1167

Fig. 127. Reconstruction of the belt and the sword of a Sarmatian soldier (1069) – after Korolkova (1995) 88: fig. 111

1070–71. Novo-Sasykul’ (Bakalinskij rajon, Respublika Baškortostan): in Grave 197 (1070) and an unnamed additional grave (1071) of a cemetery with 418 burials of the Čeganda (čegandinskaja) Culture, dated to the 1st–3rd centuries, all in all (the graves are not specified individually) 32 cowries are mentioned from string of beads. The 2 illustrated shells from Grave 197 are likely

Catacombe 6: 1 cowrie.1169

Money cowries with open dorsum, length: approximately 1.9–2.1 cm.1168 1072. Palasa-Syrt (Dagestanskaja Respublika)-81: cemetery dated to the mid 3rd century AD:

1073. Pervomajskij (Kalačevskij rajon, Volgogradskaja oblast’)-Cemetery VII: Kurgan 14 Grave 3: from the grave of a 35–40 years old male burial dated between the 1st century BC–1st/2nd centuries AD: 3 iron three-edged arrowheads, a two-edged sword in wooden sheath, on the sword-strap a large glass bead and a bone strap buckle, an iron dagger, variously shaped sheet gold mounts for attachment, a unique beltmount set, discussed as Eastern origin: a round silver buckle, 2 large, 3 small drop-shaped bronze mounts, small hemispherical mounts, silver and bronze trimmings, 2 silver rings, a bronze strap end, 1-1 large and small iron knives, decorated whetstone and polishing stone of sandstone, a bone spoon, remains of leather, a small alabaster censer,

Davydova (1956) 295, 296: fig. 26: 5; Davydova (1968) 238: fig. 18: 44, 46; Egami (1974) 50: note 117; Stepnaja (1992) 266, 348: and 458: pl. 108: 61, 48. 1165 Minaeva (1951) 277–79, fig. 5: 10; Werner (1956) 104: nr. C 70, pl. 47: 8; dated to the second half of the 5th century (Böhner II): Arends (1978) I: 437, 443, II: 829: nr. 205; dated to the 5th–6th centuries: Kazanski–Mastykova (1999) 551, 553–54, 547: fig. 14: 8–22 (the cowrie is nr. 16); Mastykova (2000) 38–39, 37: fig. 5: 16. 1166 Členova (1971) pl. XLII: 23, 25. 1167 Il’jukov–Vlaskin (1992) 82, 81: fig. 20: 7. The identification of the shells: Korolkova (1995) 88, fig. 111 (costume reconstruction); L’or des Amazones (2001) 182: fig. 201. The nomads of Eurasia in the Scythian–Sarmatian Periods rarely decorated their belts with cowries: Il’jukov–Vlaskin (1992) 82, 209; Davydova (1971) 100; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 264 (“Novij”). 1164

1168 1169

272

Vasjutkin–Kalinin (1986) 103, 121, 104: fig. 8: 45. Berlizov–Kaminskij (1993) 104: pl. VIII: 26.

Catalogue (sargatskaja) Culture (3rd/2nd centuries BC – 3rd/4th centuries AD),1174 length: approximately 2.1 cm.1175

a clay vessel, lamb bones, and various belt ornaments: a pierced shell disc, 2 silver rings, a small silver mount, a small strap end, a bronze strap end, a bone belt loop, and beside this, a cowrie, length: approximately 2.1 cm. Finds, strung on a strap, discovered along the right leg: a large knife, a silver ring, strap end, a cowrie, bone belt loops were interpreted by the excavation director that the knife hung lower than the knee, to be more comfortable for a rider.1170

1076. Urmanaevo (Bakalinskij rajon, Respublika Baškortostan): from 7 graves of the cemetery of the P’janobor (p’janoborskaja) Culture were found 103 cowries. One was illustrated and could be a Ringed cowrie, length: approximately 2.4 cm volt.1176 1077–78. Ust’-Labinskaja stancija (Krasnodarskij kraj): the site, named Zolotoe kladbišče (‘Gold cemetery’) belongs to the series of kurgan cemeteries dated between the 1st–3th centuries AD (see 1074):

1073a. Tarki (Respublika Dagestan): 1 marine shell (morskaja rakovina), and an unknown number of shell pendants (podveski iz rakovin) were discovered in Graves 10 and 11, dated to the 2nd –3rd centuries AD. The shells are mentioned without identification along with coral beads, as objects of Indian origin.1171

1077. Kurgan 29: from the central burial: bone plaque of a bow’s grip end and fragments of additional plaques, 13 three-edged iron arrowheads, an iron knife, a whetstone, a gilt bronze belt mount with glass inlay, a gold lamb head-shaped strap end with glass inlay, 13 variously shaped, colored beads of different materials, 2 sheet bronze pendants, a bronze mount, an iron ring, a bronze candelabrum, a sheet bronze casket, a silver kantharos, a silver cup, a bronze handle support, a glass vessel, a clay jug, bone plaque fragment, iron artifacts, and various amulets: 36 variously shaped stone, alabaster, lignite, nephrite and crystal pendants, 7 complete, and fragmentary, variously shaped shell pendants (rakovina podveski), the length of the largest item: 6.5 cm. One of the two illustrated items is a Murex, the other the side of a large cowrie.

1074. Tiflisskaja stancija (Krasnodarskij kraj): the site is part of the sequence of kurgan cemeteries named Zolotoe kladbišče (‘Gold cemetery’), dated to the 1st–3rd centuries AD:1172 Kurgan 20 finds: a two-edged socketed bronze arrowhead, 5 triangle, 71 rosette, 1 hemispherical, 33 roundish, 5 umbo-shaped gold mounts, 5 cylindrical sheet gold belt loops, a large hemispherical bronze mount, 39 variously shaped, colored and ornamented beads, a bronze finger ring, 2 knobbed bronze rings, 2 bronze sheets, a clay vessel forming a female head, a clay censer, a cylindrical bone pyxis, 1-1 bronze and sardonix-agate (stick?) ends, ear fragment of a bronze vessel, and various amulets: 2 openwork bronze pendants, 1 bronze miniature kettle-shaped pendant, 6 Egyptian faience: 2 lion, 1-1 ureus snake, frog, scarab and double-cylindrical pendants, 2 boar canineshaped pendants, and 3 shell pendants (stvorki rakoviny); the piercing of the illustrated example is not visible but it is possibly a medium-sized cowrie, length: 4.8 (?) cm.

Gosudartsvennyj Hermitage, Saint Peterburg, acc. nr.: 2239/63.1177 1078. Kurgan 43: from the burial: a three-edged iron arrowhead, a bronze iron bit with sidebars, a diorite axe, an iron axe, an iron awl, a gold mount, a fragment of a bronze torque with panther head terminals covered with sheet gold, a string of 31 beads, variously shaped, colored beads from different materials, a bronze pendant, a gold finger ring, and a double cylindrical gold amulet-pendant.1178 Since the authors did not classify the 2 illustrated large cowries (see 1074, 1077–78), their notes may mean that at least 1 Money or Ringed cowrie was also discovered in this kurgan.1179

Gosudartsvennyj Hermitage, Saint Peterburg, acc. nr.: 2237/33–36.1173 1075. Tjutrino (Tjumenskaja oblast’): perhaps a Money cowrie from a cemetery of the West Siberian Sargatka

About the culture: Stepnaja (1992) 292–311; about the hypothesis of ethnic identification of ancient Hungarians who separated from the Ugor population ibid. 311. 1175 Matveeva (1997) 69, and 68: fig. 4: 38. 1176 Vasjutkin (1982) 139, 142, 135: pl. 3: 9. I cite it under this entry, because I could not find any additional data. 1177 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 62–64: nrs 329–49. The cowries: ibid. 62: nr. 332. The longest shell mentioned in the text, length: 6.5 cm, 134: pl. 35: 332. However, its scale suggests that the length is approximately 7.8 cm. 1178 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 71–72: nr. 458–73. 1179 “In our collection [that is the material from «Zolotoe kladbišče» sites in the National History Museum in Moscow and the National Hermitage collection in Leningrad [Saint Petersburg] small cowrie (rakovinka kauri) are kept only from the Ust’-Labinskaja stancija site, from kurgan nr. 43, but it was not entered to the catalogue”: Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22: note 4. 1174

Mamontov (1995) 170–76, 178, 175: nr. 18, fig. 2: 6. Krupnov (1951) 215, 216, 224. 1172 The series of the kurgan cemeteries on the right bank of the Kuban’ River between Kazanskaja stancija and Voronežskaja stancija were excavated by N. I. Veselovskij from 1901–08, and interpreted as the remains of the solders in Roman service. Significant numbers amount of variously shaped amulets of different materials were discovered, among shell finds the ornamented items of larger pierced shells are murex and cowries: Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22, 52: nr. 175, 118: pl. 19: 175, 65: nr. 362, 139: pl. 40: 362, 75: nr. 521, 152: pl. 53: 521/2. 1173 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 61–62: nr. 310–28. The cowries: ibid. 61: nr. 318.2. The published item’s length in the text: 4.8 cm, but according to the scale of the illustration on 133: pl. 36: 318/2., its length would be approximately 8.1 cm. 1170 1171

273

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads s otkrytoj i tščatel’no otšlifovannoj spinkoj), length: approximately 2.75 cm. The finds are kept together as an assemblage, however the publisher of the material argued that they probably do not belong to Catacombe VI, and are likely datable to the Sarmatian Period.1181 Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.1182 1080. Znamenka (Bogradskij rajon, Hakasskaja Respublika): a goldsmith’s set of jewelry from a pit, covered with a clay vessel’s relief-decorated side fragment, at the lower border of the kurgan’s fence outside of the fortified settlement (gorodišče) earthwork. The finds were dated to the Hunnic–Sarmatian Period (2nd –1st centuries BC). The hoard included 2 iron daggers with sheet gold covered blade, a gold wire bracelet with two and a half twists, a pair of gold earrings with granulation pendants, various gold mounts (one is set with turquoise), nearly 2000 small gold beads, gold strands twisted on 2 iron nails, 2 sheet gold hair pins, gold and silver semi-processed products: bars, bunches of crushed foil, slag, and silver harnesses, thousands of colored glass paste, marble, carnelian, chalcedony, agate and turquoise beads as well as a pendant, and a cowrie.1183 1081. Slovenia 1081. Ljubljana-Emona: Illyrian-Tauriscus cemetery: Grave 894: from a presumably female burial of the 4th century: a bronze mount, 1-1 gold and silver earrings, a silver bead, blue and green glass beads, a silver wire bracelet, a metal mirror, an ivory hairpin, a red cup with yellow glaze and with the inscription NEMESIS, 1-1 large cowries with removed dorsum, strung on a tiny bronze loop with wound terminals; the length of both cowries are: 6.7 cm. Due to their different forms they might be 1-1 Panther and Tiger cowries (Fig. 128).1184 Fig. 128. 1-1 Panther (?) and Tiger (?) cowrie among the finds of Grave 894 from Ljubljana-Emona (1081) – after Petru (1972) pl. LXIV: 14–23

1082–86. Sudan 1082–83. Faras/ancient Pachoras (Lower Nubia): 1082. Grave 856: 3 painted cowrie rows are depicted on the cylindrical body of a clay Meroe-type cup from the 1st century AD.1185

1079. Verhnyj Koban aul (Respublika Severnaja Osetija– Alanija): from catacombes dated to seven different periods, collected by Franz Heger in 1881, 1890–1891, which was delivered to Vienna:1180

1083. Grave 2782: a gold forehead ornament shaped as a stele, under the winged sun 2 udžat-eyes, below the eye the

Catacombe VI (?): 3 small bronze spirals, a pair of bronze wire bracelets, the pierced incisor of molar of a boar with remains of patina, a light gray stone tool, and 2 perhaps Ringed cowries with removed dorsum (2 rakoviny kauri

Hajnrih (1995) 184, 202; see 291, 1529. Hajnrih (1995) 198, 249: pl. XLVII: 3–4 (in the text the material of the grave is incorrectly cited as published on pl. XLIX instead of pl. XLVII.). 1183 Without illustration: Podol’skij–Teterin (1979) 267; Stepnaja (1992) 230. 1184 Petru (1972) 83, 162, pl. LXIV: 20–21; Martin (1976) 96: note 151. 1185 Wildung (1996a) 358: fig. 426. 1181 1182

I: ? dated, IV, VI: from the Sarmatian Period?, II–III, V, VII: from the 9th century: Hajnrih (1995) 201–02. 1180

274

Catalogue

Fig. 129. Gold forehead ornaments with sheet gold cowrie imitation pendants from Sudan (1085–86) – after Wildung (1996) 312: fig 331, 314: fig. 334

1086. Unknown Provenance: a gold forehead ornament set with glass: between the two udžat-eyes the god Sebiumeker is depicted with a double crown. On the lower rim of the ornament 10 sheet gold cowrie imitations are strung; size: 3.7 cm (Fig. 129. 2).1190

hieroglyph sa (“defense”), dated between the 1st century BC–1st century AD. The lower pendant row of the forehead ornament is composed of 5 sheet gold cowrie imitations, size: 3.3 cm.1186 1084. Meroë (near Kabushija and Begrawija, Butana region):

1087–90. Syria 1087. Tell Hadidi (Tabqa Dam Salvage Area, in the Euphrates River Valley): 1 Indo-Pacific cowrie from a Roman deposit.1191

1. Cowrie row painted on a vessel fragment dated between the 1st century BC–1st century AD, and an additional embossed row of cowrie decoration on the rim of a contemporary bowl.1187

1088–90. Tell Šeh Hamad/ancient Magdala (near Chabur, eastern Syria):

2. 1 gold finger ring with a pendant row depicting cowries.1188

1088. Grave 51/87 in Building G: 1 Ringed cowrie and 1 another unidentified cowrie, both with ground-down dorsum and a Nerita albicilla ground-down at the apex from the Roman Period.1192

1085. Unknown Provenance: a gold forehead ornament set with glass, in the middle there is a ram head, on whose second pair of horns there is a double feather crown, the hemispehrical edges are decorated with 6 sheet gold cowrie imitations; size: 4.2 cm (Fig. 129. 1).1189

1089. 1 Ringed cowrie with a ground-down dorsum from an another Roman deposit.1193

Wenig (1978) 52, and fig. 24; Wildung (1996) 327: nr. 369; Wildung (1997) 327: nr. 369. 1187 Török (1997) I: 190, II: fig. 72, 194: fig. 1, pl. 53, and I: 253, II: 135. fig. x-89, pl. 199. 1188 Priese (1992) 20: fig. 9: 34–35: fig. 32, 42–43: fig. 41; and the same: Wildung (1996) 312: nr. 331, 313–14: nr. 334. 1189 Wildung (1996) 312: nr. 331; Wildung (1997) 312: nr. 331. 1186

Wildung (1996) 313–14: nr. 334; Wildung (1997) 313–14: nr. 334. Reese (1991) 167: nr. 31; Reese (1991b) 135. 1192 Reese (1991) 167: nr. 38; Reese (1991b) 133–34, fig. 88, 135–36: pls 34–35. 1193 Reese (1991) 167; Reese (1991b) 134. 1190 1191

275

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads oblast’)-Čarčanak-saj: Kurgans 5 and 22: unspecified number of cowries with triangular or oval piercing were discovered in a kurgan (kurum) cemetery of the 1st/2nd–6th/ 7th centuries AD.1202

1090. 1 Money cowrie with a ground-down dorsum from the unstratified mollusks.1194 1091–1118. Tadžikistan 1091–93. Aruktau (South Tadžikistan): a kurgan cemetery of the 2nd century BC –1st century AD:1195

1102–106. Gissar kišlak (South-Tadžikistan)-holm Tuphona: 284 excavated graves of the burial mound near the border of the 1st–3rd centuries AD, in which 5 graves included more than 20 cowries. 5 Money cowries with small pierced holes were illustrated but lack references in the text or caption:1203

1091. Kurgan Group IV, Kurgan 3: from a male (?) burial: 1 iron, 2 copper buckles, an iron knife, a whetstone, an earring, a jug, and at the neck a bead and 2 pierced cowries, perhaps Money cowries. One of them has removed dorsum, the other has a large hole, length: approximately 2.4–2.5 cm.1196

1102. Grave 140: from a likely female burial: a gold wire earring, 30 glass beads, 3 bronze and 1 iron bracelets, a pedestaled clay cup, dried brick pieces, and on the face, 11 cowries.1204

1092. Kurgan Group V, Kurgan 8: from a female burial: 3 copper buckles, 2 bronze mounts, a copper mount, 2 copper earrings, 20 bronze rivets, an iron nail, a lead stick, wood remains, black paint remains, and at the cervical vertebra 1 pierced cowrie, perhaps a Money cowrie, whose dorsum was removed, length: approximately 2.4 cm.1197

1103. Grave 141: from a likely female burial: 2 sheet iron finger ring, silver mace, a spoon, a clay goblet, dried brick pieces, and on the right shoulder 1 cowrie.1205 1104. Grave 183: from a probable female burial: a miniature clay jug, two-handled pitcher, clay cup and jug, 2 bronze wire earrings, a bronze bell, a bronze mirror, in the mouth a dead-obolus, a string of 13 glass and 4 carnelian beads, 7 Egyptian glass paste amulets: 5 amphorae, and 2 pendants showing snap fingers, 2 bronze and 1 iron bracelets, 2 bronze finger ring, and separated (?) from the above items, on the shoulder 1 cowrie with removed dorsum.1206

1093. Kurgan Group XIV, Kurgan 6: from a female burial: 2 iron buckles, wooden remains, black paint remains, and at the cervical vertebra 2 beads and 1 pierced cowrie, perhaps a Money cowrie, whose dorsum was removed, length: approximately 2.2 cm.1198 1094–98. Ašt (Isfarinskij rajon, Kudžanskaja oblast’): a kurgan (kurum) cemetery of the 1st/2nd–6th/7th centuries AD:1199

1105. Grave 260: from a robbed child burial: a bronze wire earring, a bronze ornament, a bronze bell, 2 bronze bracelets, a flat whetstone, and together glass and carnelian beads, Egyptian faience pendants, and cowries.1207

1094–95. Kurgan 2./1961, 4./1961: an unspecified number of cowries with open dorsum were found. 1096–98. Kurgan 2./1957, 8./1957 and 19./1957: an unspecified number of cowries with triangular or oval suspension holes.1200

1106. Grave 284: from a presumably female burial: 2 bronze wire earrings, a bronze finger ring, Egyptian faience statuette, 3 wire rings, a clay goblet, in the mouth an dead-obolus, and next to the right arm 7 cowries, with 2 pierced.1208

1099. Čorku (Isfarinskij rajon, Kudžanskaja oblast’)Cemetery I: 37 excavated graves from a kurgan cemetery of the 1st/2nd–6th/7th centuries AD, mainly of the 4th–7th centuries:

1107. Karabag (Isfarinskij rajon, Kudžanskaja oblast’): cemetery of the 1st/2nd–6th/7th centuries AD:

Kurgan 29: an unspecified number of cowries with open dorsum were found.1201

Kurgan 37: from a female grave: an iron knife, a bead, a bronze mirror, a small beauty rod, a graphite piece, 3 vessels, and on the chest pierced cowries.1209

1100–101. Dahona kišlak (Isfarinskij rajon, Kudžanskaja

Litvinskij (1972) 171–75; Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209. Litvinskij–Sedov (1984) 58 (at the bottom of the page, not even referring to the shells, 176/177: pls XIX–XX. 1204 Litvinskij–Sedov (1984) 32: “na lice”, 42: “na licevoj časti čerepa.” 1205 Litvinskij–Sedov (1984) 32, 46. The ibid. 31: fig. 16 presumably represents this burial, incorrectly described as Grave 144 in the caption, see ibid. 32. 1206 Litvinskij–Sedov (1984) 33–34, 42–43, 31: fig. 16. 1207 Litvinskij–Sedov (1984) 17: referring to 218: pl. e. V, but it does not include the drawing of the cowrie. 1208 Litvinskij–Sedov (1984) 24–25. 1209 Litvinskij (1972) 37; Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209; “Kaurimuscheln”: Litvinskij (1986) 142. 1202

Reese (1991) 167; Reese (1991b) 134, fig. 90. 1195 Without the classification of the shells: Mandel’štam (1975) 54. 1196 Mandel’štam (1975) 8, 168: pl. XIX: 3. 1197 Mandel’štam (1975) 11, 168: pl. XIX: 6. 1198 Mandel’štam (1975) 34, 168: pl. XIX: 13. 1199 The local term for a special kurgan-type, which is a chamber grave with flags, and in the middle built from raised stone pieces is kurum: Litvinskij (1986) 10–11. 1200 Litvinskij (1972) 152–55, 213; Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209; without mentioning the cowries: Litvinskij (1986) 153–55. 1201 Litvinskij (1972) 49–56; Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209; Litvinskij (1986) 105. 1194

1203

276

Catalogue 1108. Kurkat (Nauskij rajon, Kudžanskaja oblast’): from three rock cavities including 412 skulls of the 3rd–7th centuries AD, numerous beads of marine shells (“stekla iz ... morskih rakovin”), interpreted as amulets. On the published illustrations at least 3–4 pierced cowries are visible, among them 2 are perhaps Money cowries with removed dorsum.1210

artifact, and at the neck 3 beads and 1 larger Money cowrie with open dorsum, length: approximately 2.6 cm.1217 1115. Group XI, Kurgan 14: from a child burial: a brass plait clamp, bead, a jug with globular body, a miniature mug, a semi-spherical bowl, and at the cervical vertebrae the silver obulus of King Eucratides of Bactria (second quarter of the 2nd century BC), 2 beads and 1 presumably Money cowrie, perhaps pierced, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1218

1109. Nijazbek kišlak (Kanibadamskij rajon): from 13 burials of a cemetery in South-Fergana yielded unspecified number of cowries with triangle or oval pierced suspension loops.1211

1116. Group XVI, Kurgan 26: from a female burial: a brass plait clamp fragment, 2 brass bracelets, an iron finger ring, a jug with globular body, a clay cup, and at the upper part of the chest 5 cowries.1219

1110–16. Tulhar (southwest Tadžikistan): kurgan cemetery with 219 excavated kurgans northwest of Šahrtûz of the late 2nd century BC –early 1st century.1212

1117–18. Voruh kišlak (Isfarinskij rajon): 93 excavated burials from a kurgan cemetery dated from the 1st/2nd centuries BC, mainly of the 2nd –4th AD centuries:

1110. Group I, Kurgan 8: from a male burial: an iron dagger with heart-shaped hilt end, an iron buckle, a brass bracelet, an iron finger ring, 2 clay cups, a jug with globular body, sheep bones, and at the neck a bead and 2 cowries with removed dorsum, perhaps Money cowries, length: approximately 1.9, and 2.6 cm.1213

Kurgans 51 and 81: among the grave goods unspecified number of cowries with removed dorsum.1220 1119. Tunesia

1111. Group I, Kurgan 9: from a female burial: an iron dagger with heart-shaped hilt end, an iron awl, a whetstone, an iron buckle, a brass bracelet, a jug with globular body, clay cauldron fragments, sheep astragalus, sheep bones, and at the neck, a bead and 2 cowries with removed dorsum, perhaps Money cowries, length: approximately 1.9, and 2.0 cm.1214

1119. Carthage (near Tunis)-Decumanus VI: one Tiger cowrie fragment was discovered between House nr. I and cistern nr. I, in the refuse layer above the pavement dated 425–475.1221 1120. Turkey 1120. Alishar Hüyük (Anatolia): 1 pierced Ringed cowrie of the Roman Period.1222

1112. Group I, Kurgan 45: from a male burial: an iron dagger with heart-shaped hilt end, an iron knife, an iron awl, a clay cup, fragments of a jug with globular body, sheep bones, and on the neck 4 beads and 2 Money cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 2.0 cm.1215

1121–22. Turkmenistan 1121. Babašov: cemetery of the 1st– 2nd centuries AD:

1113. Group VII, Kurgan 6: from a female burial: an iron finger ring, a jug with globular body, a small, hemispherical bowl, and at the neck a bead and 7 cowries.1216

Grave-group XVII, Grave 10: from a disturbed female (?) burial: 7 smaller, 2 large beads, gold folio-mount, an iron buckle, 2 copper rivets, a small copper leaf with rivet, a bronze mirror, iron mace fragment, a clay beaker rim, and farther off from the right hand a bead and a cowrie pierced at the apex, length: approximately 1.7 cm.1223

1114. Group VII, Kurgan 14: from a male burial: an iron dagger with double-coiled hilt end, glass rosette-button, an iron buckle, 2 small iron spoons (?), fragments of a jug with egg-shaped body, a clay cup, sheep bones, a round iron

1122. Gyaur Kala/ancient Merv (near Bairamali, Mary

Mirbabaev (1975) 300, 298: fig. 2. Litvinskij (1972) 178–79; Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209. 1212 Mandel’štam (1966) 9, 163: pl. I: nrs 1–7 classified as Money cowries (“rakoviny kauri Monetaria moneta iz Indijskogo oceana”) from 7 kurgans, accompanied mainly by beads: ibid. 134. The author did not refer to the grave numbers, published only 5 examples as illustration, but none from the assemblages with numerous shells, see below. In Grave 1 in Kurgan-groups IV and XVI large fragments of shells were discovered: ibid. 34, 68, 134. 1213 Mandel’štam (1966) 11, 221: pl. LXI: 1. 1214 Mandel’štam (1966) 11–12, 221: pl. LXI: 2. 1215 Mandel’štam (1966) 23–24, 221: pl. LXI: 8; Stepnaja (1992) 114, 344: and 392: pl. 42: 37. 1216 Mandel’štam (1966) 44–45. The cowries are not illustrated. 1210 1211

Mandel’štam (1966) 46, 223: pl. LXIII: 10. Mandel’štam (1966) 64, 223: pl. LXIII: 11. 1219 Mandel’štam (1966) 74. The cowries are not illustrated. 1220 Litvinskij (1972) 17; Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209; The short description about Kurgan 51 does not refer to the cowries: Litvinskij (1986) 105, 136. 1221 Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1991) 172: nr. 88, fig. 18; Reese (1992b) 349. 1222 Reese (1991) 169: nr. 52. 1223 Mandel’štam (1975) 100, 125, 192: pl. XLIV: 7. 1217 1218

277

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads velayat) Ditch 6: among shell finds of the 4th–5th centuries cowries are mentioned.1224

1127. Družnoe (Krymskaja oblast’): 86 graves of the Alan cemetery dated to the 3rd–4th centuries:

1123–48, (1130a–d, 1139a, 1147a), Annex 2526–28, 2542–43, 2545–52, 2558, 2561. Ukraine

Catacombe 78: from female burial nr. IV, excluding the mixed material from six human and one horse burials, dated to the 4th century: 31 strung beads, a cross-bow brooch, and left of the femur’s inner side at the knee, 2 large cowries. Both are pierced, and the bronze suspension loop of 1 cowrie remained, size: 6.9x4.0, and 6.1x3.9 cm.1230

1123. Berežanka (Lanovec’kij rajon, Ternopol’skaja oblast’)-hutor Z`inoveščina: 9 graves from a part of a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture, dated between late 3rd century–4th century: Grave 8: from a likely female burial: a bronze cross-bow brooch, a bronze ring, 2 hooks twisted from bronze strands, an iron buckle, a bronze needle in a bone case, a string of beads, 2 cups, 1 bowl, 4 pots, 1 jug, and a large cowrie, pierced with a round hole at the apex, which was published unscaled.1225

1128. Evpatorija (Krymskaja oblast’)-Beljaus gorodišče: 1 pierced, large cowrie from the first disturbed rock cavity between the two excavated sites near the earthen fortification, length: approximately 7. 4 cm.1231

1124. Borohtjanskaja Ol’šanka (Kievskaja oblast’): from a likely female burial of the Hunnic Period of the Černjahov Culture and dated 360–450:1226 a buckle, a brooch, a pair of earrings with sheet-pendants, a bronze mirror, a pierced coin (?), a string of beads, and a likely large cowrie, perhaps pierced twice.1227

1129. Furmanovka (Kilijskir rajon, Odesskaja oblast’): 25 graves from the biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture dated to late 4th–early 5th centuries:

Furman`ivka – see 1129. Furmanovka

Grave 25: from a girl’s burial: 2 bronze cross-bow brooches, a string of glass paste beads, a bronze hair pin, a bone comb, a clay spindle whorl, 2 pots, 1 bowl, 1 jug, and between the knees a magic find assemblage: 1-1 pierced dog (?) and boar amulets, and 2 pierced marine shells (“dve morskoj rakoviny”) meaning 1 murex and 1 large cowrie, length: approximately 6.3 cm.1232

Černjah`iv – see 1125. Černjahov 1125. Černjahov (Kagarlyckij rajon, Kievskaja oblast’): 251 graves from a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture of the 3rd–5th centuries, whose grave goods were not separately described. There are 5 small shells (“rakoviny”) and 4 large pierced marine shell pendants. The latter were published with illustrations: 3 Murex, and 1 large cowrie. The author published them as one type of shell, because they are all pierced at their elongated ends, and on two of them the remains of bronze suspension loops were observed.1228

Gavril`ivka – see 1130. Gavrilovka 1130. Gavrilovka (Novo-Voronežskij rajon, Hersonskaja oblast’): 107 graves from a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture of the 3rd –5th centuries: Grave 70: from a 4th century female (?) inhumation that was cut by another inhumation Grave 68: a spindle whorl, an iron knife, 2 lentiform glass beads, a drilled otter humerus –amulet, bowl sherds, and on the pelvis a pierced, large cowrie, perhaps Tiger cowrie (“morskaja rakovinapodveska, tipa kauri”), length: approximately 7.5 cm.1233

1126. Čun’kov (Zastanovskij rajon, Černovickaja oblast’)Hutor Odaja: 29 graves from a part of a cemetery: Grave 4: from the robbed burials of two males dated to the 4th century among the in situ femora at the pelvis, antler bracelet, and 1 large cowrie (length: approximately 9 cm) with the remains of its suspension iron ring.1229

1130a. Gorodok Nikolaevka (Berislavskij rajon, Hersonskaja oblast’): 16 graves of a cemetery, opposite Britanny settlement, on the further bank of the Dniepr

D. P. Varkhotova referred to her probably unpublished dissertation in Taskent: Reese–Simpson (1995) 53. 1225 Voljanik (1974) 75–77, fig. 11: 3; Kokowski (1997) 777: nr. 15, 822: find list 13d, nr. 15; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 14. 1226 Dated to the D1 (360/370–400/410)–D2 (380/400–440/450) Periods: Kazanskij–Mastykova (1999) 121, 126, 1227 Kazanski (1991) 72, 71: the lower picture on the right: fig. 8; Kazanski (1991a) 20: fig. 1: 16; Kazanskij–Mastykova (1999) 126, 127: fig. 7: 8; Kazanski–Mastykova (2000) 217, 210: fig. 1: 33, 215: fig. 6: 8. 1228 Petrov (1964) 67: nr. 8–9, 112, 113: fig. 14: 1, 8, 15, and 19; all 4 items are mentioned as cowries by: Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1241; Kokowski (1997) 780: nr. 56, 822: find list 13d, nr. 56. This material was mentioned as “eine große Cypraea und eine Murex des Mittelmeeres”: Arends (1978) II: 774: nr. 96; Bobrovs’ka (1999) 90: fig. 1: nr. 6. 1229 Nikitina (1996) 10–11, 26, 33: pl. 7: 15; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 20. 1224

“Deux coquillages percés dits, Kaury”: Khrapounov–Mould (1997) 63: nr. 24, 60: lower illustration on the right, 63: on the drawing of the catacombe, fig. IV. 1231 Daševskaja (1969) 67, 71, 70: fig. 33: 8. 1232 Symonovič (1988) 158, 161–62, fig. 14: 10; Kokowski (1997) 784: nr. 107, 822: find list 13d, nr. 107; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 31. 1233 The sex was defined as “50-60 years old male (?)”, but grave goods suggest that rather a female was buried there, see Symonovič (1960) 212, 237, 235: pl. 15: 73; Werner (1964) 179, 190: fig. 1: 14; Meaney (1981) 123; Kokowski (1997) 784: nr. 110, 821: find list 13b, nr. 110; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1245; defined as Tiger cowrie from the 4th century: Reese (1991) 169–70: nr. 60; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257, 257: note 88; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 11. Grave 70 was “im südöstlichen Gräberfeldteil, der frühen Belegungszone [260–330 AD]”: Petrauskas (2003) 265: note 119, 280, 293, 295, 272: fig. 17 1230

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Catalogue River, which was dated in the first report to the 1st century BC–1st century AD. Several graves belonged to the Černjahov Culture. In 3 burials were unillustrated objects defined as “Muschel”, which might include cowries as murex, therefore they were not included in the catalogue:

and 2 bone pyramidal pendants and 2 marine shells; the last 4 objects were interpreted as amulets. One is a murex, length: approximately 3.5 cm, the other a large pierced cowrie, length: approximately 5.5 cm.1239 Kosanove – see 1133. Kosanovo

1130b. Grave 8: from a woman’s burial who died in childbirth,1234 dated originally to the 1st century: 2 bronze cross-bow brooches, a string of beads: 1 carnelian, 6 amber, 2 coral, 6–10 crystal, topaz, amethyst, chalcedony and 59 glass beads, a glass, 3 clay vessels, and between the femora a small tube, a piece of glass and 1 shell (Muschel), the length of the latter: 6.7 cm.1235

1133. Kosanovo (Gajsinskij rajon, Vinnickaja oblast’): 39 graves from a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture of the 3rd /4th –5th centuries: Grave 20: from a destroyed female (?) burial: small bowl, biconic bowl, black bowl, vessel with hemispherical body, 2 miniature vessels, vessel sherds, cylindrical coral beads, 2 glass paste draughtsmen, and large cowrie with a bronze suspension loop whose terminals were twisted on each other, length: approximately 7.7 cm.1240

1130c. Grave 12: from the grave of a pubescent (female?), dated originally to the 1st century: 4 cross-bow brooches, beads, a bucket pendant, a clay spindle whorl, a bronze key, amphora, a cup, a clay vessel, animal bones, and to the right of the skeleton 4 pierced shells (“Muschel”).1236

1134. Kovalevka (Nikolaevskaja oblast’)-Sokolova Mogila: among the 28 burials and 1 horse grave from the Copper Age Kurgan one burial from the 1st century was also uncovered.

1130d. Grave 13: from a woman and her child burial dated originally to the 1th century: bronze brooch, string of glass, crystal and stone beads, 2 bronze bracelets, 2 handled jugs, a terra sigillata bowl, a large bowl, 2 glass teardrop holders, and between the femora a bronze mirror in a case, a spindle ring, a piece of paint, 2 knotring, and amulets: bucket pendant, and pierced prismatic bone pendant with a trapped bead, 2 trapezoidal limestone pendant, round antler pendant, animal tooth, limestone, amber, 1-1 large and small shells, length: 5.1, and 2.4 cm.1237

Grave 3: from the burial of a wealthy 45-50 years old Sarmatian female: textile and gold embroidery remains, gold fibers, leather remains of the foot wear and its 218 small gold mounts, a gold brooch, enameled gold brooch inlaid with garnet and decorated with Isis-symbol, silver buckle, 36 turquoise-enameled gold mounts, 42 round, 89 rhomboid, 78 ram horn-shaped and 2 squared open-work gold mounts, 53 gold rosettes, 573 rhomboid, 68 ram horn-shaped and 14 squared open-work gold plaques for attachment, a pair of chalcedony spiral pendants wound with gold strands, a pair of gold pendants inlaid with garnet, carnelian pendant, 27 chalcedony and carnelian beads, frog-shaped amulet, 83 gold beads, 14 amber, agate, glass, glass paste and stone beads, gold necklace with pendants, double gold necklace, string of gold and semi-precious beads, scarab, Herkules-knot with mountain goat and griffin-head-shaped amulets, 51 gold, jet, glass paste and faience beads, gold bracelet pair inlaid with carnelian and glass, gold finger ring with spinel inlaid, bronze mirror with gilt silver handle, in a wooden case covered with leather on the outer side and silk inside, round, wooden fan covered with leather in oak case with silver handle and decorated with a small mirror, an additional similar fan, decorations of a destroyed pouch: 236 beads, silver jug, on its handles 1-1 buckets fitted with a leather strap, finger ring-shaped round amulet, another round amulet inlaid with carnelian, 2 fossil shark-teeth (?), oculus and paste beads, a wooden cube, jasper mace, ornaments of a destroyed pouch: 11

1131. Herson (Hersonskaja oblast’): miniature gold pendants imitating cowries were discovered in a cemetery of Roman Period.1238 Inkerman (Krymskaja oblast’)-Sovhoz nr. 10, Graves 3b, 54, 73 – see Annex 2526–28 Kobleve – see 1132. Koblevo 1132. Koblevo (Očakovskij rajon, Nikolaevskaja oblast’): 58 graves from a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture, dated from the turn of the 2nd/3rd centuries AD to the late of 4th century: Grave 21: from a disturbed female grave: iron knife, bronze brooch fragment, 11 amber, 2 carnelian and 3 glass beads, bone comb with bronze rivets, double conic clay spindle whorl, 3 tiny limestone pieces, handled clay jug, handled clay bowl, and beside the knees in a wooden casket a bone needle case with a bronze needle, 2 hooked bronze artifacts, vessel sherds, bronze and iron artifacts, beads,

Symonovič (1979) 78, 81, 67: fig. 3: 25, 79: 11. fig. II–IIA; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1242; Kokowski (1997) 788: nr. 170, 822: find list 13d, nr. 170; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 22. 1240 Kravčenko (1967) 89, 113, 91: fig. 9; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1238; Kokowski (1997) 789: nr. 178, 822: find list 13d, nr. 178; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 13. As Grave 29–1961: “Das einzige Exemplar aus dem zentralen Teil des Gräberfeldes gehört der frühesten Belegungsphase [240–270 AD] an.”: Petrauskas (2003) 252, 320–21, 249: fig. 9b, 259: fig. 13b, 321: fig. 50: 8, pl. 5: 7. 1239

The bones of the embryo (?) were uncovered between the femora: Ebert (1913a) 86. 1235 Ebert (1913a) 86, 112–13. 1236 Ebert (1913a) 90–92, 112–13. The grave was mentioned by: Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 80, 154: nr. 547. 1237 Ebert (1913a) 92–96, 112–13. 1238 Guščina–Zaseckaja (1994) 22; Bârcă (2006) 137. 1234

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads triangle-shaped gold mounts, 310 beads, a leather-covered whetstone with a gold mount inlaid with turquoise in a felt pouch decorated by 37 beads, iron knife with bone handle and ringed hilt, clay spindle whorl, bone pyxis, wooden casket, bone comb, silver spoon, rouge, jet jar with gold top, and remains of aromatic compound, silver kantharos, bronze bucket with iron handle, two-handled marble vessel, a small stone vessel, clay smoking vessel, 1 lekythos and 2 alabaster vessels with globular body, a small glass plate with a shell-shaped faience bowl. Also at the level of the pelvis in a space of 38x20 cm bronze tweezers, iron needle case with bronze needle, remains of bronze and silver jars, a small pile of sulfur, and the remains of a wooden casket, which might have included the above objects. Beside them 42 amulets were discovered, including various bone, semiprecious stone (carnelian, jet, agate, forferite, hematite), amber, black amber/jet, limestone beads and pendants, glass and glass paste beads, gold finger ring inlaid with carnelian, iron and bronze finger ring inlaid with gemma, the 6.3 cm tall bone figure of a sitting female with straddled legs (Baubo?, woman in childbirth), three-edged bronze arrowheads, gold and iron solo and double bucket-shaped pendants, hand-shaped bronze pendant, iron aggregate phallus-shaped pendant, silver miniature jar, pendant from Pinus seeds, the hand-shaped end of a stylus, and 4 pierced marine shells (“rakoviny morskogo molljuska”), and 1 medium-sized, unidentified cowrie with removed dorsum (“rakovina Cyprea”), length: 4.4 cm.1241

Culture from old excavations, length: approximately 10.6 cm.1244 Novo-Oleksandr`ivka – see 1137. Novo-Aleksandrovka Ol’via/ancient Olbia (Odesskaja oblast’) Grave 65/1902 – see Annex 2542–43. Pantikapej/ancient Pantikapaion (Kerč, Krymskaja oblast’) Stone chest/1853, Mitridat earth-crypt, Graves 109, 378/1902, 172/1903, 23.03.1906, 25/1907, 21.12.1913 – see Annex 2545–52. 1138. Podgorodnoe (Dnepropetrovskaja oblast’)-KurganGroup IX: Kurgan 6: 5 pierced cowries from a robbed Sarmatian female burial dated to the 1st century. According to the illustration, the shell was likely a smaller species, with removed dorsum; length: approximately 2.6 cm.1245 Priv`il’ne – see 1139. Privol’noe 1139. Privol’noe (Zaporožskij rajon, Zaporožskaja oblast’): 28 graves from a part of a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture of the 2nd–4th centuries: Grave 10: from a female burial interpreted as dating from the 3rd century: 2 brooches, 17 beads, 1 bronze, 4 amber pendants, 4 glass tokens, 1 bead, a bone comb, a jug, 2 pots, 2 additional vessels, a glass vessel, and at the belt region in one pile the following objects: 2 silver earrings, a bone finger ring, raptorial bird claw amulet strung on a bronze ring with terminals twisted on each other, and 1 small cowrie and 3 pierced small cowries hung from a similar loop.1246

1135. Lipovec (Vinnickaja oblast’)-Kurgan 1: from a female burial: bead bracelets, mirror fragment, sheet bronze fragment, and in a pile between the right hand and the knee bronze finger ring with knobbed decoration, drilled oval stone, bronze tube, bronze handled double bucket pendant, bell, and 1 large cowrie which was not pierced but became holed.1242 1136. Lohvica (Lohvickij rajon, Poltavskaja oblast’): 20 graves from a part of a cemetery of the 4th century:

1139a. Ranževoe (Kominternovskij rajon, Odesskaja oblast’): discussing the shell amulets of the Černjahov Culture, among goods from Grave 14 of the cemetery, 15 shells are mentioned from a wooden casket beside the skeleton.1247

Grave 14: 1 Tiger cowrie with bronze suspension loop at the feet in a female burial, length: 6.5 cm.1243 Lohvicja – see 1136. Lohvica

1140. Ridkoduby / Rìdkoduby / Redkoduby (Hmel’nickij rajon, Hmel’nickaja oblast’): 1 cowrie is mentioned from a part of a cemetery with 20 graves of the Černjahov Culture.1248

1137. Novo-Aleksandrovka (Zaporožskaja oblast’): 1 large fragmentary cowrie with suspension loop among grave goods dated to the 4th–early 5th centuries of the Černjahov

Symonovič (1975) 207, 211, fig. 4: 2; Kokowski (1997) 794: nr. 245, 822: find list 13d, nr. 245; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 9. 1245 Kostenko (1984) 124, 127, 126: fig. 2: 27; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 255. 1246 Kuharenko (1955) 136–38, 146, 150–51, 137: pl. II: 21–22; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1239; Kokowski (1997) 797: nr. 287, 822: find list 13d, nr. 287; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 10. 1247 Tempelmann-Mączyńska (1989) 80; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1243; Symonovič (1979) 108: “morskie rakoviny, kotorymi izobiluet poberež’e morja i limana”, 103: fig. 25: 7. 1248 Vinokur (1972) 135: fig. 55: quoted by Kokowski (1997) 798: nr. 301, 822: find list 13d, nr. 301; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1246; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 18. 1244

Kovpanenko (1980) 176–77, 170–71: fig. 2, 180: fig. 16; Kovpanenko (1986) 90, 87: fig. 93 from the bottom the third row, on the left the 1, 91: fig. 95: 10. The description of the grave: ibid. 9–26, the finds: 27–125; mentioning shells only as “Muscheln”: Kovpanenko (1991) 224. 1242 Pósta (1905) 508–09, 509: fig. 281: 6; Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257. 1243 Berezovec (1957) 90; Berezovec–Petrov (1960) 94; Werner (1964) 179; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1244; Reese (1991) 170: nr. 61; Bobrovs’ka (1999) 90: fig. 1: nr. 2. 1241

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Catalogue 1141. Romaški (Kagarlykskij rajon, Kievskaja oblast’): 38 graves and 2 kurgans of the Černjahov Culture:

1145. Uvisla (Ternopol’skaja oblast’): 1 comb with arched back, buckle and a unique necklace were found in a destroyed female (?) grave of the Černjahov Culture: pierced salmon chap-amulets and 2 pierced Panther cowries, length: 6.5–6.5 cm.1254

Grave 35: remaines of a 13–14 years old girl (?) burial, which was partly destroyed by Medieval coffin: fragment of a copper artefact, a clay vessel, fragments of vessels, and the upper part of a pierced cowrie made into a pendant.1249

1146. Vil’šanky (Kievskaja oblast’): 1 cowrie from a cremation burial of the Černjahov Culture.1255

1142. Ružičanka (Hmel’nickij rajon, Hmel’nickaja oblast’): 72 graves of a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture of the late 2nd–early 5th centuries:

Vili Jaruz’k`i – see 1147. Vily Jarugskie 1147. Vily Jarugskie (Černoveckij rajon, Vinnickaja oblast’): 6 graves from a part of a biritual cemetery of the Černjahov Culture, dated to the 4th century:

Grave 28: from a female burial of the second half of the 3rd century: large prismatic carnelian bead with facets at the corners and small double-conic glass bead, and 2 marine shells. One of them (it is not clear which), was discovered at the right hand, at pelvis level, the other between the two legs together with a pyramidal bone pendant-amulet and a bird bone needlecase. One of them is a murex, length: 5.2 cm, the other (with missing dorsum?) a Tiger cowrie, length: 7.4 cm.1250 The author assigned both the shells and the bone pendant amulets a magical function.1251

Grave IV (in the text it is referred incorrectly as Grave III): from the disturbed burial of an approximately 7 years old girl: bronze brooch, string of 30 beads, clay spindle whorl, 5 pots, 4 bowls, 1 jug, and under the leg bones during the lifting of the skeleton 2 shells were found: 1 Murex- or Muricidae-pendant, and 1 pierced Cypraea lurida (“Cyprea Iurida”), length: approximately 3.7 cm.1256

1143. Sad (Sumskaja oblast’)-Cemetery 2: 8 graves from a part of a cemetery of the Černjahov Culture and dated to the 5th century:

Višnevoe (prev. Èlski-Èli; Krymskaja oblast’) Crypt 1 – see Annex 2561. 1147a. Žurovka (Gorodiščenskij rajon, Čerkasskaja oblast’):

Grave 5: from a female burial: 11 vessels, 2 silver brooches, a string of beads: 14 carnelian, 18 coral, 40 glass beads, a silver belt buckle, 2 bone needle cases, a comb with arched back, a pierced murex, and a large cowrie with suspension loop from the edge of the grave shaft, length: approximately 6.1 cm.1252

Grave 102: in a grave of the 4th century of the Černjahov Culture a pair of plated brooches and a pendant made from a pierced marine shell, with the remains of a bronze suspension loop.1257

1144. Semenovka (Leninskij rajon, Krymskaja oblast’): 5 stone-framed graves of a part of a cemetery dated to the 1st–3rd centuries:

1148. Unknown provenance: in the assemblage (?), a brooch with curved foot, a buckle, 2 looped axe-pendants, a cylinder spiral, a pendant piece, beads, mirror with radiating pattern, an iron knife, etc. 1 large unmodified cowrie (“cyprea-jewelry”) with a strand-piece in its stoma.1258

Grave 4: from a double burial: small handled jug, and at the skulls a bronze brooch, 2 bronze wire bracelets, bracelet fragment, 1-1 Egyptian faience fist-, and scarabshaped bead amulets, 75 glass beads, 1 freshwater shell and 1 pierced cowrie, length: approximately 2.6 cm.1253

1149–55. Uzbekistan 1149. Gurmiron (Taškentskaja oblast’): it is probable that

Taš-Tepe (Krymskaja oblast’) Grave 2 – see Annex 2558. 1249 Illustration, without scale: Brajčevskij (1960) 111; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1240; Bobrovs’ka (2000) fig. 1: nr. 7. 1250 With incorrectly scaled illustrations: Vinokur (1979) 120, fig. 14: 8–9. For the defined scales: Kokowski (1995) 198: nr. 5140 (Tiger cowrie), 5141 (murex), 199: fig. 121; Kropotkin (1970) 127: nr. 1247; Kokowski (1997) 799: nr. 315, 821: find list 13b, 822: find list 13d, nr. 315; Šarov (2000) 376: fig. 8: 13. 1251 Vinokur (1979) 130; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 19. 1252 Nekrasova (1985) 77–78, 79: fig. 4: 12; Kokowski (1997) 801: nr. 344, 822: find list 13d, nr. 344 (mentioned under the sitename Sumy). The photo of the two molluscs was published also with the following incorrect caption: the murex: “una conchiglia Ciprea”, the large cowrie: “una seconda conchiglia Kauri con un anello in bronzo”: I Goti (1994) 86, fig. I. 123; Kovács–Vaday (1997–1998) 258; Bobrovs’ka (1999) 90: fig. 1: nr. 1. 1253 Kruglikova (1969) 107–08, 103: fig. 5: 12.

Tihanova (1957) 184, fig. 10: 1; dated to the second half of the 4th century–early 5th century: Slavjane (1993) 151; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 17. 1255 Kravčenko (1971) 76: fig. 1: 24: cited by Kokowski (1997) 803: nr. 371, 822: find list 13d, nr. 271 (incorrectly), 371. 1256 Romanova (1988) 138: nr. 41, 139: fig. 9: 11; Kokowski (1997) 803: nr. 372, 821: find list 13b, nr. 372; Bobrovs’ka (2000) 90: fig. 1: nr. 21. 1257 Unpublished find, the species is not identified, therefore it could be a cowrie or a murex (Purpura sp.), see “podveska iz morskoj rakoviny s otverstiem i ostatkami bronzovogo kolečka...”: Kropotkin (1970) 128: nr. 1248. 1258 Pósta (1905) 511–14, 513: fig. 285: 1. Béla Posta “described a grave find from the collection of the Kiev university without mentioning the site.”: Kovács–Vaday (1997–98) 257, 257: note 87. 1254

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Room 26: nearly 300 beads were discovered dispersed on the floor, dating from the 2nd–3rd centuries, mainly glass beads, but also Egyptian faience, coral, garnet-almandite, carnelian, agate, pyrite, real pearl. In the middle of the preserved part of the string, a round gold set with glass inlay was placed, to which a Money cowrie was attached through a small round piercing, length: approximately 2.0 cm.1267 An additional round gold set was discovered with glass inlay with other beads, some tiny pendants and 1 cowrie.1268

1 bone cowrie imitation was discovered in the kurgan cemetery of the 2nd–1st centuries BC.1259 1150–53. Jalangtuš-tepe (Surhandar’inskaja oblast’): 12 tombs built of brick (naus) were excavated in the Uzbek cemetery of the 2nd–mid 3rd centuries. 1150. Naus II, Chamber-grave 1: 6 adult and 1 child burials. In the north eastern corner a pierced Kušan bronze coin of King Huviška (126–164 or 146–184),1260 variously shaped and colored glass, glass paste, carnelian, crystal, stone and limestone beads, and 3 pierced cowries. The latter are presumably Money cowries, 1-1 with removed and broken dorsum, while the third has a larger opening at the apex, length: approximately 2.0, 1.8, and 1.3 cm.1261

4.12. 1156–57, (1156a–b). Cowrie Finds of the Migration Period from the Carpathian Basin (5th Century )1269 The material was collected from Hungary (Fig. 110. 2).

1151. Naus II, Chamber-grave 2: 11 burials were uncovered, among their dispersed grave goods 8 Kušan coins (the latest of them are 2 coins of King Huviška) and 4 cowries. Among them 3 are surely Money cowries, two with open dorsum, 1-1 sawn, longitudinal, and small round hole, length: approximately 1.6, and 1.4 cm.1262

Bakonykoppány (Veszprém megye, Hungary) – see 1079b, 1601. 1156. Domoszló (Heves megye, Hungary)-Völgyzáró gát: from the disturbed burial of a high-born Gepid woman of the last third of the 5th century: a pair of fivefingered brooches with animal-headed foot, bezelled with almandin and amethyst, a conical bronze bell, a fragment of a bronze wire bracelet, from secondary usage, a radial nomadic bronze mirror, a double-sided bone comb, a small, double-truncated conical clay spindle whorl, and 12 remained strung beads: 3 various sized amber beads, a large disc-shaped chalcedony bead, blue polygonal, black barrel-shaped, white, blue and red spherical glass beads, fluted green, and light blue millefiori beads, and gentian blue spherical glass beads with colored millefiori flowerpattern, and the incomplete, broken fragment of 1 large cowrie, length: 6.2, resp. 4.3 cm.

1152. Naus III, Chamber-grave 1: at least 11 burials were excavated, in the middle of the chamber – among them the coin of a Kušan King Kaniška1263 – and coral, carnelian, amethyst, opal, glass and glass paste beads and 1 cowrie, perhaps Money cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1264 1153. Naus III, Chamber-grave 2: 8 skeletons were discovered, inside the bronze bell uncovered in the middle of the chamber a cowrie was found strung on a thin thread. Beside this a bunch of beads were uncovered, including variously shaped glass, glass paste and carnelian beads, and 3 cowries. Among the 4 cowries 3 were illustrated in the publication, 2 are undoubtedly Money cowries, 1 with open dorsum, 1-1 others were piercings at the dorsum and at the apex, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1265

Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger, acc. nr.: 66.9.1270 1156a. Jutas (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Nagymező Grave 112: incorrect series of citations to a cowrie supposedly discovered in this Avar cemetery, but no cowries were uncovered in either Grave 112 (a male burial) or other graves. In Grave 116, the burial of a young German female, was identified 1 Cerithium or Turritella sp. (in the text Muschel), which was placed in a leather pouch decorated with a bronze disk on the right upper arm together with 1-1 chalcedony, bone disk, and 1 lead cross. The burial was dated by the bronze coins of Byzantine

1154. Marhamat gorodišče (Andijon viloyat): 1 small cowrie is included in the material dated to the 1st–3rd centuries from the site, interpreted as the center of the Kušan state.1266 1155. Toprak-kala (Èllikkaliskij rajon, Horezmskaja oblast’ Kara-Kalpakskaja Respublika): settlement material of the ancient Horezm dated between the 4th century BC–1st century AD:

Toprak (1984) 227, 249: note 29, 228: fig. 91: 5. It is deceptive that in the first publication Room 51 is cited as the site of the discovery: Trudnovskaja (1952) 120, 120/121: pl. I: 1–2; Borozna (1975) 288, 296: note 40, and: Drevnejšie (1985) 330; Stepnaja (1992) 122. 1268 Toprak (1984) 227. 1269 Among the 4 cowries that were presented from the territory of today’s Hungary by Ulrich Arends 3 originate from the Sarmatian Period: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 751: nr. 51 (881), 437, 781: nr. 110 (887), 437, 891: nr. 333 (902), only the fourth can be dated to the Migration Period: 437, 1121: nr. 762b (1157). 1270 It was published as “fragments of a bivalve”, without illustration: Szabó (1969) 48. István Bóna drew my attention to this find, and Adél Váradi made it possible to investigate the item. Here I would like to thank them for their kindness. 1267

The cowrie imitation is very naturalistic, and noted in the caption as bone: Stepnaja (1992) 93, 343: and 385: pl. 35: 8. 1260 Cribb (1995/96) 106. 1261 Rtveladze (1983) 126–27, 129: fig. 4: top left. 1262 Rtveladze (1983) 131, 131: fig. 6: 1–4. 1263 The reign of the three kings named Kaniška: I (100–126 or 120–146), II (200–222 or 220–242), III (241–around 270 or 261–290). 1264 Rtveladze (1983) 132–34, fig. 9: 18. 1265 Rtveladze (1983) 134, 135: fig. 10: 1–3. 1266 Drevnejšie (1985) 312, 439: pl. CLI: 39. 1259

282

Catalogue Emperor Mauritius Tiberius (582–602) overminted with the portrait of Emperor Phocas (602–610).1271 Edouard Salin mentioned the cowrie from Grave 112 first, based upon the publications of Gyula Rhé and Nándor Fettich (Cypraea voluta).1272 His data was taken up by Audrey L. Meaney without reference,1273 and David S. Reese altered the classification to Panther cowrie.1274 Therefore, the original information was modified: the Turritella became a cowrie that does not exist,1275 however, this term previously was used regarding Trivia monaca, a marine species which resembles cowries.1276

were polished, and they were pierced with round holes, size: 4.6x1.8 cm. Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc.nr.: 61.17.18 (Fig. 130).1280 4.13. 1158–587, (1171a, 1177a, 1201a, 1224a, 1249a, 1255a, 1265a, 1464a, 1471a–b, 1472a, 1475a, 1477a, 1482a). Parallels to the Cowrie Finds of the Migration Period from the Carpathian Basin (5th–9th/10th Centuries)1281 – (see Annex 2344, 2357, 2368–74, 2383– 89, 2391–92, 2431, 2440–43, 2445, 2488–90, 2493–95, 2497, 2505, 2509–10, 2524, 2535)

1156b. Ugod (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Huszárokelő: among finds from 10-12 graves of an Avar cemetery destroyed during sand exploitation “2 cyprea shells, pierced for stringing” are mentioned. The objects were correctly discovered in the cemetery from the Hungarian Conquest Period (1601).1277

The collected material dates from the mid 5th century1282 usually to the end of the 9th century, so that finds dating from the 10th century can be listed among the parallels of the Hungarian Conquest Period material. I only made exceptions with doubtfully dated finds, or material with unclear dating, when the dating covered more centuries, starting from the 7th–9th centuries, and also included the 10th century. The abundant material was collected from Austria, Azerbajdžan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Sweden, Switzerland, Tadžikistan, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan (Fig. 131). The compilation of the review was largely facilitated by monographic publications about numerous areas, including the large scale and ambitious work of Ulrich Arends, covering mainly German territories, which was completed later by Cristoph Grünewald and Robert Reiß.1283 The register of mainly Belgian and French finds were published by Olov Robert Ture Jansé, Jean Fromols and Édouard Salin, while the English material was collected by Audrey L. Meaney, and partly confirmed by David S. Reese from a malacological perspective.1284 New directions for cowrie research were outlined by Ella Kivikoski, Ingmar Jansson and Birgitta M. Johansson,1285 by presenting the Scandinavian material. Also the regrettably unfinished investigations of Evald Mugurevič/

1157. Várpalota (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Uniohomokbánya/sandpit: cemetery with 26 Langobard burials of the 5th century and 17 early Avar burials not earlier than the early 7th century:1278 Grave 24: from a female burial of the early Avar Period, dated around 600–630: the oval iron buckle of the belt, 2 rosette-shaped mounts and bronze plaques of the belt, 2 globe-pendants silver earrings with globe-pendant, the bronze buckle of the pouch, its bronze strap end filled with lead, 3 bronze chains of the pouch, among them terminating 2 in a bronze and 1 in an iron ring, fragmentary bronze disk-ornament, 2 bronze chain fragments, an iron knife, a pair of ornamented bone plaques, bronze tongue of a bone whistle, perforated bear tooth amulet, a larger and a smaller iron rings, and at the neck, a string of 36 glass paste beads and red, white, blue as well as brown oculus beads, onto which the left side stoma part and the mid part of the inner labium of 1 *Tiger cowrie (?) hung. The edges of the fragments, used as pendants/amulets1279 Rhé–Fettich (1931) 25, 54–55, pl. III: 4; Fettich (1964) 90–92. “Sép. no 112 de Jutas, C. voluta dans la main d’une femme”: Salin (1959) 76, note 7. 1273 : “At Jutas, Hungary, a Cypraea voluta was in a woman’s hand”: Meaney (1981) 123. 1274 “At Jutas (Veszprém) a 7th century AD or later woman’s grave produced a C. pantherina (called here Cypraea voluta) found in her hand /Meaney (1981) 123/.”: Reese (1991) 171: nr. 80. – Kind note of David S. Reese: “Somewhere I saw published C. voluta = C. pantherina!” 1275 This species is not included in the inventory of synonyms for cowrie/ porcelain shells, see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 535, 562. 1276 The kind information of Gyula Radócz; see Johansson (2005) 18. 1277 Gyula Rhé discussed finds from Avar burials from the Bakonykoppány (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Huszárokelő site, disturbed in 1913–14 and in 1925 he inventoried the material under the acc. nr. 3988 including the 2 cowries under the c sign: Rhé (1924) 71. The topographical project identified this site as Ugod (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Huszárokelő, and pointed to the fact that already Dezső Csallány mixed these Avar graves with the four Hungarian burials disturbed and excavated in 1911 at Bakonykoppány (1601): MRT 4, 247: site 75/9, and site 30–31: 5/2; Csallány (1956) 83: nr. 47–48. István Bóna drew my attention to this confusion; I would like to thank him for his kindness here. 1278 Bóna (2000a) 154. 1279 “Als Amulett diente eine durchbohrte Muschel, die... an der Perlenkette aufgreiht war.”: Werner (1962) 27–28, 12. pl. 5. 1271 1272

Bóna (1956) 190 (“Muschel”), 216 (listed among Langobard burials), pl. XXXVIII 5: above; at latest: Bóna (2000a) 132, 145: pl. 3. Without ethnic definition, mentioned as a find from the 6th century: Arends (1978) I: 442, II: 1121: nr. 762. I could study the shell fragment with the kind help of Sylvia Palágyi, and I would like to thank for her kindness. 1281 I found by chance the program of the 50th Kolloquium der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Frühgeschichtliche Archäologie 1st October, 1998 held in Mannheim, including a proposed lecture by Karl Banghard (Archäologisches Freilichtmuseum Federsee) entitled “Cypraeen in der Merowingerzeit”, which was the cooperative work of the author and the Naturhistorisches Museum in Basel. Later, I succeded to get in contact, see Banghard (2000). 1282 Since there were Quad burials among the Sarmatian parallels (885, 918, 922), because of their dating from the 4th century, I listed among them the only Gepid burial of the Carpathian Basin, which included a cowrie (941). 1283 Arends (1978); Grünewald (1988); Reiß (1994). 1284 Jansé (1935); Fromols (1935); Salin (1959); Meaney (1981); Reese (1991). 1285 Kivikoski (1967); Jansson (1988); Johansson (1990), (1991), (1995), (1995a), (1997). 1280

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 130. Part of a Tiger cowrie among the finds of Grave 24 at Várpalota (1157) – after Bóna (2000a) 145: pl. VI

1158. Austria

Ēvalds Mugurēvičs1286 presented a real revelation when he published the strikingly rich material from Latvia.

1158. Linz (Oberösterreich)-Zizlau: 156 graves of a Bavarian cemetery of the 6th–7th centuries:

At this point it has to be noted that beside the real cowries, I did not treat the disk-shaped beads created from Tiger cowries sections.1287 1286 1287

(1991) 176: nrs 105–06; Banghard (2000) 346; Banghard (2001). In burials from Central Europe from the Merovingian Period shell disk beads were discovered, which were made of oysters (or Panther cowries?): Siegmund–Weiß (1989).

Mugurevič (1962); Mugurevič (1965). Trotzig (1988); Meaney (1981) 128–30; Jansson (1988) 636; Reese

284

Catalogue

Fig. 131. Distribution of parallels to the cowrie finds of the Migration Period from the Carpathian Basin (5th–9th/10th centuries)

Fig. 132. Panther cowrie among the finds from Grave 48 of Linz-Zizlau (1158) – after Meaney (1981) 251: fig. VII.j.1

285

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Grave 48: from a female buried with her child of the 7th century (Böhner IV): 2 silver rings with coiled terminals, a string of 96 glass and glass paste beads, 2 bead-bracelets (1 with bronze wire), a bronze buckle, 2 iron knives, a doublerowed bone comb, the iron chains of the belt pendant set, bronze disk ornament, and at the left knee 4 bronze rings, a round mount (convex in the middle) and 1 Panther cowrie with iron loop, perforated twice sideways at the anterior end, length: 6.8 cm.

bronze coin, and outside the left femur 1 Tiger cowrie fragment, length: 6.0 cm. Musée Luxembourgeois, Arlon.1293

Azerbajdžan: unknown site in Caucasian Albania – see Annex 2344.

1161. Grave XV: from the burial of a roughly 35 years old female of the 7th century: a string of 84 amber and glass paste beads, 2 bone pendants, a gold disk brooch, a bronze belt buckle, a bronze clasped-mount, 2 bronze stocking mount-set: buckle counter-leaf, strap end, bone comb, an iron knife, 1 large and 3 small iron rings, bronze and iron fragments, Urbs Roma-type follis, issued in Arles in 333, a weathered, perforated bronze coin, and outside the left knee 1 Tiger cowrie fragment, length: 4.8 cm.

1159. Belarus1289

Musée Luxembourgeois, Arlon.1294

Lintupiai1290 – see 1159. Lyntupy Lintupis1291 – see 1159. Lyntupy

1162. Harmignies (province de Hainaut, région de Wallonie): 1 large (?) cowrie is in the Brussels museum, dating to the 6th century.1295

1159. Lyntupy (Postavskij rajon, Molodečnenskaja oblast’): 5 kurgans from a Lithuanian cemetery of the 9th–10th centuries:

1163. Honnay-Revogne (province de Namur, région de Wallonia): 1 large (?) cowrie is in the Brussels museum, dating to the 6th century.1296

Kurgan 4: from one of the cremation burials: 2 mounts, 3 sheet-torques (1 decorated with rattle-pendants), a spiral bracelet, 3 spiral finger rings, 14 small spirals and probably some cowries (podveski rakoviny).1292

1164. Wancennes (province de Namur, région de Wallonia): 1 large (?) cowrie is in the Namur museum, dating to the 6th century.1297

Stadtmuseum, Linz, acc. nr.: C 2445 (Fig. 132).1288

1165–66. Bulgaria

1160–64. Belgium

1165. Bdinci (obščina Dobrič, oblast Dobrič): 307 graves of the biritual Bulgarian-Slavic cemetery of the 8th–9th centuries:

1160–61. Arlon (province de Luxembourg, région de Wallonie): 1160. Grave III: from the burial of a roughly 25 years old female, dated 600–650: 2 strings of beads, composed from 53 and 35 amber as well as glass paste beads, besides, 2-2 large amber and glass paste beads, an ivory-framed bronze disk ornament, a small bronze disk ornament, a bone pendant with bronze bezel, gold polygonal brooch, a bronze button, an iron buckle and a strap end with incised silver decoration, a small bronze buckle and strap end, an iron buckle, 2 bronze small strap ends, a bracelet, a silver flat-sectioned finger ring, a bronze finger ring, a bone comb, a hairpin, iron scissors, an iron knife 3 bronze fragments, iron fragments, the follis of Emperor Constantinus II (324– 330) issued in Arles, the follis of Emperor Contantinus I, issued by him or one of his sons (335–341), a pierced

Grave 50: from a child grave: a glass bead, a bronze chain, clay vessel, and 50 perforated shells. The poor quality photo does not allow one to determine if all were cowries, but some of them are certainly Money cowries.1298

Ladenbauer-Orel (1960) 37–38, nr. 8, pl. 3: 8, pl. 44: right, in the middle; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 955: nr. 449; Meaney (1981) 159–60, 250, 251: fig. VII.j: 1; Reese (1991) 174: nr. 96. 1289 Additional Belarussian sites with cowries of the eastern Slavic Vjatič population in the wooded areas along the Oka River: Arcihovskij (1930) 100 [after Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 3]. 1290 I identified the site’s Lithuanian name with the kind help of Vytautas Kazakevičius. 1291 Finno-ugry (1987) 382: map 45: No. v-15, 391. 1292 Identified as Krivič/Dregovič cemetery: Gurevič (1958) 56: nr. 7, 63, 64; as eastern Lithuanian kurgan cemetery: Finno-ugry (1987) 391.

1293

1166. Hisarja (obščina Hisarja, oblast Plovdiv): 1 large unmodified cowrie from the chapel of the fortification of the 5th–6th centuries, length: 7.0, width: 3.2 cm.1299 1167–72, Annex 2357. Czech Republic Böhmen1300 – see 1172. Světec u Teplic

Roosens–Alenus-Lacerf (1965) 18–28, 27: nrs 25, 129, 161, 21: fig. 8: 25; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 104. 1294 Roosens–Alenus-Lacerf (1965) 66–72, 71: nrs 8, 129, 162, 68: fig. 43: 8; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 104. 1295 Fremersdorf (1955) 65; Salin (1959) 75. 1296 Baye (1889) 7: note 3; Fremersdorf (1955) 65; Salin (1959) 75. 1297 Fremersdorf (1955) 65; Salin (1959) 75. 1298 Văžarova (1981) 90, pl. XVIII: 3. The author did not discuss the cowries. 1299 Zaprjanov (1970) 308, 310: fig. 8. 1300 Arends (1978) II: 761: nr. 67.

1288

286

Catalogue 1167–68. Čelákovice (okres Praha-východ)-Záluží: nearly 100 graves from a cemetery of 470–570:

clay vessel, eggshell, and in the pelvis of the skeleton 1 cowrie (ulita Cypraea).1305

1167. Grave 26/XXI: from a probable female burial of the first half of the 6th century: 2 gilt silver S-shaped brooches, a round iron buckle, eared aureus of Emperor Procopius Anthemius (467–472), an iron knife, a clay spindle whorl, a clay cup, pig bone, bronze and iron fragments, and on the chest, a string of glass and amber beads, to which, according to the publisher of the finds, a fragmentary pierced Panther cowrie (ulita Cypraea vimosa) with traces of the suspension loop at the anterior end, length: approximately 6.0 cm.

1171a. Grave X/1892: incorrect reference to a cowrie.1306

Nationalmuseum, Prague, acc. nr.: 43.545, 555.

1172. Světec u Teplic (okres Teplice): a likely pierced and corroded cowrie (ulita Cypraea) was delivered to the museum, coming from a disturbed grave, was dated to the first half of the 6th century, length: approximately 5.7 cm.1307 Záluží – see 1167–68. Čelákovice 1173–202 (1177a, 1201a), Annex 2368–74. England1308

1301

1173. Alfriston (Sussex): roughly 150 graves of an AngloSaxon cemetery:

1168. Grave 28/XXIII: from the grave of an 8 years old girl (?) of the first half of the 6th century: a flat-headed bronze button, a bronze buckle, a bronze mount with loop, a round gold pendant with filigree decoration, 1 large, 4 smaller strings of beads, 2 bronze finger rings, an iron knife, 2 clay cups, calf bone, a plaque with filigree decoration, an eared bronze case, and on the pelvis a millefiori bead and 1 pierced Panther cowrie (ulita Cypraea vimosa), length: 6.2 cm.1302

Grave 43: from the burial of an adult female with tuberculosis and dislocated hip, dated between the late 5th–late 6th centuries, in a wooden casket, beads, breastpins, an eagle claw, and 1 large cowrie, which fell into three pieces.1309 1174. Breach Downs (Kent)-Barham: in one 7th century burial of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery 1 Tiger cowrie was found, length: 7.7 cm.

1169. Neděliště (okres Hradec Králové): among finds from 10 disturbed graves that were delivered to the museum 2 fragmentary large cowries are known. The illustrated example is a pierced Tiger cowrie (?), with incomplete dorsum, length: 6.8 cm.1303

British Museum, London, acc. nr.: Room 41, no. 79.5–24, 137.1310 1175. Burwell (Cambridgeshire)-Victoria Lime Pit: parts from an Anglo-Saxon Christian cemetery with many graves:

Praha-Hostivař Grave – see Annex 2357. 1170–71. Praha-Podbaba, Meilbeck-Brick Factory: more than 50 graves from a cemetery of 400–550:

Grave 42: from the burial of an adult Christian female dated to the 7th century: an iron belt loop with bronze rings, an iron pendant suspended from a bronze ring, and glass

1170. Grave 11/1890: from a burial dated to the first half of the 6th century: a glass bead, an iron belt buckle, an iron knife, iron chopping knife (?), a spindle whorl, 2 bronze and 1 iron ring, and next to the skeleton 1 corroded cowrie (ulita Cypraea).

Svoboda (1965) 265–66. It was not listed in the typology: ibid. 207, 352. 1306 It is not included in the grave description: Svoboda (1965) 266, but he referred to it twice, while not citing the item found in Grave III (1171): ibid. 207, 352; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1027: nr. 577. 1307 The author suggest that the example might be either a Tiger cowrie from the Indo-Pacific Ocean or a Panther cowrie from the Red Sea: Baye (1907) 11–12, 6–7: pl.: in the middle; Svoboda (1965) 274–75, pl. CX: 14. The cowrie was not mentioned in the typology: ibid. 207, 352; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). Referred to as a Tiger cowrie from a “Frankish grave”: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 761: nr. 67. Citing the note of M. C. Boulanger about the Tiger cowrie from Marchélepot (1220): – Boulanger (1909) 162: note 2 –, where Baye (1907) 9 is inaccurately states: “M. le baron J. de Baye en signale aussi un sembable trouvé dans un cimetière franc de la Bohême.” The same page is quoted in: Jansé (1935) 70: note 1; Salin (1959) 76, note 6. 1308 Jackson (1912); The mention of Saxon graves with cowries, without closer description, from Kent, Berdfordshire, Sussex and Cambridge, likely touching (also) the cited material: Sheppard (1939). 1309 “As to whether the shell forming part of this find is an Indian Cyprea or not, no information is given, but it seems probable.”: Åberg (1926) 105, 106, 208: tab. III: 126: “Three fragments of a large Cowry shell, see tab. II: 16.”; Meaney (1964) 246; Meaney (1981) 30–32, 123–25, 127, 303: note 44; Huggett (1988) 72; Reese (1991) 180–81: nr. 147. 1310 Meaney (1964) 111; Meaney (1981) 303: 44, note 46; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 145. 1305

Nationalmuseum, Prague, acc. nr.: 51.154–161.1304 1171. III./1892. Grave: from the first half of the 6th century: 2 brooches, iron needle with gold sheet end, iron knife, Svoboda (1965) 287, pl. XCIV: 17. The cowrie was not mentioned in the typology: ibid. 207, 352; it is not included in Arends (1978). It was cited as dated between 525–50: Kühn (1974) II: 686–87, fig. 34 left, at the top; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278; Lamiová-Schmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105, 131. 1302 Svoboda (1965) 207, 287–88, 352, pl. XCVI: 13; as of the 6th century (Böhner III): Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1167: nr. 829. 1303 Svoboda (1965) 255, pl. LXXVIII: 7. The cowrie was not included in the typology: ibid. 207, 352; not listed in Arends (1978); with reference: Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.). 1304 Svoboda (1965) 262, 207, 352. The sex and age of the skeleton is unknown, Ulrich Arends mistook it with the data from another burial (1169): Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1028: nr. 578. 1301

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 133. Panther cowrie among the finds from Grave 42 at Burwell cemetery (1175) – after Meaney (1981) 126: fig. IV.q: 1–2, 4–8

1177a. Cheesecake Hill at Driffield (Yorkshire): large Anglo-Saxon cemetery with some tumulous graves:

beaded frame of a pouch, keys in the sewing case, firestriker, a whetstone, a bronze needle, and outside the right knee, a limestone bead/spindle whorl, iron scissors and 1 perforated Panther cowrie in a wooden casket.

Grave 11: a burial from of the late 6th century, in a string of 219 various beads and 5 cowries (Cypraea europaea) are mentioned, length: 3/8 inch (0.95 cm),1314 which were probably not species from the warm sea, but likely the species of a related family called Trivia europea, which is confirmed by the fact that the habitat of this species at the end of the 1930s expanded to the seaside at Yorkshire.1315

University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, acc. nr.: 1927.1829C (Fig. 133).1311 1176. Camerton, Avon (Somerset): 109 graves of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery: Grave 100: from the burial of a pregnant christian woman buried with its seven month-old embryo of the mid 7th century: amulets from a pouch next to the left leg: a boar canine, a thick iron needle, a small whetstone scraper, the A3 bronze coin of Constantinus (I: 306–337 or II: 317–340), a small heart-shaped limestone fragment, and 1 large, pierced, fragmentary cowrie.1312

1178. Dover (Kent)-II (Old Park), Buckland graves: 126 graves of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery: Grave 6: at the waist of a wealthy female burial of the 7th century 1 large cowrie was discovered, length: 6.9 cm. Its labium was sawn out, perhaps for the purpose of beadmaking, similar to an item found in the grave, or a rasp was made from it.

Castledyke South, Barton-on-Humber (North Lincolnshire) Grave 31 – see Annex 2368.

British Museum, London.1316

1177. Chatham Lines (Kent): shell beads and 1 large cowrie from an Anglo-Saxon cemetery of the 7th century.

Driffield – see 1177a. Cheesecake Hill

Ashmolean museum, Oxford.1313

Sheppard (1939); Meaney (1964) 285; Meaney (1981) 123, 125; Huggett (1988) 72. 1315 Sheppard (1939); Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 528. 1316 Meaney (1964) 117; Meaney (1981) 125. “The cowrie shell in the Dover grave 6/2 is extraordinary as it has been sliced in half. It must have been sliced in this way sot that use could be made of the thicker parts and serrated edge in order to manufacture beads like the beads 6/10a... These beads are also in graves ot the seventh century. The thinner part of the shell would have been of little use to the jeweller, but obviously still had some notional value for the woman in grave 6.”: Evison (1987) 122, 278: fig. 7: 2, 10a; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 140. 1314

Meaney (1964) 61–62; Meaney (1981) 98, 125, 303: 44, notes 46–47, 126: IV. fig. q: 2; Reese (1991) 181–82: nr. 157; Salin (1959) 76; DübnerManthey (1987) 110, 105: fig. 11: 4. 1312 Sheppard (1939); Salin (1959) 76; Meaney (1964) 218; Meaney (1981) 30, 98, 124–25, 216, 272, 303: 44, note 47; Reese (1991) 181: nr. 149. 1313 Meaney (1964) 114–15; Meaney (1981) 303: 44, note 46; Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 124: “one Cyprea” with a trapezoidal gold pendant inlaid with lapis lazuli; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 146. 1311

288

Catalogue 1179–81. Dunstable (Bedfordshire)-Marina Drive: AngloSaxon cemetery:1317

1185. Girton (Cambridgeshire): 1 Panther cowrie was found among burnt bones from an urn, dated to the second half of the 6th–7th centuries.1325

1179. Grave B2: 1 large cowrie near the skull of a roughly 15 years old girl (?) of the 7th century, length: 6.4 cm.

Goblin Works, Leatherhead (Surrey) Grave S4 – see Annex 2369.

Luton museum, acc. nr.: 4/120/58.1318

1186. Haslingfield (Cambridgeshire)-Harlton/Barton: stray finds from a disturbed Anglo-Saxon cemetery of the late6th century: 2 bronze brooches, amber and glass beads, and 1 large cowrie with broken dorsum and pierced anterior, which presumably belonged to a necklace, length: 7.5 cm.

1180. Grave E3: in the knees of a roughly 8 year old, dated to the 7th century, 1 large cowrie, length: 7.0 cm. Luton museum, acc. nr.: 53/120/58.1319 1181. Grave F2: from a Christian boy, younger than 10 years old of the 7th century, a neck-ornament composed of silver wire rings, fish vertebrae beads, a miniature casket-shaped pendant, and at the legs 2 bone needles and 3 cowries, length: more than 5.0 cm.

University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, acc. nr.: Z 21290.1326 1187–88. Kingston cemetery:1327

Luton museum, acc. nr.: 60/120/58.1320

Downs

(Kent):

Anglo-Saxon

1187. Grave 142 (1771): from the burial of an adult female of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a string of beads: 1-1 gold pendant with garnet, and a purple-colored stone or glass, 2 small silver crosses, a large glass bead strung on a silver ring, 12 amethyst and 86 other beads, 2 silver wire finger rings, a gilt silver needle, 2 iron keys strung on a silver loop, and outside the coffin in a wooden casket with bronze mounts placed at the legs the following: brass buckle, belt chain, a flat clay bead, a large ivory bead, 1-1 brass and ivory bracelets, a silver wire finger ring, 3 iron knives, a narrow knife in brass sheath, 2 iron scissors, iron drills, long iron nails, a nice large ivory comb, a silver hook or forceps, an iron hook hung from a loop, an iron key, animal bone pendant on a copper ring, a piece of blue stone, resinlike material, a copper stick, a fossil snail fragment, and a Panther cowrie suspended from a silver loop, length: 3.4 cm (?). The amethyst beads, bone pendant, fossil snail, and cowrie might have been amulets.

1182. Ellesborough (Buckinghamshire): 3 graves from an Anglo-Saxon cemetery:1321 Grave 2: from a 24 yers old male (?), dating perhaps from the 7th century a double-rowed comb, an iron fragment and 1 large, broken cowrie, size: 6.9x4.4 cm. Buckinghamshire County Museum, Aylesbury, acc. nr.: B.C.M. 146.1973.1322 1183. Empingham, Rutland (Leicestershire): from a female burial of the late 6th–7th centuries: 30 blue glass beads and 1 cowrie discovered with tiny objects in a leather pouch.1323 1184. Farthingdown, Coulsdon (Surrey)-Largest barrow: disturbed Anglo-Saxon cemetery with tumulus graves: Grave 4 /1871: burial of a mother and child from the 7th century, in which 2 iron scissors, a double-rowed bone comb and 1 cowrie were found in a pouch with wooden frame.1324

Liverpool museum, acc. nr.: M6289.1328 1188. Grave 299 (1773): from the burial of an adult female of the 7th century (Böhner IV): bronze belt buckle, string of beads: 2 amethyst, 1 amber, 4 other beads, 1-1 gilt bronze wire, as well as band bracelets, a round wooden casket, a bone plaque, 2 Roman coins, and pieces of the belt pendant set: iron scissors, an iron knife, a bronze ring with strap, rivets (pouch?), a tiny iron chain, and in a mounted wooden

Meaney (1964) 36, 41–42. Reese (1991) 181: nr. 152. 1319 Reese (1991) 181: nr. 152. 1320 Meaney (1981) 28, 124 classified the cowrie from Grave 3 as Cypraea europaea: Huggett (1988) 72; and Vera I. Evison discussed it as a local species as well. However, this name is not included in the register of cowries’ synonyms, see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 528. Still it is possible that it belonged to the Trivia europea species, but concerning its size this hypothesis and also the theory of local origin can be excluded. The incorrect classification was verified in: Reese (1991) 181: nr. 152; Johansson (2005) 18. 1321 The comb discovered in the grave does not to confirm a male burial; the sex-determination is probably incorrect: Meaney (1981) 124; Grave S4 – see Annex 2364. 1322 The grave goods “are insufficient to afford any clear dating.”: Meaney (1981) 124, 303: note 44; Meaney (1964) 57; Reese (1991) 181: nr. 151. 1323 Wilson–Hurst (1970) 162; Meaney (1981) 124, 303: note 44; Reese (1991) 182: nr. 160. 1324 Meaney (1964) 240–41; Meaney (1981) 124, 303: notes 44, 46; Reese (1991) 181: nr. 148. 1317 1318

Arnold (1997) 119. Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 127: “one Cyprea”; Meaney (1964) 66–67; Meaney (1981) 123, 125, 303: note 44; Huggett (1988) 72; Reese (1991) 182: nr. 159 (It was classified as Tiger cowrie from the Red Sea: Arnold (1997) 119.) 1327 Meaney (1964) 125–26; Jackson (1912) 307. 1328 Likely with incorrect measures, because no such tiny Panther cowrie exists, see Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 905–06: nr. 364.c; Meaney (1981) 30: “a fish’s shell, called by the naturalists concha Veneris or the porcelain shell”, 113, 125, 145, 303: notes 44, 46–47; Baye (1889) 7: note 3; Jackson (1917) 133; Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 121: “one Cyprea Panterina”, tab. VI: 28; Huggett (1988) 72; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 141. 1325 1326

289

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads casket placed at the legs: gilt silver disk-brooch, 2 clay spindle whorls, 1 bone spindle whorl or gaming figure, 2 bone reels, a round pebble, a blue stone in silver set, a bone comb, an iron bell, a bronze ring, a flint, a limpet shell and 1 Panther cowrie.

beads, and in a wooden casket a tiny deep purple Roman glass piece, 3 beads, a bronze buckle, “some broken mussel shells” and 1 Arabian cowrie (?).1335 1194. Grave 238: from the double burial of a male and a female of the 7th century, a rather weathered, but unmodified Panther cowrie.

Liverpool museum, acc. nr.: M6187 (destroyed).1329 Lechlade (Gloucestershire)-Butler’s Field Graves 3, 14, 71, 138, 148 – see Annex 2370–74.

Maidstone museum, acc. nr.: K.A.S. 475.1336 1195–96. Shudy Camps (Cambridgeshire): 158 graves of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery:1337

1189. Linton Heath B (Cambridgeshire): 104 graves of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery:

1195. Grave 48: a Christian woman, buried with her very young baby of the 7th century. At the neck of the baby one yellow glass bead was discovered, which imitates amber. Grave goods of the mother: an iron hook, a limestone spindle whorl, and in the iron looped wooden casket placed at her feet a small iron key, and 1 fragmentary Panther cowrie, length: approximately 8.3 cm.

Grave 73: from a female burial dated from before the late 6th century a conic glass, and next to the skull a large cowrie (Cypraea) was discovered.1330 1190. Luton (Bedfordshire)-II (Dallow Road): from a disturbed female burial of the late 6th century to the 7th century 2 iron scissors fragment and 1 pierced Panther cowrie, size: 6.5x3.5 cm.

University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, acc. nr.: 1936.836.B (Fig. 134).1338

Luton museum, acc. nr.: 4/91/30.1331

1196. Grave 91: burial of a child less than 10 years old, next to the skull 1 large, fragmentary Panther or Tiger cowrie.

1191. Puddlehill (Bedfordshire): House 6: Panther cowrie labium fragment from an Early Anglo-Saxon building of late 6th–early 7th centuries, size: 7.4x3.0 cm.

University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, acc. nr.: 1936.850.1339 1197. Sibertswold Down (Kent)-Barfreston: 199 graves of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery:

Luton museum, acc. nr.: 1988/41/56.1332 1192. Saint (St.) Mary Bourne (Hampshire):

Grave 180 (1772): from the burial of an adult female of the 7th century (Böhner IV): 2 silver brooches, a bronze ring, 2 silver hair pins, iron scissors, iron chain, a doublerowed bone comb, and among leather remains in a wooden casket with lock together with 3 iron keys and 1 Panther cowrie (“concha Veneris”).

Dwelling 1 : in the filling soil (?) of the “prehistoric pit dwelling” 1 Tiger cowrie outer labium fragment, perhaps dating to the Migration Period. The object was probably used as file or a polisher, but might have been an amulet. Willis museum, Basingstoke.1333

Liverpool museum.1340

1193–94. Sarre (Kent): 274 graves of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery:1334

1198. Staxton near Scarborough (North Yorkshire)Willerby: 9 graves from an Anglo-Saxon cemetery:

1193. Grave 162: from a female burial of the 7th century: a blue Roman glass fragment, a round brooch, amethyst

“Cypraea arabica”: Meaney (1981) 227; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 144 (second paragraph); Arnold (1997) 119. This shell is not classified; see the following note. 1336 Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 124: “one Cyprea arabica”; Meaney (1981) 124–25, 127, 303: notes 44, 46; Huggett (1988) 72. In the quoted literature it is mentioned as Arabian cowrie, but was identified as Panther cowrie by: Reese (1991) 180: nr. 144. 1337 Meaney (1964) 69. 1338 Meaney (1981) 30, 98, 124–25, 290: note 20, 303: notes 44, 46–47, 31: fig. I.n: 4; Reese (1991) 182: nr. 158; Salin (1959) 76; without grave numbers: Huggett (1988) 72. 1339 : Meaney (1981) 124, 127, 303: notes 44, 46, 124: fig. IV.p; Reese (1991) 182: nr. 158. 1340 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1053: nr. 630.d; Meaney (1964) 136; Meaney (1981) 124, 303: notes 44, 46–47; Jackson (1912) 307, (1917) 133; Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 123; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 142. 1335

Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 122: “one Cyprea Panterina”, 122, tab. VI: 39; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 904: nr. 362.a; Meaney (1981) 99, 125, 303: notes 44, 46–47; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 141. 1330 Meaney (1964) 67–68; Meaney (1981) 123, 125, 303: note 44; Huggett (1988) 72; Reese (1991) 181: nr. 156. 1331 Meaney (1964) 39. Later he did not consider the objects to be useful for dating: Meaney (1981) 124, 303: note 44; Saxon (1931) 282–83; Salin (1959) 76; Reese (1991) 181: nr. 153. 1332 Meaney (1981) 124, 303: note 44; Reese (1991) 181: nr. 154. 1333 Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 139; Stevens (1988) 26, pl. III: 10; Jackson (1912) 307, (1916) 11; Jackson (1917) 133; Schilder (1923) 205, 206: note 17; Brühl (1929) 225. I could find out neither the site nor its age. 1334 Meaney (1964) 136–36. 1329

290

Catalogue

Fig. 134. Grave 48 at Shudy Camps (1195) and its Panther cowrie – after Meaney (1981) 31: fig. I. n: 1, 4

Grave 1: from the burial of an adult female of the 6th century: star-patterned pair of brooches, 2 pairs of clasps, 2 bronze strap ends, 2 belt pendants made for the burial ceremony, flat bronze ring, ivory ring, bracelet with 9 amber and 3 glass bead, and a necklace with 83 amber and 2 glass beads, and 1 Panther cowrie pendant.

British Museum, London, acc. nr.: 79.5–24.1343 1201. Wingham (Kent): 1 cowrie was discovered in 1884, in a double grave, in the wooden casket among the goods of the female burial of the 7th century.1344 1201a. Unknown provenance (Kent): a Panther cowrie (?) is mentioned from a Saxon grave,1345 which is likely identical with one of the registered items.1346 It is known that Bryan Faussett, during his excavations in Kent, discovered no less than 7 Panther cowries (see 1187–88, 1197),1347 but lacking the relevant literature, I could not identify them.

Town Docks Museum, Hull, acc. nr.: KINCM: 7.1980.1341 Totterhoe-Marina Drive – see 1179–81. Dunstable 1199. West Stow (Suffolk): Pit 87: 1 large Panther or Tiger cowrie from a pit of the late 6th–early 7th centuries, size: 6.5x4.0 cm.

1202. Estonia

Shire Hall (Suffolk Archaeological Unit), Bury St. Edmunds.1342

1202. Unipiha (Tartumaa): fragments of cowries were discovered at a Viking Age settlement (800–1100).1348

1200. Wingham (Kent): from a grave, probably a female burial, discovered in 1843: a brooch set with garnet, some small silver rings, 2–3 amethyst and faience beads, 2 silver bracelets, a garnet-headed pin with gold bezel, 2 gold bracteates, a vessel, and 1 unmodified Panther cowrie, length: 7.4 cm.

1343

“An Indian cowry shell”: Meaney (1964) 141; Meaney (1981) 303: note 44; Huggett (1988) 72; Reese (1991) 180: nr. 143. 1344 Meaney (1981) 125, 303: notes 46–47; Jackson (1912) 307, (1917) 133; Åberg (1926) 105, 208: tab. III: 125: “Double grave. One Cyprea.”, pl. IV: 45. Perhaps this shell is cited in: Reese (1991) 180: nr. 143 (second paragraph). 1345 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 900: nr. 353. 1346 Ulrich Arends quoted Schilder (1923) 205: “Wir finden C. vinosa... in Kent...”, and 206: note 15: B. Faussett: Inventorium Sepulchrale. London 1856, 68 (1187), 93 (1188), 133; J. W. Jackson: CYPRAEA PANTHERINA (Solander MSs.), Dillwyn, in Saxon graves. The Journal of Conchology 13 (1912) 307–08 (307); Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 47. 1347 After Thomas Charles Lethbridge: Meaney (1981) 272. 1348 “In general, before the German conquest the kauris were very rare in Estonia. From the Viking Age I know only some fragments from the

Sheppard (1939); Meaney (1964) 301–02; Meaney (1981) 123, 125, 303: notes 44, 47; Huggett (1988) 72; Reese (1991) 182: nr. 162; Banghard (2001). 1342 Reese (1991) 181: nr. 155. 1341

291

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1203–04. Finland1349

1208. Brèves (département Nièvre, région Bourgougne): female-type grave goods from a cremation burial, dated to the mid 6th century: in a spherical, undecorated vessel the followings objects were uncovered: a bird-shaped, polychrome enameled pair of brooches, silver round enameled brooch, 2 Gallo-Roman type silver necklace hooks, round-sectioned copper finger ring, and outside the vessel a row of glass beads, 4 additional glass and 6 clay beads, and perhaps a large cowrie.1356

1203. Vöyri (Vörå, Western Finland)-Gulldynt: in one burial of a kurgan and cremation cemetery, dated between 600–700 a following string of beads was discovered: large chalcedony bead, smaller-larger globular, barrel-shaped and cubiform glass beads, several disk-shaped clay beads, and 2 perforated cowries. Nationalmuseum, Helsinki, acc. nr.: 68.1350

1209. Chaouilley (département Meurthe-et-Moselle, région Lorraine) Grave 21: from a likely female burial, dated between 500–550/600: a pair of arched brooches, a pair of disc brooches bezelled with almandite, an iron buckle, a bone comb, an iron knife, bronze needles, a string of beads with 31 glass beads and facetted crystal beads, and a medium-sized cowrie, length: approximately 4.1 cm.

1204. Janakkala Kernaala (Kernaala near Janakkala, Tavastia Proper region, province Southern Finland): 4 cowries were discovered in a deposit dated around 800, perhaps all were Money cowries. Nationalmuseum, Helsinki, acc. nr.: 14530:7.1351 1205–32 (1224a). France1352

Musée St. Germain, acc. nr.: 76.748.1357

Abaucourt-Hautecourt – see 1212–13. Eix-Abaucourt

1210. Cugny (département Aisne, région Picardie)-JardinDieu: 1 large cowrie from a female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.1358

1205. Baldenheim (département Bas-Rhin, région Alsace) Grave 23: 1 Panther cowrie as (C. vinosa) was found in a female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.

1211. Dampierre-sur-le-Doubs (département Doubs, région Franche-Comte): cemetery dated between the second half of the 6th–first half of the 8th centuries:

Musée de Strasbourg, acc. nr.: 4940.1353 1206. Bannes (département Marne, région Champagne– Ardenne): from a child burial of the 5th–7th centuries: model of an axe (franciska), glass carrier, a red bowl, a black pot, and a Panther cowrie used as a neck ornament, length: 5.5 cm.1354

Grave 5: grave goods from female burial, where the skeleton was found in a prone position: a row of glass beads, and along the outer side of the right knee, in a leather bag 1 iron pin, 3 iron and 1 bronze loops, a double-rowed bone comb, and a dissimilarly described medium-sized cowrie,1359 pierced twice at the apex crossways, hung on an iron loop, length: approximately 4.3 cm.1360

1207. Beauton, près de La Fère (région Ile-de-France): 1 large cowrie made into a pendant from a female(?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.1355

1212–13. Eix-Abaucourt (presently: AbaucourtHautecourt, département Meuse, région Lorraine):

Boulogne – see 1223. Nesles settlement of Unipiha in SE Estonia.”: Details from an e-mail of Heiki Valk (Tartu), dated 06. 03. 2000. Here I would like to thank him for his kindness. 1349 According to Pirjo Uino 4 cowries are known from Finland from the period between 600–1300 (see also 1860–61). I would like to thank him for his help. In general: Jansson (1988) 590: fig. 13; this was quoted by: Johansson (1990) 42. 1350 Kivikoski (1967) 38; Kivikoski (1973) 10, 15, pl. 74 and 54: fig. 501. A.; Jansson (1988) 591: note 65. 1351 Mentioned under the Janakkala-Mäntylä site name: Kivikoski (1967) 40, 37: figure above the title, see 37: footnote, (1973) figs 73 and 496. 1352 Since the major part of the French-related literature was not available for me, I relied particularly on the register by Edouard Salin, who summarized his opinion about the finds as follows: “En Gaule mérovingienne [5th–7th centuries], les coquilles de cyprées (C. vinosa et tigris) ont été recontrées un peu partout dans des tombes féminines et aussi dans des tombes d’enfants dont certaines sont chrétiennes.”: Salin (1959) 74. Lacking direct information, in most cases I could not identify the species of the cowries, therefore I referred to them as “large cowrie”. If the burial was not classified as a child burial, I considered it a female grave. 1353 Salin (1959) 75, note 10; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119.). 1354 Fromols (1935) 71–72: nr. 7; Salin (1959) 75; Meaney (1981) 123. 1355 Baye (1907) 12; Salin (1959) 75, note 7.

292

1212. 1 large Tiger cowrie from a Christian child burial of the late 7th century.1361 1213. mention of a Tiger cowrie from a tomb.1362 1214. Envermeu (département Seine-Maritime, région

“Un coquillage marin (cyprée)”: Pioux (1980) 69, 71: fig. 3; Banghard (2000). 1357 Kühn (1974) II: 657, fig. 31. 1358 Baye (1907) 12; Salin (1959) 75. 1359 The “une coquille de Cyprée (tigris vinosa ou porcelaine)” name: Pétrequin–Odouze (1968) 282, is mixed from the Cypraea vinosa Gmel, (= C. pantherina): Schilder (1923) 204, and the name Panther cowrie. 1360 Pétrequin–Odouze (1968) 281–82, 285: fig. 8, upper part, in the middle; Banghard (2000) 346, 347: note 19; Banghard (2001). 1361 “coquille de Venus”: Jansé (1935) 70: note 1; Salin (1959) 75; Meaney (1981) 123; “large C. tigris”: Reese (1991) 179: nr. 133. 1362 “Une autre tombe du même cimetiére renfermait une C. tigris...”: Salin (1959) 75: note 7. 1356

Catalogue Haute-Normandie): 1 large cowrie was found in a female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.1363

of young females,1369 among which 1 Tiger cowrie with destroyed dorsum strung on a (modern?) loop is illustrated, and dated to the 7th–8th centuries.1370

1215. Geispolsheim (département Bas-Rhin, région Alsace): 1 Tiger cowrie made into a pendant was found in a female burial of the 5th–6th centuries.

1221. Monceau-le-Neuf-et-Faucouzy (département Aisne, région Picardie): 1 Tiger cowrie fragment from a female burial together with the skull of a small animal and a nut, of the 5th–7th centuries.1371

Musée de Strasbourg, acc. nr.: 29.041.1364

1222. Nesles (-les-Verlincthun) (département Pas-deCalais, région Nord–Pas-de-Calais): 1 Panther cowrie was found, pierced twice at the anterior end in a Frankish female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.1372

1216. Grand (département Vosges, région Lorraine)Behaut Grave 61: 1 Tiger cowrie was found in a female grave of the 5th–7th centuries.1365 1217. Joches (département Marne, région Champagne– Ardenne): 1 large perforated cowrie from a rich female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.

1223. Oyes (département Marne, région Champagne– Ardenne): 1 large cowrie from a female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.

