Vox populi: Visual rhetoric methodology for medieval Apocalyptic Art

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VOX POPULI: VISUAL RHETORIC METHODOLOGY FOR MEDIEVAL APOCALYPTIC ART

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE TEXAS WOMAN’S UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, SPEECH, AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

BY DIXIL L. RODRIGUEZ, B.A., B.S., M.A.

DENTON TEXAS DECEMBER 2011

UMI Number: 3493841

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Copyright© Dixil L. Rodriguez, 2012 All rights reserved

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DEDICATION

This document is dedicated to several people. To my parents, Dr. and Mrs. Angel M. Rodriguez, for teaching me how to live with courage, dignity, and providing a home built on amazing grace. To Edlyn Enid Rodriguez-Aldridge for being the big sister that still holds my hand across the streets of life. To Alan Adams for his support in my endless research travels. To Dr. Mark Aldridge for the generous time offered discussing academics. To my two sweet nieces, Maricelis and Ariela, who kept me grounded with laughter and inspiration beyond words.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Though only my name appears on the cover of this dissertation, credit for this effort must also be given to the numerous individuals who supported and guided me through my academic journey of the past six years. I would like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to my research advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. Lou Thompson for her advice, guidance, direction, and willingness to provide numerous research letters for international travel on my behalf. Over the course of my doctoral studies, she has been a selfless mentor and inspiring role model. My educational experience would not have been as productive without her presence. I would also like to express my great appreciation to Dr. Hugh Burns, for the challenge to embrace sprezzatura in my current and future research. Dr. Litton, I thank you for encouraging me to step into the rhetorical arena and fearlessly challenge the tradition with new theories. The members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Lou Thompson, Dr. Hugh Burns, and Dr. Guy Litton, all contributed immensely to this effort. I thank them all for being so gracious with their time, reading my manuscript and providing valuable advice. Finally, I extend a heartfelt gratitude to my family for their enduring support, kindness, understanding and love. I will never be able to thank them enough for helping me realize this goal of completing my doctoral studies.

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ABSTRACT DIXIL L. RODRIGUEZ VOX POPULI: VISUAL RHETORIC METHODOLOGY FOR MEDIEVAL APOCALYPTIC ART DECEMBER 2011

Apocalypticism has been a major element in faiths and religions worldwide. The influence of the Christian Apocalypse in Western philosophy, spirituality, religion, imagery, iconography, and social thought is present in almost every form of visual rhetoric we know: photography, art, paintings, sculptures, illuminations, and cinematography. Christian Art is permeated with images of the Apocalypse. Particularly the art of the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages, the Book of Revelation was seen as a text to be interpreted for a specific audience in need of the cryptic message. The “interpreter” was the Catholic Church, who claimed to have the vox Dei (voice of God) and was privy to the apocalypse to come. The audience was the populi, the individuals that comprised the medieval towns and were not members of the church or the monarchy. The Catholic Church embarked on a visual rhetoric campaign in order to convert the populi into Christianity. The visual artifact of choice: The Book of Revelation. The Catholic Church did not foresee that the populi would present a visual rhetoric counterargument to the apocalyptic images introduced for conversion purposes. The monstrous images of the vi

populi served not only as counter arguments to the Catholic Church’s elegant artistic renditions of the apocalypse, the images also served as a claiming of identity and voice by the populi: the vox populi. Apocalyptic art of the populi was a response, an utterance, to what the religious hegemony was imposing in terms of ideology and socially prescribed identity. The images presented by the populi in the Middle Ages were a visual rhetoric argument towards social change and reform outside the religious milieu. The focus of this study is to introduce a visual methodology process that can provide an artistic rubric (stemming from visual rhetoric theory) from which to analyze specific Apocalyptic Art outside the strictures of a religious milieu. The methodology uses the classical argument to demonstrate the visual rhetoric tools used to deliver the message of the apocalypse.        

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page COPYRIGHT ..................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDMENTS ......................................................................................................v ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii Chapter I. THE VOX DEI AND THE VOX POPULI 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1 THE PROFESSIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .....................2 THE RHETORICAL ARTIFACT: MEDIEVAL APOCALYPTIC ART ..8 A CLOSER LOOK AT THE MIDDLE AGES ...........................................9 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT ...............................................................10 AN OVERVIEW OF THE METHODOLOGY ........................................12 1.6.1 Table: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres .............................................13

II. COLLECTION OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................18 REFERENCING THE APOCALYPSE ....................................................21 REFERENCING THE VOX POPULI ......................................................25 CRITERIA FOR REFERENCE INCLUSION ..........................................26 2.4.1 Format for Bibliographical Entries ...............................................28

III. MEDIEVAL RHETORIC: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH 3.1 3.2 3.3

INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................30 PRIMARY SOURCES ..............................................................................33 3.2.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................36 SECONDARY SOURCES ........................................................................55 3.3.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................57 viii