Musée de Saint-Germain-en Laye, acc. nr.: 68105– 142.1366

Musée de Saint-German-en Laye. acc. nr.: 68225.1373 1224. Raucourt (département Meurthe-et-Moselle, région Lorraine):

Koenigshoffen – see 1226. Strassbourg-Koenigshoffen 1218. Koenigsmacker (département Moselle, région Lorraine): 1 large cowrie in the cemetery dated to the 5th –7th centuries.1367

Grave 8: 1 large cowrie among grave goods of the 5th–7th centuries, length: approximately 6.9 cm.1374 1224a. Réville (département Manche, région BasseNormandie) Grave 116-IV: at the neck of a child in a leather bag a glass bead, a bronze needle, 1 Litorina and 6 small shells, classified as cowries (Trivia sp.?), length: approximately 0.9–1.1 cm.1375

1219. La Turraque (département Gers, région MidiPyrénées): 103 graves from a cemetery of the Merovingian Period (450–700): Grave 27: from the untouched stone sarcophagus tomb of a woman, dated to the first half of the 6th century: a daisyshaped, cell enameled silver brooch, 1 iron and 2 bronze buckles, a row of paste beads, gold finger ring set with a carnelian stone, a bone button, facetted crystal spindle whorl, an amber bead, and a leather bag, placed next to the left femur, in which an iron knife, a flint, and a cyprée was discovered. The shell was unspecified and not illustrated, but probably was a large cowrie.1368

1225. Rixheim (département Haut-Rhin, région Alsace): from a female burial of the 5th–6th centuries: a string of beads, a bone pendant, and 1 perforated Tiger cowrie. Musée de Mulhouse, acc. nr.: 1091.1376 1226. Strassbourg-Koenigshoffen (département Bas-Rhin,

1220. Marchélepot (département Somme, région Picardie): finds from a destroyed cemetery with nearly 400 graves were delivered to the museum and dated to the 6th–8th centuries. Among the finds numerous cowries are known, which were interpreted as the amulet or neck ornament

“Il a été recueilli, à Marchélepot, d’assez nomreux coquillages qui servaient d’amulettes ou de pendentifs aux colliers de jeunes filles, d’après M. A. Ponchon.”: Boulanger (1909) 161–62. 1370 From the M. A. Ponchon Collection: Boulanger (1909) 162, 184, 187: and pl. XXXIII: 6; Jansé (1935) 70: note 1; Fremersdorf (1955) 65; Salin (1959) 74; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 968: nr. 464H. 1371 Fromols (1935) 71: nr. 4; Salin (1959) 75. 1372 Under the Nesles-lez-Verlincthun (canton de Samer) site-name: Dautzenberg (1906); Jackson (1912) 307, (1917) 133; mentioned as from Boulogne, after its storage place in Musée de Boulogne-sur-Mer: Schilder (1923) 205; Voigt (1952) 183: nr. 45; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 130. 1373 Baye (1889) 7: note 3; Jansé (1935) 70: note 1; Salin (1959) 75, note 6. 1374 Cuvelier–Guillaume–Héber-Suffrin–Picard–Wagner (1988) 67: fig. 33: 3. I have a photocopy of the plate through the kindness of Tivadar Vida; the book was not available in Hungary; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (130). 1375 “Six coquillages marins de petites dimensions, de genre Cypris.”: Scuvée (1973) 59, 136, fig. 42 (the grave in the left upper part), pl. VII: 61; “six small cowries”: Meaney (1981) 123, 124: fig. IV: o. 1376 Fromols (1935) 72: nr. 8; Salin (1959) 75. 1369

Salin (1959) 74. Salin (1959) 75, note 10. 1365 Salin (1959) 75, note 9; see the finds from the Roman villa: 965. 1366 Baye (1889) 7: note 3; Baye (1907) 12; Jansé (1935) 70: note 1; Salin (1959) 75. The original publication did not discuss the cowrie, but mentioned a perforated Cardium with remains of an iron suspension loop: “Une forte coquille, probablement du genre cardium, provient aussi de ces fouilles. Elle était pourvue d’une perforation destinée à la suspendre. En effet, il existe encore des traces du fer qui avait été introduit dans le trou de suspension.”: Baye (1880) 7. 1367 Salin (1959) 75, note 8. 1368 Larrieu–Marty–Périn–Crubézy (1985) 57–59; Banghard (2001). Here I would like to express my gratitude to Karl Banghard for sending me a copy of the 1985 publication. 1363 1364

293

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads région Alsace) Grave 29.859: 1 Tiger cowrie from a female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.1377

twisted bronze suspension ear, 49 variously shaped and colored crystal, amber, carnelian, glass and glass paste beads, and 18 cowries. The only illustrated example is probably a Money cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1386

1227. Suzanne (département Somme, région Picardie): 1 large cowrie from a female (?) burial of the 5th–7th centuries.1378

1234. Grave CH-4 9: from a likely female burial of the first quarter of the 7th century: silver pendant set with glass, a bronze earring, an iron wire bracelet, a bronze bezelled finger ring, a fragmentary jug, and on the chest 3 bronze brooches, 21 diverse shaped and colored crystal, amber, bronze, glass and glass paste beads, and 2 cowries. The published example might be a Ringed cowrie, its dorsum open, length: approximately 2.0 cm.1387

1228. Tardinghen (département Pas-de-Calais, région Nord–Pas-de-Calais): 1 Panther cowrie from a 9th century (female?) burial.1379 1229–31. Vicq (département Oise, région Picardie): cemetery of the 5th–7th centuries:1380 1229. Grave 162: 1 Tiger cowrie from disturbed grave soil.1381

1235. Grave CH-4 10: from a likely female burial dated to the second quarter of the 7th century: 2 bronze earrings, a bronze mount, an iron knife, two- and one-eared jugs, a bowl, the fragments of 2 jugs, on the chest 1 silver and 3 bronze brooches (on one of the latter a boar amulet strung on a bronze ring), 31 variously shaped and colored glass and glass paste beads, and 1 cowrie with open dorsum, perhaps half a Ringed cowrie.1388

1230. Grave 340: 1 Tiger cowrie with bronze suspension loop from between the legs of a child’s skeleton.1382 1231. Grave 680: 1 Tiger cowrie from between the legs of a female skeleton.1383 1232. Villevenard (département Marne, région Champagne–Ardenne): 1 Tiger cowrie, probably strung on an iron loop, from a child grave of the 5th–7th centuries.1384

1236. Šapka-Justinian holm JUH-3 Grave 3: from a likely female burial of the mid 7th century: one bronze bracelet placed separately, and inside of this 2 lead earrings, a lead medallion, a bronze needle, on the skeleton 2 silver earrings, 1-1 bronze and silver wire bracelets, an iron knife, a large jug with two ears, a small jug, a pot, a glass vessel, and on the chest 2 silver and 4 bronze brooches, bronze and iron toilet set, a bronze ring, variously shaped and colored agate, amber, crystal, carnelian, glass and glass paste beads, and 12 cowries. The illustration shows a likely Money cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.9 cm.1389

1233–36. Georgia/Gruziya 1233–36. Šapka (Abkhazetis Samtavro/Abhazija): cowries were discovered in two family cemeteries in the valley of the Cebel’da River of the 6th–7th centuries, from the 4 grave assemblages at the Cerkovnyj mound and the 3 grave-assemblages at the Justinian mound.1385 1233–35. Šapka-Cerkovnyj holm: 1233. Grave CH-4 8: from a most likely female burial of the turn of the 6th–7th centuries: 2 earrings, 4 bronze brooches, a bronze wire bracelet, a bezelled finger ring set with glass, a fragmentary jug, a small pot, and besides, on the chest 2 bronze, 1 iron brooches, a bronze ring, a

1237–399, Annex 2383–89, 2391–92. Germany1390

Salin (1959) 75, note 11; about the similar find from the Mithraeum at Koenigshoffen: ibid. 74 (968). 1378 Boulanger (1909) 162; Salin (1959) 74; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1062: nr. 645. 1379 Mentioned as an Arabian cowrie from Tardinghen as site: Dautzenberg (1906); mentioned as Tardinghen: Boulanger (1909) 162; corrected to a Panther cowrie from Tardinghen or Targinghen: Jackson (1912) 308, (1917) 133; Schilder (1923) 205, 206: note 14; Jansé (1935) 70: note 1; Sheppard (1939); quoted as originating from Tardinghem site: Salin (1959) 75; incorrectly as from England: Voigt (1952) 183: nr. 46; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1111: nr. 742; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 131. 1380 The data were collected from the kind oral information of M. Servat: Meaney (1981) 303: note 43. 1381 Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 132. 1382 Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 132. 1383 Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 132. 1384 Fromols (1935) 71: nr. 6; Salin (1959) 75; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 179: nr. 134. 1385 Voronin–Jušin (1973) 190.

Grave 3. (1965): from the burial of a female with her child of the first half of the 7th century: a string of beads, an iron disk brooch with silver incised decoration, 3 iron strap ends, 1 iron mount, a pouch set, belt pendant set: openwork bronze ornamenting disk, pierced dupondius from the 1st century, a bone pendant, a small pierced stone, 1-1 legwounds, and foot-wear mounts set, crystal with bronze wire setting, a triangular stone, an iron knife, a glass cup, a double-rowed bone comb, glass toy stone and along

1237. Albisheim (Landkreis Donnersberg, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Protestantische Pfarrkirche: nearly 4 graves from a cemetery:

1377

Voronin–Jušin (1973) 176–79, fig. 8: 22. Voronin–Jušin (1973) 179–80, fig. 9: 26; Mastykova (2004) 61, 63: fig. 8: 24. 1388 Voronin–Jušin (1973) 180, 181: fig. 10: 16. 1389 Voronin–Jušin (1973) 182–84, fig. 12: 24. 1390 It has to be noted that I did not check the first publications of the finds published by Ulrich Arends. 1386 1387

294

Catalogue 1243. Arnstein (Landkreis Main-Spessart, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bundesland Bayern)-Müdesheim: 50 graves from a Frankish cemeteryt of the second half of the 6th–end of the 7th centuries:

the right tibia, a large cowrie perforated twice crossways, previously strung on an iron loop, length: 6.6 cm.1391 1238–39. Albstadt-Ebingen (Landkreis Zollernalbkreis, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Lautlinger Straße: 60 graves of a cemetery:

1239. Grave 56/1938: a string of 33 glass and 1 amber beads, 2 silver rings, a double-rowed bone comb, and at the left hand 1 cowrie (Porzellan-Schnecke).1393

Grave 8: from the grave of a 21-30 years old female, buried around 600: an iron and a bronze buckles, bronze pendant, 2 rows of glass and glass paste beads, a bronze ornamenting disk, an ivory ring, an iron needle, a glass Sturzbecher, a clay Knickwandtopf, a tiny vase, a silver obolus imitation, and outside the left knee the fittings of the belt pendant set: 3 iron rings, a bone comb, an iron knife, an iron clasp, and a large (Panther?) cowrie, perforated twice at the anterior end, strung on an iron loop, length: 6.6 cm.1397

1240. Albstadt-Tailfingen (Landkreis Zollernalbkreis, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Truchtelfingen:

1244–46. Aschheim (Landkreis München, Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-St. Peter- und Paulkirche: the cemetery of the parish:1398

Grave 1/1900–04: from an Alamannic female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): gilt silver bird-shaped brooch set with almandite, a bronze buckle, a bronze disk, a string of 106 glass and amethyst beads, bronze spiralring and a glass ring, a bone comb in case, beartooth amulet, and 1 Tiger cowrie.

1244. Grave 5: from the burial of a roughly 7 years old girl, dating from the second half of the 7th century: forehead band with gold weawe (vitta), 2 gold earrings with pendants, a bead row 3 amethyst and 29 glass beads, 2 silver wire bracelet, an iron knife, and next to the left (?) leg the fittings of the belt pendant set: iron chain, a bronzering, a stirrup-shaped bronze object, bronze ornamenting disk with bronze setting, glass fragment, an iron knife, and a 2.8 cm fragment of 1 large cowrie.

1238. Grave 20: beads, a bronze finger ring, and 1 Tiger cowrie (Tigermuschel).1392

Staatlisches Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Berlin, acc. nr. 2/C. 3893c.1394 Altenerding – see 1274–76. Erding

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1969, 77.1399

1241. Andernach (Landkreis Mayen-Koblenz, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-”Hospital Grundstück”: 232 graves of the Frankish cemetery of the 8th–9th centuries:

1245. Grave 11: from the burial of a girl who died at the beginning of her second year of the second half of the 7th century: an iron buckle, 2 gold earrings with pendant, a neck ornament: 1-1 round, or trapezoidal gold pendants inserted into a string of 17 glass beads, 2 silver wire bracelets, rivets and iron fragments, and at the left knee the pieces of the belt pendant set: bronze Oppenring, an iron chain, an iron ring, and a large fragmentary cowrie perhaps perforated twice at the anterior end, strung on an iron ring, length: 6.2 cm.

Grave 92: from the burial of a young child: silvered bronze hair pin, a glass bottle, a jug, and a large cowrie, length: 7.0 cm.1395 1242. Angelbachtal-Eichtersheim (Landkreis RheinNeckar-Kreis, Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg): 22 graves from a cemetery: Grave 13/1898: from the burial of a nearly 13 years old girl: a small silver buckle, 5 beads, an iron knife, an iron key (?) hung on a silver ring, a glass vessel, and 1 perforated large (?) cowrie with remains of the iron loop.

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1969, 80.1400 1246. Grave 23: from the burial of a 6 years old girl, from the last third of the 6th century: iron buckle (?), a string of 75 glass beads, a large glass bead, a bronze wire bracelet, vessel fragments, and next to the left leg, a large incomplete cowrie, hung on an iron belt chain, length: 7.0 cm.

Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe, acc. nr.: C. 7947/51.1396 Polenz (1988) I: 23: nr. 11, II: pl. 3: 9; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1392 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 794: nr. 139. 1393 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 795: nr. 140. According to Ulrich Arends the find was repeated in 10 grave descriptions, its value is doubtful. 1394 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1109–10: nr. 739.b; see Veeck (1931) I: 249: inv. nr. IIc.3891.h; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 26. 1395 The perforation is not visible on the photo: Koenen (1900) 112–13: nrs 35, 125 and pl. XII: 4; Baye (1889) 7: note 3; Salin (1959) 76; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1396 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 796–97: nr. 145. 1391

Peschek (1983) 25, 64–65, 81–82, pl. 5: 4. Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1399 Dannheimer (1988) 35: 8 (The figure suggests a Panther or Tiger cowrie sized shell). 1400 Dannheimer (1988) 39, pl. 17: 12. 1397 1398

295

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1969, 2600.1401

1249a. - Grave 2: I did not include the 2 small snails found around the chest and pelvis into the inventory.1405

1247. Bad Niedernau (Landkreis Tübingen, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg): 4 graves from an Alamannic cemetery:

1250. Grave 6: 1 large fragmentary cowrie at the left knee in a child burial of the 6th century, length: 6.5 cm.1406 1251. Bonn-Schwarz Rheindorf bei Beuel (NordrheinWestfalen): some 100 graves from a cemetery:

Grave 2/1964: from a female Alamannic burial: a string of 20 beads, an iron knife, a double-rowed comb, a flat piece of jet, and at the left knee, a large fragmentary cowrie, length: approximately 7.0 cm.

Grave 68: 2 small cowries from a female burial of uncertain date and associated finds. The length of one is 2.0 cm, the other 2.5 cm long and preserved the remnants of the suspension loop.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart.1402 Bad Reichenhall? – see 1355. Reichenhall

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, acc. nr.: o. 2718.1407

Bad Schönborn (Landkreis Karlsruhe, Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe, Bundesland Baden-Württenberg)-Bad Mingolsheim, „Steinig” Graves 44c, 46 – see Annex 2383–84.

1252. Bopfingen (Landkreis Ostalbkreis, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-”An der Steig”: 204 graves of an Alamannic cemetery:

1248. Barbing-Sarching (Landkreis Regensburg, Regierungsbezirk Oberpfalz, Bundesland Bayern)Hochwegäcker: 21 graves from a Bajuwaric cemetery of the second half of the 6th–7th centuries:

Grave 5: from a robbed female burial of the 7th century: a bronze arched brooch, 31 glass, 1-1 amber and millefiori beads, a silver buckle with bronze butt, a bronze buckle, a bronze plaque fragment, bronze rivets, iron fragments, textile and leather remains, a bone comb, 3 opaque beads, a twisted bronze needle, the pierced denar of Severus Alexander (222–235), and between the left knee and the ankle the pieces of the belt pendant set: 2 ornamenting disks, a bone ring, a bell-shaped bronze piece, a round iron fragment, 3 bronze rings, 2 triangle-shaped and 1 squared bronze mount, and 1 pierced Tiger cowrie, which had a magic importance according to the authors.1408

Grave 17./1959: from a 6–7 years old girl’s burial of the second half of the 6th century: 4 beads, a cone-shaped bone pendant, a bronze ring, a small bone tube with remnants of bronze, an iron chain loop, an iron mount, a double-conical clay vessel, and at the left hand, a large cowrie, perforated crossways once (or twice?) at the anterior end, suspended from an iron loop, which was interpreted as a belt pendant, length: approximately 6.0 cm.

1253. Böblingen-Dagersheim (Landkreis Böblingen, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg): from a rich female Alamannic burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 2 gilt silver bow brooches, 2 silver and 1 bronze buckles, a bronze disk, 2 bronze crosses, a string of 23 beads, 2 bronze needles, 2 bronze finger rings, a bone comb, a glass cup, a bone casket, a wooden bucket with bronze mounts, iron fragments, a crystal globe with silver bandage, and a Tiger cowrie.

Regensburg museum, acc. nr.: 1959.46.1403 1249. Biebesheim (Landkreis Groß-Gerau, Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen)-Flur „Die Weingarten”: 6 graves from a Frankish cemetery: Grave 4: from a roughly 5 years old child burial of the 6th–7th centuries: 19 beads, a bronze sheet pendant, a sheet bronze fragment, 3 clay, and 1 glass vessels, and at the pelvis a Panther cowrie, length: 6.0 cm.1404

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: 10972.1409

Bietigheim – see 1269. Egartenhof beim Bietigheim

1254. Brechen-Niederbrechen (Kreis Limburg-Weilburg, Regierungsbezirk Gießen, Bundesland Hessen):

1250, (1249a). Bischofsheim (Landkreis Groß-Gerau, Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen):

Grave 8: listed among the cowries, which I could not study.1410

Dannheimer (1988) 40, pl. 19: 7. Unfortunately cowries, unlike other shells were not classified: Driesch–Kokabi (1988) 156. 1402 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 739: nr. 28, 1186: pl. 23: 6. 1403 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1044: nr. 616, 1187: pl. 24: 11; see Koch (1968) I: 58, 193, II: pl. 48: 11. 1404 Jorns (1961) 92, fig. 6: 22; Möller (1987) 25, pl. 10: 7; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1401

“2 kl. Schneckenhäuser”: Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 32. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 758: nr. 60; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 33. 1407 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1093: nr. 709.a–b. 1408 Reimann (1981) 730–33; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1409 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 782: nr. 113; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 19. 1410 Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1405 1406

296

Catalogue 1255. Buggingen (Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg): Mentioned among the sites where cowries were discovered. I could not study the material.1411

paste gaming piece, pig bones, eggshells, a perforated Roman bronze coin, 2 looped aftermints of the solidus issued by Justinianus I (527–565), and the belt pendant set, found on the left side of the skeleton, partly on preserved leather straps: ivory-framed bronze disk, 2 bronze loops, 2 small iron knives, a cylindrical amulet-capsule with Runic inscription, 2 Langobard-type gilt silver bow brooches, and 1 Tiger cowrie suspended in the middle of the belt on a strap.

1256, (1255a). Buttenwiesen-Unterthürheim (Landkreis Dillingen an der Donau, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern): 265 graves from an Alamannic cemetery of 500–700: 1255a. Grave 6/1889: In earlier literature a string of 26 beads and 1 Tiger cowrie are mentioned,1412 but the latest investigation showed that the shell was actually an Acanthocardia tuberculatum, and pointed to the fact that previous classifications were wrong.1413

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 1553 (now lost).1417 1259. Grave 93: from the burial of a young girl of the mid 7th century: gilt silver bow brooch, white-metal buckle with mount and strap end, a bronze pendant with bird-head terminals, and 1 fragmentary Tiger cowrie, perhaps looped, uncovered with brooch fragments, between the two femora as part of the belt pendant set, length: approximately 6.3 cm.

1256. Grave 67: from an anthropoligical perspective a male, but concerning archaeological material is rather a female burial of the late 6th century: an iron buckle, a small silver loop, in a pouch an iron sewing needle, iron fragment, and between the lower legs, 10 cm down from the knees, a perforated indented labium fragment of a large cowrie (Cypraea-Muschel), length: 6.8 cm.

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 1714.1418 1260. Grave 126: from a female burial of the turn of the 6th/7th centuries: a framed bronze disk, a string of 45 glass beads, in an additional string of 33 glass beads, 1 amber and 4 amethyst beads, a black agate gemma, 4 round sheet gold pendants, a Roman clay lucerna, and on the upper body, beside a weaving sword, a bronze needle, 2 whitemetal buckles, glass-sherds, blue glass gaming piece, and 2 larger (?) cowries, accompanied by a Roman bronze coin. One of the cowries broke in two, and the dorsum is incomplete, length: approximately 5.7 cm, the other is a fragmentary.

Römisches Museum, Augsburg, acc. nr.: 55078.1414 Dagersheim – see 1253. Böblingen-Dagersheim 1257. Dattenberg (Landkreis Neuwied, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz): from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 1 bow brooch and a disk brooch set with almandine, and a round bronze brooch, a bronze buckle, 2 bronze rings, a string of beads, a crystal pendant bezelled with silver, a bronze bracelet, a bronze needle, an iron knife, a perforated squared pebble, several coins, and perhaps a cowrie fragment.1415

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 1762.1419 1261. Grave 226a: presumably from the burial of a girl of the mid 7th century: 12 medium-sized and large glass beads, a red bead strung on an iron wire, a clay vessel, and next to the pelvis the pieces of the pouch and the belt pendant set: 2 bronze loops, an iron knife, iron fragments, a bead, and 3 fragments of a large cowrie perhaps suspended from a bronze loop, length: approximately 6.8 cm.

1258–66, (1265a). Dillingen an der Donau–Schretzheim (Landkreis Dillingen an der Donau, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern): 630 burials of an Alamannic cemetery of 525/530–680. The cowries from 9 graves were explained as fertility-amulets:1416 1258. Grave 26: from a female burial of 565–600: gold S-shaped brooch set with cloissoné almandite, gilt silver almandite disk brooch, a string of 20 glass and 3 amber beads, leather shoes, 2-2 silver shoe buckles and strap ends, an iron weaving sword, a clay vessel, Roman glass

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 2103.1420 1262. Grave 233: from a female burial of the turn of the 6th/7th centuries: almandite disk brooch, in a string of 142 oculus beads, 4 amber and 3 millefiori beads, Knickwandtopf, and the pieces of the belt pendant set placed on the left leg: a bronze buckle frame, an iron buckle, a bronze loop, a

Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). “1890/433: Kette mit 26 Glasperlen und einer Muschel (Cypraea tigris)”: Franken (1944) 66; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1119: nr. 759. 1413 Grünewald (1988) 119-20, note 99, 291: Grave 6: nr. 4, pl. 54: 4. 1414 Grünewald (1988) 118–19, 119: note 99, 243, pl. 15: A4, pl. 68; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1415 “das Bruchstück einer indischen Muschel”: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 783: nr. 114. 1416 Koch (1977) I: 85; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129); see Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 11; Salin (1959) 76; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 100 (without Grave 26, “probably because I could not confirm it was from the Indo– Pacific!” – note of David S. Reese). 1411

1412

Koch (1977) I: 24, 35, 85, 186, II: 15–16: nr. 9; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1066–67: nr. 654; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 100. 1418 Koch (1977) I: 85, 186, II: 27: nr. 6, pl. 18: 5; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1071: nr. 663. 1419 Koch (1977) I: 39, 85, 186, II: 31: nr. 7, pl. 30: 11, 10; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1072: nr. 665. 1420 Koch (1977) I: 41, 85, 186, II: 51: nr. 2, pl. 58: 7; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1075–76: nr. 672. 1417

297

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads framed bronze disk, a clay double-conical spindle whorl, 1-1 bronze and glass beads, a stone pendant, and 1 large cowrie, perhaps Tiger cowrie likely once suspended on an iron loop from the belt, length: approximately 6.5 cm.

earring loops with strung silver-plate beads, a double string of beads: one with 74, the other 65 glass beads, silver engagement finger ring, a bronze wire finger ring, a snake-headed bronze plate bracelet, an iron needle, an iron knife, a wheel-shaped bronze pendant, and at the left side of the pelvis 1 cowrie perforated at the side and suspended on an iron loop, length: approximately 6.0 cm.

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 2168.1421 1263. Grave 304: from a female burial of the turn of the 6th/7th centuries: an oval iron belt buckle, in a string of 99 beads 1 amethyst bead, and a belt pendant set discovered at the lower part of the left leg: 4 bronze loops braided through a leather strap, a looped bronze pendant, a bronze strap end, a bone-looped bronze disk, an iron knife, 6 bronze spangles and a perforated large cowrie, likely Panther cowrie, strung on an iron loop, length: approximately 7.7 cm.

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 1027.1426 1267. Ditzingen (Landkreis Ludwigsburg, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Schöckingen: in the territory of an Alamannic cemetery, among stray finds, a large cowrie perforated crossways twice at the anterior end, and strung on a bronze ring. length: approximately 6.7 cm.1427 1268. Düsseldorf (Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westphalen)-Stockum: 98 graves from a cemeteryt, dated 610–740:

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 2462.1422 1264. Grave 350: from a female burial of the turn of the 6th/7th centuries: an iron buckle, a silver almandite disk brooch, a string of 46 glass beads, an iron hair pin, 2 drum-shaped millefiori spindle whorls, a bronze rivet, and from an unclear location, a large cowrie with fragmentary dorsum, perhaps perforated and once suspended on an iron loop, length: approximately 7.5 cm.

Grave 19: from a disturbed burial: a bronze ring, an iron knife, vessel fragments, and an anterior fragment of a Tiger cowrie, length: 7.0 cm. Düsseldorf museum, acc. nr.: K. 63 (lost).1428

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 8690.1423

Ebingen – see 1238–39. Albstadt-Ebingen

1265. Grave 509: from the burial of a female (roughly 30 years old) dated to the second half of the 6th century: silver disk brooch set with almandite, an iron buckle, a string of 29 glass, 5 amber and 1 amethyst beads, a bronze ring, a bronze double-loop, an iron ring, an iron stick, glass fragments, and at the level of the left knee a larger cowrie, fragmentary, but perhaps perforated, length: approximately 5.7 cm.

1269. Egartenhof beim Bietigheim (Landkreis Rastatt, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-”Ob den Bergen” and „Ob den Vöhbergen” field: among the stray finds from an Alamannic cemetery of the 6th century, 1 probable cowrie-fragment (Muschel/ Cypraea), perhaps a Tiger cowrie. Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: 10866.1429

Dillingen museum, acc. nr.: 9687.1424

1270. Ehrenkirchen-Kirchhofen (Landkreis BreisgauHochschwarzwald, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-”Bürgele”: 2 graves of a disturbed cemetery:

1265a. Grave 5751425 1266. Grave 615: from the burial of a female (roughly 30–40 years old) of the second half of the 7th century: an iron buckle, a bronze leg covering garniture, 2 silver

Grave 1/1957: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an iron belt buckle, a bronze mount, bronze belt loop, a small bronze buckle, 2 small bronze strap ends, a string of glass as well as amber beads, glass paste beads, an iron knife in sheath decorated with sheet bronze,

Koch (1977) I: 41, 85, 186, II: 54–55: nr. 14, pl. 57: 12; Arends (1978) II: 1076: nr. 673. 1422 Koch (1977) I: 42, 85, 186, II: 70: nr. 15, pl. 80: 19; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1080: nr. 681. 1423 Koch (1977) I: 43, 85, 186, II: 80–81: nr. 5, pl. 92: 19; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1081: nr. 682. 1424 Koch (1977) I: 45, 85, 186, II: 108–09: nr. 8: “Fragment einer Cypraea, keine Spuren einer Aufhängevorrichtung erhalten”, pl. 132: 14; cowrie shell: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1082: nr. 685. 1425 Since Ulrich Arends did not discuss Murex in his book, he rightly left out this grave from his register, what was incorrectly scited by: Reiß (1994) 130: note 278. In any case, in the grave description the shell is referred to as a misprint “Mureyschnecke”, in his discussion it is cited as Cypraea: “Zu den ältesten Vorkommen in Schretzheim zählen die Cypraea aus dem Mädchengrab 575, das im Bereich der Stufe 2 liegt,...”: Koch (1977) II: 122: nr. 4, pl. 150: 8, and I: 85, 186. 1421

Koch (1977) I: 47, 85, 186, II: 130–30: nr. 10, pl. 161: 21; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1084: nr. 691. 1427 Markus (1980) 266, pl. 205: A.1; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1428 Siegmund (1998) 82–83, 207–08, 410, 414: and pl. 194 The find was discussed in the context of inadequate chosen parallels (1312: too small to be a Tiger cowrie, 1313: on the basis of its mixed name, the species is questionable, 1399 and Siegmund (1998) 82–83 referred to the fact that Tiger cowrie were incorrectly assigned originate in the Red Sea. 1429 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 795–96: nr. 142; see Veeck (1931) I: 241: nr. II. 13; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 25. 1426

298

Catalogue 2 bronze rivets, a bronze artifact, a bronze coin, and pieces of the belt pendant set: on the left pelvis a bronze disk, between the femora Stangenkette, a bone pendant, an additional bone pendant lower between the legs, and a pierced coin of Maxentius (306–312), and outside the left pelvis 1 large cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, with an iron loop, length: 6.3 cm.

Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nürnberg, acc. nr.: 1479.1433 Endingen am Kaiserstuhl (Landkreis Emmendingen, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg )-Diel Grave 162 – see Annex 2385. 1274–76. Erding (Landkreis Erding, Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-Altenerding, Kletthamer Feld: 1360 graves from a cemetery:1434

Freiburg museum.1430 Eichloch – see 1397–98. Wörrstadt

1274. Grave 168: from the burial of a 4–6 years old child (inf. I) of the 7th century: silver bird brooch set with almandite, 2 silver polyhedric earrings, a string of 33 glass beads, a bone comb, and the pieces of the belt pendant set, at the left knee: a silver buckle, 1 bronze and 4 glass beads, and a medium-sized cowrie perforated at the anterior end, length: 5.75 cm.

Eichtersheim – see 1242. Angelbachtal 1271–72. Eislingen/Fils (Landkreis Göppingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Schulhaus: Alamannic cemetery: 1271. Grave 5/1957: from a likely female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): gold disk brooch decorated with filigree, a string of beads: 2 silver earrings, 26 large and 10 small glass beads, 1 amber bead and 3 large, ornamented glass spindle rings, bronze disk, gold finger ring, the bezel set with blue stone, 1-1 bone and bronze rings, an iron knife, and a large cowrie with remains of a bronze ring, length: 6.5 cm.

Prähistorisches Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1979, 124.1435 1275. Grave 247: from the burial of a 3–6 years old child (inf. I) of the 7th century: an animal-shaped vessel, and between the femora pieces of the belt pendant set: 15-18 small iron rings, a large bronze ring, iron fragments and a medium-sized cowrie, perforated at the anterior end, length: 5.6 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 58/1.1431

Prähistorisches Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1979, 179.1436

1272. Grave 7/1957: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): the bronze back side of a round brooch, 2 small bronze buckles, 5 (2 tinned) bronze strap ends, a framed bronze disk, 6 small glass beads, a bone bezel, a bronze needle, 5 iron nails, a clay vessel, and 30 cm lower than the femur, a medium-sized, fragmentary cowrie pierced twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on a loop, length: approximately 4.5 cm.

1276. Grave 459: from the burial of an adolescent or young adult (female?) of the 7th century: 2 iron buckles, an iron rivet, 2 silver earrings with glass pendant, a string of 17 glass and 1 amethyst beads, and along the right tibia the pieces of the belt pendant set: a bronze disk, a bronze tube, 2 iron and 1 bronze bands, a sheet strip, an iron clasp(?), and on the tibia 1 large fragmentary cowrie, strung on an iron loop, length: 6.4 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 58/1.1432

Prähistorisches Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1979, 347.1437

1273. Ellwangen-Pfahlheim (Landkreis Aalen, Regierungsbezirk Nordwürttemberg, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Flur Brühl: Alamannic cemetery:

1277. Eßlingen am Neckar (Landkreis Eßlingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Obereßlingen, „Deutscher Krug”: 1 large cowrie, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, perhaps a Tiger cowrie from 6th century Alamannic grave found when digging of a foundation trench, length: approximately 7.0 cm.

Grave 21: from a female burial of the 6th century: 2 sheet bronze strap ends, 2 silver wire rings, a bronze pin with S-shaped animal head, and the objects of the belt pendant set: an iron knife and a Panther cowrie (Pantherina) hung on a bronze loop.

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1021–22: nr. 567; see Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 9 (under site name Pfahlenheim); Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 109: nr. 286, 108: fig. 28: 6. 1434 Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1435 Sage (1984) I: 62–63: nr. 8, II: pl. 21: 9; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 103. 1436 Sage (1984) I: 78–79: nr. 3, II: pl. 30: 13; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 103. 1437 Sage (1984) I: 133: nr. 9, II: pl. 61: 10; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 103. 1433

Garscha (1970) 179: nr. 5, II: pl. 88: 4a–b; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 910: nr. 374, 1187: pl. 24: 6; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1431 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 800: nr. 151.a. 1432 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 801: nr. 152.a., 1187: pl. 24: 4. 1430

299

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Eßlingen museum, acc. nr.: A. 26.1438

Sigmaringen museum, acc. nr.: 624.1443

1278. Eßlingen am Neckar (Landkreis Eßlingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Sirnau: 222 graves of a cemetery:

1283. Grave/1903: finds from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): 2 silvered bronze buckles, 2 bronze strap ends, a bronze disk framed by ivory, and a fragmentary cowrie.

Grave 132: from a female burial: an oval silver buckle, a string of 20 glass beads, a Roman crescent-shaped enamelled bronze pendant, an iron pin, and 1 perforated large cowrie, strung on an iron loop, length: 7.3 cm.

Sigmaringen museum, acc. nr.: 627.1444 1284. Garching (Landkreis Altötting, Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern): 119 graves of a Bajuwaric cemetery, dated between 540/550–720/730.

Eßlingen museum, acc. nr.: A. 769–773.1439 1279. Etzelwang (Landkreis Amberg-Sulzbach, Regierungsbezirk Oberpfalz, Bundesland Bayern): cowrie probably from a burial.

Grave 82: a belt pendant set, shown among the goods: a pierced strap end, a comb in bone case, a round bone amulet, and a large pierced cowrie, perhaps a Panther cowrie, which was interpreted as a fertility amulet.1445

Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nürnberg.1440

1285. Gärtringen (Landkreis Böblingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Hauptstraße 3: 1 (large?) cowrie, strung on a bronze loop among stray finds from an Alamannic cemetery.

1280. Frankenthal (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Eppstein I: Fluren „Am Floß” and „Im Bornfeld”: 41 graves from a cemetery: Grave 37 (7/1967): from a disturbed burial of 6th century: a tinned bronze strap end, an amber bead, the bone framing of a disk, a bone comb, a glass cup, 2 clay vessels, and a large cowrie perforated twice at the anterior end, whose dorsum was destroyed, strung on an iron loop, length: 6.0 cm.1441

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 58/9.1446

Frankfurt am Main (Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen)-Nieder-Erlenbach Grave 26 – see Annex 2386–89.

Grave 7: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV), whose relation is uncertain: bow brooch, 2 bronze strap ends, white metal buttons, a bronze disk with ivory frame, 5 beads, sax or weaving sword, 2 iron knives, a small iron chain, and 1 cowrie.

1286. Gauting (Landkreis Starnberg, Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-”Pfingsmittwochbühel” fields:

1281. Freimersheim (Landkreis Alzey-Worms, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz): 1 stray large (?) cowrie. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz.1442

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: H.V. 1663.1447

1282–83. Gammertingen (Landkreis Sigmaringen, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Grundstück Aker:

1287. Geisenheim (Landkreis Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis, Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen)Bachelinggarten Haus 13–14:

1282. Grave/1903: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): almandite disk brooch, a string of beads: glass, amethyst and amber beads, a bronze disk, 2 bracelets, a bone comb, a glass Sturzbecher, a pierced Roman bronze coin, and a large cowrie, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, which is strung on a bronze loop whose terminals are twisted on each other, length: approximately 7.2 cm.

Grave 22: from a female burial: 2 arched brooches, bow brooch, 2-2 bronze and iron belt buckles, a bronze strap end, at the neck 2 strings of beads, one is decorated with 4 gold disk straps, a string of beads between the chest and the pelvis, an iron pin, a silver plaque, a terra sigillata fragment, a glass vessel, a double-conic vessel, and near the knee an iron weaving sword, an iron artifact (hilt) and

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 809: nr. 164, 1187: pl. 24: 3; see Veeck (1931) I: 214: nr. 43; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 21. 1439 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 812: nr. 172, 1186: pl. 23: 5. 1440 Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1441 Polenz (1988) I: 141, II: pl. 39: 5; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1442 Behrens (1947) 62: nr. O. 15075, end of the paragraph; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 35; Salin (1959) 76; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 819: nr. 184.

1443

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 825: nr. 195, 1187: pl. 24: 1. 1 example was mentioned in: Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 18; Salin (1959) 76. 1444 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 825: nr. 196. 1445 He gave the Red Sea as the habitat of the shell: Dannheimer (1987) 41–42, 43: fig. 23: left; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1446 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 824: nr. 194. 1447 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 827: nr. 199.

1438

300

Catalogue the remains of 1 shell (Muschelschale) used as a pendant, length: 5.8 cm.1448

1292. Hahnheim (Landkreis Mainz-Bingen, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz): 1 large cowrie of the 5th–7th centuries.1453

1288. Geisingen (Landkreis Tittlingen, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Neubau Kühnle: 1 stray Tiger cowrie from an Alamannic cemetery of the 6th century.

Hailfingen – see 1357–63. Rottenburg am Neckar

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: A. 10.91.1449

1293. Hallstadt (Landkreis Bamberg, Regierungsbezirk Oberfranken, Bundesland Bayern): 1 large cowrie stray find, perforated twice crossways, and strung on two loops, length: 7.2 cm.1454

1289. Göppingen (Landkreis Göppingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg): Alamannic cemetery:

1294. Heidelberg (Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Kirchheim: more than 130 graves of the cemetery:

Grave 9: from the burial of a roughly 14 years old girl of the 6th century: 2 bronze strap ends, a silver brooch, a bronze disk, 10 beads, an animal-headed bronze pin, an iron knife, and 1 Tiger cowrie.

Grave 95: from a female burial dated of the 7th century (Böhner IV): bridle of a bronze brooch, string of 28 glass, 3 amber and 2 shell beads, a bronze ring, 2 clay vessel fragments, and between the ankles 1 large cowrie, length: 6.4 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: 8833?.1450 1290. Großfahner (Landkreis Gotha, Thüringen): 13 graves from a cemetery:

Kurpfälzisches Museum, Heidelberg, acc. nr.: A1/95/7.1455

Bundesland

Heidenheim – see 975. Heidenheim 1295. Hintschingen (Landkreis Tuttlingen, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Stalläcker: 40 graves of a cemetery:

Grave 1: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 2 bow brooches, a double-rowed comb, weaving sword, a wooden bucket with bronze mounts, 3 gold bracteas with ears, and 1 Panther cowrie.

Grave 4: pieces of the pouch set from a female burial, discovered at the pelvis: an oval iron buckle, the fragment of a double-rowed comb, an iron knife and 1 perforated large cowrie, length: 6.9 cm.1456

Gotha museum.1451 1291. Großostheim-Pflaumheim (Landkreis Aschaffenburg, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bundesland Bayern):

Hugstetten – see 1323. March

Grave 1: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): a gilt silver bow brooch decorated with niello and set with almandite, a gold disk brooch with silver back plate, decorated with filigree and set with almandite, 2 bronze buckles, 1-1 bronze mount and counter-sheet, 3 bronze strap ends, bronze leg covering garniture, amber and glass beads, globular amulet capsule, a bone loop, a knife handle, a double-conical clay spindle whorl, mounts of a wooden cup and bucket, a vessel fragment, and 1 cowrie fragment.

1296–97. Ingelheim am Rhein (Kreis Mainz-Bingen, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Rotwein-/Stevenagestraße: 146 burials from a Frankish cemetery:1457 1296. Grave 81: from a disturbed double burial: a bronze round mount, a strap end, a rivet, the sheet pendant of a bronze earring, a string of 19 glass beads and amber fragments, a bone finger ring, a bone comb, a flowershaped clay spindle whorl, a flint, unbased glass cup, Knickwandtopf, a bronze ring, and an iron belt chain (?), and a Tiger cowrie fragment interpreted as an amulet, length: 5.0 cm.1458

Aschaffenburg museum.1452 Güttingen – see 1353–54. Radolfzell am Bodensee

1297. Grave 99: from a disturbed child burial: a string of 18 glass beads, a bone comb, 1-2 iron rings, a bronze rivet, Knickwandtopf, and a Tiger cowrie pierced twice

Kühn (1967) 26–27. Listed among the cowries: Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1449 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 827–28: nr. 200; see Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 22. 1450 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 835: nr. 215 (under no. 8833); see Veeck (1931) I: inv. nr. 8832.5; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 28. 1451 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 837: nr. 220; see Schmidt (1961) 138; Schmidt (1970) 55: nr. 43. 1452 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1023: nr. 570. 1448

Salin (1959) 76; not included in: Arends (1978) II: 846–48: nrs 235–38. 1454 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 865: nr. 278, 1187: pl. 24: 8. 1455 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 872: nr. 291, 436: fig. 5, 1186: pl. 23: 2. 1456 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 891: nr. 332. 1457 Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1458 Zeller (1990) 317–18, 329: nr. 3. 1453

301

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads crossways at the anterior end, strung on an iron loop, length: 6.5 cm.1459

rowed bone comb in case, bone-framed bronze disk, an iron bolt, iron scissors, a clay spindle whorl, a sewing needle, and under the left knee, a Tiger cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, length: 6.5 cm.

1298. Kipfenberg (Landkreis Eichstätt, Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-Flur Galgenleite: 98 graves of a cemetery:

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 72/261.1463

Grave 68: finds from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): Bronze S-shaped Kerbschnittfibel, and at the chest, a large cowrie pierced twice at the anteror end, and strung on a loop, length: 7.2 cm.

1301. Grave 376: from the burial of a 10-12 years old girl, dated before the early 7th century: bronze disk brooch with incised silver decoration, an iron buckle, 2 silver earring loops, a bronze wire bracelet, a string of 56 amber, amethyst and glass beads, in the string of beads iron loops with bronze ears, a pierced deer tooth, an iron knife, a bone comb, a clay vessel, animal bones, and at the inner side of the left elbow 1 perforated Tiger cowrie strung directly to the belt through a bronze loop with twisted terminals; length: 6.8 cm.

Eichstätt museum.1460 1299–301. Kirchheim am Ries (Landkreis Ostalbkreis, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Gözlen: Alamannic cemetery of the 6th–early 8th centuries:1461 1299. Grave 206: from the burial of a 20–30 years old female of the first half of the 7th century: an oval iron buckle, a bronze leg covering garniture, a string of 121 amber, pearl, amethyst and glass beads, a string of 46 glass beads, conical bone pendant, a bronze needle, a doublerowed bone comb, an iron key, an iron knife, a clay vessel, animal bones, pierced Roman bronze coin from the 4th century, and next to the left femur, the pieces of the belt pendant set, hung from a small strap through a buckle: 2 bronze buckles, 3 bronze mounts, 2 bronze rivets, a bronze hook, a bronze ring, a bronze disk, an eared glass bead, and 1 Tiger cowrie, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, and strung on a bronze loop with twisted terminal, length: 6.3 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F 70/302.1464 1302–04. Kirchheim unter Teck (Landkreis Esslingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg): 90 graves from an Alamannic cemetery: 1302. Grave 39: from a female burial of the 6th century: 2 bronze strap ends, a string of 62 beads, a Celtic glass bracelet fragment, a bronze ring, iron fragments, and 1 large cowrie, perhaps a Tiger cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, and strung on a bronze loop, length: approximately 7.6 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 70/163.1462

Kirchheim unter Teck museum.1465 1303. Grave 61: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an oval iron buckle, a squared silver buckle with a counter-sheet, a silver strap end, 3 hemispherical bronze rivets, a string of beads: 279 glass, 7 amber and 2 amethyst beads, cube-headed bronze pin, 3 iron rings, Knickwandtopf, the incisor fragment of a horse, and 1 cowrie fragment strung on an iron loop were discovered along with a horse-shoe-shaped bronze plaque with two loops, likely the pieces of the belt pendant set.

1300. Grave 32: from the burial of a 20-30 years old high-born female, dated to the end of the 7th century: a gold disk brooch set with almandite and pearl, iron belt with „Stangengliedern”, a belt pendant with a bronze chain Kettengehänge, a belt pendant with a string of beads, on that 5–8 perforated charred fruit of the bladder nut (Staphylea pinnata), and a bronze bell, a bronze leg covering garniture, a silver shoe mount set, a pair of bronze earrings decorated with silver globules, a string of 131 amethyst, gold, sheet silver and glass beads, a jewel/ Lagerstein pendant with gold bezel, a Roman sardonyx and carnelian gemma pendant with gold bezel, animal-headed silver wire bracelet, a gold finger ring with amethyst bezel, 3 bronze needles, an unbased glass cup, and between the legs the lavish belt pendant set: the silver mounts of the locket, globular silver capsule, various buckles, mounts, strap ends, rivets, an iron knife, an iron key, a double-

Kirchheim unter Teck museum, acc. nr.: 52.1466 1304. Grave 75: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an oval bronze buckle, 2 bronze earrings with cubiform terminals, a string of 206 glass and 2 amber beads, a double-rowed bone comb in cover, an iron Neuffer-Müller (1983) 74–75, 77, 109, 173, 74: fig. 9, pl. 61: 20; see Christlein (1978) pl. 101: middle; Dübner-Manthey (1987) 181: note 102; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119.). 1464 Neuffer-Müller (1983) 77, 103, 183, 73. pl. D.8. 1465 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 908: nr. 369, 1187: pl. 24: 7; see Veeck (1931) I: 326; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 29. 1466 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 908–09: nr. 370.a. 1463

Zeller (1990) 317–18, 330: nr. 3, 348: pl. 12: 18. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 907: nr. 366, 1186: pl. 23: 7; see Dannheimer (1962) I: 62, 162, II: pl. 48: 16. 1461 Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1462 Neuffer-Müller (1983) 75–76, 77, 102–03, 152, pl. 36: 1. 1459 1460

302

Catalogue knife, 4 iron loops, iron fragments, and 1 broken cowrie, presumably a Tiger cowrie.

old female dated 560/570–600: a bronze earring, in a string of glass beads 1 amber bead, an ivory bracelet, a bone comb, a clay spindle whorl, scissors, 2 Celtic glass bracelet fragments, Knickwandtopf fragments, a piece of glass, goose bones, and 1 large cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on an iron loop, interpreted as an amulet, length: approximately 6.6 cm.

Kirchheim unter Teck museum, acc. nr.: 62.1467 1305. Kirchheim unter Teck (Landkreis Esslingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Oetlingen: 25 graves from an Alamannic cemetery:

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 70446 (Fig. 135. 1).1471

Grave 5: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an oval bronze buckle, a bronze mount with four rivets, 2 silver earrings decorated with a polyhedric set with glass drawn on them, a string of 28 glass and amber beads, a bronze pin with globular silver head, an iron knife, 2 bronze plaques, a looped bronze peg, and at the left knee pieces of the belt pendant set: ivory-framed bronze disk, 2 bronze strap ends with remains of leather, iron mount with incised copper decoration, and 1 perforated Tiger cowrie.

1308. Grave 175: from the burial of a 20–25 years old female dated 600–630/640: a bronze bow brooch, a bronze buckle, tinned bronze buckle-pair with a counter-sheet of the leg covering garniture, in a string of glass beads, quartz, 3 amethyst and 2 amber beads, a sheet bronze finger ring, a single-rowed bone comb, an iron needle, scissors, a glass spindle whorl, Knickwandtopf, glass Sturzbecher, 3 chicken eggs, animal bones, and at the left leg pieces of the belt pendant set: an iron knife, an ivory-framed bronze disk, and outside the left knee 1 large cowrie, previously likely hung independently from the belt, which is perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on a bronze loop, interpreted as an amulet. The dorsum became holed, length: approximately 7.4 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: A. 485.1468 Kirchhofen – 1270. Ehrenkirchen 1306–09. Kleinlangheim (Landkreis Kitzingen, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bundesland Nordbayern): 299 graves of the Frankish cemetery dated 450/480– 720:1469

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1979, 3274 (Fig. 135. 2).1472 1309. Grave 299: from the disturbed burial of a 23–26 years old female dated 600–630/640: an iron buckle, in a lavish string of glass beads, 3 amber beads, in an additional string of beads 1-1 sheet bronze and amber beads, a bronze pin, a clay spindle whorl, a wooden bucket with bronze mounts, a clay bottle, pig, cattle, sheep or goat bones, hen bones, and next to the left leg, the pieces of the belt pendant set: ivory-framed tinned bronze disk, a doublerowed bone comb, an iron knife, scissors, a pierced bear tooth, an iron key, and outside the left leg a large cowrie, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on an iron loop interpreted as an amulet, in pieces, length: approximately 7.0 cm.

1306. Grave 37: from the burial of a 14–17 years old girl dated 600–630/640: a bronze disk brooch, a bronze bow brooch, a tinned bronze buckle and bronze strap end, a bronze leg covering garniture, a lavish string of 2 amber, and some bronze wire beads, 4 bronze capsules with pendants, 2 with bronze rings, the other in a string of beads with a bronze closing hook, a bronze wire finger ring, a bronze pin, a bronze needle, a bone comb, a clay spindle whorl, iron scissors, an iron knife, and pieces of the belt pendant set: between the femurs an iron knife, a blade of scissors, iron fragments, a small iron chain, between the knees two pieces of resin, outside the left leg an ivoryframed bronze disk, a bronze buckle, a bronze brooch, a deer tooth pendant, crystal chippel stone, glass fragment, 4 fish vertebrae, a large glass and 2 amber beads, and 1 large cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on an iron loop, interpreted as an amulet, which survived only in pieces.

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 1979, 3381.1473 1310. Klein Quenstedt (Landkreis Halberstadt, Regierungsbezirk Halberstadt, Bundesland SachsenAnhalt) Grave 3: perhaps a cowrie (Meerschnecke).1474

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: 70429, 70544.1470

Klepsau – see 1318–19. Krautheim

1307. Grave 56: from a disturbed burial of a 23–26 years

1311. Koblenz (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Rübenach: 708 graves of a Frankish cemetery:

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 909: nr. 371; see Veeck (1931) I: 327; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 30. 1468 Arends (1978) I: 437, 910: nr. 373; see Veeck (1931) I: 329: nr. 9; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 14. 1469 Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1470 Peschek (1996) I: 103, 113–14, 220–21: nr. 28, II: pl. 9: 10, 79. 1467

Peschek (1996) I: 103, 113, 225: nr. 6, II: pl. 15: 21. Peschek (1996) I: 103, 113, 244–45: nr. 9, II: pl. 39: 13, pl. 81. 1473 Peschek (1996) I: 103, 113, 268–69: nr. 10, II: pl. 77: 3, pl. 85. 1474 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: nr. 377; see Schmidt (1961) 138. 1471 1472

303

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 135. Large cowries perforated twice crossways from Graves 56 and 175 at Kleinlangheim (1307–08) – after Peschek (1996) pl. 15: 21, pl. 39: 13

Grave 201: from a destroyed burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 2 fragmentary Knickwandtopf, and 1 Tiger cowrie (Tigermuschel) at the legs, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, with apotrophaic importance, size: 7.6x4.5 cm.

1313. Köln (Regierungsbezirk Köln, Nordrhein-Westfalen)-Müngersdorf:

Grave 13: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): a silver disk brooch set with almandite, a small almandite disk brooch, a bronze disk brooch, an oval bronze buckle, 2 small bronze buckles, 2 disk-shaped looped gold pendants, 103 glass and amber beads, a looped bronze needle, a double-rowed comb, a clay spindle whorl, flint, a glass Sturzbecher, a large double-conus, triens of Emperor Justinianus (527–565) from the Rhine region minted after 527, and at the outer part of the left knee, presumably in a pouch: a Roman melon seed-shaped bead, 1 large bronze, 2 large and 1 small iron rings, an iron knife, a pierced pebble, and perhaps separately, a large cowrie (tigris vinosa),1477 with remains of the suspension loop, length: 6.4 cm.

Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn acc. nr.: 40.744.1475 1312. Köln (Regierungsbezirk Nordrhein-Westfalen)-Junkersdorf:

Köln,

Bundesland

Bundesland

Grave 139: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a looped iron hook, a large iron ring, an iron key, glass vessel fragments, a double-conical clay vessel, and along the left lower leg the pieces of the belt pendant set: an iron bit, double-rowed bone comb in case, bone-framed bronze disk, a set of shoes (silvered bronze buckle, strap end and mounts), and independently from these an iron knife and a medium-sized cowrie, length: approximately 4.2 cm.

Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne.1478

Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne, acc. nr.: 51.205.1476

The mixing of the species name Cypraea tigris with an old name of Cypraea pantherina, Cypraea vinosa: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 65–66.. 1478 Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 42; Fremersdorf (1955) 65, 99, 153, pl. 23: 17, pl. 129: 10; Salin (1959) 76, 73: fig. 10; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 931–32: nr. 404, 436: fig. 3, 1186: pl. 23: 3; Siegmund (1998) 82–83. 1477

Neuffer-Müller–Ament (1973) 33 (dating), 83, 185, pl. 12: 4; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1476 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 921: nr. 390.b, 436: fig. 2; Siegmund (1998) 82–83, 183: note 20. 1475

304

Catalogue 1314. Köngernheim (Landkreis Mainz-Bingen, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz): from a destroyed cemetery, the finds from one male grave (?) were kept together: a spear head with splitted blade, a large iron buckle, a small twisted bronze wire bracelet, and 1 Tiger cowrie.1479

cowrie probably perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, presented as hung on the belt from a strap individually, and interpreted as an amulet. One of the perforations broke and only the other loop remained, length: approximately 5.3 cm.1484

1315. Königheim (Landkreis Main-Tauber-Kreis, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Trafo-Station: 9 graves from a cemetery:

Kösingen – see 1342–43. Neresheim

1319. Grave 36: from a female burial of the last quarter of the 6th century: silver-almandite disk brooch, 2 silver bow brooches, a bronze buckle, a bronze leg covering garniture, 13 bands with silver mounts, a string of 58 glass, 2 amber and 1 stone beads, a bronze hair pin, a globular millefiori spindle whorl, an iron knife in sheath decorated with silver mounts, weaving sword, a wooden cup with bronze mounts, a double-conic clay vessel, an egg, animal bones, and pieces of the belt pendant set at the left leg: a bronze disk, beads, a double-rowed bone comb, a double-conical clay spindle whorl, an iron knife, scissors, and 1 cowrie interpreted as amulet, without remains of oxide, with fragmentary dorsum; length: approximately 5.7 cm.1485

1317. Krautheim (Landkreis Hohenlohekreis, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg): 4 graves of a cemetery:

1320. Landau in der Pfalz (Bundesland RheinlandPfalz)–Arzheim I: Flur “Am Nauweg”: 8 graves from a cemetery:

Grave 4: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an iron round brooch incised with silver decoration, set with a red stone, a silver earring, onto its loop a doubleconus is drawn, glass beads, 2 bronze ornaments, a bronze needle with wire loop, an iron knife, a cone frustrum-shaped clay spindle whorl, and at the knees pieces of the belt pendant set: a framed bronze disk, a small bronze buckle, mounts and strap end, and 1 perforated fragmentary Tiger cowrie with remains of the bronze suspension loop, length: approximately 7.2 cm.

Grave 5: from a partly disturbed female burial of the 7th century: a string of beads, an iron buckle, an iron knife, a double-rowed comb, a clay vessel, and 1 large cowrie placed at the bottom of the clay vessel. The shell was presumably lost or its classification not possible.1486

Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe, acc. nr.: C. 8516.1482

Grave 50 (25/1929): from a disturbed female burial, likely of the 6th century: bronze mounts and strap ends, a bronze disk, a string of glass beads, a bronze bracelet, a bronze needle, a bronze key, a bone comb, an iron knife with the top of the sheath, red chalk, a Roman jug with pouring spout, Roman Schiebeschlüssel, a gold triens in mint condition, a half Roman bronze coin, and 1 perforated Tiger cowrie, length: approximately 6.4 cm.

Grave 10: fragmentary remains from a destroyed female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): 28 glass beads, the bone-frame of a disk, comb and its case, bronze mounts of a bucket, and a fragmentary cowrie.1480 1316. Königs Wusterhausen-Wernsdorf (Landkreis Dahme-Spreewald, Bundesland Brandenburg): mention of a cowrie.1481

1321. Landau in der Pfalz (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)– III: Fluren „Unter’m Saubrückel”, „Im Ziegelgrund”, „Vierte Gewanne am Birnbach”: 65 graves from a cemetery:

1318–19. Krautheim-Klepsau (Landkreis Hohenlohekreis, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Berglein: 66 graves of a Frankish cemetery of early 6th–late 7th centuries:1483 1318. Grave 12: from the burial of a 27–30 years old female dated around late 6th century: an iron buckle, a string of 99 glass, pearl and amethyst beads, a bronze needle, 12 sheet bronze pins and plaque remains of a wooden casket or vessel, in an additional wooden casket with iron and bronze mounts a double-rowed bone comb, a conical clay spindle whorl, glass fragments, a glass Sturzbecher, a clay vessel, and outside the left knee, pieces of the belt pendant set: a bronze buckle, bronze strap end and bronze rivet, 2-2 iron and bronze loops, a bronze disk, 3 bronze rivets, 3 glass beads, an iron knife, 2 looped iron sticks, and 1

Städtisches Museum, Landau, acc. nr.: 368.1487 Mainz1488 – see 1336. The territory of Monsheim 1322.

Mannheim

(Regierungsbezirk

Karlsruhe,

Koch (1990) 44–45, 46: nr. 16, 162, 163, 235–36, 45: fig. 27, 46: fig. 28, fig. 30, pl. 14: 16; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1485 Koch (1990) 78, 79: nr. 25, 163, 238, 78: fig. 63, pl. 30: 25. 1486 Polenz (1988) I: 249, II: 91. pl.: 9; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.). 1487 Cypraea tigris: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 946–47: nr. 434.b; Polenz (1988) I: 243: nr. 9, II: pl. 86: 20; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.). 1488 Arends (1978) II: 959–60: 459.A–C. 1484

Klenk (1946–48, 44; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 936: nr. 411. 1481 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1147: nr. 809; Schmidt (1961) 138. 1482 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 937: nr. 415, 1186: pl. 23: 8. 1483 Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1479 1480

305

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Wallstadt: a bronze looped fragmentary cowrie stray find.

centuries: a bronze disk, a bronze strap end, and a large cowrie, perhaps Panther cowrie, with fragmentary dorsum, length: approximately 6.8 cm.1494

Erbach–collection, Odenwald.1489

1328. Meckenheim (Landkreis Rhein-Sieg-Kreis, Regierungsbezirk Köln, Nordrhein-Westfalen)-Flur 2:

Marbach – see 1337. Murr 1323. March-Hugstetten (Landkreis Hochschwarzwald, Regierungsbezirk Bundesland Baden-Württemberg):

BreisgauFreiburg,

Grave 3 (1878–79): from a likely female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): oval bronze buckle, an earring, glass beads, a conical bone pendant on bronze ring, an open bracelet, 2 sheet bronze finger ring, Knickwandtopf, a clay bowl, and at the tibia pieces of the belt pendant set: iron scissors, a bone comb, a framed bronze disk, and a fragmentary cowrie.

Grave 5: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): gilt silver brooch with five knobs, a chalcedony bead, and 1 large cowrie (Gehäuse einer Cyprina-Schnecke), length: 7.4 cm.

Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, acc. nr.: 1202.1495

Freiburg museum.

1490

1329–31. Mengen (Landkreis Sigmaringen, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-”Hohle-Merzengraben”: 750 graves of an Alamannic cemetery:

1324. Markgröningen (Landkreis Ludwigsburg, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-am Friedhof: stray find of a Tiger cowrie (Tigermuschel) fragment.1491

1329. Grave 12: from a rich female burial of the 6th century (Böhner IIII): 2 gilt silver bow brooches, 2 gilt silver Sshaped brooches, a bronze buckle, 1-1 gilt silver and silver strap ends, silver bodkin, an oval carnelian gemma, silver band bracelet with funnel-shaped terminals, a sheet silver finger ring, and the pieces of the belt pendant set, in two rows: 7 perforated, eastern Gothic silver siliquae with the initials of Theoderich, 5 coins minted by Anastasius (491–518), 2 coins minted by Justinus I (518–527), bronze coin of Constantinus I (306–337), 2 silver basketframed limonite globules, a glass bead with silver band bandage, pumice bead, agate, jet, amber and glass beads, paring chisel, 2 iron sticks with looped terminals, fossil sea-urchin fragment, a pierced bear tooth, antler rose ring with a bronze buckle, a bronze ring, a kidney-shaped lead buckle, 1-1 oval and small iron buckles, a perforated sheet bronze disk, an iron disk, 2 double-cone frustrumshaped clay spindle whorls, various other fragments, and expectionally, above the skull, a fragmentary iron looped large cowrie together with land snail (Weinbergschnecke) fragments, length: 6.5 cm.

1325. Marktoberdorf (Landkreis Ostallgäu, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern): 238 graves of a cemetery: Grave 9: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an oval iron buckle, a string of 158 mountain crystal and jet beads, bronze bodkin, an iron ring, at the outer side of the left leg pieces of the belt pendant set: perforated bear tooth, knife, a small iron chain, a perforated Late Roman bronze coin, boat-shaped Roman bronze mount on a leather band, pouch wire loops with a bone-framed bronze disk, and the following items: the shoe set, bronze wire loops, a perforated Roman bronze coin, an iron buckle, 2 iron rings, and between the disk and the tibia, separately (not in the pouch) 1 large cowrie fragmentary at the anterior end, length: approximately 7.6 cm. Augsburg museum.1492 1326. Marnheim (Landkreis Donnersbergkreis, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Frauenstraße nr. 2: 6 graves of a cemetery:

Museum für Urgeschichte, Freiburg, acc. nr.: P. 32/38a.1496

Grave 3: from a child-burial: a flat cup, and the side fragment of 1 Tiger cowrie (Tigerschnecke).1493

1330. Grave 410: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a bronze buckle, a bronze disk, beads, egg shells, cherry stone, and at the outer side of the tibia the pieces of the belt pendant set: 2 bronze loops, a bronze pendant, a second bronze disk and a large cowrie, length: 7.0 cm.

1327. Meckenheim (Landkreis Bad Dürkheim, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-I: 11 graves of a cemetery: Grave 8 (1927): from a likely female burial of the 6th–7th Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 966: nr. 463. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 895: nr. 343. 1491 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 969: nr. 465. 1492 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 969: nr. 466.a, 436: fig. 4; Martin (1979) 18: fig. 16. 1493 Sterkau (1968) 122; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1489

Polenz (1988) I: 285, II: pl. 102: 3; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1495 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 972: nr. 472. 1496 Garscha (1970) I: 217: nr. 14, II: pl. 17: 12; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: nr. 474.a., 1187: pl. 24: 10; Martin (1976) 96: note 148.

1490

1494

306

Catalogue Museum für Urgeschichte, Freiburg, acc. nr.: P. 36378.1497

an iron chopping knife, and between the femora a silvermounted small-strap, 1-1 large bone and iron rings at the end, and under the knee 1 cowrie.1502

1331. stray find/1932–36: from disturbed burials, 2 cowries.

1336. Monsheim (Landkreis Alzey-Worms, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz) region: 3 large cowries from the area were delivered to the museum from the collection of Dr. Fliedner, a physician in Monsheim. Two were published in drawing, one is them is perforated near each other at the anterior end, and strung on an iron ring, likely Tiger Cowrie, length: 7.5 cm.1503 The other is fragmentary, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, length: 7.0 cm1504 and nothing is known about the third example, expect the length: 7.5 cm.1505

Museum für Urgeschichte, Freiburg.1498 1332. Merdingen (Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Hütsel und Schönberg: 282 graves of a cemetery: Grave 100: from a girl’s burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): oval iron buckle with counter sheet, a shield-shaped bronze mount, bone-framed bronze disk, a string of beads: 71 glass and 6 amber beads, a Roman glass cup, besides, one iron Stabkettengehänge, with a perforated hornstone, a wheel pendant and a Roman bronze coin hung from a loop, at the end a pouch with „Radbeschlag”, on which an iron looped Tiger cowrie was placed, length: 8.2 cm.

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, acc. nr.: 0. 14388–389, 15075.1506 1337. Murr (Landkreis Ludwigsburg, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Lehmgrube Blattert: among stray finds an Alamannic cemetery of the 6th century: 1 medium-sized cowrie, length: approximately 4.0 cm.

Museum für Urgeschichte, Freiburg.1499 1333. Merseburg (Landkreis Merseburg-Querfurt, Regierungsbezirk Halle, Bundesland Sachsen-Anhalt)Kiesgrube Rösener: 12 graves from a cemetery:

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart.1507

Grave 11: from a girl’s burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an iron buckle, a bronze band bracelet with rounded terminals, and at the inner side of the right femur 1 bronzelooped Panther cowrie, length: 6.8 cm.

1338. München (Regionsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-Aubing: 881 excavated graves of a Bajuwaric cemetery, with an estimated 900 burials from the Merowingian Period:

Merseburg museum.1500

Grave 213: from a female burial of the 6th century: 2 little silver-gilt disk brooches, 3 beads, an iron knife, iron buckle 1508 and broken pieces of a large cowrie, lenght: 6,3 cm.

Müdesheim – see 1243. Arnstein

1334. Merseburg (Landkreis Merseburg–Querfurt, Regierungsbezirk Halle, Bundesland Sachsen-Anhalt)Süd: disturbed cemetery:

1339. München (Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-Giesing: among stray finds from a cemetery, 1 large (?) cowrie, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end.

From the one excavated female grave of the 6th century (Böhner III): an iron belt buckle, a bronze bracelet, and under the right side of the pelvis, a Panther cowrie hung on a bronze loop, length: 7.5 cm.

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich.1509 1340. Nassau (Landkreis Rhein-Lahn-Kreis, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz): from a rich female burial of the 6th

Merseburg museum, acc. nr.: 1368.1501 1335. Mertingen (Landkreis Donau-Ries, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern):

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 978: nr. 483. Behrens (1947) 52: nr. O. 14388, 53: fig. 115: the first 2 drawings on the left; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 36; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.). 1504 Behrens (1947) 52: nr. O. 15075, 53: fig. 115: the second 2 drawings from the left; Voigt (1952) 182: Nr. 38. 1505 Behrens (1947) 52: nr. O. 14389; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 37. 1506 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 959–60: nr. 459.A–C. 1507 Ulrich Arends cited the Fundberichte aus Schwaben 20 (1912) 67, fig. 28: 12 open, unbroken cowries, which literature was not available for me: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 984: nr. 497. The item quoted by Theodor Voigt as originating from the Marbach site at Murr (Oberamt Mahrbach, Kreis Neckar) was the “Rest einer Meeresmuschel”: Veeck (1931) I: 229: inv. A 520 I: nr. 18; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 23. 1508 Dannheimer (1998) 106, pl. 23: C, pl. 134. 1509 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 983: nr. 494. 1502 1503

Grave 2: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 2 S-shaped brooches, 1 bow brooch, a string of beads, Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 974: nr. 475. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 975: nr. 476. 1499 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 975: nr. 477. 1500 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 977: nr. 481; Schilder (1952) 22, 21: fig. 2: B–C; Schmidt (1975) 87: nr. 1365, 254: pl. 66: 4d, 369: pl. 181: 4d. 1501 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 978: nr. 482; dated to the 4th–5th centuries: Schilder (1952) 22, 20: fig. 22: B–C; corrected, with 6th –century dating: Voigt (1952) 174: nr. 1368, 178: note 27, 180: nr. 6, 172: fig. 1, pl. XL: 2a–2b; Schmidt (1961) 138, pl. 43. 1497 1498

307

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads century (Böhner III), bought in 1899: 2 gilt silver bow brooches, 2 gold disk brooch sets with almandite, a string of beads: 64 glass, amber, crystal and amethyst beads, a gold finger ring, 2 silver needles, 2 small bronze loops, an unbased glass, a double conical clay vessel, the looped solidus of Emperor Anastasius (491–518), the Italian solidus of Justinus I minted under Theoderich (518–527) and a larger cowrie presumably twice perforated at the anterior end, strung on an iron loop, length: 5.5 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 79, 88.1513 Niederbrechen – see 1254. Brechen Niederselters – see 1340. Nassau 1344–47. Nordendorf (Landkreis Augsburg, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern): 366 graves from an Alamannic cemetery:1514

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, acc. nr.: 5726–39.1510

1344. Grave 40: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 2 gilt silver bow brooches, an almandite rosette brooch-pair fastened with a small silver chain, a string of 30 glass and amber beads, an oval bow with two opposite animal heads, an iron knife, an iron loop, a looped iron key, and next to the left hand a large cowrie suspended from a bronze loop, length: 6.9 cm.

1341. Neckarsulm-Obereisesheim (Landkreis Heilbronn, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Haus Fuchs: 3 graves from a cemetery: Grave 1: from a female burial: an iron belt buckle, 6 beads, a double-rowed bone comb, a drinking glass, a Roman bronze coin, and 1 cowrie fragment.

Prähistorische K.4.1684.1515

Heilbronn museum.1511

Staatssammlung,

Munich,

acc.

nr.:

1345. Grave 88: from a female burial: an iron belt buckle, a string of beads, an iron knife, and a large cowrie, length: 6.6 cm.

1342–43. Neresheim (Landkreis Ostalbkreis, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Kösingen: 83 graves of an Alamannic cemetery dated 525–650:

Prähistorische K.4.1576.1516

1342. Grave 70: from between the bones of a robbed double burial of a 30–40 years old female and a 20–30 years old male: an amethyst pendant set with gold bezel, a string of 24 glass, amethyst and pearl beads, weaving sword, and among the stray finds from the grave: iron casket mounts, a glass, 2 clay vessels, vessel fragments, and pieces of the belt pendant set: iron buckle, 2 belt mounts, 2 whitenedbronze strap ends, a bronze rivet, a bronze disk, 1-1 ivory, bronze and iron rings, pebble, flint, and a fragmentary large cowrie, perforated twice, previously strung on the belt band through a bronze loop, size: 8.6x4.8 cm.

Staatssammlung,

Munich,

acc.

nr.:

1346. Grave 137: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): 2 almandite round brooches, 2 bow brooches, 3 pendants set with almandite, a hair pin, a double-edged iron knife, a small iron knife, 2 large glass spindle whorls, and a large (?) calcined cowrie, perforated at the anterior end, strung on a silver loop. Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich, acc. nr.: IV.1587533-34.1517 1347. Grave 165: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): silver disk brooch set with almandite, bird– brooch with inlays, 3 bronze and 2 iron buckles, 2 strap distributors, ivory-framed bronze disk, 6 leaf- and bellshaped gold pendants, a string of glass beads, a bronze hair pin, a double-rowed bone comb, an iron knife, an urn, and a calcined fragment of a large cowrie on a loop, lenght: 5,1 cm.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: F. 79, 87.1512 1343. Grave 71: from a robbed 20–30 years old female burial: an oval bronze buckle, a string of 50 amber, quartz and glass beads, a bronze loop, a single-rowed bone comb, a clay vessel, and probably as part of the belt pendant set: a bronze buckle, bronze needle, braided iron ring, and in the NW corner of coffin the fragment of a larger cowrie, lenght: 5,9 cm.

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich.1518

As a find from Niederselters (Hessen): Werner (1935) 52, 89: nr. 9, pl. 12: B. 9; Salin (1959) 76; recently: Reiß (1994) 130: note 278. The other suspected place of origin: Wiesbaden (Hessen)-Schierstein. The correction of the site-name was done by: Behrens (1940) 20; the cowrie ibid., figs 7, 10, 19: fig. 8: 10; Perforated Cypraea moneta, “Fundort unbek. (Nassau)”: the argument of Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 41, was accepted by: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 986–87: nr. 504a. 1511 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1008: nr. 546 (as Obereisenheim). 1512 Knaut (1993) 100–01, 349–50, pl. 59: 8; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119); Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129).

Knaut (1993) 100–01, 350–51, pl. 61: 8; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119.); Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.). 1514 From previous mentionings such as Baye (1889) 7: note 3; Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 10; Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Salin (1959) 76. 1515 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 997: nr. 526; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 101. 1516 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 999: nr. 530. 1517 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1000–01: nr. 534.a. 1518 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1001–02: nr. 536.a.

1510

1513

308

Catalogue 1348. Nordendorf (Landkreis Augsburg, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern): 2 large cowries as stray finds from a destroyed cemetery: the first is perforated in the middle of the anterior end, the other is perhaps perforated twice crossways, length: 6.9 and 6.7 cm.1519

Konstanz, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Kiesgrube an der Straße Radolfzell– Stahringen: 114 graves fom an Alamannic cemetery: 1353. Grave 34: from a female burial dated to the 7th century (Böhner IV): an oval iron buckle, a bronze disk, a bronze ring, a string of 122 beads, a bronze finger ring, an iron knife, a clay vessel, and at the end of a pouchpendant, on a leather strap, together with an iron knife, a large, partly damaged cowrie, strung on a bronze loop, length: 7.0 cm.

1349. Nusplingen (Landkreis Zollernalbkreis, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg): Grave 168: 1 unpublished large cowrie in the collection of the Stuttgart Museum.1520

Hegau Museum, Singen, acc. nr.: Sn. 1195.1524

1350. Nürtingen (Landkreis Esslingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Enzenhart: 5 graves from a cemetery:

1354. Grave 38: from the burial of a high-born female of the 6th century (Böhner III/IV): almandite disk brooch, a cast silver disk brooch, a silver S-shaped brooch, silver buckle with niello ornament, 2 gilt silver strap ends, a silver strap end, silver squared mounts, bone-framed bronze disk, a cast silver disk decorated by a Caesarhead, 3-looped sheet pendant, a string of beads: 119 glass, amethyst, jet, amber, pearly and bone beads, gold finger ring bezelled with amethyst, a bronze Knotenring, an iron knife with a sheath covered with sheet gold, an iron knife with a bronze looped wooden handle, iron scissors, an iron knife, a flattened spherical millefiori spindle whorl, bicone-frustum type clay spindle whorl, a silver skimmer, the handle of a silver spoon, a glass cup, eggshells in a clay tripartite sacrifical „kommunizierendes Drilligsgefäß”, a Coptic bronze pan, a wooden cup with silver bandage, a wooden scoop vessel, a Roman bronze bell, a bronze plaque, iron fragments. Among them the silver spoon with a small iron chain, worn as a belt pendant, the iron knife with a sheath covered with sheet gold and the millefiori spindle whorl were discovered between the legs. At the outer side of the left femur the bronze loop of the pouch, an additional bronze ring, Knotenring, iron scissors, a disk, and in the mid femur 1 fragmentary large cowrie strung on an iron loop, length: 6.3 cm.

Grave 5: an oval iron buckle and 1 cowrie fragment. Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: A. 865.1521 Obereisesheim – see 1341. Neckarsulm 1351. Obrigheim (Landkreis Bad Dürkheim, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Kiesgraben: among the stray finds from graves excavated in 1885, several cowries. Historisches Museum der Pfalz, Speyer.1522 Peigen (Gemeinde Markt Pilsting, Landkreis DingolfingLandau, Regierungsbezirk Niederbayern, Bundesland Bayern Graves 39, 48 – see Annex 2391–92. Pfahlenheim – see 1273. 1307. Ellwangen Pfahlheim – see 1273. Ellwangen Pflaumheim – see 1291. 1308. Großostheim 1352. Pfullingen (Landkreis Reutlingen, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen,  Bundesland  Baden - Württemberg) - Flur Entensee: a larger cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end and strung on a bronze loop from a 6th century destroyed Alamannic cemetery, length: approximately 5.6 cm.

Hegau Museum, Singen, acc. nr.: Sn. 1237:38.1525

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, Sammlung Urach-Pfullingen, Karton nr. 32.1523

1356. Rommersheim (Landkreis Bitburg-Prüm, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz):

1353–54. Radolfzell am Bodensee-Güttingen (Landkreis

Grave 23: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): a bronze buckle, gilt silver bow brooch, a silver disk brooch, brooch fragment, an iron buckle, beads, a bronze pin with pendant, a blue glass vessel, 2 clay vessels, metal

1355. Reichenhall (Bad Reichenhall?, Landkreis Berchtesgadener Land, Regierungsbezirk Oberbayern, Bundesland Bayern): a likely large cowrie of the 5th–7th centuries.1526

Franken (1944) 47, pl. 11: 1–2; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1002: nr. 537. A.a–b. The comment of Ulrich Arends: “Evtl. drei weitere Muscheln, unbeschrieben.” 1520 Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119) 1521 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1006: nr. 539. 1522 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1015: nr. 556.A (as Obrigheim an der Eis). 1523 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1023: nr. 571.A; see Veeck (1931) I: 266–70, II: pl. 44: A. 4; Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 27 (Tiger cowrie?); Salin (1959) 76. 1519

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 842: nr. 229. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 842–43: nr. 230.a; Steuer (1997) 282, 277: fig. 298. 1526 According to Baye (1889) 7: note 3: Salin (1959) 76; in Arends (1978) the site is not listed at all. 1524 1525

309

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads mounted (with mask and dolphin) wooden bucket, a twolooped bronze knob, a bronze ring, and 1 cowrie.

glass bracelet fragment, bone comb in an ornamented case, and on the left femur, together with animal bones, 1 Tiger cowrie, strung on an iron loop.1535

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, acc. nr.: 50.27.1527

Rübenach – see 1311. Koblenz

1357–63. Rottenburg am Neckar-Hailfingen (Landkreis Tübingen, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg): Alamannic cemetery with more than 600 graves:1528

1364. Salching (Landkreis Straubing-Bogen, Regierungsbezirk Niederbayern, Bundesland Bayern)Piering: 6 graves from a Bajuwaric cemetery of the 6th–7th centuries:

1357. Grave 211: The only grave good from the disturbed burial was a Tiger cowrie (Tigerschnecke), strung on an iron loop, which was discovered at the chest.1529

Grave 5./1937: from a disturbed female burial of the 7th century: a bronze needle and 1 fragmentary Tiger cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end and suspended from an iron loop, which was interpreted as part of the belt pendant set, length: 8.0 cm.

1358. Grave 260: from the partly disturbed female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a small iron buckle, glass and amber beads, a glass cup, Roman glass and red pottery fragment, and a double belt set: above the left knee a bone comb, iron scissors, 4 iron rings, a pierced Roman bronze coin, 18 cm under the knee a bronze buckle, a bronze ring, a bronze disk, and on the latter a Tiger cowrie, probably perforated twice at the anterior end, and strung on an iron loop.1530

Straubing museum, acc. nr.: 2225.1536 1365. Salgen (Landkreis. Unterallgäu, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern)-Kiesgrube: 1 large cowrie among the stray finds of a cemetery, length: 6.6 cm. Maximilian-Museum, Augsburg, acc. nr.: 443/160.1537

1359. Grave 318: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an oval iron buckle, the leather remains of the belt, 94 glass beads and 1 glass tube, a bronze pin, arm chain, and next to the right femur pieces of the belt pendant set: an oval iron buckle, remains of a strap, a handle with iron and bronze loops, an ornamented comb in case, an iron knife and 1 Tiger cowrie, perforated once, and strung on an iron loop, length: approximately 6.8 cm.1531

Sarching – see 1248. Barbing Schretzheim – see 1258–66. Dillingen an der Donau Schwarz Rheindorf bei Beuel – see 1251. Bonn 1366. Schwetzingen (Landkreis Rhein-Neckar-Kreis, Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Schloßgarten: 1 (large?) cowrie from a destroyed grave.

1360. Grave 373: from a disturbed female burial: comb fragment, glass beads, and at the pelvis 1 Tiger cowrie.1532

Reis-Museum, Mannheim.1538

1361. Grave 400: from a girl’s burial of the 7 century (Böhner IV): an oval bronze buckle, glass beads, a grooved bronze ring, an iron ring, and next to the left femur the pieces of a belt pendant set: 2 iron keys, an iron ring, and 1 fragmentary Tiger cowrie.1533 th

1367. Seinsheim (Landkreis Kitzingen, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bundesland Bayern)-Haus 110: 3 graves from a cemetery: Grave 1: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): silver almandite disk brooch, gilt silver S-shaped brooch, 6 glass beads, a bronze needle, spherical segmentshaped bone spindle whorl, a bronze ring, a clay cup, a vessel, a cup, and fragments of a (large?) cowrie.

1362. Grave 525b: the only secure find in the grave of a female buried together with a male (525a) was 1 broken Tiger cowrie.1534 1363. Grave 582: from a female burial: 2 glass beads, Celtic

Würzburg museum, acc. nr.: A. 5074.1539

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1040: nr. 604; see Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 34; Salin (1959) 76. 1528 All the finds are in Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, Tübingen. 1 cowrie is mentioned in: Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Salin (1959) 76. 1529 Stoll (1939) 54; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 852–53: nr. 248. 1530 Stoll (1939) 56; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 853–54: nr. 251. 1531 Stoll (1939) 60, pl. 21: 3; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 17; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 854: nr. 253, 1187: pl. 24: 2. 1532 Stoll (1939) 63; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 857: nr. 259. 1533 Stoll (1939) 65; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 859: nr. 262.c. 1534 Stoll (1939) 73; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 863: nr. 273. 1527

1368. Seligenstadt (Landkreis Offenbach, Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen)-Klein-Welzheim: 7 graves from a Frankish cemetery: Stoll (1939) 77; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 864: nr. 275. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1041–42: nr. 610; see Koch (1968) I: 58, 230, II: pl. 76: 11. 1537 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1043: nr. 613. 1538 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1094: nr. 713. 1539 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1047: nr. 620. 1535 1536

310

Catalogue Grave 1: from a disturbed likely female burial of the 7th century: 6 silvered bronze strap ends and 8 various mounts, bone-framed copper disk, a spiral-bezelled silver finger ring, an iron knife, and next to the lower arm on the chest, a Tiger cowrie (Tigerschnecke), perforated twice crossways at the anterior end and suspended on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, length: 7.5 cm. Dreieichmuseum, Dreieich-Dreieichenhain, 1971:07900/20.1540

acc.

Bundesland Bayern)-Bajuwarenstraße: 905 graves from a Bajuwaric cemetery of the mid 5th–late7th centuries:1546 1374. Grave 667: from the grave of a young adult female of the 6th–7th centuries: gilt silver large S-shaped brooch, a bronze disk brooch, an iron buckle, an iron belt mount, 2 whitened-bronze leg covering garnitures, 2 shoe sets with incised silver decoration, 2 silver earring loops with flower cup-shaped basket, a string of beads: 1-1 large pumice, bronze and 2 glass beads, a string of 57 amethyst, silver and glass beads, 2 iron pins, a piece of chain-mail, and at the left leg as well as the left knee the pieces of the belt pendant set: a string of 30 glass beads, an iron knife, a piece of chain-mail, ivory-framed bronze disk, a bronze loop, a double-rowed bone comb, the perforated bronze coin of Gratianus (378–383), a glass bead, the basering of a terra sigillata, and at the left knee 1 Tiger cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, with an iron bolt, which might have been suspended through this bolt (with a loop? strap?); length: 6.9 cm.1547

nr.:

1369. Sindelfingen (Landkreis Böblingen, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Flur „Auf dem Feger”: 1 stray Tiger cowrie from a destroyed Alamannic cemetery of the 6th century. Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, Karton nr. 32, Stück/piece nr.8.1541 1370. Sontheim an der Brenz (Landkreis Heidenheim, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Flur „Hohweiher”: 1 large iron looped cowrie among the stray finds from the cemetery, length: approximately 6.6 cm.

1375. Grave 774: from the burial of a 21–22 years old female of 6th–7th centuries: an oval iron buckle, a string of 46 glass beads, Knickwandtopf, and at the left leg the pieces of the belt pendant set were found: an iron knife, 2 large iron rings, ivory-framed ring, a bronze disk, and at the outer side of the left knee an incomplete Tiger cowrie perforated at one side of the anterior end (?), with an iron loop; length: 7.0 cm.1548

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: 65.155.1542 1371. Speyer Germansberg:

(Bundesland

Rheinland-Pfalz)-

1376. Straubing (Regierungsbezirk Niederbayern, Bundesland Bayern)-Wittelsbacher Höhe: 5 graves from a cemetery:

Grave 11a: from a disturbed burial of a double grave: a bronze earring loop (?), textile remains with gold threads, a bronze strap end (?), a small iron chain, 2 small bronze rings, 4 coffin mounts, and 1 Tiger cowrie (Tigerschnecke) fragment.1543

Grave 2: from a female burial of the first quarter of the 6th century: 2-2 gilt silver bow and bird-shaped brooches, iron buckle with incised copper decoration, gilt silver small strap end, a twisted gold earring loop, an earring loop made from 3 twisted gold strands, the remnants of a bronze pendant (?), a string of 7 glass, 1-1 amber and carnelian beads, besides, a pyramidal amber pendant, a bronze wire bracelet covered with silver plate, an iron knife, a rake, and a Tiger cowrie fragment discussed as the part of the belt pendant set as an amulet. The place of the perforation probably broke, length: approximately 6.4 cm.

1372. Speyer (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)Hauptbahnhof: 1 fragmentary cowrie among the stray finds from a cemetery. Speyer museum.1544 1373. Steinheim am Albuch (Landkreis Heidenheim, Regierungsbezirk Stuttgart, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg)-Koppsche Sandgrube: one-half of a Tiger cowrie from the area of an Alamannic–Frankish cemetery.1545

Straubing museum, acc. nr.: 2017.1549 1377. Stuttgart (Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)Zazenhausen: 1 Tiger cowrie, likely perforated twice crossways at the anterior end among stray finds from an Alamannic cemetery of the 6th century, length: approximately 7.2 cm.

1374–75. Straubing (Regierungsbezirk Niederbayern, Möller (1987) 128–29, pl. 100: 4; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1541 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1054: nr. 631.A; see Veeck (1931) I: 210: nr. 32.8; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 20. 1542 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1059: nr. 640. 1543 Kaiser (1968) 127; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1544 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1059: nr. 641. Perhaps identical with: Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 31. 1545 Dürr (1975); Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1540

Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 12. Geisler (1998) I: 240: nr. 12, II: pl. 235: 12; Driesch (1998) 373. 1548 Geisler (1998) I: 284: nr. 5, II: pl. 283: 5; Driesch (1998) 373. 1549 Koch (1968) I: 58, 236, II: pl. 78: 10; Martin (1976) 96. 1546 1547

311

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1382. Ulm (Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland Baden-Württemberg)-Bahnhof: 1 large looped cowrie with broken dorsum among the finds from disturbed Alamannic graves of the 6th century, length: approximately 7.0 cm, and 1 other broken Tiger cowrie.

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, acc. nr.: 11.288.1550 1378. Sulzheim (Landkreis Schweinfurt, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bundesland Bayern): 12 graves from a Frankish cemetery of the 6th–mid 7th centuries:

Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, Sammlung Haßler, Sonderverzeichnis carton 8 nr. 97, Sonderverzeichnis nr. 32.1555

Grave 8: from a disturbed adult female burial, dated around 600: 2 gilt silver bow brooches, an iron buckle with incised silver decoration, an iron knife in sheath with bronze muzzle-mount, iron scissors, a spindle whorl, bronze plate fragments, 4 bronze needles, Knickwandtopf, a hand-formed cup, the right humerus of a bull/ox, the humerus of a smaller animal, eggshells, the destroyed mounts of a wooden casket, sheet gold band, a bone comb, fragments of an iron buckle, riveted bronze plaque, and a large fragmentary cowrie, previously probably twice crossways perforated at the anterior end and suspended on an iron loop, length: approximately 7.0 cm.1551

Unterthürheim – see 1256. Buttenwiesen 1383. Wahlheim (Landkreis Alzey-Worms, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Acker von F. Schweitzer: from the burial of a rich female of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a bronze buckle brooch, silver disk brooch with incised decoration, an iron belt buckle, 2 bronze buckles, 4 bronze mounts, triangular mounts, 3 bronze strap ends, 2 iron strap ends, a bronze button, an iron ring with incised decoration, 2 amber bead earrings, a string of beads, globular-shaped locket, a bronze finger ring, bronze needle, 2 eight-shaped iron rings, bronze wire noose, bronze sheet-plate ring, bronze wire, the perforated bronze coin of Vespasianus (69–79), the perforated denar of Antoninus Pius (138– 161), Knickwandtopf, and at the outer side of the left lower leg the pieces of the belt pendant set: an iron knife, 2 iron keys, ivory-framed bronze disk, and a large Panther cowrie perforated twice at the anterior end and after one of the holes broke it was perforated for the third time, suspended from a bronze loop, length: 6.0 cm.

Tailfingen – see 1240. 1338. Albstadt 1379. Thalmässing (Landkreis Roth, Regierungsbezirk Mittelfranken, Bundesland Bayern)-Flur „Leitenfeld”: 111 graves from an early Bavarian cemetery: Grave 100: from a female burial: a bronze needle, a string of numerous beads, an iron knife, a bronze loop, a clay vessel, the aftermint of a gold triens, bronze coin of Constans (337–350), and at the left pelvis, near a small chain 1 Tiger cowrie (Cypraea tigrata) perforated with a round hole, length: approximately 7.8 cm.

Alzey museum, acc. nr.: 4627.1556 1384. Weilbach (Landkreis Miltenberg, Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken, Bundesland Bayern)-Friedhof I: 57 graves of a cemetery:

Prähistorische Staatssammlung, Munich.1552 1380. Trier (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Abteikirche St. Martin:

Grave 29: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an embossed, faceted carnelian bead, a double-rowed bone comb, an iron loop, a tripoid looped bronze basin, the iron hoop of a wooden bucket, and in a wooden casket decorated with bone, iron and bronze mounts together with a carnelian bead, a bone comb, iron scissors, an iron ring, and a Tiger cowrie fragment, presumably suspended from an iron loop, or put in the casket, length: 6.3 cm.

Sarcophagus 2: from a 7 century child grave: textile remnants woven with gold thread, a gold Byzantine fourlobed brooch, remains of a leather strap with strap end, a gold earring decorated with granulation, bird bones, and from an unclear location the fragment of a shell (Muschel).1553 th

1381. Trier (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)Maximianstraße: 1 stray “looped” cowrie. 1554

Wiesbaden museum.1557

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1108–09: nr. 737.A; see Veeck (1931) I: 240–41, II: pl. 44: A.5; Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 24; Salin (1959) 76. 1551 Peschek (1983) 25, 65, 107–08, pl. 32: 2; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129). 1552 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1113: nr. 747, 1186: pl. 23: 1; see Werner (1935) 41, pl. 7: C; Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 13; Salin (1959) 76; Dannheimer (1962) I: 62, 197, II: pl. 68: A.3; Hansmann–Kriss-Rettenbeck (1966) 108–09: fig. 28: 6 1553 Böhner (1949) 118. The fragment, neither identified or illustrated, was registered among cowries in: Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1554 “Mit Öse”: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1114: nr. 749; see Salin (1959) 76. It might have been a bandaged item. 1550

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1116: nr. 754.A–B; see Veeck (1931) I: 342: nr. 32, 343: nr. 97, II: pl. 44: A 2; Behrens (1940) 15: note 1 under the right column; Voigt (1952) 181: nr. 15–16; Salin (1959) 76. 1556 Behrens (1940) 15, 14: fig. 2: 29; Werner (1950a) 42: fig. 18: 29; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 40; Salin (1959) 76; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1123–24: nr. 768.c., 435: fig. 1, 1187: pl. 24: 5; Meaney (1981) 250; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 99. 1557 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1128: nr. 777; “eine durchlochte Cyprea Tigrata”: Pauli (1978) 156: note 40. The casket is referred to by: Schoppa (1959) 25 (I studied a copy of this article through the kindness of Karl Banghard); see Banghard (2001). 1555

312

Catalogue 1385. Weimar (Bundesland Thüringen)-Cranachstraße: mention of a stray cowrie.1558 1386. Weimar (Bundesland Thüringen)-Lassenstraße: a destroyed small cemetery-part: Grave 1: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III): a belt buckle, a small iron buckle, a sheet silver pendant, a cast pendant, a string of beads: 12 glass and 2 amber beads, an iron knife, and examples of the 2 belt pendant sets: on the right side 2 gilt silver bird-shaped brooches set with alamandite, 1-1 silver and iron keys, at the outside of the left femur a bronze ring, plate-mounts fragments, flint, a stone bead or a spindle whorl, and a glass fragment, and a Panther cowrie on a bronze wire. Weimar museum (Fig. 136).1559 1387–90. Weingarten (Landkreis Ravensburg, Regierungsbezirk Tübingen, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg): 801 graves of an Alamannic cemetery: 1387. Grave 260: from the burial of a 8–10 years old girl (inf. II): 2 bronze buckles, 2 bronze mounts, belt loops and hooks, 3 strings of 24, 5 and 6 glass beads, a bronze hair pin, a double-rowed bone comb, pig bones, and at the left knee the fittings of a pouch or the belt pendant set: bone Herkules-mace amulet, 1 antler disk, 2 bronze loops, 1 ring, the fragment of a bit and spur, 2 iron knives, and 1 fragmentary Tiger cowrie (Muschel, Cypraea tigris), length: approximately 6.1 cm.1560 1388. Grave 580: from the burial of a young adult female: a gold disk brooch, a belt buckle, a strap end, a string of 61 glass, 1-1 amber, ivory and bronze-sheet beads, a bronze hair pin, cattle and pig bones, and along the inner side of the left leg pieces of the belt pendant set: an iron knife in leather sheath, a double-rowed bone comb, ivory-framed bronze disk, a suspension with an iron loop, 6 (iron?) rings, and on a bronze earring, with polyhedric terminals, decorated with punched-dot motif strung 1 Tiger cowrie (Muschel, Cypraea tigris) with fragmentary dorsum, but perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, length: 7.0 cm.1561

Fig. 136. Female burial of Weimar-Lassenstraße Grave 1 (1386) – after Arends (1978) 435: fig. 782 c

bronze bowl, glass fragments, bronze casket mounts, and 1 fragmentary Tiger cowrie (Muschel, Cypraea tigris), presumably perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, length: 6.5 cm.1562 1390. Grave 615: from the burial of a mature female: a gold disk brooch set with almandite, a bronze disk brooch, a string of 131 glass, 9 amethyst, 6 amber, 5 crystal, 1-1 gagate, emerald, jet, carnelian, pearl, fibrous quartz,1563 limestone, flint and bronze beads, 2 sheet gold crosses, a single-rowed bone comb, 1-1 bronze and silver hair pins, rake, animal bones, eggshells, and between the knees, and at the outher side of the left knee the pieces of the belt pendant set: 22 silver-framed crystal globules, suspended from a silver strap set, scissors, a bronze disk, 3 buckles, 8 loops, an iron knife, and 1 Tiger cowrie (Muschel, Cypraea

1389. Grave 588: from the burial of young girl (inf. I): a bronze disk brooch, a buckle, a strap end, a string of 141 glass and 4 amber beads, an additional string of 38 glass and 2 amber beads, bronze and iron Kettengehänge, 1 ivory, 2 bronze rings, a small needle, a double-rowed bone comb, a clay vessel, inside a cylindrical bone amulet capsule, a Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1143: nr. 804; see Schmidt (1961) 138. It was not included in the description of the finds: Schmidt (1970) 88–89: nr. 89. 1559 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1130–31: nr. 782c, 435: fig. 3; see Voigt (1952) 180: nr. 7; Schmidt (1961) 138. 1560 Roth–Theune (1995) 76: nr. 10b., 76: fig. 70., pl. 89: A.b. 1561 Roth–Theune (1995) 172: nr. 4k., 173: fig. 226, pl. 208: 4k; Steuer (1997a) 394: fig. 448: right. 1558

Roth–Theune (1995) 177: nr. 16, pl. 214.: 16; Steuer (1997a) 394: fig. 448 on the left 1563 Fibre quartz, that is the pseudo-morphose of the partly decomposed crocidolite, which is yellowish-brown due to iron-oxide corrosion. 1562

313

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads tigris) with fragmentary dorsum, and on a bronzering, length: approximately 7.3 cm.1564

white-bronze hair pin, 3 silver pouch mounts, bronze pan, and 1 perforated, large cowrie, length: 7.8 cm.

Wernsdorf – see 1316. Königs Wusterhausen

Prähistorische 4.1920.1568

1391. Westheim (Landkreis Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen, Regierungsbezirk Mittelfranken, Bundesland Bayern)Am Mehlbuck: 261 graves from a Frankish cemetery of 480/490–670/680:

Staatssammlung,

Munich,

acc.

nr.:

1395. Worms (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-Schillerstraße: 1 large fragmentary cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, and suspended from an iron loop as a stray find from a disturbed cemetery of the 6th–7th centuries, length: approximately 6.0 cm.

Grave 177: from the burial of a girl (inf. II) of 610/615– 670/680: an oval iron buckle, a large bronze clothes pin, a string of 40 beads, bronze plate pendant, a double-rowed bone comb, an iron rivet, and between the legs the pieces of the belt pendant set: double-conical clay spindle whorl, an iron knife, 4 iron loops, and a Tiger cowrie interpreted as an apothropaic amulet, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung at the knees, length: 7.9 cm.

Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz (copy); the original is possibly in Worms museum.1569 1396. Worms-Wies-Oppenheim (Bundesland RheinlandPfalz)-Oppenheim: some graves of the Merovingian cemetery produced cowries.1570

Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nürnberg acc. nr.: FG 2355a-k.n.1565

1397–98. Wörrstadt-Eichloch (Landkreis Alzey-Worms, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz):

1392. Westhofen ( Landkreis Alzey-Worms, Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz): roughly 50 graves of a cemetery:

1397. Grave 23: from a likely female burial: gilt silver brooch, shield-drifted buckle, and probably 1 cowrie (indische Seemuschel).1571

Grave 28: from a likely female burial (Böhner IV): an iron buckle, a string of 81 beads, 2 bronze hair pins, a small double spiral, a glass cup, a large clay vessel, pig bones, and at the waist together with an iron loop and an iron knife, 1 cowrie with iron loop.

1398. Grave 59: 1 large cowrie is mentioned.1572 1399. Xanten (Landkreis Wiesel, Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westphalen)-I (St. Viktor): 235 graves from a Frankish cemetery of the 485–740:

Worms museum?1566

Grave P 16: from a child burial (Inf. I, approximately 3 years old): a string of 24 glass beads, a Knickwandtopf, a clay cup, beside the left leg a belt pendant set: 3 bronze

Wies – see 1396. Worms 1393. Wiesbaden (Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen)-Erbenheim: the site is referred to in the register of cowries, but I could not obtain the publication.1567

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1152: nr. 821; see Baye (1889), (1907) 12; Werner (1950a) 61; Salin (1959) 76; Meaney (1981) 123; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 102. 1569 Behrens (1940) 19: note 1: fig. 6: 19, 17: fig. 6: 19; Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 39; Salin (1959) 76; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1155: nr. 826.A. 1570 “Auf der XI. allgem. Versammlung der Deutschen anthrop[ologischen] Ges[ellschaft] zu Berlin im Jahre 1880 berichtete Dr. Koehl ‘über ein merowingisches Reihengräberfeld bei Wiesoppenheim unweit Worms’ und meldet dabei: ‘Auch Meermuscheln, von der Gattung Cypraea fanden sich längs des Körpers mehrerer Frauen, entweder im Gürtel hängend getragen oder auf der Kleidung aufgenäht.’ Schade, dass der Artname dieser Porzellanschnecken nicht beigefügt worden! Die zahlreichen Muschelfunde in Höhlen, Gräbern und Pfahlbauten der Schweiz lieferten bisher, nach einer freundlich erteilten, brieflichen Auskunft Herrn. J. Heireli, keine kleinen Cypraeen, sondern eine grosse Cypraea aus einem Alemannengrabe von Entibühl und Vertreter der Gattungen Pectunculus, Columbella und Ammonites, sowie andere Genera von versteinerten Muscheln und Schnecken. Im Interesse für die Zuführung von Schnecken des Indischen Ozeans nach Norddeutschland ist auch der Fund eines mit geschlagenen Feuerstein gefüllten Tritonium bei Braunschweig.”: Schneider (1905) 116: note. Oskar Schneider connected this note with the treatment of the small (Money and Ringed) cowries and in the following sentence the size of the Entibühl items (1561) presumably he considered the appearance of little cowries in the Wies cemetery. 1571 Åberg (1922) 262: nr. 74; Salin (1959) 76; Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1572 Behrens (1947) 52: nr. O. 15075. at the end of the paragraph; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.). 1568

Wiesbaden-Schierstein – see 1340. Nassau 1394. Wittislingen (Landkreis Dillingen an der Donau, Regierungsbezirk Schwaben, Bundesland Bayern): from a rich Christian female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): gilt silver bow brooch with inscription, gold disk brooch and silver counter-mount set with almandite, 2 silver strap ends, 2 silver shoe buckles, bronze disk, stamped sheet gold cross, globular silver amulet capsule, 3 glass beads, a gold chain and its closing clasp, 12 sheet bronze pendants, a bronze chain, bronze chain-braiding, a sheet gold hand, a gold finger ring with a gold coin inlay, globe-headed gold pin, 2 hair pin buttons covered with gold plate, 5 gold bands, Roth–Theune (1995) 188: nr. 8c., 187: fig. 243., pl. 230: 8c; Graenert (2000). 1565 Reiß (1994) 129–30, 188: 189: Phases 4–5, 359: nr. 11, 129: fig. 36: 1, 358: fig. 225. 1566 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1149: nr. 813. 1567 Grünewald (1988) 118–19: note 93 (119). 1564

314

Catalogue rings, an iron loop, and 1 Tiger cowrie (Tigerschnecke), perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on a bronze suspension loop with knitted terminals; length: 7.3 cm.1573

610–650/670: gold disk brooch, 2 silver bow brooches, a bronze buckle, a gold forehead band, a gold plate, string of beads with 18 amethyst beads and 7 lily-shaped gold pendants, a second small string of beads, an iron knife in a case ornamented with silver, a bone comb, a silver can, a small bronze cup, 2 glass drinking horns, iron camp seats, a string of glass beads, 6 gold after-mints of the triens issued by Justinianus I (527–565), and between the femora a pair of bow brooches that were strung on each other, presumably on a belt band, and above them, in the corner of the right femur and the pelvis a large, almost wholly calcined cowrie (conchiglia marina /cypraea/), length: 6.0 cm.

Zazenhausen – see 1377. Stuttgart 1400. Iran 1400. Quasr-i Abu Nasr (Fars province): 3 cowries among the amulets from the Late-Sassanian (500–around 750) citadel site 6 km east of Shiraz: 1 perforated probable Money cowrie, length: approximately 1.8 cm, 1 larger cowrie, the dorsum is likely removed and perforated, length: approximately 3.1 cm, 1 perforated cowrie, likely Money cowrie, suspended from a copper ring, onto which 1 carnelian and 1 green stone bead were strung, length: approximately 1.7 cm.1574

Museo Nazionale, Rome, acc. nr.: 2391579 1405. Grave 60: from a female burial of 570–610: a bronze buckle, 3 silver strap plaques, a string of glass beads with 5 amethyst beads, a sheet gold cross, a silver hair pin, silver hair pin with globular head, a bone comb, weaving sword, a glass vessel fragment, a large clay bowl, iron camp seat with incised silver decoration and with the inscription “VTERE FEL”, and at the outer side of the right foot 1 large cowrie.1580

1401–03, Annex 2431, 2440–43, 2445.� Israel Horvat Karkur (Northern Negev)-‘Illit’ – see Annex 2431, 1401. Jerusalem-Site L (Armenian-Garden): 1 cowrie with perforated dorsum dated between 550–575.1575

1406. Grave 63: from a female burial of 610–650/670: a bronze buckle, a string of glass beads with 3 amethyst and 2 topaz beads, a bronze hair pin, 1-1 bone and bronze rings, a piece of feldspar, and 1 cowrie.1581

1402. Karim al-Shaikh (Jerusalem) Grave 14: from a female (?) burial of the 6th–7th centuries: scarabs, a gold earring, a carnelian bead, 3 glass beads, gold torque with globular pendant, 2 bronze bracelets with snake-head ends, 3 lead finger rings, and 1 cowrie with lead frame on the side.1576

1407. Grave 69: from the burial of an older female of 570– 610: Italic bronze disk brooch, a bronze buckle, a string of glass beads with 1 almandite bead and 5 gold disk pendants, in another string of glass beads amethyst, crystal, topaz and amber beads, a sheet gold cross, 2 bronze bracelets, an ivory loop, a bone comb, weaving sword, a bronze sewing needle, 2 glass and 1 clay vessel fragments, and in a bone casket a Roman coin and a broken cowrie.1582

Nessana (Auja [al-] Hafir)-Northern church (Field K): – see Annex 2440–43. Ramla (Center District)-Begin Quarter – see Annex 2445. 1403. Sde Boqer (Central Negev): 1 Panther cowrie fragment and 1 Fawn cowrie were found among shells from the 7th–8th centuries.1577

1408. Grave 87: from a female burial of 570–590/610: an almandite disk brooch, 2 silver bow brooches, 2 bronze “Conchiglia marina (cypraea) quasi del tutto calcinata. Doveva formare una specie di pendaglio attaccato alla cintura od alle fibule predette, perché fu trovata tra i femori.”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 197: nr. i, 196: fig. 44; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 992–93: nr. 515; with incomplete classification (conchiglia del tipo ’Cypraea’) but at least with references concerning the size: Rupp (1997) 92, 94: nr. 6. On the dating of the grave, Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20; Rupp (1995) 100–02. Although Cornelia Babette Rupp discussed what foreign influences reached the costumes of Langobard women imigrating to Italy, she did not take into account cowries, which were not used at all by Langobards in Pannonia: Rupp (1995) 38–44. For comparison between Langobard burials in southwest Germany and northern Italy: Graenert (2000) 427, 429: fig. 6 (the cowrie: 8). 1580 “Conchiglia marina (cypraea) trovato al piede destro.”: Pasqui– Paribeni (1918) 256: nr. m, fig. 104; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 993–94: nr. 517; Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20; Rupp (1995) 101–02. 1581 “Conchiglia marina (cypraea).”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 257: nr. e; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 994: nr. 518; Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20. 1582 “Conchiglia marina (cypraea) in frammenti, sulla spalla destra.”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 264: nr. i; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 994: nr. 519; Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20; “Tipo Cypraea, non piú reperibile”: Rupp (1997) 97, 99: nr. 11. 1579

1404–12. Italy 1404–12. Nocera Umbra (province Perugia, regione Umbria): 165 graves from a Langobard cemetery of 568–650/670. Museo Nazionale, Rome.1578 1404. Grave 17: from the burial of an older female dated 1573

4.

Siegmund (1998) 82–83, 206–08, 440, 447: and pl. 226: Grave P 16:

Whitcomb (1985) 104, 177, 186–87: pl. 70: t, v, x; Reese–Simpson (1995) 53. 1575 Reese (1991) 165: nr. 26; Reese (1995) 267, 277–78. 1576 Baramki (1932) pl. XVII: 3. I studied copy of the plate with the kind help of Csanád Bálint. 1577 Reese (1995) 268. 1578 The grave goods are cited after Arends (1978) II: 992–96. 1574

315

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads buckles, a large iron buckle, a bronze button, 3 strings of beads: 1/ glass beads with amethyst pendants, 2/ glass beads with onyx and amethyst pendants, 3/ 1-1 amber and clay spindle whorls, 1-1 jasper and shell disks, a silver tube among large glass beads, a bronze cylindrical, covered amulet-pyxis, a bronze sewing needle, 1-1 ivory and bronze loops, hen bones, eggshell, and 1 cowrie next to the left hand.1583

1413–15. Jordan

1409. Grave 105: from a female burial of 610–650/670: a bronze buckle, a small bronze button, 2 large strings of beads, small glass disks cut from vessel bases, crystal globe, sewing needle, bronze pyramidal covering, a Roman bronze coin from the Republican Period, 2 corroded coins, eggshells and at the feet, fragments of 1 cowrie.1584

1415. Pella (North-Jordan): 2 Ringed cowries with pierced dorsum were among shells from the Byzantine or Islamic Period.1592

1413. Amman-Citadel: 1 perforated Ringed cowrie from the early phase of the Ummayyad Period (661–750).1590 1414. Jerash (North-Jordan): 1 perforated Ringed cowrie and 3 Tiger cowrie fragments of the Late Byzantine/ Ummayyad periods (661–750).1591

1416. Kyrgyzstan 1416. Beš-Taš-Koroo? (Kočkorskaja dolina): 5 small cowries were identified perhaps from 1 of the graves of the 1st or 2nd cemeteries, dated to the second half of the 1st millenium: 3 of them had removed dorsum, 2 others were pierced. According to the published illustration, 4 are likely Money cowries, and the fifth may well be a Ringed cowrie, length: 1.7–2.1 cm.1593

1410. Grave 128: from a female burial of the 6th century (Böhner III.): a string of glass beads, an elongated cup, a cylindrical cup, eggshells, at the middle part of the left femur 1 cowrie.1585 1411. Grave 140: from a female burial of 610–650/670: 1 bronze buckle, a string of glass beads with crystal beads, a shell from the Family Trochidae,1586 a small chain, a bronze bracelet, a bone comb in case, a hair pin, a pin with silver globe head, 2 small bronze rings, 1 bone ring, eggshells, and besides, together with a bronze buckle and 2 bronze loops, 1 cowrie with iron loop.1587

1417–51. Latvia1594 1417–18. Ābeļu Boķi (Kuldigas rajons): 1–25 cowries from a cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries:1595 1417. 1 cowrie from an unnamed burial of the 7th–8th centuries.1596

1412. Grave 150: from a female burial of 610–650/670: a silver bow brooch, a bronze buckle fragment, a small bronze buckle, a small bronze loop, crystal globe, a doubleedged sword (weaving sword?), glass gaming figures, the bottom part of a drinking horn, and a bronze/copper netchain Maschenkette with a cowrie terminal.1589 1588

Reese (1991) 163: nr. 12; Reese (1995) 268. Reese (1991) 163: nr. 13; Reese (1995) 268. 1592 Reese (1991) 163: nr. 14; Reese (1995) 268. 1593 Tabaldiev (1996) fig.. 15: 1–5: “Tjan’-Šan’. Kočkarskaja dolina. Inventar’ iz pogrebenija: 1–5 - rakoviny kauri.” I could not find the information from the copy of the article, therefore I consider the specification to be conditional. 1594 Ēvalds Mugurēvičs (with cyrillic: È. Mugurevič) presented in 1962 in his article data about 151 sites, in his book published in 1965 155 sites with more than 7000 cowries, among them 246 came from grave assemblages. He divided the sites into three chronological subgroups (7th–10th, 11th–13th and 13th–18th centuries), and the shell assemblages were classified into three quantitative groups (1–25 items, 25–100 items, more than 100 items): Mugurevič (1962) 43: fig. 6. He used the chronological framework in his book later, but used only two categories for quantity (1–100 items, more than 100 items): Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25. I used his earlier publication, therefore, I present the finer quantitative approach, which, however, does not allow one to draw conclusions about the number of cowries actually found. I refer to the later figure with identical entry number for site nrs.152–55. I kept the chronological grouping of the sites, therefore they are presented in catalogue 3: 1. Sites dating from the 7th–10th centuries (1417–51), 2. Sites from the 10th–13th centuries (1865–2074), and 3. Sites from the 13th–17th /18th centuries (2204–28). During the numbering only the independent cemetery data got separate serial number. In cases what I knew that there is a grave with definite cowrie finds in the cemetery, then I left the cemetery without separate entry. Later I had to correct the data about one cemetery (1998–2003), see there! All my site name transcriptions from cyrillic were checked and corrected by Anna Zariņa, here I would like to thank her for her help! The topographical register of the partly identical site names with dating and literature: Latvijas (1974) 323–344. Moreover, he informed me that nobody proceeded the investigations of Ēvalds Mugurēvičs in this field. 1595 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 146. 1596 Mugurevič (1962) 38. 1590 1591

“Conchiglia marina (cypraea), presso la mano sinistra.”: Pasqui– Paribeni (1918) 286: nr. g; dated between 600–650: Kühn (1974) II: 1220; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 995: nr. 520; Jørgensen (1991) 25: fig. 19, 26: pl. 20; on the dating of the grave: Rupp (1995) 97. 1584 “Frammenti d’una conchiglia marina (cypraea), trovati presso i piedi.”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 296: nr. m; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 995: nr. 521; Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20; Rupp (1995) 103. 1585 “Conchiglia marina (cypraea), quasi a met’a del femore sinistro.”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 315: nr. c; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 995–96: nr. 522; see Fremersdorf (1955) 65; Salin (1959) 76, note 8. 1586 “Altra conchiglia marina (trochaea).”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 324: nr. n; “Meermuschel TROCHEA”: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 996: nr. 523. According to the opinion of Gyula Radócz written in a letter “the Trochea probably means the Superfamily of Trochoidea, and the Family of Trochidae [“Most are Monodonta or Gibbula” – David. S. Reese]. Shells belonging to this family can be found all over the world, but individual species in various seas are specific.” 1587 “Conchiglia marina (cypraea) trovata a condatto colla fibbia. `E forata e con avanzi di anello di ferro.”: Pasqui–Paribeni (1918) 324: nr. m; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 996: nr. 523; Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20. 1588 “Das Grab 150 von Nocera Umbra, welches ein jungen Mann erhalten soll, ist ein Frauengrab mit Webschwert.”: Arends (1978) I: 177. 1589 “Conchiglia marina (cypraea) trovata a pi`e della catena.”: Pasqui– Paribeni (1918) 337: nr. i. mentioned as “Cypraea”, and dated the grave 600–650: Kühn (1974) II: 1233. Mentioned without grave number: Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 996: nr. 524; Jørgensen (1991) 26: fig. 20. 1583

316

Catalogue 1418. Kurgan 8, Grave 9: from a female burial of the 8th century: an axe with narrow edge, the handle is wound with bronze band, an early-type villajne ‘cape’ decorated with bronze rings, a bronze torque, and at the neck an ornament composed of small bronze spirals, lead and bronze pendants, and pierced cowries.1597

1427. Ludzas Odukalns (Ludzas rajons): 1–25 cowries from a cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries. The entire cemetery is dated to the 7th–13th centuries (see 1932–85).1608 Cowries were also found in child graves.1609 1428. Madona (= Madonskij mogil’nik; Madonas rajons): 1–25 cowries from the 7th–10th centuries phase of the 7th–13th centuries cemetery (see 1986).1610

1419. Aizkalne (Preilu rajons): 1–25 cowries from a Latgal cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1598

Grave 14: Unspecified number amount of cowries of the 7th–8th centuries together with a bronze torque, beads or bronze bells, and strap distributors.1611

1420. Aizkalnes Ludvigova (Preilu rajons): 1–25 cowries from a Latgal cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1599 1421. Aizkraukle-Skrīveri (Aizkraukles rajons): unspecified number of cowries in a cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1600

Madonskij mogil’nik – see 1428. Madona 1429. Maltas Giņeviči (Rezeknes rajons): 1–25 cowries from the cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.

1422–23. Aizkraukles Lejasbitēni (Aizkraukles rajons): 1–25 cowries from a Latgal cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1601

Unspecified number of cowries from an unnamed burial of the 7th–10th centuries together with a bronze torque.1612

1422. 1 cowrie from an unnamed burial of the 7th–8th centuries.1602

Maskavasciemse Maskavasciems

1423. Grave 32: Unknown number of cowries were found together with a bronze torque, glass and sheet beads or bronze bells of the 8th–10th centuries.1603

1430. Mērdzenes Čenčeva (Ludzas rajons): unspecified number of cowries from an unnamed burial of the 7th–10th centuries in the cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries (see 1991).1613

1424. Kapiņu Kristapiņi (Preilu rajons): 1–25 cowries from the cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries. The entire cemetery is dated to the 7th–13th centuries (see 1912).1604

v

Viški –

see

1436–42.

Višķu

1431–32. Mērdzenes Dzērves (Ludzas rajons): 1–25 cowries from graves of the 7th–10th centuries in the cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries (see 1992).1614

1425. Katlakalna Pļavniekkalns (Rigas rajons): 1–25 cowries from a cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1605

1431. Grave 5: unspecified number of cowries were discovered among grave goods including a bronze torque of the 8th–10th centuries.1615

Grave 27: 1 cowrie from the 7th century.1606 1426. Ķeipenes Saliņas (Ogres rajons): 1–25 cowries from a cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1607

1432. Grave 13: more than 20 cowries were found among grave goods including a bronze torque. The grave dates to the 8th–10th centuries.1616

Ljucinskij mogil’nik – see 1427. Ludzas Odukalns

1433–35. Nautrēnu Smiltaine: 1–25 cowries from probably three graves (1434–35) of the cemetery of the 7th–10th centuries.1617

Ludvikova – see 1420. Aizkalnes Ludvigova Mugurevič (1962) 41; Finno-ugry (1987) 368. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 89. 1599 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 147; perhaps is the same as site name Ludvikova: Mugurevič (1962) 38. 1600 Mugurevič (1962) 38. See “34. Mogil’nik Ajzkraukle (Skriveri)”: 1–25 cowries from the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries: ibid. 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 34; “149. Mogil’nik u podnož’ja gorodišča Ajzkraukle”: more than 100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries: ibid., 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 149. In the later version both site names were transformed as Skriveri: Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nrs 34, 149. 1601 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 145. 1602 Mugurevič (1962) 38. 1603 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1604 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 72. 1605 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 27. 1606 Mugurevič (1962) 38. 1607 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 109. 1597

1433. Grave 22: unspecified number of cowries among grave goods including a bronze torque of the 8th–10th centuries.1618

1598

Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 61. Mugurevič (1962) 47, note 23. 1610 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 110. 1611 Mugurevič (1962) 39–41. 1612 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 94. 1613 The map does not show this site: Mugurevič (1962) 38. 1614 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 63. 1615 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1616 Mugurevič (1962) 39, 41. 1617 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 65. 1618 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1608 1609

317

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1452–53. Norway

Odukalns, gor. Ludza – see 1427. Ludzas Odukalns Pljavniekkalns Pļavniekkalns

v

Katlakalne

–

1425.

Katlakalna

1452. Ytre Kvarøy (Lurøy, region Nordland): 6–7 Money cowries are known from graves of the older Vendel Period (550–650).

Skrīveri – see 1187. Aizkraukle

Tromsø museum.1628

1436–42. Višķu Maskavasciems (Daugavpils/Valkas rajons): 25–100 cowries from seven burials of the 7th–10th centuries from this cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries (see 2070).

1453. Ytterstad (Lødingen, region Nordland): from a grave of the older Vendel Period, specially the 7th century: 2 conical brooches, a string of 32 glass, 10 bronze spiral, 7 white stone and 3 amber beads, a spindle whorl of white stone, an iron knife, and 11 Money cowries with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.4–1.7 cm.

1436. Grave 76: unspecified number of cowries together with a bronze torque from a burial of the 8th–10th centuries.1619

Tromsø museum, acc. nr.: 940–49 (Fig. 138).1629

1437–42. in 6 other burials of the 7 –10 centuries from a cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries, cowries were discovered.1620 th

th

1454. Poland Elbing – see 1454. Elbląg

1443–51. Zvirgzdenes Kivti (Ludzas rajons): more than 100 cowries from 9 graves of the 7th–10th,and in some burials of the 7th–8th centuries.1621

1454. Elbląg (prev. Elbing; powiat Elbląg, województwo warmińsko-mazurskie)-Pole Nowomiejskie (prev. Neustädterfeld, Scharnhorßtstraße): 25 graves from a cemetery of Viking cremation burials:

1443. Grave 9: unspecified number of cowries together with a bronze torque from a burial of the 8th–10th centuries.1622

Grave 41: burnt finds around the remains of a female burial dated to the 8th century: silver box-brooch, 2 arched brooches, a melted string of beads, which once was composed of at about 100 beads, from which 4 untouched, colored beads remained, a trapezoid pendant with tiny chains, an openwork buckle with tiny chains, 1 squared openwork hook, and 2 hooks terminating in animal heads, an iron hook with a loop, 6 bronze bracelets: 5 from thick wire, 1 other is widely hammered, and ornamented, animal bones, a fossil sponge (†Rhizopoterion cervicorne), and 6 Ringed cowries with open dorsum. The size of a wide item on an illustration: approximately 2.5x2.0 cm.1630 These dates are quoted incorrectly in recent literature.1631

1444. Grave 15: unspecified number of cowries together with a bronze torque, glass and sheet beads or bronze bells of the 8th–10th centuries.1623 1445. Grave 24: 3 likely pierced Money cowries together with a bronze torque, glass and sheet beads or bronze bells of the 8th century, length of the shells: approximately 1.0–1.3 cm (Fig. 137).1624 1446. Grave 53: unspecified number of cowries together with a bronze torque of the 8th–10th centuries.1625 1447. Grave 55: unspecified number of cowries together with a bronze torque of the 8th–10th centuries.1626

1455–530, (1464a, 1471a–b, 1472a, 1475a, 1477a, 1482a), 2488–90, 2493–95, Annex 2497. Russia

1448. Grave 81: 7 cowries with removed dorsum were identified together with a bronze torque, glass and sheet beads or bronze bells of the 8th–10th centuries. They are mainly Money cowries, but some of them might be Ringed cowries.1627

1455. Alamyšik (Gorno-Altajskaja Avtonomnaja Respublika)-Kurgan nr. 102: in the catacomb grave Unpublished in 1974: Sjövold (1974) 35; Jansson (1988) 636: III.2.[9.]; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 125. 1629 Sjövold (1974) 90–91, 227, pl. 14: f; Jansson (1988) 636: III.2.[8.]; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 124. 1630 “Bei der Untersuchung des Leichenbrandes... fanden wir... sechs, z. T. kleine beschädigte Schnecken, die auf der Oberseite abgeschliffen und zum Gebrauch als Hängeschmuck hergerichtet worden sind; sie gehören zu der im Indischen und im Stillen Ozean beheimateten Art Cypraea annulus.”: Neugebauer (1937) 20–21, 23, pl. V: d; Petersen (1939) 231: fig. 184: a. Kinga Stanek sent me the xerocopie of the first, and Raimar Kory of the second article, for which I would like to express my gratitude. 1631 “Polen, Brandgrab 41. 1 Kaurimuschel, L. 2,5 cm, Keine (sic!) Cypraea. Beifunde: 4 Perlen; 1 Fragment einer Bügelfibel; 1 Taschenbeschlag; 1 Dosenfibel; 2 Armringe. Datierung: 8. Jahrhundert”: Arends (1978) II: 801–02: nr. 153. 1628

1449–51. unspecified number of cowries from 3 additional unnamed burials of the 7th/8th–10th centuries. Mugurevič (1962) 41. Mugurevič (1962) 38, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 77. 1621 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 135. At least one set of cowries was arranged into a horizontal row: Mugurevič (1962) 48. 1622 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1623 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1624 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 39: fig. 1, (1965) 55: fig. 21. 1625 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1626 Mugurevič (1962) 41. 1627 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 40: fig. 2. 1619 1620

318

Catalogue

Fig. 137. Necklace with 3 Money cowries and chest ornaments of Grave 24 at Zvirgzdenes Kivti (1445) – after Mugurevič (1965) 55: fig. 21

319

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 139. Necklace of 9 Money cowries from the Kurgan K 102 at Alamyšik (1455) – after Bernštam (1952) 86: fig 47: 12 Fig. 138. 11 Money cowries with removed dorsum from a grave at Ytterstad (1453) – after Sjövold (1974) pl. 14: f

headdress was ornamented with bands and veil; linen clothing: shirt, trousers, leggings, fur skirt and fur roundcollar, pair of leather half-boots. At the head a pair of copper earrings, before the face a jug with maple-handle, covered with textile remains, wrapped with a string, a textile napkin, around the neck a double string of glass beads, on the belt a knife in sheath, and a string of glass and glass paste beads on the loops of the dress, amulets strung on tendon: a root in checkered textile bag and separately 1 larger cowrie, length: 4.5 cm (Fig. 141. 3).1637 In the soil of the entrance pit objects perhaps disturbed by rodents: remanants of dress and shoes, parts of 2 cases made of linen, felt and leather, half of a leather pouch, narrow, triangle-shaped amulet bag, remains of a braided casette, lining/shawl remains (?), part of a weaving tool, 2 pieces of woolen looping, 1 half nut, 1 hazelnut, half of a crab apple, 8 glass and glass paste beads, and 4 cowries.1638

1-1 female, pubescent and child burials of the 7th–8th centuries.1632 The cervical vertebrae of the child were pierced with an iron knife, and at the same place textile fragments, a Chinese bronze coin with squared opening,1633 an iron buckle, and also a necklace of 9 likely (mostly?) Money cowries. On the illustrations 1-1 examples are perforated, and with open dorsum, length: approximately 1.3–1.8 cm (Fig. 139).1634 1456–59. Asiatskij1635 (Psebajskij rajon, KaračaevoČerkesskaja Respublika)-Moščevaja Balka: 21 disturbed walled chamber graves and stone chest burials of an Alan cemetery of the 8th–9th/10th centuries.1636 1456. Grave 1 (I/1): in a walled rock from the burial of a naturally mummified 40–45 years old female (Fig. 140): the head was placed on a linen-covered pillow filled with grass, on one of whose corners a cowrie was sewn. Her

1457. Grave 2 (I/2): from the burial of a 12–13 years old girl, from a walled rock cavity, who was placed on a grass bedding: a pair of earrings, a textile forehead-ornament and a small plait, on the first 5, on the latter 2 copper bracteates were sewn. On the chest a string of 12 beads made of an organic material (flour with curd?), 4 spirea (Spiraea) beads, boxwood comb, a metal mirror with woolen cover in felt-case, around the sacrum half of a loom, a hatchet handle, loop of a knife-sheath, left from the head a wooden casket in a leather pouch, to the right a black jug. Strung on the left side dress-loop: bear claw, on the middle dress-loop toilet equipment: a small skimmer, an ear-scoop, 1-1 hair, and felt brushes, and on a scarf with 5 applied ornaments to the textile or strap loops of the 2 uppers’ a string of beads was applied, composed from large glass, glass paste

Aleksandr Natanovič Bernštam, based on their material, mentioned the 3 burials as finds not older than the 7th–8th centuries, in which the traditions of the 3th–4th centuries lived on: Bernštam (1952) 84. However, Egami Namio dated the goods to an earlier period: “Although Bernshtam regards those cowries as belonging to a period not earlier than the seventh or eight century, they should be attributed to a much earlier period, probably around the second or third century. The Chinese copper coins found together with the cowries are considered to be Wu-chu-ch`ien coins of Han. What is more, some Cypraea annulus were excavated at an ancient tomb belonging to the second or third century B. C. at Pazylyk in Altai.”: Egami (1974) 49. He referred on 49: note 116 to an additional find (684). 1633 The coin was defined as a sačžacjan’-type object from the Tang Period (618–907 AD): Bernštam (1952) 84., from the Han Period (BC 206–AD 220) and mentioned as Wu-chu-ch`ien coin: Egami (1974) 49. 1634 Bernštam (1952) 84, 86: fig. 47: 12; Egami (1974) 49, fig. 17. 1635 The name of the site is not the name of a settlement, but the name of a rock terrace near Hasaut village in the Sulahor gully, at the confluence of the Moščevaja tributary of the Bol’šaja Laba River, one of the Kuban’ River’s left side tributaries. More precisely: “1.5 km nördlich des Ortes Aziatskij, der auf dem rechten Ufer der Bol’shaja Laba gegenüber der Einmündung des Beskes liegt. Die nächsten Ortschaften sind 10 km nördlich hiervon, Kurdzhinovo auf dem linken Bol’shaya Laba Ufer und 20 km südlich Rozhkao.”: Roth (1999) 523–24. 1636 Cowries were discovered in the graves of 3 females and 1 girl, among which the detailed description of the first two burials were reasonable because of the extremely well-preserved material, which at the same time excellently illustrated the usage of cowries. I could not identify one more item, cited elsewhere: Berlizov–Kaminskij (1993) 104: pl. VIII: 13 (Moščevaja balka r[?]. p[ogrebenie].). 1632

It has to be noted that the widely-used term “große Kaurimuschel” in the publication is misleading because of the poor classification of the cowries and the use of the word “large”, because in the literature this does not describe shells that are 3.5 (Grave 20), 4.0 (Grave 15) and 4.5 cm (rock cavity no. 1) long, correctly referred to as medium-sized items, while large cowries are usually considered to be longer than 6.0–6.5 cm. However, the greatest problem concerning then present work is the lack of classification, since the striking dominance of medium-sized cowries suggest that they are of specific origin. 1638 Ierusalimskaja (1996) 29, 133, 170: III/144, 343: nr. 22. and pl. IX: 22 (the amulet cowrie; the other cowries are not described or illustrated). One small cowrie was presented from the same site (Ringed cowrie?) in an illustration of the Alan material from the 6th–18th centuries, without any detailed reference: Berlizov–Kaminskij (1993) 104: pl. VIII: 13. 1637

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Fig. 140. Naturally mummified woman with beads and amulets (among them a larger cowrie) from Grave 1 at Asiatskij-Moščevaja Balka (1456) – after Ierusalimskaja (1996) pl. IV: fig. 10

1460. Bezvodnoe (Kstovskij rajon, Gor’kovskaja oblast’): 155 graves from a Finno-Ugrian cemetery of late 5th century–first half of the 8th century, which can be identified as burials of Muroma/Meria, partly Mordvin/Erza population:1642

and jet beads, and 25 cowries, which were most probably Money cowries (Figs 141. 2, 142).1639 1458. Grave 15 (VIa.): from a female burial: bronze finger ring, fragments of a weaving tool, eared wooden cup fragments, a leather holder for a mirror and comb, 2 copper handles of a toilet brush, little box with sliding roof, bark case, fragment of ringed coat, horn fragment of a chamois, nut, and a pair of bivalves (ein Paar Muschelscheiben), series of some small (?) cowries (Kauri-Muschelreihe) and 1 larger cowrie (große Kauri-Muschel) on a suspension strap, length: 4.0 cm (Fig. 141. 1: right).1640

Grave 94: A braided head ornament on the skull in an adult female grave from the later phase of the cemetery: on the top of the head, above the hair the braids worn from ear-toear, twisted strongly to each other to create a special, hard inner frame of the headdress ornament. Above the braid a red sack-like bonnet-shaped woolen cap was worn, whose end was hung on the back of the wearer. On this cap the following objects were sewn: in the middle, forming a half circle 5 silver cross-shaped brooches and 5 (according to the illustration with their labium outside, horizontally sewn) small (?) cowries. The rim of the cap was likely lined with a narrow leather strap on which the small hooked bronze spirals were strung, with all-in-all 9 flat silver loops. The cap was completed by an additional headdress-ornament on which, through woolen threads bracelet-like rings were strengthened (Fig. 143).1643

1459. Grave 20 (IV c): from a female burial: a bronze plait clamp, a long string of glass beads, 2 short strings of large glass beads, a leather mirror case, and a larger cowrie (große Kauri-Muschel), with a relatively large perforation, length: 3.5 cm (Fig. 149. 1: left).1641 Ierusalimskaja (1996) 139–40, 149: II/105, 207: V/109.2 (the 25 cowries, with incorrect reference of V/105–107), 136: fig. 3, pl. XXI: fig. 46. pl. IX. 21: lower illustration is perhaps identical with it, but it cannot be directly concluded from the incomplete reference system of the illustrations – see Roth (1999) 524–25. –, ibid. 140, 207: V/109, 341: caption of fig. 21. 1640 Ierusalimskaja (1996) 142, 171: III/145 (the larger cowrie), 208: V/116 (the wrong reference to the small cowries), 210: V/317 (without reference to the pair of shells). The probable illustration of the larger cowrie: pl. IX: fig. 21 right, in the middle; the other cowries are not illustrated. 1641 Ierusalimskaja (1996) 142, 171: III/146 (cowrie), possible illustration: pl. IX: 21: left, in the middle. 1639

1461–1482. Birsk (Respublika Baškortostan): 206 excavated graves from a cemetery dated to the 2nd–7th 1642

15.

As a Muroma cemetery: Finno-ugry (1987) 79, 82–85, map 16: nr.

Krasnov (1982) 55–56. Since 8 graves with similar headdress ornaments were uncovered, it is possible that other cowries than the item from Grave 94 were discovered. 1643

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Fig. 141. Smaller cowrie from Grave 20 and a larger cowrie from Grave 15 among other amulets (1 – 1459, 1458), cowries in string of beads from Grave 2 (2 – 1457), amulet bag with amulets from Grave 1 (3 – 1456) at Asiatskij-Moščevaja Balka – after Ierusalimskaja (1996) pl. IX: fig. 21 [left and right in the middle], pl. IX: fig. 22, pl. XXI: fig. 46

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Catalogue

Fig. 142. Scarf with a string of beads and 25 pierced probably Money cowries from Grave 2 at Asiatskij-Moščevaja Balka (1457) – after Ierusalimskaja (1996) pl. XXI: fig. 46

centuries, of whose population included a mixture of local Pjanobor (pjanoborskaja) Culture and south-Caucasian ethnic groups.1644 Nevertheless all burials yielding cowries date from the 5th–6th centuries part of the cemetery.1645

amber and glass beads, additional beads, 2 metal plate tube beads, 1 bronze bear, 2 rings and 1 duck foot-shaped pendant, a pair of bracelets with snake head terminals, an iron knife, a clay vessel, animal bones.1647

1461. Grave 75: from a robbed male burial: 2 silver buckles, round silver mounts, rhomboid bronze belt mounts, 2 strap ends, a ring-shaped bronze pendant, a round silver mirror, an iron nail, the scapula of a horse, and 1 pierced cowrie.1646

1463. Grave 81: from a robbed male burial: 2-2 strap ends and buckles, bronze belt mounts on the remains of the strap, a bronze large strap end, a silver knobbed ring pendant, slipped through plate and spiral tubes, and hung on a strap, the lower foreleg bone of a horse, and near the skull, a funeral offering assemblage: a silver mirror, a goose footshaped pendant, 3 bracelets and a necklace, composed of 300 large white gilt glass and cowrie beads.1648

1462. Grave 78: from a child burial: silver plated brooch with remains of leather, a round bronze buckle, a dissimilar pair of silver earrings, a necklace, a string of beads from

1464. Grave 84: from a robbed male burial: silver earring with a facetted button, a decorated, ring-shaped knobbed buckle, 2 bronze spiral fragments, and a total of 64 colored glass beads and pierced cowries.1649

Stepi (1981) 27. 1645 87 cowrie beads (busina iz rakoviny kauri) mentioned from the 21 burials of the 5th–6th centuries cemetery, but this amount cannot be calculated from the grave descriptions: Mažitov (1968) 33, 41. According to the few illustrations – Mažitov (1968) 141: pl. 20: 2 (Grave 147?), 5 (Grave 128?). – it is apparent that the author did not mean beads made from shells, but pierced cowries used as beads. Furthermore, it has to be mentioned that there is inconsistency between the descriptions of graves and the data of the tabelle I between pp. 120–121. There are items that are described, but not shown on the tabelle I (Graves 75, 93, 97, 100, 124 and 185), and there are also cases when the item is not described, but shown on the tabelle I (Graves 78, 89, 117, 120, 123, 134 and 195). As it was already discussed, except for one burial, all graves in which cowries were found (75, 78?, 81, 84, 93, 96, 97, 100, 107, 108, 109, 121, 124, 125, 128, 136, 137, 154, 157, 161, 173 and 185 – 22 burials) are datable to the 5th–6th centuries and the plate presents only the incorrectly cited Grave 134 as dating from the 6th–7th centuries. These cowries were not mentioned in the general discussion of the culture: Stepi (1981) 25–27, 116: fig. 13. 1646 Mažitov (1968) 95. 1644

1464a. Grave 89: from a robbed adult burial: in the description a pendant of mother-of-pearl, but on the tabelle with it a sign of cowrie is shown.1650 1465. Grave 93: from a robbed adult burial: rhomboid iron arrowheads, 2 bronze buckles, 3 belt mounts, a plated strap Cowries are not mentioned in the grave descriptions, but referred to at two places: Mažitov (1968) 36, 96, tabelle I. 1648 “ožerel’e okolo 300 krupnyh busin iz rakovin kauri, belogo i zoločennogo stëkla”: Mažitov (1968) 96–97, tabelle I. 1649 Mažitov (1968) 97, tabelle I. 1650 Mažitov (1968) 97, tabelle I. 1647

323

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads a plait clamp and an iron knife, and a total of 20 various colored glass and cowrie beads.1657 1471a. Grave 117: among the finds from a robbed burial cowrie ��������������������������������������������� is not described, but shown on the tabelle I.1658 1471b. Grave 120: among ������������������������������������� the finds from a robbed burial cowrie ��������������������������������������������� is not described, but shown on the tabelle I.1659 1472. Grave 121: from a robbed adult burial: bronze fittings of a belt: buckle, several rhomboid mounts, 6 semispherical mounts, 3 strap ends, an iron buckle, an animal-shaped (bear or horse) pendant, fragments of a clay vessel, and many amber, coral, glass and cowrie beads.1660 1472a. Grave 123: ������������������������������������� among the finds from a robbed burial cowrie ��������������������������������������������� is not described, but shown on the tabelle I.1661

Fig. 143. Head-dress reconstuction of a Finno-Ugrian woman from Grave 94 at Bezvodnoe (1460) – after Krasnov (1982) 57: fig. 3

1473. Grave 124: from a robbed adult burial: a three-edged iron arrowhead, 2 gilt bronze buckles and crescent belt mounts from the same material, a bronze wire bracelet, an iron axe, an iron hollow adze, iron draw knife, an iron spoon gouge, animal bone (horse?), a large cinder, and 1 cowrie.1662

end, a bronze hook, a plait clamp, an iron knife, a sheep pelvis, and some glass and cowrie beads.1651 1466. Gave 96: from a robbed child burial: silver brooch with remains of leather, B-shaped iron buckle, 2 iron bracelets, the fragment of a clay vessel, and in the neck region numerous glass beads and pierced cowries.1652

1474. Grave 125: from the burial of a young woman: bronze fittings of a belt: a round buckle, rhomboid bronze mounts, a large strap end, on its small strap, rhomboid mounts as well and large strap end, another small buckle and strap end, 2 bronze hooks, 2 large round bronze disc ornaments, a pair of dissimilar silver earrings, a bronze earring, bronze plait clamps, 1-1 bronze pair of ring pendants, 3 bronze plate pendants, 2 small and 1 large knobbed bronze ring pendants, on the strap of the latter a long bronze spiral, 2 tiny zoomorphic bronze pendants, 2 bronze torques, 4 bronze bracelets, an iron knife on bronze spiral strap, round bronze mirror, animal bone, and around the neck and on the chest large number of colored, and foliated glass beads and cowrie beads.1663

1467. Grave 97: from a robbed child burial: 6 glass and cowrie beads.1653 1468.Grave 100: from a robbed adult burial: brooch pin, some rhomboid bronze belt mounts, 2 otter bones (?), iron fragments, and a string of amber, coral, glass and cowrie beads.1654 1469. Grave 104: from a robbed adult burial: a B-shaped iron buckle, an iron knife, a vessel, fragments of a vessel, a small bronze plate, a horse bone, and several amber, coral and cowrie beads.1655

1475. Grave 128: from a female burial (Fig. 144. 1): rhomboid bronze mounts and strap ends of the belt, 2 buckles and 2 small strap ends, a silver plated brooch, small silver mounts of the headdress, 2 spiral rings with a spiraled suspension, 2 plait clamps with a facetted button, a large bronze torque, a large ring pendant with 4 bosses, 3 bronze knobbed ring pendants, goose-shaped pendant, 2 goose-foot-shaped pendants, an iron axe, an iron awl or needle, an iron artefact, sheep bones, around the neck glass beads and cowries.1664 In the northern corner of the

1470. Grave 108: from a female burial: rhomboid bronze mounts and the strap end of a belt, 2 small bronze buckles and bronze strap ends, a silver-plated brooch, a bronze hook, tiny silver mounts of the headdress ornament, a bronze torque, 3 bronze bracelets, an iron knife, long bones of a horse(?), funeral offering assemblage: more glass beads, 1 bead of mother-of-pearl, a silver earring with facetted button, and drawn onto it some iron and bronze plate rings, bronze earring, and on the chest some cowrie beads.1656

Mažitov (1968) 100, tabelle I. Mažitov (1968) 101, tabelle I. 1659 Mažitov (1968) 101, tabelle I. 1660 Mažitov (1968) 101, tabelle I. 1661 Mažitov (1968) 101–02, tabelle I. 1662 Mažitov (1968) 102. 1663 Mažitov (1968) 102, tabelle I, 137: pl. 17: 6, 141: pl. 20: 4 (the string of beads, inconsistent with the reference, without the cowries). 1664 Mažitov (1968) 141: pl. 20: 1 (the string of beads, contrasting the note, without the cowries). 1657 1658

1471. Grave 109: from a robbed adult burial: fragments of Mažitov (1968) 98, tabelle I. Mažitov (1968) 98, tabelle I. 1653 Mažitov (1968) 98. 1654 Mažitov (1968) 99. 1655 Mažitov (1968) 99, tabelle I. 1656 Mažitov (1968) 100, tabelle I. 1651 1652

324

Catalogue grave ditch, in a birch bark box was the following funeral sacrifice:1665 2 bronze plait clamps, a long, complex twisted chain, 3 bronze and 1 iron bracelets, and a string of glass beads and cowries. On the illustration 5 Money cowries (?) are presented, with a narrow sawn aperture at their apex (Fig. 144. 2).1666 1475a. Grave 134: among the finds from a robbed burial cowrie ��������������������������������������������� is not described, but shown on the tabelle I.1667 1476. Grave 136: grave goods from a child burial: a round buckle, a silver plated brooch, a bronze plait clamp, a necklace, sheep bones, and around the neck, amber, coral, glass, and cowrie beads.1668 1477. Grave 137: from a likely female burial: the rhomboid large buckle of the belt, its bronze mounts, a large and small strap ends, 2 small round buckles, 2 small strap ends, a plait clamp, a bronze torque, a knobbed ring pendant, a bronze bracelet, an iron knife, horse bone, and on the chest, some coral and glass beads and cowries. Also, to the right of the skull, a funeral offering: a knobbed ring pendant, 2 bronze bracelets, a string of coral, amber, glass, and cowrie beads.1669 1477a. Grave 150: bivalve (?) beads, mentioned in the grave description were not identified as cowries.1670 1478. Grave 154: from a robbed male (?) burial: round mounts and strap end of the belt, 2 small bronze buckles, belt fitting, romb-shaped mount, horse bones, and an offering gift: three-edged iron arrowhead, lockring, bronze bracelet, string of beads: glass, polygonal gilt glass beads, and cowries.1671 1479. Grave 157: from a robbed adult burial: a bronze buckle, silver belt mounts and strap ends, an iron knife, a glass bead and 2 cowries.1672 1480. Grave 161: from a robbed adult burial: a bronze buckle, a silver strap end, 2 silver plait clamps, a silver earring, and some incrusted glass and cowrie beads.1673

Fig. 144. String of beads and 5 Money (?) cowries from Grave 128 of Birsk cemetery (1475) – after Mažitov (1968) 141: pl. 20: fig. 5

1481. Grave 173: from a robbed adult burial: a bronze

buckle, plait clamps, the fragment of an iron necklace, a vessel with horse bone in it, and some glass and cowrie beads.1674

In birch-bark boxes, which are often not registered among the grave goods (see 1463, 1477), funeral offering was placed, from which general jewelry here only the presence of cowries are stressed. This costume was extremely widespread, no matter whether it contained objects owned by the deceased, or artefacts presented to him, this practice can also be connected to Finno-Ugrians: Stepi (1981) 26. 1666 Mažitov (1968) 103, tabelle I, 137: pl. 17: 7, 141: fig. 20: 5. 1667 Mažitov (1968) 104, tabelle I. 1668 Mažitov (1968) 104, tabelle I, 141: pl. 20: 8 (the string of beads, contrasting the note, without the shell). 1669 Mažitov (1968) 105, tabelle I, 136: pl. 17: 2, 141: pl. 20: 5 (with a reference to the string of bead found in Grave 128, in which cowries were also discovered). 1670 “neskol’ko busin iz rakoviny”. Cowries are not represented among the finds on the tabelle I: Mažitov (1968) 107. 1671 Mažitov (1968) 107, tabelle I. 1672 Mažitov (1968) 108, tabelle I. 1673 Mažitov (1968) 108, tabelle I. 1665

1482. Grave 185: from a robbed adult burial: horse-shaped pendant, a knobbed ring pendant, a large vessel, horse bone, glass, and cowrie beads.1675 1482a. Grave 195: among the finds from a robbed burial cowrie ��������������������������������������������� is not described, but shown on the tabelle I.1676 Mažitov (1968) 109, tabelle I. Mažitov (1968) 111, tabelle I. 1676 Mažitov (1968) 111, tabelle I. 1674 1675

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1483–85, 1483x. Bol’šie Tigany (Respublika Tatarstan): 56 published graves from a Volga Bulgarian (Ancient Hungarian?) cemetery of the 9th–10th centuries (see 1483x – Fig. 145):1677 1483. Grave 19: from the equestrian burial of a 16–17 years old female, who was buried on a felt-covered plank bed: the silver buckle of the leather strap, copper mounted leather forehead-ornament with a silver buckle and strap end, the silver plaques of the shirt sleeve’s end, 2 silver squared mounts and strap end, the silver strips of the face cloth the oxide remains of a silver strip, a pair of bronze earrings with globe-row pendants, a small gold loop, a string of beads: 37 white and blue glass paste beads, 32 one- and more sectioned bar beads, 3 ornamented silver and 5 plain leaf-shaped bronze pendants, a bronze wire bracelet with wavy terminals, 2 bronze bezelled finger rings set with glass, 2 bone beads, an iron buckle, an iron knife, an iron awl, a bronze suspension loop, a vessel with globular body and cylindrical neck, and on the left side of the chest 9 perforated cowries, among them the illustrated example is perforated in the middle of the dorsum.1678

Fig. 145. 6 perforated cowries among the finds of an infant in a secondary superposition (8a) of the male Grave 8 at Bol’šie Tigany (1483x) – after Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 18, 105: pl. VII: 21–24

1486. Grave 1: from a likely female burial: 1-1 silver and bronze buckles, a bronze earring, a bronze bracelet, a bronze mirror, a clay jug, various glass beads, and 2 cowries, length: approximately 2.4, resp.2.1 cm.1682

1484. Grave 21: from the burial of an older female, the skeleton was placed on a fur-covered wooden bed: a silver belt buckle, an earring with plate pendant, a rich string of tiny beads, 3 rhomboid bronze pendants, a bronze wire bracelet, a bezelled finger ring set with glass, decorated with four globes, and beads, perhaps sewn on a scarf and 1 perforated, likely Money cowrie, length: approximately 2.3 cm.1679

1487. Grave 8: 1-1 silver and bronze buckles, a bronze brooch, a silver earring, a perforated bronze disk, a bronze suspension loop, a carnelian bead, and 1 cowrie, length: approximately 2.3 cm.1683 1488–92. Divnogor’e (Liskinskij rajon, Voronežskaja oblast’)-Majackoe gorodišče: 120 graves from a catacomb cemetery 600 m west-southwest of the gorodišče of the 9th century:

1485. Grave 45: from the burial of a 7–8 years old girl, placed on a wooden-bark bed: 3 rattle buttons, a bronze mount, a bronze bracelet with coiled terminals, a sheet bronze finger ring set with oculus bead, an iron knife, a light striker, a flint, iron fragment, tendril-palmette-ornamented sheet silver tube, and under the right mandible 2 bronze double horse pendants, 2 silver loops, and 1 perforated cowrie, length: approximately 2.1 cm.1680

1488. Catacomb 38: from the double burial of a 35–45 years old male, and a 35–45 years old female: 30 beads, pearl button, and 1 large (perhaps complete) cowrie, length: approximately 6.9 cm.1684 1489. Catacomb 41: from the burial of a 55 years old male: 2 bronze belt mounts, 2 bronze pendant mounts, 1 small, perhaps Ringed cowrie, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1685

1486–87. Čmi (Severo-Osetinskaja Respublika)-Cemetery 1: 12 graves from an Alan cemetery of the first half of the 6th century:1681

1490. Catacomb 85: from the burial of a 25–30 years old female: an iron knife, rattles, mirror, ear-scoop, iron tweezers, 62 beads, simple amulets: dog teeth, pearly button, and the indented labium fragment of a larger cowrie, length: approximately 4.0–4.1 cm.1686

The excavation stopped after uncovering Grave 111 in 1982. For the material from Graves 58–111 of 10th–11th centuries only limited finds are published, and no cowries: Halikov (1984). An overview was presented by: Kazakov (1992) 58–77. 1483x. From data collection the material of Grave 8a, an infant in a secondary superposition of the male Grave 8 was falsely omitted. There were 2 cast pendants of globular strings, a string of pearls with lunular pendant, bronze wire bracelet, a dirhem minted in the year 100/717–718 in Basrah, and finally in a necklace 6 perforated cowries by a pearl and a leaf-shaped pendant in it. Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 18, 105: pl. VII: 21–24 (Fig. 145). 1678 Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 29–30, 31: fig. 22, 114: pl. XVI: 12. 1679 Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 30–33, fig. 21, 113: pl. XV: B. 5. 1680 Chalikova–Chalikov (1981) 45–46, 130: XXXIIA. pl. 5. 1681 Continuing the cemetery excavation along the Terk River in 1979–80. The graves were dated to the first half of the 6th century by Maja Pavlovna Abramova, while Anatolij Konstantinovič Ambroz argued that they are from the 7th century: Abramova (1997) 92. 1677

1491. Catacomb 88: from the burial of a 35–40 years old female: knife, 2 rattles, 2 mirrors, looped pouch, 536 beads Abramova (1997) 78, 92, 89: fig. 60: 5. Abramova (1997) 91: fig. 62: 31. 1684 Flërov (1993) 31, pl. 13. The drawing was published earlier: Flërov (1984) 165: pl. 10; 177: fig. 18: 8. 1685 Flërov (1984) 176–77: fig. 17: 10, 160: pl. 8, 158: fig. 9: 41. 1686 Flërov (1993) 26–27: pl. 11. The drawing was published earlier: Flërov (1990) 165, 191: fig. 21: 13. 1682 1683

326

Catalogue (not a string of beads, a bead-pouch?) and 1 large cowrie, length: approximately 5.8 cm.1687

several Alan sites are known, dating from the 6th–10th centuries:1692

1492. Catacomb 92: from the double burial of a 50–60 years old female and a 2 years old child: 2 gold earrings, crescent-shaped pendant, a finger ring, 1 bead, a pearl disk, 2 knives, small hoes, and 1 small, perhaps Money cowrie, length: 1.6 cm.1688

1496. Baranaha-Mountain rock-grave: among the finds, 2 cowries.1693

1493. Divnogor’e (Liskinskij rajon, Voronežskaja oblast’)Majackoe selišče: on the type site of the Saltovo-Majaki Culture, 28 catacombs and 3 pit graves from the cemetery located next to the gorodišče of the 9th–10th centuries: Catacomb VII: from the burial of a 2–4 years old child: a bronze earring with a long pendant, a bronze “sunamulet”, bronze wire bracelet with coiled terminals, a silver bezelled finger ring, a round bronze strip, an iron artifact, and between the shoulder blades a bronze bell, 3 silver cover plates of a wooden vessel, and 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum, likely Money cowry, length: approximately 1.8 cm, which were interpreted by the authors as amulets.1689

1497. Cave Gamovskoe uščel’je: from the ash stain of a female burial at the border of Il’ič hutor opposite Batareja cliff: a half rattle, earring fragments, 192 variously colored and shaped glass, glass paste and ozocerite (gešir) beads, some with metal loops, 2 convex marine shells perforated in the middle, pendant, drop-shaped mother-of- pearlpendant with 2 perforations, 2 black glass finger rings, an iron gouge-axe, iron tweezers, a bronze skimmer, a flat-looped spoon, the handle of a small toilet brush, a round looped metal mirror with tamga-like signs, 2 bronze ear-spoons, and 5 cowries in unknown condition (not illustrated).1694 1498–501. Sosenka balka–rock chamber nr. 2: 10 graves were found in the rock cavity 9 km further from the border of Il’ič hutor on the left side of Sosenka combe where it joins with Balabanka combe:

1494. Giljač gorodišče (Karačaevo-Čerkesskaja Respublika): cave cemetery next to the gorodišče above the Malyj Giljač/Kül-Tübe Stream:

1498. Grave 2: from the double burial of an adult and a child: a two-winged axe-adze, iron chain-mail fragment, 2 beads, bronze folding amulet, a clay jug, and 1 unmodified cowrie.1695

Grave/1965: from a child burial of the 9th–early 10th centuries: a bronze brooch, 2 bronze earrings, a string of beads made of various glass and glass paste beads, a twisted bronze wire, 2 bronze rattles, the lower part of one is a bronze skimmer, an iron plaque, and 3 perforated cowries. The 2 illustrated items, according to the drawing, are likely Money cowries, length: approximately 1.35 cm (Fig. 146).1690

1499. Grave 4: in the double burial of a male and a female, finds from the later: a two-winged axe-adze with hazel-rod handle, 2 earrings with globe-row pendants, 11 beads, a bronze plate spangle, 2 gouge-axes, an iron knife, felt, 2 jugs wrapped in linen, thread and leather remains, and 22 cowries in unknown condition.1696 1500. Grave 6: an iron buckle, the wooden (?) handle of an axe, in the grave soil pottery sherds, flint, and 1 unmodified cowrie (?).1697

1495. Haračoj (?; Čečeno-Ingušskaja Respublika): cemetery of the 7th–8th centuries: Grave 11: from the burial of a young female: bronze and iron cross-bow brooch, a bronze belt buckle, a buttoned bronze pendant, a pair of bronze wire bracelets with globe terminals, and around the wrist as well as on the neck, ornamented glass and glass paste beads, 1 cowrie, presumably with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1691

1501. Grave 7: from a female burial: 2 bronze belt mounts, 2 silver loops, a round open-work bronze mount, a small bronze chain with iron brooch, a dress fastener, 4 iron bracelets, an iron knife, an iron strip, remains of linen, a bronze bell, 2 pierced animal teeth, 315 beads: 51 amber, 3 ozocerite, 3 crystal, 36 round bone, 3 large round glass, 4 carnelian beads, 1 black glass paste cone, 3 belt loops, 4 light flat squared beads, and variously shaped mush beads, 2 round, large flat amber bead disks, and 4 cowries in unknown condition.1698

Hasaut – see 1456–59. Asiatskij 1496–504. Il’ič hutor (Krasnodarskij kraj): Some cowries were discovered in the area of the settlement, along the left tributary of the Upper Koban, the Urup River, where

The finds were dated in general to the pre-Christian Period, that is before the 10th century, the 8th–9th centuries: Kuznecov (1984) 7. 1693 Ložkin (1984) 34; Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1694 Ložkin (1984) 29–31: nr. 3, 34: fig. 4: 1–10. 1695 Ložkin (1984) 40: nr. 17, 43: fig. 3: 2–5, 7; Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1696 Ložkin (1984) 41–42: nr. 17, 46: fig. 15: 1–11; Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1697 Ložkin (1984) 45: nr. 17, 48: fig. 1: 6 (Grave 6); Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1698 Ložkin (1984) 45: nr. 17, 48: fig. 1: 6 (Grave 7, 1–11); Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1692

Flërov (1993) 26–27: pl. 11, 128: fig. 51: 13. Flërov (1993) 33, pl. 14, 129: fig. 52: 5. 1689 Vinnikov–Afanas’ev (1991) 26–27, 38–39, 42, fig. 13. 1690 Minaeva (1971) 87, 150–52, fig. 21: 10. 1691 Bagaev–Vinogradov (1972) 81, 85: fig. 4: 6. 1687 1688

327

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Imen’kovo (turbaslo-imen’kovskaja) surviving Sarmatian Culture of the second half of the 6th century –7th century. Grave 10: from a child burial: a bronze buckle, a bronze torque, a bronze pendant, a string of beads, 1-1 horse- and human-shaped bronze pendants, 2 vessels, and 1 small perforated cowrie, length: approximately 1.7 cm.1702 1506–07. Kušnarenkovo (Respublika cemetery of the 6th–7th centuries:

Baškortostan):

1506. Grave 1: from a child burial: 3 beads and at the right elbow 1 cowrie.1703 1507. Grave 22: from a child burial: near the neck 2 gilt glass beads, 1 stone bead and 3 (1 complete, 2 fragmentary) cowries.1704 Ladoga – see 1512. Staraja Ladoga Majackoe gorodišče – see 1488–92. Divnogor’e Majackoe selišče – 1493. Divnogor’e 1508. Malaja Rjazan’ (Stavropol’skij rajon, Samarskaja oblast’): from the only excavated Early Volga Bulgarian female burial of the late 7th–early 8th centuries: a bronze earring, an iron artifact, a vessel fragment, and on the right side of the skull 1 cowrie with removed dorsum, perhaps Ringed cowrie, length: approximately 1.6 cm.1705

Fig. 146. 2 pierced probably Money cowries among the finds of Grave/1965 from Giljač gorodišče (1494) – after Minaeva (1971) fig. 21

1502. Sosenka balka–rock cavity nr. 3: 20–25 m from rock cavity no. 2, grave goods from a burial: doubleconical ozocerite bead, vessel fragments and 1 cowrie in unspecified condition.1699

1509. Malaja Rjazan’ (Stavropol’skij rajon, Samarskaja oblast’): 7 kurgans of an Early Volga Bulgarian cemetery of the late 7th–8th centuries: Kurgan 4: the graves of 2 pubescents and 1 child. From the child burial: a clay pot, on the chest a string of beads: a round bronze medallion, 2 bronze ball-buttons, several oculus and 1-1 square-shaped, and double-pyramidal glass paste beads, a horse-shaped pendant cut from shell, and 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.5 cm.1706

1503. Sosenka balka–the cave opposite rock cavity nr. 2: from the female grave on the cave on the right bank of the Balabanka Stream: a bronze brooch, a bronze belt mount, 90 mush beads, a blue glass pendant with bronze suspension, 2 marine shell pendants with opening in the middle, marine shell, a pierced animal tooth, bronze bracelet fragment, a small bronze wire finger ring, a bronze ear-scoop, 2 iron gouge-axes, and 2 cowries in unknown condition.1700

1510. Mokraja Balka (Kislovodskij rajon, Stavropol’skij kraj): 158 graves of the Alan catacombe cemetery, dated between the middle of the 5th century–first half of the 8th century:1707

1504. Rock cavity nr. 1 on the right bank of the Urup River: 3 km from Il’ič hutor, among the grave goods from a mass grave of 20 skeletons: 36 glass beads, 2 pierced animal teeth, and 2 cowries in unknown condition (not illustrated).1701

Kazakov (1996) 44, 46, 53: fig. 3: 1 (? type); Kazakov (1998) 126: fig. 14: 1. Among the finds from the cemetery in Graves 5, 6, 8, 10, 13 were found unidentified fossil (?) shells. 1703 Gening (1977) 91, 93: fig. 3: 29 (perhaps Money cowrie). 1704 Gening (1977) 103, 102: fig. 9: 29–31. 1705 Matveeva (1997a) 7, 10, 12: nr. 30, 77, 205: fig. 110: 2, 220: fig. 125: 42.. 1706 Bagautdinov–Bogačev–Zubov (1998) 207, 276: pl. LXIV: 7. The species of the shell can be identified from a color photo, whose caption does not correspond with this grave good: 32/33: fig. 17, above, left. An additional drawing of the cowrie without description: 103: fig. 20: 37; Bagautdinov–Bogačev–Zubov–Stašenkov (2001) 27: fig. below. 1707 Afanas’ev (1980) 141; Abramova (1997) 28: nr. 7 (27). 1702

1505. Komintern (Spasskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan)cemetery II: 49 graves from the cemetery of the TurbasliLožkin (1984) 47: nr. 18, not illustrated. Ložkin (1984) 47: nr. 18, not illustrated. 1701 Ložkin (1984) 33–36: nr. 13, 39: fig. 9: 1–8. 1699 1700

328

Catalogue Catacomb 11: the separated grave goods of a double burial dated to 550–625������������������������������������������ : 1-1 bronze and silver brooches, an iron buckle, beads, a small bronze spoon, 3 vessels, and 1 small cowrie, length: 1.7 cm.1708

1514. Catacomb 3, Skeleton 1: from the double grave of an adult female and a 14–15 years old girl. From the first burial: a bronze cross-bow brooch, a bronze ball-button, several sheet bronze spangles, silver dress mounts, 18 twowinged bronze headdress mounts, a bronze hair-braid plate disk, 2 silver earrings, a large globe-pendant, a bronze wire bracelet, a small silver globe, a clay cup, on the chest dispersed glass, glass paste and precious stone beads, bronze rattles, a ring fashioned from mother-of-pearl shell, cut in the middle, with a bronze loop. Also between the two skeletons globular blue glass paste beads and 1 (likely small) cowrie in unknown condition.1712

Catacombs 79, 83 – see Annex 2488–90. Moščevaja Balka – see 1456–59. Asiatskij 1511. Novinki (Volžskij rajon, Samarskaja oblast’)-Kurgan cemetery II: 30 kurgans from an Early Volga Bulgarian cemetery of the late 7th–8th centuries: Kurgan 14: among 6 burials in second grave two mixed child skeletons were uncovered. At the chin of one child 1 bead and 1 cowrie with removed dorsum were discovered, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1709

1515. Catacomb 44: from the burial of a female and a child: an iron buckle, a plait clamp, an earring with globependant, 2 wire bracelets, a bezelled and a band finger rings, an iron knife, a clay vessel, a lavish string of glass beads and 1 small cowrie, length: approximately 1.3 cm.1713

Palasa-Syrt (Respublika Dagestan) Graves 20, 43, 63 – see Annex 2493–95.

1516. Catacomb 46: from a child burial: a round mount, a ball-button, an earring with globe-pendant, a mother-ofpearl disk, a rattle, a wire bracelet, a finger ring, an iron knife, a clay jug, and a lavish string of beads of glass­, carnelian and crystal in a bunch, to the right of the skeleton, among them (?) 1 small cowrie, length: approximately 1.6 cm.1714

Polom (Udmurtskaja Respublika)-Cemetery I, Grave 74 – see Annex 2497. 1512. Staraja Ladoga (Volhovskij rajon, Leningradskaja oblast’)-Ladoga: 1, perhaps perforated Money cowrie (?) among the oldest layers of the Slavic settlement, dated 750–760, length: approximately 2.1 cm.1710

1517. Catacomb 61: from a female burial: a bronze earring with globe-pendant, a triangle-shaped bronze pendant, a bronze rattle, 2 bronze wire bracelets, bronze mirror, a clay jug, a rich string of beads of glass, carnelian, fossil coral and 1 small cowrie, length: approximately 1.7 cm.1715

1513–18. Starokorsunskaja stancija (Dinskij rajon)-MTF3. kolhoz: 54 graves from an Alan cemetery of the second half of the 8th–9th centuries: 1513. Catacomb 1, Skeleton 1: the disturbed double burial of a male and a female. From the female (no.1) burial: a solid bronze ball-button, 2 spherical segment-shaped silver mounts, a small silver rosette, a triangle-shaped so-called “horned” buckle, a silver earring (?), 2 silver earrings with a pendant imitating a globe-row, 2 bronze rattles, 4 bronze wire bracelets, a bronze wire finger ring, an iron knife with bronze sheath-mouth frame, a clay vessel, 92 green, light blue and black glass mush beads, 288 variously shaped and colored glass, glass paste, carnelian, lazurite, crystal, hematite, chalcedony, coral and amber beads, redpained tufa bead, an ellipse-shaped lead bead, and 22 likely perforated small cowries in unspecified condition; one illustrated item seems to be complete.1711

1518. Catacomb 64: from a female burial: a bronze disk, 2 bronze wire bracelets, a clay vessel, and a lavish string of beads of glass, fossil coral, carnelian, and 1 perforated cowrie, length: approximately 1.7 cm.1716 1519–21. Tankeevka (Respublika Tatarstan): 881 graves from a 9th–10th centuries Volga Bulgarian cemetery: 1519. Grave 243: from a disturbed child burial: a clay pot, on the neck a necklace: 2 oculus beads, a bone button, a bronze rattle, a gilt bronze pendant and a large cowrie (coquille de cyrena) perforated at the anterior end. Even its size is uncertain, according to one scale the length is “Alan catacomb cemetery from the 8th–9th centuries discovered during the construction works of the airport at Krasnodar” by: Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1712 Kaminskij (1984) 13–15, fig. 2: 70, 16: fig. 3: 1–29, 17: fig. 4: 1 (The cowrie is not illustrated); Selmeczi (1992) 88. 1713 Kaminskij (1987) 203, 193: fig. 6: 11 (the types of the objects are named according to the figure). 1714 Kaminskij (1987) 203, 193: fig. 6: 79 (the types of the objects are named according to the figure). 1715 Kaminskij (1987) 204, 188: fig. 1: 37 (the types of the objects are named according to the figure). 1716 Kaminskij (1987) 204, 198: fig. 10:. 42 (the types of the objects are named according to the figure). None of the author’s publications discussed the cowries.

Kazanski–Mastykova (1999) 551, 554, 552: fig. 18: 9–20 (the grave goods of the two skeletons, the cowrie: 15); Mastykova (2000) 36: fig. 4: 15; Afanas’ev–Runič (2001) 57, 69: fig. 23: 8. 1709 Matveeva (1997a) 28, 77, 172: fig. 74: 3, 220: fig. 125: 43; Zudina (1998) 77, 110 nr. 151, 77: fig. 1710 Davidan (1995) 158: fig. 1: 17 (I could not find the cowries mentioned in the caption as rakovina-kauri in the text). At the same site an Omayyaddirhem issued in Damascus in 699/700 (159: incorrectly: 699/900) was discovered in the slag of a workshop dated to the mid 8th century, which was presented by the author as the earliest item in Eastern Europe: ibid. 159, 165. 1711 Kaminskij (1984) 11–13, 14: fig. 2: 68 (according to the curved side of the item it might be a Ringed cowrie). This site was mentioned as 1708

329

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 147. A Ringed cowrie among the finds of Grave 481 from Tankeevka cemetery (1520) – after Khalikova–Kazakov (1977) pl. XIV: a–t

approximately 3.0 cm, while the other suggests that the length is approximately 8.1 cm.1717

to the illustration one shell is perforated, and is perhaps a Money cowrie, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1719

1520. Grave 481: from a female burial: 2 cast silver earrings with globe-row pendants, 3 round pendants with chains, an openwork bronze disk, the fragment of a looped coin (?), several bronze rattles, a perforated bronze disk, a bronze wire bracelet, a bronze bezelled finger ring set with glass, fragments of 2 silver finger rings, silver fragment of an artifact, an iron awl, a clay vessel, cattle scaple, fur and cloth remains, coffin fragments, on the chest a perforated mother-of-pearl disk, and a necklace: 122 variously shaped and colored glass beads, 1 conical coral bead, 4 small cowries. According to the illustration the length of one shell is: approximately 2.3 cm, and might be a Ringed cowrie (Fig. 147).1718

1522–25. Tarskoe (Čečeno-Ingušskaja Respublika): 29 catacombs from an Alan cemetery of the 8th–9th centuries:1720

1521. Grave 508: amongst decayed bones of a child: 2 bronze plait clamps, a pendant with three suspended ornaments, a bronze rattle and the fragment of an additional rattle, bronze strap end, 2 round open-work “sieve-pendants”, a saw pendant, a hooked finger ring-shaped pendant, 3 bear tooth amulets, 1 unpierced bear tooth and other animal bones, among them a rodent mandible, leather, silk cloth, fur, hair and plank remains, and a necklace: 45 tiny yellow beads, 2 silver glass beads, and 5 small cowries. According

1523. Catacomb 18: from the grave of an adult and a child, grave goods from the latter: iron knife in silver sheath, silver belt mount, 2 bronze earrings with globe-row pendants, numerous glass and glass paste beads, a large

1717 1718

1522. Catacomb 14: from among the remnants of an adult and child: socketed bronze arrowhead, remains of chain mail, 3 iron knives in silver sheath, iron gouge-axe, 3 bronze ball-buttons, fragments of silver earrings, numerous glass beads and mush beads, 7 tiny bronze spirals, 3 bezelled finger rings, a bronze ear-scoop, bronze belt loop, 2 bronze tubes, 15 bronze rattles, an iron loop, 2 glass vessels, riveted bronze plate cover, and left of the pelvis 2 cowries in unknown condition, length: approximately 1.2 cm.1721

Khalikova–Kazakov (1977) 138, 189: pl. XVb: 1. The cowries were not considered worth mentioning: Halikova (1971) 79–81; or mentioned, but not analyzed: Kazakov (1971) 123, and 123–28, 144–45. 1720 “The 4 cowries also belong to the amulets among which one is a small, all in all 18 mm long (pl. XVIII: 6), the second from catacomb no. 27 – huge, with a length of 62 mm (pl. XXXIV: 2). The 2 additional cowries are medium-sized (pl. XXXV: 19, 20).”: Kantemirov–Dzattiaty (1995) 271. The correct reference instead of pl. XXXV: pl. XXV, moreover, instead of 4 cowries, 5 were uncovered in the cemetery. 1721 Kantemirov–Dzattiaty (1995) 262, 286: pl. XIV: 4–5. 1719

Khalikova–Kazakov (1977) 71, 113, 183: pl. IXa: 5. Khalikova–Kazakov (1977) 136, 189: pl. XVa: 1.

330

Catalogue lead bead, 3 bronze rattles, a double-cup-shaped bronze amulet with bronze spiral suspension, silver finger ring set with glass, and to the right of the skull a whetstone and a cowrie in unknown condition, length: 1.8 cm.1722

decorated with a pendant, cast in bronze, glass beads, an iron knife, a limestone spindle whorl, and a large cowrie, length: approximately 6.6 cm.1725 1527. Verhnjaja Saja (Berezovskij rajon, Permskaja oblast’): 120 kurgans of a Finno-Permian cemetery of the 5th–6th centuries:

1524. Catacomb 24: from the graves of two adults (male and female?) and one adolescent accompanied by numerous glass, glass paste and carnelian beads. Objects that are suggested to originate from the burial of the adolescent: 3 iron knives, 2 silver earrings, a bronze rattle, a squared bronze buckle, a bronze mirror, a bronze ring. Finds from the male burial: 2 iron adze-axes, iron gouge-axe, 1-1 iron knives in sheaths covered with silver, and bronze, 3 bronze rattles, 7 tiny bronze spiral fragments, a bronze buckle, 6 silver belt mounts, a silver strap-end, remains of a leather belt, an eared mug. Finds from the female burial: 2 iron knives, 3 bronze earrings, a bronze pendant, 3 bronze rattles, 1-1 bronze and white-metal mirrors, 1 tiny bronze mirror, 1 bronze ear-scoop, 2 chain-mail pieces with beads corroded on its material, iron fragments. Objects that were found between the two adults: 2 iron axes, one with the remains of the wooden handle, an iron knife, 3 bronze rattles, an open twisted bronze bracelet, 4 glass finger rings, and 2, perhaps medium-sized cowries with removed dorsum or the dorsum is fragmentary, length: approximately 3.1, resp. 2.7 cm.1723

Kurgan 35 Grave 1: grave goods from a female burial: a bronze buckle, bronze mounts and silver strap end of the belt, a small bronze case box, a triangle-shaped bronze plate, rattle earring with 6 small chains, onto which terminals 1-1 small cowrie with removed dorsum were hung. From the latter, only 2 survived, length: approximately 1.3–1.5 cm.1726 1528. Verhnyj Alkun (Groznenskij rajon): from a likely female burial in a catacomb cemetery located in the ravine valley of the Assy River of the 6th century: 3 bronze earrings, a bronze spiral, an iron knife, one quarter of a metal mirror, at the neck a string of 27 variously shaped and colored glass and glass paste beads, 2 bronze rattles, 3 various-sized round copper plate pendants and 3 perforated cowries. The length of the illustrated shell: approximately 1.9 cm.1727 1529. Verhnyj Koban aul (Severo-Osetinskaja Respublika): from the material of Franz Heger collected in 1881, 1890 and 1891:

1525. Catacomb 27: the burial of two adults accompanied by glass and glass paste beads. Between the skeletons an iron gouge-axe, 2 iron knives in bronze mounted sheaths and an iron loop. From the second grave: an adze-axe, an iron knife in silver sheath, a stone spindle whorl, a stone spindle loop, 2 bronze buckle, a white-metal mount, a small bronze button, 2 bronze earrings, 18 bronze rattles, a round mother-of-pearl strip on a bronze pendant, a bronze wire bracelet, 4 bronze rings. Grave goods from the almost wholly decayed second burial in the middle of the chamber: an iron knife in bronze sheath, 2 silver earrings, 3 bronze belt mounts, 2 bronze wire bracelets, 2 silver finger rings set with glass, a bronze ring, a boar canine, and at the chest 2 mother-of-pearl disks decorated with concentric circles and 1 large, cowrie perhaps with removed dorsum, length: 6.2 cm.1724

Catacomb III: an assemblage that can be assigned to the Saltovo-Majaki (saltovo-majackaja) Culture on the basis of the beads:1728 bronze earring fragments, 4 bronze spiral fragments, 6 bronze plate beads, 9 squared and 7 other glass beads, 12 double-pyramidal, 5 cylindrical, 12 fluted, 6 mosaic, 18 oculus, 17 one- and multi-sectioned, 24 glass paste, 1 clay, 2 carnelian, 1 crystal beads, 2 bronze wire bracelets, thick bronze bracelet fragment, 2 sheet bronze tubes, whetstone, iron, bronze, glass, clay and shell (rakoviny) fragments, a pierced woolf tooth, and 1 medium-sized fragmentary cowrie (bol’šaja rakovina /Kauri/), length: approximately 3.9 cm. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.1729

1526. Tetjuši (Tetjušskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan): 130 graves from a pagan Volga Bulgarian cemetery of the second half of the 9th–first half of the 10th centuries, which was used up to the end of the 11th century like a Muslim cemetery:

1530. Volokonovo (Belgorodskaja oblast’): 28 graves of a cemetery of the late 9th–10th centuries: Grave 12: from a female burial: a pendant with one globe, 3 ball-buttons, a thick wire bracelet with coiled terminals, and in a string of beads, together with globular and

Grave 114: the only drawn grave goods of a female (?) burial from the pagan part of the cemetery: a bronze ball button, bronze belt ornaments: a buckle, mounts with rings, a strap end, a bronze plait clamp, bronze earring

Kazakov–Halikova (1981) 22: fig. 1: B. 13; Kazakov (1992) 103, 105: fig. 36: B. 13. 1726 According to the July 2000 letter from Rimma Dmitrievna Goldina to Csanád Bálint. 1727 Semenov (1952) 117–18, 119: fig. 37: 28. 1728 Hajnrih (1995) 184, 201; see 291, 1079. 1729 Hajnrih (1995) 196, 234: pl. XXXII: 7 (the grave goods are referred to as being on pls XXXI–XXXIII instead of pls XXXIII–XXXV). 1725

Kantemirov–Dzattiaty (1995) 263, 271, 290: pl. XVIII: 6. Kantemirov–Dzattiaty (1995) 265, 271 (incorrectly refering to pl. XXXV), 297: pl. XXV: 19–20. 1724 Kantemirov–Dzattiaty (1995) 266–67, 271, 306: pl. XXXIV. 2. 1722 1723

331

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1534. Björkö (Adelső socken, Upplands län)-Svarta jorden (1871–73): 1 Panther cowrie fragment,1736 and 5 Money cowries among numerous shells1737 were uncovered in the settlement of the Early and Middle Viking Age (800–1000), together with Kufic coins, the latest of which were issued in 963. The largest cowrie is unmodified, 3 others have narrow sawn opening, the fifth shell was photographed with the ventral side up, length: approximately 1.2–2.4 cm.1738

cylindrical oculus, fluted and tiny beads, 1 small cowrie, length: approximately 1.7 cm.1730 Serbia: Beograd-Strs Tadeuš Košćuska nrs 28–30, Gospodar Jovanova nrs 2–4 Grave 29 – see Annex 2505. 1531–53, Annex 2509–10. Sweden1731 Åsbygge, Găvleån – see 1543. Lund Bjästafs/Bjästavs – see 1531. Bjestaf

Statens Historiska Museum, 5208:2515, resp. 5208:2537).

1531. Bjestaf/Bjästavs (Sanda socken, Gotlands län): from 1851 3 Money cowries with removed dorsum among stray finds from graves of the Migration–Vendel Period (–800).

1532. Björkö (Adelső socken, Upplands län): 1820/18261733 1 Money cowrie from a grave from the Viking Age (800– 1100).

1533. Björkö (Adelső socken, Upplands län): Grave from 1902: 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum from an “Iron Age” male burial (?), length: approximately 1.7 cm. Stockholm,

acc.

nr.:

1536. Björkö (Adelső socken, Upplands län)-Svarta jorden (1990–95): the following cowries were discovered during the latest excavations of the Early and Middle Viking Age (800–1000) settlement: 7 Money cowries (among them 4 are with removed dorsum, and 1 perforated, length: 1.0–2.4 cm), 1 Ringed cowrie fragment (length: 0.9 cm), 4 Panther cowries, and its fragment (length: 1.5–5.0 cm) and 1 twice-perforated cowrie from Mauritius (Cypraea mauritiana L.), length: 7.2 cm.1740

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, acc. nr.: 463 (nr. 9a).1734

Museum,

acc.

1535. Björkö (Adelső socken, Upplands län)-Svarta jorden (1969–71): 2 Panther cowrie fragments, 1 Money cowrie and 1 Money cowrie fragment were discovered among Early and Middle Viking Age (800–1000) settlement finds, size: 1.1x1.4; 2.2x2.3 cm; 1.5x1.1 cm, and 1.6x0.5 cm.1739

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, acc. nr.: 1763.1732

Statens Historiska 12159.1735

Stockholm,

1537. Djuped (Styrnäs socken, landskap Ångermanland, Wästerbottens län): in 1932 a string of 94 beads made of cowrie shells, and 1 Ringed cowrie on a bronze loop were found in a female burial of the Viking Period (800–1100).

nr.:

Statens Historiska 19926.1741

Pletneva–Nikolaenko (1976) 290–91, 295, 296: fig. 9: 3: middle. I gathered the material on the basis of Jansson (1988) 589–91, 635–36, and completed the catalogue using the full list sent by Birgitta M. Johansson, and I relied on her dating; I would like here to express my gratitude for her kind help. The erlier catalogue: Johansson (1990) 48; about recent cowrie finds see Johansson (2002–03) 100–102, 102: fig. 10, (2005) 51: tab. 1. “Shells of Indo-Pacific origin have been found at 24 sites located in the eastern part of Sweden. Three major groups are distinguished: cowrie shells, porcelain shells and olive shell. The dominating species is the cowrie shell, 56 in total. Only 17 porcelain shells, or fragments of shells are found from ten different sites in Sweden. Shell segments or beads cut from large porcelain shells (Cypraea spp.) have been found in several places in Sweden. The Viking Age settlement Birka is the only site in Sweden where cowrie shells, porcelain shells and shell segments occur together. Moreover, a large fragment of a porcelain shell has deliberately been cut [1536]. Another, smaller fragment has been modified into a shell segment with drilled holes ready to be strung together with pearls of other material on necklaces similar to those found on Gotland during the Vendel and Viking Age periods. Based on the presence of both modified and unmodified cowries and porcelain shells on Birka it indicates that these shells must have been modified on the island of Björkö.”: Johansson (2005) 53–54, 56, 50: figs 25a–b, 52: figs 26a–b. 1732 Jansson (1988) 635: III.2.[4.]; Johansson (1990) 43–44, 48: fig. 5; Johansson (1991) 87, 87: fig. 10: 1–3; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 107; as one from the 2 oldest finds (see 1549) on Gotland: Johansson (2005) 41, 43, 51: pl. 1 (nr. 1), 88 (nr. 2). 1733 Among the finds from Björkö, 3 Panther and 5 Money cowries were cited together: Reese (1991) 176–77: nr. 109. 1734 Johansson (1990) 48; Johansson (1995a) 124, (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 9), 88: (nr. 1). 1735 This item was mentioned among unidentified shells: Jansson (1988) 1730 1731

Museum,

Stockholm,

acc.

nr.:

1538. Endregårda (Endre socken, Gotlands län): Grave 1 (1902): 1 in the material of a female burial dated between 550–650 1 Panther cowrie was discovered, 635: III.2.[1.]; Johansson (1990) 40, 48; Johansson (1995a) 125, 127: 7: fig. 13 lower line, fifth from the left; Johansson (1997) 219, 220: fig. 3, in the register of Birgitta M. Johansson: “mansgrav”; Johansson (2005) 56, 51: tab. 1 (nr. 8), 55: figs 29a–b, 88 (nr. 8). 1736 Jansson (1988) 365: III.1.[1.]; Johansson (1990) 40, 42, 48; Johansson (1995a) 124, 127: 7:fig. 13: upper line, second from the left. She treated the object as a tool, with whose indented ridge the wavy lines were drawn on unfired clay vessels: Johansson (1997) 227, 228: fig. 6 1737 There were similar cyprina shells (Arctica islandica L.) from Iceland: Johansson (1995a) 124. 1738 Jacob (1891) 147; Schneider (1905) 116; Jackson (1917) 130; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 4; Jansson (1988) 365: III.2.[1.]; Johansson (1990) 40, 42, 48; Johansson (1995a) 124: “five intact cowrie shells”, 127: 7:fig. 13 (the condition of the shells); Johansson (1997) 226, 226: fig. 4, (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 7), 88 (nr. 3–4). 1739 1 Panther cowrie fragment has already been mentioned: Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[1.]; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 28). 1740 About the cowrie from Mauritius island: Johansson (1997) 227–28; Johansson (1995a) 124 (2 perforated Money cowries), (2002–03) 103, (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 27). 1741 Jansson (1988) 636: III.2.[6.]; Johansson (1990) 42, 48; Reese (1991) 176: nr. 121; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 10), 88 (nr. 11).

332

Catalogue Lilla Ihre – see 1546–47. Stora och Lilla Ihre

likely perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, and through the right side perforation with a small loop it is suspended on a larger ring with twisted terminals, length: approximately 6.2 cm. Statens Historiska 11742.1742

Museum,

Stockholm,

acc.

1543. Lund (Valbo socken, Gävleborgs län): among undated goods from a female grave, 1 Tummy cowrie (Cypraea ventriculus) was discovered.1747

nr.:

1544. Slite (Othem socken, Gotlands län)-Stora torget:

1539. Fjäle (Ala socken, Gotlands län): in a partly robbed grave from the Vendel Period (550–800) a string of beads composed of bronze and glass paste, and made of cowries, and also 2 fragmentary, perhaps Money cowries.1743

Grave 2b (1947): 1 perforated Money cowrie from a Viking Age female burial (850–1000). Statens Historiska 23896.1748

Child’s grave – see Annex 2509.

Stockholm,

acc.

Statens Historiska 22087:4.1749

Stockholm,

acc.

Museum,

Stockholm,

acc.

nr.:

1546. Grave 105 (218a) (1942): from the burial of a young female dated to the Early Viking Period (800–850): casket brooch, 2 animal head-shaped brooches, 2 spacer beads, a string of 213 glass, glass paste, and beads of cowries, 2 bronze needles and the head of one additional needle, 24 fish head-shaped bronze leather string ends, a round bronze buckle with 2 small chains, an iron knife in a sheath with bronze mounts, 1-1 amber and limestone spindle whorls, a bronze key, and in the casket brooch 1 perforated Money cowrie.

1541. Kvinnegårda (Havdhem socken, Gotlands län): stray finds from graves found in 1918 and dated to the Vendel–Viking Periods (550–1100): 17 beads of cowries and 1 fragment of a cowrie (Cypraea sp.) or of a Panther cowrie. Museum,

nr.:

1546–47. Stora och Lilla Ihre (Hellvi socken, Gotlands län): cemetery of 550–1100:1750

nr.:

Ire – see 1546–47. Stora och Lilla Ihre

Statens Historiska 16183.1745

acc.

Grave 4 (1938): 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum from a female burial of the Middle Viking Period (850– 1000).

1540. Hallvede (Eke socken, Gotlands län): from 1936 among the finds from a female burial of 700–750 in a string of 78 beads made of cowries and glass, 1 Panther cowrie with broken dorsum, perforated with a small round hole, length: approximately 6.6 cm. Museum,

Stockholm,

1545. Stora Hallvards (Silte socken, Gotlands län):

Fjälkinge (Skåne län) – see Annex 2510.

Statens Historiska 21394.1744

Museum,

nr.:

1542. Kylver (Stånga socken, Gotlands län):

Gotlands Formsal, Visby, acc. nr.: C 9322:166a.1751

Grave 5 (1908): from a female burial of to the Vendel Period (550–800): 17 beads made of cowries, and 1 Panther cowrie broken into four pieces.

1547. Grave 280d (1934): from a female burial of the Vendel Period (550–800) 25 (or 118) beads of cowries, and 1 perforated Panther cowrie, with the remains of the suspension loop.

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, 13436.1746

Statens Historiska 20826.1752

Jansé (1935) 70, 72: and pl. 15: 7; Salin (1959) 76; Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[3.] (ältere Vendelzeit, that is approximately between 550–650); Johansson (1990) 48; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 111 (dating: probably 6th–7th centuries); Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 22), 88 (nr. 7). 1743 Johansson (1990) 42; Johansson (1991) 87, (2005) 51: pl. 1 (nr. 15). 1744 Nerman (1969) (I): 41: and II: pl. 20: 1903; Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[2.]; Trotzig (1988) 291: fig. 4; Johansson (1990) 48; Johansson (1991) 86, 86: fig. 8: 1; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 122; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 23), 88 (nr. 14). 1745 As a Panther cowrie: Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[5.]; Cypraea sp.: Johansson (1990) 48; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 112 (dated to the 6th–7th centuries). Assigned from a female burial: Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 25), 88 (nr. 10). 1746 Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[7.] (dated 550–650); also defined as Cypraea sp.: Johansson (1990) 48; Johansson (1991) 86, 86: fig. 9; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 113 (dated probably around 600); as Cypraea melanostoma: Nerman (1955) 213; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 20), 88 (nr. 9). 1742

Museum,

Stockholm,

acc.

nr.:

Based on the list by Birgitta M. Johansson; Johansson (2002–03) 101, (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 26), 88 (nr.27). 1748 Jansson (1988) 635: III.2.[3.] (dated to the Middle Viking Period, 850–1000); Johansson (1990) 48; Johansson (1991) 87; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 115; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 13), 88 (nr. 17). 1749 Jansson (1988) 636: III.2.[5.] ; Johansson (1990) 43, 48; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 116; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 12), 88 (nr. 16). 1750 160 graves belong to the Viking part of the cemetery: Stenberger (1961) 1. 1751 Stenberger (1961) 63–64, 120, 54–57: figs 54–58; Jansson (1988) 635: III.2.[2.]; Johansson (1990) 48: at the end of the catalogue; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 117; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 14), 88 (nr. 20). 1752 Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[6.]. Also classified as Cypraea camelopardalis (Perry) f.d. C. melanostoma: Johansson (1990) 48; Johansson (1991) 86, 87, 86: fig. 8: 3. This burial was likely referred to 1747

333

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 148. Necklace with 6 cowrie shells and 29 shell (Cypraea spp.) beads from Vi Alvar (1549) – after Johansson (2005) Paper VI 101: fig. 9

Valbo – see 1543. Lund

1550. Viggbyholm (Täby socken, Upplands län): among the finds from a female cremation burial from the Vendel– Viking Periods (550–1100) 1 Money cowrie was found, broken into two.1755

1548. Vallstenarum (Vallstena socken, Gotlands län): from 1878, 1 fragmentary Panther cowrie from a female burial, perforated twice crossways at the anterior end and strung on a bronze loop, dated to the Vendel Period (550–600), length: approximately 6.3 cm.

1551. Unknown provenance (Grötlingbo socken, Gotlands län): from 1898, 1 Panther cowrie, perforated at the middle of the anterior end and suspended from a double-loop together with 24 beads of cowries as stray finds from grave materials dating between 600–650, length: 7.5 cm.

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, acc. nr.: 6294.1753 1549. Vi Alvar (Källa socken, Ölands län):

Statens Historiska 10482.1756

Grave 303a: beads uncovered in 1936 in a child burial from the Vendel Period (550–800): 6 bronze spiral beads, 20 glass beads, 29 beads of cowries and 6 perforated Money cowries. Statens Historiska Museum, 21786:303a (Fig. 148).1754

Stockholm,

acc.

Museum,

Stockholm,

acc.

nr.:

1552. Unknown provenance (Gotlands län): 11 small cowries,1757 among them perhaps 2 Money cowries, in a Vendel Age (550–750) cemetery.1758

nr.:

Based on the list of Birgitta M. Johansson; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 5), 88 (nr. 18). 1756 Jansé (1935) 70, 72: and pl. 15: 8; Salin (1959) 76; classified as C. melanostoma: Nerman (1955) 211, 213, fig. 3; Nerman (1969) (I): 5: and II: pl. 20: 216; Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[4.]; Trotzig (1988) 290: fig. 3: the photo on the right; also defined as C. camelopardalis ? f.d. C. melanostoma: Johansson. (1990) 48; Johansson (1991) 86, 86: fig. 8: 2; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 110; “Bought in 1898 from antiquities dealer Anton Florin of Visby.”: Rundkvist (2003) 229. The items presented by O. Jansé and Gustaf Trotzig are most likely not identical! Named as from a female burial of Grötlingbo: Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 24), 88 (nr. 6). 1757 Johansson (1995) 348: referred to the following manuscript: A.-M. Petterson: Ett gotländskt Gårdsgravfält från Vendeltiden. En Studie av Gravar vid ődegården Fjäle i Ala socken. Undergraduate dissertation, Stockholm University (1992) 21. 1758 Johansson (1990) 42. 1755

as Grave nr. 1 in 1934 with a Panther cowrie but with incorrect accession number, the right serial number is after the 118 Panther cowrie beads: Reese (1991) 177: nr. 117; Johansson (2005) 51: tab. 1 (nr. 21). 1753 Classified as C. melanostoma: Nerman (1955) 211, 213, fig. 2; Nerman (1969) (I): 5: and II: pl. 20: 215; Jansson (1988) 635: III.1.[8.]; also as C. camelopardalis f.d. C. melanostoma: Johansson (1990) 48; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 114; Johansson (2005) 32–33, figs 11a–b. 51: tab. 1 (nr. 19), 88 (nr. 5). 1754 Iversen–Nåsman (1977) 91–92; Jansson (1988) 636: III.2.[7.]; Johansson (1990) 43, 48; Reese (1991) 177: nr. 120; Johansson (2002– 03) 102, 101: fig. 9; as one from the 2 oldest finds (see 1531) on Gotland, (2005) 41, 43, 51: tab. 1 (nr. 4), 88 (nr. 15).

334

Catalogue 1553. Unknown provenance (Gotlands län): 1 partly fragmentary Giraffe cowrie (Cypraea melanostoma), perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, suspended on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, length: approximately 5.8 cm.1759

Schweizerisches Landesmusem, Zürich.1762 Entibühl – see 1561. 1429. Zürich-Hirslanden Kleinandelfingen Kleinandelfingen

1554–61. Switzerland

–

see

1558–59.

Oerlingen/

1557. Löhningen (Kanton Schaffhausen)-Gasthaus „Zum Hirschen”: from the burial of a female of the 7th century (Böhner IV): 2 oval buckles, 1 bronze buckle, 6 bronze strap ends, 2 bronze shoe-mount buckles, 2 mounts, 2 strap ends, and above the left knee the pieces of the belt pendant set: remains of the suspension strap, an ivoryframed bronze disk, a Knotenring, a bronze chain with a small knife, scissors, a double-rowed bone comb in a case, bronze rivet head, and at the knee 1 perforated cowrie.

Andelfingen – see 1558–59. Oerlingen/Kleinandelfingen Balgrist – see 1561. 1429. Zürich-Hirslanden 1554. Basel (Kanton Basel-Stadt)-Bernerring: Grave 19: from a Frankish female burial of the 6th century: an iron buckle, a small bronze buckle, a bronze strap end, an ivory-framed bronze disk, a string of 50 glass beads, a double-rowed bone comb, an iron key, a bronze ring, a small bronze spoon, an iron strip, and at the left lower leg, 1 Tiger cowrie (Cypraea tigrata), perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, strung on a tiny loop, length: 7.5 cm.

Allerheiligen-Museum, Schaffhausen, acc. nr.: 6498.1763 1558–59. Oerlingen/Kleinandelfingen (Kanton Zürich)Oerlingen, „Auf dem Bergli”: 53 graves of an Alamannic cemetery: 1558. Grave 27: from a disturbed female (juvenile) burial of the first half of the 7th century: a string of 16 glass and 1 amber beads, and at the outer side of the left leg the pieces of the belt pendant set: an iron key, a bronze disk, and at the knee a large cowrie, incomplete at the anterior end, at present 5.5 cm long, previously strung on an iron loop with twisted terminals.

Historisches Museum, Basel. acc. nr.: 1932.82.1760 1555. Beggingen (Kanton Schaffhausen)-Löbern: Grave 43: from the burial of a girl of the 7th century (Böhner IV): an iron buckle, a bronze mount, bronze rivet head, in a string of 69 glass beads, an amber bead, linen remains, and between the femora and the knees pieces of the belt pendant set: a bronze disk, iron knife, a bronze amulet capsule, 3 bronze mounts, 4 bronze buttons, a bronze ring, a bone rivet head, 5 perforated Roman bronze coins, and 1 Tiger cowrie (Tigerschnecke) presented as separately hung from a strap, length: 6.3 cm.

Schweizerisches 29805.1764

Landesmusem,

Zürich,

acc.

nr.:

1559. Grave 30: from the burial of a female (youngadult) of the first half of the 7th century (Böhner IV): 1-1 iron and bronze belt buckles, 2 silver shoe-mount buckles and 1 strap end, an iron strip, a string of 27 glass, 1 amber and 1 shell-limestone beads, and at the left outer side at the height of the knee the pieces of the belt pendant set: a small iron chain, 2 bronze disks, one with ivory-frame, iron toilet equipment on a wire loop, an iron knife, an iron loop, iron buckle frame, an iron clasp, a looped iron fragment, a double-rowed bone comb in case, fragment of an omega-shaped brooch, on a separate iron chain a large cowrie perforated twice crossways at the anterior end, with a bronze loop, length: 6.8 cm.

Allerheiligen-Museum, Schaffhausen, acc. nr.: 14823.1761 1556. Bülach (Kanton Zürich): more than 300 graves from a cemetery of the 6th–7th centuries: Grave 132: from the burial of a female of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a buckle, a string of colored beads, an iron knife, and at the outer edge of the left knee the pieces of the belt pendant set: a Roman iron key, a perforated Roman bronze coin, and a large fragmentary cowrie suspended from a small iron chain, length: approximately 7.0 cm.

Schweizerisches 29827.1765

Jacob (1891) 147; Montelius (1906) 299: fig. 489; Jansé (1936) 70; Salin (1959) 76; Johansson (1990) 42, 43. 1760 Moosbrugger-Leu (1971) A: 31 (dated to the 6th century), 222: nr. 33, B: pl. 57: 33. Later the shell was lost, therefore it was only presented with jagged line: Martin (1976) 95–96, 247: nr. 7; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 740–41: nr. 32 (dated to the 7th century), 436: fig. 1; Reiß (1994) 129–30: note 278 (129.); Martin (1996) 200: and 229: fig. 219: the first from above. 1761 Moosbrugger-Leu (1971) A: 225, 225: fig. 78, B: pl. 58: c; Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 750: nr. 50, 435: fig. 2.

Landesmusem,

Zürich,

acc.

nr.:

1759

Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 770: nr. 87.b; Martin (1979) 18, fig. 16. Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 957: nr. 453. 1764 Vogt (1960) 88, 86: fig. 60, 88–89: pl. 33: 2; Stebler-Cauzzo (1997) 262, 277, 289: pl. 6: Grave 27. 3. 1765 Vogt (1960) 88, 86: fig. 61., 88–89: pl. 33: 1; Moosbrugger-Leu (1971) A: 86: note 3, 226: nr. 43, 228: fig. 79; Arends (1978) I: fig. 175, 437, II: 1017: nr. 558 (as an approximately 8.0 cm long Tiger cowrie); Roosens–Alenus-Lecerf (1965) 148: fig. 85; Stebler-Cauzzo (1997) 262, 277, 291: pl. 8: 11. 1762 1763

335

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1560. Ormalingen (Kanton Basel-Land)-“Im Buchs”:

the 6th century material of the fortification a likely small perforated cowrie was found.1771

Grave 3?: from a female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): ivory-framed bronze disk, a string of amber and glass beads, 2 small bronze loops, a bone comb, hung on a small iron chain in a case, 2 perforated Roman coins, and 1 cowrie.

1564. Tunisia 1564. Carthage (near Tunis)-Circus: 1 Tiger cowrie fragment of the mid 6th century.1772 1565. Turkmenistan

Kanton-Museum, Liesthal.1766 1561. Zürich Entibüchel:1767

(Kanton

Zürich)-Hirslanden,

1565. Erk Kala/ancient Merv (near Mary, Kara-kum Desert)-Area 1: 1 cowrie (?) fragment from the 7th century or later.1773

Flur

Grave 6/1827: from an Alamannic female burial of the 7th century (Böhner IV): a framed bronze disk, beads, in a bronze cup ivory remains, and 1 Tiger cowrie.

1566–80, Annex 2524, 2535. Ukraine Artek – see 1567. Gurzuf

Sweizerisches Landesmuseum, Zürich acc. nr.: 6013.1768

Kafyrkala gorodišče – see 1562. Kolhozabad outskirt

1566. Baklinskoe gorodišče (Bahčisarajskij rajon, Krymskaja oblast’): 38 Byzantine-Christian graves of the 9th–10th centuries, excavated in the surroundings of the medieval gorodišče dating to the 9th–12th centuries:

1562. Kolhozabad outskirt (Hatlonskaja oblast’)-Kafyrkala gorodišče: some cowries are known from the medieval (6th–8th centuries) stronghold of Tocharistan, in the valley of the Vahs River, south of Kurgan-Tjube. The length of one perforated shell with a large opening: approximately 3.2 cm.1770

Grave 27: in the tomb, which was covered with a stone plate, 14 skeletons were identified. Grave goods from the child burial nr. 1: a bronze ball button, on the neck a string of 7 amber, 2 carnelian, and 2 glass paste beads, and 2 cowries pierced at their apex. Both might be Ringed cowries, length: approximately 1.7, and 2.1 cm.1774

1563. Pjandžikent gorodišče (Leninabadskaja oblast’): in

Cerniachow/Romaschki1775 – see 1125.