3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

TERTIARY SOURCES .............................................................................62 3.4.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................63 CRITICAL THEORY COLLECTION & REFERENCE MATERIAL ....64 MEDIEVAL BOOK SERIES ....................................................................68 3.6.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................69 MEDIEVAL PRINT JOURNALS AND ONLINE JOURNALS..............72 3.7.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................72 MEDIEVAL RESEARCH DATABASES AND WEBLIOGRAPHY......73 3.8.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................75 CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL .....78

IV. CLASSICAL RHETORIC AND BIBLICAL THEORY IN THE LATE MEDIEVAL EPOCH 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................88 PRIMARY SOURCES ..............................................................................93 4.2.1 Bibliographical Entries..................................................................94 SECONDARY SOURCES ......................................................................104 4.3.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................106 TERTIARY SOURCES ...........................................................................112 4.4.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................113 CRITICAL THEORY COLLECTION & REFERENCE MATERIAL ..115 4.5.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................116 CATALOGUED BOOK SERIES............................................................118 4.6.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................119 PRINT JOURNALS AND ONLINE JOURNALS .................................124 4.7.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................125 RESEARCH DATABASES &WEBLIOGRAPHY ................................126 4.8.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................127 CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL ...130

V. THE MEDIEVAL APOCALYPSE AND VISUAL RHETORIC 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

5.5 5.6

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................133 A BRIEF SURVEY OF MEDIEVAL RULE ..........................................135 THE APOCALYPSE ...............................................................................139 VISUAL RHETORIC METHODOLOGY FOR THE POPULI’S APOCALYPSE ........................................................................................149 1.6.1 Table: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres ...........................................151 ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOLARSHIP.............................162 PRIMARY SOURCES ............................................................................219 5.6.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................220 5.6.2 Bibliographical Entries................................................................229 ix

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.10

SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SOURCES ........................................240 5.7.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................241 5.7.2 Bibliographical Entries................................................................243 5.7.3 Tertiary Source ............................................................................246 5.7.4 Tertiary Sources ...........................................................................247 RESEARCH RESOURCES ....................................................................248 5.8.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................249 5.8.2 Bibliographical Entries................................................................251 JOURNALS, LIST SERVS, DATABASES AND WEBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................252 5.9.1 Bibliographical Entries................................................................253 CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL ...255

VI. THE VOX DEI AND THE VOX POPULI: CONCLUSION 6.1 6.2

6.3

INTRODUCTION͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘258 APPLICATION OF RHETORICAL GENRES IN ARISTOTLE’S RHETORIC͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘260 1.6.1 Table: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres: Forensic Analysis .......... 262 1.6.1 Table: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres: Epideictic Analysis ........ 267 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................271

APPENDIXES A. Research Map.......................................................................................................275 B. Copyright and Permit Letters ...............................................................................277 C. Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................283

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LIST OF TABLES Table

Page

Chapter One Table 1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric .........................................................13 Chapter Five Table 5.1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric ....................................................262 Table 5.1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric ....................................................267

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LIST OF FIGURES Table

Page

Chapter Five Figure 1.1: Apocalypse: From Antiquity to the Empire of Modernity ...........................153 Figure 1.2: “The Artist’s Letter and Calligraphy Folio Sheet”.......................................156 Figure 1.3: Anonymous Artist Folio Sheet Depicting a Happy Lion .............................157 Figure 1.4: The Image Cartouche of the Populi .............................................................160 Figure 1.5: “Illuminated Book of Genesis” ....................................................................161 Figure 1.6: “The Last Judgment” ....................................................................................164 Figure 1.7: “The Ladder of Salvation” ...........................................................................165 Figure 1.8: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse ...........................................................167 Figure 1.9: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse ...........................................................168 Figure 1.10: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse .........................................................169 Figure 1.11: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse… .....................................................171 Figure 1.12: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse .....................................................…172 Figure 1.13: The Ladder of Salvation .........................................................................…174 Figure 1.14: “The Torture of the Unconverted” .............................................................175 Figure 1.15: “The Structure of Judgment”..................................................................…177 Figure 1.16: The Last Judgment Revised… ...................................................................179 Figure 1.17: The Last Judgment Refined…....................................................................180 Figure 1.18: “The Entitled Noblemen” ..........................................................................181 Figure 1.19: The Monstrous Last Judgment of the Unclean Masses ..............................182 Figure 1.20: Winged Demons of the Holy City of Saints ...............................................183 Figure 1.21: St. Michael Returning Victorious...............................................................186 Figure 1.22: The Christ-Horseman Returning Victorious ..............................................187 xii