1562–63. Tadžikistan1769

1567. Gurzuf-Artek (Krymskaja oblast’)-Suuk su: more than 200 graves from a Crimean Gothic cemetery:1776 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1018: nr. 561. Oskar Schneider continued his discussion after analyzing the Merovingian cemetery at Wies (see 1396): “Die zahlreichen Muschelfunde in Höhlen, Gräbern und Pfahlbauten der Schweiz lieferten bisher, nach einer freundlich erteilten, brieflichen Auskunft des Herrn J. Heierli, keine kleinen Cypraeen, sondern eine grosse Cypraea aus einem Alemannengrabe von Entibühl...”: Schneider (1905) 116: note; Jackson (1917) 134; Schilder (1923) 205. The identification was made possible through the site name published by Ulrich Arends: Arends (1978) II: 1159: nr. 835. 1768 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 1159–60: nr. 835; see Voigt (1952) 182: nr. 43; mentioned as “Balgrist non loin de Zurich” site: Salin (1959) 76. 1769 Geographically mostly from the kurgan cemeteries of the north Tadžik region in western Ferghana (Ašt, Čarčanak-saj, Čorku, Karabag, Voruh; from South Tadžikistan: Nijazbek) cowries with removed dorsum, or perforated with triangle or elliptical opening were discovered. I could not get hold of the detailed publications of the sites: Litvinskij (1972); Litvinskij (1973) 127, 209, pl. 14: 3, 5, 9, 12 (2-2, that is 8, likely Money cowries without specifying the site). The sites are generally dated between the 1st/2nd–6th/7th centuries but pointing to the fact that the proportion of burials in the stone-built kurgans (kurum) are larger from the period between the 5th–7th centuries as in cemeteries with catacomb niches: Litvinskij (1972) 213. Without details I could not select the individual references to sites in north Tadžikistan in the following note: “Neben der Stein- und Glasperlen gibt es eine Gruppe von Perlen und Anhängern aus hellblauer oder bräunlicher Fayence, engobiertem Ton, gelblicher oder rosafarbener Koralle, Perlmutter, Holz, Kaurimuscheln, Muschelversteinerung und Bronze (Abb. 55).”: Litvinskij (1986) 95, 93: fig. 55: “Perlen aus Fayence, Ton, Koralle, Perlmutter, Muscheln, Muschelversteinerung und Bronze aus nordtadžikischen Gräberfeldern”. 1770 Litvinskij–Solov’ev (1985) 106, 105: fig. 38: 17. 1766

Grave 56: 1-1 male, child, and 3 female burials dated with the coins of Justinus (518–527), and Justinianus I (527–565).1777 From the female burial nr. 3: 2 silver bow brooches, a silver buckle set with alamandite, 2 gold earrings with almandite pendants, 10 large amber beads and 2 bronze bells, 2 silver bracelets with funnel-shaped terminals, an iron knife, and at the neck a string of 60 amber, 4 carnelian and 5 glass beads, and a small cowrie, likely Money cowrie, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1778

1767

1568. Hacki (prev. Čigirinskij uezd, Kievskaja gubernija; Čerkasskaja oblast’): 2 large cowries were discovered in The cowrie was not mentioned in the text, and the photo was published without scale: Belenickij (1954) 39: 11 (above, left); Belenickij–Bentovič– Bol’šakov (1973) 107: fig. 68. 1772 Reese (1991) 172: nr. 88; see Reese (1982) 383; Reese (1992b) 349. 1773 Cypraea, Strombus or Conus fragment: Reese–Simpson (1995). 1774 Petrovskij–Trufanov (1995) 138–39, 141, 248: fig. 13: 7. 1775 Arends (1978) I: 437, II: 774: nr. 96. 1776 It has to be noted that, the author consistently defined the two objects presented among the goods from Grave 87, which seem to be cowries with removed dorsum, as a deer tooth,: Repnikov (1906) 25 (“dvuh korotkih olen’ih zubov”), 48, 56. and pl. II: 1 (“podveska iz olen’jago zuba”). 1777 Pudovin (1961) 179; Bálint (1989) 74. 1778 Repnikov (1906) 16, 48, 56. and pl. II: 8. 1771

336

Catalogue Christian chamber-grave cemetery were 5 burials with cowries: 1571–72. Chamber Grave nr. 42: 4 skeletons in a disturbed grave of the late 6th–early 7th centuries: 1571. Skeleton 1: 2 large silver double-plated brooches, the second type of silver buckle with eagle-head set with glass, from the late 6th–first quarter of the 7th centuries,1782 an iron buckle, 2 gold earrings with multi-faceted plate beads, a bronze wire bracelet with widening terminals, 2 bronze finger rings, an iron knife, and around the skull small amber and glass beads, on the neck blue and colored glass beads, and at the same place, but in a lower line 3 bronze bells, a bronze pendant fragment, and 2 cowries. The illustrated shell is with removed dorsum, and seems to be a Money cowrie, length: approximately 1.9 cm.1783

Fig. 149. Pierced Panther (?) cowrie on a copper loop from treasure hoard at Hacki (1568) – after Korzuhina (1996) 612: pl. 22: 53.

1572. Skeleton 2: the first type of the eagle-headed silver buckle set with almandite and glass, from the second half of the 6th century,1784 2 iron buckles, 2 bronze earrings with globe-pendants, 2 silver wire bracelets with widening terminals, and around the skull a string of 30 amber and colored glass beads, 1 perforated animal tooth, and 1 cowrie, which, according to the illustration is probably a Money cowrie with removed dorsum, length: approximately 1.6 cm.1785

a treasure hoard from the 7th century, showing parallels with the finds of Early Avar Period, one has a fragmentary dorsum, the other is strung on a copper loop, most likely a Panther cowrie, length: approximately 7.6 cm (Fig. 149).1779 1569. Harivka (Putivil’skij rajon, Sumskaja oblast’)Uročišče Trifon: a treasure hoard of the second half of the 7th century, or the early 8th century, hidden in a clay vessel: 33 grams gold jewelry: 4 earrings, and 1484 grams silver jewelry: 2 earrings and 2 earring fragments, 5 starshaped pendants, a crescent-shaped pendant, 5 torques and 4 torque fragments, 6 antropomorphic brooches, a small chain, a belt buckle, a belt mount, 2 small round mounts, and 110 Money cowries with removed dorsum.

1573. Chamber grave nr. 38, Skeleton nr 3: from a female burial, the following finds were mentioned: a bronze belt buckle, the 4th type of the eagle-headed buckle, dated to the second half of the 7th century, a pair of bronze wire bracelets with widening terminals, in the short string of the colored glass beads some small shells, perhaps Ringed cowries were discovered, all with removed dorsum.1786

Archaeological Institute of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Kiev (Fig. 150).1780

1574. Chamber grave nr. 38, Skeleton nr 4: grave goods of a female burial: a pair of iron brooches, an iron knife, an iron sabretache buckle, a bronze earring, the 5th type of the eagle-headed buckle, dated to the second half of the 7th century, a bronze bracelet, and in a short (length: 13 cm) string of colored glass beads, among animal teeth some small cowries with removed dorsum, perhaps Ringed cowries.1787

Har’kov (Har’kovskaja oblast’)-Doneckoe gorodišče – see Annex 2524. Krasnaja Gorka (Balaklejskij rajon, Har’kovskaja oblast’) Grave 176 – see Annex 2535. 1570. Krasnogorsk (Harkovščina): 310 graves from a biritual cemetery of the 2nd half of the 1st millennium. In the female graves, among the strung amulets 1 (small?) cowrie was discovered.1781

1575. Chamber grave nr. 43, Skeleton nr 4: grave goods of a female burial: a pair of 1st type of the Dnepr type fingered brooches with dissimilar pattern and size, which were connected by 5 short chains with rattles, and a string of large amber and colored glass beads, the 4th type of the elongated eagle-headed buckle, dating from the second half of the 7th century, a pair of bronze wire bracelets with

1571–75. Lučistoe (Krymskaja oblast’): in an Alan–Gothic Presented as “shell jewelry”: Pósta (1905) 555: fig. 312: 12; Werner (1950) 169, pl. 43, at the bottom, in the middle; Bálint (1989) 103; 1 or 2 cowries were classified perhaps by mistake as ciprea pontiferina: Ščeglova (1990) 173, 174; Parczewski (1991) 128: pl. III: 17. Presented probably correctly as cypraea pantherina strung from a copper loop: Korzuhina (1996) 373: nr. 25, 612: pl. 22: 53. 1780 Berezovec (1952) 109, 118–19; Korzuhina (1996) 406: nr. 89, 663: pl. 73: 4 (photo of 35 Money cowries); Ščeglova (1990) 173; Hajredinova (2000) 106; Prihodnjuk (2006) 55, 216: photo 22: 2. 1781 Gol’ (2000) 38. 1779

Hajredinova (2000) 106, 108. Ajbabin (1994) 137, 166: fig. 21: 9. 1784 Hajredinova (2000) 106, 107. 1785 Ajbabin (1994) 137–38, 171: fig. 26: 7. 1786 Hajredinova (2000) 106, 108–09, 124: fig. 10: 45. 1787 Hajredinova (2000) 106, 109, 124: fig. 10: 45. 1782 1783

337

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads cylindrical bronze plate beads, 2 large and 115 lesser or greater amber beads, 2 hornstone beads, 11 brick-red beads, 13 oculus paste beads, 3 mosaic paste beads, 19 dark blue mush beads, a chest ornament of 55 bronze beads, with an eight-shaped loop, 6 bronze bells, 4 wide and 1 narrow trapezoidal bronze plate pendants, 2 thick bronze wire bracelets, a bronze finger ring with a quadruple spiral end, 2 bronze plates of unknown function, a jug fragment, and 2 large perforated cowries. One of them is a Tiger cowrie (“cepraea tigris”), the other shell with destroyed dorsum can be conditionally classified as Arabian cowrie (“cypraea arabica”). Both lengths: approximately 7.2 cm, The large size of the latter item, its classification would appear to be incorrect (Fig. 151).1789 1577. Skalistoe (Bahčisarajskij rajon, Krymskaja oblast’): from 3 robbed adult burials, no. 406, in a rock cavity, dated between the second half of the 6th century–first half of the 7th century 2 cowries were identified. The length of the illustrated item might be approximately 2.0 cm.1790 1578. Skeli/Bagi area (prev. Tavričeskaja gubernija; Krymskaja oblast’): small cowries (rakovinki kauri) were identified among the grave goods in one of the cemeteries of the 6th–8th centuries excavated on the southern bank.1791 1579. Staryj Saltov (Vovčanskij rajon, Harkovskaja oblast’): a part of the cemetery dated to the second half of the 8th century–first half of the 9th century with 21 catacomb graves and 1 horse burial: Catacombe Nr. 3: family burial, in which beside the skeletons of a man, a woman, a pubescent and children, a Ringed cowrie (?) with removed dorsum was also found, Aksenov–Babenko (1998) 115, 113: fig. 2: 10; Sinicja (1999) 102, 103: pl.: 3, right upper corner. About the shells: “Shells from the Family of cyprea in the early Medieval period in most cases represented by the ‘cypraea monetae’ and ‘ciprea pontiferinae’ [see 1010]. Shells with a like outlook and size, similar to the items from Mohnač are known only from the series of materials from the cemeteries of the Černjahov Culture [see 1130, 1136]. But in the Černjahov Culture in no case were 2 shells placed in a burial.”: ibid. 115. It has to be noted that a cowrie species called ciprea pontiferina is not included in the register of cowries, see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 532; likely here the fossil item mentioned in the publication is referred to, see 1010. The rare completeness of the deceased woman’s dress was reconstructed as a feast or wedding costume, which is more often found in treasure hoards since these pieces were hidden at settlements for the future. The assemblage itself suggested the social rank of a virgin girl, or a young wife, who has not yet bore child, therefore it is of apothropic importance. “It is possible that, the marine shells strung on the chest were such disctinctive signs, which discerned the married but nulliparous women, from the mothers who had higher social reputation.” The burial was connected with the Sarmatian-Alan component of the Slavic Pen’kovka (pen’kovskaja) Culture which could be proven by the presence of the niche, the specific buckle, the pair of bracelets and the use of the finger ring, as well as the similar type of brooch-pair, and the wearing of large cowries: Aksenov–Babenko (1998) 118–19—. It has to be noted that the fossil cowrie from Malaešty site (1010) was cited incorrectly twice in form: G. B. Fedorov (1960) 174, and 312, fig. 17: 3: Aksenov–Babenko (1998) 115; correctly Fedorov (1960) 274, 302: fig. 17: 3. Without text the drawing of the second object: Prihodnjuk (2000) 155–56, 167: fig. 8: at the right edge. 1790 Ajbabin–Vejmarn (1983) 214, fig. 1: 23. 1791 Repnikov (1910) 84. 1789

Fig. 150. 42 (from 110) Money cowries with removed dorsum, silver belt buckle and 4 gold earrings from treasure hoard at Harivka (1569) – after Korzuhina (1996) 663: pl. 73: 4, 1–3

widening terminals, and some small cowries with removed dorsum, perhaps all Ringed cowries.1788 1576. Mohnač (Zmievskij rajon, Har’kovskaja oblast’): from a disturbed Sarmatian–Alan female burial of the Pen’kovka (pen’kovskaja) Culture, dated to the late 6th–first half of the 7th centuries, the objects are described as Slavic-type: 2 cast “Dniepr type” sleeved bronze brooches, a bronze brooch with wide jointed plate, 3 round flat bronze buttons, a bronze buckle, 5 bronze mounts, a bronze strap end, 6 bronze rings with spiral ends, 2 bronze and 1 iron wire torques with hook-and-eye terminal, 25 Hajredinova (2000) 106, 109, 124: fig. 10: 45; reconstruction of the costume: 129: fig. 15. 1788

338

Catalogue 1581. Rock Chamber nr. 3: 8 burials, one of them dated by the silver coins of Khosrau Parvez II (590–628). In the northeast corner with the remains of an adult and a child skull among numerous beads 5 cowries were discovered. According to the illustration, 2 of them are Money cowries, length: approximately 1.9, resp. 2.5 cm.1795 1582–83. Grave Chamber 7: remains of 10 adult and 2 child burials: 1582. Beside the upper skeleton in the northern corner: variously shaped beads, 21 carnelian, some cuprite or lazurite, crystal, limestone and Egyptian blue glass paste beads, and 5 cowries. 1583. At the same site, near another skull two bunches of beads were found, strung on white thread which fell into two parts, pieces from one bunch: a cowrie, a bronze pyramidal pendant, globular glass paste beads, a bronze pendant with six points, between them 1-1 cowries. The other: a cowrie, a bronze rattle, 1-1 limestone, carnelian and oculus beads, a bronze rattle, a greenish bead. 5 (?) cowries were illustrated together with the beads, while 2 others were presented separately, these latters were (according to the drawing) perforated Money cowries, length: approximately 1.4, resp.1.1 cm.1796

Fig. 151. Reconstruction of female costume of Mohnač (1576) – after Aksenov–Babenko (1998) 118: fig. 5

1584–85. Dal’verzin-Tepe (Šurčinskij rajon, region Surhandarya): a fortification, settlement and cemetery of the Kusan-Sassanidan Period (ca. 50–651), which is identified with Khedzo-kin, the capital of the Kušan family:1797

which was only shown on the table of finds, length: probably 1.6 cm.1792 1580. Zajcev, Hutor (prev. Zmievskoe usad’be, Har’kovskaja gubernija):1793 a silver hoard (“Zajcevskij klad”) discovered in 1923, in the most eastern region of the “Ant finds”, which was to the late 7th century–early 8th century: a disk brooch, 2 three-lobed mounts, 5 larger, 3 smaller hemispherical-shaped mounts, 4 smaller hemispherical-shaped gilt mounts, 3 earrings with star pendants, a plait clamp with wound terminals, 3 large, 2 small plait clamps, a string of 51 glass and glass paste beads, a pair of bracelets with horn-shaped, multifaceted terminals, a bracelet with round section and horn terminals, and 10 Money cowries with removed dorsum (“obrezannye”), length: approximately 1.7–1.8 cm.

1584. Excavation area DTC 4–5: 3 cowries were found among the remains of a settlements layer, dating likely to the 6th–8th centuries: 1 larger and 1 smaller Money cowries, the latter was pierced with two small round holes, and 1 medium sized cowrie with an elongated narrow opening lengthways on its apex, length: 2.5, 2.3, 3.2 cm.1798 1585. Excavation area DTC 4: 1 Money cowrie pierced at the apex, length: 1.7 cm.1799 1586. Gajrat-tepe (Kurgan-Tecinskij rajon): perhaps 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum was found in the latest phase of the fortified settlement (gorodišče) dated between the 5th–6th centuries, among finds of the living area no. 4, length: approximately 1.8 cm.1800

The hoard, which was in the Harkov University Museum was destroyed in 1941–44.1794 1581–87. Uzbekistan

1587. Tok-kala: burials from the first half of the 8th–10th centuries:

1581–83. Bit-Tepe (Saryassinskij rajon, region Surhandarya): 7 rock-cut chamber graves of the late 7th–first half of the 8th centuries:

Rtveladze (1986) 199, 198: fig. 3: 35–36. Rtveladze (1986) 203, 204: fig. 7: 1, 13–14. 1797 Ilyasov–Mkrtchev (1991/92) 107. The site is in Uzbekistan, 120 km north of Termez: Tanabe–Hori (1996) 101. 1798 Tanabe–Hori (1996) 101, 114: 10–11. 1799 Tanabe–Hori (1999) 101, 149: fig. 39: 99DTC450062. 1800 Kozenkova (1964) 227, 223: fig. 4: 4. 1795

Aksenov (1999) 139, 146: fig. 5: 30. 1793 Galina Fedorovna Korzuhina did not identify the site, which was given as “Zajcev-farmstead”. 1794 Korzuhina (1996) 420: nr. 129, 592 and 696: pl. 106: 17 (the drawing of two shells, one is with removed dorsum); Ščeglova (1990) 173, 177; Hajredinova (2000) 106. 1792

1796

339

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Grid V, Grave 35: in a string of beads: 3 glass, 2-2 carnelian, jet, and 1 amber beads, and 11 shells classified as cowries. Among the latter 10 were some kind of tower snail and only 1 was perhaps Money cowrie, length: approximately 1.9 cm.1801

middle of the necklace, 1 pierced cowrie, size: 2.1x1.2 cm.

4.14. 1588–1838, (1611a, 1684a, 1707a, 1717a). Hungarian Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin of the Conquest Period and Early Arpadian Age (10th– 11th/12th Centuries) – (see Annex 2309–11, 2315, 2318, 2320–26, 2328)

1591. Grave 41/1: in a string of beads 2 gold-foliated glass beads, 1-1 glass paste bead and its fragment, and 2 pierced cowries.

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 76.4.28.1806

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 76.4.61.1807

The material was collected from Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia (Fig. 152). The greater part of the following finds originates from cemeteries of the 10th–11th centuries, but some come from graves that can be dated to the 12th century, which are completed with data from a few settlements and stray finds. 1802

1592. Grave 52: among its grave goods 2 cowries were discovered.1808 1593. Grave 123: a sickle, a bronze plait clamp, 4 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a strap distributor cast in bronze, a narrow, bronze band with coiled terminals, animal bone, iron fragments, in a string of beads a hexagonal-sectioned fluorite bead, 3 spherical, with poured decoration, and 1-1 spherical, cylindrical, and cone-frustum-shaped paste beads, besides, originally 9, presently only 8 *Money cowries, with larger and smaller elliptical holes at their ends, of which edges are broken, and their surface is corroded, size: 1.45x1.0–1.7x1.2 cm.

1588. Abara (prev. Zemplén megye, Hungary; Oborín, okres Michalovce, Košický kraj, Slovakia)-Káposztás dűlő, Pit 4: in a pit, excavated at the settlements, which was dated to the 11th–first half of the 13th centuries, beside vessel fragments, a double conical red marble bead, an iron hook, and a pierced cowrie.1803 1589–95. Alap (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Tavaszmajor: cemetery, disturbed for a long time, dated from the early Arpadian Period (10th–12th centuries), with nearly 150 excavated graves.1804

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 76.4.121. 1594. Grave 127: a silvered bronze finger ring twisted from 2 bands, 2 white, a double cone rustum-shaped paste bead and 4 cowries sawed elliptically at the apex, with broken edges: 3 *Money cowries, size: 1.5x1.15–1.65x1.2 cm, the fourth is *Money/*Ringed cowrie, size: 1.6x1.0 cm.

1589. Grave 8: the pin of an iron buckle, a silver Sterminated lockring, with gilt silver enamel ornamented plaque, strung on an additional ring, 4 hexagonal sectioned fluorite beads, a small paste bead with poured decoration, fish vertebra, with a large, round hole, likely a pierced Cerithium sp., of which the apex is missing, and it is severely corroded, length 3.5 cm, and a *Money cowrie, with a narrow, sawed opening at the apex, corroded, size: 1.6x1.2 cm.1805

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 76.4.128. 1595. Grave 138: a bronze ball button, and 1 cowrie.

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 76.4.11.

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 76.4.140.1809

1590. Grave 19: a stamped bronze rosette, a vessel fragment, 2 gold-foliated glass paste beads, and in the

1596–98. Aldebrő (Heves megye, Hungary)-Mocsáros: 34 graves from a part of a cemetery, partly unpublished, dated to the 10th century:

Concerning the parallels of the beads from the 4th–10th centuries: Bižanov–Mambetullaev (1973) 54–56, fig. 7: z, and a-b-v-g. Mentioned as a parallel of the cowrie dated to the 4th century BC–1st century AD: Toprak-kala (1155): ibid. 56, note 13. 1802 Since initially I intended to deal with this period only in my study, I collected other types of mollusc finds from this period (Sites I–LVIII) and they should be published in a separate paper. 1803 Ruttkay (1970) 96) 103: fig. 3: 2. 1804 Fitz (1960); Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 20: nr. 9; Kralovánszky (1962); Kralovánszky (1965). In the material the copper coin of King Bela III (H73a/CNH103 type) and an anonymous denar from the 12th century also appeared (H116a/CNH128 type): Gémes (1964). I could study the unpublished material with the kind help of Gábor Hatházi. 1805 According to the kind information from István Bóna, 2 cowries were discovered in the grave. 1801

1596. Grave 7: fragments of a gilt silver rosette, a twisted bronze wire bracelet, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with a narrow opening, length: 1.7x1.3 cm. Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger, acc. nr.: 63.9.4.1810 I could not find this cowrie. I could not find this cowrie. 1808 The kind information of István Bóna. 1809 I could not find this cowrie.. 1810 With the kind help of László Révész and János József Szabó. 1806 1807

340

Catalogue

Fig. 152. Distributon of Hungarian cowrie finds of the Carpathian Basin from the Conquest Period and Early Arpadian Age (10th–11th/12th Centuries)

1597. Grave 13: from the burial of a 12–13 years old girl: 5 round garment ornaments from sheet bronze, 2 bronze plait clamps, a small silver sheet disc, 2 open-work braid ornaments, a bronze wire bracelet twisted from three rods, with spiral terminals, a bronze band bracelet with coiled terminals, tiny white bead, 3 oculus glass paste beads and 15 pierced cowries. Most of the latter presumably belonged to the braid ornaments, but the 3 oculus glass paste beads and 3 cowries were perhaps threaded on to an iron torque from narrow wire, because the remain of the wire were found.1811 The only available cowry is a *Money cowrie in good condition, of a porcelain light, with a narrow opening, size: 1.6x1.1 cm, according to the photo, they were likely all Money cowries.1812

1598. Grave 33: 2 half ball buttons, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie with a narrow opening, size: 2.1x1.0 cm.

Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger, acc. nr.: 63.9.19.

1600. Grave 105: from a child burial: gilt silver shift ornaments, stamped silver garment ornaments, 2 silver braid ornaments, a leaf-shaped gilt silver ornament, a lead

Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger, acc. nr.: 63.9.49. 1599–600. Algyő (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-area of the Well Nr. 258: 83 graves (numbered between 1–109.) fully excavated, but partly unpublished cemetery from the 10th century: 1599. Grave 31: among the unpublished finds, an unknown number of pierced cowries were found.1813 Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged.

Szabó (1963) 103–05, 105–06: fig. 2–4; Kőhegyi (1980) 228: note 39; Révész (1996a) 258, 270: fig. 9; Őseinket (1996) 381–83, 381: fig. 1, 382: fig. 2. 1812 Révész (1996c) 383, 382: fig. 2. 1811

1813

341

Kürti (1978–79) 327.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1605. Belgrád (Beograd, Serbia)-Castle, Lower Castle: Money cowrie as stray find, dated to the Early Medieval Period, with a narrow sawed opening at the apex, length 2.0 cm.

cross, and paste beads and unpublished amount of pierced cowries.1814 Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged. Bad Deutsch-Altenburg (Bezirk Hainburg an der Donau, Niederösterreich, Austria) – see 1709. Németóvár

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: II 1635.1820 1606–11. Bijelo Brdo (prev. Verőce megye, Hungary; opština Ošijek, Ošjecko-baranjska županija, Croatia)Velika Venecija Str.: 236 excavated graves from parts of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:1821

1601. Bakonykoppány (Veszprém megye, Hungary)Kavicsbánya/Kaséri-hill: cemetery of commoners, with 2 excavated, and 2–20 destroyed burials: Grave 4:1815 3 silver S-terminated lockrings, a simple bronze wire bracelet, a simple open bronze band finger ring, a string of 38 oculus beads, 12 yellow glass paste beads, 4 amber beads, and 2 pierced *Money cowries; 1 of them with a larger sawed opening, the other broken and incomplete, size: 1.5x1.0, length 1.4 cm.

1606. Grave 15: from a likely female burial: 2 silver plait clamps, 2 silver S-terminated lockrings, the oxide-remains of a finger ring, some green beads, and around the neck, a string of 2 larger cut greenish and 7 blue three-lobbed glass paste beads, and 6 pierced Money cowries.1822 1607. Grave 78: from a female burial: an iron knife, 6 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a bronze torque, 2-2 (?) bronze bracelets: the one is twisted from 2, with a hook and eye terminals, the other is a wire bracelet with narrowing terminals, a grooved bronze finger ring, a bronze finger ring with wide hammered bezel, and ornamented with the incised depiction of a palm and a cross, multi-pierced bronze sheet with unknown purpose, and at the neck 176 glass beads, among them 1-1 fluted black and light beads, and at last 5 pierced Money cowries. 1 item was published in drawing, which is perforated at the apex with a larger oval hole, of which edges are broken, length approximately 2.2 cm.1823

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 56.21.12.1816 1602. Bakonyszombathely (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary)-Fekete-Vízi-Erdő: from 10–12 graves of the 10th century, which belonged to a destroyed cemetery of commoners, an unknown number of cowries were discovered. The finds were lost.1817 1603–04. Batajnica (prev. Szerém megye, Hungary; Batajnica, opština Zemun, Serbia)-Velika Humka: part of a commoners’ cemetery, with nearly 100–200 destroyed and 102 excavated graves, from the 10th–11th centuries: 1603. Grave 7: a string of glass paste beads, including a not mentioned, but from the photo recognizable pierced cowrie.

1608. Grave 93: from an adult (female?) burial: 3 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a large bronze S-terminated lockring, a bronze torque twisted from three rods, a bronze wire bracelet and bronze triangle-sectioned finger ring, besides, around the neck, a string of at least 32 glass beads and 2 pierced Money cowries.1824

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: 1655.1818 1604. Grave 37: a pair of silver plait clamps, a string of 708 beads: various shaped glass paste and semi-precious beads, double conical bronze pendant with filigree decoration, and 2 pierced cowries.

1609. Grave 107: finds from a likely female burial: 2 plait clamps, 6 S-terminated lockrings, a bronze torque, a bronze rattle, a bone pendant, 3 bronze wire bracelets, a bronze band finger ring and 4 bronze finger rings, the 1-1 H8 type denar of King Andrew I (1046–1060) and H12 type denar of King Bela I (1060–1063), and around the neck, a string of more than 370 various sized glass beads and 5 pierced Money cowries.1825

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: 1681.1819 Kürti (1978–79) 325–27, 334, 336, 326: fig. 3–4, 328: pl. I: 15. Two graves were disturbed in 1911, then Dezső Laczkó excavated 2 other graves, but finds were discovered exclusively in the second grave, therefore I named it Grave 4: MRT 4, (1972) 30–31: Site 5/2. 1816 These finds were published as Avar material: Rhé (1924) 71: in the museum inventory nr. 3988; Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 21: nr. 36. The date of discovery was corrected to 1911, but mentioning only 1 “cowrie”: MRT 4, 30–31: Site 5/2. 1817 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 21: nr. 37; Ádám-Koller-Laczkó (1913); Kovács (1989) 17: nr. V. 9–15. I would like here to thank the kind information of Ágota Perémi. 1818 Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 77: nr. 189, pl. XXXII: 1. It was mentioned in the register of cowrie-finds: Birtašević (1973) 184, note 8, mentioning the former report about he cemetery: Kovačević–Dimitrijević (1959). Excluded from the cowrie register: Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 1. 1819 Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 49–50: and pl. 5: nrs 166–67; Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 78: nr. 190. 1814 1815

1610. Grave 113: from a female burial: 4 silver Sterminated lockrings, 2 finger rings, the H8 type denar of Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 78: nr. 195, pl. V: 30. These cowries were generally mentioned: Váňa (1954) 61, 88: nr. 17; Tomičić (1998–1999) 46; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 4. 1822 Brunšmid (1903–04) 53. 1823 Brunšmid (1903–04) 58, 37: fig. 5: 43: fig. 8: 60; Hampel (1907) pl. 44: 60. 1824 Brunšmid (1903–04) 60. 1825 Brunšmid (1903–04) 61, 35: fig. 2: 4; Hampel (1907) 152–53, pl. 40: I. 4; Jovanović (1977) 153, 180: pl. 16: 16; Giesler (1981) 150, 145: note 352. 1820 1821

342

Catalogue King Andrew I, besides, in the neck region a string of 4 blue and 1 brownish cone frustum, 1-1 double cone frustum, flattened and doughnut-shaped, and multi-sectioned glass paste beads, and at last 4 smaller, pierced Money cowries, with a smaller sawed opening at their apex, and a small pierced hole on one of them, length approximately 1.4– 1.65 cm.1826

1614. Grave 29: from a female burial: 3 bronze Sterminated lockrings, a silver suspension loop with the remains of a wire pendant, a bronze wire bracelet with a hook and eye terminals, a clay cup, and a string of beads: 217 spherical and conical tiny beads, 5 spherical glass paste beads and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.95x1.0 cm. The edges of its opening are broken.1832

1611. Grave 202: the only find from a disturbed adult burial was a cowrie with removed dorsum, length approximately 2.1 cm.1827

Budapest-15th District (Rákospalota), Sín Street – see Annex 2309. 1615. Budapest-23rd District (Soroksár), Site 11: graves from a part of a cemetery:

1611a. Bodrogvécs (prev. Zemplén megye, Hungary; Več, okres Trebišov, Košický kraj, Slovakia): a cowrie is incorrectly mentioned in connection with this cemetery, disturbed in 1897.1828

Grave 7: finds from a female burial: a silver rattle, 2 openwork braid discs, 3 round-sectioned silver wire bracelets with pointed terminals, and near the left femur, 1 Cardium sp., and on both sides of the left scapula, but mainly in the chest some beads and 7 Money cowries, with larger sawed dorsum.1833

Bratislava-okres V. (čast Rusovce, Bratislavcký kraj, Slovakia) – see 1722. Oroszvár Bučany (okres Trnava, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1612–14. Bucsány

Čakajovce (okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) –– see 1616–29. Csekej

1612–14. Bucsány (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Bučany, okres Trnava, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)-Vinohrady: 94 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th century:1829

Červeník (okres Hlohovec, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1818. Vágvörösvár Ciganka (opština Podravska Slatina, Serbia) – see 1669– 70. Josipovo

1612. Grave 7: from a child grave: an iron knife, a bronze S-terminated lockring, a grape bunch terminated silver pendant ornamented with beading, and a string of beads: 3 cylindrical and 1 fluted clay, 1 spherical glass paste beads, 2 cone frustum-shaped beads, and at last 8 pierced cowries: 7 *Money cowries, 1 perhaps *Money cowrie, length 1.45–2.37 cm. On 7 items round holes, one item a narrow opening is visible,.1830

1616–29. Csekej (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Čakajovce, okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Templom-dűlő (poloha Kostolec): 805 graves of the totaly researched commoners’ cemetery were excavated after minor disturbings, dated to the 9th–12th centuries: 1616. Grave 123: from the burial of a 13–14 years old child: an iron knife, the halves of bronze ball buttons, 4 ball buttons cast in bronze, a glass ball button with iron ear, 13 silver S-terminated lockrings with hammered Sterminals, 2 gilt bronze S-terminated lockrings, 3 bronze wire bracelets with pointed terminals, a bronze finger ring, and around the neck a small bronze chain and a string of 31 beads: 1 light blue glass bead with longitudinal flutes, and 1 glass bead with black, white and red poured decoration, 29 one- and double-sectioned, various colored glass paste beads, a small bronze tube, a perforated deer canine, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.6x1.17 cm. With a narrow sawed opening, but from other aspects nice, with some brown deposit.1834

1613. Grave 12: from a child burial: a bronze wire bracelet, a bronze wire finger ring, and on the upper part of the chest a string of beads: 11 spherical, and cylindrical white glass paste beads and 1 pierced *Money cowrie with a smoothed round opening, size: 1.63x1.18 cm.1831 Brunšmid (1903–04) 62, 34: fig. 1: 3, and 38: fig. 6: 6, 44: fig. 8: 13, 27, 35, 38, 45, 58–59, 62–63; Hampel (1907) 152: pl. 40: I. 3, and. 155: pl. 42: 6, 158: pl. 44: 13, 27, 35, 38, 45, 58–59, 62–63; Jovanović (1977) 153, 180: pl. 16: 2, and 3–11; Giesler (1981) 150; the determination of sex is from: Tomičić (1991) pl. 17. 1827 Brunšmid (1903–04) 75, 43: fig. 8: 61; Hampel (1907) pl. 44: 61. The drawing shows a Ringed not a Money cowrie. 1828 During the interpretation of Csorna-Sülyhegy site, when mentioning the cowries, in two additional notes two further sites were mentioned in: Hampel (1905) I: 825. At Rábé were (1735–36), at Bodrogvécs no cowries were found, it must have been a wrong reading of the text, or the misinterpretation of Hampel (1905) II: pl. 465: fig. 25, which was a double holed, flattened fragment of an ornament. It was cited as cowry find: Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1829 The cemetery documentation does not refer to cowries in Grave 81, but the find material is represented in a plate of the seriation, see Hanuliak (1993) 91; but Hanuliak (1992) 247: fig. 4. 1830 Hanuliak (1992) 294: pl. IV: 10, 13; Hanuliak (1993) 86, 88: fig. 4: 2, 94: fig. 13: 1, 5, 97: fig. 16: 2. I studied the material with the kind help of Milan Hanuliak. 1831 Hanuliak (1993) 87, 88: fig. 4: 4, 94: fig. 13: 4, 7–8. 1826

1617. Grave 124: from and adult-aged female grave: a Hanuliak (1993) 87–88, 90: fig. 6: 1, 94: fig. 13: 15, 17, 19–20, 25–27, 98: fig. 17: 7, 99: fig. 18: 2. 1833 I visited the excavation on the 29th Oktober, 1999, with the kind permission of Edit Tari, the leader of the excavation, see Tari (2002). 1834 Rejholcová (1995a) 13–14, 118: pl. XXVIII. I studied the material with the kind help of Mária Rejholcová in the Archaeological Insitute of the Slovakian Academie of Sciences in Nitra. 1832

343

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads they were probably Money cowries, length 1.5–1.8 cm (Fig. 153).1836 1619. Grave 278: from a pubescent’s burial: an iron surcingle buckle, an iron knife, a striker, an iron awl, 2 bronze S-terminated lockrings, 2 small bronze wire hooks, a bronze rivet, an iron suspension hook, and on the chest an iron chain with four links, onto one of which 1 pierced *Money cowrie was strung, original length 2.4 cm. With narrow opening, on its surface later brownish deposit.1837 1620. Grave 336: from the burial of a 1–7 years old child (inf. I): a round bronze boot mount, 2 bronze band bracelets with coiled terminals, linked with a wire at one case, and with a small rivet at the other, a clay cup, besides, near the lower jaw bone 1 unmodified *Money/*Ringed cowrie, in a smaller size than the average, size: 1.0x0.75 cm, which became fragmented during the times.1838 1621. Grave 348: from the burial of a 1–7 years old child (inf. I): a bronze plait clamp, the incomplete half of a bronze rattle, a clay cup, and around the neck, a string of beads: 8 spherical, and flattened spherical-shaped plain, oculus and lined, and 2 cylindrical, brown and brownishyellow glass paste beads with poured decoration, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.65x1.15 cm. Originally the edge of its opening was broken and the surface was corroded.1839 1622. Grave 357: from the burial of a 14 years old girl: a bronze plait clamp, a bronze lockring with coiled terminals, 1-1 bronze and silver S-terminated lockrings, a bronze wire finger ring, and around the neck, on vertebrae and under the skull, a string of 443 tiny white, yellow, green and brown, spherical and cone-frustum-shaped glass beads, millefiori beads, 2 large oculus beads, 2 large fluted and 1 cone frustum-shaped glass bead, 1 amber bead, furthermore, 1-1 denars of Guillaume, the count of Auvergne (918–926) minted in Brioude, and of Raoul French kings (923–936), minted in Dijon, double pierced at the edges, and 5 pierced cowries in good condition: *4 Money cowries, size: 1.65x2.2 cm, *1 Money/*Ringed cowrie, size: 1.6x1.1 cm. All has narrow opening, and on most of them, brown deposit and corrodation is visible (Fig. 154).1840

Fig. 153. 4 pierced Money cowries in the girl’s necklace of the Grave 276 at Csekej (1618) – after Rejholcová (1995) 139: pl. XLIX: 3

ball button cast in bronze, 7 silver S-terminated lockrings with hammered terminals, a bronze torque, 2 bronze twisted wire bracelets with spiral terminals, 5 bronze wire bracelets with pointed terminals, 1-1 silver and bronze band finger rings, a clay vessel, and around the neck, a string of 39 yellow and light green tiny glass beads and 4 pierced *Money cowries: 1 unmodified, size: 1.75x1.4 cm, 1 fragmentary, and 2 are incomplete. One of them has an elliptical hole, on the other a hole with broken edges, and on the surface of the first, some greenish deposit.1835

1623. Grave 406: from a senilis-aged female burial: an iron knife, a silver plait clamp, 2 silver S-terminated lockrings, a bronze band finger ring, around the cervical vertebrae and on the chest, a string of 6 various sized oculus beads, 1 fluted, turquoise-glazed large clay bead, and 1 Murex sp.

1618. Grave 276: from the burial of a 7-8 years old girl (?): 2 bronze earrings with a pendant strung from colorful beads, and at the neck a string of 6 spherical oculus beads, 19 three- and two-sectioned, 12 one-sectioned green, yellow, yellowish white, blue and dark blue beads, and at last 4 pierced cowries, according to the published photos, 1835

Rejholcová (1995a) 30, 139: pl. XLIX: 1–3; see Rejholcová (1980) 372: fig. 122: 11. I coud not study it, because it was on display in an exhibition. 1837 Rejholcová (1995a) 30–31, 138: pl. XLVIII: 5–17. 1838 Rejholcová (1995a) 36, 146: pl. LIV: 3–7. 1839 Rejholcová (1995a) 37, 146: pl. LIV: 10–13. 1840 Rejholcová (1995a) 38, 147: pl. LVII. 1836

Rejholcová (1995a) 14, 119–20: pls XXIX–XXX.

344

Catalogue 1628. Grave 541: from a 1 year old child: a silver plait clamp, a clay cup, and at the lower jaw bone, a string of: 3 cylindrical glass paste beads with poured spiral decoration, 2 fluted and 1 spherical glass paste beads, 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.9x0.9 cm. The cowrie is in bad condition, its piercing is broken, and perhaps originally its whole dorsum was cut.1846

pierced with two round holes, and 2 cowries pierced with 2 round holes.1841 1624. Grave 426: from an adult female burial: an iron needle, 2 ornamented bronze ball buttons, the half part of one bronze ball button, a bronze sheet button with filigree decoration, a bronze plait clamp, 2 bronze Sterminated lockrings, 4 earrings decorated with double grape bunches and beading, on its lower arch a twisted filigree decoration, 1 similar silver earring without the twisted filigree decoration, but a bead was drawn on to its ring, 2 bronze sheet finger rings, a bronze sheet finger ring with widening bezel, and on the neck area and on the right chest a string of 33 colored beads: 2 large flower-knobbed, 4 smaller oculus glass paste beads, 2 large fluted clay beads, 4 rounded prismatic and 21 1–3 sectioned beads, and 14 pierced cowries: 13 *Money cowries, 2 of them are fragmentary, size: 1.32–2.0x0.93–1.52 cm, 1 perhaps *Ringed cowrie, size: 1.76x1.23 cm. The edges of their pierced opening is usually broken, the more intact cowries have round holes. Their surface is bright, with secondary, paint-like deposits.1842

1629. Grave 646: from a senile-aged woman: a large iron needle with spiraled terminals, the half of a bronze ball button, 3 ball buttons cast in bronze, the oval frame of a silver looped medallion, a silver mount used as pendant, besides, in the places of the cervical vertebrae, a string of beads: 2 large flower-knobbed, 12 smaller and larger oculus, 2 cylindrical, 1-1 cylindrical with poured decoration, and grooved glass paste beads, a rounded prismatic glass bead and 4 pierced cowries: 3 *Money cowries, size: 1.26–1.5x0.98–1.01 cm, 1 *Ringed/*Money cowrie, size: 1.44x0.96 cm. All have a round hole, on the largest Money cowrie, there is an additional sawed round hole.1847 1630–31. Csetény (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Szőlőhegy: 20 graves from a part of commoners’ cemetery:

1625. Grave 457: from the burial of a 2–3 years old child (girl?): 2 silver plait clamps, around the cervical vertebrae and on the chest as a necklace: a bronze rivet resembling the lower part of a shift ornament of two members, 20 light green, green and yellow small, spherical glass beads, the strung beads of an earring, an iron artifact, 2 pierced fish vertebrae, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.74x1.17 cm. With almost a round hole, in good condition.1843

1630. Grave 17: “2 cast, spur-shaped earrings with double rings”, 1-1 intact and half bronze rattles, bronze band finger ring, and a string of beads: 5 beads and 2 pierced cowries.1848 1631. Grave 19: an iron knife, bronze lockring with coiled terminals, a bronze ring, a bronze band bracelet with coiled terminals, fragments of a clay vessel, and a string of beads: 4 beads and 3 pierced cowries.1849 All in all 2 *Money cowries were preserved, both have large, sawed dorsum, with broken edges, size: 1.9x1.4, resp. 1.5x1.0 cm.

1626. Grave 468: from a mature woman’s burial: an iron needle, an iron knife, 1-1 plain, and ornamented solid bronze ball buttons, the bottom-fragment of a greenishblue Roman pot, a large oculus bead, and under the right scapula 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.5x1.1 cm. With an elliptic hole, in good repair, but worn out.1844

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 55.263.25.1850

1627. Grave 475: from an adult female burial: a bronze lockring with a widening spiral pendant, a silver lockring with coiled terminals, 2 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a bronze wire bracelet twisted from 3 rods and with spiraled terminals, in the neck area a string of beads: 591 small, cylindrical, conical and disc-shaped yellow, green, yellowish white, brown glass beads, 10 spherical and ringshaped larger glass beads, a dark brown oculus bead, the wire loop of a bronze sheet globe, the half part of a bronze rattle, and 3 pierced *Money cowries, size: 1.4x1.7 cm. Their opening is small, round the edge of one cowrie is broken, their surface is corroded because of the secondary brown deposit.1845

1632. Csongrád (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Mámai-dűlő/ Rekettyés: 21 graves from a part of a likely commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 10th–11th centuries: Grave 1: most likely finds from a girl’s burial: 2 bronze ball buttons, a bronze rattle, 7 paste beads, a pair of bronze wire bracelets, bronze sheet bezelled and plain finger rings, the H1 type denar of King Stephen I the Saint (1000–1038), and 1 pierced *Money cowrie (?), with a wide sawed hole, size: 1.7x1.2 cm.

Rejholcová (1995a) 57–58, 173: pl. LXXXIII: 2–4. Rejholcová (1995a) 72, 194: pl. CIV: 1–8. 1848 MRT 4, 79: Site 20/4. On illustration 307: pl. 15: 19 are depicted 3 beads and 2 pierced cowries but from the description it cannot be decided whether it belonged to Grave17 or Grave 19. 1849 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 28–29: nr. 178; MRT 4, 79: Site 20/4. 1850 I studied the material with the kind help of Ágota Perémi. 1846 1847

Rejholcová (1995a) 44, 155: pl. LXV: 1–6; Rejholcová (1995b) 89. I coud not study it because it was on display in an exhibition. 1842 Rejholcová (1995a) 46, 158: pl. LXVIII. 1843 Rejholcová (1995a) 50, 163: pl. LXXIII: 1–9. 1844 Rejholcová (1995a) 51, 163: pl. LXXIII: 16–22. 1845 Rejholcová (1995a) 52, 166: pl. LXXVI: 1–8. 1841

345

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 154. 4 pierced Money and 1 pierced Money/Ringed cowries in the girl’s necklace of the Grave 357 at Csekej (1622) – after Rejholcová (1995) 147: pl. LVII: 6

346

Catalogue Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.60.7–11.1851 1633. Csorna (Vas megye, Hungary)-Sülyhegy: 20 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century: Grave/1888: from a female burial: “silver sheet rings”, that is at least 2 round and 1 octagonal, harness mounts of eared rosette, a pair of stirrups, a snaffle, 3-3 round, and round and 4-4 corner-petalled headdress ornament (?), semi spherical boot mounts, 2 Saltovo-type, gold pendant with strung globes, a wire bracelet with pointed terminals, near the neck, the fragment of an ear spoon, a string of beads: oculus bead, 1 disc and 3 semispherical beads, and 3 pierced cowries. 2 of the latter are published as drawing, at least one of which was likely a Money cowrie, and both had a narrow sawed opening, size: approximately 2.8x2.2 cm, the second item might be a Ringed cowrie, size: 1.6x1.2 cm (Fig. 155).1852

Fig. 155. The first published cowries from the Hungarian Conquest Period at Csorna (1633) – after Lakner (1889) 265: pl. II

1634. Deszk (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Nádashalmidűlő/“D-cemetery”: 216 excavated graves of a part from a commoners’ cemetery:

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.14.83.

cm), used as bead, 14 fluted, flattened spherical, blue glass paste beads, and 4 pierced cowries (length 1.2–2.1 cm), 3 of which survived. All three items are *Money cowries, size: 1.2x0.9–1.9x1.4 cm.

Diszel (Veszprém megye, Hungary) – see 1796. Tapolca

Kuny Domonkos Museum, Tata, acc. nr.: 79.2.2.1856

Dragutino (opština Novi Bečej, Serbia) – see 1671–72. Karlova

1637. Eger (Heves megye, Hungary)-Szépasszonyvölgy: 200 excavated graves of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 10th century:1857

Grave 46: among the finds, 2 cowries.1853

1635. Ducó (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Ducové, okres Piešťany, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia): in one of the unpublished graves of a cemetery around a church, was a string of glass and semi-precious beads, which also contained 2 pierced cowries.1854

Grave 8: “a row of shells around the neck,”1858 which, according to Árpád Nagy, based on the original notes of Gyula Bartalus, consisted of 12 cowries.1859 Dobó István Castle Museum, Eger.

1636. Dunaalmás (Komárom-Esztergom megye, Hungary)Tatai úti homokbánya: 13 graves as a remain of a cemetery dated to the 10th century:

1638. Érsekújvár (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Nové Zámky, okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)Szomoray-útra-dűlő:  211 graves as a part of the commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10–12th centuries:

Grave 1: the remained finds from an adult1855 female burial: 4 round bronze garment ornaments, red burnt clay ball button with a bronze loop, a pair of silvered bronze braid ornaments, the incomplete cover plate of a bronze reliquary cross, a string of beads: the lower rim fragment of a Roman glassware (reconstructed diameter of as 21

Grave 16: from an adult burial: a bronze plait clamp, a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, a wire bracelet twisted of 3 bronze rods, and with a hook and eye terminals, a bronze finger ring, besides, at the feet one bronze S- terminated lockring, with a cowrie drawn onto it, length 1.7 cm.1860

Széll (1941) 171, pl. XXXIX: 13. Lakner (1889) 266–67, 265: pl. II, 269: pl. V; xy. (1889) 267–71. “Table II: 16–18. Three different sized marine shells (ciprea), which were used as ornaments. This is best verified by the sectioned piercing on its protuberance, through which the cowries were strung.”: xy. (1889) 267–68. József Hampel mentioned later a melon seed-shaped (?) pearl bead, which was pierced lengthways: Hampel (1900) 560: nr 19; Váňa (1954) 88: a. nr. 32: Csorna-Csatár, while Csorna-Sülyhegy is missing, 91: note 66; Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 42. 1853 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 31: nr. 222. 1854 Chropovský (1988) 140: fig. 1855 According to Imre Lengyel, 20–30 years old, while Kinga Éry argued that she was 31–40, see Kralovánszky (1988). 1851 1852

Kralovánszky (1988) 244–45, 265–67: fig. 5–7; see Szabó (1978–79) 112: note 90. 1857 Bartalus (1899); Hampel (1900); Nagy (1968); Nagy (1969); Nagy (1970). 1858 Bartalus (1899) 357; Hampel (1900) 577. 1859 Nagy (1968) 71; see Váňa (1954) 91: note 66; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1860 Rejholcová (1974) 437, 443–44, 453: pl. I: 9–14; Kaminská (1982) 435; Langó–Türk (2004) 374, 420: tab. 1. 1856

347

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

Grave 5: from a child burial: under the skull beads, and 2 pierced cowries were found.1864

Felsőköröskény (= Nitra, okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-čast Horné Krškany – see 1710. NyitraFelsőköröskény

Munkácsy Mihály Museum, Békéscsaba. Gîmbas (judeţul Marosgombás

1639–40. Felsőlupkó (prev. Krassó-Szörény megye, Hungary; Gornea, judeţul Caraş-Severin, Romania)Căuniţa de Sus: 65 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated between the middle of the 11th–12th centuries:

Alba,

Romania)

–

see

1702.

Gornea (judeţul Caraş-Severin, Romania) – see 1639–40. Felsőlupkó 1643. Győr (Győr-Moson-Sopron megye, Hungary)Pósdomb: 217 excavated, and 50–70 destroyed graves of a commoners’ cemetery:

1639. Grave 44: from a female burial: a silver pendant ring with a filigran garland, a wire bracelet twisted from more rods with hooked terminals, a bronze bezelled finger ring with animal depiction, and at the neck, a string of beads, including flattened spherical, cylindrical, and rounded prism-shaped, and plated globe beads, a bronze medallion or rattle, and nearly 26 pierced cowries.1861

Grave 65: elements of the neck ornament: the low pendant of a gilt silver shift mount, 2 silver finger rings, an iron ring, and 1 likely pierced Money cowrie, length ca. 1.5 cm.1865 1644–46. Gyula (Békés megye, Hungary)-Téglagyár: 170 graves as a part of commoners’ cemetery:

Town Museum, Resiţa, acc. nr.: A 44 295 (a string of beads).

1644. Grave 5: fragment of a star-ornamented pendant, fragment of a ring, and fragment of 1 cowrie (?).

1640. Grave 48: from a female burial: a plait clamp, 2 wire bracelets twisted from more rods with hooked terminals, and a string of beads: 6 large fluted, 6 small flattened spherical, 2 small oculus and 2 cylindrical beads with poured decoration, and also including 10 pierced cowries.1862

Erkel Ferenc Museum, Gyula.1866 1645. Grave 83: 6 various beads, 6 pierced or fragmentary marine shells, 1 fragmentary cowrie (?).

Town Museum, Resiţa.

Erkel Ferenc Museum, Gyula.1867

Galanta (okr. Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1641. Galánta

1646. Grave 86: 2 (half?) ball buttons, and a pierced cowrie.

1641. Galánta (prev. Pozsony megye, Hungary; Galanta, okres Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)-Papföld, „pri Hodskej ceste”: stray finds, disturbed burials, and 16 graves of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th century:

Erkel Ferenc Museum, Gyula.1868 1647. Gyulavarsánd (prev. Arad megye, Hungary; Vărşand, judeţul Arad, Romania)-Laposhalom: part of a cemetery of commoners’, with only 69 documented graves, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:

stray find/1964: 2 bronze plait clamps, on one of them a pierced cowrie was drawn. On the cowrie, remains of oxide were observed.1863

Grave 49: from an adult burial: a bronze ball button, and on the right side of the chest, a solid bronze ball button, and 1 pierced cowrie.1869

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

1648. Hajdúdorog (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)Gyúlás: 1 cowrie is mentioned in connection with the 24

1642. Gerendás (Békés megye, Hungary)-Vízvári tanya: 5 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century:

Bakay–Kiszely (1973) 70, 69: pl. III: left bottom, 88: pl. X: bottom, as a stray find from Gerendás. 1865 According to the kind oral information from Károly Mesterházy, and the finds register of István Paszternák, see Albeker (1970); Mesterházy (1974). I attempted to identify the cowrie from an exhibition photo shown to me by Paszternák. 1866 Bakay (1978) 179: pl. LXIV: 5–7. 1867 Bakay (1978) 179: pl. LXIV: 16–21, 26–32. 1868 Bakay (1978) 179: pl. LXIV: 22–24. 1869 Popescu (1956) 132, 130: fig. 87: 1–2; Medgyesi (1995) 103, 117: pl. XXVII: 5. 1864

Uzum (1981) 185, 188, 196, 209: fig. 15b, 210: fig. 16a–b; Ţeicu– Lazarovici (1996) 84, 86: fig. 51: 44a—d; Oţa (2005) 196. 1862 Ţeicu–Lazarovici (1996) 85, 86: fig. 51: 48a—d; Oţa (2005) 196. 1863 Točík (1992) 149, 148: fig. 93: 14–15; Wolf–Révész (1996) 149, 148: fig. 93: 15; Langó–Türk (2004) 375, 420: tab. 1. 1861

348

Catalogue excavated graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century.1870 Hajdúszoboszló (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Árkoshalom Grave 136 – see Annex 2310.

them from the 4th century), pierced astragalus of a small animal and 1 pierced *Money cowrie: a large, round hole at the apex, reaching up to its dorsum, size: 1.4x1.0 cm.

Hungary)-

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.537.A1875

1649–58. Halimba (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Cseres: a fully excavated cemetery of commoners’ with 932 graves, dated to the 10th–12th centuries, which was separated to three periods by Gyula Török.1871

1653. Grave 438: from the burial of an adult woman, from Period II: 10 silver S-terminated lockrings, among them 6 with flat hammered terminals, bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, an a necklace: a bronze lunular pendant, 9 spherical segment-shaped bronze pendants, a round lead pendant, and all in all 98 beads: cylindrical bronze sheet beads, 3 fluted blue and light green glass beads, 2 amber beads, 2 cone frustum-shaped glass beads, 2 melon seedshaped blue glass beads, numerous yellowish one- and multi-membered tiny beads, a rounded prism-shaped carnelian bead, and at last 4 pierced cowries.

1649. Grave 82: from the burial of a young child from Period II: 10 bronze S- terminated lockrings, on two of them 3 iron, and 3 bronze, on the third 1 small bronze ring were strung, a silver S-terminated lockring, 2 bronze wire bracelets with pointed terminals, a bronze band finger ring, around the neck 2 cylindrical lead sheet beads, a blue, two- sectioned glass bead and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, of which narrow opening was broken, size: 1.7x1.3 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.125.A1872

Medieval

Hungarian National Department.1876

Medieval

Museum,

Budapest,

Medieval

1650. Grave 310: from the burial of a young child from Period II: 10 bronze and 3 silver S-terminated lockrings, a square-sectioned, open bronze wire finger ring, and around the neck, a string of beads: a fluted glass paste bead, flattened spherical lead beads, blue glass beads, cylindrical and tiny beads, all in all 40, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie: a large, round hole at the apex, which touches also the dorsum, of which upper rim is broken, size: 1.8x1.3 cm.1873

1654. Grave 520: from the burial of a young child dated to Period II: 3 bronze plait clamps, 2 bronze rings with coiled terminals, 6 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a trianglesectioned bronze wire finger ring, a bronze band finger ring, a clay pot, and a string of bead around the neck: 6 glass paste and 1 amber beads, and 3 pierced *Money cowries. 1 of them has a large, round hole, size: 1.9x1.4 cm, on the 2 others, large holes reaching the dorsi, size: 1.7x1.1, resp.1.5x1.0 cm.

Hungarian National Department.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.727.A1877

Museum,

Budapest,

Medieval

Medieval

1651. Grave 363: from the burial of an adult woman from Period III: 3 silver S-terminated lockrings, 1-1 bronze wire and band finger rings, a clay cup, and around the neck a string of 136 beads: 2 amber beads, and multi-sectioned, set, and plain, various sized, colored and shaped beads, a bronze rattle and 2 pierced *Money cowries: both have a large, round/triangle-shaped hole, reaching also the dorsum, size: 1.7x1.2, and 1.6x1.1 cm.

1655. Grave 569: from the burial of a young child dated to Period II: 5 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a clay cup, and around the neck, a string of beads: 3 blue glass and 2 white glass paste beads, besides, 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with a large, round hole, size: 1.6x1.2 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1. 489–490.A1874

1656. Grave 589: from the grave of a juvenis woman from Period I: 2 bronze plait clamps, a bronze band finger ring with riveted terminals, and around the neck, a string of beads: 5 brownish glass paste beads, 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with a quite wide opening, size: 1.8x1.3 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.785.A1878

Medieval

1652. Grave 394: from the burial of a young child from Period II: fragments of a clay vessel, and around the neck, a string of beads: greenish and yellowish glass beads, 2 double pierced, 2 shabby Roman bronze coins (one of

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.813.A1879

Fodor (1996). I: until the 970s, II: from the 970s to the middle of the 11th century, III: from the mid-11th century to the mid-12th century: Török (1962) 114–24. As a site where cowries were found: Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11 B. 1872 Török (1962) 128, 147, pl. XXIX. 1873 Török (1962) 132, 151, pl. XLIII. 1874 Török (1962) 132,163, pls LXXIV, XCV.

Medieval

Medieval

1870 1871

Török (1962) 133, 152, pls XXXVII, LXX; Kovács (1989) 31: nr. XLIVc. 102–03, fig. 45: nr. 7. 1876 Török (1962) 134, 153, 52: fig. 6, pls XXXIII–XXXIV. 1877 Török (1962) 135, 154, pls XXVI, LXI. 1878 Török (1962) 136, 155, ls XXXII, LIII. 1879 Török (1962) 136, 142, pl. X. 1875

349

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1657. Grave 738: from the burial of a young child dated to Period I: 2 bronze finger rings with riveted terminals, a bronze band finger ring, and at the neck 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with a large, oval opening, size: 1.8x1.3 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.955.A1880

cylindrical, fluted paste beads with trailing, and 2 *Money cowries with removed dorsum. Both are fragmentary, size: 1.6x1.1 cm. Tornyai János Museum, Hódmezővásárhely, acc. nr.: 466./42.1884

Medieval

1661–62. Homokmégy (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)Székes: a cemetery of commoners dating to the 10th–11th centuries, totally excavated with 215 burials:1885

1658. Grave 878: from the burial of an adult, probably woman, dated to Period II: an iron awl, 3 silver lockrings with coiled terminals, around the neck, and at the shoulders a string of 42 beads: oculus and one-colored glass paste beads, 1 pierced shell, and 3 pierced cowries: 2 *Money cowries, with oval, broken hole, size: 1.4x1.0 cm, and two fragments of 1 additional cowrie.1881 Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.1.1096.A

1661. Grave 120: burial of two children. One of them, a 4–6 years old child hadn’t grave goods, and the 2–3years old other child had only 4 cowries: 1-1 items at the two upper corners of the jaw bone, 1 at the pelvis, and 1 in the left chest, left from the spine.

Medieval

1662. Grave 163: likely the grave goods from a female burial: 4 glass paste beads, a bronze bell, and 7 pierced cowries: 2 items were at the right elbow joint, 2 on the right, and 3 on the left side of the spine.

Harta (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Freifelt Grave 22 – see Annex 2311. 1659. Hódegyháza (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Jazovo, opština Čoka, Serbia)-Proletarska Street: 10 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century:

Viski Károly Museum, Kalocsa.1886 Horný Jatov (čast of Trnovec nad Váhom, okres Šal’a, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1805–15. Tornóc

Grave 5: from a mature female burial:1882 12 gilt silver shift ornaments of two members, 4 round silver rosetteshaped, and 14 round gilt silver garment ornaments, decorated with a row of beads, 9 gilt silver (boot?)mounts, a bronze band bracelet with wide round terminals, a thick bronze wire bracelet, and in a circle at the rims of the chest 13 pierced cowries, of which majority are likely Money cowries,1883 with narrow, sawed opening, which was broken at numerous items, length 1.4–2 cm.

1663–68. Ipolykiskeszi/Kiskeszi (prev. Hont megye, Hungary; Malé Kosihy, okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Nagy-Völgy-úti-/Felsőkenderesek-/dűlő (Poloha Horné Konopnice): a fully excavated cemetery of commoners’ with 435 graves dated to the 10th–11th centuries: 1663. Grave 231: from a child burial (inf. II): a twisted bronze wire torque, a twisted bronze wire bracelet with spiraled terminals, and at the neck a string of 29 beads: 1 large, 1 smaller and 4 small oculus beads, 3 globe and 20 fluted spherical glass beads, a bandaged bronze sheet pendant with cylindrical loop, and 10 pierced cowries: 9 *Money cowries, length 1.45–1.85, 1 *Ringed/*Money cowrie, length 1.49 cm. 1 has a round hole, while the others have narrow holes.1887

Narodni Muzej, Kikinda. 1660. Hódmezővásárhely (Csongrád megye, Hungary)Kopáncs, Szenti tanya: 55 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery: Grave 14: “130 cm long male skeleton” (?) finds: parallel with the spine, a string of beads: 10 spherical, oculus, and 4

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

Török (1962) 138, 142, pl. X. Török (1962) 140, 159, pl. XXIII. 1882 Based on the description of Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 40: nrs 41–43, pls 1–2: nrs 41–43, and the similar text of Stanojev (1989) 46: nrs 233–39, 48–49: figs 233–39. The publication of Csanád Bálint contains the following different data: Grave 5: a 12 gilt silver shift ornament mounts and 4 round silver rosette-shaped garment ornaments, Grave 6: 14 round garment ornaments, a sheet- and wire bracelets, 13 cowries, and 1 lost plait clamp, 12 lozenge mounts, and 4 female belt mounts: Bálint (1991) 227–29; see Stanojev (1989) 47, and 50: nr. 241 (Grave 6), and 47, and 51: nrs 246–49 (Grave 7), and 12 additional gilt silver shift ornaments are listed, which are not mentioned by Stanojev (1989), and his own notes are incorrect, he excately citing the Hódmezővásárhely (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Nagysziget finds: Bálint (1991) 223: nr. 96, pl. LIX.b: 1–12, 6. 1883 As far as the illustration of the cowries is correct, perhaps there are also Ringed cowries among them, for example Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 40: pl. 1: 41, and Stanojev (1989) 48: fig. 233, the upmost item on the left! 1880 1881

1664. Grave 241: from the burial of a young child (inf. I): at the neck, strung on a narrow bronze wire a cylindrical amber bead, 1-1 smaller and larger glass beads ornamented with spiral-, and cross-lines, a disc-shaped lead pendant,1888 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 40: nr. 397; Párducz (1943) 185, pl. LXII: 28–29. 1885 Gallina (1998) 87–92, 106–07: nr. 15; Gallina (2000) 9, 36; Gallina (2002). 1886 Here I would like to thank the kind data from Zsolt Gallina. 1887 Hanuliak (1994) 109, 128, 187: pl. XLVIII.A,. 1–3. I studied the material with the kind permission of Milan Hanuliak. 1888 It was incorrectly defined as if it was made from the shell of a fossil water shell (Numulit). 1884

350

Catalogue

Fig. 156. Necklace of beads and amulets: last phalange of an animal’s finger, pierced shell (Turritella sp.) and a pierced Money cowrie from Grave 241 at Ipolykiskeszi (1664) – after Hanuliak (1994) 189: pl. L: A, 1

the pierced last phalange of an animal’s finger, the pierced shell of a *Turritella sp. with broken top, size: 2.7x0.7–1.2 cm,1889 and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.6x1.0 cm, with a large, oval hole.1890

and glass paste beads, a heart-shaped silver sheet pendant with two holes, a twisted and ornamented bronze band, and at last 2 pierced *Money cowries, size: 1.7x1.2, and 1.5x1.1 cm. 1 of them has a round hole (besides, it became holed), on the other, a narrow opening is visible, and on their surfaces, secondary brown deposit.1892

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra (Fig. 156).

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

1665. Grave 264: from the burial of a juvenis-adult woman: a bronze plait clamp, 4 embossed bronze band finger rings, and at the neck, 2 pierced *Money cowries, size: 1.5–1.6x1.0 cm. Their surface is untouched, and they were pierced with large holes.1891

1667. Grave 301: from a juvenis female burial: 2 bronze plait clamps, a bronze torque from one thick rod, with hooks at the terminals, a bronze band bracelet, decorated with double zigzag pattern and coiled terminals, a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, a bronze wire finger ring, and around the neck, a string of 66 beads: 1-1 disc-, cone frustum- and conical-shaped amber beads, 1 cone frustum-shaped oculus glass bead, 62 spherical, and conical-shaped glass paste beads, a gilt bronze mount ending in a lilly, with three holes for undefined purpose, and 4 pierced *Money cowries, length 1.5–2.15, width: 1.2–1.5 cm. All has a large, round hole.1893

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra. 1666. Grave 269: from an adult female burial: 2 silvered bronze braid ornament, a wire bracelet twisted from three rods and with spiraled terminals, and at the left scapula, next to 2 plate discs laying on each other, a string of 32 beads: 2 large, 6 small oculus beads, 3 beads of two members, 6 flattened spherical and 15 similar fluted, glass

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences Nitra.

According to Gyula Radócz it is similar to the recent Turritella turris living in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, but this item is very similar to shells named Turritella pertschi shells that can be collected in the surroundings of Szob (Pest megye) in Hungary from 15 million years old layers; but it was not decided, because no literature was available during the visit in Nyitra. 1890 Hanuliak (1994) 109, 129, 189: pl. L: A, 1. 1891 Hanuliak (1994) 110, 130, 191: pl. LII: D, 1–6. 1889

1668. Grave 487: from a child burial (inf. II): a pair of Hanuliak (1994) 110, 130, 194: pl. LV. Hanuliak (1994) 110, 131, 200: pl. LXI: A, 1–2, 4–5, 201: pl. LXII: A, 3, 6. 1892 1893

351

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads bronze wire bracelets twisted from three rods and spiraled terminals, and around the neck a string of 17 beads: 9 cylindrical and conical, decorated with spirals, 8 cone frustum-shaped oculus and line-decorated glass beads, 2 pierced freshwater snails (*Planorbis sp.), size: 1.3x0.5 cm, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, size: 1.8x1.3 cm.1894 Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra (Fig. 157). Ipolytölgyes (Pest megye, Hungary) – see 1686--87. Letkés Jazovo (opština Čoka, Serbia) – see 1659. Hódegyháza 1669–70. Josipovo (prev. Verőce megye, Hungary; Ciganka, opština Podravska Slatina, Virovitičko–podravska županija, Croatia)-Mesarna: after several disturbance, 15 excavated graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries: 1669. stray finds/1939: perhaps finds from one burial: a solid bronze ball button, 2 silver and 1 bronze S-terminated lockrings, 2 bronze rattles, a knobbed bronze finger ring, a twisted silver wire finger ring, and a string of 33 beads from amethyst, fluorite and glass paste beads, and 14 pierced cowries, the majority of them are likely Money cowries, size: approximately 1.0–1.4 cm.1895

Fig. 157. Necklace of beads, 2 pierced freshwater snails (Planorbis sp.) and a pierced Money cowrie from Grave 486 at Ipolykiskeszi (1668) – after Hanuliak (1994) 229: pl. XC: c, 1

1670. Grave 9: from the grave of a child about 10 years old: silver fluted S-terminated lockring, a bronze rattle, on the chest, a string of glass beads: beads of one and two members, cylindrical and tiny beads, densely grooved, spherical bead, and 4 pierced H9 type denars of King Andrew I (1046–1060), among them 3 severly cut, and at last 8 pierced cowries, likely all Money cowries, on 1-1 items narrow, or nearly round sawing, and removed dorsi, size: approximately 1.3x0.7–1.8x1.2 cm.1896

1672. Grave 5: from a mature female burial: an iron knife, half of a lead ball button, a solid bronze ball button, a string of beads: 22 smaller and larger oculus beads, 5 beads ornamented with trailing, and 1 cylindrical bead with zigzag pattern, 13 smaller and larger globe-, flattened globe-, and ring-shaped clay, and glass paste beads, 1 pierced fish vertebra, 1 pierced Cardium sp., and 2 pierced cowries, perhaps Money cowries. The size of the unmodified example: approximately 2.0x1.4 cm, a the other is a fragment.

Juraj u Trnju (opština Čakovec, Međimurska županija, Croatia) – see 1817. Tüskeszentgyörgy 1671–72. Karlova (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Novo Miloševo/Dragutino, opština Novi Bečej, Serbia)-Izlaz: 13 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century:

Vojvođanski muzej, Novi Sad.1898 1673. Karos (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Eperjesszög, Libatanya; Cemetery II: fully excavated cemetery with 73 graves, dated to the first half of the 10th century:

1671. Grave 2: the only grave good from this adult burial was one pierced cowrie, perhaps a Money cowrie, size: approximately 1.7x1.2 cm.

Grave 1: from the grave of a senile woman: a solid bronze ball button, a fluted glass bead, 2 silver wire finger rings, a clay vessel, the femur of a cattle, a not holed Islamic dirham, which is unidentifiable due to severe hammering, and at the left scapula, 3 *Money cowries with narrow opening, size: 1.4x1.1–1.6x1.1 cm. The surface is one of these cowries is in an extremely good condition.

Vojvođanski muzej, Novi Sad.1897 According to Gyula Radócz, it is evidently covered by the mistyped name Plunarbus in the Nyitra register and publication: Hanuliak (1994) 115, 137, 229: pl. XC: C, 1–3 (incorrectly mentioned as Grave 489). 1895 Tomičić (1990) 86, 88, 96: pl. II: 1–11; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 5. 1896 Tomičić (1990) 89, 104: pl. X: 1; Tomičić (1997) 25, 25: fig. 15; Tomičić (1998–1999) 46. 1897 Stanojev (1989) 67: nr. 349, 68: fig. 349. 1894

1898

352

Stanojev (1989) 67: nrs 357–360, 68–69: figs 357–360.

Catalogue Hungary)-Gerenda-dűlő: 73 graves from a part of a cemetery of the 10th century:

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 94.1.3.1899 1674. Karos (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Eperjesszög, Libatanya; Cemetery III: fully excavated cemetery with 19 graves from the first half of the 10th century:

1677. Grave 4: from a disturbed female burial: a bronze plait clamp, 2 larger and 4 smaller, various earrings with grape bunch decoration, a silver band bracelet with punched in dot-motiefs and coiled terminals, a bronze band bracelet with rounded terminals, a sheet finger ring with round terminals, and at the neck, a string of beads: roughly 450 tiny round and cylindrical, white, blue and green glass, and glass paste beads, 2 larger dark blue paste beads, a bronze spiral with one bead, and in the middle of the beads, 3 pierced cowries, length approximately 1.4–1.8 cm.

Grave 16: from the burial of a young child (inf. I): an armlet composed of bronze chains, a clay vessel, and among the ribs 1 pierced *Money cowrie, of which dorsum is missing, broken size: 1.4x0.95 cm. Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 94.85.1.1900 1675. Kenézlő (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Fazekaszug, Cemetery II: a fully excavated cemetery with 25 graves from the 10th century:

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 71.20.1903 1678. Grave 17: from a disturbed female burial: a silver band bracelet with punched decoration and coiled terminals, a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, a bronze wire bracelet twisted from an overlapped bronze rod, and at the place of the skull, a string of beads: 1 oculus bead, 14 tiny, white and blue glass paste beads, and 3 pierced cowries, length approximately 1.4–2.1 cm.

1675. Grave 20 (= 45): from the partial horse burial of a young man: 7 arrowheads, dissimilar pair of stirrups (a pear-shaped and the other is with straight foot plate), a bit, the gilt silver buckle and mounts of the buckle, iron fragments, a wooden plate under the pelvis, on the chest a Volga Bulgarian imitation of Sassanid emir’s Ahmad ibn Ismail (907–914) dirham, at the rim double pierced, and at the inner side of the left upper arm 2 large oculus beads, and 1-1 marine shell, and cowrie. The shell is perhaps a *Glycymeris sp. or *Cardium sp., the surface of its both sides are corroded, the edges are broken the denture is missing, at the dorsum, likely the fragment of a large, round hole with broken edges is visible, size: 2.2x2.5 cm. The cowrie is likely a pierced *Money cowrie with narrow opening, size: 1.6x1.2 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 55.15.2–3.A1901

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc,acc. nr.: 71.20.1904 1679. Grave 24: from a female burial: 7 bronze ball buttons cast from two halves, 8 stamped silver disc ornaments, 2 stamped square, silver garment ornaments, a silver earring with a bead row pendant, 2 open-work bronze braid discs, a string of 52 beads: 5 colored oculus beads, 6 green glass, 41 tiny white and greenish glass paste beads, and 26 additional beads at other parts of the body: 1 oculus bead, 25 white glass paste beads and blue glass beads, 2 wire bracelets twisted from two or three times overlapped rod, and at last 5 pierced cowries: 1 at the left side of the skull, 1 under the jaw bone, and 3 other were found at the hip, among the ball buttons.

Medieval

Kičind/Malá nad Hronom (okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1676. Kicsind 1676. Kicsind (prev. Esztergom megye, Hungary; Malá nad Hronom/Kičind, okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia): during a rescue excavation, beside urn graves of the Baden Culture and the Carpathian Tumulus-grave Culture, all in all 9 Late Roman and 10th–11th centuries settlement objects were documented. In one of the latter an intended side fragment of a large (Panther? or Tiger?) cowrie was found, lenght 6.9 cm.1902 1677–80.

Kistokaj

(Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 71.20.1905 1680. Grave 34: from a female burial: 1 stamped, lozenge shift ornament, 17 stamped, round shift ornaments, 2 silver earrings with a bead row pendant, a wire bracelet, twisted from a twice or three times overlapped bronze rod, with coiled terminals, a silver band bracelet, and at the neck, in the front, a string of beads: 11 colored oculus bead, 2 fluted and 11 disc-shaped green glass beads, and 10 pierced cowries.

megye,

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 71.20.1906

Révész (1996) 15, 230: pl. 8: 1–9, 387: pl. 164: 4. According to the kind information of Magdolna Hellebrandt. 1900 Révész (1996) 37, 356: pl. 133: 5–6, 10. According to the kind information of Magdolna Hellebrandt. 1901 Fettich (1931) 94–96, 93–95: figs 76–80; Kovács (1989) 37–38: nr. LIIIb.147, fig. 30: nr. 4. 1902 The kind information of Ondrej Ožďáni, see Ožďáni (1984). Despite all the efforts of the excavation director, this item was not found for identification. 1899

1681–84. Kiszombor (Csongrád megye, Hungary)K. Végh (1991–92) 54, 65, 78: fig. 5: 4.4. K. Végh (1991–92) 55, 65, 81: fig. 8: 17.1. 1905 According to the leader of the excavation, the items from this grave probably adorned the braid: K. Végh (1991–92) 65, 84: fig. 11: 24.8. 1906 K. Végh (1991–92) 65, 88: fig. 15: 34.4. 1903 1904

353

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Cemetery B (between the Nagyhalom-dűlő and the road at Óbéba): 78 graves (numbered from 1–to 426) from a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries:1907

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: NN 13./1943.7.1911

Medieval

1686. Letkés (Pest megye, Hungary)-Téglaégető, Cemetery I: a fully excavated cemetery of commoners’ with 91 graves (94 skeletons), dated to the 10th–11th centuries:1912

1681. Grave 127: from most likely a female burial: a striker, 2 flints, 1 silver and 2 silvered iron garment ornaments, a bronze needle, a pair of gilt silver braid discs with iron back plate, silver finger ring of which bezel is decorated with four globules, and on the neck, 6 pierced cowries.1908

Grave 53: from the disturbed grave of a 3–5 years old girl: a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, a bluish glass bead, 1 “snail”, and 1, large *Money cowrie with oval sawing, in good repair, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged: no trace of the finds were found in the inventory book, the acc. nr. of the other finds: N. 53.5.307–12.1909

Börzsöny Museum, Szob, acc. nr.: 78.64.3 (snail)–4 (cowrie).1913

1682. Grave 369: in the unpublished material, 1 *Money cowrie in an extremly good condition, with glittering surface, with a narrow, sawed opening, size: 1.5x1.2 cm.

1687. Letkés (Pest megye, Hungary)-Téglaégető, Cemetery II: almost fully excavated cemetery of commoners’, with 91 graves, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:1914

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.5.749.

Grave 55: finds from a disturbed likely female burial: 6 round shift ornaments, 3 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a torque twisted from a three times overlapped bronze rod, with a silver ring drawn onto it, a goose-egg, and in the neck region, among the string of 38 beads 1 *Money cowrie, with corroded surface and sawed in an oval-pinted shape at apex, size: 1.65x1.25 cm.

1683. Grave 372: in the unpublished material 5 pierced cowries are mentioned: presently 2 more unmodified and 3 fragmentary *Money cowries, size: 1.4x1.0 cm. Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.5.751. 1684. Grave 375: in the unpublished material 2 *Money cowries are mentioned. 1 is with removed dorsum, the other has a narrow, sawed opening, size: 1.8x1.1, resp.1.7x1.3 cm.

Börzsöny Museum, Szob, acc. nr.: 79.31.13.1915 Léva (prev. Bars megye, Hungary; Levice, okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Génye (prev. Bars megye, Hungary; Geňa) Grave 7 – see Annex 2315.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.5.758.

1688. Léva (prev. Bars megye, Hungary; Levice, okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-38 Ludanská Street: finds from three destroyed graves, dated to the 10th century:

1684a. Kloštar Podravski (opština Đurđevac, Koprivničkokriževačka županija, Croatia): from a Slavic cemetery of the 10th–11th centuries, cowries are incorrectly referred to as stray finds.1910

Grave 3: an iron knife, a drop-shaped bronze ring, bronze plait clamps (?), an iron ring, a string of beads: 3-3 oculus, and cylindrical beads, 1 glass paste bead of four members, a Cardium sp., and 5 pierced cowries.

1685. Kunszentmárton (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Köttön-halom/dűlő: at least 3 graves were disturbed in a 10th century cemetery: Grave/1942: from the partial horse burial of a 28–30 years old woman: 6 silver spangles, 3 silver buttons, 2 silver earrings, a small silver chain with leaf-shaped silver pendant, a bronze bracelet, and 2 pierced, shabby, corroded *Money cowries, with narrow opening, size: 1.8x1.4, and 1.6x1.1 cm.

Tekovské Museum, Levice.1916 Levice (okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1688. Léva Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 51: nr. 608; Nemeskéri (1946–48) 387–88; Kovalovszki (1957) 63: nr. 3. 1912 Bakay (1978) 59–91, 144–52; MRT 9, 128: Site 10/17. (Under the name Ipolytölgyes, see ibid. 180: under ***). 1913 Bakay (1978) 76, 75: pl. XXXV: 10–12. Here I would like to thank for sending me the shells for Klára Kővári, Zsuzsa Miklós and István Torma. 1914 Bakay (1978) 91–121, 152–62; MRT 9, 128: Site 10/17 (under the name Ipolytölgyes, see ibid. 180: under ***). 1915 Bakay (1978) 107, 109: fig. 137, 110: pl. LI (wrongly with grave number 39). Here I would like to thank for sending me the shells for Klára Kővári, Zsuzsa Miklós and István Torma. 1916 Pölhösová (1991); Nevizánszky (1996) 275, 286: pl. IX: 1–6; Nevizánsky (2006) 292: nr. 8, 319: pl. XIV: 2–5, 11, 16. 1911

Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 48: nr. 573; Bálint (1991) 234–36. Csallány (1959) 306, 316: fig. 16: 3–4, 319: fig. 18: 3–17; Mugurevič (1962) 48, note 36. 1909 Here I would like to thank the kind information of Attila Türk. 1910 Tomičić (1998–1999) 46; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 7. There is no mention of cowries in the literature, see Brunšmid (1903–04) 76–83., and Željko Tomičić in his kind letter informed me that it was an erroneous map. 1907 1908

354

Catalogue 1692., Magyarhomorog (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)Kónyadomb: a fully excavated cemetery of commoners’, with 540 graves, dated to the 10th–12th centuries:

Lužianky, okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)Kajsianske za železnicou – see Annex 2318. 1689–90. Mačvanska Mitrovica (opština Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia)-Zidine/Širingrad: 76 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th–12th centuries, among the 241 graves from cemeteries of various periods:1917

1692. Grave 13: from a female burial: a twisted ring, a band bracelet with coiled terminals, a sheet fragment, a piece of a resin-like material, and under the spine a string of beads: 11 oculus beads, 4 longish, bead with spiral trailing and 1 similar bead with herringbone decoration, 3 fluted beads, 5 beads of many members, 18 tiny beads, 4–5 fragments, 1 tiny bronze ring, a pierced bone, and 3 corroded, *fossil Ceritidae/Cerithium sp., length 1.4–1.7 cm, and 2 pierced *Money cowries with narrow opening, size: 2.0x1.3, and 1.5x1.2 cm.

1689. Grave 193: from the burial of a some 8 years old child: 2 S-terminated lockrings, a bronze sheet button, a bezelled finger ring, and a string of beads around the skull: 11 various beads and 15 pierced cowries. According to the drawing, Money cowries, length ca. 1.4–2.4 cm.1918 1690. Grave 215: from a female burial: a large, plain plait clamp, a S-terminated lockring with a wounded wire, a bezelled finger ring, and a string of beads: 68 glass paste beads, a bone pendant, a pierced Roman coin, all in all “ 6 pierced denars of King Coloman, King Bela II or King Geza II” and 34 pierced cowries, which were perhaps all Money cowries, length approximately 1.5–2.3 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 68.108.A1921

Medieval

Magyarmajdán (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Rabe, opština Novi Kneževac, Serbia) – see 1735–36. Rábé Majdan (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Rabe, opština Novi Kneževac, Serbia) – see 1735–36. Rábé

Muzej Srema, Sremska Mitrovica (Fig. 158).1919 1691. Madaras (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Árvaidűlő: 6 graves of a rich cemetery of a small family, from the 10th century:

Majdán (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Rabe, opština Novi Kneževac, Serbia) – see 1735–36. Rábé 1693–701. Majs (Baranya megye, Hungary)-Udvari-rétek: fully excavated 1130 graves of a commoners’ cemetery (numbered to 1137), dated to the 10th–11th centuries:

Grave 4: from a partial horse burial of a woman: a pair of pear-shaped stirrups, bit with sidebars, surcingle buckle, silver plaques of the harness, an iron knife, 112 silver half-globule rivets of the boot mounts, a pair of silver plait clamps, a silvered open-work braid ornament cast in bronze, a silver band bracelet with widening, mount-decorated terminals, and a string of beads: 2 almond-shaped copper sheet beads, a flattened spherical amber bead, a light blue, large oculus bead, a light blue fluted, spherical glass paste bead, and 1-1 cowries with corroded surface and a narrow sawed on the right side of the jaw bone and at the left side of the skull. 1 of them is perhaps a Ringed cowrie, size: 1.6x1.1 cm, the other Money cowrie, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

1693. Grave 13: from a mature female burial: a gilt silver ball button, bronze finger ring with stepped head, and a string of beads at the neck: 10 blue fluted and 44 whiteishyellowish flattened spherical glass, and 1 prism-shaped blue, 8 blue glass paste beads of one or two members, and at last 11 pierced cowries: 9 *Money cowries, at the apex different sized sawed opening, size: 1.5x1.0–2.2x1.7 cm, 2 *Money/*Ringed cowries, 1 is with a small sawed opening, the other’s back side is broken, size: 0.8x0.9–1.7x1.1 cm. Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 62.138.1.1922

Türr István Museum, Baja, acc. nr.: 98.2.21, 24.

1920

1694. Grave 53: from an adult female burial: the lower part of a bronze garment ornament, a solid bronze ball button, 11 bronze and 1 tin S-terminated lockrings, a torque, twisted from bronze rod, with hook and loose terminals, onto which 4 yellow glass ring beads and 2 bronze rings were strung, 1-1 lead, and bronze lunular pendants, a bronze bracelet with snake head terminals, 2 round-sectioned bronze wire bracelets with pointed terminals, 3 bronze finger rings: 1 finger ring with wide sheet bezel, 1 cast, imitating twisting

Pavlović (1980) 4; Tomičić (1992) 129: pl. 7; Tomičić (1998–1999) 46–47.; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 2; see Pavlović (1968); Pavlović (1969). Grave 54: coin of Manuel Komnenos I (1143–1180), Grave 62: an anonymous follis, issued between 976–1035. This latter is maybe in the table as a misprint: As “976–1035. Anton. emisija”: Tomičić (1992) 129: pl. 7. 1918 Ercegović-Pavlović (1980) 27, pl. XXI; Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 57: nr. 262–66; Reese (1991) 171: nr. 79. 1919 Ercegović-Pavlović (1980) 28, pl. XXIII; Reese (1991) 171: nr. 79. The number of coins is different at another publication: “U grobu br. 215 nađeno je šest novčića, probušenih. Pripadaju kraljevima: Kolomanu... i Beli II...ili Gejzi II”: Jovanović (1977) 155. In the string of beads 3 pierced Hungarian coin, and separately 4 coins from the period between King Coloman and King Geza II (1095–1161): Marjanović-Vujović– Tomić (1982) 58. Only one coin of King Coloman is mentioned from the grave: Tomičić (1992) 129: pl. 7. According to László Réthy, the period between 1095–1161 means the presently undefinable anonymous denars: Réthy (1899) pl. 5 (CNH I. 65–93); Kovács (1997a) 291–309, 369–70. 1920 Kőhegyi (1980) 218–22, 228, 219–22: figs 15–18. I studied the shells with the kind permission of the excavation director. 1917

According to the opinion of János Szabó (Naturhistorical Museum, Budapest) given to István Dienes, both Grave 13 and Grave 14 included fossil shells from the Upper Miocene (15 +/-3 million years old). This opinion preserved in the storage box of the finds as a hand written note of István Dienes. 1922 Kiss (1983) 77, 160: fig. 73: 37, 319: pl. 11. Registered among the sites with cowries: Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11.A. 1921

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Fig. 158. String of beads with 34 pierced Money cowries from Grave 215 at Mačvanska Mitrovica (1690) – after Ercegović-Pavlović (1980) pl. XXIII

356

Catalogue and 1 bezelled, set with glass paste, a wheeled, clay cup decorated with incised lines, fragment of pottery, 2 chicken eggs, 1-1 round tin plaque, and an undefinable hammered, pierced silver coin (?), besides, a string of beads around the neck: 68 white and blue spherical, 9 similar, but goldleafed, 17 white, and transparent, furthermore 2 white ring beads, a bronze rattle, and at last a *Money cowrie, with a sawed opening at its apex, size: 1.7x1.2 cm. Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 64.11.52.

Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 66.36.39.1927 1699. Grave 954: from an adult female burial: a string of beads around the neck: 4-4 crystal, carnelian, and 70 further greenish glass beads, 1 land snail (Cepaea cf. vindobonensis), whose dorsum is missing up to the last curve, size: 1.9–2.0 cm, and lastly 4 pierced cowries. Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs.1928

1923

1700. Grave 988: from an adult female burial: a bronze S-terminated lockring, a tin ring, which crumbled away, a bronze finger ring, and a string of beads around the neck: 27 green, blue glass and some amber beads, and at last 2 tiny *Money cowries, both dorsi are missing and one of the apices is fragmentary, size: 1.4x0.9, resp.1.6x1.0 cm.

1695. Grave 228: from the burial of a pubescent person (girl?): an iron awl, 1-1 solid, and hollow bronze ball buttons, a bronze S-terminated lockring, 1-1 bronze band, and sheet finger rings, and a string of beads around the neck: 2 brown flattened spherical, 1 blue glass, 1 lead-flute bead, 1 lead mount, and 1 pierced cowrie. Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs.

Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 67.44.64.1929

1924

1701. Grave 1032: from an adult female burial: a bronze wire finger ring, and a string of beads around the neck: greenish white glass beads and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with a wide, sawed opening at its apex, size: 1.5x1.1 cm.

1696. Grave 286: from an adult female burial: a silver ring-fragment, 2 silver, 1 silver, and 3 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a bronze wire finger ring, a chicken egg, besides, under the left corner of the jaw bone, a string of beads: 5 spherical yellow beads and 1 *Money cowrie, with a large, nearly round sawed opening at the apex, size: 1.7x1.3 cm.

Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 67.44.126.1930 Malá nad Hronom/Kičind (okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1676. Kicsind

Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 65.2.40.1925 1697. Grave 385: from the burial of a small child (inf. I): 3 silver S-terminated lockrings, a bronze torque, a bronze wire bracelet with narrow terminals, and a wire finger ring, besides, around the neck, a string of beads: 394 greenishwhite beads of one or two members, blue cylindrical, orange glass and brown beads, 4 tiny ball buttons, a glass globe hanged from a metal loop, an eight-pointed starshaped brooch, and at last 6 pierced *Money cowries with various shapes, with a tiny drilled hole at the sawed hollow of the head, size: 1.6x1.2–2.0x1.5 cm.

Malé Kosihy (okr. Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1663–68. Ipolykiskeszi 1702. Marosgombás (prev. Alsó-Fehér megye, Hungary; Gîmbas, judeţul Alba, Romania): 10 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century. Grave/1912: from a female burial: an iron awl with wooden handle, a round bronze shift ornament, a flowershaped, round shift ornament, 2 similar, pendant shift ornament of two members, a hollow ball button, a bronze belt mount, 4 gilt bronze female belt mounts, a fourlobed bronze boot mount, 2 gilt silver earrings with globe pendant, a bronze band bracelet, at the neck, and on the chest, a string of beads: 1 cylindrical bronze and 3 lead sheet beads, 6 cylindrical, 28 flattened spherical, various sized oculus and 35 flattened spherical, and glass paste beads of one members, 3 fluted spherical, 5 looped, dropshaped and 6 cylindrical glass paste beads with trailing, 7 prism-shaped, grooved, and 6 further cylindrical glass paste beads, besides, on the chest 1 Cerithium sp., and 4 likely Money cowries with differently sawed openings, size: approximately 1.2x0.9–1.9x1.2 cm.

Janus Pannonius Museum, Pécs, acc. nr.: K. 65.2.167 (Fig. 159).1926 1698. Grave 472: from an adult female burial: 11 silver S-terminated lockrings, a bronze bracelet with snake head terminals, 1-1 open bronze wire finger ring with pointed terminals, and a similar silver wire ring twisted from 3 times overlapped rod, a destroyed and undefined coin from the 11th century, and around the skull and above the chest a string of beads disturbed later by a small animal: 100 blue, green, orange and white carnelian, crystal and glass beads, and 1 *Money cowrie, with a large sawed hole at its apex, whose edges were broken, size: 2.0x1.3 cm. Kiss (1983) 80, 81: fig. 53, 321: pl. 13; Tomičić (1994–95), 89: fig. 7; Tomičić (1997a) 78: fig. 7. 1924 Kiss (1983) 91–92, 333: pl. 25. 1925 Kiss (1983) 95, 335: pl. 27. 1926 Kiss (1983) 101, 103: fig. 57, 342–43: pls 34–35; Tomičić (1994–95) 90: fig. 8; Tomičić (1997a) 80: fig. 8. 1923

Kiss (1983) 107, 347: pl. 39; Tomičić (1994–95) 95: fig. 13.; Tomičić (1997a) 86: fig. 13. 1928 Kiss (1983) 139, 393: pl. 85. 1929 Kiss (1983) 141, 396: pl. 88. 1930 Kiss (1983) 143, 399: pl. 91. 1927

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Fig. 159. In a string of 394 beads 6 pierced Money cowries from Grave 385 at Majs (1697) – after Kiss (1983) 343: pl. 35

358

Catalogue Museum Cluj-Napoca/Kolozsvár/Klausenburg acc. nr.: II. 86.79., and II. 86.76–78.1931

fragments of a mug decorated by incised wavy lines, and around the neck, a string of beads: deep brown and yellow prism-shaped beads, yellow bead of two members, red and yellow rund glass and glass paste beads, a small bone disc, half of a bronze pendant, and at last 19 pierced cowries: 18 *Money cowries, size: 1.2x0.9–2.1x1.8 cm (this latter is an extremely wide item), and 1 *Money/*Ringed cowrie, size: 1.6x1.1 cm. The majority of holes are nearly circular, only 2 cowries have narrow opening.

1703. Mezőberény (Békés megye, Hungary)-Kérhalomdűlő (prev. Valentiny-farm): graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–12th centuries: 1703. Grave 79: from a female burial: a bronze pendant, a bronze ball button, a small ring, spangles, and dispersed on the neck and the chest colored, oculus glass paste and glass beads, and 6 cowries, which were all lost without description or identification.1932

Herman Ottó Museum, Miskolc, acc. nr.: 58.13.6.1935 1707. Nagytarcsa (Pest megye, Hungary)-Temető Street 5: the remained grave goods from the disturbed grave of a solitary (?) female burial: 1-1 triangle-, and half ellipseshaped stirrups with spherical neck and rectangle loop, a bit, a surcingle, a bronze finger ring, the drilled canine of a deer, besides, 1 pierced, bright *Money cowrie, with an irregular opening in the middle of the dorsum, size: 1.6x1.3 cm.

1704. Mezőtúr (Békés megye, Hungary)-Dohányos-gerinc: at least 2 graves from a 10th century cemetery. Grave 2: probably finds from one partial horse burial of a woman, who was buried in a coffin (?): a pear-shaped stirrup, a surcingle, 1 fluted silver sheet button and a similar button with filigree decoration, a solid ball button, 2 silver plait clamps, 2 rilled and pierced round mica slate pendant, 2 silver band bracelets, and 1 bead of one, 2 beads of two members, and 1 Money cowrie pierced with a small round hole, size: approximately 1.8x1.2 cm.1933

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 62.62.1.A1936

Medieval

1707a. Naszvad (prev. Komárom megye, Hungary; Nesvady, okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia): an incorrect citation of cowries found during World War II, but this data refers to finds from Pozsonyvezekény (1729).1937

Michal nad Žitavou (okr. Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1776. Szentmihályúr

1708. Naszvad (prev. Komárom megye, Hungary; Nesvady, okr. Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Rókalyukdűlő (poloha Rókalyuk), Cemetery II: a fully excavated cemetery with 24 graves, from the 10th century:

1705. Mindszent (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Koszorúsdűlő: 3 graves from a part of a 10th century cemetery: Grave 1: from the burial of a young child: a string of beads: 1-1 oculus, and grooved, cylindrical glass paste beads, a bronze cross decorated with the figure of a priest, and a *Money cowrie, whose narrow opening was drawn onto a silver plait clamp, size: 1.7x1.2 cm, and 1 additional *Money cowrie, with wider opening, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

Grave 10 (= 16)1938: from the burial of a 14–16 years old (juvenile) person: a bronze ball button, 1-1 silver and bronze plait clamps, a twisted bronze wire bracelet, a silver plaque (funeral eye piece?), and around the neck, a string of 11 beads: 1-1 yellowish brown membered and black cylindrical glass paste beads with trailing, a fluted, cone frustum-shaped, a tiny spherical, and deep blue with grooved surface, and 6 small black glass paste beads, and 8 unmodified and 1 fragmentary cowries, variously pierced, which were found also on the chest. Among the 8 depicted untouched items 7 are probably Money cowries, size: approximately 1.3x0.9–1.9x1.4 cm, 1 other might be Ringed cowrie, size: approximately 1.5x1.1 cm.1939

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.87.2–3.1934 1706. Miskolc (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Repülőtér/Airport: 21 graves from parts of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th century: Grave 4./1956: from a young child’s burial (length 1 m): a bronze ball button, a pair of bronze plait clamps (?), the

1709. Németóvár (Bad Deutsch-Altenburg, Bezirk Hainburg an der Donau, Niederösterreich, Austria)-

Roska (1936) 164–66, 167: fig. 2; Kovács (1988) 152: notes 18, 21, 22, 25. With Hungarian ethnic definition, but under the misleading “Klausenburggruppe”, and separated from the “Ungarische Zeit (1200—)”: Horedt (1986) 82–84, 83: fig. 38: 21–22, 24–25. 1932 Mesterházy (1998) 601. 1933 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 53: nr. 662; Supka (1909) 264–67, and ibid. figs 1–13.; Váňa (1954) 91: note 66; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1934 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 53: nr. 666; Csallány (1941) 186, 187: pl. III: lower row. On the evidence of the original documents both cowries were drawn onto 1-1 silver plait clamps: Langó–Türk (2004) 368, 420: tab. 1, 440: fig. 8: 1–2. 1931

K. Végh (1970) 81–82, 98: pl. VI: 6–17. From the kind information of Magdolna Hellebrandt. 1936 Kovács (1985) 125, 126: fig. 1. 1937 Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1938 In the publication the Grave 6 is followed by the first burial of the 2nd cemetery, named Grave 7, see Nevizánsky–Ratimorská (1991) 279. 1939 Nevizánsky–Ratimorská (1991) 264–65, 280, 270: fig. 11: 1–8 (the Ringed cowrie may be nr. 1). 1935

359

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Kirchenberg: 50–52 graves from a commoners’ cemetery dated between the 10th–mid 11th centuries:

whose edges are often broken. Their surface is corroded, with a secondary brown deposit.

Grave 48: burial of an adult, probably a woman: 7 white metal, an S-terminated lockrings from thick wire, a plain silver, and twist imitating finger ring cast from bronze, fragments of a iron sheet artifact, and at last 2-2 round glass and polygonal amber beads, and 2 pierced Money cowries, length 1.7 and 2.1 cm.1940

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra. 1712. Grave F 58: a string of beads, including 16 pierced cowries: 15 *Money cowries, length 1.3–2.0 cm, 1 perhaps *Ringed cowrie, size: 1.7x1.1 cm. 11 items have round openings, 4 items have narrow hole, 1 cowrie is with a completely removed dorsum.

Nesvady (okres Komárno, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1708. Naszvad

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

Nitra (Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-čast Horné Krškany – see 1710. Nyitra–Felsőköröskény

1713. Grave F 239: a string of beads, including 15 pierced cowries: 13 *Money cowries, length 1.3–2.1 cm, 2 *Money/ *Ringed cowries, length 1.3–1.5 cm. Items have round or narrow opening. Their surface is corroded.

Nitra (Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Šindolka – see 1711–14. Nyitra-Šindolka Nitra (Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Zobor – see 1715–20. Nyitra-Zoborhegy

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

Nové Zámky (okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1638. Érsekújvár

1714. Grave F 275: 1 probably *Money cowrie, broken, and corroded.

Novo Miloševo (opština Novi Bečej, Serbia) – see 1671– 72. Karlova

Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

1710. Nyitra (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Felsőköröskény (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; časť Horné Krškany), Húskombinát/ Meatworks: 101 graves from the part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th century:

1715–20, (1717a). Nyitra (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Zobor/Staré Mesto: 165 excavated graves from a commoners’ cemetery with nearly 800 presumed graves, dated to 10th century:1943 1715. Grave 38: from a female burial: an iron knife, 7 bronze and 1 silver S-terminated lockrings with flat hammered terminals, 2 large bronze sheet globules, a torque, with hook and eye terminals, twisted from two times overlapped bronze rod, a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, a pair of bronze bracelets, twisted from three times overlapped rod and spiral terminals, 2 open bronze band finger ring, 2 bronze twist fragment, and around and under the skull, a string of beads: 26 cylindrical and 43 spherical glass paste beads, 1 blue membered glass bead, 1 red amber bead, 1 small bronze ball button, and 14 pierced cowries, which were probably mainly Money cowries.1944

Grave 96: in the unpublished material a cylindrical glass paste bead with trailing and 2 *Money cowries, size: 1.75x1.2, and 1.4x1.05 cm. One has a round opening, the other a narrow one. Both are in a good condition and are bright.1941 Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra. 1711–14. Nyitra (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Šindolka: 303 graves from part of a cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries.1942

1716. Grave 40: from a female burial: 3 bronze Sterminated lockrings with flat hammered terminals, a bronze wire bracelet, an open bronze band finger ring, besides, on the chest a string of beads: 107 glass, 50 clay,

1711. Grave F 40: a string of beads, including 14 pierced cowries: 13 *Money cowries, length 1.3–1.7 cm, 1 *Ringed cowrie, size: 1.65x1.1 cm. On all items larger, round hole,

Those graves, in which cowries appeared, lacking parallel material, cannot be dated to the ninth century, but from the period of the Hungarian immigration, or after the appearance of Hungarian influence, see Hanuliak (1992) 253–55, 282, 253: fig. 10. With incorrect dating: Chropovský (1961) 156: fig. 12: 2, 8. The finds, including the shells were not available. 1944 On both photos the strung shells are profiled: Čaplovič (1954) 12, 43–44: pls IX—X; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5; Chropovský (1961) 156: fig. 12: 8. 1943

Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 32–33, 40, 43, 41: fig. 3, on the upper left side. 1941 From Period D of the cemetery, which produced the mixed material of Slavic and Hungarian populations: Hanuliak (1992) 256, 300: pl. X: 27–28, 37. 1942 Fusek (1987) 55; about graves that did not yield cowries, but included coins: Fusek (1998). I studied the unpublished material with the kind help of Gabriel Fusek. 1940

360

Catalogue and 130 white glass paste beads, 1-1 black tubular clay, blue, and polygonal glass beads, and 9 pierced cowries, probably all Money cowries, length approximately 1.1–1.7 cm.1945

Oborín (okres Michalovce, Košický kraj, Slovakia) – see 1588. Abara 1721. Orosháza (Békés megye, Hungary)-Rákóczitelep: 680 graves from a part of a cemetery around a church, built in the 11th/12th century, which building was conditionally identified as Gellértegyháza; the cited graves are dated to the 11th–13th centuries:

1717. Grave 73: from a female burial: 5 bronze sheethammered S-terminated lockrings with, bronze open band finger ring, clay cup, and under the skull a large gilt bronze sheet globule, and a string of beads: 1 solid bronze ball button, 7 white spherical glass paste beads, 1 additional glass paste bead with amalgam surface, 4 glass and 1 amber beads, 1 Columbella sp., length approximately 1.6 cm, and at last, 5 cowries. Perhaps all, but at least 3 of them are surely Money cowries, pierced with large oval holes, size: approximately 1.3–1.6x1.2 cm.1946

Grave 374: mentioned as a male burial, whose grave was enclosed with a wooden frame, but the material can better be interpreted as finds from a female burial: a pair of iron stirrups, an iron bit with sidebars, silver rivets of the boot, 1-1 heart-shaped, and longish silver boot mounts, a plait clamp, a clay pot, the silver bands of the funeral costume, besides, 2 pierced *Money cowries, worn as a strung necklace, with a small sawed opening at the apex, size: 1.5x1.0, resp.1.4x0.9 cm.

1717a. Grave 95: Probably incorrect reference to a cowrie,1947 because in the cited publication only a bronze S-terminated lockring, a string of beads and a band finger ring is listed.1948

Szántó Kovács János Museum, Orosháza.1952

1718. Grave 96: from an adult female burial: a bronze S-terminated lockring, a bronze wire bracelet, a twisted bronze wire bracelet, a clay vessel, and around the skull, and on the chest beads: 3 light green glass paste, 1 blue melon seed-shaped glass, and 4 amber beads, besides, 7 pierced, likely cowries.1949

1722. Oroszvár (prev. Moson megye, Hungary; Bratislava-okres V.: čast Rusovce, Bratislavský kraj, Slovakia): 218 unpublished graves from several parts of a commoners’cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries, in which, cowries and snails are mentioned.1953 1723. Orsova (prev. Krassó-Szörény megye, Hungary; Orşova, judeţul Mehedinţi, Romania): among stray finds from the 10th century 2 broken cowries.

1719. Grave 130: from a female burial: 4 bronze Sterminated lockrings with flat hammered terminals, 2 silver S-terminated lockrings with filigree decoration, a bronze torque, twisted from two times overlapped rod, an open bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals and a bronze wire bracelet from evenly thick rod, an open bronze band finger ring, besides, beads in the mouth: 1-1 red, and yellow amber, 1 small clay beads, 1 fragmentary cowrie, likely Money cowrie, which broken out at the piercing, size: approximately 1.7x1.5 cm.1950

Muzeul Banatului, Timişoara/Temesvár. 1724–25. Petrovčić (prev. Szerém megye, Hungary; opština Zemun, Serbia)-Zabran: 37 graves from a part of an Arpadian Age cemetery around the church, dated to the 12th–14th centuries, among which, some burials are earlier than the church.1954

1720. Grave 146: from a female burial: a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, an open bronze band finger ring, besides, at the skull, a string of beads: 12 smaller and 1 larger yellow glass paste beads, 1 larger blue fluted clay bead, 1 blue glass and 1 red amber beads, and 2 pierced cowries, perhaps both are Money cowries, size: approximately 2.6x1.9, resp.1.6x1.1 cm. On the smaller item a larger hole, with maybe broken edge.1951

1724. Grave 7: from a child burial: a bronze plait clamp, a bronze band finger ring, and in the neck region, a string of beads: 29 yellow, green, white, deep brown and ochre yellow, mainly flattened spherical, and grained spherical, fluted, elongated spherical and cylindrical glass paste beads, besides, 14 pierced cowries, perhaps all are Money cowries. Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 60: nr. 785. The identification of the village that belonged to this church was questioned: Kovalovszki (1965) 183. The cowries are not mentioned in the grave description, only the drawing of 1 cowry appeared: Zalotay (1957) 32, [65]: Finds from Grave 374. The grave goods of the burial were published by István Dienes, and he also corrected the mixed materials of the burials: Dienes (1965) 159, pl. XVIII: 1–4, 7. The definition of the skeleton’s sex is questionable, because boot mounts and cowries are not among typical finds from male graves. The data on the shells was kindly provided by Zoltán Rózsa. 1953 According to the letter of Zdeněk Váňa to Jan Eisner: Váňa (1954) 61, 79, 89: nr. 111; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. Together with other shells: Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 64: nr. 864; Pramene (1989) I/1, 38–39: nr. 57b. 1954 Stanojev (1989) 91, 133; see Dimitrijević (1963) 144; Birtašević (1973) 184, note 7. 1952

Čaplovič (1954) 13, 48: pl. XIV; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. Čaplovič (1954) 15, 45: pl. XI; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5; Chropovský (1961) 156: fig. 12: 2. 1947 Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1948 Čaplovič (1954) 18. 1949 Since the material from the grave was not illustrated, only the similar features with the represented items (7 prevŕtaných bielych mušlí) can be the basis for identification: Čaplovič (1954) 18; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5; Hanuliak (1992) 253: fig. 10. 1950 Čaplovič (1954) 21, 46: pl. XII; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1951 Čaplovič (1954) 22, 49: pl. XV, 4; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 1945 1946

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1729. Pozsonyvezekény (prev. Pozsony megye, Hungary; Vozokany, okr. Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)Harmadik-homokdomb: finds from a female burial, found near the Radványi path, Emil Jarotta, a teacher excavated it: a bracelet, made from 3 times overlapped bronze rod, and with spiral ending, besides, at the neck region 3 pierced cowries, among which, according to the 2 photos are likely Money cowries, length approximately 1.3–1.5 cm.

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: 2544.1955 1725. Grave 9: from an adult burial: sheet ring with a broad head and with an engraved sketch of an quadruped animal, and beside the link side of the skull a double conical glass paste bead, and 1 pierced, probably Money cowrie, size: approximately 1.2x0.6 cm. Muzej grada Beograda.1956

It was destroyed in World War II with other finds of the Nové Zámky/Érsekújvár Museum.1961

1726–28. Piliny (Nógrád megye, Hungary)-Sirmányhegy: 169 excavated graves from parts of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries:

1730–33. Pusztaszentlászló (Zala megye, Hungary)Deáksűrű: an almost fully excavated cemetery with 237 excavated graves, dated to the 11th–12th centuries:

1726. Grave 17: a head (?) buried in a vertical position, which likely belonged to a disturbed female (?) burial. Finds: a small silver ring, a torque twisted from an overlapped silver rod with hook-and-eye terminals, besides, a string of beads: numerous tiny yellowish green glass paste and blue glass beads, and 4 cowries.1957

1730. Grave 1: from the burial of a 25–30 years old woman: under the jaw bone, in one bunch a silver S-terminated lockring, 1 spherical carnelian, 2 spherical quartz, 5 rounded prism-shaped fluorite beads, and 4 round or dropshaped pierced *Money cowries, size: 1.4x1.0–1.9x1.3 cm.

The material of the cemetery was destroyed. 1727. Grave 56: from the burial of a young girl, whose skeleton was placed on to a board support: 3 silver plait clamps, 2 silver lockrings with coiled terminals, 2 pairs of grape bunch-decorated earrings, a silver band bracelet adorned with palmette motif, and with coiled terminals, a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, egg, an unidentifiable Hungarian denar from the 11th century,1958 besides, a string of beads, joined with a bronze ring: gold-, silver- and bronze-foliated beads of one and more members, and some cowries, which some pierced with a small hole, likely Money cowrie.1959

Göcseji Museum, Zalaegerszeg, acc. nr.: 78.58.2 (Fig. 160).1962

1728. Grave 64: from a female burial, whose presumed age is around 20: gilt silver shift ornament (?), the silver loop structure of an earring, silver wire torque, an iron bracelet with wide terminals, an iron knife, a flint stone, a four-sided, at the two edges sharpened bronze object for unknown purpose, fragments of a tin object (?), and at last 3 cowries, which were probably “drawn on the silver wire”.1960

1732. Grave 163: from the burial of a 5–6 years old girl: 6 tin/lead rings, 6 bronze S-terminated lockrings (three of them are made from thick wire), a H26 type denar of King Ladislaus I the Saint (1077–1095), and on both sides of the skull, right next to the rings, covering the neck region and the upper side of the chest a probably double string of beads from 41 white and black glass beads as well as 3 silver rivets. The larger beads probably ornamented the braids: the left braid was decorated by likely 1 fluorite and 5 silver-foliated glass paste beads, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, the right braid was adorned with 1 green cylindrical glass and 3 silver-foliated glass paste beads, besides, 3 pierced *Money cowries, 2-2 with larger, and smaller round openings; size: 1.2x0.8–1.8x1.3 cm.

1731. Grave 130: finds from the burial of a child around 10 years old: 5 tin/lead rings, 3 bronze S-terminated lockrings, on the upper part of the chest 16 dispersed tiny glass beads, and lastly, on both sides of the jaw bone 1-1 pierced *Money cowries with narrow opening, and the other has rounding broken edge, size: 1.2x0.9, 1.7x1.1 cm. Göcseji Museum, Zalaegerszeg, acc. nr.: 78.58.172.1963

I could not calculate the measure, because the belonging of the scale is uncertain: Stanojev (1989) 92, 95–96: figs 505–07; MarjanovićVujović–Tomić (1982) 70: nr. 408; Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 80: nr. 209. 1956 Stanojev (1989) 97, 95–96: figs 509–510. 1957 The 4 “cyprea” were without mentioning or description: Nyáry (1902) 219, 229. These cowries were mentioned in general: Váňa (1954) 61, 89: nrs 104–105. 1958 Among the 28 unbescribed graves of the cemetery 35 (among them 30 are identifiable) coins were discovered from the period between the reign of King St. Stephen and King St. Ladislaus (1000–1095), but, the exact grave numbers, where he defined coins are originating, Albert Nyáry does not record. 1959 “We admire the recent technique at the string of beads, which was composed from gold, silver and bronze glass beads, in the middle, some cyprea shells, which is the favorite necklace from the oldest times onwards and blue little beads.”: Nyáry (1902) 219, 233, fig. 234 (among the beads, only 1 cowrie is illustrated); Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 42. 1960 No description survives on the “cypreae”: Nagy (1902) 236–38. 1955

Göcseji Museum, Zalaegerszeg, acc. nr.: 78.58.210.1964 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 84: nr. 1214 (c); Eisner (1936) 88–89; Szőke (1944) 50–51, 48/49: pl. IV: 14–16; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5, incorrectly mentioned as a find discovered at Naszvad. 1962 Szőke–Vándor (1987) 9, 86: fig. 45: 1–2; as a site, where cowries were found: Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: C. 1963 Szőke–Vándor (1987) 31–32, fig. 22: 106: fig. 65: 9–21, 130: fig. 89: 4. 1964 Szőke–Vándor (1987) 37, 37: fig. 29: 111: fig. 70: 1–14, 124: fig. 83: 10, 130: fig. 89: 7. 1961

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Catalogue the leftt wrist, during the uncovering numerous large beads and one cowry” was discovered, the latter is a *Money cowrie in good repair, with a sawed, round opening, size: 1.4x1.0 cm. Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.80.56.4.1966 Rabe (opština Novi Kneževac, Serbia) – see 1735–36. Rábé 1735–36. Rábé (prev. Torontál megye, Hungary; Rabe, opština Novi Kneževac, Serbia)-Anka-sziget: 7 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century:1967 1735. Grave 1: from a likely female burial: 2 gilt silver round shift ornaments, the upper part of a gilt silver round shift ornament of two members with hook, and at both sides of the skull, as well as in the ear region 1-1 pierced *Money cowries with sawed large oval, and narrow openings, size: 1.6x1.1, resp.1.5x1.1 cm. Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.179.3. (prev. acc. nr.: 6./1892.).1968 Fig. 160. Necklace of carnelian, quartz, fluorite beads and 4 pierced Money cowries from Grave 1 at Pusztaszentlászló (1730) – after Szőke–Vándor (1987) 86: fig. 45: 1–2

1736. Grave 2: from the burial of a person, whose age and sex is not defined: on both sides of the skull, and in the ear region, 1-1 pierced *Money cowries with large round, and narrow opening, size: 1.5x1.0, and 1.4x1.0 cm.

1733. Grave 173: from the burial of a roughly 30 years old woman: 3 tin/lead plait clamps, a tin/lead lockring with coiled terminals, a silver S-terminated lockring, a fluted sterminated tin/lead lockring, a bronze finger ring, besides, at the chin and below the cervical vertebrae in 2 bunches, string of beads, which might have decorated the end of 1-1 hair braids: 4 fluorite beads, a blue glass bead with grooved check-pattern and originally 4 pierced cowries. On the illustration of the finds only 2 Money cowries are depicted, and presently the fragments of 1 *Money cowrie are available.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.179.6. (prev. acc. nr.: 6./1982.).1969 1737–38. Rácalmás (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Göböljárás: a fully excavated cemetery of commoners’, with 795 graves dated to the 10th–11th centuries:1970 1737. Grave 84: a string of beads: 4 tiny ring beads, 1-1 drop-shaped bronze rings made from narrow, and thicker wire, a flat headed solid bronze ball button, and 1 juvenile *Money cowrie (?), with shabby surface, and nicely sawed ellipse opening, size: 2.45x1.55 cm.

Göcseji Museum, Zalaegerszeg, acc. nr.: 78.58.235.1965

Intercisa Museum, Dunaújváros.

1734. Püspökladány (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)Eperjesvölgy: a fully excavated cemetery of commoners with 637 graves, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:

1738. Grave 263: a tiny, pierced *Money cowrie, with a sawed larger opening, size: 1.3x0.95 cm. Intercisa Museum, Dunaújváros.

Grave 289: from a female burial: 2 ornamented bronze ball button, “under the skull, a squared (leather or textile)..., under which two rows of beads were discovered” (beadded bun ornament!), a bronze plait clamp, a Köttlach-type earring, a twisted bronze torque, on to which a bronze plait clamp was pulled, a string of beads: blue, white, black prism-, ring- and spherical-shaped, partly inlaid with green and white, and oculus glass paste beads, a bronze rattle, a bronze finger ring with wide sheet bezel, 3 bronze wire bracelets, a twisted bronze wire bracelet, and at last “above 1965

I studied the data and the material with the kind permission of Ibolya M. Nepper; see M. Nepper (1993) 209-10, 218: fig. 3: 2; M. Nepper (2002) I: 174–75, 216, II: 199: pl. 193: 2. 1967 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 52: nr. 633; Reizner (1891) 209–10; Milleker (1899) 178; Hampel (1907) 191–92; Váňa (1954) 91: note 66; Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 42; Stanojev (1989) 99, figs 520–23; Bálint (1991) 247: nr. 215: cited as Rábé-Vasúti őrház; Kovács (1991/92) 61–62. 1968 Kovács (1991/92) 61–62, pl. XXXV.1: 1–2. 1969 Kovács (1991/92) 62, pl. XXXV.2: 5–6. 1970 B. Horváth–Bóna (1997); B. Horváth (2000) 61. I published the shells with the kind permission of the project directors Jolán B. Horváth and István Bóna. 1966

Szőke–Vándor (1987) 39, 39: fig. 31, 113: fig. 72: 1.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1742. Grave 118: from the burial of a young woman: 19 gilt silver lozenge shift ornaments, a half ball button, a ball button, 2 silver plait clamps, a string of 11 beads, a bronze twisted bracelet, a bronze wire bracelet, besides, the ornaments of the braids: 2 gilt silver braid discs, among the nearly 70 beads of the right braid 1 pierced Cardium sp. and 7 pierced Money cowries, among the nearly 80 beads of the left braid 2 pierced Cardium sp. and 6 pierced Money cowries.

Rusovce (= Bratislava-okres V., Bratislavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1722. Oroszvár 1739–40. Sárbogárd (Fejér megye, Hungary)-Tringertanya: a fully excavated cemetery with 91 excavated and 100 presumed graves dated to the 10th century. 1739. Grave 24: from the burial of a roughly 14 years old child: 1-1 hollow, and solid bronze ball buttons, a silver rosette, a small bronze chain, a pair of silver braid sheet discs, a bronze sheet ring, besides, around the discs, a string of beads: fluted tiny glass paste beads and smaller and larger oculus beads with trailing, 1 melon seed-shaped bead, and 5 pierced freshwater snails: *Theodoxus danubialis living in the Eastern Baltic region, mainly in rivers running to the Black-Sea, length 0.9–1.0 cm, 1 pierced *Lithoglyphus cf. naticoides with missing dorsum, length 1.3 cm, and at last 11 pierced *Money cowries in extremly good shape, with smaller/larger ellipse-shaped sawed openings at the ends, size: 1.4x1.0–2.1x1.5 cm.1971

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.90.93 (Fig. 161).1975 1743. Grave 139: from an adult female burial: 12, and 16 garment ornaments, 5 ball buttons, the fragment of a braid disc, a band bracelet, an iron bracelet, a bezelled finger ring, and 2 *Money cowries, both with open dorsum, size: 1.6x1.2 cm. Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.90.110.1.1976 1744. Grave 167: an adult female burial: 2 silver rings, 2 silver���������������������������������������������������� round shift ornaments, 1 silver solid and 2 hollow bonze ball buttons, bronze rattle, 1-1 silver plate and bronze wire bracelet and 2 ornaments of braid: 1 achat and 24 glass paste beads, 1 heart-shaped, in the middle pierced *mother-of-pearl pendant, size: 3,2 cm, and 6 Money cowries with opened dorsum on the right side braid, 1-1 achat and silver and 33 glass paste beads, 1 lunular *mother-of-pearl pendant pierced at one of the points with a round hole, size: 4,5x2,0 cm, and 7 Money cowries with opened dorsum on the left side braid.

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 61.191.10. 1740. Grave 29: from the disturbed grave of a 10–12 years old girl: a pair of bronze braid discs, a pair of bronze band bracelets with coiled terminals, and from the grave soil, oculus beads with trailing, fluted beads, 1-1 beads of one and five members, besides, tiny cone frustum-shaped beads, and at last, 1 *Money cowrie with a sawed ellipse opening at the apex, its surface is corroded at numerous places became holed, size: 2.15x1.5 cm.

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV. 90.131.3 (2 motherof-pearl shells), 4 (13 cowries).1977

I. István Király Museum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 61.201.4.1972

1745. Grave 190: from a child burial: a clay vessel and 2 *Money cowries, with a larger, sawed opening at the apex, whose edges are broken size: 2.0x1.5 cm.

Sarlóskajsza (prev. Nyitra megye; Lužianky, okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Kajsianske za železnicou – see Annex 2318.

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.90.148.1.1978

1741–48. Sárrétudvari (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)Hízóföld: a fully excavated smaller rich cemetery, researched after minor disturbings with 262 graves, dated to the 10th century:1973

1746. Grave 234: from a child (inf. I) burial: at the left ear 2 *Money cowries, with a wide, and a narrow sawed opening, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

1741. Grave 85: from a burial of a little child (inf. I): half of a pair of ball buttons, beads, and among them 1 pierced Money cowrie.

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.90.179.1.1979 1747. Grave 267: from a child (inf. I–II) burial: a plait

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.90.70.3.1974

It was not available; see M. Nepper (1991) 44, 53; M. Nepper (1996a) 265–66, 267: fig. 25. – Adult woman: M. Nepper (2002) I: 318–19, 355, II: 278: pl. 272: 118.3, and on the hard cover. 1976 M. Nepper (1991) 45. – M. Nepper (2002) I: 324, 355, II: 287:pl. 281: 139.18–19. 1977 It was not available; see M. Nepper (1991) 46, 53; Őseinket (1996) 270–71, 266: fig. 24; The ancient, 265, 266: fig. 24. – M. Nepper (2002) I: 332, 355, II: 298: pl. 292: 5. 1978 M. Nepper (1991) 47. – M. Nepper (2002) I: 337, 355, II: 308: pl. 302: 190.12. 1979 Mentioned as 2 “jewelries from shell”: M. Nepper (1991) 48. – M. Nepper (2002) I: 345, 355, II: 327: pl. 321: 234.6–7. 1975

Éry (1967–68) 128, pl. XXX: 1–10. Éry (1967–68) 128, pl. XXXI: 3–7. 1973 I studied the unpublished material of the cemetery, especially shells, with the kind permission of the excavation director, Ibolya M. Nepper. Some finds were in an exhibition outside Hungary, therefore were not available. 1974 It was not available. – see M. Nepper (2002) I: 311, 355, II: 260: pl. 254: 85.3. 1971 1972

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Fig. 161. Braid ornaments of a young woman from the Grave 118 at Sárrétudvari (1742): nearly 80 beads, 2 pierced Cardium sp. and 6 pierced Money cowries of the left braid (1), nearly 70 beads, 1 pierced Cardium sp. and 7 Money cowries of the right braid (2) – after M. Nepper (2002) 278: pl. 272, 280: pl. 274

1749. Grave 29: grave goods of a high-born woman: Sterminated lockrings, a twisted silver finger-ring, a bezelled silver finger-ring, and a string of roughly 400 tiny beads, and 12 pierced cowries.

clamp, beads, a pair of open-work discs, a bracelet, besides, 3 pierced Money cowries. Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.90.200.2.1980 1748. stray find from the period before the excavation: 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with wide opening, and its dorsum became holed, size: 1.6x1.2 cm.

1750. Grave 31: grave goods of a high-born woman: 7 S-terminated lockrings, a leather sabretache, a coin of Ladislaus I the Saint (1077–95), a string of beads, and 11 pierced cowries.

Déri Museum, Debrecen, acc. nr.: IV.80.97.3.1981

Sveti Juraj u Trnju (opština Čakovec, Međimurska županija, Croatia) – see 1817. Tüskeszentgyörgy

Sereď (okres Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1777. Szered

1751. Szabolcs (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)Petőfi Street: 391 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 10th–12th centuries:

Somotor (okres Trebišov, Košický kraj, Slovakia) – see 1794. Szomotor 1749–50. Suhopolje (prev. Verőce megye; Suhopolje, Viroviticko-podravske županija, Croatia)-Podravina: a part of an unpublished commoners’ cemetery of the 10th–11th centuries:1982

Grave 341: from the burial of a 1–5 years old girl: a bronze torque, and at the neck, a string of beads: 38 beads of one, and 66 items of two members, mainly greenish gray glass paste beads, 2-2 spherical crystal, carnelian, and 1 double conical clay beads, a bronze rattle, and 2 pierced *Money cowries, both are with narrow opening, size: 1.8x1.3, resp.1.7x1.2 cm.

It was not available; see M. Nepper (1991) 49. About the cowries not mentioned in the grave description: ibid. 52. – M. Nepper (2002) I: 352, 355, II: 345: pl. 339: 267.8. 1981 M. Nepper (2002) I: 353, fig. 206. 1982 The fallowing data got to me in the kind letter of Željko Tomičić. 1980

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 81.18.3.A1983

Medieval

Tessedik Sámuel Museum, Szarvas, acc. nr.: 78.5.1–12, 15.1987

1752. Szakony (Győr-Moson-Sopron megye, Hungary)Első Ötéves Terv TSz kavicsbányája/Gravel-pit of the cooperative farm “First Five-Year Plan”: 6 graves of a rich family cemetery dated to the 10th century:

1755. Grave 10: from an adult woman’s burial only 2 cowries were found.1988 Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Algyő – see 1599– 600. Algyő

1752. Grave 2: from a child burial: half of a bronze ball button, a silver round shift ornament, beads: a large fluted blue, small flattened blue, and white glass beads of three members, gilt silver sheet bead (?), a gilt silver, sawshaped pendant, a silver rivet, a *Money cowrie hanged from a bronze plait clamp. Its dorsum was removed, size: 1.9x1.3 cm.

1756. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Jánosszállás: nearly 26 graves (with 30 numbered graves) from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century: Grave 28: in the unpublished material, 6 pierced cowries were mentioned.

Liszt Ferenc Museum, Soporon, acc. nr.: 90.2.1.1984

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.61.41.1989

1753. Szarvas (Békés megye, Hungary)-Rózsás: distroyed burials of likely a commoners’ cemetery among which one was excavated:

1757. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Makkoserdő: 31 graves, (with 399 numbered burials) from a part of a commoners’ cemetery of the 10th–11th centuries:1990

Grave 1: from a burial, on the basis of the finds of a female: 2 silver, flower-shaped garment ornaments, a wire bracelet twisted from 3 times overlapped rod with spiral terminals, a string of beads: 1 cylindrical bead, ornamented with trailing, 1 prism-shaped bead, with grooved ornament, 2 oculus glass paste beads, and 1 cowrie with larger piercing, which can be identified certainly as a Money cowrie from the drawing, size: approximately 1.5x1.0 cm.

Grave 72: from an adult, likely female burial (length: 148 cm): 8 flattened spherical, yellow, red, and white paste beads, and 2 *Money cowries, with a narrow, sawed opening, size: 1.6x1.2, resp.1.4x1.0 cm. Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.31.142. 1758–59. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Öthalom: 18 not authenticated graves from a part of a 10th century cemetery:

The finds were lost.1985 1754–55. Szarvas (Békés megye, Hungary)-Tessedik Sámuel Street 57–59: 11 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century:

1758. Grave 10 (= 5/1950): from a female burial: a gilt bronze garment ornament, a silver plait clamp, onto which a bead was drawn, a gilt bronze band bracelet with wide terminals, 1-1 bronze band and wire finger rings, 1-1 bronze and iron fragments, and on a cervical vertebra 1 *Money cowrie, with a large sawed round opening, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

1754. Grave 5: from a female burial: a bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, a bronze wire bracelet with coiled terminals, animal bones, and at the neck, a string of beads, “in which Cyprea shells [3 items] varied with, glass paste, oculus beads, and additional beads with twisted lines ornaments [all in all 7], besides, ball buttons cast in bronze [3 solid, 2 hollow?]. In the middle of the string of beads, in the front part a small pendant with palmette motief, cast in bronze.”1986 Of the 3 pierced cowries, 1 Money cowrie is available, with a large round hole, whose edge is broken, size: 1.6x1.2 cm.

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.455.9.1991 1759. Grave 13 (= 13/1950): from a female burial: an arrowhead,1992 a pair of bronze earrings with bunch I studied the shells with he kind help of Irén Juhász; see Langó (2000) 290, 301, 335: fig. 8: 11, 16, 19. 1988 Langó (2000) 292. 1989 Without reference to finds from Grave 28, the cowries were not mentioned at all: Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 69: nr. 954. Attila Türk drew my attention to these shells, but I could not study them because they are displayed in an exhibition. 1990 At the same site, a Sarmatian cemetery with 39 graves, an Avar cemetery with 267 burials were also investigated: Széll (1940) 165–67; Salamon (1995) 109. The cowries were not mentioned: Fehér–Éry– Kralovánszky (1962) 69‑70: nr. 959, because according to the handwritten table of Dezső Csallány, this burial was grouped with the Avar burials: Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, Archives 347–76. These data were kindly reported by Attila Türk. 1991 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 72: nr. 987; Bálint (1968) 58–60, 58: fig. 3: 61: pl. VII: 4–11. 1992 It is a rare find in female graves: Bálint (1968) 64. 1987

The 2 cowries were identified as recent Cypraea moneta originating from the Indian-Ocean by Dániel Bihari: Kovács (1994) 74–76, 77, 116–17, note 176, 77: fig. 23. 1984 Dienes (1962); Dienes (1969) 117; Dienes (1978) 117; Kovács (1988) 152: note 5; with the kind help of János Gömöri; Langó–Türk (2004) 375, 420: tab. 1. 1985 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 68: nr. 937; Krecsmárik (1910) 173–74, 173: fig. 1; Váňa (1954) 61, 89: nr. 126; MRT 8, 470: Site 8/200. 1986 MRT 8, 447–48: Site 8/117, pl. 68: 15–25, 30–36. 1983

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Catalogue decoration,1993 a pair of bronze bracelets, with pointed terminals, besides, around the neck, a string of beads: 13 S-shaped bronze ornaments, 4 paste beads, and 1 *Money cowrie, with broken opening at the apex, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

woman: a bronze plait clamp, a bronze sheet bead, besides, on the upmost spinal vertebra, 2 glass paste beads and 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with oval, sawed opening, size: 1.7x1.1 cm. Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 81.5.10.1999

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: N. 53.455.24.

1994

1764. Grave 44: from the burial of a roughly 18–20 years old woman: mouthpiece of the bit, a stamped silver garment ornament, a bronze plait clamp, a fish vertebra, besides, above the right shoulder, 1 pierced *Money/*Ringed cowrie, size: 1.7x1.1 cm.

1760–62. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Tápé, Malajdok Cemetery B: 13 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:1995 1760. Grave 6 (= 17): from a female or a girl’s burial: 2 silver garment discs, a silver braid ornament, besides, a string of beads: knobbed-oculus paste beads and 1 Money cowrie pierced with a narrow hole, size: approximately 1.8x1.2 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 81.5.20.2000 1765–66. Székesfehérvár (Fejér megye, Hungary)Demkóhegy: commoners’ cemetery with ca. 150 graves dated to the 10th century:

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.64.17 (destroyed).1996

1765. Grave 3 /1903 (35): from a female burial: 8 silver round shift ornaments, 7 silver shift ornaments of two members and 11 upper parts of shift ornaments, besides 2 lower parts with different pattern, the half of a silver rattle, 2 silver round garment ornaments, and 1 pierced cowrie, perhaps Money cowrie, size: approximately 1.8x1.3 cm.2001

1761. Grave 7 (= 26): from a female burial: a solid ball button, a pair of silver earrings decorated with two pairs of granulation garland at the lower curve, and two bunches at the sides, a string of beads: tiny oculus, knobbed and colored beads, and 5 or 8 pierced cowries. Presently 3 more unmodified and and 2 fragmentary *Money cowries are available, size: 1.3x1.0–1.8x1.3 cm.

I. István Király Múzeum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 106./1903.17–49 (cowrie: nr. 49, destroyed).2002

Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged, acc. nr.: 53.64.23 (5 pieces), 53.64.41 (all destroyed).1997

1766. stray find/1905: among finds that were bought from merchants, there were 3 pierced cowries: 2 *Money cowries with narrow, and wider opening, size: 1.7x1.3 cm, besides, 1 *Money/*Ringed cowrie, with originally oval, but meanwhile broken opening, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.2003

1762. Grave 9 (?): from the burial of a young child: a bronze plait clamp, 1 pierced Money cowrie, size: approximately 1.6x1.1 cm. Móra Ferenc Museum, Szeged.1998

I. István Király Múzeum, Székesfehérvár, acc. nr.: 36./1905.37.

1763–64. Szegvár (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Szőlőkalja: 62 graves of a commoners’ cemetery of the 10th century:

Székkutas-Öthalom – see 1758–59. Szeged-Öthalom

1763. Grave 26: from the burial of a roughly 23 years old

1767. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Nagyhegy, vineyard of Gyarmati Sándor: stray finds from 2 excavated, and unnumbered destroyed graves from a 10th century cemetery:

This rare type was dated to the second half of the 10th century: Bálint (1968) 66; Szőke (1962) 49–50. 1994 Bálint (1968) 62–64, 61: pl. VII: 14, 63: pl. VIII: 2–3, 67: pl. X: 1–21. 1995 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 76: nr. 1070. The Hungarian graves were published under the numbers 1–13: Széll (1943) 176–79. The grave numbers – given in bracelets – are from the original inventory. These data and additional information were kindly reported by Attila Türk. 1996 In the publication, this grave is listed with burials of unsure sex, but on the basis of the grave goods it was most probably a female burial: Széll (1943) 176–77, pl. LVIII: 31 (the cited plate is without scale, I consider it as 2:3-scaled, see the next note). According to the kind information of Attila Türk, the 2 garment discs are not included in the inventory book. 1997 Széll (1943) 177, pl. LVIII: 37–41. The length of the 5 remaining pieces of shells depicted on this table allows us to infer that the plate was made at a scale of 2:3. According to the kind report of Attila Türk, beside the 5 items that were mentioned in the first publication, there are 3 additional shells in the inventory register with the note “Grave 26?”, but the question mark was later removed. 1998 Széll (1943) 177, fig. 1: 5. According to Attila Türk there is no data about such finds in the inventory register. 1993

stray find/1905–06: 2 pierced *Money cowries with wide Lőrinczy (1985) 145, 144: fig. 3: 3–5. Lőrinczy (1985) 147, 144: fig. 3: 20–22, 146: fig. 4: 2. 2001 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 70–71: nr. 972; Hampel (1907) 203–04, pl. 85: Grave 3, 1–9. It is probable that, because of the similarity of 3 find-types (rattle, cowry, garment ornament) numbered this burial as Grave 30: K. Éry–Kralovánszky (1961–62) 80–81. This grave is mentioned by Kornél Bakay as Grave 35: Bakay (1965–66) 52–53, pl. XXIX. 2002 Bakay (1965–66) 53. 2003 Hampel (1907) 206: B.11–12, pl. 87:B. 11–12. Arnold Marosi, citing Hampel (1907) 203–06, mentioned the 1 cowrie from Grave 3/1903 and the 3 examples from stray finds/1905 as 3 items instead of the all in all 4 cowries: Marosi (1920–1922) 33; correctly about 3 items: Bakay (1965–66) 54, pl. 34: 9–11. 1999 2000

367

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads opening, one of them hung from a bronze ring, size: 1.6x1.1 cm, the other’s size: 1.9x0.9 cm.

*Money cowries, all with a wide opening, size: 1.5x1.2– 1.9x1.3 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes acc. nr.: 57.28.10–11.2004

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.3.231– 257.2010

1768–75. Szentes (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Szentlászló, mound of János Aradi: 112 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:2005

1773. Grave 76: from a child burial: 6 garmet ornaments, 4 ball buttons, a twisted bronze torque, a finger ring with wide sheet bezel, and at the neck, a string of beads: beads of one and more members, cylindrical beads, additional beads ornamented with spiral trailing, grooved beads, a pierced *Muricidae?, which, due to the lack of the lower part of its apex, cannot be identified, and 8 pierced *Money cowries, among them 6 with large oval, 2 with narrow opening, size: 1.4x1.1–1.8x1.3 cm.

1768. Grave 26: from a young child burial: 2 bronze plait clamps, a twisted bronze torque, with 2 silver rings drawn on it, 2 bezelled finger rings, bronze cross with the depiction of Christ, besides, on the neck, a string of beads: various shaped and sized beads, a bronze rattle (?), and 5 pierced *Money cowries, 4 with wide, and with narrow opening, size: 1.4x1.0–1.6x1.2 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.3.264– 380.2011

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.3.9–43.2006 1769–70. Grave 63: double burial of a man (?)2007 and a girl; finds: “in the upper part of the grave” a bronze ball button, a fragment of a twisted bronze torque, a bronze sheet finger ring with wide bezel. Finds connected to the man (1769): 2 twisted plait clamps/finger rings?, silver rivet, fire-striker, an iron knife, besides, “near the two arms” tiny and larger beads of one and more members, fluted, and oculus beads, cylindrical beads and beads ornamented with trailing, and lastly 3 pierced cowries (lost). From the left arm, the finds are connected to the child (1770): at the neck, the remains of a little chain, and a similar string of beads with 5 pierced *Money cowries, with different openings, size: 1.4x1.0–1.6x1.2 cm.

1774. Grave 90: from a young child’s burial: an object, identified as fragment of the quiver, but it is rather a fragment of iron sheet with small nail for unnown purpose, besides, on one side of the skull, a *Money cowrie with oval opening, strung on a plait clamp, size: 1.5x1.1 cm, and at the neck, a string of beads: oculus bead, flattened spherical and cylindrical beads, lengthways and crossways grooved cylindrical beads, and 2 pierced *Money cowries, with a wider and a narrow opening, size: 1.9x1.4, resp.1.4x0.9 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.3.116– 214.2008

1775. Grave 107: from a female burial: 2 pendants at the skull: one is an oval ring decorated with granulation garland, the other is a plain plait clamp, on which a *Money cowrie was strung with large oval opening, size: 1.4x1.0 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.3.426–427, 450.2012

1771. Grave 74: from a child burial: an iron knife, 3 bronze ball buttons, 2 bronze plait clamps, a ring with a conical spiral pendant, a band bracelet with wide round terminals, an iron ring, besides, in the neck region, a string of beads of one and more members, flattened, and spherical beads, and 1 *Cardium sp. pierced with a round hole, size: 2.5 cm, and 1 pierced, *Ringed cowrie, with strong dentation, and narrow opening, size: 2.0x1.5 cm.

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 55.1.80.2013 1776. Szentmihályúr (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Michal nad Žitavou, okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia): 32 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 9th–10th centuries:

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 55.1.43–54.2009

Grave 5/1958: from the burial of a young child: a string of beads: 2 brownish-black ring-shaped oculus and 6 green grooved, spherical glass paste beads, besides, 3 pierced cowries: 2 are likely Money cowries, the third is perhaps Ringed cowrie.2014

1772. Grave 75: from a child burial: a wire finger ring, a clay vessel, in the neck region, a string of beads: beads of one and more members, grooved beads, and 5 pierced Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 74: nr. 1020; “a plain lockring with strung shells”: Kovalovszki (1957) 69–70: nr. 25. 2005 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 74–75: nr. 1028; Széll (1941); Váňa (1954) 61, 90: nr. 137. 2006 Széll (1941) 234, 239: pl. III B. 3a–e. 2007 There is no find among the grave goods that would exclude the possibility that it was a female burial. 2008 Széll (1941) 238, 242: pl. V: A. 9a–c, 10a–e. 2009 Széll (1941) 238, 243: pl. VI: A. 9a–b. 2004

Széll (1941) 238, 243: pl. V: A. 19a–e. Széll (1941) 241, 243: pl. V: B. 1e, and 1a–d, f–i. 2012 Széll (1941) 241, 247: pl. VII: B. 21–22; Langó–Türk (2004) 375, 420: tab. 1. 2013 Széll (1941. 244, 248: pl. VIII: B. 9; Langó–Türk (2004) 375, 420: tab. 1. 2014 Točík (1971) 198–99, 269: pl. LV: 4; with no reference to the grave number: Hanuliak (1992) 297: pl. VII: 11. 2010 2011

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Catalogue 1777. Szered (prev. Pozsony megye, Hungary; Sereď, okres Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)-Mácsédi-dombok (Mačianske vŕšky), Cemetery II: 23 remained graves from a 10th century cemetery.

cemetery (of commoners?), from which 17 graves were excavated, dating from the 10th century:2019 Grave 13: based on the grave goods, the finds are from a female burial: 2 gilt silver round shift ornaments, 3 silver shift ornaments with pendant, and the upper part of a similar ornament, 2 gilt silver sheet disc braid ornaments, a bronze band bracelet, a bronze wire bracelet twisted from 3 times overlapped rod, and with spiral terminals, a clay cup, besides, a string of beads: 2 fluted green, 1 gray, 8 gray oculus glass paste beads, 1 octahedric red glass bead, and 3 pierced cowries with narrow opening: 2 *Money cowries, size: 1.5x1.1, and 1 *Ringed cowrie with a nice surface, size: 2.0x1.4 cm.

Grave 8/55: from the burial of a young child: 2 bronze ball buttons, 11 beads, a bronze band bracelet with wide round terminals, besides, under the jaw bone, and on the chest, the denar of Italian King Berengar I (888–915) double pierced at the rim, issued in Milan, and the denar of German King Henry I (919–936) pierced at the rim, issued in Strassburg, and a string of beads: 3 beads, and 5 pierced cowries.2015 Archaeological Institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences, Nitra.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 20./1938.A.8.2020

1778. Szimő (prev. Komárom megye, Hungary; Zemné, okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Gúg-puszta: 7 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century:

1781. Szob (Pest megye, Hungary)-Koliba: 73 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries:2021

Grave 1: from a disturbed female burial: 21 four-lobed, gilt silver shift ornaments, 15 gilt silver shift ornaments with pendant, 1 (?) round shift ornament, a lower part of a shift ornament vith pendant, 2 solid and 1 hollow bronze ball buttons, a bronze wire bracelet, besides, at the neck, and on the chest beads: plain, and trailed cylindrical, fluted glass paste beads, rounded sqare-animal bones, and 4 pierced cowries. One of them is published on drawing, this item is likely a Money cowrie with narrow opening, length approximately 1.7 cm.

Grave 25: from a burial of “a young child, who died at the age of the teeth’ change” (likely a girl): oval silver shift ornament, 2 silver round shift ornaments, 1 upper and 2 lower parts of the silver shift ornaments with pendant, a larger round bronze mount, a pair of silver S-terminated lockring, a bronze torque, bronze wire bracelet with pointed terminals, 2 bronze band finger rings, and a string of beads: flattened spherical paste bead, with white wavy lines on black background, 26–30 white and greenish irregularshaped, dropped glass beads, a silver lunular pendant, besides, as a part of a string of beads on the neck 3 pierced *Money cowries, with round, and on 2 items pear-shaped opening, whose edges are broken, size: 2.1x1.5, 2.0x1.5, 1.5x1.1 cm. On 1 item oxide-remains were observed.

Town Museum, Nové Zámky.2016 1779. Szob (Pest megye, Hungary)-Bészob/Bőszob: 56 graves from a cemetery in the surroundings of a church, dated to the 11th–12th centuries:2017

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 59.19.5.A2022

Grave 9: from a baby burial, beside the skeleton a *Money cowrie, broke into two, length 1.8 cm. 20 cm deeper, right under this burial, the grave of a young woman was uncovered, her grave goods: H6 type denar of King Peter (1038–1041), a flint-blade. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 62.50.3.A2018

Medieval

Medieval

1782–92. Szob (Pest megye, Hungary)-Papláb, Vendelinfields: 142 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries, which was excavated by Adolf János Horváth between 1929–33. Nevertheless, the graves of the cemetery were continuously destroyed from the 1890s, and one part of the finds were sold in Esztergom by the persons who discovered them:

Medieval

1780. Szob (Pest megye, Hungary )-Ipolypart: a destroyed

1782. stray find/before 1929: among jewelry on a table, which were defined as “finds from the Szob cemetery (Archaeological Museum in Esztergom)”, in the lower part, there are 26 pierced cowries: 24 *Money cowries,

Točík (1968) 54–55, 113: pl. XLVII: 25–29; Arends (1978) II: 1050: nr. 645. “Als östlicher Import seien noch die Kauriperlen erwähnt, die oft ein Halsbandzubehör sind.”: Točík (1987) 210, 204: fig. 15: 45; Kovács (1989) 64: nr. CXVa. 350–51, 110: pl. 24: 5. I could not find access to study these items. 2016 Liszka (1984) 11, 20–22, 12: fig. 4: 1, 21: fig. 7: 11. 2017 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 75: nr. 1044; MRT 9, 338–43: Site 26/38; Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Archives 322.Sz.VII. 2018 In the inventory of the Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Medieval Department among unidentifiable objects “under nr. 62.50.1–3. chipped obsidian and shell fragments were inventoried. These items may come from Grave 9.”: MRT 9, 342: note 26. 2015

Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 75: nr. 1045; Bakay (1978) 53–55, 141–42; MRT 9, 324–25: Site 26/23. 2020 Bakay (1978) 53, 54: pl. XXIX: 2–26. 2021 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 75: nr. 1047; B. Mikes (1956); MRT 9, 322: Site 26/15. 2022 B. Mikes (1956) 116–18, 123, pl. XXVI: 1–15; Kralovánszky (1959) 78. 2019

369

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads size: 1.4x1.0–2.5x1.7 cm, and 2 *Ringed cowries (?), size: 1.7x1.1, and 1.8x1.2 cm.

five and eight members, spherical, flattened cylindrical, and conical-shaped beads, a multiangular carnelian bead, a flat, heart-shaped, deep blue bead, a spindle-shaped, lenghtways fluted silver sheet bead, and 5 pierced cowries, from which 4 are available: 3 *Money cowries, 2 with narrow, 1 with round opening, size: 1.4x1.0–1.7x1.2 cm, 1 *Ringed cowrie (?), with narrow opening, size: 1.6x1.1 cm.

Balassa Bálint Museum, Esztergom, acc. nr.: 59.61.3.2023 1783. stray find: one additional tiny, pierced, *Money cowrie (?), with broken opening, size: 1.2x0.8 cm, strung on a narrow bronze ring, diameter: 1.5x1.8 cm. Balassa Bálint Museum, Esztergom, acc. nr.: 59.61.32.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 188./1930.19.2027

From the excavated part of the cemetery:2024

1787. Grave 33: from a baby burial: an ellipse-shaped, pierced lead plaque, and in the neck area, a string of beads: greenish-yellow bead of more members, 2 black, 1 white small glass paste beads, and 1 pierced *Money cowrie: at the rim of its round opening, the trace of suspension is visible, size: 1.9x1.3 cm.

1784. Grave 3: from a child burial: 2 bronze half ball buttons, a fragment of a bronze plait clamp, an iron knife, 3 iron hoops and iron handle of a wooden buckle, and at last at the neck region, a nearly 83 cm long string of beads: small, cylindrical, white, yellow, brown, and green, black paste beads, 4 glass beads: 3 greenish-white of five, 1 blue of three members, and 3 pierced cowries. From these 2 *Money cowries are available, 1 is with large oval, polished opening, size: 1.7x1.3 cm, the edge of the other’s opening is broken, size: 1.5x1.2 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 13./1931.2.2028

Medieval

1788. Grave 41: from the burial of a young woman: 2 bronze ball buttons, a bronze ring with coiled terminals, an earring cast in bronze, 1 bronze pendant, a band finger ring, besides, at the neck, a string of beads: 2 deep brown, cylindrical glass paste beads with twist-decoration, various sized flat, globe, light and deep brown glass paste beads, mainly set with colored inlaid, 1 prism-shaped green glass bead, and 1 broken *Turritella sp., with limonite deposit, length 2.2, diameter: 1.0 cm, and 10 pierced *Money cowries, with narrow, and middle-sized opening, which are often broken, size: 1.8x1.3–2.3x1.7 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Medieval Department, acc. nr.: 64./1929.15., 20./1933.51.2025 1785. Grave 12: from the burial of a 19–20 years woman: 2 silver earrings, 3 bronze plait clamps, 4 bronze Sterminated lockrings, a bracelet twisted from a three times overlapped bronze rod, with a hook and eye terminals, 2 bronze wire bracelets, 6 triangle-, and half-circle-sectioned open bronze wire finger rings, a clay pot, goose-eggs, besides, in the neck area, a string of nearly 200 beads: tiny white and greenish, globe, conical and cylindrical beads, 1 bead of six members, large cylindrical, paste bead with blue stripes, and at last 8 pierced *Money cowries. The openings are large sized, only 1 shell has narrow, size: 1.3x0.9–2.1x1.6 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 2./1930.14.2026

Medieval

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Medieval Department, acc. nr.: 19./1931.6 (Fig. 162).2029 1789. Grave 44: from the burial of a young woman: 2 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a bronze pendant (button?), 2 clay rattles, 6 bronze band finger rings, at the neck, a string of beads: tiny white and brown paste beads, 1-1 greenish-white beads of four and five members, 3 larger, multangular amber beads and 1 pierced cowrie, length approximately 1.7 cm.

Medieval

1786. Grave 25: from a younger female’s burial: 2 solid bronze ball buttons, a round bronze garment ornament, 4 large silver earring, 2 rings, 3 bronze S-terminated lockrings, 2 bronze band finger rings, a yellowish clay pot with ribbed neck, besides, in the neck area, a string of beads: yellow, brown, green, and gray beads of three, four,

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 13./1931.13.2030

Medieval

1790. Grave 47: from the burial of a 7–8 years old child: a bronze pendant, a bronze sheet finger ring, egg-shell, besides, at the neck, a string of beads: tiny, white, yellow, green and black glass paste beads, 3 greenish-white beads of three and seven members, 1 larger, brownish, dot-row

Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 76: nr. 1049 (here are mentioned 28 cowries); Balogh (1938) 589: fig; Váňa (1954) 61, 90: nr. 142; MRT 9, 320, 321: notes 2–3. 2024 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 75: nr. 1048; Bakay (1978) 56–59, 142–44; MRT 9, 320–21: note 26/14. Kornél Bakay published a brief report about the graves but was not accurate with numerous details. These later were corrected by Beatrix Darázsy. I studied her work with her kind permission, but the total publication of the cemetery is still not finished, see Darázsy (1984). 2025 Bakay (1978) 56. 2026 Bakay (1978) 56. 2023

Bakay (1978) 56. Bakay (1978) 56. 2029 Bakay (1978) 57; Kovács (2000). 2030 No cowries are mentioned: see Bakay (1978) 57. 2027 2028

370

Catalogue

Fig. 162. 1 broken Turritella sp. and 10 pierced Money cowries in the string of beads of a young woman from Grave 41 at Szob (1788) – after Kovács (2000).

decorated bead, and 2 pierced *Money cowries, with narrow, and oval openings, size: 1.8x1.4, resp.1.9x1.4 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 90./1932.22.2032

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 13./1931.18.2031

1792. Grave 70: from the burial of a 5-6years old child: half of a silver ball button, S-terminated lockrings, 4 of them are fashioned from thick, one is from narrow silver rod, with wide terminal, a string of beads: clay beads covered with silver plaques (foliated paste beads?), deep blue glass beads with red line-decoration, a bronze wire finger ring, and from an unknown provenance 6 pierced *Money cowries, in 5 cases ellipse/ring-shaped, and in 1 case narrow opening, size: 1.5x1.1–2.3x1.8 cm.

Medieval

1791. Grave 64: from a likely female burial: a bronze ball button, 8 bronze S-terminated lockrings with wide terminal, a bronze torque twisted from a three times overlapped rod, a bronze finger ring with wide sheet bezel, decorated with a bird and two stars, a bronze wire finger ring, a bronze closed band finger ring, an iron knife, fragments of vessels, besides, at the neck, a string of beads: yellow, green, gray, blue, brown, and white flattened spherical, cone frustumand cylindrical-shaped glass paste beads, 3 beads of two, 1 bead of four members, 1 elongated, 16-sided carnelian bead, and 4 pierced cowries: 3 *Money cowries, 2 have round, and 1 is with narrow opening, size: 1.2x0.8–1.5x1.1 cm, besides, 1 *Ringed cowrie, with a wider opening, size: 1.5x1.0 cm. 2031

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 90./1932.39.2033

Medieval

Medieval

In the inventory, the 4 cowries are registered as “Cerithium shells” but they are not included in the publication: see Bakay (1978) 57. 2033 The 6 cowries were registerd only in the inventory as “Cerithium shells”, but there is no references to them in neither the notes of the excavation leader, nor in the publication: see Bakay (1978) 57. 2032

No cowries are mentioned: see Bakay (1978) 57.

371

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Szolnok (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)Szanda, Beke Pál halma III – see Annex 2320–26.

narrow sawed openings. Two are likely Money cowries, size: approximately 1.8x1.4, and 2.2x1.6 cm, the third is perhaps a Ringed cowry, size: approximately 1.6x1.0 cm.2038

1793. Szolnok (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)Ugar: 29 graves from a part of a cemetery dated to the 10th century:

1798. Tengelic (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Sertésszállások: 26 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century:

Grave 13: finds from a female burial: 2 silver plait clamps, on one of them a pierced cowrie was strung.

Grave 10: from a juvenile female burial: 7 round gilt silver shift ornaments, a solid bronze ball button, a round silver garment ornament, a silver plait clamp, besides, above the left shoulder bone, 1 pierced *Money cowrie, with narrow opening, size: 1.8x1.3 cm.

Damjanich János Museum, Szolnok.2034 1794. Szomotor (prev. Zemplén megye, Hungary; Somotor, okres Trebišov, Košický kraj, Slovakia)-Hegyilegelő: 64 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th?–11th centuries:

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 94.62.6.4.2039

Grave 18: from the burial of a young girl: a silver plait clamp, a silver ring (?) decorated with braided network pattern, besides, at the left side, and under the skull, a string of beads: 2 glass paste beads, 6 red, 5 white amethyst beads, 202 small clay beads, 30 beads that crumbled away, and at last, 5 pierced cowries, among which, according to the photo, 1 or some are certainly Money cowries.2035

1799–800. Tímár (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Béke TSz. Major/Farm of the farmers cooperative „Peace”; Cemetery I: 40 remained graves of a cemetery from the 10th century: 1799. Grave 8: from an adult female burial: 17 gilt silver, round shift ornaments, 14 gilt silver, shift ornaments with pendant, 1-1 bronze, and tined bronze solid ball buttons, tinlead fragments, besides, a string of beads placed on the left shoulder: 2 small lead bands, iron sheet bead, 1 cylindrical, 5 flattened spherical, and 1 ring-shaped oculus glass paste beads, 2 tiny paste beads, and the drilled upper canine of a deer, and 14 pierced marine shells: 8 various sized, drilled with a small round hole, likely fossil *Cerithium sp. and 1 drilled, fossil (?)*Gibbula sp., and 5 *Money cowries, in various sizes, mainly with large, and only at one item with narrow opening, size: 1.8x0.9–2.2x1.7 cm.

1795. Tápiószentmárton (Pest megye, Hungary)Szentkirályi-homok: from the solitary grave of the 10th century: a pair of pear-shaped iron stirrups, the half of a bronze ball button, a bronze wire bracelet with spiral terminals, besides, 1 pierced cowrie, likely a Money cowrie, size: approximately 1.5x1.1 cm.2036 Blaskovich Museum, Tápiószele, acc. nr.: 54.19.1–6. 1796. Tapolca (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Diszel, sandpit: a *Money cowrie, with a wide, sawed opening, strung on a bronze ring, size: 1.35x1.0 cm, a ring size: 1.9x2.3 cm.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Medieval Department, acc. nr.: 71.7.1–6.A (5 cowries: 5a.A, 8 Cerithium: 5b.A, 1 Gibbula: 5c.A).2040 1800. Grave 14: from the burial of a juvenile girl: under and at the left side of the skull 1-1 pierced *Money cowries, with narrow, and oval opening, size: 1.4x1.0, resp.2.0x1.5 cm. The latter item is in good condition, the lower part is especially nice.

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Vszprém.2037 1797. Tardoskedd (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Tvrdošovce, okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)Paptag: one grave from a cemetery: Grave 1: from the burial of a roughly 5 years old child: 2 plait clamps, on one of them, two silver disc-shaped earrings with star-pattern, a dirham issued by Nasr ibn Ahmad Samanid emir (914–943) double pierced at the rim, besides, at the neck 1 oculus bead and 3 cowries with

Hungarian National Museum, Department, acc. nr.: 71.9.A2041

Budapest,

Medieval

1801. Tinnye (Pest megye, Hungary): from a likely disturbed cemetery of commoners’, among the stray finds 10 pierced cowries can be found, mainly with narrow (in three cases round) opening: 8 *Money cowries, size: 1.4x1.0–2.2x1.8 cm, 1 *Ringed cowrie of wich dorsum became holed, size: 1.7x1.0 cm, and 1 *Ringed cowrie

Madaras (1996) 68, 92: pl. XII; Langó–Türk (2004) 375, 420: tab. 1. Pastor (1955) 279–80, 285: pl. II: 1; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5; mentioned among the ornaments with magic importance: Hanuliak (1991) 81, pl. II: 13. 2036 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 77: nr. 1087; Dinnyés (1973) 46, pl. XI: 3. 2037 Through the kind help of Ágota Perémi. The cowrie may be one of the finds from the disturbed graves of 1987, perhaps originate from the unreported excavation: S. Perémi–Törőcsik (1988); Langó–Türk (2004) 375, 420: tab. 1. 2034 2035

Kovács (1989) 68: nr. CXXVI. 372, 130: fig. 32: nr. 2; Točík (1992) 166, 166: fig. 112: 1–3. 2039 Ódor (1995) 196, 200, 203: pl. II; Ódor (1999) 164: nr. 65. 2040 Kovács (1988) 126, 152: note 5, 130–131: figs 4–5. 2041 Kovács (1988) 126, 132: fig. 6. 2038

372

Catalogue (?), size: 1.5x1.0 cm. The upper part of the largest Money cowrie is broken, therefore, next to this, a further opening was sawed.2042 Hungarian National Museum, Department, acc. nr.: 54./1935.4.

Budapest,

Jósa András Museum, Nyíregyháza, acc. nr.: 64.187.1.2048 1805–15. Tornóc (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Trnovec nad Váhom, okr. Šaľa, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)-Felsőjattó (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; časť Horný Jatov), Remízka-dűlő: 529 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the10th–11th centuries.2049

Medieval

1802. Tiszaeszlár (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Bashalom, Fenyvestábla, Cemetery II: a fully excavated cemetery of a family, with 13 graves, dated to the mid-10th century:2043

1805. Grave 61: from a child burial: a solid bronze ball button, a bronze S-terminated lockring, a clay pot, an undefined silver coin (?), around the neck and the shoulder, a string of beads: glass paste, and oculus beads, yellow and blue beads of more members, besides, 5 pierced cowries.2050

Grave 12: from a female grave with partial horse burial: the ornaments of the braids: 1-1 gilt silver, open-work disc-shaped braid ornaments, 1-1 Unio shell disks,2044 size: 3.5x3.3, and 3.1x3.0 cm, strings of 16-16 beads: red carnelian, turquoise blue and yellow glass paste beads, black and red oculus beads, besides, 1 pierced cowrie, perhaps Money cowrie. Hungarian National Museum, Department, 60.17.A2045

Budapest,

1806. Grave 160: from a female burial: an iron knife, a bone needle case, a solid bronze ball button, a bronze S-terminated lockring, a bronze band finger ring with overlapped terminals, and around the neck, a string of beads: 4-4 yellow and blue beads of two, 5 blue beads of three members, 11 green, 20 yellowish and 20 gray, whitish-yellow flattened spherical glass, and glass paste beads, and 20 pierced cowries.2051

Medieval

1803., Tiszaeszlár (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)-Vörösmarty Street: 3 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century:

1807. Grave 174: from the burial of a young child: a bronze plait clamp, 2 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a bronze wire bracelet, besides, when the bones were picked up, a string of beads was discovered: 1-1 cylindrical glass paste beads with spiral trailing, and irregular orange and 2 light blue flattened spherical glass paste beads, and 1 pierced cowrie.2052

Grave 3: coffin burial of a woman: 8 gilt silver shift ornaments with pendant, a bronze ball button, a set of silver round boot mounts, a pair of bronze plait clamps, 9–10 glass paste beads, silver chain and a pair of gilt silver leaf-shaped pendants, a pair of silver band bracelets with coiled terminals, a twisted silver wire bracelet, and below the right side of the skull, a string of beads: 9 glass paste beads and 1 pierced cowrie.2046

1808. Grave 178: from the burial of a young child: a whitemetal plait clamp, and a string of beads was discovered when the bones were picked up: 2 white beads of seven, and 1-1 yellow and whitish-gray beads of two members, 3 white spherical glass, and glass paste beads, and 2 pierced cowries.2053

1804. Tiszalök (Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg megye, Hungary)Kisvajasdomb: 84 graves from, a part of a cemetery of the 10th–11th centuries:

1809. Grave 290: from a female burial: an iron knife, 2 silver plait clamps, 2 silver and 1 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a pair of silver earrings with grape-bunch decoration, and a string of beads was discovered when the bones were picked up: 7 fluted spherical, bluish glass paste beads and 1 pierced cowrie.2054

Grave 13: from the burial of a girl or a woman:2047 2 hollow ball buttons, 3 plait clamps, “small, irregular open metal ring,” a rattle, a pair of bronze wire bracelets with pointed terminals, and a string of beads: “3 large and 114 smaller-larger glass beads,” besides, 3 cowries with narrow opening: 2 *Money cowries, size: 1,9x1.5, resp.1.9x1.3 cm, 1 *Money/*Ringed cowrie, size: 2.0x1.3 cm.

1810. Grave 312: from a child burial: 2 bronze plait clamps, a bronze S-terminated lockring, besides, among

During the research 11 items were available: Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 78: nr. 1101. 2043 Dienes (1968) 187–88; Kovács (1989) 69: nr. CXXX. 2044 Probably a pair of polished freshwater shell-discs, likely Unio sp.: Dienes (1969) 117. 2045 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 79: nr. 1114; Dienes (1969) 117; Dienes (1972) 83: nr. 42, pl. 42; Dienes (1975) 102: fig. 6; Dienes (1986) 103: fig. 44; Őseinket (1996) 188–89: fig. 7; Fodor (1996) 188–89, fig. 7. 2046 Csallány (1970) 267–69, pl. XXXIV: 21. 2047 Lenght 146 cm, but according to the text, the skull crumbled away, so it is not sure whether it was included in the length of the skeleton, see Kiss [?] (1943–44) 75. 2042

Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 80: nr. 1131; Kiss [?] (1943–44) 75. From the kind information of Eszter Istvánovits. 2049 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 42: nr. 419; Točík (1971) 137–84. Grave 174 was not included in the seriation study of the cemetery, see Hanuliak (1992) 262–66, 263–65: figs 22–25. The cowries were not available for study. 2050 Točík (1971) 142, 237: pl. XXIII: 3–5; Hanuliak (1992) 307: pl. XVII: 5, 8. 2051 Točík (1971) 150, 242: pl. XXVIII: 1–2, 4–5, 8. 2052 Točík (1971) 151, 242: pl. XXVIII: 10–14. 2053 Točík (1971) 151, 242: pl. XXVIII: 15–16. 2054 Točík (1971) 158, 245: pl. XXXII: 3, 25–30, 32, 35. 2048

373

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads the bones, a string of beads: yellow bead of two members, 1 brown and 2 blue ringed beads, 1 elongated, fluted, and 105 ring-shaped, and tubular glass, and glass paste beads, and 1 pierced cowrie.2055

Trnovec nad Váhom (okres Šal’a, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1805–15. Tornóc 1817. Tüskeszentgyörgy (prev. Zala megye; /Sveti/Juraj u Trnju, opština Čakovec, Međimurske županija, Croatia)parish Church (Središte Naselja, Župna Crkva): 40 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the 11th century:2062

1811. Grave 357: from a female burial: a pair of silver earrings ornamented with 6-6 globes of filigree, silver drop-shaped ring, 5 silver S-terminated lockrings, among the dispersed bones a string of beads: 35 white, gray, deep green and deep brown spherical glass paste beads, 1 pierced cowrie.2056

Grave 8: from a female burial, in the string of beads a rounded prismatic fluorite, and cylindrical/double-conical amethyst beads, and 12 cowries were found. Pierced at the apex, and likely all were Money cowries, size: approximately 1.2x0.8–2.0x1.3 cm.2063

1812. Grave 379: from a child burial: a torque twisted from a three times overlapped bronze rod, and with a hook and eye terminals, a string of beads: 1 cylindrical glass paste beads with trailing, and 2 flattened spherical glass paste beads, besides, 2 cowries.2057

Čakovec, Muzej Međimurja. Tvrdošovce (okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1797. Tardoskedd

1813. Grave 392: from a female burial: a bronze plait clamp, 6 bronze S-terminated lockrings, a bronze band finger ring with overlapped terminals, besides a string of beads: 2 green fluted spherical, 96 yellow, 46 small brown spherical, 1 smaller brown and 3 larger green flattened spherical, 2 brown conical, and 1 greenish tube-shaped, 9 green cylindrical glass beads, 11 pierced cowries.2058

1818. Vágvörösvár (prev. Nyitra megye, Hungary; Červeník, okres Hlohovec, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia)Homokbánya/sand pit: 11 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century: Grave 8: from a likely female burial: an iron knife, 4 silver shift ornaments with pendant, and the upper part of one similar mount, 3-3 silver round, heart-, and elongated heart-shaped, and 65 bronze semispherical-headed boot mounts, a bronze band bracelet with coiled terminals, besides, on the ribs at the height of the elbows 3 pierced cowries.2064

1814. Grave 409: from the burial of a young child: a silver S-terminated lockring, a bronze band finger ring, besides, a string of beads: white bead of two members, 2 deep brown, fluted cylindrical, 58 bluish green tube-shaped, 85 light brown flattened spherical, 1 small white fluted glass and glass paste beads, and fragments of spherical bronze sheet beads, and at last 5 pierced cowries.2059

1819–20. Várpalota (Veszprém megye, Hungary)Semmelweiss Street nr. 55: 35 graves from a part of a cemetery, dated to the 10th century:2065

1815. Beside stray finds 1 additional pierced cowrie.2060 1816. Tőketerebes (prev. Zemplén megye, Hungary; Trebišov, okres Trebišov, Košický kraj, Slovakia)-Parič telep (osada Parič): 67 graves from a cemetery around of the church built in the 12th century. The graves date from the 12th–14th centuries:

1819. Grave 1: finds from a likely female burial, which were given to the museum: 10 silver, round mounts of the headdress ornament, a tinned solid bronze ball button, a tinned bronze earring with bead-row pendant, a small silver chain from two parts with 5 tinned bronze leag-shaped pendant, 1-1 silver, and tinned bronze band bracelets with coiled terminals, besides, 4 *Money cowries, on 2 items fragments of patina were recorded, which allows to infer that they were near to the chain.2066 Their condition is different, the 2 with differently sawed dorsum are bright and in good condition (size: 1.8x1.4, resp.2.1x1.5 cm), the other 2 are corroded, and seem to have removed, length 1.7–1.8 cm.

Grave 66: the remained finds from a likely female burial: an S-terminated lockring, a cross, a small bronze medallion portraying Virgin Mary and Jesus as child, a bronze rattle, besides, a string of 56 beads: 46 light blue, 3 larger black, 4 spherical light blue glass paste beads, and one cylindrical light yellow glass paste bead, lastly, 2 pierced cowries, likely both Money cowries.2061 Trebišov (okres Trebišov, Košický kraj, Slovakia) – see 1816. Tőketerebes

Tomičić (1990b) 115–20, 129; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 10. Tomičić (1998–1999) 46–47, 49, 52: pl. 3, 56: pl. 6: 2, 56: pl. 7: 1; Tomičić (1990b) 118. 2064 Točík (1968) 19–20, 77: pl. XI: 1–20; mentioned by: Arends (1978) II: 775–76: nr. 97. The cowries were not available for this investigation. 2065 S. Perémi (1986a); S. Perémi (1987); S. Perémi (1988); S. Perémi (1991). 2066 S. Perémi (1986) 122–23, 130, 122–23: pl. III, pl. IV: 1–7, 127: fig. 14: 3–7, 128: fig. 15, 129: pl. V. 2062 2063

Točík (1971) 160, 248: pl. XXXIV: 3–4, 6, 8. 2056 Točík (1971) 165, 250: pl. XXXVI: 2–10. 2057 Točík (1971) 168, 251: pl. XXXVII: 8, 11. 2058 Točík (1971) 169, 252: pl. XXXVIII: 3, 10–11, 14–16, 19–20, 23. 2059 Točík (1971) 170, 253: pl. XXXIX: 4–5, 8. 2060 Točík (1971) 184, 260: pl. XLVI: 11. 2061 Without the identification of the cowries: Kaminská (1982) 433–35, 447: pl. I, 445: fig. 28: 7. 2055

374

Catalogue Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 96.7.5.

terminals, besides, a string of beads: 3 oculus beads, 1 gray bead with yellow dotted trailing, 1 white globe-shaped, 1 green double-conical, 1 brown cylindrical glass paste beads with white trailing, and at last, 4 *Money cowries. All are with differently sawed opening and differently corroded surface, size: 1.9x1.3–2.4x1.6 cm.

1820. Grave 11: a tiny *Money cowrie is known from the unpublished material is in good condition and has a sawed wide opening, size: 1.3x0.9 cm. Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 96.11.4.2067 Vărşand (judeţul Gyulavarsánd

Arad,

Romania)

–

see

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém. acc. nr.: 76.33.8.1.2070

1647.

1824–28. Veszprém (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Sashegyvineyard: 33 graves from parts of a commoners’ cemetery of 10th–11th centuries:2071

1821. Veliki Bukovác (prev. Varasd megye, Hungary; opština Veliki Bukovec, Varaždinska županija, Croatia)the garden of the Draskovics Castle: 6 graves from a commoners’ cemetery:

1824. Grave 3: among the unknown grave goods, 5 pierced cowries are mentioned. Among them 4 are *Money cowries, with variously sawed opening, the larger items’ surface is corroded, the surface of the smaller cowries are bright, size: 1.5x1.0–1.9x1.5 cm. One item is a *Ringed cowrie, with a large, sawed opening, size: 1.5x0.9 cm.

Grave 2: in the mixed material, among beads and other jewelry, 6 pierced cowries remained. Of the 2 items depicted in a drawing, 1 was likely a Money cowrie, size: approximately 1.8x1.3 cm, the other item has a tiny round opening, perhaps Ringed cowrie, size: approximately 1.6x1.0 cm.2068

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 56.8.9. 1825. Grave 10: a plait clamp, an S-terminated lockring, a string of beads: green, white and brown glass paste beads, a greenish stone bead, and among them 5 *Money cowries were strung. All has different size and variously sawed opening, which is severely broken on one item, their surface is corroded, size: 1.6x1.2–1.7x1.3 cm.

Veliki Bukovec (Varaždinska županija, Croatia) – see 1821. Veliki Bukovác 1822–23. Veszprém (Veszprém megye, Hungary)-Komarov Street: repeatedly disturbed cemetery, the material of 9 graves were collected in 1972–73, later 5 graves were excavated, and dated to the 10th–11th centuries:

Dezső Laczkó Museum, Veszprém.

1822. Grave 5/1972–73: collected finds that are probably from a female burial: a round bronze shift ornament, 1-1 solid bronze ball button, and half ball button, a Saltovotype two-handled pot, and at last string of beads: 1-1 light colored beads of eight and four, 2-2 of three and two members, 4 yellow double beads, 4 small white, 1 black, 1 light green spherical, 1 reddish-brown conical, 1 brown polygonal glass paste beads, 1 globe bronze bead, and at last, 5 pierced cowries. Among them 4 are *Money cowries, with differently sawed opening, and their surface is differently corroded, size: 1.6x1.1–2.3x1.7 cm. One item is a *Ringed cowrie, with large sawed opening, size: 1.8x1.2 cm.

1826. Grave 22: an S-terminated lockring, a string of beads: white, blue and green glass paste beads, a green glass bead with iron loop, besides, 7 *Money cowries. Different sized items, with variously sawed round openings, their surface is corroded to various extents, size: 1.5x1.1–1.8x1.4 cm.

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 76.33.6.2.2069

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 56.8.9.

1823. Grave 9?/1972–73: collected finds that are probably from a female burial: a bronze wire bracelet with pointed

1828. Grave ?: among the grave goods, which perhaps belonged to this burial 13 *Money cowries are mentioned, with variously sawed openings from the almost wholly removed dorsi to various suspension holes, and with corroded surface, size: 1.3x0.9–1.7x1.2 cm.

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém. 1827. Grave ?: among the grave goods, strung objects among beads: 4 bronze half ball button, bronze ring-shaped bead, 18 beads of more members, and 21 *Money cowries. All items have differently sawed opening, and variously corroded surface, size: 1.5x1.0–2.1x1.5cm.

S. Perémi (1988) I studied the unpublished material with the kind permission of the excavation director. 2068 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 83: nr. 1195; Hampel (1907) 211–12, pl. 89: 7–8; Váňa (1954) 61, 90: nr. 155; Tomičić (1999–2000) 288, 289: fig. 4: 23 (all the illustration of the presented 6 items are not eligible for the identification of the species), 300: fig. 11: 8. József Hampel referred to drawing Nr 9 as cowrie but correctly it is a pyramid-shaped greenish pendant, see Brunšmid (1903–04) 86, 84: fig. 37: 9. 2069 S. Perémi (1989) 7, 9–13, 9: pl. IV: 2, 11: pl. VI: 6–7, 9, 12: pl. VII: 2, 13: fig. 14; without definition: S. Perémi (1994) 45: the lower string of beads. 2067

Laczkó Dezső Museum, Veszprém, acc. nr.: 63.158.1. S. Perémi (1989) 7, 10, 9: pl. IV: 4, 11: pl. VI: 11, 12: pl. VII: 1; without definition: S. Perémi (1994) 45: the upper string of beads. 2071 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 83–84: nr. 1207; MRT 2, 249: Site 51/61. I studied the material with the kind permission of Ágota Perémi. 2070

375

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1829. Vésztő (Békés megye, Hungary)-Kótpuszta: 12 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery dated to the 10th–11th centuries:2072

Vozokany (okres Galanta, Trnavský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1729. Pozsonyvezekény 1832. Zalavár (Zala megye, Hungary)-Kápolna: 296 excavated graves from a cemetery around the church, dated to the second half of the 11th –12th centuries:

Grave 3: finds from a child burial: the upper, squared part of a shift ornament with pendant, 13 small strap end-shaped garment ornaments (?) with 5-5 holes of the sewing fashioned from gilt bronze plaques overlapped on iron supports, solid bronze ball button, a drop-shaped bronze plait clamp, an iron torque (?), the bezel of a bronze finger ring, a bronze wire finger ring, a bronze sheet finger ring, 2 small bronze band finger rings, 3 iron rings, on one of them a rusty bead, the fragment of an iron band, for unknown purpose, and a string of 37 beads: fluted yellowish brown glass paste and glass beads, with trailing, the separated joint of a young animal used as pendant, a dog bone-pendant with 2 holes, an additional dog bone with one hole, 2 dog canine pendants with hole, and 4 pierced cowries: 3 *Money cowries, with variously sawed openings, size: 1.8x1.3–2.1x1.3 cm, 1 is rather a *Ringed cowrie, size: 1.5x1.0 cm.

Grave 114/96: from the burial of a girl (Inf. II): 6 lead Sterminated lockrings, besides, at the neck, a string of beads: 4 facetted fluorite beads, 4 cylindrical, 2 lengthways fluted cylindrical paste beads, 1 ribbed-cylindrical bead with trailing, 2 flattened spherical, 1 double conical and 2 tiny, glass paste beads with network pattern, and 11 pierced cowries at the apex usually oval opening, which was sawed on one item. 10 *Money cowries, size: 1.4x1.0–2.0x1.4 cm, 1 *Ringed cowrie (?), size: 1.65x1.1 cm. Hungarian National Department.2077

Museum,

Budapest,

Medieval

1833. Zalavár (Zala megye, Hungary)-Vársziget, church with so called deambulatorium: from the cemetery, which was opened beside the 9th century church rebuilt in the 11th century:

Munkácsy Mihály Museum, Békéscsaba, acc. nr.: 58.135.6–7, and 5, 8.2073

Grave 47/99: from the burial of a young female (inf. II–juv.) of the 11th century, which was disturbed by a later grave, destroying the lower part of the skeleton: 5 silver Sterminated lockrings, bronze rod hairclamp, fragments of a lead sheet pendant, a bronze ball button, besides, around the neck, a string of beads: various oculus and tiny glass paste beads, 2 amber beads, a bronze spiral, a fish vertebra, and 3 cowries, strung through the larger opening sawed on the apex. One of them is a Ringed cowrie, size: 1.8x1.3 cm, the others are Money cowries, the surface of the smaller cowrie is covered with deposit, the apex is broken, size: 1.5x1.2, resp.1.8x1.25 cm.

1830–31. Vinkovci (opština Vinkovci, Vukovarskosrijemska županija, Croatia)-Meraja: 271 graves, probably from a part of the cemetery of the medieval Hungarian village Zenthelye (Zenthylya) around the church, dated to the 11th–18th centuries:2074 1830. Grave 22: from the grave, which was disturbed by the foundation of the church: 2 bronze and 6 silver S-terminated lockrings, a twisted wire finger ring, which perhaps belonged to this grave with the H26 type denar of King Ladislaus I the Saint (1077–1095), and 1 pierced cowrie, perhaps Money cowrie, length approximately 2.2 cm.2075

Not inventoried.2078

1831. Grave 212: 7 S-terminated lockrings, under the mandible, in the oral cavity the unidentified, untouched denar of King Stephen II (1116–1131), and on the left side of the chest a tiny bead, a hexagonal-sectioned paste bead, and 2 cowries. Both are likely Money cowries, according to the illustration, 1 is pierced at the apex; length approximately 1.6, resp.1.7 cm.2076

1834. Zalkod (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Szegfarka-dűlő: among stray finds that were washed out from the Bodrog river, 1 cowrie remained, with a narrow, sawed opening, size: 1.65x1.25 cm. Jósa András Museum, Nyíregyháza, acc. nr.: 63.680.1.2079

Visonta (Heves megye) – see Annex 2328.

Zemné (okres Nové Zámky, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 1778. Szimő

Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 84: nr. 1211; MRT 6, 206: Site nr. 12/148. 2073 MRT 6, 206; see the inventory of the Munkácsy Mihály Museum at Békéscsaba, acc. nr.: 58.135.1–40. 2074 From the 104 excavated graves in 1965, 11 were grouped with the finds of the Bijelo Brdo-Culture: Dimitrijević (1966) 42–44; summary: Dimitrijević (1979) 194–95. From the 167 excavated graves of the investigation in 1997, 2 graves were assigned to the same culture: IskraJanošić (1997). Miklós Takács kindly reported all three publications to me. 2075 Dimitrijević (1966) 42, pl. 22: 2; Dizdar–Iskra-Janošić–Krznarić Škrivanko (1999) 156: nr. 345; Iskra-Janošić (2002) 140. 2076 Iskra-Janošić (1997) 244, 248: fig. 6. 2072

1835. Zenta (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; Senta, opština Senta, Serbia)-Paphalom: 197 excavated, and at Here I would like to thank the kind information and the possibility of studying the material to Ágnes Ritoók. 2078 I studied the material with the kind help of the excavation director Béla Miklós Szőke. 2079 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 85: nr. 1230; Jósa (1914) 178, 177: fig. V: 2; Váňa (1954) 91: note 66; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 2077

376

Catalogue least 12 destroyed graves from a part of a cemetery around the church, dated to the 11th–15th centuries:2080 Grave 193 (= 175+18): the lower part of a bronze shift ornament with pendant, and a string of beads: glass paste beads, 1 amethyst bead and 1 pierced Money/Ringed cowrie, length approximately 1.8 cm. Senta, Gradski muzej, Senta/Zenta.2081 1836. Zvonimirovo (Virovitičko–podravska županija, Croatia)-Veliko polje: 23 graves from a part of a commoners’ cemetery, dated to the first part of the 11th century: Grave 4: from a female burial: 6 silver S-terminated lockrings, a Tokaj-type silver earring, a bezelled silver finger ring with filigree and granulation, 2 solid silver ball buttons, and a string of beads: cylindrical silver-foliated paste beads, tiny glass beads, and around the neck and on the chest separately strung 52 (?) pierced cowries, perhaps Money/Ringed cowries (Fig. 163).2082 1837. Unknown provenance: in the old, unidentified material of the museum, 1 pierced *Columbellidae; Columbella sp., shabby, the upper part is broken, but also the opening is visible, size: 1.8x1.3 cm, besides, 6 pierced *Money cowries with narrow opening, size: 1.8x1.3– 2.2x1.7 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Medieval Department, acc. nr.: 61.80.1a–b.A (a: columbella, b: 6 cowries). 1838. Unknown provenance (Veszprém megye, Hungary?): among stray finds – a knife, a twisted torque, beads, 6 bracelets with snake-head terminals, a closed, twisted bracelet, iron hoops of a bucket – some cowries.2083 Laczkó Dezső unidentifiable.

Museum,

Veszprém,

unpublished,

175 graves were excavated, and incorrectly identified, and published as the cemetery of the medieval Hungarian village named Csecstó: Foltiny–Korek (1943); Foltiny–Korek (1944–45). About 22 additional graves: Stanojev (1989) 105–09. About the incorrect identification of the place name: Györffy (1946–47). 2081 Stanojev (1989) 109, 112: fig. 607. 2082 The grave was dated to the beginning of the 11th century: Tomičić (1996–97) 96, 99, 101, 104–05, 107: pl. 2; Tomičić (1997) 46, 81, 46: fig. 26, 80: fig. 57; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 6. I tried to count the unnumbered cowries on the illustrations. Additional reference to these cowries: Tomičić (2000a) 84. 2083 Fehér–Éry–Kralovánszky (1962) 44: nr. 498. 2080

Fig. 163. Grave 4 at Zvonimorovo and 52 (?) probably Money/ Ringed cowries from the female burial (1836) – after Tomičić (1996–97) pls 3 and 2

377

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 164. Distribution of parallels of cowrie finds from the Carpathian Basin during the period of the Hungarian Conquest and Early Arpadian Age (10th–12th/13th Centuries)

awl, 2 cylindrical clay beads, and 5 perforated Money cowries.2085

4.15. 1839–2159, (1839a, 1843a, 2102a, 2122a, 2151a, 2169a, 2295a). Parallels of the Cowries from the Carpathian Basin during the Period of the Hungarian Conquest and Early Arpadian Age (10th–12th/13th Centuries) – (see Annex 2345, 2469, 2478–84, 2487, 2496, 2504, 2511, 2536, 2556–57)

Marienhausen (Gouvernement Witebsk) – see 1929. Logini 1840. Ratajčicy (Brestskaja voblast.):

The material was collected from Azerbajdžan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Egypt, England, Estonia, Finland, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden and Ukraine (Fig. 164).

1839a. Kurgan 2: from the 11th century, a small string of beads with a cowrie is illustrated.2086 1840. Kurgan 20: the following objects were discovered in a Dregovič type cremation burial, excavated in a kurgan in the middle reaches of the Bug River, dating to the early 11th century: gilt and silvered glass beads, 1 cylindrical glass bead, 1 Dregovič type metal bead with a row of knobs. There was also a perforated cowrie, which is not mentioned in the publication but is listed among the finds.2087

Azerbajdžan: Unknown site – see Annex 2345. 1839–40, (1839a). Belarus Lintupiai – see 1839. Lintupis

1841–43, (1843a). Bosnia and Herzegovina

1839. Lintupis (prev. Lintupiai; Lëznenskij rajon): kurgan cemetery, dating from the 9th–13th centuries2084

1841. Gomjenica (općina Prijedor, Republika Srpska entity)-Polje/Baltine bare: an almost fully excavated Slavic cemetery of commoners’, with 246 burials, from the 9th–11th centuries:

Kurgan 4: 2 cremation burials from the 10th–11th centuries, where the burnt bone remains of the deceased were covered with: 2 spirals and 2 tubes of the ringed-mount, 14 spirals from the headdress, 3 thick wire torques, 2 armspirals, 2 plate metal bracelets, 7 spiral finger rings, 2 bands, moreover, 3 iron knives in their sheaths, an iron 2084

Pokrovskij (1897) 142–47. I am obliged to Vytautas Kazakevičius for sending me a copy of this publication. 2086 Korobuškin (1988) 264, fig. 2: 1. Perhaps it is a misprint, because this illustration is identical with Korobuškin–Salivon (1990) 141: fig. 2: 1 (from Kurgan 2! – 1840). 2087 Korobuškin–Salivon (1990) 140, 145, 139: fig. 1: 11, 141: fig. 2: 1. 2085

Finno-ugry (1987) 391, 382: map 45, nr. b.15.

378

Catalogue Grave 40: grave goods from a child’s burial: 8 bronze S-terminated lockrings, double conical buttons from bronze plate, beneath the skull a strand of glass beads: 9 small yellowish, 1-1 beads of two and 1 three members, 1 greenish tubular bead, and 1 perforated cowrie, lenght: 2.0x1.4 cm.2088

perforated cowrie was found at this Thracian settlement dated to the 11th–12th centuries, lenght: appr. 3.2 cm.2094 1846.Gradiščeto (obščina Simeonovgrad,oblast Haskovo): 3 perforated cowries were unearthed in a 11th century grave among the 106 burials excavated from the part of a cemetery dated to the 10th –early 12th centuries.2095

1842–43. Mahovljani (općina Laktaši)-Luke-Kužno groblje: section of a Slavic commoners’ cemetery with 95 graves from the 10th–12th centuries:2089

1847. Kajlăka (obščina Pleven, oblast Pleven): altogether 75 graves from parts of cemeteries dating from the 4th–5th and 12th–13th centuries:

1842. Grave 4: from a child’s burial: 4 bronze S-terminated lockrings, fragment of one double conical button from bronze plate, and a strand of beads around the neck: 13 small glass beads, 1 large blue bead, and 1 perforated cowrie.2090

Grave 11: at least 1 perforated cowrie was found on a strand of beads in a burial dated to the 12th–13th centuries.2096 1848. Loveč (oblast Loveč)-Bašbunar: cemetery from the 10th–13th centuries, with 85 kurgans:

1843. Grave 15: from a female burial: 2 large, bronze Sterminated lockrings, with 1 double conical metal plate button each drawn over them, 4 small bronze S-terminated lockrings and a strand of beads: 180 small, grayish, yellowish and greenish cylindrical and globular beads, a small bronze loop, 5 bronze rattles, the upper, round, looped part of a bronze shift ornament with pendants, a bronze wire finger ring with pointed terminals, and on the belt, near the fingers, 1 perforated cowrie.2091

Kurgan 11: from a likely female burial: a silvered bronze earring with a plate metal globe with granular ornamentation, 1-1 bronze wire and band bracelets, an additional bracelet twisted from 4 times overlapped bronze rod, an iron bracelet, and beads on the chest: black, green, yellow, blue, red cylindrical glass beads, globular beads of quartz and amber, and 1 cowrie, most likely a Ringed cowrie, lenght: 2.0 cm.2097

1843a. Petoševci (općina Laktaši)-Bagruša: Slavic cemetery with 160 burials from the 9th–10th centuries, where the presence of cowries was incorrectly indicated.2092

1849. Pliska (prev. Aboba, obščina Kaspičan, oblast Šumen): altogether 131 graves from a cemetery around of a church, dated to the 10th–11th centuries:

1844–50. Bulgaria

Grave 80: from the burial of a 11–12 year old child: a bronze plait clasp, a bronze rattle, a small lead disk, 5 three-lobed glass beads, and 3 perforated cowries. A Ringed cowrie is likely shown on the plate, lenght: appr. 1.4 cm.2098

1844. Debnevo (obščina Trojan, oblast Loveč)-Kaleto: altogether 148 graves from a cemetery used from the 12th–17th centuries:

1850. Stražata (oblast Pleven): altogether 234 burials in parts of two cemeteries dated to the Roman Period and the 11th–14th centuries:

Grave 25: from the burial of a 18–20 year old woman from the right side of her chest: a large, spherical colorful bead, a bronze bell, an amulet, and a necklace made partially or totally from 83 cowries, lenght: 0.8–1.9 cm.2093

Grave 11./55: from the burial of a child dated between the 11th–14th centuries: strand of beads composed of cylindrical and spherical elements, and 1 small, perforated cowrie, maybe a Money cowrie.2099

1845. Djadovo (obščina Nova Zagora, oblast Sliven): 1 Also diskussing its role as an amulet: Miletić (1967) 87, 132; Miletić (1989) 185; Tomičić (1998–1999) 46; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 12. 2089 He argued that cowries were put in female and child burials because of the belief that the shells had protective powers: Miletić (1979) 154, note 35; see Miletić (1967) 87, 132; Miletić (1989) 185; Tomičić (2000) 26, 38. 2090 Miletić (1979) 138, pl. XII.: on the lower illustration, above, in the middle; Tomičić (1998–1999) 46; Tomičić (2000) 50: pl. 1: 2. 2091 Miletić (1979) 139, pl. XIV. Maybe on the left, in the lower part; Tomičić (2000) 51: pl. 2 (without illustration of the cowrie). 2092 Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: nr. 13. The publication known to me does not include any cowries, see: Žeravica (1985–1986). Željko Tomičić kindly informed me, that an incorrect symbol was shown on the distribution map of the finds. 2093 Some cowries can be identified in the published illustration as having either removed dorsi or being perforated at their anterior extremities: Zahariev (1981) 44, 47, 40: fig. 4. 2088

1851, Annex 2349. Croatia Đakovo (Osjecko-baranjska županija)-Župna crkva/Parish church Grave 159 – see Annex 2349. 1851. Popovec Kalnicki (Koprivničko-križevačka županija)-Bregi: stray finds from the 7 disturbed graves The unidentified species mentioned as amulet was acquired through trade: Borisov (1989) 272, 273: fig. 318: b. 2095 Kapelkova (1989) 50, 50: fig. 3. 2096 Stančev–Čangova–Petkov (1961) 40, fig. 8. 2097 Georgieva–Peševa (1955) 514, 537–38, 541, 546, 549: fig. 45: 4. 2098 Dimitrov (1995) 64–66, 55: fig. 7: 19. 2099 Genova (1981) 58, 95, 100, 94: fig. 37: 1. 2094

379

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads from a 11th century cemetery: 5 amethyst and fluorite beads, a small, distorted cross, and 1 Money cowrie with an oval opening, lenght: appr. 0.8 cm.2100

longitudinal rows of cowries. Among these, the two outer rows are made of shells placed longitudinally, while the middle row is composed of slanting cowries. On the lower edge, there are schematic depiction of what seem to be hanging spherical pendants. Both edges of the surcingle are bordered by a row of cowries in longitudinal position, in the middle row, can seen two irregularly positioned shells, and 4 rattles hang from the lower edge, depicted only as circles (Fig. 165).2104

1852–54. Czech Republic Čakovice – see 1853. Praha-Čakovice 1852. Libice nad Cidlinou (okres Nymburk, Středočeský kraj)-Sugar Factory: some 82 burials from part of a cemetery:

1856. Rider No. 4 in Fresco No. 6: left of the previous picture, divided from the latter illustration by the figure of a hermit, dating from 1100 AD. Most likely a depiction of St. Theodorus Stratelates sitting on a dark red, black-tailed white-faced horse, with a double jowl strap. Between the nose and forehead straps there is an additional cross strap. The chest-strap of the bridle is ornamented with a row of cowries, positioned with their sawn opening up. The chest-strap is also adorned with a hanging row of spherical rattles, and its wide breast-band is ornamented by double longitudinal rows of cowries.2105

Grave 71: from a burial without stone covering, probably a female grave: 10 bronze S-terminated lockrings, fragments of a lunula pendant, and a double strand of beads: rodshaped beads of 1–4 members, biconical and spherical amber beads, clay beads, and 1 perforated cowrie, perhaps a Money cowrie.2101 1853. Praha-Čakovice: undetermined quantity of unpublished cowries are mentioned among finds from the 8th–12th centuries.

1857. England

Narodni Muzej, Praha, acc. nr.: 54726.2102

1857. York (North Yorkshire)-Coppergate nr. 16–22: 1 Panther cowrie was found in the 4A period of the AngloSaxon settlement layer (turn of the 9th/10th centuries – around 930/935), in feature No 30273. Its length was more than 6.0 cm.2106

1854. Rebešovice (prev. Rybešovic; okres Brno-venkov, Jihomoravský kraj): graves from the 10th–11th centuries were identified among burials from various periods: Grave/18 May 1846: among the 3 unearthed graves, 1 artificially pierced shell was found besides 2 small finger rings on the neck of a child’s skeleton lying in the middle.2103

1858–59. Estonia 1858. Hummuli (Valga maakond): some cowries were found in a cemetery dated to the 12th century.2107

Rybešovic – see 1854. Rebesovice

1859. Siksali (Võru maakond): some cowries were found in a cemetery, which can be most likely dated to the 12th century.2108

1855–56. Egypt 1855–56. Abdallah Nirqi (near Abu Simbel, Nubia)-Site A., Central Church: the harness gear shown on two depictions of riders on wall paintings from the church, presently in the Coptic Museum of Cairo, were decorated with cowries. The church was built in the 8th century, but was demolished when the Aswan dam was constructed.

1860–61. Finland2109 1860–61. Hollola (Lahden seutukunta, Päijät-Härneen maakunta, Etelä-Suomen lääni)-Juokko: finds from a Viking settlement (750–1100):

1855. Rider in Fresco No 5: painted in the early 11th century, this picture probably represents St. Phoibammon sitting on a white horse. The neck and breast of the horse is shown with extremely wide girth, decorated with 3

van Moorsel (1975) 121–23: 45.§, 74: fig. 6/6b: above right, pls 92, 94–95. 2105 van Moorsel (1975) 5, 119–121: 43.§, 73: fig. 6/6a, pls 92–93. 2106 “the worked shell of a cowrie (Cypraea pantherina (Solander)”: Kenward-Hall (1995) 781, 440, 504. See “A mid AD 10th century building... produced a complete C. pantherina over 6 cm”: Reese (1991) 182: nr. 161; “a single Panther cowrie shell has been found in Viking Age York”: Johansson (1997) 227.. 2107 “There are some kauri finds from Hummuli cemetery near Valga, also almost at the Latvian border, dating from the 12th century.”: On the basis of a kind letter from Heiki Valk. 2108 According to the helpful letter from Heiki Valk “Probably, some graves of the Siksali cemetery in the SE corner of Estonia date from the 12th century but a profound chronology of the cemetery is yet missing.” 2109 The listed data are known to me from information kindly provided by Pirjo Uino (see also 1203–04). 2104

Tomičić (1991a) 100, 113: pl.pl. III: 6; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 9. 2101 Turek (1946) 53, pl. I: in the middle part of the lower strand of beads; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5; Machula (1999) 7. 2102 Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5; Machula (1999) 7. 2103 “Eine künstlich geschnitzte Muschel, nebst zwei Ringelchen.”: Dudík (1854) 12. Jiří Sláma showed that the type of shell could not be identified, but he listed the species as appropriate among the finds from the 8th–12th centuries: Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. Since Celtic material was also unearthed at the site it is possible that the shell was a Celtic Ringed cowrie with opened dorsum. 2100

380

Catalogue most likely Money cowries, lenght: appr. 1.1, and. 1.4 cm.2114 1864. Grave ?: in a string 3 cowries, likely Money cowries.2115 1865–2074. Latvia 1865. Ābeļu Priednieki: from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2116 Ainava – see 1914–17. Kārļu Ainava 1866. Aizkraukle-Skriveri (Aizkraukles Rajons)-Railway station, Pump House: Livonian (Baltic Finnish) cemetery of the 11th–18th centuries:

Fig. 165. St. Phoibammon on horseback in Fresco nr. 5 at Abdallah Nirqui (1855) – after van Moorsel (1975) 74: fig. 6b

Grave 11: 1 cowrie was discovered in this grave of the 11th–13th centuries.2117

1860. 1 cowrie, used as a bead hanging on a bronze ring, was found in one of the burials.2110

1867. Aizupe (Tukuma Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2118

1861. Grave 3: similar shells were found in the same cemetery,2111 which may be identical to finds unearthed during agricultural work in 1895. The finds were dated to the 10th century, and included the following items: a bronze kettle, 3 bracelets, pendants, small bronze spiral tubes, 2 glass beads and 3 cowries. All the cowries are perforated and suspended from small bronze loops, perhaps they fitted onto a bronze chain.

Allažu Saknītes – see 1863. Atvasītes 1868. Alsviķi (Aluksnes Rajons): more than 100 cowries were unearthed in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2119 1869. Alsviķu Pudiķi: from 20–100 cowries came to light in a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2120 1870. Andrupenes Kuļakova (Daugavpils Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2121

Helsinki, Nationalmuseum, acc. nr.: 3145:9.2112 Sakkola – see 2119. Olhovka (Russia)

1871. Annas Bundzēni: from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2122

1862. Israel

1872. Asotes pilskalns: 83 cowries were found in the ruins of a fortified settlement (pilskalns/gorodišče) from the 13th century.2123

1862. Jerusalem-Site L (Armenian Garden): 1 Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum found sticking to a lump of iron and dated to the Ayyubid period (1190–1220). One other cowrie was also found.2113

1873. Atvasītes/Allažu Saknītes: from 1–25 cowries were found in a Livonian (Baltic Finnish) cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2124

1863–64. Kyrgyzstan 1863–64. Saryg (north of Biškek/prev. Frunze): a cemetery was unearthed from the 11th–12th centuries:

Rozina (1950) 46, 154, and pl. XIII: 3 (2 depicted, probably Money cowries); most likely this grave was referred to by: Bernštam (1952) 84. 2115 I could not find any references to the photo in the text: Rozina (1950) 46–47, 154, and pl. XIII: 2. 2116 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 123. 2117 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2118 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 124. 2119 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 41. On the map there are 2 sites marked with Nr 41, however, one of them, the site on the coast of Riga Bay, was deleted, see: Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25. 2120 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 42. 2121 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 79. 2122 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 43. 2123 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 116. 2124 Allažu Saknītes and Atvasītes: with two site names, but only one mark on the map: Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 26. 2114

1863. Grave 1: from a disturbed burial of a child: 2 bronze ring-shaped pendants, a bronze rattle, a small ceramic vessel, and beneath the skull, white beads strung onto two bronze rings, moreover, 41 glass beads in various sizes and colors, a glass, a pearl real bead, amber and quartz beads, a bronze coin, and 3 perforated cowries. Two of these are “Kaurimuschel mit einer durchgesteckten Bronzeöse”: Kivikoski (1973) 110–11. and fig. 814. ‑Ujno (2002) 183. 2111 Kivikoski (1973) 111 and fig. 814. 2112 Kivikoski (1967) 38–39. 2113 Reese (1991) 165: nr. 26; Reese (1995) 267, 277, 278. 2110

381

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Kurgan 1: 16 cowries were among the finds discovered in the burial (burials?).2125

1885. Ceraukstes Podiņi (Baukstas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a Zemgal cemetery dating from the 11th–13th centuries, but this may refer only to the following:

1874. Augstrozes Tutalas (Limbazu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2126

Grave 14: some 7 cowries were uncovered among the finds.2137

1875. Baltinavas Čilipina (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2127

1886. Cesīs (Cesu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2138 One among these was on a bronze ring.2139

1876. Baltinavas Punceļova (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2128

1887. Cesvaine (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a Letgal cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2140

1877. Balvu Salmiņi (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2129

1888. Cesvaines Kalna Paukši (Madonas Rajons): more than 100 cowries were uncovered in the cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2141

1878. Bejas Bunkas (Aluksnes Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2130

1889. Cirgaļu Jaunbemberi: from 1–25 cowries were found in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2142

1879. Bērzaunes Pakalnieši (Madonas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2131

1890. Daugavas Oglenieki: from 25–100 cowries were found in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries:2143

1880. Bērzgale (Rezeknes Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were unearthed in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2132

Grave 8: the following neck ornament was unearthed in a female burial dated to the 12th–13th century: 17 presumably Money cowries, partly perforated, partly with removed dorsi, divided from each other with a bead and with a small metal cross in the middle (Fig. 167).2144

1881. Bērzmuižas Diduļi (Bauskas Rajons, Žiēmgala): a cowrie was uncovered as a stray find at a Zemgal site. It is mentioned together other material from the 11th–12th/13th centuries.2133 1882. Bērzpils Bonifaceva (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries (Fig. 166).2134

1891. Daugmales pilskalns (Rigas Rajons): 22 cowries were uncovered in the fortified Zemgal settlement (pilskalns/gorodišče) of the 11th–13th centuries.2145 Most probably all, or at least some of these, were recovered intact.2146

1883. Bilskas Skujini (Valkas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were discovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2135

1892. Dignājas Strautmaļi (Jekabpils Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2147

1884. Blome (Gulbenes/Valkas Rajons): more than 100 cowries came to light in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2136

1893. Drusti (Cesu Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2148 1894. Dzelzavas Strūgukalns (Madonas Rajons): more

Mugurevič (1962) 42. At the same time, it is also called Atvasītes, but here it is clear they are the same. 2126 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 103. 2127 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 85. 2128 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 57. 2129 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 58. 2130 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 44. 2131 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 1. 2132 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 59. 2133 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 52. 2134 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 139. It is presumably the same as the site excavated by J. Gloger in the late 19th century called Bonifacova (prov. Balvy), from where a necklace comprised of (almost exclusively?) 81 perforated cowries is kept in the Jagellonian University in Krakow (acc. nr. 13397): I Balti (1991) 152, 154: nr. 1001. I would like to thank Kinga Stanek for this kind information. 2135 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 104. 2136 Mugurevič (1962) 44. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 105. 2125

Mugurevic (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 125. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 13. 2139 Mugurevič (1962) 47. 2140 Mugurevič (1962) 44. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 106. 2141 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 112. 2142 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 45. 2143 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 137. 2144 Krustpils Oglenieki, and like the site of Oglenieki: Mugurevič (1962) 42, 41: fig. 4, 45. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 137. The same figure is called Grave 8 from site of Daugavas Oglenieki: Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 23, 57: fig. 25: nr. 137. 2145 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 107. 2146 Mugurevič (1962) 47–48. 2147 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 127. 2148 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 108. 2137 2138

382

Catalogue

Fig. 166. Necklace comprised of 81 (?) perforated cowries from Bonifacova (1882) – after I Balti (1991) 154: fig. 1001.

Fig. 168. Necklace composed of alternating yellow glass beads and 150 cowries in Grave 4 of Jaunpiebalgas cemetery (1902) – after Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 22 Fig. 167. Necklace of 17 cowries, glass beads and metal cross from Grave 8 of Daugavas Oglenieki cemetery (1890) – after Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 23

383

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads than 100 cowries were unearthed in a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2149

alternating cowries with yellow glass beads. The largest cowries were put in the middle of the necklaces; 2 beads were placed each side each cowries. In the whole strand, a total of 150 cowries were inserted (Fig. 168).2160

1895. Elkšņu Upelnieki: from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2150

1903. Grave ?: some 14 cowries, presumably Money cowries, are shown in an illustration of a two part necklaces.2161

1896. Ērgļu Indrāni (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered among graves of the 11th–12th centuries from a cemetery broadly dating to the 11th–18th centuries (see 2207).2151

1904. Jaunpiebalgas (Cesu Rajons): more than 100 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2162

Gabaczewo – 1929. Logini 1897. Galgauskas Tīcēni (Gulbenes Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 12–13th centuries, some of which were found strung with intermittent glass beads.2152

1905. Jaunpiebalgas Pūķusils (Cesu Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2163 1906. Jersikas kapulauks/mogil’nik (Preilu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a Letgal cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2164

1898. Ikšķile (Ogres Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were unearthed in a Livonian (Baltic Finnish) cemetery inside a church of the 11th–13th centuries:2153

1907. Jersikas piskalns (Preilu Rajons): altogether 20 cowries were unearthed at a fortified Letgal settlement (piskalns/gorodišče) site dated to the 11th–13th centuries.2165 1 of them was suspended from a small ring.2166

Grave 8: 1 cowries.2154 1899. Isnauda (Ludzas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were found in a Letgal cemetery of the 11th–12th centuries:2155

1908. Kalsnavas Daktiņi (Madonas Rajons): more than 100 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2167

Grave 5: a female burial in which the jewelry, namely bracelets and pectoral ornaments with small torque, were complemented by a row each of cowries.2156

1909. Kalupe (Daugadvpils Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2168

1900. Istras Šilki (Ludzas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2157

1910. Kalvenes Sermuļi (Aluksnes/Liepajas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a Kurš cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries, maybe related to the following burial:

1901. Ivande (Kuldigas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2158 1902–03. Jaunpiebalgas (Cesu Rajons): more than 100 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2159

Grave 1: 1 cowrie was recovered.2169 1911. Kandava (Tukuma Rajons, Kurzeme): from 25–100 cowries were found in a Kurš cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries, some of which were probably stray finds.2170

1902. Grave 4: some 4 necklaces were recovered along with pendants in a burial dated to the second half of the 12th century: 3 were composed of glass beads while the fourth was composed of alternating glass beads and cowries. Some were fitted with woolen yarn to the bronze chain chest ornament, composed of round sectioned chain-links, however, majority of them were strung on linen thread,

Mugurevič (1962) 42, 40: fig. 3; Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 22; Latvijas (1974) 268, 269: fig. 170. There is no data on either Grave 4 or ?, or whether only one of them comes from the same cemetery or the one mentioned next? 2161 Latvijas (1974) 225: fig. 145: 12. 2162 “Jaunpiebalgskoe kladbišče”: Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 15. 2163 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 23. 2164 It cannot be the same as the finds from the settlement of the same site, as this latter is called Ersikskij mogil’nik�: Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 74. 2165 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 115. 2166 Mugurevič (1962) 47. 2167 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 5. 2168 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 70. 2169 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 133. 2170 About the stray cowries from the 11th–12th/13th centuries that are mentioned in the same chapter with the finds: Mugurevič (1962) 42; Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 128. 2160

Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 2. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 55. 2151 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 3. 2152 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 4. 2153 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 100. 2154 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2155 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 69. 2156 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2157 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 62. 2158 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 50. 2159 “Jaunpiebalgskoe kladbišče”: Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 14. 2149 2150

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Catalogue 1912. Kapiņu Kristapiņi (Pteilu Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered from graves dated to the 11th–13th centuries, from a cemetery dating broadly to the 7th–13th centuries (see 1424).2171

1924. Launkalnes Veckapiņi (Valnas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2184 1925. Lejasdopels: Sel kurgan cemetery from the 10th–13th centuries:

1913. Kapiņu Ogurečkas (Pteilu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were found in a Letgal cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2172

Kurgan II, Grave 10: among the finds placed beside a female skeleton, dated to around 1200 were 2 rattles incorporated into a strand of beads, also including 5 perforated cowries, 9 small crosses, and 1 openwork disk ornamented with a cruciform motif.2185

1914–17. Kārļu Ainava: more than 100 cowries were discovered in a Letgal cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries, which were strung as a necklace alternating with glass beads.2173

1926. Lenču Strīķi (Cesu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2186

1914. Grave 5: 71 cowries are mentioned.2174 1915. Grave 66: 70 cowries are mentioned.2175

1927. Liezere (Madonas Rajons): more than 100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2187

1916. Grave 67: 75 cowries are mentioned.2176 1917. Grave 68: 110 cowries are mentioned.2177

1928. Liezeres Palejas (Madonas Rajons): more than 100 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 12–13th centuries.2188

1918. Kārsdaba (Madonas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery located in a mine of the 11th–13th centuries.2178

Ljucinskij mogil’nik – see 1932–85. Ludzas Odukalns

1919. Karvas Leiškapi (Aluksnes Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2179

1929. Logini (prev. Gabaczewo; Balvu Rajons): 50 cowries are known from the find at Marienhausen (Gouvernement Witebsk), which is presumably originated from the Slavic Period. This collection of finds was identified with the kind help of Anna Zariņa and Jānis Ciglis. The material, discovered by Zygmunt Glogier in 1880, was scattered between the collections of museums in Riga, Warszawa, Toruń and Kraków (here both the Archaelogical Museum and University collection). Therefore, the material must come from the church cemetery at the site of Viļaka (Balvu Rajons), dating to the 12th–15th centuries, and the cemetery with graves arranged in rows at Logini (= Gabaczewó), dated to the 10th–12th centuries.2189 Nevertheless, the mentioned cowries are most likely to have come from the latter site.2190 The first publication only cites the presence of many white small shells (mnóstwo bialych muszelek) among the finds, but in the single published illustration there is only 1 cowrie, probably a Ringed cowrie.2191 This information was later cited, based on Hugo Conwentz’s article, as in an “undoubtedly Slavic find” where 50

1920. Kauguru Beites (Valmieras Rajons): from 1–100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2180 1921. Kauguru Draņķi (Valmieras Rajons): from 1–100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2181 1922. Kaunatas Rikopole (Rezeknes Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2182 1923. Kaunatas Sļakatuciems (Rezeknes Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered from a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2183 Krustpils Oglenieki – see 1890. Daugavas Oglenieki Mugurevič (1962) 38, 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 72. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 71. 2173 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 16. 2174 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2175 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2176 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2177 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2178 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 101. 2179 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 46. 2180 Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nr. 152. 2181 Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nr. 155. 2182 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 80. 2183 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 81. 2171 2172

Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 18. Stubavs (1967) 117–19, 118: fig. 10: 10––11. 2186 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 19. 2187 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 7. 2188 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 6. 2189 Vö. Latvijas (1974) 334, 343. 2190 According to the letter from Anna Zariņa dated the 22nd of September 1999. 2191 Glogier (1881) 402, pl. XIV: 7; see “cowries worn strung on the neck (muszle noszone sznurami na szyi)”: ibid. 400. 2184 2185

385

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads cowries were found.2192 This data was later distorted and referred to as grave goods.2193

burial: a hatchet, a pair of bracelets with snake-head terminals, a belt buckle, an iron knife, and, in the neck region, some perforated cowries.2201

1930. Lubānas Līčagals (Madonas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2194

1933. I. Grave 4: from a most likely female burial: headdress decorated by woolen, and bark (žgut) rim, with twine in small loops and 5 small bells, buckles from the garment, spiral ornaments and 2 belt buckles, the latter having pendants suspended from chains, 3 metal sheet torques, 1 of which has 28 sheet pendants, 1 twisted torque and 2 torques with groove decoration, 1 multiple-twisted torque, 1 sheet l pendant with 9 small chains, having a rattle at each end, 1 armspiral with nearly 15 turns, and from the region of the neck, a necklace composed of 43 perforated cowries.2202

1931. Lubeja (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2195 1932–85. Ludzas Odukalns (Ludzas Rajons):2196 143 female burials were identified among the 338 graves at a Letgal cemetery dated broadly between the 7th–13th centuries. According to Ēvalds Mugurēvičs cowries were discovered in 53 burials2197 although I found 55 graves with cowries.2198 The amount of cowries revealed in individual graves comes from only 17 burials, of which 222 shells are published in total. Therefore, hundreds more cowries were discovered in the cemetery as a whole. Interestingly, both in the grave descriptions and summary by E. P. Romanov only the term “rakovina” ‘shell’ is presented, but in the publication of V. I. Sizov, these items are defined as ordinary Money cowries.2199

1934. I. Grave 8: from a most likely female burial: a belt buckle, a wreath composed of 5 rows of spirals, 2 twisted wire torques with rattles and spiral pendants, a sheet necklace with pendants, a pair of armlets with 3 spiral finger rings each, and a necklace made from perforated cowries with an 1 small laced boat-shaped bone bead.2203 1935. I. Grave 17: from a most likely female burial: spiral ornaments on small straps, 2 pairs of narrow bracelets, a finger ring, and in the neck region 2 twisted and 1 sheet torques, the latter with pendants. Finally, some cowries are also mentioned.2204

1932. I.2200 Grave 2: from a grave, which was described as a male burial, but it is more likely to have been a female “Ferner verdanke ich Herrn Prof. Conwentz die Mittheilung, dass über 50 Exemplare von Cypraea moneta in Marienhausen Gouvernement Witebsk (Familie von Edgeski) am 9. September 1879 in einem zweifellos der slawischen Zeit angehörigen Funde zu Tage kamen...”: Jacob (1891) 147. 2193 “...bei Marienhausen im Gouvernement Witebsk, wo 1879 über 50 Stück [Kauris] in einem «zweifellos der slawischen Zeit angehörigen» Grabe gefunden wurden”: Schneider (1905) 115. “According to this authority [to Oscar Schneider] they were found at Marienhausen, in the gouvernment of Witebsk, where in 1879, some 50 specimens occurred in a grave, doubtless belonging to Slavonic times”: Jackson (1916) 9. “Fifty Indo-Pacific Cypraea, including C. moneta, were found in a Slavonic grave at Marienhausen (Vitebsk), south of Leningrad.”: Reese (1991) 170: nr. 62. 2194 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 8. 2195 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 9. 2196 The basis for the identification is: Ljucinskij (1954); Latvijas (1974) 336: cited as Odukalns. 2197 Including the two girls, see. Spicyn (1893); Mugurevič (1962) 45; and Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 61; Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nr. 61. 2198 1427: 1. grave (1427): among finds dated to the 7th–10th century; 1932–1975: 2–45. graves: among them, Aleksandr Andreevič Spicyn first mentioned 27 burials, in which necklaces were exclusively composed of cowries, although he cited only 26 of the following: I. 2, 4, 8, 17, 19, 24, 27, II. 7, 33, 47, 63, 67, 75, 109, III. 16, 18, 25, 32, 38, 69, 75, 108, 110–113; secondly, he published 17 additional graves, where necklaces also included cowries : II. 5, 13, 17, 41, 56, 60, 67, 89, 95, 121, III. 1, 38, 51, 103, 115, 117. This comprises a total of 42 graves, but considering that Grave II. 67 and III. 38 are included in both lists, it actually comes to 40 graves+. Nevertheless, there are four burials, namely Graves II. 3, 22, 62. and III. 122 still missing from the catalogue, so that after all, the total number of graves containing cowries is 44. Still, it must be mentioned that in the detailed description of Grave II. 17 specimens are listed in the second inventory although there are no cowries presented, see Spicyn (1893) 26—27, 46–55. 1976–85: 46–55. graves: Graves II, V, VIII, X, XIV, XX, XXII, XXIII, XXVI. and XXIX., see Spicyn (1893) P. 30–32. 2199 “Krome togo vozle šei na grudi vstrečalis často v bol’šom količestve rakoviny, tak nazyvaemyja zmejnyja golovki (Cyprea moneta) zavezennyja sjuda iz Indejskago okeana.”: Spicyn (1893) 29. 2200 The first ecavation of E. P. Romanov (14–18, June 1890.): I. Graves 1–40. 2192

1936. I. Grave 19: from a most likely female burial: belt buckle, textile fragments with spiraled fringes, a bark wreath ornamented with 5 rows of spirals wounded into it in 9 places, 3 twisted and 1 sheet torques with pendants and rattles, 2 multi-twisted torques ornamented with pendants on chains, and rattles, 1 armspiral with 14 twists, a pair of bracelets, 6 rings and a necklace composed of small boat-shaped bone beads, amber beads and 20 perforated cowries.2205 1937. I. Grave 24: from a most likely female burial: a belt buckle, a headdress ornamented with large bunched and twisted rim, 1 twisted and 1 sheet torques, a knife, 3 finger rings on each of three fingers, and around the neck, a necklace of perforated cowries.2206 1938. I. Grave 27: from a most likely female burial: belt buckle, textile fragments, 2 headdresses with bunched rim and spiral ornaments, and a sheet necklace composed of 15 pendants ringed in groups of three, 1 twisted and 2 sheet torques, 1 spiral ring and 3 finger rings with 12 turns on

Spicyn (1893) 27, Priloženie (further: P.) 3. In burials from the 6th–9th centuries, axes, bracelets, and pins with heads (bulavki) are represented in both male and female graves: Finno-ugry (1987) 360. 2202 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 3–4. 2203 Spicyn (1893) P. 4. 2204 Spicyn (1893) P. 5. 2205 Spicyn (1893) P. 5. 2206 Spicyn (1893) P. 6. 2201

386

Catalogue each of three fingers in addition to some cowries lying in the region of the neck.2207

additional pendants were hung, a plate metal torque, 2 armspirals, and the perforated cowries of the necklace.2215

1939. II.2208 Grave 3: Grave goods from a cremation burial: headdress with a rim and a long mount with a rattle attached to one end of it, 2 plate metal torques, 1 ornamented with a pendant, 2 bracelets, 2 spiral finger rings, fragments of textile with spirals drawn over the fringes, fragments of linen and straw plaits, and an additional necklace composed of tiny rings and 10 cowries.2209

1946. II. Grave 41: from a likely female burial: a wreath, composed of strung spirals stitched to it, 2 twisted and 1 plate metal torques with pendants, a double chain with buckle and 2 rattles, 2 bracelets with snake-head terminals, 8 spiral loops, 2 finger rings and remains of green beads and some perforated cowries.2216 1947. II. Grave 47: from a child’s burial: one buckle, a plate metal torque, 5 finger rings and a necklace made from tiny rings and 12 cowries.2217

1940. II. Grave 5: from a likely female burial: a lacey, twisted headdress, 2 twisted torques, 1-1 armspiral with 11 turns on each arm, 2 spiral loops, and a necklace of 10 plate metal pendants, some bronze spirals, and 10 perforated cowries.2210

1948. II. Grave 56: from a likely female burial: 2 buckles, a wreath made from spirals with a pendant on a 4-rowed chain, 1 twisted and 2 plate metal torques, 1-1 armspiral with 11 turns on each arm, textile fragments and remains of blond hair, and a necklace composed of green glass beads and 10–12 perforated cowries.2218

1941. II. Grave 7: from a likely female burial: a spiral wreath, 3 twisted and 1 plate metal torques, the latter with pendants, a small chain made of 6 linked rows and 3 rattles, a small chain with a buckle and a rattle, an additional chain with a buckle and comb-shaped pendant, 1-1 armspiral with 12 turns on each arm, a pair of bracelets with snakehead terminals, 4 spiral loops, a copper awl suspended from a small chain, a spindle whorl, fragments of wool and linen, a small piece of coal, dark blond hair, and in the neck region a necklace made from perforated cowries alternating with small boat-shaped bone beads.2211

1949. II. Grave 60: from a likely female burial: 1 plain and 1 twisted buckle, a large and a small headdress decorated with rim and bunches, 2 plate metal torque, one of which had a pendant, 3 small ring-beads, and in addition 10 cowries in the neck region.2219 1950. II. Grave 62: grave goods from an adult burial:2220 an arrowhead, a small axe, a knife, 3 twisted buckles, a lacey headdress ornamented with small spirals and textile, plate metal pendants, with plaits of spirals ending in plate metal pendants, 3 plate metal torques, 1 armspiral with 11 turns, a pair of armlets with snake-head terminals, 5 loops with plate metal pendants, and an additional necklace composed of spirals strung in 3 rows, and some cowries.2221

1942. II. Grave 13: from a likely female burial: a wreath covered with birch bark, and with 5 rows of spirals and 10 binds, 2 twisted torques, a complex necklace with pendant, 1 armspiral, 2 spiral loops, some additional spiral ornaments, and in the neck region an additional necklace, composed of spirals, small rings and perforated cowries.2212

1951. II. Grave 63: from a likely female burial: a twisted buckle, a lacey headdress composed of spirals drawn on plaits, the same type of headdress with three branches of plaits ending in plate metal pendants, a fur collar, a chain with a neck-band, 3 twisted and 1 plate metal torques with pendants, 1-1 armspiral with 13 turns on each arm, a pair of bracelets with snake-head terminals, 8 finger rings, a copper awl, an iron awl where the hilt was covered with copper rings, textile remains with spiral fringes, one of the fringes had a twisted buckle at the end, other textile fragments and remains of blond hair, and in the neck region, a necklace made from cowries.2222

1943. II. Grave 17: from a likely female burial: a buckle, 2 axes, a pair of narrow bracelets with snake-head terminals, 2 spiral loops, and in the necklace 17 beads from copper plate and 9 cowries.2213 1944. II. Grave 22: from a likely female burial: buckle, a twisted torque, a small, double chain with rattles, 2 armlets (?), and a necklace composed of 20 strung cowries.2214 1945. II. Grave 33: from a likely female cremation burial: fragments of both a large and small headdress with rim including 22 plate metal pendants, on one of which 3 2207

1952. II. Grave 67: from a likely female burial: a wreath composed of spirals stitched on strands, 2 twisted torques,

2208

2215

Spicyn (1893) P. 6. The second excavation of E. P. Romanov (July 1891.): II. Graves 1–121. 2209 Spicyn (1893) P. 7–8. 2210 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 6. 2211 Spicyn (1893) P. 8. 2212 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 8. 2213 Spicyn (1893) 26. The description of grave goods makes no mention of the necklace, see ibid. P. 9. 2214 Spicyn (1893) P. 9.

Spicyn (1893) P. 10. Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 11. 2217 Spicyn (1893) P. 11. 2218 Spicyn (1893) 26 (12 pieces), P. 12 (10 pieces). 2219 Spicyn (1893) 27, P. 12. 2220 The director of the excavation also noted that male and female type objects are interestingly mixed in the graves: Spicyn (1893) P. 12. 2221 Spicyn (1893) P. 12. 2222 Spicyn (1893) P. 13. 2216

387

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1960. III. Grave 18: from a likely female burial: a twisted buckle, 5 small buckles, a small and a large headdresses with a rim, the first one is ornamented with 1 solid, twisted and 3 plate metal torques, 1-1 small armspiral on each arm, and some loops, the other headdress is adorned with pendants, a cap-shaped pendant, an awl strung on a chain, a fragment of textile with spirals, and in the neck region, some cowries.2232

a small chain with neck-band, a rattle and a small bone bead together with a pendant, additionally, in the neck region, a necklace comprised of 1-2 claws and perforated cowries.2223 1953. II. Grave 75: from a likely female burial: lacey headdress, 1-1 armspiral with 11 turns on each arm, 4 rings, and a necklace of 2 freshwater molluscs and 19 cowries.2224

1961. III. Grave 25: from a likely female burial: 2 headdresses with a rim, fragment of a veil tailored textile with rows of spirals, 2 plate metal torques, 1-1 armspiral on each arm, 4 finger rings, a chain, and in the neck region, more cowries.2233

1954. II. Grave 89: from a child’s burial: a belt buckle, 2 armlets on each arm, 4 finger rings and a necklace composed of 8 rattles, which were suspended partly from spiral pendants, and partly on plate metal handles, 5 cap-shaped pendants from which 5 pairs of 5 plate metal pendants were hung, and some perforated cowries as well.2225

1962. III. Grave 32: from a child burial: a wreath composed of 3 row of spirals, a plate metal torque, a pair of spiral bracelets, 4 small loops, and around the neck, some cowries as well.2234

1955. II. Grave 95: from a likely female burial: 3 rattles, 3 plate metal pendants, a few spirals, 2 crosses and unclear number of cowries.2226

1963. III. Grave 38: from a likely female burial: a twisted buckle, 3 headdresses with a rim, ornamented with a row of spiral bunches, which end in cap-shaped plate metal pendants, 2 plain, 1-1 twisted and plate metal torques, a multi-plaited necklace, 1-1 armspiral on each arm, 5 finger rings, fragments of copper objects, moreover, a necklace comprised of small rings and cowries.2235

1956. II. Grave 109: from a likely female burial: a harpoon, fragments of a ringed mount with a buckle, a knife in its sheath, a buckle, a mount, and suspension loop from a belt, a twisted buckle, a grape bunch motif, a headdress rimmed with rattles, 4 finger rings, fragments of textile, and a necklace composed of 15 perforated cowries.2227

1964. III. Grave 5: from a likely female burial: 7 buckles, a large and a small headdresses with rim, the first one with bunch ornaments, 2 solid torques, 3 plate metal torques, a necklace made from broad chains, 2 duck-shaped pendants with additional pendants, bracelets, one of which has pendants, an awl on a small chain, a face-cloth, and a necklace of large, flattened rings and considerable number of cowries.2236

1957. II. Grave 121: from a likely female burial: a twisted buckle, a small and a large headdresses with rim, 1 twisted and 1 plate metal torques, 2 spiral loops, moreover, a necklace made from small spirals and 10–13 cowries.2228 1958. III.2229 Grave 1: from a likely female burial: a starshaped buckle, a wreath comprised of 3 rows of spirals, and covered with birch bark, a needle-shaped pendant, 9 rattles, a comb-shaped small chain with a pendant, an awl. In addition in the neck region there was a necklace, comprised of copper rings, small bronze finger rings, 7 bronze rattles, and some cowries.2230

1965. III. Grave 69: from a likely female burial: a large and a small headdresses with rim, 2 torques, black hair, and fragments of rough textile, and, in the neck region, some cowries.2237

1959. III. Grave 16: from a likely female burial: a belt buckle, a wreath of spirals, with a chain decorated by a comb-pendant, and stitched on a strap, 3 twisted torques, a pair of bracelets with snake-head terminals, 5 finger rings, a narrow awl, a spindle whorl, and a necklace made from some perforated cowries.2231 2223 2224

14.

1966. III. Grave 75: from a likely female burial: 2 buckles, a wreath, a small headdress with rim, and a necklace made from large chains, 3 torques, 1-1 armspiral on each arm, some finger rings, fragment of a fringed textile with spirals, and also some cowries.2238 1967. III. Grave 103: from a likely female burial: belt buckle, an additional buckle, a small headdress with rim, a broken, wired torque, a pair of bracelets, bits of black hair,

Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 130. “...na šee ožerel’e iz 21 rakovin (iz nih 2 rečnyja)”: Spicyn (1893) P.

Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 15. Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 15. 2227 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 16. 2228 Spicyn (1893) 26 (10 cowries ), P. 17 (13 shells). 2229 The third excavation by E. P. Romanov (17th–30th September, 1891.): III. Graves 1–132. 2230 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 17. 2231 Spicyn (1893) P. 19. 2225

Spicyn (1893) P. 19. Spicyn (1893) P. 20. 2234 Spicyn (1893) P. 20. 2235 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 21. 2236 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 22. 2237 Spicyn (1893) P. 23. 2238 Spicyn (1893) P. 24. 2232

2226

2233

388

Catalogue and a necklace, made from small bronze rings, spirals and some cowries.2239

1979. Grave X: a buckle, 3 spiral loops, and fragments of cowries.2252

1968. III. Grave 108: from a likely female burial: a buckle, a wreath composed of spirals, a reticulated spiral band, 3 twisted torques, 2 bracelets, moreover, in the neck region, some cowries.2240

1980. Grave XIV: 2 headdresses with a rim, one of them with spirals, plate metal torque, small chains, a spiral ring, fragments of textile and hair, and fragmentary cowries.2253 1981. Grave XX: a buckle, a large and 2 small headdresses with rim including 7 plate metal pendants on the end of the first headdress. There are 3 plate metal torques, one with pendants, a necklace of large laced-chains with a neckband, a twisted torque, 2 armspirals, a copper awl hanging from a small chain, textile fragments with spiral fringes, 5 loops, and 5 cowries.2254

1969. III. Grave 110: from the child burial: small armspirals, an iron loop, and some cowries.2241 1970. III. Grave 111: from the child burial: small bracelets, a buckle, and cowries.2242 1971. III. Grave 112: from a likely female burial: a plate metal torque, armspirals, finger rings, and in the neck region, cowries.2243

1982. Grave XXII: 1 large and 3 small buckles, the lower hem of the garment had fringes, 12 loops, an iron awl strung on small chain, and some cowries.2255

1972. III. Grave 113: from a cremation burial: an axe, a twisted bracelet, cowries (?).2244

1983. Grave XXIII: 1 large and 2 small headdresses with a rim, the larger with plaits, and 4 cowries.2256

1973. III. Grave 115: from a child burial: a thickly fringed, large headdress with a rim, a twisted torque, armspirals, finger rings, and a necklace, composed of small rings, plate metal pendants and cowries.2245

1984. Grave XXVI: 1 large and 3 small buckles, a small headdress with rim and a plait of plate metal pendants, 1 twisted and 2 plate metal torques, 2 small armspirals, small finger rings, 2 loops, a small chain with pendants, an awl (?), and some cowries.2257

1974. III. Grave 117: from a likely female burial: an axe, a buckle, fringes, made from strung spirals on a linen textile, 2 twisted torques, bracelets, blond hair, and a necklace, composed of a dog-shaped pendant with a pair of rattles, and some cowries.2246

1985. Grave XXIX: a buckle, a large headdress with a rim, a wreath comprised of 5 rows of spirals, 1 twisted and 2 plate metal torques, one of the latter with pendants, 2 armspirals, a bracelet, 2 loops, one of them with plate metal pendants, and some cowries.2258

1975. III. Grave 122: from a cremation burial: 3 buckles, a large and a small headdresses with rim. The plaiting of the rim ends in 38 plate metal pendants. In addition there were armspirals, 3 rings and some cowries.2247

1986. Madona (= Madonskij mogil’nik; Madonas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries discovered in the graves of the cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries (see 1428), among burials dated between the 11th–13th centuries.2259

1976. Grave II:2248 a plate metal torque, fragment of a strap with bronze plaques, and as 5 cowries.2249

Madonskij mogil’nik – see 1986. Madona

1977. Grave V: a buckle, a wreath made of spirals, a plate metal torque with a pendant, 2 armspirals, small rings, other loops, and 12 cowries.2250

1987. Makašānu Greivuļi: from 1–25 cowries were found in a cemetery of the 11th –13th centuries.2260

1978. Grave VIII: spirals of various sizes, 2 plate metal bracelets, one of them with pendants, 2 loops and, 8 cowries.2251

1988. Makašānu Makārovka: more than 100 cowries were unearthed in a cemetery of the 11th –13th centuries.2261 Marienhausen (Gouvernement Witebsk) – see 1929. Logini

Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 25. Spicyn (1893) P. 26. 2241 Spicyn (1893) P. 26. 2242 Spicyn (1893) P. 26. 2243 Spicyn (1893) P. 26. 2244 Spicyn (1893) 26 (included in the list of burials in which cowries were found), P. 26 (they were not on the list). 2245 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 26. 2246 Spicyn (1893) 26, P. 26. 2247 Spicyn (1893) P. 27. 2248 The excavation of Vladimir Iljič Sizov (July 1891.): Graves I–XLV. 2249 Spicyn (1893) P. 30. 2250 Spicyn (1893) P. 30. 2251 Spicyn (1893) P. 30. 2239 2240

Spicyn (1893) P. 30. Spicyn (1893) P. 30. 2254 Spicyn (1893) P. 31. 2255 Spicyn (1893) P. 31. 2256 Spicyn (1893) P. 31. 2257 Spicyn (1893) P. 31. 2258 Spicyn (1893) P. 31. 2259 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 110. 2260 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 82. 2261 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 93. 2252 2253

389

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 1989. Mārkalne (Aluksnes Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2262 Maskavasciemse Maskavasciems

v

Viški

–

see

2070.

arrangement.2272 According to the preliminary report2273 6 were dated to the 10th century: namely Graves 9–10, 13, 15, 92 and 188, 3 dated to around 1000: Graves 33, 98, and 178, 13 dated to the 11th century: Graves 2, 3?, 26–27, 37, 52, 66, 68–69, 71, 141, 150 and 156, 2 dated to the 12th century: Graves 124 and 204, in two cases there were no precise dates: Graves 11 and 117.2274

Višķu

1990. Matkules Tojāti (Tukuma Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2263

1998. Grave 2: from the burial of a 40–45 year old woman, dated to the 11th century: a cape, a wreath made of 5 rows of small spiral cylinders and connecting plaques, a headdress with 2 rows of small spiral cylinders, 2 twisted torques, 1 ridged torque, 1 torque with pendants, a pectoral ornament with 4 small chains hung from a neck plaque, a small, bronze shepherd’s crook strung on a chain, a spiral ring, and on the small necklace, 2 perforated Money cowries.2275

1991. Mērdzenes Čenčeva (Ludzas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the 11th–13th centuries graves of a cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries (see 1430).2264 1992. Mērdzenes Dzērves (Ludzas Rajons): more than 100 cowries were found in the 11th–13th centuries graves of a Letgal cemetery of the 7th–13th centuries (see 1431– 32).2265

1999. Grave 3: from a likely female burial dating from the 11th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes on a surrounding edge, a plate metal bezelled spiral finger ring, a twisted wire finger ring, and 1 Money cowrie.2276

Grave 14: female burial of the 11th–12th centuries, in which jewelry, including a necklace and a pectoral ornament, were supplemented by small chains composed of cowries.2266

2000. Grave 9: A mass of unburnt finds from a female cremation burial dated to the 10th century: small spiral tubes from a plaited wreath, 2 torques, 2 spiral bracelets, on the latter ones 2 sets of spiral rings on each, fragments of textile, and a necklace of 13 cowries, all with open 2277 dorsi.

1993. Mētriena (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2267 1994. Mežotnes pilskalns (Bauskas Rajons): 12 cowries were unearthed at a fortified Zemgal settlement (pilskalns/ gorodišče) dated to the 11th–13th centuries.2268

2001. Grave 10: from the burial of a 40 year old woman, dated to the 10th century: spiral tubes and plate metal strips on the surrounding edge, a double, plaited wreath made from small, wide tubes, and small grooved plate metal cylinders. “Plaits” were attached to their backside made from narrow hanging spiral tubes, which split into 3, and then into 6 thinner branches with 2 sets of 2 rattles on the ends, a narrow, double-plaited necklace with 2 iron-rod pendants wound around by strands of bronze, a spiral bracelet, and in addition, in the neck region, 2 twisted and 1 ridged torques, and an additional necklace of 29 Money cowries with open dorsi, placed exceptionally in horizontal position.2278 Finally, 1 Money cowrie was found within the chest cavity.2279 The strand of cowries were most probably stitched around the neck edge of the garment (Fig. 169).2280

1995. Mežotnes Kugrēni (Bauskas Rajons): from 1–100 cowries were found in a Zemgal cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2269 1996. Nirzas Bullīši (Ludzas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were discovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2270 1997. Nītaures Annasmuiža (Cesu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in a cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2271 Nukšinskij mogil’nik – see 1998–2023. Nukšu kapulauks 1998–2023. Nukšu kapulauks (= Nukšinskij mogil’nik; Ludzas Rajons): necklaces of Money cowries were found in 26 of 78 female graves from the Letgal cemetery, dated to the 9th–12th centuries. Usually, they were strung in a vertical position, only in one case (2001) was a horizontal

Nukšinskij (1957) 36. Mugurevič (1962) 38, 41, 44, 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 90. 2274 According to the plates by Nukšinskij (1957) 56–66. 2275 Nukšinskij (1957) 32, 49, 52–53, 56, 67, 117: pl. XIV: 4 (at the bottom, left). 2276 Nukšinskij (1957) 56, 67. 2277 Nukšinskij (1957) 56, 68, 120: pl. XVII: 2; Mugurevič (1962) 41. 2278 Nukšinskij (1957) 118: pl. XV: 1; Mugurevič (1962) 48. “V nukšinskom mogil’nike, gde ožerel’ja iz rakoviny kauri otmečeny praktičeski v každom ženskom pogrebenii, zafiksirovan tol’ko odin slučaj takogo položenija rakovin [Nukšinskij (1957) 36.].”: Makarov-Zajceva (1999) 175; see 2116. 2279 Nukšinskij (1957) 49, 52–53, 56, 68; Mugurevič (1962) 39, 41. 2280 Nukšinskij (1957) 130: pl. XXVII: 1. 2272 2273

Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 47. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 54. 2264 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 64. 2265 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 63. 2266 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2267 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 10. 2268 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 117. 2269 Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nr. 154. 2270 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 66. 2271 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 29. 2262 2263

390

Catalogue

Fig. 169. 29 Money cowries with removed dorsum among the finds (2) of a woman’s burial Grave 10 (1) at Nukšu kapulauks (2001) – after Nukšinskij (1957) 130: pl. XXVII: 1, 118: pl. XV:1

2002. Grave 11: from the burial of a girl, the date is unspecified: plate metal rings and spiral tubes placed on the deceased on the surrounding edge, 3 spiral rings, and near the skull, some intact and fragmentary Money cowries, on the chest 2 other Money cowries, and on the vertebral column 6 additional Money cowries.2281

2005. Grave 26: from the burial of a 14–15 year old girl dated to the 11th century: plate metal rings and spiral tubes of the surrounding edge that was placed on the deceased, a wreath, plaited from 2 rows of small grooved cylinders, on its backside a “plait clasp” of small, narrow spiral tubes was hung. This ends in 3, 4, and 6 narrow branches with 2 pairs of 2 trapezoid plate metal pendants on its terminals, ridged horse-shoe brooch, 3 ridged wire torques with pendants, 2 spiral bracelets, 5 spiral rings, and in addition, about 50 Money cowries were unearthed, all with removed dorsi below the upper row of the surrounding edge’s spiral tubes, on the chin and on both its sides.2284

2003. Grave 13: from a female burial dated to the 10th century: a surrounding edge, plate metal rings and spiral tubes, ridged horse-shoe brooch, a torque, 4 spiral rings on which trapezoid pendants were fixed, and 14 Money cowries were identified on the necklace.2282 2004. Grave 15: from a girl’s burial dated to the 10th century: 2 wire bracelets, a twisted bracelet made from a broken torque, 2 spiral rings, and on the neck, a torque was found, beneath which a spiral ring and 2 Money cowries were uncovered, interpreted as the remnants of another necklace.2283

2006. Grave 27: from the burial of a girl, dated to the 11th century: a torque with a dense series of plate metal pendants, a wire bracelet, small spiral tubes, 2 spiral rings, and 2 Money cowries near the skull.2285 2007. Grave 33: from an approximately 60 year old woman’s burial, dated to around the year 1000: plate metal

Nukšinskij (1957) 56. Nukšinskij (1957) 56, 69; Mugurevič (1962) 41. 2283 Nukšinskij (1957) 56, 69; Mugurevič (1962) 41. 2281 2282

2284 2285

391

Nukšinskij (1957) 49, 52–53, 57, 70–71, 117: pl. XIV: 1. Nukšinskij (1957) 57, 71.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2013. Grave 71: from a female burial that was disturbed by ploughing, dated to the 11th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes from the surrounding edge placed on the deceased, a wreath with a band altered with small strips, additional small spiral tubes and, 3 torques. Holes for a row of pendants can be seen on one of the torque. In addition there are 2 spiral bracelets, and in the neck region, 4–5 fragmentary Money cowries.2292

rings and spiral tubes on the surrounding edge held closed by a horse-shoe brooch, small spiral tube ornaments hung from the lower hemline of the skirt, a double wreath braided from small grooved cylinders and thick cylinders, this later item terminates in 4 small tubes-shaped into a cruciform In addition, a narrow double-plaited torque, with an iron rod pendant twisted by bronze wire strands, 2 spiral bracelets, 4 spiral rings, and near to the torque in the neck region, more fragmentary Money cowries.2286

2014. Grave 92: from a slightly ploughed-over grave of a girl, dated to the 10th century: horse-shoe brooch, plate metal bracelet, 3 spiral rings, and around the neck a ridged torque, and 7 Money cowries.2293

2008. Grave 37: from an approximately 70 years old woman’s burial, dated to the 11th century: rings and strips of the surrounding edge that was rolled up in two and placed on the deceased, pin of the horse-shoe brooch, a wreath with five-rows of ribbon altered with small plaques, 2 ridged wire and 1 twisted torques, 1 torque with pendants, 2 spiral and 2 plate metal bracelets, 5 spiral rings, and under the torque, 9 Money cowries were uncovered.2287

2015. Grave 98: from a slightly ploughed-over grave of a girl, dated from around the year 1000: a horse-shoe brooch, 2 torques, one of which had a pendant, 2 small thick spiral tubes, 4 tiny spiral rings, and around the neck 19 Money cowries.2294

2009. Grave 52: from a female burial, dated to the 11th century: stripes and rows of small spiral tubes on the surrounding edge rolled up into two sections and placed on the deceased, 5 horse-shoe brooches, a double-plaited wreath made out of from small grooved cylinders ending in small spiral tubes, 2 ridged torques, a chain from the pectoral ornament comprised of tiny spirals, 2 iron pins on which a crook is shaped and rolled with bronze wire, 2 spiral bracelets, 3 spiral rings, and a row of 16 Money cowries with open dorsi around the neck.2288

2016. Grave 117: remains from a severely ploughed-over female burial, undatable: 3 plate metal rings, a small spiral tube, a spiral ring and 1 Money cowrie.2295 2017. Grave 124: from a female burial of the 12th century: remains of the surrounding edge, a double plaited wreath, composed of small, grooved, flattened cylinders on its “plait clasp” trapezoid plate metal pendants, a forehead ornament from 4 rows of small spiral tubes that were stitched onto a strap, terminating in a grooved plate metal cylinder at each end, 3 torques, 1 of them with a pendant, 2 spiral bracelets, 2 spiral rings, and around the neck 13 Money cowries.2296

2010. Grave 66: from an approximately 35 years old female burial, dated to the 11th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes on the surrounding edge that was placed on the deceased, 1 iron and 1 bronze horse-shoe brooches, an iron pin, 1 twisted and 1 ridged cuff torques and 1 torque with pendants, 2 wire bracelets with snake-head terminals, a twisted ring, 3 spiral rings. Some 7 Money cowries were discovered in the neck region, near to the torque.2289

2018. Grave 141: from a female burial, dated to the 11th century: a wreath with a band with inserted small plaques, a torque broken into three pieces, a spiral ring, plate metal rings, and on the torque, 3 Money cowries strung on wool thread.2297

2011. Grave 68: from a female burial from the 11th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes from the surrounding edge, a horse-shoe brooch, a double wreath plaited from grooved cylinders, 2 torques with pendants, and in addition, 1 Money cowrie.2290

2019. Grave 150: from a female burial, dated to the 11th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes from the surrounding edge that was placed on the deceased, 2 ridged horse-shoe brooches, one of which had a double-laced small chain, a double wreath, plaited from small, thick spiral tubes and grooved flattened cylinders. At the end of their “plait clasps’” were spiral tubes, trapezoid plate metal pendants, 3 torques, 2 spiral bracelets, 6 spiral rings, a spiral ring and 1 Money cowrie by the right temple, and 27 Money cowries were found around the neck,.2298

2012. Grave 69: from a 11th century female burial: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes from the surrounding edge that was rolled up into two sections and placed on the deceased, a wreath with a band and inserted small plaques from which hung a comb-shaped pendant. In addition there are 4 torques with pendants, 2 spiral bracelets, 2 spiral rings, and near to the torque, altogether 14 Money cowries were unearthed.2291

Nukšinskij (1957) 59, 77. Nukšinskij (1957) 60, 80. Cited incorrectly as Grave 12: Mugurevič (1962) 41. 2294 Nukšinskij (1957) 60, 81. 2295 Nukšinskij (1957) 61, 82. 2296 Nukšinskij (1957) 61, 83. 2297 Nukšinskij (1957) 62, 85–86. 2298 Nukšinskij (1957) 63, 86–87. 2292 2293

Nukšinskij (1957) 49, 52–53, 57, 71–72. Nukšinskij (1957) 49, 52–53, 57, 72. 2288 Nukšinskij (1957) 58, 74, 118: pl. XV: 2. 2289 Nukšinskij (1957) 49, 52–53, 59, 76. 2290 Nukšinskij (1957) 59, 76. 2291 Nukšinskij (1957) 59, 76–77. 2286 2287

392

Catalogue 2020. Grave 156: from a female burial, dated to the 11th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes of the surrounding edge that was placed on the deceased, horseshoe brooch, 6 small rattles, with trapezoid pendants on their terminals, a wreath made of thick spiral tubes and grooved cylinders, and its “plait clasp”, and in addition, a necklace with pendant, a 3-rowed small chain of the pectoral ornament that was fixed to the halter neckline, an iron pin rolled with bronze wire, 2 spiral bracelets, 2 spiral rings, a grooved metal plate ring, and around the neck 6 Money cowries with removed dorsi.2299

cowries were discovered in the cemetery dated to the 11th–13th centuries.2305 2027. Plāņi: from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11–13th centuries.2306 2028. Pļaviņu Grīvas: from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery ofthe 11th–13th centuries.2307 2029. Pļaviņu Letgali (Aizkraukles Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the Letgal cemetery of the 12th–13th centuries.2308

2021. Grave 178: from a female burial, dated to around the year 1000: small spiral tubes of the surrounding edge, 2 horse-shoe brooches (one of them is ridged), a wreath, made of small, thick tubes, having a trapezoid “plait clasps” with a pendant, 2 torques, one of which had pendants, 2 spiral torques, 2 spiral bracelets, 3 spiral rings, and around the neck, 8 Money cowries.2300

2030. Priekuļu Kampi: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the Letgal cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2309 2031. Raunas Kapusils (Cesu Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2310 2032. Raunas Lejasruņģ (Cesu Rajons)i: from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2311

2022. Grave 188: remains of a ploughed-over female burial dated to the 10th century: ridged horse-shoe brooch, the small chain of a pectoral ornament, with a crook-shaped pin rolled from bronze wire, a wreath, composed of thick and thin small spiral tubes, possibly with a “plait clasp“, and perhaps the metal remains of another. In addition there were 2 torques, 4 spiral rings, and 2 Money cowries in the neck region.2301

2033. Rēznas Gerardova: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2312 2034. Rīga: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2313

2023. Grave 204: from an ploughed-over female burial, perhaps of the 12th century: plate metal rings and small spiral tubes from the surrounding edge, a wreath from 5 rows of bands, with inserted small plaques, small spiral tubes and 3 torques: 1 twisted, 2 ridged and one of them with trapezoid plate metal pendants, a small, 6-rowed pectoral ornament placed on the halter neckline, 2 spiral bracelets, and around the neck 3 Money cowries.2302

2035. Sabile (Tarsu Rajons, Kurzeme): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in a Kurš cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries. Presumably there are some stray finds among the listed cowries.2314 2036. Saikava (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2315

Oglenieki – see 1890. Daugavas Oglenieki

2037. Sakstagala Aizezeri (Rezeknes Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2316

2024. Pildas Bradaiži (Ludzas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2303

2038–41. Salaspils Laukskola (Rigas Rajons): some 610 graves came to light from the Livonian (Baltic Finnish) cemetery of the 10th–13th centuries:2317

Odukalns, gor. Ludza – see 1932–85. Ludzas Odukalns

2025. Pildas Juzefīnova (Ludzas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2304

Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 91. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 96. 2307 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 32. 2308 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 30. 2309 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 21. 2310 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 24. 2311 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 17. 2312 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 73. 2313 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 143. 2314 The stray finds of cowries are mentioned in the same paragraph with the finds dated to the 11th–12/13th centuries: Mugurevič (1962) 42; see ibid. 44. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 130. 2315 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 114. 2316 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 84. 2317 Johansson (1995) 349; Zariņa (1992) 173. 2305 2306

2026. Pildas Silavasciems (Ludzas Rajons): from 1–25

Nukšinskij (1957) 63, 87, 118: pl. XV: 3. Nukšinskij (1957) 64, 90. 2301 Nukšinskij (1957) 65, 91; Mugurevič (1962) 41. 2302 Nukšinskij (1957) 65, 93. 2303 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 67. 2304 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 68. 2299 2300

393

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2038. Grave 94: 2 oval ornamental buckles, 1 small chain and 1 strand of beads, hanging pendants and rattles, and 2 pendants placed in a strand of beads, 2 plaited torques, and 30 Money cowries, and 1 large cowrie pendant (Fig. 170).2318 2039. Grave 120: among neck ornaments a strand of beads with 17 cowries identified in it.2319 2040. Grave 480: 2 torques, a pectoral ornament consisting of 2 brooches and 6 rows of tiny chains on which 4 animalshaped pendants hung, 3 keys, an amber pendant and a bear canine amulet was fixed, and a necklace made from beads and cowries was discovered.2320 2041. Grave 590: 1 large (Fallow?) cowrie pendant, lenght: 5.8 cm.2321 2042. Salaspils Rēznes (Rigas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in this cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2322 2043. Sārumkalns: 4 cowries were discovered in the settlement of the 11th–13th centuries.2323 Fig. 170. Large cowrie pendant and 30 pierced Money cowries among the finds of Grave 94 at Salaspils Laukskola (2038) – after Zariņa (1992a) 294: fig. 250

2044. Seces Salasanči (Aizkraukles Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2324

2050. Skaistas Stirnas (Kraslavas Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2330

2045. Sēlpils (Jekabpils Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2325 2046. Sēlpils Lejasdopeles (Jekabpils Rajons): more than 100 cowries were uncovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2326

2051. Šķilbēnu Daņīlovka: more than 100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2331 2052. Šķilbēnu Logini (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2332

2047. Sesava: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2327 2048. Sikšņi (Aluksnes Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2328

Skriveri – see 1866. Aizkraukle 2053. Skrīveru Lielrutuļi: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in this Livonian (Baltic Finnish) cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries, perhaps from the following burial:

2049. Sinoles Vigubi (Gulbenes Rajons): from 1–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2329 Johansson (1995) 349. The finds, apart from the cowries, were enumerated after: Thunmark-Nylén (1992) 110: fig. 3. According to this picture, the length of the large cowrie is double that of the usual Money cowries, however, it is unlikely that it is the size of as a Tiger cowrie. – Zariņa (1992a) 294–95: nr. 250, 294: fig. 250. 2319 Latvijas (1974) 195, 197: fig. 118; Johansson (1995) 349. – Zariņa (1992a) 294: nr. 249, fig. 249. 2320 Finno-ugry (1987) 28; Johansson (1995) 349. 2321 Johansson (1995) 349. 2322 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 33. 2323 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 22. 2324 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 134. 2325 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 121. 2326 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 56. 2327 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 122. 2328 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 97. 2329 Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nr. 153. 2318

Grave 2: 1 cowrie is mentioned.2333 2054. Skrudalienas Vitanišķi (Daugavspils Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2334 2055. Talsu pilskalns (Talsu Rajons): 16 cowries were Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 87. Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 136. 2332 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 86. 2333 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 148. 2334 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 126. 2330 2331

394

Catalogue unearthed in the fortified settlement (pilskalns/gorodišče) of the 11th–13th centuries.2335

2067. Vilkmuižas ezers/ozero: from 1–25 cowries were found at the site named after this lake, dated to the 11th–13th centuries.2347

2056. Taurenes Lazdini/Nekene (Nesu Rajons): from 1–25 or 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2336

2068. Vīpes Skudrāji (Jekabpils Rajons): more than 100 cowries were recovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2348

2057. Tērvetes piskalns: 35 cowries were discovered in the fortified settlement (gorodišče) of the 11th–13th centuries.2337

2069. Virbu Zunnas (Talsu Rajons; Kurzeme): from 1–25 cowries, partly as stray finds, were discovered in the Kurš cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2349

2058. Tilžas Ruskulova (Balvu Rajons): from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2338

Grave ?: altogether, 15 perforated cowries, most likely Money cowries, were fixed on a thin torque double-hooked terminals, with a small suspension loop at both ends in one of the graves; 2 additional cowries were probably lost, since only the small loop was found on the torque.2350

2059. Tirza (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2339 2060. Trepe: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2340

2070. Višķu Maskavasciems: from 25–100 cowries were discovered in the 11th–13th century graves of the Letgal cemetery, dated broadly to the 7th–13th centuries (see 1436–42).2351

2061. Trikāta (Valkas Rajons): from 1–100 (?) cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2341

2071. Višķu Putānuciems: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2352

2062. Turaida (Rigas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2342

2072. Višķu Špoguciems: from 25–100 cowries were uncovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2353

2063. Turaidas Pūteļi (Rigas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2343

2073. Višķu Vecstupelišķi: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2354

2064. Ul. Kapu-gorodišče Rēzekne: from 1–25 cowries came to light among the finds from a fortified settlement of the 11th–13th centuries.2344

2074. Zeltini (Rezeknes Rajons): more than 100 cowries were found in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2355

2065. Varakļānu Šķeļu kapi (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries.2345

Zunnas – see 2069. Virbu Zunnas

2066. Vecgulbene: from 1–25 cowries were discovered in the graves of the 11th–13th centuries, from a cemetery, broadly dated to the 11th–18th centuries. (see 2226).2346

2075. Papilë (Akmenės rajonas, Šiaulių apskritis.): a strand of 24 cowries were unearthed in this cemetery broadly dated to the 9th–13th centuries.

Viļaka – see 1929. Logini

Aušra Museum, Šiauliai, acc. nr.: 202:23

2075–78. Lithuania2356

Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 118. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 25. 2337 Mugurevič (1962) 41, 45, 44. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 119. 2338 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 60. 2339 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 12. 2340 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 140. 2341 It is possible that, in fact, there are two sites, since the map has two marks on it, or 1 unnumbered mark. One of them refers to 25–100 cowries, while the other mentions that 1–25 cowries were discovered: Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 48; see also: Mugurevič (1965) 57: fig. 25: nr. 48 (there are 2 marks that refer to 1–100 cowries from the 11th–13th centuries). 2342 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 38. 2343 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 39. 2344 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 92. 2345 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 95. 2346 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 11.. 2335

Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 51 (ozero Vilkumujžas, gor. Talsy). 2348 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 75. 2349 About the stray cowrie finds that are mentioned together with other finds from the 11th–12th/13th centuries: Mugurevič (1962) 42; see ibid. 45. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 132. 2350 Mugurevič (1962) 47: fig. 7. 2351 Mugurevič (1962) 38, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 77. 2352 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 78. 2353 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 76. 2354 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 88. 2355 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 49. 2356 The citation for all information mentioned here: Kuncienë (1972) 182: without identification or illustration of any of the shells. My grateful thanks to Vytautas Kazakevičius for the translation of the relevant section.

2336

2347

395

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2076. Pušalotas (Pasvalio rajonas, Panevežio apskritis): a cowrie is mentioned as stray find among the material from the cemetery, broadly dated to the 9th–13th centuries.

małopolskie): 48 graves from the part of a cemetery dated to the late 10th (?)–11th centuries:2360 2082. Grave 50: from an adult female burial: a rod-shaped glass bead of three members, and 2 perforated cowries, most likely Money cowries, lenght: appr. 1.4, and 1.9 cm.2361

2077. Pyragiai (Kupiškio rajonas, Telšių apskritis): a cowrie, preserved together with bronze pendants and spirals, is mentioned as a stray find, broadly dated to the 9th–13th centuries.

2083. Grave 57: from an adult female burial: a silver plait clasp, 1 narrow and 2 S-terminated lockrings made from a wide wire, and a strand of beads: 1 quartz bead, 5 amber beads, 12 glass beads, and 3 perforated cowries. The edges of the holes in the cowries were broken. All the specimens were possibly Money cowries, lenght: appr. 1.1–1.5 cm.2362

Historical Museum, Kaunas, acc. nr.: 1203:8. 2078. Unknown provenance (Telšių apskritis): a cowrie is mentioned as stray find of the 9th–13th centuries. Telšiai museum, acc. nr.: 140. 2079. Macedonia

2084. Grave 78: from a mature female grave: iron hoops, handles and holder for a wooden buckle, and a strand of beads: 10 glass, 2-2 large, cylindrical, spherical beads, 6 small oculus beads, and 1 large, perforated cowrie, which might be a Money cowrie, lenght: appr. 2.2 cm.2363

2079. Demir Kapija (opština Negotino)-Markova Kule: grave goods from a Slavic burial from the 10th century: bronze ball button, 2 bracelets from bronze plate, a hollow bracelet from bronze plate, a bronze ring, and a strand of beads, on which a possibly perforated Money cowrie can be seen; it is not discussed by the publication, but it is identifiable.2357

2085. Wolin (powiat kamieński, województwo zachodniopomorskie): 2 Money cowries were found as stray finds on this island, inhabited by Vends and dating likely from the 10th century in addition to 2 miniature bronze hatchet amulets, imported from Russia.2364

Moldova: Giurgulesti/Džurdžulešt (rajonul Cahul) Grave 6 – see Annex 2469.

2086–87. Romania

2080–85. Poland

2086. Garvăn (judeţul Tulcea)-Bisericuţa: 3 cowrie amulets (trei ghiocuri mărunte) were found at the Byzantine fortress of Dinogetia, dated to the 12th century. According to the photo, 1 of the cowries is perforated at its anterior end, lenght: appr. 2.6 cm.2365

2080. Gruczno (prev. Grutschno, Kreis Schwetz; gmina Świecie, powiat świecki, województwo kujawskopomorskie)-Burgwall: Grave 16: approximately 60 glass and glass paste beads were strung in a necklace around the neck of the deceased. The grave was excavated in 1899. In addition, nearly 60 perforated Money cowries were found.2358

Dinogetia – see 2086. Garvăn 2087. Isaccea (judeţul Tulcea)-La movilele dese: altogether 172 graves from parts of cemetery dated to the 11th–12th centuries:

Grutschno (Kreis Schwetz) – see 2080. Gruczno 2081. Opole (województwo opolskie)-Ostrówek: a perforated “Mediterranean” cowrie, used as pendant was found together with a comb made of turtle shell in layer B of an earthwork dated to the 10th–11th centuries.2359

Grave 95: from an adult, most likely female burial: stone pendant, polyhedric and globular glass and amber beads, a glass bracelet, a bronze finger ring, and at the neck, 1 perforated, presumably Money cowrie, lenght: appr. 2.1 cm.2366

2082–84. Tomice (powiat wadowicki, województwo

Pašić (1975) 158, 158/159: pl. VI, on the top, left. “Aus dem jüngsten vorgeschichtlichen Abschnitte, der arabisch– nordischen Epoche, welche der Ordenszeit unmittelbar voranging”: Conwentz (1902) 10; Schneider (1905) 116; Jackson (1917) 132; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 4; “«Cyprea monera L» i jest przedziurawiony”: Łega (1929) 332; “7... w tym jedna importowana muszla Kauri (Cypraea moneta)”: Kostrzewski (1962) 162; Eisner (1966) 465. 2359 “Muszelka Cyprea... z morza Śródziemnego”; the species of the cowrie could not be checked since it is not illustrated: Hołubowicz (1956) 253, 285, 350: note 133; Sláma (1958–59, 28: note 4.

Wachowski (1973) 19, 126–27, 126–33: figs 25–29. Wachowski (1973) 128–29, 132: fig. 28: 1. 2362 Wachowski (1973) 128–29, 132: fig. 28: 7. 2363 Wachowski (1973) 130–31, 133: fig. 29: 2. 2364 Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 4; Kostrzewski (1962) 162; Eisner (1966) 465. 2365 Barnea (1967) 325–26, 400, 289: fig. 171: 23 (assuming that the picture is drawn to a scale of 1:1!); Vasiliu (1984) 139: note 113. 2366 Vasiliu (1984) 114, 124, 532: pl. VIII (without scale or numbering), 536: pl. XII: 2 (without scale or numbering).

2357

2360

2358

2361

396

Catalogue 2088–126, (2102a, 2122a), Annex 2478–84, 2487, 2496, 2504. Russia2367

each one, with 2 sets of 2 beads were strung on them. In addition, on there was a dispersed strand of beads on the chest: 7 different glass beads, among them 1 oculus bead and 1 Money cowrie perforated with a round opening at its anterior end, lenght: 1.5 cm.2374

2088–97. Belaja Veža (Volgogradskaja oblast’): the Kazar fortification of Šarkel, built in 838, and destroyed in 965. Afterwards, in the same location, a Russian fortified settlement (gorodišče) arose called Belaja Veža, which existed until 1117. Close by were 9 different cemeteries.2368 Cowries were discovered in some burials from the large kurgans (2088–95) and in the outer yard of the fortification (2096–97).2369

2092. Kurgan 17/10, Grave 210: from the burial of an approximately 1 year-old child: 2 bronze rattles, a triangular silver plaque, and in addition, a necklace from 18 different glass beads, and 1 Money cowrie with an open dorsum. The anterior end is broken, lenght: 1.1 cm.2375

2088–95. Large Kurgans: cowries were found in several burials dug into the refilled soil in 3 large kurgans (17/10, 19/1 and 24/6) out of a total of 5, located southeast of the fortification, on the southern bank of a dry branch of the Don river. The graves date from the turn of the 10th/11th centuries to the early 12th century.2370

2093. Kurgan 17/10, Grave 221: from a 40–50 year old female burial: 2 silver plait clasps, in the strands of beads, there were 16 different types of glass beads, a broken bead pendant made of a shell, and in addition, 1 Money cowrie with open dorsum, and an additional one with a large hole, lenght: 1.2 cm.2376

2088. Kurgan 17/10, Grave 49: from the burial of a 1–7 year old child: 2 silver plait clasps, and a strand of beads by the skull: 1 amber bead, 12 glass beads, among them 10 oculus beads, and 1 Money cowrie with a removed dorsum, lenght: ca. 1.6 cm (Fig. 171. 1).2371

2094. Kurgan 24/6, Grave 28: from the burial of a 6-7 year old child: in the neck region a bronze rattle, a glass paste bead, and 2 Money cowries with a tiny sawn opening at its anterior end, lenght: 1.6–1.8 cm.2377 2095. Kurgan 19/1, Grave 34: from the burial of a small child aged under 1 year of age: in the neck region, a bronze rattle strung on a necklace, cylindrical bronze pendants ornamented with a spiral motif, 5 different glass paste beads, 4 perforated Nassa sp., and 1 perforated Money cowrie, with a narrow opening at the anterior end, lenght: 1.3 cm (Fig. 172).2378

2089. Kurgan 17/10, Grave 70: from a child’s burial, below 1 year of age: 2 oculus beads, moreover, 10 perforated Money cowries, and with a narrow sewn opening at their anterior extremities were dispersed around the skull, lenght: approximately 1.2–1.6 cm (Fig. 171. 2).2372 2090. Kurgan 17/10, Grave 128: burial of a girl aged 15 and a mature woman; grave goods of the latter skeleton: blue glass bracelet and a strand of beads: 1 wedge-shaped amber pendant, 2 biconical and 6 barrel-shaped glass paste beads and 1 perforated Money cowrie with an oval opening at the anterior end, lenght: approximately 2 cm.2373

2096–97. The outer yard south of the fortress (dvor gorodišča): 12 graves from a cemetery: 2096. Grave 6: from the burial of a 5–6 years old child: a thin bronze plait clasp, a strand of beads placed beside the left arm: 4 glass beads, 2 bronze rattles, a dog canine in a bronze setting, and a Money cowrie with a removed dorsum, lenght: appr. 1.8 cm.2379

2091. Kurgan 17/10, Grave 200: from the burial of a 5–7 year old boy: 2 silver plait clasps, a small bronze loop on Lubor Niederle carried out a comprehensive inquiry concerning the Russian scientific literature, which was later added to by Jiří Sláma. In their work there are two other publications which also include cowries which were not available to me: A. A. Spicyn: Radimičskie kurgany. Zap. Arh. 8 (1896) 99. Additional data: N. I. Bulyčev: Raskopki po srednemy tečeniju r. Ugry. Zapiski Moskovskogo Arheologičeskogo Instituta 31 (1913) pl. XXXI: 15: Sedov (1953) 198: note 9. 2368 Artamonova (1963) 8–9: fig. 1. 2369 It is worth emphasizing that there were 1 perforated Nassa sp. and 2 perforated Oliva sp. in the necklace of an approximately 2 year-old child buried in the cemetery located by the southwestern wall (Grave 92., the latter is very similar to cowries and also originates from the IndoPacific region, lenght: 2.5–2.9 cm: Artamonova (1963) 187–88, 185: fig. 122, 3. Olive shells are classified like cowries, to the sub-class of either Streptoneura or Prosobranchiata, but more closely they may be grouped with the order of Stenoglossa: Dudich–Loksa (1987) 251; Podani–Lexa (1988) 26, 27: pl. XII; Tyahun (1988) 38; Dance (1994) 155–58. 2370 In the Kurgan nr. 17/10 in all 231 graves came to light, in Kurgan nr. 19/1 altogether 55 graves, and in Kurgan nr. 24/6 some 163 graves were found: Artamonova (1963) 106–215. 2371 Artamonova (1963) 114, 115: fig. 80: 1. 2372 Artamonova (1963) 118, 115: fig. 80: 3. 2373 Artamonova (1963) 125, 124: fig. 85: 3.

2097. Grave 11: from the disturbed burial of a mature woman: bronze finger ring, 77 small glass beads and 2 Money cowries with a narrow sawn opening at the anterior end, lenght: appr. 1.4–1 cm.2380

2367

Biljarsk (Alekseevskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan)Biljarskoe gorodišče – see Annex 2478. Bolgarskoe (prev. Uspenskoe; Spasskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan)-Bolgarskoe gorodišče – see Annex 2479. Artamonova (1963) 136–38, 137: fig. 94: 3. Artamonova (1963) 139, 138: fig. 95: 2. 2376 Artamonova (1963) 141, 142: fig. 97: 1. 2377 Artamonova (1963) 147, 147: fig. 101: 1. 2378 Artamonova (1963) 169–70, 168: fig. 113: 2. 2379 Artamonova (1963) 209–10, 212: fig. 144: 1. 2380 Artamonova (1963) 210–11, 213: fig. 145: 1. 2374 2375

397

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Fig. 171. Money cowrie with open dorsum among the finds of a child’s burial from Grave 49 (1 – 2088) and 10 pierced Money cowries of a child’s burial from Grave 70 of Kurgan 17/10 (2 – 2089) at Belaja Veža – after Artamonova (1963) 115: fig. 80: 1, 3

Bol’šoe Retenskoe oz. – see 2120. Retenskoe ozero.

Kurgan 444: a perforated cowrie is mentioned in the find material. It has a small hole at the anterior end, and inside this, a tiny suspension ring, lenght: appr. 1.6 cm.2383

Cemdolina (Krasnodarskij kraj) – see Annex 2480. 2098. Dudenëvo (Kalininskaja oblast’ ): 13 excavated graves from a Slovenian-Meria kurgan cemetery resembling also Finn elements, dating to the 11th–13th centuries:2381

Kačkašursk (Udmurtskaja Respublika)-“Bigeršaj” – see Annex 2483. Kokrjat’ (Majnskij rajon, Ul’janovskaja oblast’)-Bol’šoe gorodišče – see Annex 2484.

Kurgan 10: grave goods from a female burial of the 12th century: 1-1 bronze earrings with three sheet globes, a small chain with spoon, claw, and rivet-shaped pendants, 21 average sized and 5 large bronze rattles, a twisted bronze wire torques, fragments of a tubular plate torques, bronze plate bracelet with animal head-terminals, 6 bronze finger-rings, the band of the knife’s sheath, slate spoon, a vessel with an engraved line decoration, and near the right side of the skull, a triangle plate pendant with 3 – 1 small plate in the same shape, 1 animal teeth and 1 pierced cowrie, likely Money cowrie – pendants, and on the neck, a row of carnelian and glass beads, and a twist or line of blue, red beads, and marine shell beads.2382

2100. Krjukovo-Kužnoe (Tambovskaja oblast’): an ancient Mordvin cemetery with 586 graves broadly from the 8th–11th centuries: Grave 241: grave goods from a female burial: a silver headdress ornament, 8 bronze and 4 iron buckles, a round bronze belt plaque, 2 bronze armspirals, an iron bracelet, 4 different bronze rings, 2 iron knives, scissors for sheep shearing, an iron artificial bait/blinker (?blesna), a clay spindle whorl, a clay jar with lead inserts, button- or beadshaped clay moulding, smoothing artifact made from a cattle bone, a clay jug, a wooden ladle with silver mounts, and in the neck region, an iron torque. Beneath it there is a 4-rowed, and at the very bottom, a single-rowed necklace. The latter was made from round bronze strips and 3 round bronze strips strung among cylindrical bronze spirals. The first row of the earlier necklace was made from small, thin bronze spiral cylinders, of which 2 sets of 2, all in all, 10 perforated cowries (rakovina-žukovka), were strung. The

Durakovskoe (Rjazanskaja oblast’) – see Annex 2481. Gnëzdovo (Smolenskij rajon) – see Annex 2482. 2099. Isakovo (Ivanovskaja oblast’): an Eastern Slavic/ Krivič cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries: Sedov (1982) 186, 194, 192: map 36: nr. 81. “...poloska ili žgut’ iz golubogo, krasnago i rakovinnago bisera”: Spicyn (1904) 9–10, pl. I: 3. The copy of the article was kindly sent by Vytautas Kazakevičius. 2381

Spicyn (1905) 116, 141: fig. 18. It was described as a pagan amulet by: Sedov (1982) 160–61: map 25, on the appendix to the map nr. 15, 194–95, 267, 290: pl. LXXVII: 4.

2382

2383

398

Catalogue

Fig. 172. 4 pierced Nassa sp. and 1 pierced Money cowrie from the burial of a small child from Kurgan 19/1, Grave 34 at Belaja Veža (2095) – after Artamonova (1963) 168: fig. 113: 2

2102. Lagerevo (Salavatskij rajon, Respublika Baškortostan): at least 10 kurgans from various periods were dated to the 9th–10th centuries:

two middle rows were composed of cast bronze tubes in imitation of a twisted pattern. Three sets of 3 tubes from which small chains were hung, and the lowest row insisted of 15 bronze bells strung among bronze spiral cylinders. All four strands were knotted tightly so the necklace could have been fastened on a single strand.2384

Kurgan 6 Grave 1: from a female burial: 2 large agate beads, 1 bronze bead, 4 bronze rattles, a silver mount, a loop-handled stirrup, a bit with bone sidebars, a girth buckle, a horse skull, horse bones, and by the left shoulder, a strand of beads: 18 ozokerite, 8 carnelian, and 6 glass beads in addition to, a silver strap end, and a belt mount, a bezelled bronze finger ring, and 1 perforated cowrie shell, lenght: appr. 2.3 (?) cm.2386

2101. Kudymkar (prev. Kudymkor; Komi-Permjackij Avtonomnyj Okrug): a perforated Money cowrie was found in the cemetery from the late phase of the Finno-Volgian Komi-Permian Rodanovo (rodanovskaja) Culture, dated to the 12th–14th century, lenght: appr. 1.9 cm.2385 Kudymkor – see 2101. Kudymkar

2103-14. Ljada (Tambovskaja oblast’): Mordvin cemetery2387 near the Ljada river, containing 217 graves from the 10th–11th centuries. Cowries also came to light here in 12 burials.

Materialy (1952), 83–84, 206: pl. XXII: 1. Concerning the method of binding see also 1457. 2385 Spicyn (1902) 45. and 62: pl. XXIV: 24; Finno-ugry (1987) 156, 145: map 28: nr. 42, 154: map 29: nr. 27. In its foregoer Harino-Lomovatovo (harino-lomovatovskaja) Culture (6th/7th–1st half of the 9th centuries) cowries are very rare: 1 Ringed (?) cowrie with open dorsum from VerhSainskij or Nevolino cemetery: Goldina (2002) 88: nr. XIV A6, 100–101: fig. 2: XIV A6. 2384

Mažitov (1981) 71: fig. 38: 15, 72: fig. 39: 3, 162 (not included in the list of illustrations), 46: fig. 101. 2387 Jastrebov (1893); Niederle (1913) 631–32: note 6; Váňa (1954) 61; Sláma (1958–59) 27: note 2, 28: note 3; Finno-ugry (1987) 97–98, 106–07, 198, 99: map 21: nr. 1.; 103: map 22: nr. 1. 2386

399

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2102a. Grave XXIII: the shell of a marine mollusc (rakovina) is also mentioned concerning a necklace, among the other grave goods, however, it was not catalogued among the cowries.2388

round bronze buckle, 2 bronze hair pins, spiral fragments of copper wire, and 2 necklaces: one is made of 7 bronze tubes with goose-foot-shaped pendants, and 16 additional star-shaped pendants, the other is composed of beads and perforated Money cowries.2394

2103. Grave LXXXI: from a most likely female burial: a forehead band from plate silver with a birch bark pad, 2 bronze hair pins, 2 bronze spiral bracelets, one with remnants of textile, a bronze finger ring and a bronze spiral ring, a hair plait rolled with a bronze ornamented strap twisted on a stick, a bunch of spiral copper wires with a threaded small strap, a clay vessel, a fragment of iron, and by the neck of the deceased a huge bead. In addition, there is a necklace made of small bronze tubes with goose-footshaped pendants, and an additional necklace composed of rectangular bronze pendants with suspension loops, and on the chest a necklace of exclusively Money cowries.2389

2108. Grave CXXIV: from a burial, in which only fragments of the vertebrae survived: openwork bronze buckle with goose-foot-shaped pendants, 4 round bronze buckles, 2 bronze hair pins, 3 small pairs of bracelets, a fragment of tin, a clay vessel, remains of freshwater molluscs, and 2 necklaces: one is made of 7 bronze tubes with goose-footshaped pendants, the other is compiled from 5 star-shaped bronze pendants and Money cowries.2395 2109. Grave CXLIII: from a female burial: fragments of round bronze buckles, an iron ring, a clay vessel, a fragment of iron. On the breast lie a necklace of 5 bronze tubes with goose-foot-shaped pendants, beads, and copper tubes that were twisted into spirals, strung in succession with perforated Money cowries.2396

2104. Grave CIV: from a most likely female burial: 3 round bronze buckles, iron fragment with 2 bronze buckles, an iron buckle, an openwork bronze buckle with goose-footshaped pendants hanging from it on a tiny chain, a bronze forehead band, 2 bronze hair pins, a pair of bronze plaques with cylindrical pendants, pieces of spiral copper wire, terminating in star-shaped pendants, a bronze pendant depicting a horse, a H-letter-shaped bronze pendant, a bird-shaped pendant made from a bear claw with fragments of strap pieces, a perforated bear canine, 2 bronze spiral bracelets, a bronze armband, a clay vessel, moreover, a necklace of small bronze tubes with goose-foot-shaped pendants. Together with this item, 6 perforated Money cowries were discovered.2390

2110. Grave CLIV: a double burial. No remains survived of the first (western) skeleton except for the skull. Close to the skull lay, 1 bronze hair pin, and a necklace of 5 starshaped bronze pendants and Money cowries. An axe was found beside the second (eastern) skeleton.2397 2111. Grave CLVIII: from a child burial: a stray wisp of hair twisted on a stick, and also rolled with a bronzeornamented strap, a small bronze mount, a bronze clasp, 2 bronze bracelets, and a necklace: beads, bronze rattles, a perforated bear canine, 7 bronze tubes with goose-footshaped pendants and Money cowries.2398

2105. Grave CXIV: from an adult burial2391: an iron axe, an iron spear head, 3 round bronze buckles, a bronze forehead band with a buckle, a bronze hair pin, a bronze spiral bracelet, 2 sets of 2 copper spiral rings, bronze finger rings, and in the neck region a necklace, composed of star-shaped bronze pendants and perforated Money cowries.2392

2112. Grave CLXVIII: from a most likely female burial: 5 round bronze buckles, a bone button, copper strands, one of which is twisted into a spiral and ornamented with beads and loops. The other is decorated with tiny bell-shaped pendants, a pair of bronze wire torque, a bronze forehead band, 2 bronze hair pins, a bronze torque with cylindrical pendants, a bronze wire torque, 2 bronze spiral bracelets, 1 bronze band bracelet, a fragment of a clay vessel, a piece of coal, and on the breast, fragments of a necklace: 11 bronze tubes with goose-foot-shaped pendants, a small bronze chain with similar goose-foot-shaped pendants, 1 comb and 1 star-shaped bronze pendant, beads, and 2 perforated Money cowries.2399

2106. Grave CXVII: from a most likely female burial: some round bronze mounts, a clay vessel with imprinted decoration, and 2 necklaces: one of them is composed of bronze tubes with goose-foot-shaped pendants, the other one is made from spherical bronze rattles and perforated Money cowries.2393 2107. Grave CXXIII: from a most likely female burial: a

2113. Grave CLXXV: from a fragmentary burial: a pair of bronze earrings, a necklace of rectangle pendant strips, a

Since V. N. Jastrebov accurately identified the cowries in his description of 12 graves as “rakovina cypraea moneta”, and in 3 graves he mentioned finding the disintegrated parts of freshwater molluscs (“neskol’ko štuk raspavšihsja rečnyh rakovin”), see Graves XLVII, LIII, CXXIV. Thus, one should not automatically assume that non-attributed shells were cowries. 2389 “Ožerel’e iz rakovin cypraea moneta”: Jastrebov (1893) 9. 2390 Jastrebov (1893) 11. 2391 The presence of the axe and spearhead does not exclude that it was a female burial! 2392 Jastrebov (1893) 13. 2393 Jastrebov (1893) 13. 2388

Jastrebov (1893) 13. Jastrebov (1893) 14. 2396 Jastrebov (1893) 15, 15: fig. 5. 2397 Jastrebov (1893) 17. 2398 Jastrebov (1893) 17. 2399 Jastrebov (1893) 18. 2394 2395

400

Catalogue 2117. Nar (Respublika Severnaja Osetija-Alanija): 2 burials with stone chests were found on the outskirts of the village, in a Alan cemetery,:

bronze rattle, a clay vessel, and some perforated Money cowries.2400 2114. Grave CXCIII: from a most likely female burial: 4 round bronze buckles, 2 bronze hair pins, a wisp of hair with a tiny bronze spiral drawn onto it, a copper wire twisted into a spiral terminating in rattles, 2 bronze torques, another necklace of rectangular pendants and square bronze plaques, 7 bronze tubes with goose-footshaped pendants, 2 bronze spiral bracelets, a clay spindle whorl, a clay vessel, and a necklace composed of beads, rattles and perforated Money cowries.2401

Grave 1: 3 child’s skulls and scattered bones were uncovered in the flag-stone chest, dated to the 10th–12th centuries. Finds were documented only around the first skull: a longish black glass bead, and a cowrie with a completely removed dorsum, lenght: appr. 1.4 cm.2406

Lužskij uezd – see 2120. Retenskoe ozero

2118. Nefed’evo (Vologdskaja oblast’): 1 cowrie shell was discovered in the fully excavated Finno-Ugrian population and immigrant Novgorodian Slovenes (?) cemetery dated to the end of the 11th–12th centuries.2407

2115. Martan-ču (Gruševoe; Urus-Martanovskij rajon, Čečenskaja Respublika): Alan catacomb cemetery with 18 graves broadly dated to the 8th–11th centuries:

2119. Olhovka (prev. Sakkola Lapinlahti, Karelia; Leningradskaja oblast’): 4 cowries were among the finds from a Vot female burial, dated between 1100–1300.

Catacomb 18: among the grave goods from the four excavated burials of the 10th–11th centuries, there were glass, carnelian, mountain crystal beads and shell beads (rakušečnyh bus), among which may have been cowries.2402

Helsinki, Nationalmuseum, acc. nr.: 7776:15, 17–19.2408 Pokrovka (Orenburgskaja oblast’) – see Annex 2496. 2120. Retenskoe ozero (Leningradskaja oblast’) Kurgan 16: kurgan cemetery of Novgorodian Slovenes excavated in the neighborhood of the former Lužskij uezd:

2116. Minino (Vologdskaja oblast’)-Cemetery II: 5 graves from a cemetery of Finno-Ugrian base population and of an immigrant population of Novgorodian Slovenes (?) of the end of the 11th–mid 12th century:

Kurgan 16: some cowries were found which may be dated to the 9th/10th centuries.2409

Grave 3: from the burial of a 25–35 year old female: wire beads were strung on 6 sets of 6 suspension loops on a headdress which had a collar, adorned with 420 glass beads, 2 horse-shaped pendants and 2 duck-shaped pendants hung from a small bronze belt, bronze band bracelets, 2 bronze finger rings, an iron knife, a double-sided bone comb, a clay vessel, fragments of a funerary garment, and on the neck, a torque twisted from of two strands of wire together with a necklace made of 20 glass beads alternating with 5 cowries. One additional cowrie was uncovered in the oral cavity of the deceased.2403 All of the cowries had open dorsi, and they were suspended in a horizontal “row” from the necklace, not vertically, as was usual. Almost all the female burials in the Nukšin cemetery contained necklaces of cowries but this arrangement of cowries was documented only in one case (2001).2404 West European coins and cowries are mentioned as imported items in the cemetery.2405

Sarkel – see 2088–97. Belaja Veža 2121–22. Semënovo (Šahunskij rajon, Gor’kovskaja oblast’)-Hutor Veselova:2410 first, 12 graves were located and later 15 were of these excavated ancient Mari cemeteries, dated to the 10th–11th centuries: 2121. Grave 5: from a male (?) burial: 9 arrowheads, a bow case, spearhead, an axe-adze and a socketed axe, 2 dagger imitations covered in leather, a gilt scabbard with silver mounts, a linen shirt, a deer- or calf-skin garment sewed with silver thread with a bronze buckle, a leather belt with bronze mounts, a wool stocking, a leather shoe, 2 silver sabretache mounts, a strike-a-light with a bronze handle, a flint, tinder, 2 gilt silver earrings, an earring with small bronze chain, 2 silver wire torques, 2 silver and 2 bronze bracelets, a metal awl with a bone handle Markovin (1969) 79, 78: fig. 10: 12; Selmeczi (1992) 88. Makarov-Zajceva (1999) 177, see 172, 176. 2408 Kivikoski (1967) 41–43, 42: fig. 3; Uino (1997) 375: 3.24 Kaurisimpukat (Cypraea moneta, cowries ); Finno-ugry (1987) 44. 2409 Sedov (1953) 198: note 9. He quotes: F. Šitnikov: Otčet o raskopkah 36 kurganov v Lužskom uezde. Trudy Pskovskogo Arheologičeskogo Obščestva 10 (1913) 43–44., but this work was unfortunately not available to me. About the site: Sedov (1982) 178, 171: map 27: nr. 10 (Novgorodian Sloven kurgans dated to the 9th–10th centuries), 176–177: map 30: nr. 77 (about Sloven sites from the 11th–14th centuries), 227: pl. LIII: 3, 228: pl. LIV: 12. 2410 Since the site is situated near the former Veselov hutor/farmstead, it was called Veselovskij mogil’nik: Halikov–Bezuhova (1960) 23; Arhipov (1961). 2406 2407

Moscow-The Great Kremlin Hoard – see Annex 2487. Muromskij gorodok – see 2123. Valy Jastrebov (1893) 19. Jastrebov (1893) 21. 2402 Vinogradov–Mamaev (1984) 83, 82: fig. 15: 29 (?). 2403 Makarov–Zajceva (1999) 170–172, 170: fig. 7: 6. 2404 Makarov–Zajceva (1999) 175. 2405 Makarov–Zajceva (1999) 173. 2400 2401

401

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads in a birch-bark case, 2 iron knives, a whetstone, 2 poor quality silver rings from an earring with a fragment of leather ornament, 7 bracelets, 3 poor quality bezelled rings and 3 spiral silver finger rings, a leather case, and a pectoral ornament with pendants and rattles hung on the right side of the 4 ornamented, gilt pendants hanging from a silver plate, on a small bronze chain, 20 eyeglass-shaped pendants, moreover, altogether 10 bell- and goose-footshaped pendants, rattles, and 2 perforated cowries (most probably Money cowries) which hung independently on straps wrapped with bronze, lenght: approximately 2.1–2.4 cm.2411

Veselovskij mogil’nik – see 2121–22. Semënovo

2122. Grave 12: from a female burial: an iron axe, silk face cloth, marten skin shirt and headdress, a lambskin caftan, a leather belt with silver buckle and with gilt silver mounts, and 2 sets of 2 small straps decorated with silver and bronze mounts, 2 leather shoes with fittings, a leather belt with gilt silver mounts and a silver buckle, 2 rings from earrings, silver wire torque, 2 pectoral ornaments with pendants and rattles ornamented with 10 sets of 10 rattles with chains, 2 silver and 10 bronze bracelets, 8 silver finger rings, a bone earspoon, with the claw of a young lynx on its loop, 1 iron knives in a leather scabbard with a wooden handle and one in a leather sheath with a bone handle, an iron knife, an iron awl with a bone handle, a strike-a-light with a bronze handle, 2 flints, a small clay jar, a piece of lead, a piece of a limestone mould, and a bark forehead ornament, on which 10 square lead and silver mounts hung on a leather strap, and a 3.96 m long bronze chain twisted seven times around the skull, from which 21 bronze pendants hung on small bronze chains at the back. Silver rattles hung from the temples, on paired bronze beads and bronze chains.2412 The 2 perforated cowries, most likely Money cowries, that – according to the reconstruction – were suspended on the chain on the right temple were not mentioned in the description.2413

2125. Zakolp’e (Gus-Hrustalnyj rajon, Vladimirskaja oblast’): cowries were discovered in the Krivič kurgan cemetery of the 9th–13th centuries.2417

2124. Vysokino (Zubcovskij rajon, Tverskaja oblast’): 20 excavated graves from a Krivič kurgan cemetery of the 11th–12th centuries: Kurgan 13. Grave 1: 6 large ring-pendants, 8 round eared disk pendants, a lunula pendant, bone handle, a strand of 21 glass paste beads, wild boar canine with a metal ring, a pendant, an undetermined West European coin, and 1 intact (?) cowrie, perhaps a Money cowrie, lenght: appr. 1.4 cm.2416

Zalahtov’ja (Pskovskaja oblast’) Kurgan K-20 – see Annex 2504. 2126. Zaozer’e (Ramenskij rajon, Moskovskaja oblast’): 1 small Money cowrie (lenght: appr. 1.3 cm) was found with a small hole in it among the surface finds from a Krivič (?) settlement, dating from around the 11th– early 12th centuries.2418 2127–44. Serbia 2127. Beograd-Karaburma: Grave 1: a strand of beads from the 11th century: amethyst, chalcedony, glass paste and glass beads, land snails (vretenasti puževi) and 8 perforated cowries. Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: AS I 191.2419 2128. Brestovik (opština Grocka)-Visoka Ravan: some 887 graves from a cemetery dating from the 11th–13th centuries:

2122a. Tomikovo (Tambovskaja oblast’): 25 graves from a Mordvin cemetery of the 10th–11th centuries, in which graves III, XI and XII contained undetermined shells (rakovinka, rakovina). Since the author of the descriptions of the graves named all other Money cowries in a comprehensive chapter in his work (see 2103–14), I could not assume these finds were also cowries.2414

Grave 99: bezelled bronze finger ring, and a strand of beads: various glass beads, a perforated coin, and an unknown number (2–3 pieces?) of perforated cowries, 2 of which were identified as Money cowries. Narodni muzej, Beograd, acc. nr.: 2758.2420

2123. Valy (Stavropol’skij rajon, Kujbiševskaja oblast’)Muromskij gorodok: A fortified Volga Bulgar settlement of the 10th–13th centuries. 2 perforated (?) cowries were found from levels at the site in addition to the stray finds, both are likely Money cowries.2415

2129–30. Brza Palanka (opština Kladovo)-Djerdap: Juško (1974) 58, 57: 57: fig. 17: 29. Unfortunately, I could not get hold of this reference: N. E. Makarenko: Novlenskij i Zakolpskij mogil’niki. TVUAK 10 (1910) 37, 45, cited by: Niederle (1913) 631–32: note 6; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 3; Sedov (1982) 160–61: map 25 in the small segment: nr. 20, 186–87: map 34: nr. 22, 190–90: map 35: nr. 98. 2418 Veksler–Stanjukovič (1986) 79, 77: fig. 1: 1. 2419 Bajalović-Pešić (1984) 78: nr. 190, pl. XXI; see “Karaburma dans la banlieu de Belgrade”: Birtašević (1973) 184. 2420 According to the plate showing various finds from the cemetery there were 3 probable Money cowries with narrow perforations but lacking 2416 2417

Halikov–Bezuhova (1960) 33–38, 37: fig. 29: 1. Halikov–Bezuhova (1960) 44–48. 2413 Halikov–Bezuhova (1960) 45, 46: fig. 38. 2414 Jastrebov (1893) 26–29; Finno-ugry (1987) 102, 107, 99: map 21: nr. 8, 103: map 22: nr. 7. 2415 Vasil’ev–Matveeva (1986) 128/129: pl. 14, at the two terminals of the strand of beads. 2411

2412

402

Catalogue altogether 32 graves from part of a Serbian cemetery dating between the late 12th–mid 16th centuries:2421

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: I 97.2425 2133. Grave 50: from a child’s burial: a bronze plait clasp, a bronze oval pendant, a glass bracelet. In addition a strand of beads around the neck, made from various small beads. Also, a spindle-shaped shell (puža vretenastog oblika), and 2 perforated cowries. One of them is presumably a Money cowrie, with a narrow opening.

2129. Grave 18: finds from a female burial that can be dated to as early as the 11th–12th centuries: earring with a bead-row cast in bronze, a small perforated, worn (Roman?) bronze coin, an intact Roman bronze coin, 10 glass bracelets, and by the lower jaw, a strand of beads: 1 rectilinear glass bead, 59 small, spherical glass paste beads, 1 green glass pendant, a pierced deer canine amulet, and 4 cowries, one of which can be identified from the published illustration as a Money cowrie, lenght: appr. 1.9 cm.2422

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: I 114.2426 2134. Grave 76: from a child’s burial: a bronze Sterminated lockring, 2 glass bracelets, and a strand of beads around the neck: some small black beads, and one presumably Money cowrie with open dorsum.

2130. Grave 174: finds from a female burial that can be dated as early as the11th/12th centuries: 1 intact, diagonally soldered spherical ball button, and near the lower jaw a single cowrie, lenght: appr. 2.3 cm.2423

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: I 135.2427

2131. Gradac (opština Kragujevac)-Đonićko Brdo: altogether 40 burials from part of a cemetery dated to the 10th–12th centuries:

2135. Grave 87: from a child’s burial: 1 bronze, and 1 silver S-terminated lockrings, and a perforated cowrie was found on top of it, plate metal bracelet with rounded terminals and a strand of beads: 9 large green, blue and white beads, and 18 perforated cowries, some of whose dorsum were totally removed.

stray finds/early 1940s: a strand of beads, in the middle a colorful, triangular stone, 5 large, globular glass beads with a colorful stripe, 5 small beads, and some cowries that divided the smaller and larger beads.2424

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: I 119–120.2428

2132–36. Mirijevo (opština Žabari)-Jurtovo Brdo: altogether 160 burials from part of a cemetery dated to the 12th–13th centuries:

2136. Grave 100: from a child’s burial: 2 bronze plait clasps, 8 quadrangular plaques, on each 3 hollow bosses and 6 small holes, for stitching them on, various glass beads, 3 bronze rattles, a bone pendant, and 42 perforated cowries. The majority or even all of the cowries are presumed to be Money cowries.

2132. Grave 20: from a female burial: 2 silver earrings with rings of globes, 3 bronze S-terminated lockrings, 2 bronze pendants, a glass bracelet, a bronze finger ring, 2 bronze mounts, a Roman bronze coin from the 4th century, small glass beads near the upper arm, and 2 strands of beads in the neck region: one consists of 322 small glass beads, while the other is composed of 1 amethyst and 3 bronze beads in addition to 10 perforated cowries. Probably all are Money cowries, with both large and small holes and removed dorsi.

Muzej grada Beograda, acc. nr.: 111, 113, 127–129.2429 2137–38. Prahovo (opština Negotin)-Ideče: altogether 60 disturbed graves from part of a cemetery, dated between the 11th–13th centuries: 2137. stray finds/1962: altogether 82 glass beads of various kinds strung together with 15 perforated cowries, of which majority are presumably Money cowries with their dorsi sawn off, although Ringed cowries with open dorsi might also be among them, lenght: appr. 1.2–2.1 cm.2430

grave numbers – in the text referred to as coquilles de Venus – about which the publisher also noted that they were specially processed; on their edges, there are raspberry-shaped semicircles: Ćorović-Ljubinković (1956) 136, 135: fig. 4 in the middle; Janković (1973–1974) 239; MarjanovićVujović–Tomić (1982) 61: nr. 305–06. On another illustration, 2 Money cowries are clearly identifiable: Marjanović-Vujović (1986) 195: fig. 11. 2421 The grave goods found with a 8-year-old child published as Grave 28: – a forehead ornament twisted from silver wire, 4 bronze rattles hanged on it, and in addition, near the lower jaw, a silver ring and, a spiral ornamented cylindrical glass bead were uncovered – 3 miniature cowries are also mentioned, lenght: appr. 1.4–1.5 cm: Pavlović-Ercegović (1966) 145, pl. III: 15–17, however, these are not cowries, but other types of marine molluscs, perhaps Columbella sp. In his inventory the site is mentioned by: Janković (1973–1974) 239. 2422 Pavlović-Ercegović (1966) 145, pl. II: 5; Birtašević (1973) 184, note 4. 2423 Pavlović-Ercegović (1966) 145, pl. III: 8. 2424 Petrović (1965) 287, 286: fig. 36 in the middle: Most likely some cowries can be seen on the photo.

Bajalović-Birtašević (1960) 14–15, pl. VII: 1; Janković (1973–1974) 239; Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 63: nr. 329–31; dated to the 12th century: Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 78: nr. 196. 2426 Bajalović-Birtašević (1960) 17, pl. IX: 6; dated to the 12th century: Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 78: nr. 197. 2427 Bajalović-Birtašević (1960) 19, pl. XI: 9; dated to the 12th century: Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 79: nr. 198. 2428 Bajalović-Birtašević (1960) 20, pl. XII: 8; the ring is from the 11th century, the strand of beads is dated to the 12th century: Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 69: nr. 123, pl. I: 3, pl. XVII: 6, and 79: nr. 199. 2429 Bajalović-Birtašević (1960) 21–22, pl. XIV: 7; Marjanović-Vujović– Tomić (1982) 63: nrs 334–36; the grave is dated to the 12th century: Bajalović–Pešić (1984) 79: nr. 202, pl. XXXIII: 2. 2430 Janković (1973–1974) 231, 239, 242/243: pl. VIII: 1; Vuković (1962) 279, pl. XXVII: down, on the left; Vuković (1963) 136; Birtašević (1973) 184, note 5. 2425

403

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2138. Grave 36: two twisted wire bracelets terminating in spirals, and a strand of beads, consisting of various glass beads, and 15 perforated cowries, of which the majority was likely Money cowries, lenght: ca. 0.9–2.1 cm.2431

2143. Grave 278: from a female grave: bronze earring with one globe, 2 twisted bronze wire bracelets, 1 wire bracelet from bronze plate with linear and dot-row ornamental motifs, small glass beads, and on the right side of the skull, 10 perforated cowries.2438

2139–44. Trnjane (opština Požarevac)-Staro Grobje: altogether 379 graves from part of a commoners’ cemetery:

2144. Grave 308: from a female burial: a silver earring, with a pair of wreath-ornaments composed of beads and a strand of beads: 131 small, black and 233 white glass beads, 2 large beads and 8 perforated cowries.

2139. Grave 80: from a female burial: a twisted wire bracelet, a plate metal bracelet decorated with circleand-dot ornaments, bronze finger ring with a hexagonal metal plate bezel, an iron ring, and a necklace around the neck: white glass beads and 4 perforated fragmentary cowries.2432

Narodni muzej, Beograd, acc. nr.: 274 (strand of beads).2439 2145–47. Slovenia

2140. Grave 129: a bronze plait clasp, a ball-shaped button from plate metal, 8 twisted bronze wire bracelets, 2 iron wire bracelets, a bracelet from bronze plate ornamented with a dot-row motif, an additional bracelet from bronze plate ornamented with dot-and-circle motifs, 2 bronze finger rings, a carnelian spindle whorl, 1 vineyard snail (vinogradarski),2433 an iron fragment, and a necklace of strung beads: several small cylindrical light red and 2 dark blue beads, a fish vertebra and 6 perforated cowries, presumably all Money cowries.

2145–47. Ptuj (Spodnja Štajerska)-Grad (Castle Hill): 377 graves from a part of a Slavic commoners’ cemetery of the 10th–11th centuries: 2145. Grave 81: from a female burial: 11 silver S-terminated lockrings, 2 silver band finger rings, and in the necklace 4 perforated Money cowries, lenght: 1.5–2.1 cm.2440 2146. Grave 97: from a female burial: 6 silver S-terminated lockrings, silver twisted wire finger ring, and around the neck, a strand of beads: 3 gray, cylindrical foliated beads, 8 faceted beads with an incised checked surface and 11 perforated Money cowries, lenght: 1,5x1.0–1,9x1,5 cm.2441

Narodni muzej, Beograd, acc. nr.: 105 (strand of beads).2434 2141. Grave 165: from a burial of a young woman: a pair of bronze earrings with sheet globes, one of which has a bead and a bronze ball button drawn on it, while a cowrie, most probably a Money cowrie, was strung on the other.2435

2147. Grave 125: likely from a female burial: 6 silver S-terminated lockrings, and a necklace: 1 fluorite bead, crumbling glass paste beads, and 8 perforated Money cowries, lenght: 1.4–1.7 cm.2442 Sweden: Fröjel (Gotlands län) Grave 6 – see Annex 2511.

2142. Grave 273: from a female burial: a bracelet from bronze plate ornamented by dot-rows, and around the neck, 2 strands of beads:2436 various glass beads, a bronze rattle, a carnelian seal, and 19 whole and 4 fragmentary perforated cowries, the majority of which have large holes.

2148–59, (2151a), Annex 2536, 2556–57. Ukraine 2148–49. Brovarki (prev. Poltavskaja gubernija; Poltavskaja oblast’): 80 graves from a part of a Severian cemetery situated among kurgans and dated to the 10th–11th centuries. Only 16 of the burials in it survived undisturbed. Cowries were found on female head ornaments also.2443 No more than 8 cases were highlighted from the burials that

Narodni muzej, Beograd, acc. nr.: 223 (both strands of beads).2437 Janković (1973–1974) 230, 239, 242/24: pl. V: 3; MarjanovićVujović–Tomić (1982) 62: nrs 322–23. 2432 Marjanović-Vujović (1984) 20, 74, 21: fig. 25, pl. VI: 80. 1–6. 2433 Perhaps Cepaea hortensis? 2434 Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 65: nrs 349–59; MarjanovićVujović (1984) 25–26, 74–75, 26: fig. 39, pls IX–X. Dated to the 12th century: Marjanović-Vujović (1980) 220. 2435 Marjanović-Vujović (1984) 30, fig. 53, pl. XII: 165. 1–2. 2436 These two strands of beads were perhaps not worn around the neck, but rather hung down from either the headdress or the coiffure onto the front side of the neck or the face. Similar items were published from the 8th–11th centuries late Avar material and are also known from Bol’šie Tigany, Bulgaria, etc.: Schulze (1984). 2437 Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 66: and pl. 11: nrs 367–68; Marjanović-Vujović (1984) 44, 75, 45: fig. 98, pl. XVII: 273. 1, pl. XVIII: 273. 2–3. Dated to the 12th century: Marjanović-Vujović (1980) 225; Jovanović (1995–96) 93, and 110: pl. V: 8. 2431

Marjanović-Vujović (1984) 46, fig. 103, pl. XXI. Marjanović-Vujović–Tomić (1982) 67: nrs 378–379; MarjanovićVujović (1984) 49, 75, 48: fig. 107, pl. XXII: 308. 1–2. 2440 Korošec (1950) 145–46, 208/209: fig. 11; Tomičić (1999–2000) 300: fig. 11: 11. 2441 Korošec (1950) 148, 208/209: fig. 16. – Od rimljanov (2001) 115: fig. 382. 2442 Korošec (1950) 154, 208/209: fig. 26; Mitscha-Märheim (1955) 42. 2443 “U teh i drugih... na perednej časti [čerepa] vencov i obručej viselo ešče po neskol’ku kolec v peremežku s priveskami iz Cyprea moneta,... v bol’šinstvo slučaev vmesto ètih golovnyh uborov vstrečalis’ povjazki v vide lent privešennymi k nim spiralami, kol’cami i rakovinami...”: Hvojko (1904) 42–43. 2438 2439

404

Catalogue were regarded as similar graves,2444 therefore, it is even possible that there were more burials with cowries: 2148. Grave 5: from a girl’s burial: a strand of beads composed of coral and yellow glass-paste beads, an iron knife, and on the silver forehead ornament on the right side of the skull, 3 silver spirals and 1-1 attached Money cowries hanging from a bronze ring, while on the left side 2 silver spirals, and an ornament, composed of small twisted chains that were laid across, terminating in various sized metal rattles, and in addition, 1 Money cowrie each suspended from a bronze ring (Fig. 173).2445 2149. Grave 7: from a female burial: double strand of beads, in the middle a lunula pendant made of reflecting metal, 1 broad silver and 1 bronze band finger rings, an iron knife with a decorated bone sheath, and silver wire twisted on the end of the sheath. In addition, on the skull that faced right, there was a double S-terminated silver hoop, and an oval disk twisted into a cylinder attached to its middle, and on the right side of the skull, 2 silver spirals, a plait clasp and 1 Money cowrie each on a ring. On the left side, the same type of 3 S-shaped silver spirals, a plait clasp and 2 Money cowries.2446 2150. Gorohovatka (prev. Kievskij uezd, Kievskaja gubernija; Kievskaja oblast’): Černye klobuki („Black headdresses”) burial dated to the 12th century:

Fig. 173. Headdress ornament with Money cowries from Grave 5 at Brovarki (2148) – after Niederle (1953) 253: fig. 29

Kurgán 284. Grave 1: partial horse burial, the sex and age of the deceased was not defined: horse skull, where the jaw and the 4 horse leg bones were left in pairs, a bronze rattle, an iron surcingle buckle, and 1 cowrie near the skull.2447

(rakoviny Cypraea moneta) in necklaces were discovered among the grave goods from 94 inhumation burials (1–94) and 8 cremation female burials (95–102) of the 9th–10th centuries:2449

2151. Kerč’ (Krymskaja oblast’)-St John the Baptist Church/Cerkov’ Ioanna Predteči: cemetery around the church:

2151a. Grave 9: the burial is known only from a newspaper article, in which around the neck of the skeleton, together with tiny glass paste beads, molluscs (rakoviny) were mentioned, however, not identified specifically,2450 which might be cowries.

Grave 28: from the burial of a child aged around 12, dating likely from the 12th–13th centuries: a bronze rattle, 2 gold plait clasps, 2 carnelian beads, 3 black beads inlaid with yellow and blue, a cast bronze cross and 2 cowries, lenght: appr. 1.7 cm.2448

2152. Grave 30: 8 lockrings with coiled terminals, in the neck region 2 dirherms with suspension loops comprising a strand of beads, one of them is a coin issued by Samanid emir Ismail ibn Ahmad, (279–295/892–907) in 293/905–906, in Samarkand, the other one is unidentified. Moreover, 14, from 1–4 nominal glass beads, 9 glass paste beads, 1 spherical carnelian bead, and 1 perforated cowrie (rakovina /kauri/).2451

2152–53. Kiev-Desjatinnaja cerkov’: Money cowries Hvojko (1904) 43. Hvojko (1904) 45–46, 46: fig. 2; Niederle (1931) 183, 184: fig. 83. Without reference to the name of the site and the illustration: Niederle (1953) 254, 253: fig. 29; see 258: fig. 34: 13; Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 3, Sedov (1982) 139, 134: map 19: nr. 60, 135: map 20: nr. 54, 211: pl. XXXVII: 4 (the reconstruction of the headdress ornament, without the cowries). 2446 Hvojko (1904) 47–48. 2447 Pletneva (1973) 41, 76: pl. 28: 2; Lysenko–Lysenko–Kvitnickij (2005) 211. It is probable that the same is illustrated in: Stepi (1981) 261: pl. 84: 25; Selmeczi (1992) 87, 97: note 110. 2448 Makarova (1982) 104: fig. 9: 24; the drawing most likely shows a Ringed cowrie: Makarova (1998) 378–79, 372: fig. 17: 42–43; dating of the burials recovered from layer II: ibid. 382. Parallel archaeological material was discovered in the cemetery at Belaja Veža associated with these finds, also including cowries (2081–97): ibid. 381. 2444 2445

Altogether in 1 grave among 19 burials of the high ranking Karger (1958) 160; Mugurevič (1962) 49, 49: note 54: in which, cowries of the Černjahov Culture are cited, see Fedorov (1960a) 147. In a female burial excavated in 1907, a plain, white shell is referred to (ploskaja belaja rakovina): Golubëva (1949) 111, 109; I was unable to identify it: Grave 9 excavated in May 1909 and Grave 30, excavated in 1911: Karger (1958) 142, 146. 2450 Karger (1958) 142. 2451 Karger (1958) 146–47. 2449

405

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads retinue (103–121) of the 10th century came cowrie to light:

carnelian bead, a cruciform, openwork bronze pendant framed in a circle, a small, perforated Cardium sp., and 2 perforated Money cowries.2457

2153. Grave 110: timber structured grave of a 6–8 year old child; the grave goods were reconstructed from documentary evidence: a cruciform silver artifact, a large bronze buckle, 2 silver ball buttons, a one-sided bone comb, a wooden spoon with a metal loop, 3 wooden pots, 2 iron hooped wooden barrels, a bone whistle, a bone object, 157 sheep astragali (some of them ornamented, and inlaid with lead), fragments of an iron object, 2 dirhams of Samanid emir Ahmed ibn Ismail (295–301/907–914) issued in 299/911–912, in al Šaš, one of them is perforated twice at its edge, while the other is looped, a miniature iron axe, and a small bone handled iron knife, 2 small whetstones, 1 beam from a miniature bronze scale, 3 wild boar canines,2452 and shells that are described simply as Unio shells with round holes:2453 however, according to the illustration plate of photos there are 11 intact, and 1–3 fragmentary and intact perforated Unio shells, and 10 Money cowries sewn at their anterior ends.2454

2156. Kurgan 32, Grave 2: from the burial of a young child: a wide bronze plait clasp, 2 silver rings, a silver wire bracelet, and around the neck, 10 small, perforated Tiger cowries (?) were strung among tiny dark beads.2458 2157. Kurgan 34, Grave 2: from the burial of a young woman: a small silver strip, bead and bronze ring from an Osetian–type earring, in addition, some large glass beads, a bronze lunula pendant, and 1 cowrie with removed (?) dorsum on the neck.2459 Sudak (Krymskaja oblast’)-II. Cemetery, Grave 216 in the Crypt II/1966 – see Annex 2556–57. 2158. Sudova Višnia (Mostiskij rajon; L’vovskaja oblast’): from an adult womans burial of late 10th–early 11th centuries: 15 round silver shift mounts, 1 large, round silver garment fitting, a bronze rattle, 5 solid bronze ball buttons, a silver earring with a bead-row, a bronze rattle, 7 small paste beads of two, 1 paste bead of three members, 4 gem beads, 8 amber beads, a twisted silver bracelet and a bezelled silver finger ring with four spherical bosses and inlaid with amber, a leather fragment from the footwear, 5 round and 28 three-lobed bronze fittings from the footwear, unspecified silver fragment, and 3 large silver metal plate beads, 7 silver leaf-shaped pendants, a small, round strip with plant ornament, 6 oculus beads, and on the chest, 10 perforated Money cowries were uncovered, lenght: appr. 1.7–2.0 cm from an unspecified location.2460

Malopoloveckoe (Fastovskij rajon, Kievskaja oblast’)-3, Grave 134 – see Annex 2536. 2154–57. Nicaha (prev. Aktyrskij uezd, Har’kovskaja gubernija; Har’kovskaja oblast’): Severian kurgan cemetery with more than 150 kurgan graves, dated to the 10th–12th centuries:2455 2154. Kurgan 5, Grave 4: from a female burial: a plait clasp, 2 Osetian-type silver earrings, a necklace: 2 rows of various sized yellow and green glass beads, and clay-like beads, 2 carnelian beads, and 2 mountain crystal beads, 26 white metal pendants. Of these 6 were heart-shaped with embossed decoration, in addition to 2 openwork medallions, 4 cruciform, openwork medaillons, 14 various small, lunula pendants, 1 thick bronze wire bracelet, and 1 twisted wire bracelet, 5 finger rings cast from white metal, fragments of silk, leather shot with gold, and some perforated Money cowries.2456

2159. Žitomir (Žitomirskaja oblast’): cowries were discovered together with amber beads among finds of the 10th century.2461 4.16. 2160–90, (2169a). Jazygian Cowrie Finds from the Carpathian Basin (13th–14th Centuries) The material was collected from Hungary (Fig. 174. 1).

2155. Kurgan 30, Grave 2: from the burial of a child: corroded pair of hook and eye clasps (?), a small silver ring, bronze wire bracelet, and around the neck, a necklace composed of various sized beads, among them 1 facetted

2160. Jászágó (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)Templomdomb: a Jazygian cemetery used from the second half of the 13th century to the end of the 16th century, where a church was built in the 15th century. There are also cowries in the unpublished material.2462

Karger (1958) 174–76, pls XVI—XIX: 1. “Množetsvo rakovin unio s prosverlennymi kruglymi otverstijami”: Karger (1958) 176. – “Množestvo rakovin unio s otverstijami dlja podvešivanija”: Mihajlov (2004) 43. 2454 Karger (1958) 570: and pl. XIX: 2. 2455 According to the study, large numbers of cowries were recovered from some of the burials in the 40 excavated kurgans. Cowries were strung among beads in necklaces, or in some cases, necklaces were exclusively composed of cowries. In one burial (2155) a Cardium sp. was inserted among cowries: Mel’nik (1905) 699. I saw a copy of the relevant section of this study of the site with the kind help of Kinga Stanek; see Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 3. About the cemetery: Sedov (1982) 134: map 1, nrs 60, 139. 2456 “Neskol’ko privesok iz rakovin cyprea ��������������� moneta.� ”: Mel’nik (1905) 729. 2452 2453

Mel’nik (1905) 699, 739. “Vokrug šei rjad temnago bisera, perenizannogo 10-ju malymi prosverlennymi rakovinami cyprea tigrea.”: Mel’nik (1905) 739. 2459 “1 èkzempljar srezannoj rakoviny cyprea.” (sic!): Mel’nik (1905) 741. 2460 Ratič (1971) 165, 166: fig. 2: 2. Dąbrowska (1979) 341–42, 349, 347: fig. 4: 2. Given the bad quality of illustration which seems to show mainly Money cowries. In addition, 2 characterless and unperforated objects can be seen. It was still dated to the 9th century by Spinei (1996) 34–35, 284: fig. 8.. 2461 Mugurevič (1965) 59: note 8. 2462 “Existing cultural relations with the Jazygian population of 2457 2458

406

Catalogue

Fig. 174. Distribution of 13th–14th c. Jazygian (1) and 16th–17th c. South Slavic (2) cowrie finds from Carpathian Basin

2161–87. Jászberény (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Négyszállás, Cemetery I: a total of 454 graves (+ at least 32 burials) from a segment of a Jazygian cemetery around a church, dated to the 13th–15th centuries.2463

fragments of a chain-mail, a needle case, a solid bronze ball button, 3 silver rings with spiral terminals, small bronze and bone rings, a fish vertebra, a silver seal ring, a bronze finger ring, and 1 perforated cowrie on the left side of the skull.2466

2161. Stray finds/1936: 2 cowries were discovered in the graves excavated by József Komáromi in 1936, but they are not mentioned in the description of the graves.2464

2163. Grave 45: from the remains of a disturbed2467 female burial: an iron object, splinter from a flint stone, a flat, round glass paste bead, and a fragment of a perforated cowrie.2468

Damjanich János Múzeum, Szolnok.2465

2164. Grave 70: from a female (lenght: 135 cm) burial: fragment of cording material hammered from an iron ring, a needle case made from a bird long bone with an iron needle, a button from bronze plate, an iron French hook and eye, a bronze buckle, and the contents of the

2162. Grave 1: from a most likely female burial: iron ring Négyszállás is best demonstrated by particular object types, such as earrings, cowrie shell …”: Selmeczi 1994, 66. 2463 József Prückler (Pórteleki) acquired various objects from graves between 1935–37, later József Komáromi excavated 32 burials in 1936, and László Selmeczi unearthed 454 additional graves between 1980–83: Selmeczi (1992), 8–11, 15–17. Finds from the burials in the cemetery are shown, including 2 cowries: Kouznetsov–Lebedynsky (1997) 13; Selmeczi (2005) 149, 150: fig. 2464 Selmeczi (1992) 17: fig. 11. 2465 The material has not yet been inventorized, and since most of the material is exhibited, it was not available for closer study.

Selmeczi (1992) 18, 105: pl. I: 1–11; Selmeczi (1992ac) 207: fig. 105: in the first row. 2467 Since it was not interpreted as a child’s burial, I consider it to be a female grave: Selmeczi (1992) 22. 2468 Selmeczi (1992) 22, 105: pl. I: 63–66. 2466

407

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads leather sabretache: a bronze ring, half of a perforated, unidentifiable coin, a star-shaped bronze mount, 2 square mounts, a green glass paste bead, a green glass paste globe, half of a blue glass disk, a corroded iron rings and paste bead, an obsidian blade, and a whole lot of bronze band finger rings, a tin seal ring with a wide head, splinter of a flint, green glass paste beads, 2 heaps of beads: the first consists of 1 black and 6 green glass paste beads, the other contains 1 black, 4 green and, 5 yellow glass paste beads. In addition, a strand of beads between the jaw and the collar bone: 9 brown beads, 43 yellow beads, 4 small and 6 large green glass paste beads, 2 cylindrical bronze beads, and 3 perforated cowries.2469

mount, around the jaw, there was a strand of beads: 14 green beads, 1 black glass paste bead flattened all around, 6 spherical bone beads, and 2 perforated cowries.2476

2165. Grave 84: from the burial of a young child (lenght: 80 cm): 2 small bronze disks from the headdress ornament, a disk from sheet iron, half of a bronze snap, a strand of beads: 35 tiny round greenish-white glass paste beads, and by the left side of the skull, 1 fragmentary cowrie.2470

2171. Grave 174: from a likely female (lenght: 140 cm) burial: 5 spangles from silver plate, a pair of French iron hook and eyes, fragments of iron, an undeterminable silver coin, and beneath the skull and beside the jaw near the vertebrae, a strand of beads: 11 yellowish brown beads, 36 small, round green beads, 48 yellow glass paste beads, and 1 perforated cowrie on the left scapula.2479

2169a. Grave 128: incorrectly labelled as being a burial with cowrie shells.2477 2170. Grave 135: disturbed, but most likely fragments from a female burial: on the upper side of the chest, a strand of beads: spangles from silver plate, 2 silver mounts, plate bronze openwork, a tin disk, 1 small round gray bead, 4 yellow, 5 black and, 15 green glass paste beads and 1 perforated cowrie.2478

2166. Grave 86: from the burial of a child (lenght: 115 cm): 1 spangle soldered from silver, and 1 tinned bronze plaque, a round gilded silver mount, a rectangular bronze mount, a bronze plait clasp, a silver earring with a rod decorated with a grape bunch, a disk from tin plate, a bronze band finger ring, a bronze wire finger ring, bronze coin of King Bela III (1172–1196) with 3 perforations at its edge times and signed with the letter “H”. In addition, to the right of the skull, a perforated cowrie, and on the chest a dispersed strand of beads: 134 small, round, flattened, brownish white glass paste beads and 3 perforated cowries.2471

2172. Grave 180: from a rich female burial (lenght: 138 cm): 3 spangles from silver plate, 4 silver mounts, 22 small silver garment mounts with semi-spherical heads, 1 mount from tin plate, a pair of large gilt silver, so-called blistered, ornamental disks, a disk from tin plate, a pair of gilt silver disks with rivets, ornamented with lion motif, a rosette from silver plate, 1-1 silver earrings, of which rod-sections were fashioned differently, 1 bronze band finger ring, 1 bronze band finger ring with widening head, 1 bezelled silver finger ring, fragment of a coin issued by Queen Mary (1385–1395), and next to the mounts that were placed behind the skull, 1-1 perforated cowrie on each side, and behind and beneath the skull and around the jaw a strand of beads: a silver pendant within a crystal frame, 1 red bead, 1 yellow bead, 5 black beads, 9 round green beads, 1 yellowish white oval glass paste bead and 1 perforated cowrie.2480

2167. Grave 118: from a child’s burial (lenght: 116 cm): 2 spangles from silver plate, a bronze lockring with a coiled rod terminals, a bone ring, bronze band finger ring, and on the upper third of the chest, a dispersed strand of beads: 12 small beads, 24 large, round, flattened beads, 9 oval beads, 1 squared bead, 4 spherical-segmented glass paste beads, and 8 perforated cowries (Fig. 175. 1).2472 2168. Grave 121: from a young child’s burial (lenght: appr. 57 cm):2473 3 spangles from silver plate, a bezel from tin inlaid with glass paste, and around the jaw, a strand of beads: 10 round yellow, 3 green glass paste beads, 3 small beads, 2 large bone beads, and 3 perforated cowries.2474

2173. Grave 222: from a most likely female2481 burial: 4 iron needles, tinned spangle from bronze plate, a rosette from bronze plate, ornamental disk from bronze plate, bronze band finger ring, an undetermined coin, diagonally perforated at its edge, presumably the counterfeit of a 14th century Hungarian or Italian denar, a stamped, embossed button from sheet iron, and from around the claviculae, on the chest, a dispersed strand of beads: 17 small, round

2169. Grave 127: from a disturbed, presumably female, burial:2475 2 spherical-segmented beads and 1 square silver Selmeczi (1992) 25–26, 106: pl. III: 32–48; Selmeczi (2005a) 575, 577: fig. 12: 37–39. 2470 Selmeczi (1992) 28, 107: pl. III: 49–54. 2471 Selmeczi (1992) 29, 107: pl. III: 55–64. 2472 Selmeczi (1992) 33, 109: pl. V: 24–30; Selmeczi (1992ac) 207: fig. 105: in the middle; Selmeczi (2005a) 582, 579: fig. 13. 2473 Calculated from the grave measurements provided for Grave 122, and also taking into account the scale shown on the map of the cemetery, see Selmeczi (1992) 133: pl. XVIII: 11. 2474 Selmeczi (1992) 33, 109: pl. V: 6–10. 2475 In this grave was discovered, most likely, the disturbed burial of an adult woman since the small line on the map indicating the skeleton has no bottom: see Selmeczi (1992) 133: pl. XVIII: 11. 2469

Selmeczi (1981) 175, 174: fig. 11: 5; Selmeczi (1992) 35, 109: pl. V: 36–39, 133: pl. XVIII: 11. 2477 Selmeczi (1992) 87, see ibid 35. 2478 Since it was not mentioned in the publication whether or not it was a child, I referred to it as a female burial, see Selmeczi (1992) 35–36, 109: pl. V: 50–55. 2479 Selmeczi (1992) 40, 111: pl. VII: 1–9. 2480 Selmeczi (1992) 42, 111: pl. VII: 38–56. 2481 Selmeczi (1992) 126: XVIII: 5. Taking into account the scale provided on plate. 2476

408

Catalogue

Fig. 175. Pierced Money cowries and glass paste-beads from Jászberény cemetery: Grave 118 (1 – 2167), Grave 373 (2 – 2183), with other finds from Grave 393 (3 – 2185) – after Selmeczi (1992) 109: pl. V: 26, 118: pl. XIV: 19, 43–47

green glass paste beads, 1 bronze bead, half of a bronze wire French hook and eye, and 1 perforated cowrie.2482

tetraoctogonal beads and 1 spherical crystal bead, a silver band finger ring with a diskoid head, and on the chest, in one bunch: a hexagonal bronze pendant, a spangle from metal plate, a fragment of a gilt silver garment disk, a green glass paste bead, a silver plait clasp, and behind the skull, a strand of beads: 6 small, round, yellowish-white beads, 1 reddish-brown bead, 1 yellow bead, a reddish-brown bead, a barrel-shaped glass paste bead, and 2 perforated cowries.2485

2174. Grave 249: from an infant (lenght: 90 cm) burial: 2 oval silver rings, a bronze mount, 18 semi-spherical lead garment mounts, a plate metal spangle, and beneath the skull and the jaw, or rather beside the latter a strand of beads: a pair of French iron hook and eyes, 2 small round yellowish-brown beads, and 1 black glass paste bead, 5 round and 5 barrel-shaped bone beads, and 1 perforated cowrie.2483

2177. Grave 267: from a child burial (lenght: 117 cm): a spangle from metal plate silver, a rosette from sheet iron, a small, round, yellowish-white glass paste bead, and in addition, by the left side of the jaw, 2 perforated cowries.2486

2175. Grave 251: from a female burial (lenght: 134 cm): an iron knife, a needle case made from bird bone with one iron needle found within it and one found stuck to its exterior, 7 lead semi-sperical garment mounts, 2 large gilt silver, stamped garment disks, with hook and eye terminals, a round bronze buckle with an iron tongue, 2 silver U-shaped earrings (?), 3 spangles of silver plate, a pendant from gilt silver plate, a bezelled silver finger ring set with yellow glass, 2 tin bezels set with glass paste, and beneath the skull, and around the jaw, a strand of beads: 1 small round black-, 8 green-, 6 yellow-, 3 gold-colored glass paste beads, 2 gold-colored glass paste beads twisted into spiral, 2 large oval, brown glass paste beads, decorated with various colors, 24 small, spherical lead beads, and 3 perforated cowries.2484

2178. Grave 334: from a presumably female burial: 2 bronze ?-shaped ear rings, 1-1 silver and bronze ball buttons, bronze clasp, fragment of a bronze mount, 4 bronze band finger rings, iron ring of a clasp and 4 bronze plates, fragments of a chain-mail, a bronze plate needle case with an iron needle, a denar issued by Queen Mary (1385–1395) and 2 strings of beads on the both side of the skull: 2 greenish-blue, 2 yellow, 4 white glass paste, 1 bone beads and 1 perforated cowrie, lenght: 2,1 cm, as well 6 green, 2 yellow, 1 black glass paste beads and 1 perforated cowrie, lenght: 1,4 cm.2487

2176. Grave 256: from a female burial (lenght: 137 cm): an iron needle, a spangle from silver plate, a garment disk from bronze plate, gilt silver rosette, a bronze mount, 2

2179. Grave 337: double burial of a mother (nr. 336) and her baby (nr. 337). Grave goods from the latter (lenght: 60 cm): 2 spangles from silver plate, a solid bronze ball

2482

Selmeczi (1992) 48, 113: pl. IX: 10–17. Selmeczi (1992) 52, 114: pl. X: 11–23. 2484 Selmeczi (1992) 53, 114: pl. X: 24–39; Selmeczi (1992ab) 160: fig. 79: at the bottom.

2485

2483

2486

Selmeczi (1992) 54, 115: pl. XI: 8–20. Selmeczi (1992) 55, 115: pl. XI: 21–25. 2487 Selmeczi (1992) 62–63, 117: pl. XIII: 1–17; Selmeczi (2005a) 582, 580: fig. 14..

409

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads button, coffin mounts, and beneath the skull, around the jaw and the scapula, a strand of beads: 38 yellow beads, 20 green round and barrel-shaped beads, and 6 large yellow glass paste beads, 20 large brown bone beads, a pierced bone of an animal, and 2 perforated cowries.2488

Grave goods from the latter: 2 spangles from silver plate, 2 silver earrings with vertical rods decorated by spiral twists and grape bunches, 2 gilt silver strips, a blister-ornament metal plate disk with a hook and eye terminals, and under and around the jaw, a strand of beads: 54 small round yellow, and 43 green glass paste beads with 1 perforated cowrie (Fig. 175. 3).2495

2180. Grave 340: from the burial of an infant (lenght: 100 cm): a bone needle case, a solid bronze ball button, a bronze mount, a stamped ornament from bronze plate, an openwork bronze disk, a leather sabretache decorated with beads. In side it were found a solid bronze ball button, 2 silver earrings with vertical rod-pendants, a bronze finger ring with a star-shaped bezel, a bronze strip, small lumps of iron, an iron artifact, and 1 perforated cowrie between the pubic-bones.2489

2186. Grave 395: from the remains of a most likely female burial:2496 a cylindrical needle case fashioned from bronze plate, an iron knife, 2 spangles from silver plate, 1 trapezoid buckle, and 1 round bronze buckle, 3 small iron loops, and by the skull that was removed when the pit for Grave 394 was dug, 2 tin mounts shaped like a segment of a globe, and 2 perforated cowries.2497

2181. Grave 352: from a child burial (lenght: 122 cm): a bronze plaque, a mount formed like a segment of a sphere, a bronze mount, a bronze wire twisted into a spiral, a pair of a French iron hook and eye terminals covered with a small disk, 2 bronze earrings with vertical rods and coiled terminals, a star-shaped bronze bead, a bronze band finger ring, and in addition, beneath the skull and next to the jaw, a circle of beads: 26 small, round, green beads, 28 yellow beads, and 3 large yellow glass paste beads, and 1 perforated cowrie.2490

2187. Grave 447: from a most likely female burial (lenght: 134 cm): 2 spangles from bronze plate, and 1 spangle fashioned from silver plate, a round iron buckle, 2 bronze earrings decorated with a vertical rod, one of which has a wide terminals while the other is coiled, a band finger ring set with tin, a small iron chain, a fragment of chainmail hammered from iron links, and in addition, under and around the skull, a strand of beads: 1 small round yellow bead and 20 green glass paste beads, and 2 perforated cowries.2498

2182. Grave 363: double burial of a mother (nr. 362), and her child (nr. 363); grave goods from the latter (lenght: 90 cm): beneath the skull, a strand of beads: a bronze rattle, 76 small, round green beads, 59 yellow beads, 3 brown glass paste beads, and 1 perforated cowrie.2491

2188. Jászberény (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Négyszállás, Cemetery II: unpublished Jazygian cemetery around a church with 568 graves, dated between the end of the 13th–16th centuries. A new church was built on the site of the demolished Arpadian Period church at the end of the 13th– first half of the 14th century.2499

2183. Grave 373: from a female burial (lenght: 145 cm): a solid bronze ball button, a round iron buckle, iron chain links hammered into loops, a finger ring bezelled with a strip of tin, and beneath the skull and around the jaw, 40 small, round green beads, 1-1 gray, and blue beads, 15 black beads and 9 yellow glass paste beads, and 5 perforated cowries (Fig. 175. 2).2492

Grave 517: A cowrie is mentioned among the grave goods.2500 2189. Jászdózsa (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary): Jazygian type objects from a disturbed burial, which was formerly referred as a hoard find:2501 blister ornamented, round buckle disk from silver, round bronze buckle, 11 ball buttons from silver,2502 2 bronze band finger rings with ribbing (one of them is a fragment), and 4 small cowries were preserved.2503 All of the cowries are Money cowries: 3 perforated were at the anterior end, and the hole on one of them is broken, the fourth cowrie might have been

2184. Grave 375: from a most likely female burial2493: 2 solid bronze ball buttons, and beneath the skull and the jaw, a strand of beads: 7 amorphous coral beads, 1-1 green, and yellow glass paste beads and 1 perforated cowrie.2494 2185. Grave 393: The double grave of an adolescent (nr. 392, lenght: 145 cm) and a child (nr. 393, lenght: 120 cm).

Selmeczi (1992) 69, 118: pl. XIV: 43–47. Selmeczi (1992) 126: according to the map of the cemetery shown on pl. XVIII: 4. 2497 Selmeczi (1992) 69–70, 119: pl. XV: 1–2, 8–9, 13–14, 18–19, 21–22. 2498 Selmeczi (1992) 76, 121: pl. XVII: 5–16. 2499 Selmeczi (1992ab) 145–46; Selmeczi (1992ac) 201–03. 2500 Selmeczi (1992ac) 208; Selmeczi (2005) 149. 2501 Bárányné Oberschall (1945) 20–21, 20: fig. 5: 6. This find was referred to incorrectly under the title of the article as coming from Kiskunhalas-Bodoglárpuszta by: Sláma (1958–59) 28: note 5. 2502 9 spindle whorls were published by Bárányné Oberschall (1945) 19; presently 6 of them can be located. 2503 This find was inventorized in the Hungarian National Museum, Budapest as being the present of Lajos Kiss, director and teacher, on 11th March 1936. 2495 2496

Selmeczi (1992) 63, 117: pl. XIII: 25–30; Selmeczi (1992ac) 207: fig. 105: the lower row; Havassy (1996) 111: nr. 168, and picture. 2489 Selmeczi (1992) 64, 117: pl. XIII: 38–49. 2490 Selmeczi (1992) 65, 118: pl. XIV: 1—6; Selmeczi (2005a) 582, 580: fig. 14. 2491 Selmeczi (1992) 66, 118: pl. XIV: 16–17. 2492 Selmeczi (1992) 67, 118: pl. XIV: 19–24; Selmeczi (1992ab) 160: fig. 79: above. 2493 Since the stick mark for the skeleton has no “foot” on the cemetery map, it is most likely a disturbed adult woman’s grave: Selmeczi (1992) 128: pl. XVIII: 6. 2494 Selmeczi (1992) 67, 118: pl. XIV: 25–27. 2488

410

Catalogue the same type as the others, but the ventral side of this is mostly missing; size: 1.45x1.0–1.6x.1.1 cm. Hungarian National Museum, Department, acc. nr.: 15./1936.

Budapest,

found at a depth of 15 cm. There were at least 10 cowries with a narrow opening at their anterior ends, about 6 of the cowries had oval-round openings at their anterior ends, while roughly 7 specimens had open dorsi.

Medieval

Arheologičeski muzej, Varna, acc. nr.: 42210 (Fig. 177).2507

2190. Kardoskút (Békés megye, Hungary)-Hatablakikápolna-dűlő: at least 41 graves from a cemetery, around a church from the Arpadian Period.

2193. Lukovit (obščina Lukovit, oblast Loveč)-Mušat: 134 graves of a cemetery, dated to the 12th–14th centuries:

Stray find: 2 perforated *Money cowries with narrow opening were found together with a perforated H73 type bronze coin of King Bela III (1172–1196) near the southeastern corner of the church, above the level of Graves 33 and 34, from depths of appr. 80 cm, d: 1.8x1.3 cm. The coin and a shell were corroded on to each other, which indicates both that they belong to the same level, and their probable origin in a disturbed burial dating from the first half of the 13th century.2504 Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Department, acc. nr.: 58.119.1 (coin)–3.B.2505 Kiskunhalas (Bács-Kiskun megye, Bodoglárpuszta – see 2189. Jászdózsa

Grave 97: in the double burial, the skeleton labelled ‘A’ was found without any goods; finds from the ‘B’ burial: right from the skull, the hollow globe of an earring, and near to it, a perforated cowrie with fragmentary dorsum, l: 1.6 cm. Museum of Pleven, acc. nr.: 100b.2508 Silistra (oblast Silistra)-Drustur/Durostorum/Dorostol Grave 15 – see Annex 2348.

Medieval

2194. Croatia

Hungary)-

2194. Split (Dalmatinsko-splitska županija)-crkva Sv. Spasa u Vrh Rici: 5 cowries (školjke), most likely all Money cowries with removed dorsi, were preserved among the stray finds of the 1162 graves from a churchyard cemetery dating between the 12th and 15th centuries, size: 1.8x1.2, 1.8x1.0, 1.7x1.3, 1.5x1.0 and 1.3x1.0 cm.2509

4.17. 2191–269. Eastern Parallels of the Jazygian Cowrie Finds from the Carpathian Basin (12th/13th–14th/15th Centuries) – (see Annex 2348, 2390, 2472, 2531–33, 2537, 2560)

2195. Egypt

The material was collected from Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, Estonia, Georgia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, The Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Sweden and Ukraine (Fig. 176. 1).

2195. Quseir al-Qadim (east from Luxor): in the excavated Red Sea port, among marine invertebrates of the Ayyubid– Mamluk periods (1174–1516), 13 Tiger cowries (10 of them from a deposit in a room), 5 Money cowries, 1 Ringed cowrie and 15 unspecified cowries were recovered.2510

2191. Belarus Grodno – see 2060. Hrodna

2196–97. Estonia

2191. Hrodna (prev. Grodno, Hrodna rajon, Hrodna voblast)-Castle hill, Lower Church: from a 9–10 year old girl’s burial, excavated in the nave of the church from the 13th–14th centuries: a glass bracelet, a twisted bronze finger ring, and around her neck was a lavish strand of beads: a clay bead, mush-beads, bronze spiral-tubes, and 2 perforated cowries.2506

2196. Jyga/Juga/Jouga (Ida-Virumaa): combined SlavicVot cemetery of the 12th–14th (?) centuries: Grave 22: among finds from a Vot burial with multi-beaded loops on earrings and cowries.2511 2197. Vaabina (Vőrumaa): village cemetery from south Estonia, dated to the 13th–15th/18th centuries:

2192–93, Annex 2348. Bulgaria

Zaprjanov (1988). It mentioned the rarity of cowries noted in the Bulgarian literature, he did not carry out extensive research since he knew of only a few grave finds (548, 1166, 1847): ibid. 185. 2508 Stančev–Načeva (1960) 80, 93, 92: fig. 11: above nr. 102 on the left, in the middle. 2509 Petrinec (1996) 121: nr. 98.a–e, 122: fig. 98: a–e. I could not find any interpretation of the uninventoried cowries, see Jakšić (1996). 2510 Reese (1982) 379, 381, 383. About finds from the Roman period (964). 2511 Sedov (1953) 226–27: Appendix 4, 228–29: Appendix 5; Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 1/Vots.

2192. Dolišče (oblast Varna): a “treasure find”, which had been deposited in a vessel of the 14th century. A total of 37 Money cowries were discovered, with variously shaped openings in the preserved fragment of the vessel that was

2507

Méri (1964) 7–8, pl. V: 7–9. Here, I would like to express my gratitude for the help given to me by Júlia Kovalovszki. 2506 Voronin (1954) 175–79, 179: fig. 99: 2; Lysenko–Lysenko–Kvitnickij (2005) 211. 2504 2505

411

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 176. Distribution of eastern parallels of Jazygian (1) and South Slavic (2) cowrie finds from Carpathian Basin (12th/13th–14th/15th centuries)

Grave LI: the only grave good from an adult burial was a strand of beads composed of glass beads, and nearly 154 cowries. The majority or even all of the shells were probably Money cowries (Fig. 178).2512 2198–99. Georgia/Gruziya 2198. Abajtykau/Sba (Džavskij rajon, Južnaja Osetija): 2 cowries were recovered from 6 stone chest graves, dated to the 10th–14th centuries, lenght: appr. 1.5 cm.2513 2199. Rustavi (Kvemo-Kartili raioni): 5 perforated cowries were found in the cemetery of a settlement dated to the 12th–13th centuries, most likely all were Money cowries.2514 Sba – see 2198. Abajtykau 2200, Annex 2390. Germany

Fig. 177. A „treasure find” of 37 Money cowries from Dolišče (2192) – after Zaprjanov (1988) pl. I: 1

2200. Halberstadt (Landkreis Halberstadt, Regierungsbezirk Halberstadt, Bundesland SachsenAnhalt)-Marienmäntelchen mit Schmuckbrakteaten of 14th century: the green silk cloak is ornamented with a series of various stamped silver mounts with silver cowrie imitations attached to round mounts.

Dommuseum, Halberstadt, nr. 165.2515 Neuss (Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen)-Pfarrgarten von St. Quirin – see Annex 2390.

Scaled, more or less accurately, from the copy of the article that was kindly sent to me by Heiki Valk, see Valk (1999) pl. XIV: 5. 2513 Džatiev (1979) 237, 258. and pl. XCVIII: 45–46. 2514 Lomtatidze (1957) 283–84, 285: fig. 10: 3. 2512

It was collected by Elek Benkő from the Photo Archives in the Zentralinstitut of Munich: Photo 21; here I would like to express my gratitude for this information. 2515

412

Catalogue

Fig. 178. Necklace of beads and 154 pierced Money (?) cowries from Grave LI at Vaabina (2197) – after Valk (1999) pl. XLV: 5

2201. Israel

were found in a cemetery or a settlement of the 13th–18th centuries.2520

2201. Jerusalem-Site L (Armenian Garden): 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum, and 1 additional cowrie was found, dated to the Mamluk period (1375–1400).2516

2206. Baltinavas Dukste (Balvu Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2521

2202. Italy

2207. Ērgļu Indrāni (Madonas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery (see 1896) of the 13th–18th centuries.2522

2202. Otranto (province Lecce, regione Puglia): a complete unmodified Panther cowrie was found in a level of the 13th–14th centuries, lenght: 7.0 cm.2517

2208. Īslīces Jaunzemli (Bauskas Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2523

2203–04. Jordan 2203. Amman Citadel: 1 perforated Ringed cowrie that can be dated from the Mamluk period (1375–1516) to Modern times.2518

2209. Kokneses pils (Aizkraukles Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in the forecastle (pils/dvorec) of the 13th–18th centuries.2524

2204. Tell Hesbân (North Jordan): 1 large fragment of a Panther cowrie from the Ayyubid‑Mamluk periods (1174–1516).2519

2210. Lielstraupe (= Straupe, Cesu Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2525

2205–29. Latvia

2211. Lokstenes pils (Aizkraukles Rajons): from 3 or 12

2205. Alūksne (Aluksnes Rajons): more than 100 cowries

Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 102. Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 138. 2522 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 3; Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 25: nr. 3. 2523 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 53. 2524 4 examples: Mugurevič (1962) 45; and 97 items: Mugurevič (1965) 58; see Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 144. 2525 Mugurevič (1962) 44. and 43: fig. 6: nr. 20. 2520 2521

Reese (1991) 165: nr. 26, 165: fig. 14; Reese (1995) 267, 277, 278. Reese (1982) 383 (still with a date in the 11th century; it was redated by the excavation director – note of David S.Reese); Reese (1991) 173: nr. 92; Reese (1992b) 349, 351. 2518 Reese (1991) 163: nr. 12. 2519 Reese (1991) 161: nr. 7. 2516 2517

413

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads cowries were unearthed in a fortification (pils/dvorec) of the 13th–14th century.2526

cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2537

2212. Madlienas Vērene (Ogres Rajons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2527

2222. Taurupes Vecmuižnieki (Ogres Rayons): more than 100 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2538

2213. Mālupes Kopmaņi (Alupes Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were uncovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2528

Grave 1: a necklace was unearthed, composed of regularly alternating beads, 5 bronze rattles and 15 cowries, which were partly perforated or with open dorsi (Fig. 180).2539

2214. Mārtinsalas kapsěta: 8 perforated, most likely Money cowries, were found with a pair of bronze earrings ornamented with a bird-pendant, a bronze lunula pendant, and a necklace: 8 glass beads, 2 bronze lozenge-shaped pendants, and a bronze cross, in what was probably a churchyard cemetery of the 13th–17th centuries (Fig. 179).2529

2223. Turaidas pils (Rigas Rayons): 4 cowries were discovered in the fort-settlement in an earthen fortification of the 13th–18th centuries.2540

2215. Mazsalacas Vecdauģēni (Valmieras Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries (see 2290).2530

2225. Vecates Riņņukalns (Valmieras Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2542

2216. Menģele (Ogres Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2531

2226. Vecgulbene: more than 100 cowries were recovered in the graves of the cemetery (see 2066) of the 11th–18th centuries.2543

2224. Vanēs Bērzkalni (Tukuma Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries (see 2291).2541

2217. Misas Kļavas (Bauskas Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2532

2227. Veselava (Cesu Rayons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered in one or more graves from the cemetery, as parts of necklaces also including bronze rattles, dated to the 13th–18th centuries.2544

2218. Pļaviņu Kalna Peļņi: from 25–100 cowries were found in several graves of a cemetery, which were included into a necklace and altered with bronze rattles of the 13th–18th centuries.2533

2228. Vietalvas Bites (Aizkraukles Rayons): more than 100 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2545

2219. Saldus (Saldus Rayons): from 25–100 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2534

2229. Zaubes Bērzmuiža (Cesu Rayons): more than 100 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries.2546

2220. Stirnienes Kapenieki (Madonas Rayons): from 1–25 cowries were recovered in a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries:2535

2230. Lithuania

Grave 2: a necklace was recovered among the grave goods, composed of amber pendants and cowries.2536

2230. Šiauliai (Siauliu Apskritis)-Ul. Komunarov: 1 necklace was found in a grave (?) dated to the 14th–15th centuries, which consisted of 4 coins and 8 perforated cowries.2547

Straupe – see 2210. Lielstraupe 2221. Svētciema Priecums (Limbazu Rayons): from 1–25

Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 37. Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 35. 2539 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 41: fig. 5; Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 24. 2540 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 120. 2541 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 131. 2542 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 98. 2543 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 11; vö. Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 25: nr. 11. 2544 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 99. 2545 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 150. 2546 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 36. 2547 Kuncienë (1972) 182. I learned these through the kind offices of Vytautas Kazakevičius. 2537

3 examples: Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 151; 12 items: Mugurevič (1965) 58. 2527 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 40. 2528 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 111. 2529 Latvijas (1974) 314: fig. 204: 6; Zariņa (1974) 246: fig. 3: 3. 2530 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 113. 2531 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 28. 2532 Mugurevič (1962) 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 129. 2533 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 31. 2534 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 45, 44 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 142. 2535 Mugurevič (1962) 45 and 43: fig. 6: nr. 141. 2536 Mugurevič (1962) 42. 2526

2538

414

Catalogue

Fig. 179. Necklace with cowries of Grave 332 at Mārtinsala (2214) – after Zariņa (1974) 246: fig. 3: 3

2231, Annex 2472. The Netherlands

2232–36. Romania

Dordrecht (provincie Zuid-Holland)-Scharlaken house – see Annex 2472.

2232. Coconi (comună Mănăstirea, judeţul Ilfov): 1 cowrie with an open dorsum is known from the village, Dorestad excavations which was not included in the present study. All Cypraea species live in tropical or subtropical waters. The possibility that the shells are later intrusions – post medieval import as curiosities particularly comes to mind – cannot be excluded. The presence of this second shell of Cypraea sp., probably Cypraea pantherina, makes the early medieval dating of both shells less unlikely. An early medieval dating of these shells would confirm the early medieval contacts between Western Europe and the Near East. The reason for their possible importation is unknown. As far as I know, no shells of Cypraea species have been found in other early or late medieval European find sites.”: Prummel (1983) 234; Knol (1988) 119.

2231. Wijk bij Duurstede (provincie Utrecht)-Hoogstraat I: 2 Panther cowries were recovered in the former Carolingian port-town of Dorestad (700–850), one of which was dated to the 14th century.2548 Johansson (1995) 349. The dating was based on muddled logic: “In addition to the shell of this species [Cypraea pantherina] found in Hoogstraat I, another specimen of one the larger Cypraea, presumably also a Cypraea pantherina, was dug up from another section of the 2548

415

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 181. Money cowrie with open dorsum from Coconi (2232) – after Constantinescu (1972) 285: pl. 13: 5

Sale/Enisala, dated to the 13th–14th centuries.2553 The beads included: 4 perforated cowries and colored glass beads. 2237–68. Russia 2237. Arbon’e (prev. St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija.; Leningradskaja oblast’): kurgan cemetery of Novgorodian Slovenes and Vots dated from the 13th/14th (?) centuries:

Fig. 180. Necklace of beads with 15 cowries and 5 rattles from Grave 1 of Taurupes Vecmuižnieki cemetery (2222) – after Mugurevič (1965) 56: fig. 24

Kurgan 44: from a female burial: an earring decorated with plate metal globes that are drawn onto their loops, a decorated, solid plate metal bracelet, a finger ring, a strand of beads, and a mollusc (rakovina), which may be cowrie.2554

dated between ca. 1380 to 1432. It has been interpreted as an amulet, size: 1.5x1.1 cm (Fig. 181).2549

2238. Averino (Afanas’jevskij rajon, Kirovskaja oblast’)-Cemetery I: 26 graves from part of a cemetery connected to the Finno-Permian population of the Rodanovo (rodanovskaja) Culture, dated to the 12th–14th centuries:2555

2233–35. Piatra Neamţ (judeţul Neamţ)-Dărmăneşti: 7 Vlach/Romanian graves (are numbered up to 25) from a cemetery dated between the end of the 14th– beginning of the 15th centuries: 2233. Grave 1: from a child’s burial: fragment of a bronze loop, and a cowrie with 3 tiny holes, found in a strand of other beads.2550

Grave 2: 18 perforated cowries were found in a strand of beads: according to the published picture, they are likely Money cowries. Most have round holes and 1 has a removed dorsum.2556

2234. Grave 2: from the double burial of a child and a woman, the grave goods for the child included: 2 silver earrings hooked onto each other, and a strand of beads composed of transparent and opaque glass beads of various colors and sizes, the bones of a small sized carnivore astragalus, and some (maybe 7) perforated cowries.2551

2239–42. Bol’šaja Polja (prev. St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’): Novgorodian Slovene žalnik2557 cemetery, including 10 kurgans and 52 graves, dated to the 13th–14th centuries, contained cowries as a consequence of the Vot presence:2558

2235. Grave 6: from a female burial: 2 bronze earrings, and a strand of beads, composed of various glass paste beads, a spherical lead bead, and 3 perforated cowries.2552

2239. Grave 16: in the žalnik grave 8 (2 males, 3 females, 2 children, 1 adult) skeletons were recovered. Grave goods next to the female who was placed between the

2236. Turcoaia (judeţul Tulcea)-Igliţa: 4 perforated cowries were discovered as part of a strand of beads during excavations at the medieval fortification at Yeni-

Dragomir (1972–73) 42, 48/49: fig. 19: 14. The genus is not identified, it is only my supposition: Spicyn (1896) 69: nr. XXXV. 44. 2555 Goldina–Kananin (1989) 125 and 131: nr. 60. 2556 Only as a table caption: Goldina–Kananin (1989) 187: fig. 64, 18. 2557 Žalnik is the local variant from the Russian grobnica ‘tomb, sepulchre, crypt’, and Ancient Slavic and Ancient Russian žal, in Novgorod, it refers to special type of cemetery where tombs were encircled by stones in a rectangular or circular pattern on the surface: Sedov (1982) 180. 2558 Sedov (1953) 203, 224–225: Appendix 3; Sedov (1982) 176–177: map 30, nr. 5., 180: map 32, nr. 2, Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4, nr. 3/Vots. From the single example of the book by Jastrebov (1893) available in Hungary, unfortunately since plates 1–19 are missing, I could not use the references to these illustrations. 2553 2554

Constantinescu (1972) 99, 285: pl. 13: 5. Spinei (1972‑73) 22, 24/25: fig. 5: 4. – As far as cowries are concerned, the publication has a totally confused comparative material. The cemetery is dated using 5 coins issued by Petru Muşat (1374–1391), and 1 silver coin of Alexandru cel Bun (1400–1432) Voivode of Moldova: Spinei (1972–1973) 26; see Spinei (1969) 223, 225. 2551 Spinei (1972—73) 22–23, 24/25: fig. 5: 2; see Spinei (1969) 219, 222: fig. 4: 2. 2552 Spinei (1972–73) 23, 24/25: fig. 7. 2549 2550

416

Catalogue two children: 2 silver earrings, 2 bronze bracelets, woolen remains, and a necklace: 3 bronze rattles, 1 dark bead and 2 perforated cowries.2559

century), dated from the end of the 1350s, to the beginning of the 1360s.2564 2245. Gorbovo (Pskovskaja oblast’): cowries were found in the Novgorodian Slovene cemetery, perhaps of the 13th–14th centuries. Their presence there is related to Vot influence.2565

2240–41. Grave 23: 1 male and 2 females were buried in the žalnik grave and cowries were discovered among the finds from both female burials: 2240. Skeleton 2: a buckle from bronze plate, 5 large tin or lead rosettes with suspension loops from the headdress ornament, 2 twisted bronze wire bracelets, 2 bracelets from bronze plate and 2 other bracelets, a twisted wire finger ring, an iron knife with bone grip, an iron chain composed of large links fashioned from figure-eights, with 2 iron loops and rattles, remains of wool and felt, and in the neck region, a bronze goose-foot-shaped pendant, a brass cross and a necklace: some rows of various sized large and small beads, several large and small rattles, and 46 presumably perforated cowries.2560

2246. Kuriček (Pskovskaja oblast’): Slovene–Vot cemetery of the 12th–14th centuries: Grave 3: based on the presence of the cowries it must have been a Vot burial.2566 2247. Mol’čanovka (Nikolaevskij rajon, Volgogradskaja oblast’)-3. SE-Kurgangroup: kurgan cemetery with 3 kurgans, Kurgan 3: from a female burial, who was placed there at the time of the Golden Horde (14th century): on the head a characteristic Kipčak female head-gear (bokka), question mark-shaped pendant, on the left shoulder, a broken bronze mirror, by the left hand of the deceased iron scissors, by the left foot fragments of iron, and in addition, at least 3 types of silk were found. On the chest 2 pentagram-shaped gold mounts, 2 tiny bronze amulets figuring a man, and 2 cowries, which were identified from the photo as perforated Money cowries.2567

2241. Skeleton 3: from a somewhat later female burial of the 14th century: a pair of silver earrings with 12 globes on each, 3 twisted bronze wire bracelets and 3 ornamented bracelets, and in the neck region, a necklace, composed of small, dark beads and a great number of perforated cowries.2561 2242. Grave 30: in the grave of the 15th century, one female and 3 children were buried in a row. The grave goods beside the first skeleton: decorated tin strips from the forehead band, a bronze plait clasp with coiled terminals, a silver coin from Novgorod, and from the necklace found in the neck region 2 bronze beads, 15 small glass beads and large glass beads, and 5 perforated cowries.2562

2248. Muranka (Šigonskij rajon, Kujbiševskaja oblast’): cowries were sometimes uncovered as parts of necklaces in the Mordvin cemetery’s female, and mainly in children burials, dating from the second half of the 14th century.2568 2249. Myza Kuričok (prev. St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’): a Novgorodian Slovene cemetery, which consisted of 20 low kurgans and 10 burials:

2243. Bol’šie Bornicy (prev. St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’): nearly 73 graves from a Novgorodian Slovene cemetery, dated between 13th–14th centuries:

Kurgan 3: from a child burial, dated to the 14th century: glazed beads, 2 rattles, some tiny spirals, 2 wire bracelets, and 2 cowries.2569

Kurgan 19: fragments of iron and a mollusc (rakovina), which might have been a cowrie.2563

2250–52 Novo-Siverskaja (Leningradskaja oblast’): 308 excavated kurgans of the Vot–Novgorodian Slovene cemetery of the 13th–14th centuries, in whose material cowries are presented due to Vot influence:2570

2244. Carev (Sredneahtubinskij rajon, Volgogradskaja oblast’)-Carevskoe gorodišče/Saraj Berke(Novyj Saraj), plot nr. 248: some cowries (rakoviny kauri) were discovered at the second farm (usad’ba II) from the reservoir on the eastern outskirts of the capital of the Golden Horde (14th

Without any reference to the amount, and also lacking any illustration or description of its condition: Fedorov-Davydov–Vajner–Guseva (1974) 106, 113 (dating); Stepi (1981) 275: 9 fig. 6: nr. 40. 2565 Sedov (1953) 224–25: Appendix 3; Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 12/Vots. 2566 Sedov (1953) 226–27: Appendix 4, 228–29: Appendix 5; Sedov (1982) 176–77: map 30: nr. 16. 2567 Sinicyn (1960) 129–30, fig. 48: 2; Lysenko–Lysenko–Kvitnickij (2005) 210–11. 2568 Alihova (1954) 283. 2569 Spicyn (1903) 85. 2570 Spicyn (1896) 104–06: nr. CV; Sedov (1953) 224–25: Appendix 3; Sedov (1982) 174–75: map 29: nr. 27, 190–191: map 35: nr. 34; Finnougry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 62/Vots. 2564

“Ožerel’e iz dvuh rakovinok kauri”: Spicyn (1903) 66. Since they were named in connection with Grave 3, the identifcation of the genus for “46 rakovin” seems very likely: Spicyn (1903) 67. 2561 Spicyn (1903) 68. 2562 Spicyn (1903) 69. 2563 The genus is not provided, but it can be suggested a cowrie by considering related finds known to me from this period: Spicyn (1896) 62: nr. XII: 19; Sedov (1982) 174–75: map 29: nr. 23, 176–77: map 30: nr. 114. 2559 2560

417

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2250. Kurgan 87: from a likely female burial: a pair of earrings which were ornamented by metal plate globules drawn on the loops, a pair of bracelets, a finger ring, a knife in sheath, hanged on a tiny chain, remains of black hair, and the necklace: 12 large beads, a great bunch of cylindrical lead beads, 15 rattles, and 40 cowries.2571

between the 12th–early 13th centuries. One of them is likely perforated, the other, a Money cowrie, hung on a tiny ring, lenght: appr. 1.6 cm.2579 2258. Pumolicy/Pumalica? (prev. St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’): nearly 30 kurgans were excavated in a Vot cemetery of the end of the 14th century–early 15th century:

2251. Kurgan 152: from a female burial: question markshaped earring, but its pendants are missing, 2 wide plate metal bracelets, a needle case, and a necklace, composed of beads and 6 cowries.2572

Kurgan 3: a belt buckle, fragments of textile, a pair of loops from an earring, an additional pair of thin wire loops from a different earring which was soldered from two parts, and onto which 3 plate metal globes were drawn on alternating with 4 perforated Money cowries on a tiny loop, the illustrated item has an open dorsum, lenght: appr. 1.5–2.2 cm. Finally a strand of tiny beads, including 10 spiral tubes and 20 or more Money cowries were found.2580

2252. Kurgan 231: from the burial of a young girl: a buckle, an earring, beads, 2 bracelets, a finger ring, a bone staff end, and cowries.2573 2253. Novyj Kumak (Novoorskij rajon, Orenburgskaja oblast’) Kurgan 16: 32 graves from a Kipčak kurgan cemetery, dated to the 12th–14th centuries:2574

2259. Rutilicy (Leningradskaja oblast’): because of Vot influence, more cowries were recovered in a Novgorodian Slovene Kurgan cemetery of the 13th–14th centuries.2581

Grave 1: cowries (rakoviny) were discovered among the beads. On the illustration there seems to be a Ringed cowrie rather than a Money cowrie, unless it is a specimen from another genus; lenght: appr. 1.8 cm.2575

2260–61. Sabsk (prev. St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’?): 203 kurgans were excavated in a Novgorodian Slovene kurgan cemetery of the 13th–14th centuries:

Novyj Saraj – see 2244. Carevskoe gorodišče

2260. 6 elements in a piece of jewelry with Vot characteristics, namely the multi-beaded earring loop with cowrie pendants, were recovered. Cowries were found as single necklaces in other graves.2582

2254. Ožogino (Leningradskaja oblast’): Novgorodian Slovene–Vot žalnik cemetery of the 12th–14th centuries: Grave 69: 2 cowries were found among the grave goods of this Vot type burial with multi-beaded earring hoop decorated by a pendant.2576

2261. Kurgan 153: nearly 30 cowries are mentioned as grave goods.2583

2255. Pillovo (Leningradskaja oblast’): Slovene–Vot cemetery, where cowries were uncovered dates to the 14th century.2577

Saraj Berke – see 2244. Carevskoe gorodišče 2262–63. Savinovščina (Leningradskaja oblast’): Novgorodian Slovene žalnik cemetery with 20 graves, dated to the 13th–14th centuries:2584

2256. Pleščevicy (Leningradskaja oblast’): Novgorodian Slovene–Vot žalnik cemetery at Novgorod, dated to the 12th–14th centuries:

2262. Grave 8: burials of 1 male and 2 females, dated to the 14th century. The grave goods from one of the female burials: wavy bronze plait clasp, a pair of silver earrings with globes, bronze double duck pendant with rattles

Grave 53: based on the presence of cowries in the burial, this grave has Vot characteristics.2578 2257. Popovskaja (Rjazan’skaja oblast’): 2 cowries were found in a Meščer kurgan cemetery with 63 graves, dated

Rjabinin (1999) 75, 84, 83: fig. 4: 2. He mentioned that these Krivič bracelet-like loops, decorated with cylindrical or lozenge-shaped pendants, rattles or cowries, belonged to a type of jewelry which was transformed in accordance with local taste: ibid. 79. 2580 The definition, given with the identification says: “20 ili bolee rakovin cypraea moneta”, about the items drawn onto the earrings “2 para sereg s podvešennymi k nim temi že rakovinami”: Spicyn (1896) 52, 100: nr. XCIV, 116. and pl. II: 1; Sedov (1953) 224–25: Appendix 3; Finno-ugry (1987) 37, 36–37: map 4: nr. 15/Vots. 2581 Sedov (1953) 224–25: Appendix 3; Sedov (1982) 228: pl. LIV: 31; Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 36/Vots. 2582 Without knowing about the division of the graves; see Sedov (1953) 224–25: Appendix 3. 2583 “Do 30 rakovin-kauri”: Spicyn (1896) 113: CXXVII: 153; Sedov (1982) 227: pl. LIII: 7. 2584 Sedov (1982) 176–77: map 30: nr. 21., 180: map 32: nr. 52. 2579

Spicyn (1896) 104: nr. CV. 87. “iz... 6 rakovinok”: Spicyn (1896) 105: nr. CV. 152. 2573 “rakovinki”: Spicyn (1896) 105: nr. CV. 231. 2574 Ivanov–Kriger (1988) 74: nr. 10. 2575 Ivanov–Kriger (1988) 18, 35: fig. 11: 32. This item is cited as being typical, but without specifying the site where it was found: ibid. 17: fig. 4: 12; Lysenko–Lysenko–Kvitnickij (2005) 210. 2576 Sedov (1953) 226–27: Appendix 4, 228–29: Appendix 5; Sedov (1982) 176–77: map 30: nr. 106, 181: map 32: nr. 57, 190–191: map 35: nr. 38; Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 37/Vots. 2577 Sedov (1953) 205, 224–25: Appendix 3. 2578 Sedov (1953) 226–27: Appendix 4, 228–29: Appendix 5; Sedov (1982) 176–77: map 30: nr. 82a, 181: map 32: nr. 55a; Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 22/Vots. 2571 2572

418

Catalogue on it, 2 bronze finger rings, a bronze ball button, 2 large rattles, fragments of wool, textile and ribbon, in the neck region a necklace: 7 tiny rattles, small, colored beads and cowries.2585

2269. Sweden

2263. Grave 17: double burial of a man and a woman, dated to the 14th century. Grave goods from the latter: wavy plait clasp, iron belt loop, an iron knife, and 1-1 glass, bronze beads, and small glass beads, 6 bronze rattles, an openwork bronze mount, and some cowries.2586

Ukraine – see Annex 2531–33, 2537, 2560.

2264. Selišče (prev: St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’): presumably, 57 kurgans from a Novgorodian Slovene–Vot žalnik cemetery of the 13th–14th centuries:

Kerč (Krymskaja oblast’)-Old Market (now Tostoj) Square – see Annex 2533.

Kurgan 53: 2 dark beads and 18 cowries.2587

Velikaja Znamenka (Dneprovskij rajon, Zaporožskaja oblast’)-Mamaj-Surka – see Annex 2560.

2269. Uppsala (Uppsala län)-”Kransen”: 1 Money cowrie is mentioned dating to around 1300.2593

Kerč (Krymskaja oblast’)-Bosporo, Ital’janskie goroda, Korčev cemetery around the church of John the Baptist Grave 43 and Site 1 – see Annex 2531–32.

Mirmekij (Krymskaja oblast’)-Pondiko – see Annex 2537.

Selitrennoe (Narimanovskij rajon, Astrahanskaja oblast’)Selitrennoe gorodišče (Staryj Batu/Staryj Saraj) – see Annex 2499.

4.18. 2270–87. South Slavic Cowrie Finds of the Carpathian Basin (16th–17th Centuries) – (see Annex 2303–08, 2313–14)

2265. Treskovicy (Leningradskaja oblast’): Vot cemetery dated to the 13th–14th centuries:

The material was collected from Hungary and Serbia (Fig. 174. 2).

Grave 26: a multi-beaded earring loop with a cowrie was found in this burial.2588

2270. Bácsalmás (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Óalmás, Sand-pit: 91 graves from a part of a 17th century Serbian cemetery:

2266. Vojnosolovo (prev: St.-Peterburgskaja gubernija; Leningradskaja oblast’): 138 excavated kurgans from a Novgorodian Slovene–Vot žalnik cemetery,2589 dated to the end of the 14th–early 15th centuries:

Grave 9: disturbed grave of a child (Inf. I): the only find was a cowrie, discovered on the outer right side of the femur, from the grave soil.2594

Kurgan 58: a buckle with an ornamented strip, rattles, strung on a chain consisting of delicate links, fragments of textile, and a necklace from small spiral tubes, onto which 3 cowries were also hung.2590

Graves 171, 201, 212, 393, 398 and stray finds – see Annex 2303–08. Bački Monoštor (opština Sombor, Serbia) – see 2271–74. Bodrogmonostorszeg

2267. Zalahtov’e (Gdovskij rajon, Pskovskaja oblast’): Krivič cremation kurgan cemetery, dated to the 12th–14th centuries, in which cowries were present due to Vot influence.2591

Bácsmonostorszeg (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; Bački Monoštor, opština Sombor, Serbia) – see 2271–74. Bodrogmonostorszeg

2268. Unknown provenance: 5 perforated cowries, presumably Money cowries, are mentioned as parallels to the cemetery of Averino (2237), dated to the 13th–14th centuries.2592

2271–74. Bodrogmonostorszeg (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; Bački Monoštor, opština Sombor, Serbia): a part of a cemetery around of a church2595 from the 17th

Spicyn (1903) 78, 78: fig. 73. Spicyn (1903) 79. 2587 “18 rakovinok-kauri”: Spicyn (1896) 113: CXXVI: 53; among the numerous sites with similar names, it can likely be identified with the site located in the Tihvinka Basin, see Sedov (1982) 323, 181: map 32: 73. 2588 Sedov (1953) 226–27: Appendix 4, 228–29: Appendix 5; Sedov (1982) 190–91: map 35: nr. 41; Finno-ugry (1987) 36–37: map 4: nr. 26/Vots. 2589 Finno-ugry (1987) 34, 36–37: map 4: nr. 16; see Sedov (1982) 182–83, 228: pl. LIV: 17, 23, 230: pl. LVI: 11. 2590 “Rakoviny kauri”: Spicyn (1896) 52: nr. 11; see ibid. 100–01: XCV: 58. 2591 Sedov (1953) 224–25: Appendix 3; Sedov (1982) 168–69, 166–67: map 26: nr. 1; Finno-ugry (1987) 35–37. 2592 Goldina–Kananin (1989) 90: with reference to the illustration, see 195: fig. 73: 15. 2585 2586

Johansson (1995) 348; as the youngest find context from Sweden: Johansson (2005) 41, 43, 51: tab. 1 (nr. 17). 2594 Wicker (1999). I would like here to thank the usage of her report’s manuscript. 2595 Beside the hill on which the remains of the Holy Cross Pauline monastery are located, “8–10 years ago [around 1892–94], when the Danube river flowed with some 4–5 hundred meters nearer [west], where today steamboats are going, there was a hill. On this hill, there was the remains of a building, and a larger cemetery. I remember also the cemetery. I excavated some of the graves, all these, and the pottery found on the riverbank originated from the medieval period.”: Gubitza (1902) 4. Despite this description, it was not treated as a cemetery around a church: Korek (1992) 189. 2593

419

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2596

century, which was destroyed due to the change of the Duna river’s bed, and was not researched. Therefore, all the finds are treated as stray finds.2597

territories of the medieval market town, Ete, during the field survey on 14th February in 1967, among the (late?) medieval finds, size: 1.8x1.4 cm.

2271. Find Group III: hair pin, “a string of tiny beads, with a cyprea pendant, [and an additional] string of beads made from 4 cyprea, which were situated in the middle part, and at the terminals among tiny black, green, and white glass beads.” All the cowries had removed dorsum, perhaps Money cowries.

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 67.6.16.2602 2276–81. Dombóvár (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Békató: 259 graves from an Iflak/Vlach cemetery from the 16th–17th centuries: 2276. Grave 65: grave goods from the burial of a 16–17 years old girl: 4 tin ball buttons, light brown glass beads, 2 bunches of bronze loops (parts of a chain mail?), 2 similar bunches of iron loops, and 4 cowries: 1 destroyed fragment near the left clavicula, and 1-1 in the nasal cave and left from the petrosal bone, a bunch of bronze loops, and 1 attached to the left side bunch of the iron loops. Among the remaining 4 cowries 3 are *Money cowries, 1 *Money cowrie (?) with more or less removed dorsum, and 1 of them is fragmentary; size: 1.3x1.0–1.6x1.1 cm.

Sombor, Gradski muzej, collective acc. nr.: 2456.2598 2272. Find Group IV: “3 strings of beads, among them 1 had a cyprea shell”, which is likely a Money cowrie, with open dorsum. Sombor, Gradski muzej, collective acc. nr.: 2455.2599 2273. Find Group VI: 2 bronze earrings with spherical pendants, bronze sheet pendants, beads, and 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum, and an additional cowrie.

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 83.8.23.10– 13.B (Fig. 182. 1).2603

Sombor, Gradski muzej, collective acc. nr.: 2450.2600

2277. Gave 84: grave goods from the burial of a 14 years old girl: 5 turquoise glass beads, 3 bronze plate semispheres from the headdress, and finally likely from the same artefact, 1 *Ringed cowrie with open dorsum, which slipped down to the chest, size: 2.3x1.7 cm.

2274. Find Group VIII: 8 hair pins decorated with bosses, a blue glass bead, 2 triangular bronze sheet pendants, 2 oval lead charitable coin with a suspension loop, colored string of glass beads, an additional string of beads composed from tiny black and white beads with small bronze loops, and 9 cowries. Likely all were Money cowries with open dorsum.

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 83.8.29.2604 2278. Grave 100: grave goods from the burial of a 3-4 years old child: a tin pendant, animal bone, beads, and on the top of the skull, a headdress: the half of a silver ring, 128 various colored and sized glass beads, and 5 cowries. On the two edges of this textile-made ornament 1-1 Money cowries, which, according to the drawn documentation of the grave, were sticked to the headdress with their apex up. 3 additional Money cowries were discovered on the string of beads that connected the two terminals of the headdress. The dorsi of all *Money cowries were roughly removed, size: 1.3x0.9–2.2x1.7 cm.

Sombor, Gradski muzej, collective acc. nr.: 2554.2601 Bükkszállás (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; Sombor, opština Sombor, Serbia) – see 2284–87. ZomborBükkszállás 2275. Decs (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Etepuszta: 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum was discovered in the József Korek investigated the cemetery first and dated the finds from the similar Zombor-Bükszállás cemetery (2284–87): “The grave goods resembles the finds from the Bükkszállás cemetery concerning their composition. The color, and the type of the beads are the same, therefore it is sure that they were made in the same workshop. The likeness of the needles and spangles, the usage of smaller cypraea shells shows that they were made in the same period, moreover, they belonged to the same ethnic group.”: Korek (1992) 197. The same text was cited from the manuscript of the text in German translation by: Bartucz (1960) 27. From the 11 coins that were grouped to the Find Group I and inventoried under nr. 2458, 7 are unidentifiable, and 4 are hardly readable. One of the later coins is a French charitable coin from the 17th century. All the coins were interpreted as French token money, and dated to the mid-17th century: Korek (1992) 197, 198. 2597 Except Grave 3, the material of the burials were not separated, but were put on tables forming 8 find groups: Korek (1992) 190–90, 197; see Bartucz (1960) 27; Gaál (1979–80) 167: note 24, 171; Gaál (2002) 215; Vaday–Hancz (2002) 65. 2598 Korek (1992) 190, 194: pl. IV: 10, 15. 2599 Korek (1992) 190, 194: pl. IV: 17. 2600 Korek (1992) 190, 195: pl. V: 6, 8. 2601 Korek (1992) 190, 195: pl. V: 28–30, 34–39. 2596

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 83.8.36.1– 5.2605 2279. Grave 130: the headdress ornament from the burial of a 7-10 years old girl: 125 deep green, 19 striped, 1 white, 72 blue, 12 large glass beads, 2 bronze needles bezelled with glass beads, 2 bronze needles, a bronze ball This shell was discovered by Zsuzsa Miklós among the stock material, here I would like to thank her kindness; see Miklós–Vizi (1999) 209. The finds of the cemetery excavated until the present are dating from the 15th–16th centuries: ibid. 220. 2603 Gaál (1979–80) 139, 215: pl. III. In the study, the cowries are referred as ‘cypria bivalves’ and the author described the removed dorsum as ‘abraded at the bottom’: ibid. 171. 2604 Gaál (1979–80) 141, 192: fig. 13, 215: pl. III 2605 Gaál (1979–80) 143, 195–196: figs 16–17. 2602

420

Catalogue button, 2 tin buttons, a tiny, silver sheet with a loop, a drop-shaped silver spangle, a round tin plate, and above the beads of the headdress ornament, on the skull, in a cross line, 10 cowries with removed dorsum, attached with their apertures upwards (sewn?): 9 *Ringed cowries, size: 1.7x1.3–22.0x1.6 cm, and 1 *Money cowrie, size: 1.8x1.4 cm. The connection between the bead-ornamented strap and the row of shells was not proven.

the territory of the wooden fortification, which existed between 1596–1686,2610 Attila Gaál discovered 8 cowries during a field survey: 7 *Money cowries, 6 of which are untouched, size: 1.5x1.0–1.8x1.4 cm, the dorsum of 1 example was removed by sawing, size: 1.6x1.1 cm, 1 untouched *Money cowrie (?), size: 1.5x1.0 cm. Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nro.: P. 83.4.1–6, 7 (pierced), and 8.2611

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 83.8.43.1–7, 10, 8 (Fig. 182. 2).2606

Sombor (opština Sombor, Serbia) – see 2284–87. Zombor

2280. Grave 193: grave goods from the burial of a 6-7 years old boy: the half of a bronze ball button, fragments of ferricoxid, 3 glass beads, and on the forehead, a pierced ornament: pierced Nurenberg type token coin from the 16th century, a round bronze plate, covering a pierced small silver plate, and 3 *Money cowries, sewn (?) to the ornament with their apertures up, all with removed dorsum, size: 1.4x0.9–2.0x1.5 cm.

Zombor (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; opština Sombor, Serbia)-Bácsmonostorszeg – see 2271–74. Bodrogmonostorszeg Zombor (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; opština Sombor, Serbia)-Bukovácz – see 2284–87. ZomborBükkszállás 2284–87. Zombor (prev: Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; Sombor, opština Sombor, Serbia)-Bükkszállás (Bukovac): during the construction works of a military airport, 300 graves of the Šokac cemetery was disturbed, 145 burials of which from the 17th century was more or less documented:2612

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 83.8.56.1–3 (Fig. 182. 3).2607 2281. Grave 224: grave goods from the burial of a 12-13 years old girl: behind the top of the skull, and under the skull, 11 cowries, all with open dorsum, forming a star: 9 *Ringed cowries, size: 1.2x0.9–1.8x1.2 cm, 1 *Ringed cowrie (?), size: 1.6x1.0 cm, and 1 *Money cowrie (?), size: 1.7x1.1 cm. It was perhaps a bunch of bands or strings.

2284. Grave 22: grave goods from a female (?, length: 145 cm) grave: at the feet 25 small blue, white, and green glass beads, and from an undocumented place 1 cowrie, of which dorsum was partly removed.

Wosinsky Mór Museum, Szekszárd, acc. nr.: 83.8.72.1–2, 4–8, 10, 3, and 9.2608

Horthy Miklós University, Institute for Anthropology, Szeged, acc. nr.: 4322; it was given to the Sombor, Gradski muzej.2613

Katymár (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary) Graves 64, 68 – see Annex 2313–14.

2285. Grave 72: grave goods from a female (?, length: 111 cm to the shoulders) burial: a tin spangle with a loop, semi spherical bronze plate, a string of glass beads made from 26 blue, and black beads, and 1 cowrie.

2282. Szegvár (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Nagyorom, Hevesi-field: Gábor Csallány excavated here more graves that were identified as medieval burials in 1906. Among the graves, of which material was not separated 11 *Money cowries were identified, size: 1.3x1.0–2.4x1.8 cm, and 2 *Ringed cowries (?), size: 1.8x0.9 cm, all with removed dorsum. One additional large *Money cowrie with removed dorsum is bordered by a wavy trimmed bronze band in a way that near the dorsal end both terminals are protruding, with a small loop in the middle, size: 2.7x1.7 cm, the width of the band is: 0.6 cm.

Horthy Miklós University, Institute for Anthropology, Szeged, acc. nr.: 4335; it was given to the Gradski muzej in Sombor.2614 2286. Grave 85: not documented grave goods from the burial of a woman or a girl: 3 bronze needles, 5 bronze spangles with loops, 4 bronze ball buttons, numerous tiny and medium-sized blue, green, and black glass beads, and 11 cowries. It is possible that there were Money and Ringed cowries, among them, 1 of them has a partly removed dorsum.2615

Koszta József Museum, Szentes, acc. nr.: 57.98.30.2609 2283. Szekszárd (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Újpalánk: in

Gaál (1985). These shells were studied with the kind help of Attila Gaál. 2612 Korek (1992) 200. This site is also known as Zombor-Airport, or Zombor-Bukovácz: Gaál (1979–80) 167: note 24, 171; see Bartucz (1960) 27; Gaál (2002) 215. 2613 Korek (1992) 185, 191: pl. I: 2 (Grave 22). 2614 Korek (1992) 186, 191: pl. I: 21 (Grave72). 2615 Korek (1992) 187, 192: pl. II: 27–37 (Grave 85). 2610

Gaál (1979–80) 146, 202–203: figs 23–24, 218: pl. VI. Gaál (1979–80) 152, 171, 209: fig. 30, 219: pl.VII. 2608 Gaál (1979–80) 155, 210: fig 31, 220: pl. VIII; Gaál (2002) 215. 2609 It is possible that József Korek meant these finds from the publication of Gábor Csallány when he mentioned: “The museum of Szentes has finds from Mindszent, dating from the same [meaning 17th century] finds.”: Korek (1992) 184: note 24. 2606

2611

2607

421

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Fig. 182. Cowries from Dombóvár: 4 Money cowries with opened dorsum among the finds of Grave 65 (1 – 2276), head dress of 9 Ringed and 1 Money cowries of Grave 130 (2 – 2279), sketch of Grave 193 and Money cowries on the skull (3 – 2280) – after Gaál (1979–80) 215: pl. III: 65, 203: fig. 24: below, 209: fig 30: left and above

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Catalogue

Fig. 183. 11 Money and Ringed cowries with opened dorsum among the finds of Grave 85 at Zombor (2286) – after Korek (1989/90) 192: pl. II: 14–37

Horthy Miklós University, Institute for Anthropology, Szeged, acc. nr.: 4346; these were given to the Gradski muzej in Sombor (Fig. 183).

Zombor (prev. Bács-Bodrog megye, Hungary; opština Sombor, Serbia)-Airport – see 2284–87. ZomborBükkszállás

2287. Among the stray finds 9 cowries were preserved. Most of them are likely Money cowries, but there might be some Ringed cowries, among them. 2 items have differently removed dorsum.

4.19. 2288–94. Parallels to the South Slavic Cowries of the Carpathian Basin (15th/16th–17th Centuries) – (see Annex 2346–47, 2562–64) The material was collected from Barbados, The Bermuda Islands, Estonia, Israel, Latvia, Romania, Russia and USA (Fig. 176. 2).

Beside the 22 cowries presented above, a greater number of additional cowries is presumed to have been found at the site, since “in the undocumented graves, there were a plenty of cowries, in more cases 20–30 examples.” – as it was put by the publisher of the finds, based on the report of the construction work’s leader.2616

Barbados (Caribbean island) Newton Plantation – see Annex 2346. The Bermuda Islands – see Annex 2347.

Szentes museum, acc. nr.: 4410; the finds were given to the Gradski muzej in Sombor.2617

2288. Estonia

Sombor, Gradski Muzej (?)2618

2288. Kirbla (prev. Lihulaskij rajon; Läänemaa.): the costum, reconstructed upon a female grave from the 16th– 17th centuries: a headdress ornament with bronze mounts and pendants, and a string of pierced cowries, which were perhaps Money cowries.

Korek (1989/90) 196; Bartucz (1960) 26. 2617 József Korek treated the material from the 10 burials that got to the Museum of Szentes in 1943 as stray finds, because lacking documentation he argued that the grouping of the grave goods is arbitrary: Korek (1992) 181) 189, 193: pl. III: 18–26. 2618 “Zum Kopfschmuck gehörte Stirnband und Kranz, was aber wegen der spärlichen Funden anscheinend nicht als allgemeine Sitte, bzw. nicht zum Alter und Zustand gehörig galt. Spiralförmiger Stirnbandschmuck fehlt fast gänzlich, an seiner Stelle sind die auf geflochteten Bronzedraht schlingenmässig umflochtenen schmalen Stirnbänder charakteristisch. Die Hauptzier des Kopfschmuckes war die kleine Cyprea-Muschel, die in drei Gräbern gefunden wurde, von der aber auch die nicht unter Beobachtung stehenden Gräber reichlich, häufig 20–30 Stück enthielten. Das Erscheinen der Cyprea in der Tracht hat zeitbestimmenden Charakter. Sie erscheinen am frühesten im Material der Skythen und finden sich dann in den Gräbern des X–XII. Jahrhunderts, meistens zwischen Perlenschnüre aufgereiht. Im XVI. Jahrhundert kommt sie wieder in Mode, vor allem in den Südgebieten des Karpatenbeckens.”: cited by Lajos Bartucz from unpublished manuscript of József Korek: 2616

Arheologičeskaja kollekcija Instituta Istorii Akademii Nauk Èstonskoj SSR, Tallin, acc. nr.: 2643:172.2619

Bartucz (1960) 26; Korek (1989/90) 196. József Korek treated the material from the 10 burials that got to the Museum of Szentes in 1943 as stray finds, because lacking documentation he argued that the grouping of the grave goods is arbitrary: Korek (1992) 181) 189, 193: pl. III: 18–26. 2619 Moora (1960) 19, 21: fig. 10.

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László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2289. Israel

lack of space, most likely 14 vertically sewn cowries are present (Fig. 184).2626

2289. Jerusalem-site L (Armenian Garden): a Money cowie with open dorsum, dated from the early 15th century until the present, 1 fragment of a Tiger cowrie, and 1 an other cowrie.2620

USA: Long Island (New York State)‑Pantiago cemetery ‑ see Annex 2562.

2290–91. Latvia

Monticello (Virginia)-Mulberry Row – see Annex 2563.

2290. Mazsalacas Vecdauģēni (Valmieras Rajons): in one of the graves (see 2215) of a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries, an unknown number of cowries were discovered together with a 16th century coin.2621

New York City-Borough of Queens – see Annex 2564. 4.20. 2295–98, (2295a). A Horse Equipment with Cowries from the Carpathian Basin and Some of Its Parallels (17th–20th? Centuries)

2291. Vanēs Bērzkalni (Tukuma Rayons): among the grave goods of a grave (see 2224 from a cemetery of the 13th–18th centuries, amount of cowries were discovered together with a 17th century coin.2622

2295. Horse equipment from an unknown provenance, from the 18th century, which, in June 1861, Ferenc Kubinyi (1796–1874) of Felső- Kubin and Deménfalva, a noble landowner and notable historian gave to the Hungarian National Museum. “It consists of a bridle, a decorated harness, the breast collar and the crupper. The bridle is made from black leather, ornamented with numerous cowries. The nape strap is plain, with remains of sewing, which indicates that previously the decorated harness, suspended from the temples, might have been fitted here. On the temple, a heart-shaped leather rosette, decorated with numerous cowries also belonged to the harness, which was put on the temples. Originally, 3-3 straps were suspended from the heart-shaped temple rosette, which come off and supplement the harness. On the middle part of the forehead ornament, a large, four-pointed star motif is represented, which has one point in the upper, and three points in the lower part. The nose rosette designed to the central part of the nose strap resembles the forehead rosette. Its related buckles were made of iron. The decorated harness was taken as cruppers during the compilation of previous inventories. The breast collar is two-pointed, fitted with a metal ring in the middle. Originally this was too decorated with cowries, but only few of these survived. On the sides, there are two leather loops for pistols. On both, there are two four- petalled rosettes on the sides, and one ninepetalled rosette in the middle, all formed from cowries.2627 Furthermore, under the central rosettes, lacerated leather pads were fitted. The crupper is two-pointed, its surface, similarly to other parts of the harness, is ornamented with cowries, and supported by two minor, and at the connection of the straps one larger, rosette-decorated leather pads. The leather pads are lacerated at the edges.

2292–93. Romania 2292. Enisala (judeţul Tulcea)-La Biserica: 79 graves as a part of a cemetery of the 15th–18th centuries: Grave VIII: grave goods from the burial of a young girl, dating to the 15th–16th century: 2 silver earrings, a bronze ball button, and near the skull, a string of beads: 30 various glass beads, and 14 small shells (cochili de melcişori), which are likely pierced cowries.2623 2293. Suceava (judeţul Suceava)-Cetatea de Scaun, Câmpul Şanţurilor: 150 graves from a cemetery of the 15th and early 16th centuries: Grave 118: grave goods: a bronze lockring with coiled terminal, a bronze finger-ring ornamented with geometrical pattern, and a string of beads, including 8 molluscs (ghiocuri).2624 2294. Russia 2294. Cip’ja (Baltasinskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan): among the 42 graves of an cemetery: Grave 14: likely a female headdress (ajšon), ornamented with beads and cowries of the 17th–19th centuries.2625 The shells were not mentioned in the publication, they were not presented on the drawings, however, on the depiction of the reconstruction, which was not detailed due to the Reese (1991) 165: nr. 26; Reese (1995) 267, 277–78. Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: Nr. 113. 2622 Mugurevič (1962) 42, 44 and 43: fig. 6: Nr. 131. 2623 Mănucu Adameşteanu (1980); Mănucu Adameşteanu (1993) 455–56, 459, 460: fig. 2: M VIII. 3 (bunches of stringed beads, composed also from cowries, perhaps some of which were pierced). 2624 Without the identification of cowries: Mitrea–Nestor (1953) 363. I interpreted them as cowries, because they are mentioned as parallels to the Money cowrie from Coconi (2232): Constantinescu (1972) 99: note 109. 2625 Vö. Finno-ugry (1987) 143.

Previously, this harness was interpreted as Turkish horse equipment by several scholars. At the same time, it can be presumed that this is a Hungarian work, made in Transylvania. The usage of similar harnesses is reported by baron Péter Apor of Altorja, who argued that it was

2620 2621

Vö. Semenov (1987) 103: fig. 6, and 109, 97: fig. 3. Magical defensive force was attributed to the star motif, which imitated a four-leafed flower, or a cross, see El-Adly (1981) 37–38. 2626 2627

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Catalogue

Fig. 184. Female headdress (ajšon), ornamented with beads and cowries from Grave 14 at Cip’ja (2294) – after Semenov (1987) 103: fig. 6

used by wealthy, young men.2628 The described cowries are naturally *Money cowries, with open dorsi, with usually an extreme dentation, which can indicate a special ecotype. It is possible that some Ringed cowries were mixed with them. Both types of cowries were attacheded with their apertures upwards.

in a way that the string was introduced on their apex, and pull out on a rasped aperture on the top of the shell. Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Armoury, acc. nr.: 57.6699 (Fig. 185). 2296. An undated harness from an unidentified location: it was ornamented by likely series of Money cowries, with open dorsum, fastened to the object with their apex upwards. According to the width of the straps, the decoration varied; the cowries were sewn lengthways, crossways, or in a double fishbone pattern, the junctions were covered with single or double petelled star motifs. The nose strap was decorated with an elongated star motif.

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, Armoury, acc. nr.: 57.6692 (prev. acc. nr.: 17–18./1861.VI.) (Fig. 63).2629 2295a. Harness from 1694: a delicate harness, ornamented by shells, probably for a smaller horse, which consists of “a bridle, a breast collar, a crupper, and the neck strap, which was fasten to the bridle.”2630 The object is dated by the gilt silver plate ornament suspending from the forehead strap, on which the inscription MAKRAI ISTVÁN DE VIZ – SZENTGYŐRY is visible,2631 besides, there is a heraldic emblem, and the date 1694. “Its bridle is made from deep red leather. On majority of straps, there is green velvet trimming, and on the sides, tiny shells are fitted. On the nose and forehead bands, after each three pairs of shells, there is a six-petalled, gilt, chased leaf. On the chin strap, after each four pairs of shells, there is a rosette.”2632

Museum für Meereskunde, Berlin; it was destroyed in 1943.2633 2297. Harness: a bridle and a breast collar, likely decorated with Money cowries, all with a removed dorsum, fastened to the objects with their apex upwards, organized into a single rows, and additional rows forming fishbone pattern. The neck strap, and the rosette of the breast is ornamented with complexly organized cowries.

The tiny white shells, which are mentioned with regard to the harness, exactly belong to the Marginella sp., which originally lie in warmer sea water, in the Mediterraneum, or east from this region. They were fastened to the harness

Nordiska Museum Archives, Stockholm, Photo acc. nr.: 43120.2634 2298. Bridle: most likely it was ornamented with Money cowries, organized into single rows, or imitating fishbone

It is the description of Ferenc Temesváry, on the inventory note of the Armory in the Hungarian National Museum, Budapest. 2629 For the detailed description see: Temesváry (1995a). 2630 Temesváry (1995) 18. 2631 Vízszentgyörgy/Viziszentgyörgy (prev: Zala megye, Hungary; Frkanovec/Sveti Juraj na Bregu, županija Međimurska, Croatia). 2632 It is partly described by: Temesváry (1995) 196: nr. 140, fig. 140: the bridle with shells, figs 190–194: the third tail-case from links. 2628

Brühl (1929) 174, 174: fig 83. I would like to thank the kind information of Matthias Glaubrecht and Hannelore Landsberg (Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin). 2634 Johansson (1990) 43, 44: fig 6 2633

425

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads pattern. All cowries had an open dorsum, and were attached to the bridle with their apex upwards. Nordiska Museum Archives, Stockholm, Photo acc. nr.: 76889.2635 4. 21. 2299–564. Annex of Cowries Not Discussed in the Text 2299–328. Carpathian Basin 2299. Abony (Pest megye, Hungary)-Blaskó-dűlő: among the finds of a Scythian cemetery with 162 burials „cowrie pendants” were found.2636 2300–302. Algyő (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Bartók Béla Street: cemetery with 80 graves from the Scythian Period (6th century BC):

Fig. 185. Harness from 1694 embellished with Marginella sp. (Hungarian National Museum – 2295a) – Photo by András Dabasi

2300. Grave 46: near the east corner of the burial of a woman aged 23–39 a Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum was found. A second Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum was in “a necklace strung with various bead types, paludal snails... and dog canines.”2637

2308. Among the stray finds a Money cowrie with removed dorsum. 2309. Budapest-15th district (Rákospalota), Sin Street: from a cemetery around the church of 10th–13th centuries cowries were found.

2301. Grave 59: from a ‘fire-pit’ grave of a woman, a calcined Ringed cowrie with removed dorsum.2638

Hungarian National Museum, Budapest, acc. nr.: 100/1892.132–135.2641

2302. Grave 78: from a woman’s skeleton flexed on the left side 7 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum ‘‘ and 3 short cylindrical bone beads lay under the back, which probably surrounded a braid in a ring.”2639

2309a. Emőd (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)Istvánmajor:

2303–08. Bácsalmás (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)Óalmás, Sand-pit: 483 graves of the 16th–17th centuries Serbian cemetery:2640

Grave 120: erroneous reference of 24 “Ciprea shells” from the woman’s burial of the 1400/1300 BC; practically 24 *fossil (?) Erato sp. (?) were in the grave.2642 All the here noted “Ciprea” parallels are erroneous too.2643

2303. Grave 171: from a child’s burial (lenght: 98 cm) was a string of beads in which were 2 Money cowries with removed dorsum.

Geňa (okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 2315. Léva

2304. Grave 201: among the finds of a child’s burial (Inf. II), a Money cowrie with removed dorsum.

Génye (prev. Bars megye, Hungary; Levice, okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 2315. Léva

2305. Grave 212: from an adult woman’s burial, a broken Money cowrie with removed dorsum.

2310. Hajdúszoboszló (Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary)Írásné Melis (1977) 46. B. Hellebrandt (2004) 197, 194: fig. 5: 2 c. 2643 Mezőcsát (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary)-Hörcsögös Grave 66: among the finds of a woman’s burial “zwei durchbohrte Schnecken”: Hänsel–Kalicz (1986) 31, pl. 9: e; B. Hellebrandt (2004) 197. Tápé (Csongrád megye, Hungary)-Káposztásföldek: among the marine shells from the woman’s, men’s and unidentified graves (73, 130, 362, 412, 444, 511; 268, 470, 517; 215, 218, 377) and cenotaphs (182) were not cowries, see: Trogmayer (1975) 25, pl. 7: 73.4-4, 36, pl. 11: 130.1-1, 45, pl. 15: 182.5, 52–53, pl. 19: 215.2-2, 54, pl. 19: 218.22, 63–64, pl. 24: 268.2-2, 81–82, Pl: 362.3-3, 84, Pl: 377, 92, pl. 36: 412.3–4, 99–100, pl. 39: 444.4–4, 113, pl. 45: 511.2, 114–15, pl. 45: 517.7,9; B. Hellebrandt (2004) 197. Tiszafüred (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Majoroshalom: among the finds from the graves 98, 102, 161, 284 and 342 weren’t cowries, see: Kovács (1975) 16, pl.9: 98.8–9, pl. 10:102.27, 23, pl. 15: 161.15–18, 31, pl. 27: 284.12, 35–36, pl. 31: 342.11–12; B. Hellebrandt (2004) 197. 2641 2642

2306. Grave 393: from a child’s burial (Inf. I), a Money cowrie with removed dorsum. 2307. Grave 398: from a child’s burial (Inf. I), in a string of beads 11 Money cowries with removed dorsum. Johansson (1990) 43, 44: fig 7. Polgár–Dinnyés (2004) 149: nr. 1. 2637 Bende (2001) 65–66, 71: fig. 2: 7–8; Kemencei (2004) 96–98, 93: fig. 7: 31. 2638 Bende (2001) 66–67, 73: fig. 4: 15. 2639 Bende (2001) 67–68, 76: fig. 7: 5–12. 2640 Wicker (2003), (2004), (2004a). I would like to thank Erika Wicker for the unpublished data for her excavations in 2001–03. 2635 2636

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Catalogue Árkoshalom: cemetery of Hungarian commoners with 249 graves of the 10th–11th centuries:

Ostrovany (okres Sabinov, Prešovský kraj, Slovakia) – see 2317. Osztópatak

Grave 136: from a burial of a child aged 3 years, a Money cowrie with open dorsum.2644

2317. Osztópatak/Osztrópatak (prev. Sáros megye, Hungary; Ostrovany, okres Sabinov, Prešovský kraj, Slovakia): in object nr. 177/90, from the multi-layer settlement of the 4th/5th centuries Hunnic Age an undetermined large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie with removed dorsum, lenght: 6,7 cm (Fig. 187).2651

2311. Harta (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary)-Freifelt: fully excavated Hungarian cemetery with 22 graves from the 10th century:

2318. Sarlóskajsza (prev. Nyitra megye; Lužianky, okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Kajsianske za železnicou: cowries mentioned from a Hungarian cemetery part of the 10th century with 16 graves.2652

Grave 22: from the 10th century burial of a young woman aged 20, on the abdominal region 2 cowries with open dorsum.2645 2312. Hatvan (Heves megye, Hungary)-North periphery: from an archaeological survey of the area cowrie(s?) of the Bronze Age (?).2646

2319. Szeged (Csongrád megye, Hungary) Kiskundorozsma, Daruhalom dűlő III: in 2 graves of a cemetery part from the 4th century were “ciprea bivalve”.2653

2313–14. Katymár (Bács-Kiskun megye, Hungary): South Slavic/Serbian cemetery of the l6th–17th centuries with 99 graves:

2320–26. Szolnok (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok megye, Hungary)-Szanda, Beke Pál halma III: a Hungarian cemetery part of the 10th century with 36 graves:2654

2313. Grave 64: in the necklace of the woman’s skeleton, 255 beads and 8 (Money?) cowries with removed dorsum.2647

2320. Grave 1: in a disturbed female burial in a string of beads 14 – perhaps all Money – cowries with perforated dorsum (Fig. 188).2655

2314. Grave 68: in the necklace of the child’s (inf.) skeleton, 2 silver pendants, 12 glass beads and 4 (Money?) cowries with removed dorsum.2648

2320. Grave 2: in a disturbed female burial in a string of beads (?) 1 Money cowrie with perforated dorsum.2656

Levice (okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 2315. Léva

2322. Grave 4: in a female burial 2 Money cowries with perforated dorsum.2657

2315. Léva (prev. Bars megye, Hungary; Levice, okres Levice, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia)-Génye (prev. Bars megye, Hungary; Geňa): Hungarian cemetery of the 10th century:

2323. Grave 9: in a child’s burial 1 pierced Money cowrie (?) hung from a silver ring.2658 2324. Grave 16: in a disturbed female burial 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum.2659

Grave 7: from the burial of a woman 6 Money cowries with perforated dorsum and 1 Cardium sp. (Fig. 186).2649

2325. Grave 25: in a disturbed female burial in a string of beads 1 Money cowrie (?) with perforated dorsum.2660

Lužianky (okres Nitra, Nitrianský kraj, Slovakia) – see 2318. Sarlóskajsza

2326. Grave 27: in a female grave 1 cowrie.2661

2316. Nyáregyháza (Pest megye, Hungary)-Site 16 (= M54 motorway):

2327. Tolna (Tolna megye, Hungary)-Mőzs, Icsi-dűlő: from the burial of a Pannonian-Illyrian girl of 6th–5th centuries BC, 3 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.2662

Grave 19: double burial of a mature woman and a child aged 0-1 year. Probably from this burial belonged the (Ringed?) cowrie with removed dorsum found in pit nr. 62 from the Sarmatian Period.2650

Lamiová-Schmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105, 131, fig. 30. Ruttkay (2006) 166–67. 2653 Mészáros–Sóskúti (2006) 315. 2654 Madaras (2004); Madaras (2006); Madaras (2006a). 2655 Madaras (2006) 33, 38, 34: fig. 1, 42: pl. II: 1–14; Madaras (2006a) 214, 216: fig. 2: 1–14, 231: fig. 14, 233: fig. 18234: fig. 19. 2656 Madaras (2006a) 214, 218: fig. 4: 77. 2657 Madaras (2006a) 220, 221: fig. 6: 1–2. 2658 Madaras (2006a) 220–24, 224: fig. 9: 1. 2659 Madaras (2006a) 228, 229: fig. 12: 1. 2660 Madaras (2006a) 228–31, 230: fig. 13: 4. 2661 Madaras (2006a) 233, 237: fig. 1. 2662 Unpublished, from kindly reporting of Attila Gaál. 2651 2652

M. Nepper (2002) I: 78, 105, II: 73: pl. 67: 136.4. Unpublished, from kindly reporting of Péter Langó, see Kustár–Langó (2003) 32: fig. 14: below. 2646 Váradi–Paszternák (2003) 171. 2647 Wicker (2002) 27–28, 93: fig. 9: left. 2648 Wicker (2002) 28–29, 93: fig. 9: right. 2649 Nevizánsky (2006) 289–90, 310: pl. VIII:1–3, 9–12. 2650 Kisfaludi (2004) 169, 189: pl. IX: 15. 2644 2645

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Fig. 186. 6 Money cowries from Grave 7 of Léva (2315) – after Nevizánsky (2006) 310: pl. VIII

2328. Visonta (Heves megye, Hungary)-Felsőrét: a Hungarian commoners’ cemetery from the mid 10th–to the mid 11th centures with 77 graves: Grave 38: 1 small cowrie in a necklace from the child’s burial.2663 2329. Abu Dhabi 2329. Umm an-Nar island: from the settlement of the 3rd millennium was found a water-worn Cypraea sp.2664 2330–45. Azerbajdžan 2330–37. Mingečaur (Mingačevir Sahari): more than 200 graves from a cemetery of the Bronze Age (11th–9th centuries BC):2665

Fig. 187. Large cowrie from a multi-layer settlement at Osztópatak (2317) – after Lamiová-Schmiedlová–Tomášová (1999) 105: fig. 30

2330. Grave 26/1946: 2 small cowries from the burial of a woman.2666

2331. Grave 107/1946: some small cowries with removed dorsum (?) from the burial of a woman.2667

Révész (2007) 288. Frifelt (1995) fig. 337. 2665 Necklace from small cowries and shells without grave number: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 82, pl. XXI: 40. From the cemeteries at Mingečaur are mentioned Money, Ringed and Panther cowries (Cypraea annulus L, C. moneta, C. pantherine Solander) without grave numbers. Authors defined cowries primary as currency, and occasionally as amulets, talismans or ornaments: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 154. 2666 Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 49, 159; Brujako (1999) 47. 2663 2664

2332. Grave 133/1946: 1 small cowrie from the child’s burial.2668 “Podveski iz rakovin kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 50, 162; Brujako (1999) 47. 2668 Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 164. 2667

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Catalogue

Fig. 188. 14 Money cowries among the finds of Grave 1 from Szolnok (2320) – after Madaras (2006a) 216: fig 2

2336. Grave 15/1950: some small cowries from the burial.2672

2333. Grave 135/1946: 1 small cowrie from the burial.2669 2334. Grave 151/1946: 1 small cowrie from the burial of a woman.2670

2337. Grave 18/1950: some small cowries from the burial of a man (?).2673

2335. Grave 150/1947: 1 small cowrie from the burial of a woman (?).2671 2669

2338–2343. Mingečaur (Mingacevir Sahari): round 20 big and small kurgans from the cemetery of the 9th–7th centuries BC:

2670

2672

Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 164. Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 164. 2671 Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 174.

2673

429

“rakuski kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 175. “rakoviny kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 175.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2338. Kurgan I, Primary Grave: some small cowries from the robbed burial.2674

finds from the Spanish ship named San Antonio, which “ran aground on the southwest reefs of Bermuda on September 13, 1621” was discovered a large quantity of Money cowries. “The twenty thousand or so shells on the site were, no doubt, a shipment going to some Spanish merchant for use in West Africa.”2683

2339. Kurgan II, Primary Grave: some Money and Ringed cowries (“Cypraca moneta, Cypraca anulus”) from the robbed burial of the latest Kurgan of the cemetery (7th century BC).2675

2348. Bulgaria

2340. Kurgan II, Grave 3: some small cowries from the burial2676

2348. Silistra (oblast Silistra)-Drustur/Durostorum/ Dorostol: Bulgarian Christian cemetery of the 12th–14th centuries with 102 graves:

2341. Kurgan II, Grave 9: some small cowries from the burial of a woman from the earliest secondary grave of this kurgan.2677

Grave 15: 1 pierced Money cowrie.2684 2349–50. Croatia

2342. Kurgan IV, Primary Grave: some small cowries with removed dorsum from the burial of a man.2678

2349. Đakovo (Osjecko-baranjska županija)-Župna crkva/ Parish church: 486 graves from a cemetery around the church of the 11th–16th centuries:

2343. Kurgan V, Primary Grave: sometimes ten cowries from the earliest kurgan of the cemetery (9th century BC).2679

Grave 159: from a child’s burial of the 11th century a silver S-terminated lockring, a dissolved silver coin and a necklace: cylindrical glass paste and clay beads, spherical beads, spherical beads with wavy lines and 3 – 1-1 whole, half and broken – probably Money cowries with open dorsum.2685

2344. Unknown site: from a site of the 4 –7 centuries Caucasian Albania 3 cowries with removed dorsum are illustrated.2680 th

th

2345. Unknown site: from a site of the 9th–13th centuries 2 (Money?) cowries are illustrated.2681

2350. Danilo (Šibensko-kninska županija)-Bitinj: among the finds from the Neolithic settlement a partly worked “cypraea crones L.”, probably C. errones was found.2686

2346. Barbados 2346. Barbados (Caribbean island)-Newton Plantation: slave cemetery with 92 skeletons interred from the latter part of the 17th century to about the first decade of the 19th century:

2351–56. Cyprus 2351. Alambra-Mouttes: among the finds of this Middle Bronze Age site was 1 lip fragment of a Fallow cowrie (Luria).2687

Grave 72: in the richest burial of the late 1600’s or early 1700’s of the cemetery a slave Obeah or medicine man was buried with a short stemmed clay pipe, 1 coiled copper, and 2 brass wire bracelets, silver and copper alloy finger rings, an iron knife, and a necklace. “The necklace was composed of 7 Money cowries, 21 drilled dog canines, 14 European-manufactured glass beads representing 4 different types, 5 drilled vertebrae from a large bony fish, and a large reddish-orange carnelian bead.” (Fig. 189).2682

2352. Erimi-Pamboula: 1 Dirty cowrie (Erosaria) from a Chalcolithic.2688 2353. Larnaca-Kition: 820 marine shells from the later Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic levels (ca. 1050–50 BC): 6 Fallow, 26 Ringed, 1 Money cowries.2689 “These small, attractive shells are native to the Indian Ocean basin and have been used since the Stone Age as medium of exchange, as their scientific name implies. The natives of the coasts of West Africa valued them so highly that juts a few would buy a healthy adukt slave. The Spanish, after establishing connections with the Far East through Manila, Acapulco, and Vera Cruz, were quick to appreciate the opportunity and shipped these shells home by the millions for use in this despicable trade in slaves. The twenty thousand or so shells on the site were, no doubt, a shipment going to some Spanish merchant for use in West Africa.”: Peterson (1972) 258–59, fig. 21. 2684 Angelova (1993) 76: nr. 10: 1–2, 81: fig. 10. 2685 According to the kind information from Krešimir Filipec; see Filipec (1997); Šlaus–Filipec (1998). 2686 Korošec (1958) I: 39, II: pl. L: 7. This species is not mentioned in the synonym collection for cowries, see also: Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 527. 2687 Reese (1996) 484, 514. 2688 Reese (1978) 39, (1996) 484. 2689 Reese (2003). 2683

2347. The Bermuda Islands 2347. The Bermuda Islands (Overseas territory of the United Kingdom): among the underwater archaeological “rakoviny kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 177. Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 97; Brujako (1999) 47–49. 2676 “rakoviny kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 101, 178. 2677 “rakoviny kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 103, 104, 178. 2678 “rakoviny kauri”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 111, 181. 2679 “rakoviny kauri – neskol’ko desjatkov”: Aslanov–Vaidov–Ione (1959) 115, 181; Brujako (1999) 47–49. 2680 Halilov (2003) 361, 457: pl. 171: 48. 2681 Ahmedov (2003) 383, 480: pl. 194: 10–11. 2682 Handler–Lange (1979) 47–48, 50–51, 47–49: figs. 2674 2675

430

Catalogue

Fig. 189. Grave of a medicine man at Newton Plantation (2346) and components of his necklace – after Handler–Lange (1979) 48–49: figs

2354. Maa-Palaeokastro: among the 1,278 marine shells in 2 deposits founded 1-1 Dirty cowries are to be dated to ca. 1200–1150 BC.2690

holes bored in them on opposite sides and 9 shells have one hole evidently used in stringing the shells.”2691 Among the finds of Cypriot Chalcolithic and Bronze Age level were found 356 Fallow cowries (Luria) “with 28 holed at both ends, 21 holed at one end, and 62 lip fragments.”2692

2355. Rizokarpaso-Apostolos Andreas Kastros: among the molluscs of the Neolithic were found 159 complete and 98 fragments of Fallow cowries. “20 complete shells have two 2690

2691

Reese (1988a) 461–63.

2692

431

Reese (1978) 38. Reese (1996) 484.

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2356. Sotira-Kaminoudhia: 1 Fallow cowrie (Luria) fragment from this Early Cypriot site.2693

settlement of the 3rd century BC to the early Christian Period were beads, amulets and cowries.2703

2357. Czech Republic

Shellal – see 2358–59. Assuan

2357. Praha-Hostivař: among the finds of a rich Langobard woman’s grave of 6th century a large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie was found (Fig. 190).2694

2367. Tell el Fara’in/ancient Buto (Lower Egypt): from the town were 2 holed Money cowries of the Saite Period (21st–25th Dynasties).2704

2358–67. Egypt

2368–74. England

2358–59. Aswan/Assuan (Upper Egypt)-Shellal-Cemetery 7:

2368. Castledyke South, Barton-on-Humber (North Lincolnshire): an Anglo-Saxon cemetery of the early 6th–late 7th centuries:

2358. Grave 5: a probable Ringed cowrie with remowed dorsum from the time of the New Kingdom was found.2695

Grave 31: a quarter of a Panther cowrie with toothed part.2705

2359. Grave in C-group: a cowrie.2696 Buto – see 2367. Tell el-Fara’in

2369. Goblin Works, Leatherhead (Surrey): an AngloSaxon cemetery of the 7th century:

2360. Edfou/ancient Behdet-Tell Edfou: from the 1937 excavations, a large probably Tiger cowrie.2697

Grave S4: 1 Panther cowrie from a male (?) burial of the 6th century.2706

2361. Halfiah Gibli (near Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt): among the finds of the Predynastic settlement was „a (pierced?) cowrie shell from the Red Sea...”2698

2370–74. Lechlade (Gloucestershire)-Butler’s Field: Anglo-Saxon cemetery from the mid or late 5th century until the late 7th century:

2362. el-Lahun/Illahun/ancient Ro-hent (Faiyum oasis): many cowries from a well grave of 12th Dynasty.2699

Panther cowries from Graves 14, 71, 138 and whole cowries with cowrie beads from Graves 3 and 148 of the 6th century.2707

2363. Medûm (Faiyum oasis): 12 cowries with removed dorsum on a string of the 22nd Dynasty.2700

2375. France 2375. Prignac-et-Marcamps (département Gironde, région Aquitanie)-Pair-non-Pair cavern: “an ivory model of a Cypraea was unearthed by Daleau..., it comes from pleniglacial times (30,000-20,000 years B.P.).”2708

2364. (Faiyum oasis)-Cemetery 71: Grave 56: 1 “cowrie shell” (probably Ringed cowrie) from the Byzantine Period was found.2701 2365. North Saqqâra (Lower Egypt): among the 12 shells found in the Archaic cemetery (1st–3rd Dynasties) was 1 holed Money cowrie.2702

2376–82. Georgia/Gruziya

2366. Saqqâra (Lower Egypt)-‘Anubieion’: from the

2376. Grave 134: earliest cowries of the 12th–10th centuries from the cemetery

Reese (1996) 484; Reese (2003) 458. Lutovský–Šmolíková–Státníková (2001) 5, 30, 4: fig. 2695 “Taf. 66, Fig. e7 [George Andrew Reisner: The archaeological survey of Nubia. Report for 1907–1908. Kairo 1910.] Taf. 70, Fig. c1 (Friedhof 7, Grab 5).”: Falkner (1981) 141, note 7. 2696 “Taf. 66, Fig. e7, wird ein weiteres Gehäuse ohne Herkunftsangabe als ‘Muster’ für zahlreiche Funde abgebildet (‘occurs in C-group, in New Empire graves and later’).”: Falkner (1981) 141: note 7. 2697 Bruyère–Manteuffel–Michalowski (1937) pl. XXV. 2698 Bard (1992) 14. 2699 “El Lâhun, zahlreiche Stücke in einem Brunnengrab der XII. Dynastie. – [Schilder (1952) 31.] – Ein Originalzitat in der Ausgrabungsliteratur konnte ich nicht ermitteln.” – Falkner (1981) 141, note 5. 2700 Falkner (1981) 141. 2701 Falkner (1981) 141. 2702 Falkner (1981) 140–41.

2377–82. Cowries of 8th–first half of the 7th centuries, and

2376–82. Tli (Abashis rajon, Respublika Jugo-Osetija):

2693 2694

Smith–Jeffreys (1980), 18, pl. III: 3. von den Driesch (1997) 37, 36: pl. 1, 38: fig. 8. 2705 Geake (1997) 62. 2706 The skeleton „was anatomically sexed as male, but which had the gender-neutral artefact of a double-sided comb.This bears some similarity to the only male grave with a cowrie that Meaney knew of, from Ellesborough Bu [1182], which was also accompanied by a double-sided comb, leading Meaney to suggest that a mistake had been made in the sexing (1981, 124). As seen below, though, although combs are found more often with women, they are not absent from male graves.”: Geake (1997) 62. 2707 Geake (1997) 62. 2708 Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 96. 2703 2704

432

Catalogue

Fig. 190. Panther or Tiger cowrie among the finds of a woman’s grave from Praha-Hostivař (2357) – after Lutovský–Šmolíková–Státníková (2001) 4: fig.

2386–2389. Frankfurt am Main (Regierungsbezirk Darmstadt, Bundesland Hessen)-Nieder-Erlenbach: Frankish cemetery of the late 6th–8th centuries:

second half of the 7th–6th centuries from the latest burials of the cemetery: Graves 15, 21, 146, 175, 253, 300.2709 2383–93. Germany

2386. Grave 26: a large cowrie ��������������������������� perforated crossways twice at the anterior end, and strung on a ring.2713

2383–84. Bad Schönborn (Landkreis Karlsruhe, Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe, Bundesland BadenWürttenberg)-Bad Mingolsheim, „Steinig”: 65 graves from a ���������������������������� Merovingian cemetery (late 6th–7th centuries):

2387. Grave 88: from the burial of an woman aged ca. 30 years in the belt-pendant set is a large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie ���������������������������������������������������� perforated crossways twice at the anterior end, and strung on a ring.2714

2383. Grave 44c: from the disturbed by the Grave 44b burial of a woman aged 20–30 years a Panther cowrie perforated crossways at the anterior end, lenght: 7,3 cm.2710

2388. Grave 89: a large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie perforated crossways twice at the anterior end, and strung on a ring.2715

2384. Grave 46: from the burial a girl aged 6–8 years a Panther cowrie perforated crossways at the anterior end, lenght: 6,6 cm.2711

2389. Grave 122: from the burial of a girl of 10 a large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie ������������������������������ perforated crossways twice at the anterior end, and strung on an iron ring.2716

2385. Endingen am Kaiserstuhl (Landkreis Emmendingen, Regierungsbezirk Freiburg, Bundesland BadenWürttemberg )-Diel: 188 graves from a Frankish cemetery part of the 6th–7th centuries:

2390. Neuss (Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf, Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen)-Pfarrgarten von St. Quirin: from the 15th century was found a pendant with missing metal loop of the dentated outer lip of a Tiger cowrie (Fig. 191).2717

Grave 162: from the young woman’s burial 1 perforated large (?) cowrie and 1 part of the inner labium of the second large (?) cowrie of the late 6th century.2712

Dohrn-Ihmig (1999) 115, pl. 8: Grave 26, 10. Dohrn-Ihmig (1999) 115. 2715 Dohrn-Ihmig (1999) 115, pl. 24: Grave 89, 2. 2716 Dohrn-Ihmig (1999) 115, pl. 37: Grave 122, 1. 2717 Sauer (2001) 108–09, fig. 93 (above). 2713

Brujako (1999) 49; see 178–79. 2710 Schäfer (2005) 364–65, 474–75, 524: fig. 97: 5. 2711 Schäfer (2005) 364, 476–78, figs 51–52, 528: fig. 101: 8. 2712 Theune-Großkopf (1989) 8–9: note 21, 147–48.

2714

2709

433

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads and mentioned as a parallel to the Minoan fauna at Kommos.2721 2395. Ayios Mamas (Chalkis): among the finds of the settlement from the Bronze Age to Byzantine some Fallow cowries were found (Fig. 192).2722 2396. Chania (Crete): 1 Erosaria and 1 Luria as parallels to the Minoan fauna at Kommos.2723 2397. Corycien cave (near Delphi): 7 Luria are mentioned as parallels to the cowries from Kommos-Greek sanctuary.2724 2398. Karphi (Crete)-“Temple”: 2 cowries were found at this refuge village.2725 2399. Kastro Hill (Syphnos island, Cyclades): a votive deposit (700–500 BC) produced 2 cowries.2726 2400. Knossos (Crete): from post-Minoan levels at the Unexplored Mansion 1-1 unmodified Fallow cowries (Luria) from the Middle Geometric Period and the 1st century BC.2727

Fig. 191. Pendant of the dentated outer lip of a Tiger cowrie from Neuss (2390) and a recent shell – after Sauer (2001) 107: fig

2391–92. Peigen (Gemeinde Markt Pilsting, Landkreis Dingolfing-Landau, Regierungsbezirk Niederbayern, Bundesland Bayern): 262 graves from a cemetery of ca. 480–670:

2401–02. Kommos (Crete): 2401. On the Middle and Late Minoan settlement among about 36,000 marine invertebrates “there are 17 cowries of 2 species, mainly of the genus Erosaria. 72 percent are LM III. They come from 13 deposits..., and none have been modified.” In addition to its 15 examples were found 2 Luria.2728

Grave 39: from the burial of a young adult woman a crossways twice (?) perforated large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie with an iron ring fragment, lenght: 6,8 cm.2718 2392. Grave 48: from the burial of an adult woman a crossways twice perforated, large (Panther/Tiger?) cowrie on a bronze loop with twisted terminals, lenght: 7,1 cm, and a small (Ringed/Money?) cowrie “without suspension”.2719

2402. Among the mollusc finds from the Greek sanctuary were 65 cowries (53 Erosaria and 8 Luria). Only 1 Erosaria was holed.2729 2403. Lerna (Argolid): “From Neolithic Lerna come 2 Talparia lurida L. [Fallow cowries] of a total of 23 found.”2730

2393. Trier (Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz)-St. Matthiaskirche: cemetery of the Roman Period near the church: Grave 3: from the burial, an unworked (?) large (Panther or Tiger) cowrie.2720

Reese (1995c) 269. Becker (1996) 6, 11, 13–15, fig. 7: b, fig. 8, fig. 9: d (3 ex.). 2723 Reese (1995c) 269. 2724 Reese (2000) 636. 2725 Reese (2000) 636. 2726 Reese (2000) 636. 2727 Reese (1992e) 495–96; Reese (2000) 636. 2728 Reese (1995c) 163, 268–69; see Reese (1987b) 76; Reese (2000) 636. 2729 „The 65 cowries (53 Erosaria and 8 Luria) come from the following periods: 3.1% Temple A; 6,1% Temple B, Phase 2; 18.5% period of Temple B, Phases 1–3; 13.8% Temple B, Phases 2 and 3; 20% period of Temple B, Phases 2 and 3 (13 shells); 20% Temple B, Phase 3; 3,1% period of Temple B, Phase 3; 4.6% Temple C; and 10.8% period of Temple C. There are 5 from the Temple B, Phases 2 and 3, ritual deposit around the Tripillar Shrine, and 4 from the Temple B, Phase 3, general upper interior pails. Only 1 cowrie is holed, an Erosaria fom the floor of Temple C (pl. 6.10).”: Reese (2000) 635. 2730 Reese (1978) 38. 2721 2722

2394–413. Greece 2394. Aghia Varvara (Crete): “A Mediterranean cowrie misidentified as the large Red Sea Cypraea tigris L., the Tiger cowrie, is reported from Aghia Varvara,”

Without the identification of the cowries: von Freeden (2006) 87–90, 27: pl. 3: 1, 39: fig. 20: 39.13, 90: fig. 73: 13. I studied the book through the kindness of Miklós Takács. 2719 von Freeden (2006) 99–102, 27: pl. 3: 2, 39: fig. 20: 48.9, 84: fig. 9. 2720 Künzl (1984) 156, fig. 2: f. 2718

434

Catalogue 2404. Malia (Crete): 1 Fallow cowrie of the Bronze Age.2731 2405. Myrtos (Crete): “At Myrtos there are 20 cowries of 3 species, 7.6% of the collection” from the Early Bronze Age, and are mentioned like parallels to the Minoan fauna at Kommos.2732 Among these shells were found 2 Pear cowries.2733 2406. Palaikastro (Crete): 1 unworked Dirty cowry from the Early Minoan II Period.2734 2407. Perachora (Attica)-Hera Sanctuary: among the finds of 8th–4th centuries “a holed Luria was found.”2735 2408. Phaistos (Crete): “...a cowrie is known from Phaistos,” and mentioned like parallel to the Minoan fauna in Kommos.2736

Fig. 192. Pierced Fallow cowrie from Ayios Mamas (2395) – after Becker (1996) 14: fig. 8

2409. Phylakopi (Melos island, Cyclades): among the finds of the sanctuary 1 Fallow cowrie of Late Bronze Age (LB III) was found.2737

may have been hammered. The remaining three were worked in a more sophisticated manner by being ground first and then gouged at the thinly ground spot. These six Cypraea with their uncommon twice-pierced dorsals were evenly distributed through time. One came from [the Neolithic] Period 1, two from Period II, and threee from [the Chalcolithic] Period III.”2742

2410. Pyrgos (Crete): cowries of Late Bronze Age are mentioned as parallel to the Minoan fauna at Kommos: 1 Pear cowrie and 20 Cypraea sp.2738 2411. Saliagos island (Cyclades): among the finds of the Neolithic site were found 1 Fallow cowrie and 2 lip fragments of Agate cowries.2739

2415. Rang Mahal (Rajasthan state): among the shells from the settlement of the 1st half –of the millennium AD were 12 Money cowries, “nine of which have had the dorsal surface rubbed down for stringing,” and 1 Pale cowrie, which “base has been flattened by rubbing down and the dorsal surface has been rubbed down into three facets for some ornamental purpose – probably a bead.”2743

2412. Syme Viannou (Crete)-Sanctuary of Hermes and Aphrodite: among the shells from the sanctuary of ca. 1600 to the 5th century BC was 1 Dirty cowrie from a mixed deposit.2740 2413. Tzermiado (Crete)-Trapeza cave: “A Luria (called Cypraea pyrum) was found at Trapeza,” mentioned as a parallel to the Minoan fauna at Kommos.2741

2416–21. Iran 2416. Chagha Sefid/Choga-ye Sefid (Kermanshah Province): perforated cowries from the Neolithic (Sefid Phase) at the site.2744

2414–15. India 2414. Inamgaon (Maharasthra state)-Mound I: among the 178 shells of the post-Harappan village 6 cowries (Cypraea sp.) were found. All “were pierced twice in the dorsal. One of the shells appears to have been gouged, while two others

2417. Hajji Firuz Tepe (West Azarbaijan Province): from the Neolithic village was „one half modified cowrie. The top or back of the shell had been cut away. The opposite (“toothed”) side was heavily worn, probably from contact with the clothing or skin of the wearer.”2745

“De son côté, la cyprée, Luria lurida, est généralement entière et non façonnée. Communément appelée vaginelle en raison de son évocation de la féminité, elle est d’un usage ancore très répandu comme pendentif chez certaines peuplades d’Afrique, d’Océanie ou d’Australie.”: Prieur (1997). 2732 Reese (1995c) 269. 2733 Shackleton (1972) pl. 84C: center. 2734 Reese (1987a) 202–03; Reese (1995c) 269.. 2735 Reese (2000) 636. 2736 Reese (1995c) 269. 2737 Renfrew (1985) 328, pl. 61a. 2738 Reese (1995c) 269. 2739 Reese (1978) 38. 2740 Lebessi–Reese (1990) 185–87. 2741 Reese (1995c) 269. 2731

2418. Kazābād (Ostan-e Ilam Province): 2 cowries are illustrated.2746 2419. Tal-e Malyan (Fars Province): from the levels of the Francis–Badam (1988) 666–68. Wilkins (1959) 191. 2744 Voigt (1983) 263. 2745 Voigt (1983) 263. 2746 Stein (1940) pl. X: 2–3. 2742 2743

435

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads 2428. Gebel Rubsa (Sinai): the identified species from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site: Carnelian, Fawn, Ringed and Thrush cowries, and Cypraea caurica, C. arabica grayana (Schilder, 1930).2755 “Cypraea sp. comprises about 47% of the shell assemblage. As in the other sites [in southern Sinai], the majority of this genus belongs to either C. erosa nebrites or C. turdus, with a few other Cypraea species present in much smaller quantities. About half of the shells are worked, all of which were treated in the same way – the dorsum remowed. As there are no complete shells in the other half of the assemblage, we cannot conclude, that a workshop existed here.”2756

Banesh Period (ca. 3400–2800 BC) “2 cowries with holes in them.”2747 2420. Tal-i-Iblis (Kerman Province): from the 5th milennium BC were 1-1 worked Ringed and Ocellate cowrie beads.2748 2421. Tepe Ali Kosh (Khuzestan Province): “Rare cowrie shells «with a single perforation for suspension» were recovered from Ali Kosh [6100–5800 BC] and Mohammad Jafar [5800–5700 BC] deposits at Tepe Ali Kosh.”2749 2422. Iraq

2429. Horvat Castra (near Haifa)-Cave no. 1800: fragment of the upper part of the labial lip of a Pear cowrie (may have belonged to a shell bead) from an Early Chalcolithic (late Wadi Rabah: 5500–5100 BC) burial with skeletal remains of 27 individuals.2757

2422. Tell Arpachiya (near Niniveh)-Tepe Reshwa: among the finds of the Halaf Culture (5800–4500 BC) were “cowries with their tops cut away [and] were filled with red pigment and strung with black obsidian beads.”2750 Tepe Reshwa – see 2422. Tell Arpachiya

2430. Horvat Galil (Upper Galilee): among 50 shells and shell fragments of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site were found 1 outer lip fragment of a Dirty cowrie.2758

2423–53. Israel 2423. Abu Gosh (West Jerusalem): 1-1 Dirty and Ringed cowries with completely removed dorsum in a “collection of archaeological shell material... among the unregistered possessions of the late prof. Georg Haas”, dated to 7300– 6300 BC (PPNB).2751

2431. Horvat Karkur (Northern Negev)-‘Illit’: 1 complete Dirty cowrie and 2 Money cowries with removed dorsum from the Byzantine church of the 5th–7th centuries.2759 2432. Jerusalem-City of David (South of the Temple Mount): 5 Ringed cowries (1 complete and 4 with removed dorsum), 1 labial lip of a Panther cowrie, and 2 complete Dirty cowries from the fauna remains from the 10th century to ca. 586 BC.2760

2424. Ashdod (Southern Israel): 1 and 4 Ringed cowries from Area H with unknown date.2752 Auja (el-)Hafir – see Nessana

2433. Kadesh Barnea (Eastern Sinai): 128 Ringed cowries produced the Iron Age fortress, “about one-third of all shells found, including some holed examples.”2761

2425–26. Beth Shemesh (near Jerusalem, Mehoz Yerushalaim): 2425. Grave 14: “Cowries were among other shells as part of a necklace...”

2434. Kefar HaHoresh (Lower Galilee): among the finds of a small PPNB settlement were found 2 dorsally broken Fawn cowries.2762

2426. “A second necklace of cowries is without precise 2753 provenience.”

Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 99; see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 59. Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 103, 106: fig. 8. 2757 van den Brink (2004) 134, 148. 2758 Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997) 223–24. 2759 Mienis (2004d). 2760 Mienis (1992) 123, 128–29; Reese (2003c). 2761 Bar-Yosef Mayer (2000) 483, fig. 16.3: 3–7. A shell species “which seems to be a cultural marker of Iron Age II is Cypraea annulus. It was found in very large quantities at the Iron Age fortress of Kadesh Barnea, as well as many other Iron II sites. Past excavations at Megiddo [see below] produced 11 cut cowries... This prompted the present author to suggest that cowries might have been used as shell-money... This does not contradict its possible use as ornamentation, which might have been the case at Megiddo, where all the C. annulus are worked. It remains to be seen how the use of cowries as shell-money, well documented in historical and ethnographic literature..., might be combined with the monetary system of silver ingots which is attested at Iron Age sites in Israel...”: ibid “Long-distance Iron Age trade is unsurprising. Yet, a Red Sea C. annulus as far north as Megiddo is significant in view of its possible use as shell-money.” ibid 484; Reese (2003c); see note 388 pn pp 54-55. 2762 Goring-Morris–Goren–Horwitz–Bar-Yosef–Hershkovitz (1995) 2755 2756

2427. Elat (Negev): “Excavations in Elat... have produced a fake cowry carved from limestone (Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer, pers. com.), in spite of the fact that at least 26 different cowries would have been locally avaiable.”2754 Reese (2003b) 103. “The... Cypraea shells were ground down until the internal canals were exposed. We can be fairly confident that all of the shell was used for personal adornment.”: Evett (1967) 217, 216: fig. 7: 7; Abbott (1967) 408: nrs 59, 303, 2749 Voigt (1983) 263; Hole–Flannery–Neely (1969) 244. 2750 Voigt (1983) 263; Francis–Badam (1988) 666. 2751 Mienis (1987) 695–97, 700–01. 2752 From Locus 5312, Stratum XIIa, and Locus 5170, Stratum XIb: Mienis (2005) 249: fig. 4.1: 10, 255: fig. 4.3: 2, 5. 2753 Daviau–Judd–Beckmann (2002) 39. 2754 Mienis (2005) 6; cited: E. L. Heiman: Cowries of East Sinai. Jerusalem 2002. 2747 2748

436

Catalogue 2435–38. Megiddo (Carmel): Among 1241 molluscs of the site in Area F of the Middle Bronze Age to Roman were found 1 Fallow cowrie with removed dorsum and 1 Dirty cowrie.

2447–49. In 3 burials (nrs 1163, 1184, 1875) the Persian Periods of the cemetery (539–332 BC) were found 2-2 Carnelian cowries “probably came from the Red Sea.”2774 2450. Tell Ta’annek (West Bank): among the shells from the settlement were found 4 Dirty and 1-1 Fallow, Money and Pear cowries of the Early Bronze, Late Bronze I–II and Iron Age I–II periods.2775

2436. In the Areas K and H of the Iron Age were 6 Ringed and 1 Dirty cowries, all with removed dorsum.2763 2437. “A good example of a necklace with both stone beads and cowries was reassembled for illustration.”2764

2451. Wadi Jibba (Sinai)-I: the identified species from the PPNB site: Dirty-Yellow, Fawn, Ringed, Thrush, Cypraea arabica grayana.2776 Among 195 mollusc shells „the Cypraea sp. group includes 11 shells which comprise about 6% of the assemblage. This is the smallest Cypraea assemblage among the southern Sinai sites, but the internal division of the species and types within this group is similar to the other assemblages.”2777

2438. Tomb 2121: “A headband of cowries and a single gold bead were in situ in” this grave.2765 2439–44. Nessana (Auja [al-] Hafir)-Northern church (Field K): 2439. Among the shells from the Nabatean site of PreRoman Period: 1-1 lip-fragments of a Panther and a Tiger cowries, 1 Mole cowrie, “perforated at one end for suspension.”2766

2452. Wadi Jibba (Sinai)-II: the identified species from the PPNB site: Fawn and Thrush cowries, and Cypraea erythraeensis (Sowerby 1827).2778 “The Cypraea sp. group included the usual types and species, but also C. erythraeensis, which prowed to be unique to this site.”2779

2440–43. From the renewed excavations since 1987: 3 cowries of the late Byzantine–early Arab period (6th/7th– 8th/9th centuries): columella fragment of a Cypraea arabica grayana (Schilder 1930) and 1 Fawn cowrie with removed dorsum from the Field A (2440),2767 1 Fawn cowrie with removed dorsum from the Field C (house used by the priests – 2441),2768 1 labial lip fragment of a Panther cowrie from the Field P of the Byzantine period (324–638 – 2442),2769 and a labial lip fragment of a Fawn cowrie from the field R of the early Roman–Byzantine periods (63 BC–638 AD – 2443).2770

2453. Yizre’el Valley (near Hazorea)-Anati: 1 Dirty cowrie with removed dorsum among a test pit finds of the Wadi Rabah–Late Pottery Neolithic Phase (5800–5200 BC).2780 2454–57. Italy 2454. Atri (province Teramo, regione Abruzzo)-Petrara: Grave ?: from an infant-burial: a necklace, composed of small bronze und bone tubes, glass beads and cowries.2781

2444. Additional samples from the Fields A–R: 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum, its anterior extremity slighty damaged found in Field F dated to the end of the Byzantine period.2771

2455. Campovalano (Commune di Campli, province Teramo, regione Abruzzo): Grave 115: 2 large cowries with 2 brooches of San Ginesiotyp.2782

2445. Ramla (Center District)-Begin Quarter: 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum of the Early Islamic period (639–1099).2772

2456. Grottazzolina (province Ascoli Piceno): from a burial some cowries.2783

2446–49. Tel Michal (north of Tel Aviv): in a jug of Stratum XIII of the Iron Age were found 1 frit and 2 faience beads, 1 clay spacer 2 gaming pieces and 6 Carnelian cowries. “The dorsal sides were broken away, perhaps to permit stringing.”2773

2457. Montegiorgio (province Ascoli Piceno): in the ibid 371–72. Ezzughayyar–al-Zawahra (1996) 74, 77, 80; Reese (2003c). 2776 Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 99; see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 59. 2777 Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 107, fig. 11. 2778 Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 99; see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 175, 376–77: pl. 76: 1–2, 7–9, 13–15. 2779 Bar-Yosef Mayer (1997a) 108, fig. 12. 2780 Mienis (2004b). 2781 Seidel (2006) 135. 2782 Seidel (2006) 136. 2783 „Im nahe gelegenen Grottazzolina waren sie Teil einer Bestattung mit Stierprotomenanhängern, Torques mit Hakenenden, Dreiknopffibeln und Ohrringen mit Bernsteindiskus. Die Cypraee finden sich aber auch als zusätzlicher Schmuck an Fibeln, hier dann kunstvoll mit einem Netz aus Bronzedraht umgeben und mit Anhänger ausgestattet.”: Seidel (2006) 136. 2774 2775

Bar-Yosef Mayer (2000) 478, 482–84. “Past excavations at Megiddo produced 11 cut cowries...”: ibid 483; see note 2761. 2764 Daviau–Judd–Beckmann (2002) 39. 2765 ibid 2766 Excavation by H.D. Colt (1962): Jackson (1962) 67–68; Mienis (2004) 192–93. 2767 Mienis (2004) 165, 169, 181, 183, 191. 2768 Mienis (2004) 166, 171, 181, 183, 191. 2769 Mienis (2004) 167, 178, 181, 183, 191. 2770 Mienis (2004) 167, 179, 181, 183, 191. 2771 Mienis (2004a) 200, 205, 207, 212, 214. 2772 Square D2; Locus 104: Mienis (2005b) 28 –29. 2773 Kertesz (1989) 370, 374. 2763

437

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads collection of Picentini finds of the Iron Age (9th–3rd centuries BC) from Montegiorgio in the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena are 16 pierced Fallow cowries, 1 pierced Money cowrie and 2 Panther cowries („Grave” 41) perforated twice sideways at the anterior end.2784

and among the Hellenistic shells (8 species: 329 examples) 55 Thrush, 1 Freckled cowrie,2792 and 2 Cypraea sp. were found.2793

2458–62. Jordan

2466. Kamid al-Lawz/Kamid el-Löz (Mohafazat Beqaa): reference to the parallels from Persian Period to Carnelian cowries from burial 1163 of Tel Michal.2794

2466. Lebanon

2458. Busayra: from 56 cowries 18 are stratified Ringed cowries, 9 from late 8th century to ca. 550 BC (1 with open dorsum, 1 with ground-down dorsum), 1 from late 8th century to ca. 300/200 BC, 6 dated to ca. 550 to 300/200 BC (2 with open dorsum), and 2 dated ca. 300/200 BC. There are 23 unstratified Ringed cowries (4 slightly burnt, 7 with ground-down dorsum), 3 Tiger cowrie fragments, 2 unstratified, one of them dated from the late 8th century to ca. 550 BC, 1 Money cowrie with an open dorsum from the topsoil. There are 9 unidentified cowries (8 were discarded shortly after excavation).2785

2467. Libya 2467. Haua Fteah Cave (Cyrenaica): “Certainly artificial is a grooved perforation in a shell of Cypraea pyrum [Pear cowry] from 1955/4 [of the Middle Paleolithic period of 45–40,000–55,000 BC)]. Probable ornaments made in this way of the same species are also characteristic of the Neolithic of Capsian Tradition as for instance at the Grotte du Cuartel (Oran Province).”2795 2468–70. Moldova

2459–60. Tall Jawa (south of Amman): among the finds from the settlement, from Stratum VIII (9th–8th centuries BC) were found 3 Ringed cowries „with an open dorsum, one of which is ground-down around the edge (2459). There is also 1 cowrie with an open dorsum from Stratum VII” (late 8th to 7th centuries BC – 2460).2786

2468. Giurgulesti/Džurdžulešt (rajonul Cahul): 2 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum from a Scythian cemetery of 7th century B.C.2796 2469. Giurgulesti/Džurdžulešt (rajonul Cahul):

2461. Tell-el-Kheleifeh/ancient Ezion-Geber (near Aqaba): from the fortress, architecturally and ceramically almost identical to Kadesh Barnea, located on the Gulf of Elat coast probable Ringed cowries were discovered.2787

Grave 6: from a child’s burial of 10th–11th centuries in a string of beads were found 3 Money cowries with pierced dorsum (Fig. 193).2797

2462. Um Udaina, Amman: “an 8th–4th century tomb… produced 4 cowries with at least 2 stringable.”2788

2470. Podoima (Stînga Nistrului/Transnistria): a Tiger cowrie (?) and 2 other cowries from a Sarmatian cemetery of the 2nd half of the 2nd century A.D.2798

2463–64. Kazakstan

2471. Montenegro

2463. Kok-Mardan or Mardan-Kujuk (Otrar oasis, near Karatou): among the finds one of  these 2 fortified settlements (gorodišča) a pierced cowrie was discovered.2789

2471. Podgorica-Duklja, Zagorič: the ”South-eastern biritual cemetery” of 1st–4th centuries of the Roman Doclea:

2464. Unknown provenance: ������������������ from sites of the Džety-Asar (džety-asarskaja) Culture dated between the 8th century BC–4th century AD some cowries, partly with open or removed dorsum.2790

Grave 113: the urn of the cremated burial of the 1st–2nd centuries contained the washed remains of cremation, a bronze coin of Faustina Maior (†141) and a (perhaps Panther) cowrie.2799

2465. Kuwait 2465. Failaka island-Hellenistic fortress: from the Bronze Age Dilmoun Period 1 Thrush cowrie was discovered,2791

Cypraea (Palmadusta) lentiginosa lentiginosa (Gray 1825): Red Sea to India, lenght: 1.7–2.5–3.1–3.8 cm: Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 154, 348–49 pl. 62: 1–10, 354–55 pl. 65: a. 2793 Cataliotti-Valdina (1990) 72–76, 79: fig. 1 (with removed dorsum), 81–82: pl. I: 6. 2794 Kertesz (1989) 371. 2795 McBurney (1967) 306, pl. IX.11: 4 (a–b). 2796 Brujako (2005) 196: fig. 47: A. 2797 Rjabceva (2005) 126, figs. 46, 47: 17–19. 2798 Bârcă (2006) 348: nr. 125.9, 395, 567: fig. 96: 2–3. 2799 Cermanović-Kuzmanović–Srejović–Velimirović-Žižić (1975) 84, 335, pl. 11: Grave 113. 2792

Seidel (2006) 135–36, tabs 31: 5, 31: 6, 54: 8–9. Reese (2003c). 2786 Reese (2002) 278, 283–84; Daviau–Judd–Beckmann (2002) 39, 41: fig. 2.17: 1–4.. 2787 Bar-Yosef Mayer (2000a) 224. 2788 Reese (2003c). 2789 Bajpakov (1999) 174, 358: pl. 114: 32. 2790 Levina (2000) 168, 171: fig. 29 (in the first row). 2791 Cataliotti-Valdina (1990) 80–81. 2784 2785

438

Catalogue

Fig. 193. 3 pierced Money cowries among the finds of Grave 6 at Giurgulesti/Džurdžulešt (2469) – after Rjabceva (2005) 127: fig. 47

2472–73. The Netherlands

cowries (?) mentioned from a Sarmatian cemetery of the 2nd half of the 1st century A.D.2803

2472. Dordrecht (Provincie Zuid-Holland)-Scharlaken house: in a Late Medieval stratum of the house was found “a golden ring with the apertural half” of 1 Money cowrie. “It may have been worn to identify its bearer as a sex industry worker”(Fig. 194).2800

2476. Huşi (judeţul Vaslui): Scythian cemetery with 4 burials of the 6th–5th centuries B.C.: Grave 4: among the finds, 17 cowries probably with open dorsum.2804

2473. Ferwerd (Provincie Friesland)-Burmania I: 1 unmodified Panther cowrie from an Early Middle Age cemetery.2801

2477–504. Russia 2477. Anapa (Krasnodarskij kraj)-Gorod II/Gorgippija:

2474. Pakistan

Grave 2/1954: 2 small cowries with removed dorsum.2805

2474. Allahdino (Sindh province): among the shells from the Harappan site (3980–3690 BC) were found C. arabica grayana and Ocellaite cowries.2802

2478. Biljarsk (Alekseevskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan)Biljarskoe gorodišče: among the finds of the Volga Bulgarian fortified settlement of  the 10th–early 13th centuries in a string of beads was a pierced Money cowrie.2806

2475–76. Romania 2475. Giurcani (judeţul Vaslui)-Tumulus 1, Grave 5: Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 95. I thank Raimar Kory for sending me the article. 2801 Knol (1988) 119–20, fig. 2. 2802 Turnbull (1983) 54, 59: fig. 1: K–N, O–P; see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 59.

Bârcă (2006) 137, 312, 395. There is Cypraea moneta in the text, but on the illustration rather Ringed cowries: Iconomu (2000–01) 276–77, 288, 287: fig. 9: 4. 2805 G12: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 53. 2806 Valeeva-Sulejmanova (2006) on the first plate after p. 608.

2800

2803 2804

439

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads

Fig. 194. Golden ring with the apertural half of a Money cowrie from Dordrecht (2472) – after Boekschoten–Kars–Lustenhouwer (2001) 97: fig

2479. Bolgarskoe (prev. Uspenskoe; Spasskij rajon, Respublika Tatarstan)-Bolgarskoe gorodišče: cowries from the fortified settlement (the first Volga Bolgarian capital?) of the 10th–11th centuries.2807

2484. Kačkašursk (Udmurtskaja Respublika)-“Bigeršaj”: from the Udmurt cemetery of the 9th–13th centuries come 2 Money cowries.2812

2480. Cemdolina (Krasnodarskij kraj): from a child’s burial of a cremation kurgan cemetery of the 11th–13th centuries a little cowrie.2808

2485. Kokrjat’ (Majnskij rajon, Ul’janovskaja oblast’)Bol’šoe gorodišče: from cleaning and excavations at the Volga Bulgarian fortified settlement of the 10th–12th centuries, a holed Cypraea sp.2813

2481. Durakovskoe (Rjazanskaja oblast’)-III poselenie: 2 Money (?) cowries with removed dorsum from a Slavic settlement of 9th–10th or 12th–13th centuries.2809

2486. Mahkety (Čečenskaja Respublika): from a stone chest grave of an aboriginal child of the 2nd half of the 1st millennium, a little cowrie.2814

2482. Gnëzdovo (Smolenskij rajon): from a kurgan of the 10th century excavated by V. D. Sokolov a (Money?) cowrie with removed dorsum drawn onto a little ring.2810

2487. Moscow-The Great Kremlin Hoard: among the jewelleries buried in the winter 1238 AD was “a small ladle with an iron handle. [It] is made from half a sea shell [probably Panther or Tiger cowrie?] and was perhaps used for cosmetic purposes. When one takes into account the rarity in pre-Mongol times of such utensils made of metal or precious materials, one can understand why the ladle was hidden along with the jewellery.”2815

2483. Jasenovaja Poljana (Krasnodarskij Protomeotic cemetery of 7th–6th centuries BC:

kraj):

Grave 3: 4 Ringed (?) cowries with removed dorsum from a contracted child’s burial of the 7th–6th centuries.2811

Cowries are rare finds, mostly found with carnelian beads: Ivanov (1998) 137, 250: fig. 65: 9. 2813 Mocja–Halikov (1997) 150: fig. 70: 8. 2814 Vinogradov–Mamaev (1979) 73, 74: fig. 6: 14. 2815 Panova (1996) 120, 108: fig. (right, above). 2812

Polubojarinova (1991) 69. 2808 Armarčuk–Dmitriev (2003) 221, 267: pl. 100: 28. 2809 Sudakov–Bulankin (2005) 269–71, 278: fig. 5: 10–11. 2810 Put’ iz varjag (1996) 60: fig. 379. 2811 Ditler (1961) 132, 143, 168: pl. II: 10; Brujako (1999) 49.. 2807

440

Catalogue

Fig. 195. 3 Money (?) cowries from a woman skeleton of a double burial of Kurgan 43 at Palasa-Syrt (2494) – after Gmyrja (2001) 71: fig. 2: 5–7

2488–90. Mokraja Balka (Stavropol’skij kraj): Alan catacomb cemetery from the 5th–8th centuries:

Kurgan/1975: from the robbed burial of the Scythian Period (6th century BC) 3 Ringed cowries with removed dorsum.2820

2488. Catacomb 11: from ��������������������������� a female skeleton from the double burial of a man and a woman, dated to 550–625, a (Money?) cowrie.2816

2493–95. Palasa-Syrt (Respublika Dagestan): Hun– Savir (Proto-Bulgarian) kurgan cemetery of the 5th–7th centuries:

2489. Catacomb 79: from a woman’s burial of the 7th century, a (Money?) cowrie.2817

2493. Kurgan 20, Grave 2: from a woman’s burial, 2 Money (?) cowries with removed dorsum (?) (Fig. 195).2821

2490. Catacomb 83: from a robbed double burial of the 7th century, a (Money?) cowrie.2818

2494. Kurgan 43: from a woman’s skeleton from a double burial, 3 Money (?) cowries with removed dorsum (?).2822

2491. Nedvigovka (Rostovskaja oblast’)-Tanais:

2495. Kurgan 63: from a juvenile girl’s skeleton from a robbed triple burial (2 adult women and a child aged 34) in a string of beads, 1 Money cowrie with removed dorsum.2823

Kurgan/1870: 2 small cowries with removed dorsum.2819 2492. Novozavedennoe (Stavropol’skij kraj):

According to identification of O. V. Amitrova: “Monetaria (Ornamentaria) annularis (Linné)”: Korenjako (2001) 59, 57: fig. 4: 3–5. 2821 Gmyrja (2001) 57–58, 70: fig. 1: 12. 2822 Gmyrja (2001) 59, 71: fig. 2: 5–7. 2823 Gmyrja (2001) 60, 72: fig. 3: 23. 2820

Afanas’ev–Runič (2001) 57, 69: fig. 23: 8. Afanas’ev–Runič (2001) 154, 168: fig. 93: 8. 2818 Afanas’ev–Runič (2001) 154, 171: fig. 96: 9. 2819 T70: Alekseeva (1982) 31, 69. 2816 2817

441

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads In Ljudmila B. Gmyrja’s opinion the finds of Palasa Syrt (2493–95) – string of beads (among them jet and carnelian beads, cowries), toilet bag (occasionally separated from the others), mirror, and other objects (brooches, pendants, needle case, iron needles, arrowheads) – were found by the pelvis of the rich women of the 5th–7th centuries marked their prominent social position, and moreover, their role in the cult of Umai, the Turkish Aphrodite. Cowries also appertained to symbols – bronze mirrors on its back with sun symbol, lucid threads, little bows and arrowheads, small dawns, various non-ferrous metal jewels – of goddes Umai. All this could, like in case of contemporaneous shamans, decorate the costume of the pagan priests, magicians, wizards and healers mentioned by Moses Dasxuranci/Kalankatuaci in his „History of the Caucasian Albanians” compiled in 981–1000.2824

2503. Torik (Krasnodarskij kraj): 1 Ringed (?) cowrie with removed dorsum from the room D–E of the 2nd half of the 6th century BC.2832

2496. Pokrovka (Orenburgskaja oblast’): from a kurgan cemetery of the Pecheneg–Cumanian Culture (mid 11th– mid 13th centuries), 1 (?) cowrie.2825

Grave 29: an unique find of an adult’s grave, 1 Money (?) cowrie with removed dorsum.2834

2504. Zalahtov’ja (Pskovskaja oblast’): kurgan cemetery of the 5th/6th–13th centuries: Kurgan K-20: from the Estonian kurgan of the turn of the 11th/12th centuries,a string of beads with a Cypraea sp. (rakovina kauri).2833 2505. Serbia 2505. Beograd-Strs Tadeuš Košćuska nrs 28–30 and Gospodar Jovanova nrs 2–4: cemetery of the Great Migrations Period of Singidunum (5th–6th/7th centuries):

2506. Slovenia

2497. Polom (Udmurtskaja Respublika)-Cemetery I: ancient Udmurt cemetery of the 6th–10th centuries:

2506. Metlika (Bela Krajina)-Hrib: 6 tumuli of a cemetery. Tumulus I with 90 graves from the end of the Bronze Age or the beginning of the Iron Age:

Grave 74: from the burial of 8th–9th centuries, 1 (Money?) cowrie with open dorsum.2826

Tumulus I, Grave 18: from a female grave, 1 cowrie imitation in amber.2835

2498. Prohorovka (Šarlykskij rajon, Orenburgskaja oblast’)-Kurgan B, Grave 1: in the burial of a child aged 1 in a string of beads was a Ringed (?) cowrie from the Early Sarmatian Period (2nd half of the 4th–early 3rd centuries BC).2827

2507. Spain 2507. Antequera (Málaga, Andalusia)-Cueva de El Toro: from Phase IV (Middle Neolithic: mid 6th–mid 5th millennia) in the cave, 1 crossways perforated Cypraea sp.2836

2499. Selitrennoe (Narimanovskij rajon, Astrahanskaja oblast’)-Selitrennoe gorodišče (Staryj Batu/Staryj Saraj): among the finds from the fortified settlement (first capital of the Golden Horde, 1254–1480) were found 15 holed and 7 unworked cowries, lenght: 1,3–3,0 cm.2828

2508. Sudan 2508. El-Kadada (district Taragma): among the finds of the Neolithic Period were 1 Thrush cowrie and 5 other Cypraea sp.2837

2500. Stavropol’skij kurgan (Stavropol’skij kraj): cowries of the 7th century BC.2829

2509–11. Sweden

2501. Taman’ peninsula (Krasnodarskij kraj):

2509. Fjäle (Ala socken, Gotlands län): 9 Money cowries from a child’s grave of the Vendel period VII:2 (ca. 600–ca. 650).2838

Grave 5/1913: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum.2830 2502. Tamgacik cemetery (Karačaevo-Čerkesskaja Respublika)-Grave 5: 3 cowrie talismans from a harness of second half of the 7th century BC.2831

2510. Fjälkinge (Skåne län): 2 Money cowries from infant graves of the Viking Age (790–1150).2839

Tanais – see 2491. Nedvigovka

Onajko (1980) 93, 140: nr. 337, 169: pl. XXIX: 337; Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 45. 2833 Hvoščinskaja (2004) 78, 138, 234 (without identification and illustration). 2834 Ivanišević–Kazanski (2002) 131, 151: pl. III: 29.1. 2835 Grahek (2004) 166, 178, 183: pl. 3: 12. 2836 Socas et al. (2004) 168, 173: fig. 8: 15. 2837 Gautier (1986) pl. I: 4. 2838 Johansson (2005) 51: tabelle 1: (nr. 2). 2839 Johansson (2005) 51: tabelle 1 (nr. 15), 88 (nr. 28). 2832

Gmyrja (2001) 62–64. Zudina (1998) 113: nr. 176. 2826 Ivanov (1998) 114, 205: fig. 23: 26. 2827 Jablonskij–Meščerjakov (2005) 66–67, between 192–93: fig. V. 2828 Polubojarinova (1991) 68–69, 64: fig. 5: 14 (cowrie?), 19. 2829 Brujako (1999) 49. 2830 Tm7: Alekseeva (1982) 30,70. 2831 Kozenkova (1995) 115, 164: pl. XXIX: 20–22. 2824 2825

442

Catalogue 2522–61. Ukraine

2511. Fröjel (Gotlands län)-Grave 6: 10 Money cowries from a female burial dated to 1100.2840

2522–23. Fanagorija/ancient peninsula):

2512–16. Syria 2512. Hama (Muhafazat Hama): among the finds of the Neolithic–Chalcolithic Periods of the settlement were 2 cowries, possibly a Fallow cowrie (Luria),2841 and an ivory-colored cowrie.2842

Phanagoria

(Taman’

2522. Grave 75/1951: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum of the 3rd–2nd centuries BC.2851 2523. Grave 259/1965: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum of the 2nd century BC.2852

2513. Palmyra (near Tadmur, Muhafazat Hims)-Sanctuary of Baalshamin: in Grave 3 in Loculus 2, a sideways perforated Cypraea sp.2843

2524. Har’kov (Har’kovskaja oblast’)-Doneckoe gorodišče: among the finds of the fortified settlement of 8th–10th centuries was 1 (Money?) cowrie with removed dorsum.2853

2514. Ras Shamra/ancient Ugarit (near Latakia, Muhafazat Latakia): among the Neolithic shells were 3 Fallow cowries.2844

2525. Il’ičevo (Krymskaja oblast’)-Kurgan 9/1965, Grave 3: 4 small cowries with removed dorsum of the 4th–3rd centuries BC.2854

2515. Tell Beydar/ancient Nabada (Muhafazat al Hasakah): among the finds of the Early Dinastyc (2920–2575 BC) III period was found an incomplete Cypraea sp. with open dorsum.2845

2526–28. Inkerman (Krymskaja oblast’)-Sovhoz nr. 10:2855

2516. Tell Mastuma (near Idlib, Muhafazat Idlib, Northwest Syria): among the shell remains from a settlement of the Iron Age and Persian Period (ca. 10th–4th centuries BC) were 11 Dirty Yellow, and 1 indeterminate cowries, their 73% with removed dorsum.2846

2526. Grave 3b: one small cowrie with removed dorsum of the second half of the 2nd–3rd centuries.2856

2517–21. Turkey

2528. Grave 73: one small cowrie with removed dorsum of the late 1st–first half of the 2nd centuries.2858

2527. Grave 54: one small cowrie with removed dorsum of the 1st century AD.2857

2517–18. Balat (Aydin ili)-Kalabak Tepe and Zeytin Tepe: among the finds from Archaic town Milet (7th–5th centuries BC) 4528 molluscs were found: from the settlement at Kalabak Tepe 3 Fallow cowries (2517), in the sanctuary to Aphrodite at Zeytin Tepe 1 Cypraea sp. (2518).2847

2529. Ivankoviči (Vasil’kovskij rajon, Kievskaja oblast’): from a robbed large kurgan of the Archaic Scythian Period (late 7th–early 6th centuries) 24 Money cowries with removed dorsum and 12 cowrie fragments.2859

2519. Boğazköy (Çorum ili)-Hattusha: a holed Ringed cowrie dated ca. 1200 BC from the Ancient Capital City of the Hittites.2848

2530. Južno-Čurubanskoe (Krymskaja oblast’)-Nimfea: Grave 11: in the burial of a young (woman?) from the turn of the 5th/4th centuries, a string of beads with 4 Cypraea sp. with removed dorsum.2860

2520. Çayönü (Diyarbakir ili): Luria/Erosaria are known from the PPNB site.2849

2531–32. Kerč (Krymskaja oblast’)-Bosporo, Ital’janskie goroda, Korčev cemetery around the church of John the Baptist:

2521. Öküzini cave (near Antalya, Antalya ili): “single Luria from Aceramic Neolithic...”2850

F44: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 71 Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 42. F124: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 73; Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 42. 2853 Skirda (2004) 63, 103: fig. 41: 4. 2854 I6: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 54. 2855 “Cemetery on territory of the sovhoz nr. 10 in the vicinity of Inkerman”: see Alekseeva (1975) 7: map 1: no. 10. 2856 S4: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 64. 2857 S40: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 65. 2858 S57: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 65. 2859 Skoryj–Soltys–Belan (2001) 127, 131, 132: fig. 8: 5. It’s possible that among the shells were Ringed cowries too. 2860 Zin’ko (2002) 227, 241: fig. 10: 6. 2851

Johansson (2005) 51: tabelle 1 (nr. 16), 88 (nr. 31). 2841 From Phase K 7-5: Thuesen (1988) 264, pl. LII: 7. 2842 From Phase L 2: Thuesen (1988) 88. 2843 Fellman (1970) 3, pl. 14: 31. 2844 Poulain (1978) 180. 2845 Van Neer (2000) 72, 79. 2846 Tomé–Nishiyama (2005) 110, 112. 2847 Zimmermann (1993) 55–57; Klapper (1994) 61. 2848 Boehmer (1979) 64, pl. XL: 3868. 2849 Reese (2005) 125. 2850 Reese (2005) 125. 2840

2852

443

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Grave 43: among the finds of 13th–14th centuries, 6 Cypraea sp. (Money cowries?).2861

2544. Ostraja Mogila: cowries of the 6th (?) century BC from the wooded steppe along the Dnepr.2872

2532. From the site 1 additional Cypraea sp..2862

2545–52. Pantikapej/ancient Krymskaja oblast’):2873

2533. Kerč (Krymskaja oblast’)-Old Market (now Tostoj) Square: from a rich woman’s burial near of church John the Baptist were in the string of beads 4 (Money?) cowries (2 with removed dorsum).2863

Pantikapaion

(Kerč,

2545. Stone chest/1853 opposite to Tatarskaja slobodka/ suburb: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum of the 1st century BC–3rd century AD.2874

2534. Kirovo (Krymskaja oblast’)-Kurgan 2/1966, Grave 1: 10 small cowries with removed dorsum of the 4th–3rd centuries BC.2864

2546. Mitridat: from earth-crypt of a woman of the 1st century BC–2nd century AD 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum.2875

2535. Krasnaja Gorka (Balaklejskij rajon, Har’kovskaja oblast’): biritual cemetery of the Saltovo-Majaki (saltovomajackaja) Culture from the 2nd half of the 8th to the 1st half of the 10th centuries:

2547. Grave 109: 4 small cowries with removed dorsum of 4th century BC.2876 2548. Grave 378/1902: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum.2877

Grave 176: from the urn cremation burial among beads were found 15 cowries with perforated dorsum.2865

2549. Grave 172/1903: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum of 2nd–3rd centuries AD.2878

2536. Malopoloveckoe (Fastovskij rajon, Kievskaja oblast’)-3, Grave 134: from a Russian woman’s burial of the 12th–13th centuries 2 cowries were found.2866

2550. Grave from 23.03.1906: 2 small cowries with removed dorsum of 4th century BC.2879

2537. Mirmekij/ancient Myrmekion (Kerč, Krymskaja oblast’)-Pondiko: 2 pierced Money cowries in a string of beads from the cemetery of 13th–14th centuries.2867

2551. Grave 25/1907: 1 small cowrie of the second half of the 4th century–3rd century BC.2880 2552. Grave from 21.12.1913: 6 small cowries with removed dorsum.2881

2538–39. Nikonij/ancient Niconium (Odesskaja oblast’): 2538. Kurgan 5 Grave 2: cowrie(s?) of the 4th century BC.

2553–55. Pesočin (Har’kovskaja oblast’): 35 excavated kurgans from a Scythian kurgan cemetery of the 4th century BC with imported objects from the Greek colonies in the North Pontic region:

2539. Pit 170: cowrie(s?) from the 2nd half of the 5th century BC.2868

2553. Kurgan 21: from the burial, 1 (Ringed?) cowrie.2882

2540–41. Odessa (Odesskaja oblast’)-Peresyp, Tiramba Graves 120 and 130: cowries of the late 6th–early 5th centuries.2869

2554. Kurgan 22: in a string of beads from the burial, 70 Ringed (?) and Money (?) cowries.2883

2542–43. Ol’via/ancient Olbia (Odesskaja oblast’):

2555. Kurgan 25: from the burial, 1 (Ringed?) cowrie.2884

2542. Grave 65/1902: Panther or Tiger (?) cowrie of 2nd century AD, lenght: 7 cm.2870

2556–57. Sudak (Krymskaja oblast’)-II. Cemetery:

2543. Grave 9/1910: 1 small cowrie with removed dorsum of the late 6th–early 5th centuries BC.2871

Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 9. Mentioned cowries from 3 graves of 4th–3rd centuries BC (= 109?, 23.03.1906?, 25/1907?): Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 41. 2874 P10: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 59. 2875 P23: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 59. 2876 P92: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 60. 2877 P107: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 61. 2878 P127: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 61. 2879 P191: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 62. 2880 P200: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 62. 2881 P265: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 63. 2882 “rakovina Cauri”: Babenko (2004) 155, 156: fig. 4: 7. 2883 “rakovina Cauri”: Babenko (2004) 155, 156: fig. 4: 8.k. 2884 “rakovina Cauri”: Babenko (2004) 155, 156: fig. 4: 10.d. 2872 2873

Ajbabin (2003) 284–85, 302: pl. 12: 14; Makarova (2003) 73, 133: pl. 47: 4. 2862 Ajbabin (2003) 284–85, 302: pl. 12: 31. 2863 Makarova (2005) 348–49, 353: fig. 2: 33–36. 2864 Alekseeva (1982) 30, 54. 2865 Aksenov (2004) 205, 210, 206: fig. 1: 23, 207: fig. 2: B4. 2866 Lysenko–Lysenko–Kvitnickij (2005) 207–08, 210–11, fig. 3: 5. 2867 Mirmekij (2006) 51, 62: nr. 72, 79: Kat. 72. 2868 Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 39. 2869 Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 44. 2870 Alekseeva (1982) 30: note 19. 2871 Ol69–1: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 57; Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 40. 2861

444

Catalogue 2563. Monticello (Virginia)-Mulberry Row: finds from the slave root cellars of the 18th century AD: “mojo” magic ring (?), pierced silver 18th century Spanish coins, and a Money cowrie (Fig. 196).2892 2564. New York City-Borough of Queens: grave goods2893 of the 16th century: 1 ovate quarz knife and 83 Money, Ringed and Bulging cowries,2894 the little examples are perforated, the larger with removed dorsum.2895

Fig. 196. Money cowrie from Monticello-Mulberry Row (2563) – after Kelso (1986) 30: fig. above

2556. Grave 174: 1 pierced Money cowrie in a string of beads of the late 10th–11th centuries.2885 2557. Grave 216 in the Crypt II/1966: among the finds of an „ossuary” with 20 skulls and a child’s burial of the 10th century or later were 2 Money (?) cowries.2886 2558. Taš-Tepe (Krymskaja oblast’): cemetery of the Černjahov Culture of the 4th century AD: Grave 2: from the burial a little Cypraea sp. (?) with removed dorsum.2887 2559. Tuzly (Odesskaja oblast’): Grave 5: 1 cowrie with removed dorsum of the 5th–4th centuries BC.2888 2560. Velikaja Znamenka (Dneprovskij rajon, Zaporožskaja oblast’)-Mamaj-Surka: in the cemetery of the Golden Horde with 973 graves of the 13th–early 15th centuries were holed cowries in 15 children’s burials.2889 2561. Višnevoe (prev. Èski Èli, Krymskaja oblast’): in the Crypt 1 from the cemetery of the 4th century AD a broken larger Cypraea sp. was found.2890

Kelso (1986) 30: fig. (above, left). Among the 13 Minnesota Chippewa Mide bags for the medicine man of the Simms collection 2 items “of whole weasel skins are undecorated and have slits on the underside between thefront paws. According to the catalog, in the head of one of these bags is a «sacred bundie» containing «two megis shells and two glass beads.» The body contains a «package of herbs for medicine.» According to Densmore..., the shells «were ‘shot into the candidate’ and into members of the society at a ceremony of iniciation.» The catalog describes the second weasel skin bag as containing «a small shell wrapped in cotton cloth...». “Megis (Cypraea moneta) is native only to tropical waters, but its use as currency or for ornamentation has been almost worldwide. These shells were probably available to the Chippewa early in the 19th century.”: VanStone (1988) 8. 2893 The burial „revealed no surviving skeletal remains due to the high acidity of the soil...”: Platt–Queren (1979) 57. 2894 Cypraea (Erosaria) obvelata (Lamarck, 1810): Lorenz-Hubert (1993) 204, 418–19: pl. 97: 23–25, 30–31, 37–38. 2895 Ceci (1979). In the first publication were mentioned “Yellow cowries” from the Middle Woodland Stage (100–800): Platt–Queren (1979) 57. Lynn Ceci identified these “Yellow cowries” as Cypraea spurca acicularis (Gmelin, 1971), see Lorenz–Hubert (1993) 156: C. lutea (Gmelin, 1971). 2892

2562–64. USA 2562. Long Island (New York state)-Pantiago cemetery: 1 Money cowrie bead among the finds from a grave of 16th–17th centuries.2891 Majko (2006) 227, 228: fig. 1: 3. Majko (2002) 150, 153: fig. 2: 11. 4 cowries from unnamed crypts: Baranov (2003) 15: fig. 17: left below. 2887 Puzdrovskij–Zajcev–Nenevolja (2001) 32–33, 42: fig. 4: 1. 2888 Tuz9: Alekseeva (1982) 30, 71; Brujako (1999) 52: nr. 43. 2889 Èl’nìkov (2000) 49, 44: fig. 5: 14, 46: fig. 8; Lysenko–Lysenko– Kvitnickij (2005) 210. 2890 Puzdrovskij–Zajcev–Nenevolja (2001) 33–34, 50: fig. 12: 7. 2891 “...here the shell bead was again a grave gift but the site also contained a wealth of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European trade goods.”: Ceci (1979). 2885 2886

445

Chapter 5. References

5.1. Abbreviations

AIM   Arheologičeskie Issledovanija v Moldavii (Kišinev) AISC   Anuarul Institutului de Studii Clasice (Sibiu) AIVE   Arheologičeskie Istočniki Vostočnoj Evropy (Kišinëv) AJ   The Antiquaries Journal (London) AKM   Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes (Leipzig) Alba Regia   Alba Regia. Annales Musei Stephani Regis (Székesfehérvár) AlLU   Arheologìčnij Lìtopis Lìvoberežnoï Ukraïni (Poltava) Altum Castrum   Altum Castrum. A Visegrádi Mátyás Király Múzeum Füzetei (Visegrád) AmAnthr   American Anthropologist (Menasha) AMC   Acta Musei Cibalensis (Vinkovci) AMK   Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes (Leipzig) AMN   Acta Musei Napocensis (Cluj) ANGN   Abhandlungen der Naturhistorischen Gesellschaft zu Nürnberg (Nürnberg) ANM   Archéologie du Nil Moyen (Lille) AnnUnivSBp-B   Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis de Rolando Eötvös Nominatae. Sectio Biologica (Budapest) Antaeus-MAI Antaeus. Communicationes ex Instituto Archaeologico Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (prev.: Mitteilungen des Archäologischen Instituts der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften – see MittArchInst) (Budapest) Antiquitas Antiquitas. Abhandlungen zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte, zur klassischen und provinzialrömischen Archäologie und zur Geschichte des Altertums (Bonn) Anthropophyteia   Anthropophyteia. Jahrbücher für Folkloristische Erhebungen und Forschungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der geschlechtlichen Moral (Leipzig) AO   Arheologičeskie otkrytija ... goda (Moskva) AP   Arheološki Pregled (Beograd) ARA   Arheologičeskie raskopki v Armenii (Erevan) Arch   Archaeoslavica (Kraków) Archaeolingua SM   Archaeolingua Series Minor (Budapest) Archaeologia   Archaeologia (Oxford) ArchAu   Archaeologia Austriaca. Beiträge zur

A+MGN   The Archeo+Malacology Group Newsletter (London) AA   Archäologischer Anzeiger. Beiblatt zum Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Berlin) AASOR   The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research (Boston) AAWG   Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Philologisch-Historische Klasse. Dritte Folge (Göttingen) ABAW   Abhandlungen der (Königlich) Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-Historische Klasse (München) ACF-B   Avar Corpus Füzetek (Das Awarische Corpus)– Beihefte (Debrecen–Budapest) ActaArch   Acta Archaeologica (København) ActaArchCarp   Acta Archaeologica Carpathica (Kraków) ActaArchHung   Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (Budapest) ActaArchLodz   Acta Archaeologica Lodziensia (Łódź) ActaArchLund   Acta Archaeologica Lundensia (Lund) ActaArqHisp   Acta Arqueologica Hispanica (Segovia) ActaAsia   Acta Asiatica (Tokyo) ActaEthnHung   Acta Ethnographica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (Budapest) ActaScLitt   Acta Scientiarum Litterarumque (Universitatis Iageollonicae). Schedae Archaeologicae (Warszawa– Kraków) ActaUS-SBS   Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis – Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia (Stockholm) AdalZvm   Adalékok Zemplén-vármegye történetéhez (Sátoralja Ujhely) ADU   Arheologìčnì Doslìdžennja v Ukraïnì ... rr. – Archaeological Researches in Ukraine ... (Zaporìžžja) AEAE   Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia (Novosibirsk) AÈGÈ   Arheologičeskie Èkspedicija Gosudarstvennogo Èrmitaža (Leningrad) AÈT   Arheologija i Ètnografija Tatarii (Kazan’) AfMoll   Archiv für Molluskenfunde (Berlin) Agria   Agria. Annales Musei Agriensis (Eger) – see EMÉ AgrSz   Agrártörténeti Szemle – Historia Rerum Rusticarum (Budapest) AIARS   Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni Sueciae (Athens)

446

References Paläoanthropologie, Ur- und Frühgeschichte Österreichs (Wien) ArchBalt   Archaeologia Baltica (Łódź) ArchBelg   Archaeologia Belgica (Brussel) Archeologia   Archeologia. Fouilles et Découvertes (Paris) ArchEph   Archaiologiké Ephemeris (Athenai) ArchÉrt   Archaeologiai Értesítő (Budapest) ArchHung   Archaeologia Hungarica (Budapest) ArchIug   Archaeologia Iugoslavica (Beograd) ArchKorr   Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt (Mainz) ArchMHNLyon   Archives Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Lyon (Lyon) ArchPol   Archeologia Polski (Wrocław–Warszawa– Kraków–Gdańsk) ArchRep   Archaeological Reports (London) ArchRozhl   Archeologické Rozhledy (Praha) ArchSlov–Cat   Archaeologica Slovaca – Catalogi Instituti Archaeologici Nitriensis Academiae Scientiarum Slovacae (Bratislava) ArchSlov-F   Archaeologica Slovaca Fontes (Bratislava) ArchSlovMon-F   Archaeologica Slovaca Monographiae – Fontes (Nitra) ArchTrans   Archaeologia Transatlantica (Louvain-laNeuve) ArhEtn   Arheoloģija un etnogrāfija (Rīga) Arheologija   Arheologija s drevnejših vremën do srednevekov’ja v 20 tomah (Moskva) – see ArhSSSR ArhK   Arheologìja (Kiïv) ArhKatSlov   Arheološki Katalogi Slovenija – Catalogi Archaeologici Sloveniae (Ljubljana) ArhMold   Arheologia Moldovei (Bucureşti) ArhS   Arheologija (Sofija) ArhSbor   Arheologičeskij Sbornik (Leningrad) ArhSSSR   Arheologija SSSR s drevnejših vremën do srednevekov’ja v 20 tomah (Moskva) ArhVest   Arheološki Vestnik/Acta Archaeologica (Ljubljana) ArhVesti   Arheologičeskie Vesti (Sankt-Peterburg) ART   Arheologičeskie Raboty v Tadžikistane (Dušanbe) AS   Anatolian Studies. Journal of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara (London) ASAÉ   Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte (La Caire) AsiaForsch   Asiatische Forschungen (Wiesbaden) AS-IMP   Archaeological Series 1: International Monographs in Prehistory (Ann Arbor) ASM   Archeologické Studijní Materiály (Praha) ASOR AR   ASOR Archaeological Reports (Boston) AS-SAI    Arheologija SSSR. Svod Arheologičeskih Istočnikov (Moskva) ATIÉvk   Az Alföldi Tudományos Intézet Évkönyve (Szeged) ’Atiqot    ’Atiqot. Journal of the Department of Antiquities (Jerusalem) AUUWEU   Arbeten Utgilna med Understöd af Wilhelm Ekmans Universitetsfond (Uppsala)

447

AVANS   Archeologické Výskumy a Nálezy na Slovensku v roku... (Nitra) AVL   Arheologija Vostočnoevropejskoj Lesostepi (Voronež) ÄDS   Ägyptische Denkmäler in der Schweiz (Mainz) BAMA   British Academy Monographs in Archaeology (Oxford) BAOM   Bulletin of the Ancient Orient Museum (Tokyo) BAR-BS   British Archaeological Reports, British Series (Oxford) BAR-IS   British Archaeological Reports, International Series (Oxford) BaslerBUF   Basler Beiträge zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte (Basel) BASOR   Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (New Haven) BBV   Berliner Beiträge zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte (Berlin) BCSP   Bollettino del Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici (Capo di Ponte, Brescia) Beer-Sheva, Stud   Beer-Sheva. Studies by the Department of Bible and Ancient Near East (Beer-Sheva) Beer-Sheva, AM   Beer-Sheva Archaeological Monographs (Beer-Sheva) BEN   Biblioteca Ephemeris Napocensis (Cluj-Napoca) BHAB   Bibliotheca Historica et Archaeologica Banatica (Timişoara) BHV   Britannia Hungarica Világenciklopédia. Copresidents: Ernő Pungor–Frank Gibney (Budapest) BI   Bosporskie Issledovanija – Bosporus Studies (Simferopol’) BiblA   Biblioteca de Arheologie (Bucureşti) BiblAnt   Bibliothek der Antike (Berlin–Weimar) BiblArch   Biblioteka Archeologiczna (Warszawa– Wrocław) BiblAI   Biblioteca Archaeologica Iassiensis (Iaşi) BiblMuz   Biblioteca Muzeelor (Bucureşti) BiblSept   Bibliotheca Septemcastrensis (Bucureşti) BihariMé   A Bihari Múzeum Évkönyve (Berettyóújfalu) BirkaSt   Birka Studies. Journal of the European Network of Scientific and Technical Cooperation for Cultural Heritage (Rixensart) BJ   Bonner Jahrbücher. Jahrbücher des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im Rheinlande (Bonn) BLAFAM   Bulletin de Liaison de l’Association Française d’Archéologie Mérovingienne (Paris) BMFEA   (Bulletin of) The Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (Östasiatiska Samlingarna) Stockholm (Stockholm) BMMKA   A Békés Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei (Békéscsaba) BMon   Bulletin Monumental (Paris) BRGK   Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission (Mainz am Rhein) Britannia   Britannia. A Journal of Romano-British and Kindred Studies (London) BS   The Bollingen Series (Washington D. C.)

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads BSA   The Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens (Athens) BSAAS   British School of Archaeology at Athens, Supplementary (Athens–London) BSÈ   Bol’šaja Sovetskaja Ènciklopedija. Ed.-in-chief: B. A. Vvedenskij (Moskva) BSGRT   Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Lipsiae/Leipzig) BSOAS   Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London (London) BTM Műhely   BTM Műhely. Das Wissenschaftliche Werkstatt des Historischen Museums der Stadt Budapest (Budapest) BVbl   Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter (München) BZ   Byzantinische Zeitschrift (München–Leipzig) CAARIMS   Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute Monograph Series (Boston) CAH   The Cambridge Ancient History I/1: Prolegomena and prehistory. Eds: Iorweth Eiddon Stephen Edwards–C. J. Gadd–N. G. L. Hammond. Cambridge 1970. CAJ   Cambridge Archaeological Journal (Cambridge) Carpica   Carpica. Culegere du Studii şi Comunicări (Bacău) CCFH   Corpus of Celtic Finds in Hungary (Budapest) CM   Katalogi in Monografije – Catalogi et Monographiae (Ljubljana) CMA   Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology (Cambridge) CNH   see Réthy (1899) CNS   Corpus Nummorum Saeculorum IX–XI qui in Suecia reperti sunt (Stockholm) CommArchHung   Communicationes Archaeologicae Hungariae (Budapest) CorrDGAEU   Correspondenz-Blatt der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (Braunschweig/München) Crisia   Crisia. Culegere de Materiale şi Studii (Oradea) CSDJ   Cultură şi Civilizaţie la Dunărea de Jos (Călăraşi) Cumania   Cumania. A Bács-Kiskun Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei (Kecskemét) Dacia   Dacia. Revue d’Archeologie et d’Histoire Ancienne (Bucureşti) Danubius   Danubius. Istorie (Galaţi) DD   Donskie Drevnosti (Azov) DDMÉ   A Debreceni Déri Múzeum Évkönyve (Debrecen) Diadora   Diadora. Glasilo Arheološkoga Muzeja u Zadru (Zadar) DMK   Debrecen Sz.[abad] Kir.[ályi] Város Múzeumának Kiadványa (Debrecen) Dolg   Dolgozatok az Erdélyi Nemzeti Múzeum Éremés Régiségtárából (Kolozsvár 1 /1910/–10 /1919/) – Dolgozatok a M.[agyar] Kir.[ályi] Ferencz JózsefTudományegyetem Régiségtudományi Intézetéből (Szeged, 1 /1925/–19 /1943/) DP   Documenta Praehistorica (Ljubljana) DrevnostiTIMAO   Drevnosti. Trudy Imperatorskago Moskovskago Arheologičeskago Obščestva (Moskva)

DUS   Dávnoveké Umenie Slovenska/Ars Slovaca Antiqua (Bratislava) EA   Eurasia Antiqua. Zeitschrift für Archäologie Eurasiens (Berlin) EAZ   Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift (Berlin) EB   Encyclopeadia Britannica. A New Survey of Universal Knowledge (Chicago–London–Toronto).14 ELTEÓTTK   Az Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem Ókori Történeti Tanszékeinek Kiadványai (Budapest) EMÉ   Az Egri Múzeum Évkönyve (Eger) – see Agria EMSzT   Erdélyi magyar szótörténeti tár (Dicţionar istoric al lexicului maghiar din Transilvania; Historisches Wörterbuch des siebenbürgisch-ungarischen Wortschatzes). Anyagát gyűjtötte és szerkesztette (Gesammelt und redigiert von) Attila Szabó T. Bukarest/ Bucureşti (–Budapest) EN   Ephemeris Napocensis (Cluj-Napoca) ERAP   British School of Archaeology in Egypt. Egyptian Research Account Publ. nr. ... (London) ÉT   Élet és Tudomány (Budapest) ÉtChypr   Études Chypriotes (Nicosia) Ethnographia   Ethnographia (Budapest) FB   Fundus-Bücher (Dresden) FBH   Fundberichte aus Hessen (Wiesbaden) FBW   Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg (Stuttgart) FdI   File de Istorie (Bistriţa) FE   Folklór és Etnográfia (Debrecen) FO/KF   Fontes Orientales/Keleti Források (Budapest) FolArch   Folia Archaeologica (Budapest) Folklore   Folklore (London) FolNum = ActaMMSS   Folia Numismatica = Acta Musei Moraviae Scientiae Sociales (Brno) FontesAH   Fontes Archaeologici Hungariae (Budapest) FontesAM   Fontes Archaeologiae Moraviae (Brno) Fornvännen   Fornvännen Meddelanden fråan K. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien (Stockholm) FÖ   Fundberichte aus Österreich (Wien) FishBull   Fisheries Bulletin (Nicosia) FmSt   Frühmittelalterliche Studien. Jahrbuch des Instituts für Frühmittelalterforschung der Universität Münster (Berlin–New York) FuBBW   Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg (Stuttgart) FuBW   Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg (Stuttgart) GalliaPh   Gallia Préhistoire (Paris) GDV-A   Germanische Denkmäler der Völkerwanderungs­ zeit. Serie A (Berlin) GDV-B   Germanische Denkmäler der Völkerwanderungs­ zeit. Serie B: Die Fränkischen Altertümer des Rheinlandes (Berlin; Stuttgart) Glasnik   Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja Bosne i Hercegovine u Sarajevu, Arheologija. Nova serija (Sarajevo) Germania   Germania. Anzeiger der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Mainz am Rhein) GermNm   Germanisches Nationalmuseum. Wissenschaftli-

448

References che Beibände zum Anzeiger des Germanischen Nationalmuseums (Nürnberg) GSU-IF   Godišnik na Sofijskija Universitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski” Istoričeski Fakultet (Sofija) GZM-A   Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja Bosne i Hercegovine u Sarajevu. Arheologija (Sarajevo) GyK   Gyulai Katalógusok (Gyula) H   see Huszár (1979) HajdúságiMÉ   A Hajdúsági Múzeum Évkönyve (Hajdúböszörmény) HandbOr   Handbuch der Orientalistik/Handbook of Oriental Studies. Erste Abteilung: Der Nahe und Mittlere Osten/The Near and Middle East (Leiden–New York– Köln) HanságiMÉ   A Hansági Múzeum Évkönyve (Moson­ magyaróvár) HatKk   Határozó Kézikönyvek (Budapest) HazAlm   Hazarskij Almanah (Kiev–Har’kov)    HBN   Hamburger Beiträge zur Numismatik (Hamburg) HCK   Historia Carpathica (Košice) Hierasus   Hierasus. Anuarul Muzeului Judeţean Botoşani (Botoşani) HistK-M   História Könyvtár – Monográfiák (Budapest) HMMK   A Hajdúböszörményi Hajdúsági Múzeum Kiadványai (Hajdúböszörmény) Honismeret   Honismeret (Budapest) IAA Reports   Israel Antiquities Authority Reports (Jerusalem) IADVarna   Izvestija na Arheologičeskoto Družestvo gr. Varna (Varna) IAK   Izvestija Imperatorskoj Arheologičeskoj Kommissii (Sanktpeterburg) IEJ   Israel Exploration Journal (Jerusalem) IFAO   Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire (El Caire)    IGAIMK   Izvestija Gosudarstvennoj Akademii Istorii Material’noj Kul’tury (Leningrad) IHAD   Izdanja Hrvatskog Arheološkog Društva (Vinkovci; Zagreb) IIAK   Izvestija Imperatorskoj Arheologičeskoj Kommissii (St.-Peterburg’) IJZ   Israel Journal of Zoology (Jerusalem) IKVA   Istorija i Kul’tura Vostoka Azii (Novosibirsk) INK   Istoričeskoe Nasledie Kryma (Simferopol’) INMVarna   Izvestija na Narodnija Muzej–Varna s učastieto na muzeite v Tolbuhin i Silistra (Varna) INO   The International Numismata Orientalia (London) IntArch   Internationale Archäologie (Rahden/Westf.) InvArch   Inventaria Archaeologica. Jugoslavija (Belgrade) IPEK   IPEK. Jahrbuch für Prähistorische et Ethnographische Kunst (Berlin und Leipzig) IPH   Inventaria Praehistorica Hungariae (Budapest) ISMPM   Illionis State Museum Preliminary Reports (Springfield) Istros   Istros. Buletinul Muzeului Brăilei (Brăila) IzvADS   Izvestija na Arheologičeskoto Družestvo v gr. Stalin (Varna) 449

IzvAI   Izvestija na Arheologičeskija Institut (Sofija) IzvBAI   Izvestija na Bălgarskija Arheologičeski Institut’ (Sofija) IzvNIM   Izvestija na Nacionalnija Istoričeski Muzej (Sofija) JAH   The Journal of African History (Cambridge) JAMK   A Jósa András Múzeum Kiadványai (Nyíregyháza) JAR   Journal of Archaeological Research (Berlin– Heidelberg) JAS   Journal of the Archaeological Science (London) JASP:EB   Jutland Archaeological Society Publications: Excavations at Beidha (Århus) JAST   The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Tokyo (Tokyo) JászÉvk   Jászsági Évkönyv (Jászberény) JConch   Journal de Conchyliologie Comprenant l’Étude des Mollusques Vivants et Fossiles (Paris) JDAI   Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Berlin) JEA   The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (London) JEAA   Journal of East Asian Archaeology (Leiden) JGS   Journal of Glass Studies (New York) JK   Jászsági Könyvtár (Jászberény) JMV   Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte (Halle/Saale) JNCBRAS   Journal of Nord-China Branch of Royal Asiatic Society (London) JournConch   The Journal of Conchology (London) JPASPR 27 = AIPU 1   Joint Publication of American School of Prehistoric Research. Peabody Museum - Harvard University. Bulletin = The Asia Institute of Pahlavi University. Shiraz, Iran. Monograph (Cambridge, MA) JPMÉ   A Janus Pannonius Múzeum Évkönyve (Pécs) JRGZ   Jahrbuch der Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz (Mainz) JSVF   Jenaer Schriften zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte (Jena) KansArk   Kansatieteellinen Arkisto (Helsinki) KatVFA   Kataloge Vor und Frühgeschichtlicher Altertümer (Mainz) KCsK   Kőrösi Csoma Kiskönyvtár (Budapest) KD-ALD   Kreisarchäologie Dingolfing-Landau. Archäologie im Landkreis Dingolfing Landau. Schriftenreihe des Niederbayerischen Archäologiemuseum Landau (Landau a. d. Isar) KJb   Kölner Jahrbuch (Köln) KMK   Kalocsai Múzeumi Kiskönyvtár (Kalocsa) KÖ   Keleti Örökségünk (Karcag) KOÖL-NF   Kataloge des OÖ. Landesmuseums. Neue Folge (Linz) KPS   Kataloge der Prähistorischen Staatssammlung (München) KS   Kratkie Soobščenija (Moskva) 121– – see KSIIMK, KSIIMK(IM) KSIA   Kratkie Soobščenija Instituta Arheologii (Kiev) KSIIMK   Kratkie Soobščenija o Dokladah i Polevyh

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads Issledovanijah Instituta Arheologii (Moskva) vol. 34– 120. – see KS, KSIIMK(IM ) KSIIMK(IM)   Kratkie Soobščenija Instituta Istorii Material’noj Kul’tury (Imeni N. Ja. Marra) (Moskva) vol. 1–33. – see KSIIMK, KS Kuml   Kuml. Årbog for Jysk Arkaeologisk Selskab (København) KVF   Kolloquien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte (Bonn) LabArk   Laborativ Arkeologi (Stockholm) LÄ   Lexikon der Ägyptologie. Hrsg. von Wolfgang Helck– Eberhard Otto–Wolfhart Westendorf. (Wiesbaden) LPZAV   Latvijas PSR Zinātņu Akadēmijas Vēstis = Izvestija Akademii Nauk Latvijskoj SSR (Rīga) MADISO   Materialy po Arheologii i Drevnej Istorii Severnoj Osetii (Ordžonikidze) MAGW   Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien (Wien) Magyar Múzeum   Magyar Múzeum (Budapest) MagyMúz   Magyar múzeumok 1945–1955. Budapest [1955]. MAIÈT   Materialy po Arheologii, Istorii i Ètnografii Tavrii – Materials in Archeology, History and Ethnography of Tauria (Simferopol’) Man   Man (London) MannusB   Mannus-Bibliothek (Würzburg) MAR   Materialy po Arheologii Rossii (S.-Peterburg) MatArchSlov   Materialia Archaeologica Slovaca (Nitra) MAVA   Materialien zur Allgemeinen und Vergleichenden Archäologie (München) MBaH   Münstersche Beiträge zur antiken Handels­ geschichte (Münster) MBV   Münchner Beiträge zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte (München) MCA   Materiale şi Cercetări Arheologice (Bucureşti) MD   Múzeumi Diárium (Veszprém) MedArch   Medieval Archaeology (London) MemAnt   Memoria Antiquitatis. Acta Musei Petrodavensis (Piatra Neamţ) MFA   Múzeumi Füzetek (Aszód) MFMÉ   A Móra Ferenc Múzeum Évkönyve (Szeged) MFMÉ–StudArch   A Móra Ferenc Múzeum Évkönyve– Studia Archaeologica (Szeged) MGBPI   Muzej Grada Beograda Povremena Izdanja – Publications du Musée de la Ville de Beograd (Beograd) MHA   Methuen’s Handbooks of Archaeology (London) MHÁTL   Magyarország honfoglalás- és kora Árpád-kori temetőinek leletanyaga. Ed.: István Dienes (Budapest) MhBV-A   Materialhefte zur Bayerischen Vorgeschichte. Reihe A: Fundinventare und Ausgrabungsbefunde (Kallmünz) MHH   see MTE MHKKÁS   Magyarország honfoglalás kori és kora Árpádkori sírleletei. Eds: László Kovács–László Révész. Budapest 1996– MHVP   Mitteilungen des Historischen Vereins der Pfalz (Speyer)

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MIA   Materialy i Issledovanija po Arheologii SSSR (Moskva) – see MIAR MIAL   Materialy i Issledovanija po Arheologii Latvijskoj SSR (Riga) MIAR   Materialy i Issledovanija po Arheologii Rossii – see MIA MittArchInst   ‑ see Antaeus MMAUM   Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) MNLex   Magyar Nagylexikon III (BAH–BIJ). Ed.: László Élesztős. Budapest 1994. MNL   Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon. Ed.: Gyula Ortutay. I–V (1977–1982) (Budapest) MNMAdK   A Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum Adattárának Közleményei (Budapest) MNTÉ   A Magyar Numizmatikai Társulat 1972. Évi Évkönyve (Budapest) MonAL   Monumenti Antichi della Reale Accademia dei Lincei (Roma) MonArch   Monumenta Archaeologica. Acta Praehistorica, Protohistorica et Historica Instituti Archaeologici Academiae Scientiarum Bohemoslovacae (Praha) MŐK   Magyar Őstörténeti Könyvtár (Szeged) MPSM   Monographien der Prähistorischen Statssammlung München (München) MRT   Magyarország Régészeti Topográfiája (Budapest) MRT 2   István Éri–Márta Kelemen–Péter Németh–István Torma: Veszprém megye régészeti topográfiája. A veszprémi járás. Ed.: István Éri. MRT 2, Budapest 1969. MRT 4   Margit Dax–István Éri–Sándor Mithay–Szilvia Palágyi–István Torma: Veszprém megye régészeti topográfiája. A pápai és zirci járás. Ed.: István Torma. MRT 4, Budapest 1972. MRT 5   István Horváth–Márta H. Kelemen–István Torma: Komárom megye régészeti topográfiája. Esztergom és a dorogi járás. Ed.: István Torma. MRT 5, Budapest 1979. MRT 6   István Ecsedy–László Kovács–Borbála Maráz –István Torma: Békés megye régészeti topográfiája. IV/1. A szeghalmi járás. Ed.: István Torma. MRT 6, Budapest 1982. MRT 7   István Dinnyés–Klára Kővári–Zsuzsa Lovag– Sarolta Tettamanti–Judit Topál–István Torma: Pest megye régészeti topográfiája. XIII/1. A budai és szentendrei járás. Ed.: István Torma. MRT 7, Budapest 1986. MRT 8   Dénes Jankovich B.–János Makkay–Béla Miklós Szőke: Békés megye régészeti topográfiája. IV/2. A szarvasi járás. Ed.: János Makkay. MRT 8, Budapest 1989. MRT 9   István Dinnyés–Klára Kővári–Judit Kvassay– Zsuzsa Miklós–Sarolta Tettamanti–István Torma: Pest megye régészeti topográfiája (Archäologische Topographie des Komitats Pest). XIII/2. A szobi és a váci járás (Die Kreise von Szob und Vác). Ed.: István Torma. MRT 9, Budapest 1993. MRT 10   Dénes Jankovich B.–Pál Medgyesi–Edit Nikolin–

References Imre Szatmári–István Torma: Békés megye régészeti topográfiája [Archäologische Topographie des Komitats Békés]. IV/3. Békés és Békéscsaba környéke [Umgebung von Békés und Békéscsaba]. I–II. Ed.: Dénes Jankovich B. MRT 10, Budapest 1998. MSVF   Marburger Studien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte (Marburg) MTE   Magyar Történelmi Emlékek/Monumenta Hungariae Historica (Budapest) MTT   Magyar Történelmi Tár (Budapest) MusÖff   Museum und Öffentlichkeit. Studien aus den Kölner Kunstsammlungen (Köln) MúzFüz   Múzeumi Füzetek (Aszód) MünchnBVF   Münchner Beitrage zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte (München) MZ   Mainzer Zeitschrift. Mittelrheinisches Jahrbuch für Archäologie, Kunst und Geschichte (Mainz) NARCE   Newsletter of the American Research Center in Egypt (Seattle) NašeMin   Naše Minulost (Praha) NassA   Nassauische Annalen (Wiesbaden) NBB   Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. Das Leben der Tiere und Pflanzen in Einzeldarstellungen (Leipzig) NedO/KRP   Nederlandse Oudheden/Kromme Rijn Projekt (Amersfoot) NéprTan   Néprajzi Tanulmányok (Budapest) NJSR   Netherlands Journal of Sea Research (Texel) NK-M   A Numizmatikai Közlöny Melléklete (Budapest) NógrádMMÉ   A Nógrád Megyei Múzeumok Évkönyve (Salgótarján) NordT   Nordenskiöldsamfundets Tidskrift (Helsingfors) NSSB   Nationalmuseets Skrifter, Større Beretninger (Copenhagen) NumListy   Numismatické Listy (Praha) NumVorl   Numismatische Vorlesungen (Berlin) NüdA   Nachrichten über deutsche Alterthumsfunde. Ergänzungsblätter zur Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Berlin) NyJAMÉ   A (Nyíregyházi) Jósa András Múzeum Évkönyve (Nyíregyháza) OccPubl   Occasional Publications (London) Offa   Offa. Berichte und Mitteilungen aus dem Schleswig-Holsteinischen Landesmuseum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Schleswig und dem Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte an der Universität Kiel (Neumünster) Offa-Bücher   Offa-Bücher. Untersuchungen aus dem Schleswig-Holsteinischen Landesmuseum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Schleswig, dem Landesamt für Vorund Frühgeschichte in Schleswig-Holstein in Schleswig und dem Institut für Vor- und Frühgeschichte an der Universität Kiel (Neumünster) OIAK (1907)   Otčet Imperatorskoj Arheologičeskoj Kommissii za 1907 god. Sanktpeterburg 1910. OIK   Az Ókori Irodalom Kiskönyvtára (Budapest) OIP   Oriental Institute Communications (Chicago) OJA   Oxford Journal of Archaeology (Oxford) OP   Obzor Praehistorický (Praha) OpuscArch   Opuscula Archaeologica (Zagreb) 451

OpuscHung   Opuscula Hungarica (Budapest) OrnA   Ornament: Ancient. Contemporary – Ethnic (New York) OsjZb   Osječki Zbornik (Osijek) ÓTK   Az Ókortudományi Társaság Kiadványai (Budapest) Pact   Pact. Journal of the European Network of Scientific and Technical Cooperation for Cultural Heritage (Bruxelles) Paléorient   Paléorient. Interdisciplinary Review of Prehistory and Protohistory of Southwestern Asia (Paris) PAM   Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology Warsaw University (Warsaw) PamArch   Památky Archeologické (Praha) ParHistMB   Parochial History of St Mary Bourne (London) PBA   Polskie Badania Archeologiczne (Wrocław– Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk–Łódź) PBF   Prähistorische Bronzefunde (München) PetAV   Peterburgskij Arheologičeskij Vestnik/Petersburg Archaeological Herald (Sankt-Peterburg) Peuce   Peuce. Studii şi Comunicări de Istorie şi Arheologie (Tulcea)/Rapoarte, Cataloage, Studii şi Note de Istorie şi Arheologie (Tulcea) PF   Pamięntnik Fizyjograficzny (Kraków) PI = ODN   Akademija Nauka i Umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine. Posebna Izdanja = Odjeljenje Društvennih Nauka (Sarajevo) PJZ   Praistorija Jugoslavenskih zemalja. 5: Željezno doba. Glavn. ured.: Alojz Benac, red.: Stane Gabrovec. Sarajevo 1987. PKNH   Prace Komisji Nauk Humanisticznych. Polska Akademia Nauk - Oddział Humanistycznych (Wrocław– Warszawa–Kraków–Gdańsk) PMMF   Pest Megyei Múzeumi Füzetek (Szentendre) PNAS   Journal Information for Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Washington) PomoraniaAnt   Pomorania Antiqua (Gdańsk) Pontica   Pontica (Constanţa) PP   Pliska–Preslav (Šumen) Prilozi   Prilozi. Institut za Povijesne Znanosti Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Odjel za Arheologiju (Zagreb) PRCA   Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Neue Bearbeitung begonnen von Georg Wissowa, Hrsg. von Wilhelm Kroll und Kurt Witte (Stuttgart) PrzArch   Przegląd Archeologiczny (Poznań–Wrocław) PUM-ES   Publications of the University of Manchester – Ethnological Series (Manchester) PUSŚ   Práce Učené Společnosti Šafaříkovy v Bratislavě (Bratislava) PZ   Praehistorische Zeitschrift (Berlin) QDAP   The Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine (Jerusalem–London) RA   Rheinische Ausgrabungen (Köln–Bonn)

László Kovács - Vulvae, Eyes, Snake Heads RAB   Rossijskaja Arheologičeskaja Biblioteka (SanktPeterburg) RAE   Revue Archéologique de l’Est et du Centre-Est consacrée aux antiquités nationales d’Alsace, Bourgogne, Champagne, Franche-Comté, Lorraine, Lyonnais, Nivernais (Dijon) Rapport   Rapport. Riksantikvarieämbetet och Statens Historiska Museer – The Central Board of National Antiquities and the National Historical Museums (Visby) RepSHedin   Reports from the Scientific Expedition to the North-Western Provinces of China under the Leadership of dr. Sven Hedin. The Sino-Swedish Expedition (Stockholm) RevA   Revue Africaine. Bulletin trimestriel publié par la Société Historique Algérienne (Alger) RégFüz   Régészeti Füzetek Ser. I–II. (Budapest) RégKutMo   Régészeti Kutatások Magyarországon – Archaeological Investigations in Hungary ... (Budapest RégTan   Régészeti Tanulmányok (Budapest) RGA   Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Hrsg. von Heinrich Beck–Herbert Jankuhn–Kurt Ranke– Reinhard Wenskus (Berlin–New York) RGA-E   Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde – Ergänzungsbände (Berlin–New York) RGF   Römisch-Germanische Forschungen (Frankfurt am Main) RGZM-K   Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmusem zu Mainz, Katalog (Mainz) RMV   Rad Muzeja Vojvodine (Novi Sad) RossArh   Rossijskaja Arheologija (Moskva) – see SovArh RTNT   Roczniki Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu (Toruń) RVM   Rad Vojvođanskih Muzeja (Novi Sad) SAA (1977)   South Asian Archaeology 1977. Papers from the Fourth International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, held in the Instituto Universitario Orientale, Naples. Ed.: Maurizio Taddei. I–II. Naples 1979. SAA (1983)   South Asian Archaeology 1983. Papers from the Seventh International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, held in the Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels. Eds: Janine Schotsmans–Maurizio Taddei. I–II. Naples 1985. SaalbJ   Saalburg Jahrbuch (Mainz am Rhein) SAIR   Svod Arheologičeskih Istočnikov Rossii (Moskva) SAM   Sheffield Archaeological Monographs (Sheffield) SAR   Stockholm Archaeological Reports (Stockholm) SAÚ   Spisy Archeologického Ústavu Akademie Věd České Republiky Brno (Brno) Savaria   Savaria. A Vas Megyei Múzeumok Értesítője (Szombathely) SAZU-RZDV-D   Slovenska Akademija Znanosti In Umetnosti Razred Za Zgodovino In Družbene Vede – Dela (Ljubljana)

SborMAÈ   Sbornik Muzeja Antropologii i Ètnografii (Leningrad) SCIV   Studii şi Cercetări de Istorie Veche (Bucureşti) SCIVA   Studii şi Cercetări de Istorie Veche şi Arheologie (Bucureşti) Singidunum   Singidunum (Beograd) SINR   Stranicy istorii našej Rodiny (Moskva) Sirmium   Sirmium. Recherches archéologiques en Syrmie – Arheološka istraživanja u Sremu (Beograd) SkrSIA   Skrifter Utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen (Stockholm) SlAnt   Slavia Antiqua (Warszawa–Poznań) SlovArch   Slovenská Archeológia (Bratislava) SMA   Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology (Jonsered) SMAA   Sbornik Materialov po Arheologii Adygei (Majkop) SMAÈRAN   Sbornik Muzeja Antropologii i Ètnografii pro Rossijskoj Akademii Nauk (Petrograd) SMA/FFT   Suomen Muinaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskirja/Finska Fornminnesföreningens Tidskrift (Helsinki) SMK   Somogyi Múzeumok Közleményei (Kaposvár) SMSS   Sborník Muzeálnej Slovenskej Spoločnosti (Nartin) SovArh   Sovetskaja Arheologija (Moskva) – see RossArh SovÈtn   Sovetskaja Ètnografija (Moskva) SovFu   Sovetskoe Finno-ugrovedenie (Iževsk) SP   Starohrvatska Prosvjeta, ser. III. (Split) SpinkNC   Spink Numismatic Circular. A Monthly Publication with Cataloque of Coins, Medals, Banknotes and Books for Sale by Spink & Son Ltd (London) SRAA   Silk Road Art and Archaeology (Kamakura) SSNM (H)   Sborník Slovenského Národného Múzea (História) (Bratislava), see ZSNM StAA   Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica (Iaşi) Starinar   Starinar (Beograd) Stratum   Stratum plus (Sankt Peterburg–Kišinëv– Odessa) StSarm   Studia Sarmatica (Lublin) StSf   Studien zur Sachsenforschung (Hildesheim) StudAgr   Studia Agriensia (Eger) StudArch   Studia Archaeologica (Budapest) StudArchSlov   Studia Archaeologica Slovaca Instituti Archaeologici Academiae Scientiarum Slovacae (Nitra) StudCarol   Studia Caroliensia. A Károli Gáspár Református Egyetem Folyóirata (Budapest) ŠtZv   Študijné Zvesti Archeologického Ústavu Slovenskej Akademie Vied (Nitra) Subartu   Subartu (Turnhout) S-USKj   Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Kansatieteellisiä julkaisuja/Travaux ethnographiques de la Société FinnoOugrienne (Helsinki) Syria   Syria. Revue d’art oriental et d’archéologie publiée par l’Institut français d’archéologie de Beyrouth (Paris) Századok   Századok (Budapest) 452

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