Figure 1.23: St. Michael the Dragon Slayer ...................................................................188 Figure 1.24: The Woman and the Beast ........................................................................190 Figure 1.25: “The Whore of Babylon” ...........................................................................191 Figure 1.26: “The Noble Whore” ...................................................................................192 Figure 1.27: “Burning the Whore of Babylon and Her Liege” .......................................194 Figure 1.28: The Princess of Deception..........................................................................196 Figure 1.29: “The Message of the Second Angel” .........................................................198 Figure 1.30: “The Angel Pouring Water on the Beast as it Emerges”............................199 Figure 1.31: “The Four Tiers of Heaven and the Feasts of the Saints” ..........................200 Figure 1.32: “The Two Witnesses”.................................................................................201 Figure 1.33: “The Dark Angel Leads the Beast” ............................................................201 Figure 1.34: The Great Controversy of the Last Judgment, Fifth Tapestry....................204 Figure 1.35: The Great Controversy of the Last Judgment, Seventh Tapestry ..............205 Figure 1.36: Miniature Illuminated Books in original thick parchment paper ...............208 Figure 1.37: Single leaflets inserted into the illuminated ...............................................208 Figure 1.38: The Sainted Life .........................................................................................209 Figure 1.39: Dragon vomiting water against the woman who has not yet earned wings and is keeping the Christ child from the dragon ..............................................................211 Figure 1.40: Dragon vomiting water on the woman now holding the Christ child as she has earned her wings ........................................................................................................212 Figure 1.41: “Queen Eleanor’s Apocalypse Image” .......................................................213 Figure 1.42: A replica of the last selection of “The Seven Cloisters” ............................214 Figure 1.43: Populi apocalyptic paintings in the catacombs of the Konya Mevlana .....216 Figure 1.44: Populi art demonstrating the door to heaven is not open ...........................216 Figure 1.45: “The Beast from the Ocean” ......................................................................217 Figure 1.46: “Angels Losing the Fight Against the Populi Beasts” ...............................218 xiii

Chapter Six Figure 1.47: A populi interpretation of the serpent spewing water to overtake the woman ..........................................................................................................................................268 Figure 1.48: Serpent of Revelation 12 Spewing Against the Woman ............................269

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CHAPTER I VOX POPULI: VISUAL RHETORIC METHODOLOGY FOR MEDIEVAL APOCALYPTIC ART 1.1 INTRODUCTION Apocalypticism, broadly described as "the belief that God has revealed the imminent end of the ongoing struggle between good and evil in history,1" has been a major element in faiths and religions worldwide.2 The influence of the Christian Apocalypse in Western philosophy, spirituality, religion, imagery, iconography, and social thought is present in almost every form of visual rhetoric we know: photography, art, paintings, sculptures, illuminations, and cinematography. Christian Art is permeated with images of the Apocalypse.3 Analysis and interpretation of the text of the Apocalypse is not a new area of research and study. Hermeneutical interpretation conveys the sense of translation pointed in two directions simultaneously: toward a text to be interpreted and for an audience in

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McGinn is described as the leading researcher and expert in Apocalypticism. His research delves into social and religious implications of the Apocalypse in various historical periods. McGinn, Bernard. Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages. NY: CUP, 1979. 2 McGinn uses the term “Christian Art” to emphasize where the images of the apocalypse are more accessible to researchers with focus on Western and British research. While other religious entities have their own understanding of an Apocalypse (or end of the world to come), McGinn follows the historical time line of Christian organizations, monarchy treaties, and general perspective because it less prohibiting in research sources for scholars. Christian Art has been well documented, however, not publicized for centuries. McGinn: 15. 3 McGinn: 20.

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need of the interpretation. The "interpreter" mediates between the translated text and its new rendering and between the translated text and the audience desiring the translation. The creation of a methodology for visual analysis of the images / imagery of the Apocalypse is a new area of research contribution. In the Apocalypse, prophecy first comes as a vision. There are visionary, prophetic images presented to the revelator.4 Prophetic discourse then takes the order of: vision, interpretation, translation, and transcription. Without the images presented in the initial apocalyptic vision, there would be no rhetoric for the interpreter (revelator) to share. It is these visual images that create pathos in the audience, logos for the prophecy, and ethos for the revelator. The focus of this study is to introduce a visual methodology process that can provide an artistic rubric (stemming from visual rhetoric theory) from which to analyze specific Apocalyptic Art outside the strictures of a religious milieu. 1.2 THE PROFESSIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY “The voice of the people is not the voice of God . . . since the opinions of the populace are always close to insanity.”5 In 798AD, when Alcuin, the king’s adviser wrote this letter to Charlemagne, he did so under monarchy request to condemn the popular maxim of vox populi.6 In his letter he wrote: “The voice of the people is not the voice of God...since the opinions of 4

Throughout Biblical Studies and Research, “the revelator” is a title given to John, the author of the book of Revelation. He was exiled to the island of Patmos where he received the visions that create the text of Revelation and recount the Apocalypse to come (35). Menache, Sophie. The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1990. 5 Menache: 40. 6 Menache explores the term “insanity” as an inflammatory speech term. In her work, Menache describes how individuals were considered “insane” because of their pagan practices and lifestyle. The very nature of a pure and sane life rested on the populi’s conversion into Christianity (42).

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the populace are always close to insanity.”7 The disregard for the voice of the populi presents a wide range of rhetorical situations. Communication in the Middle Ages used all forms of rhetoric: written, oral and visual. All three modes promote letter writing formats, theory, and serve as an example of Aristotelean and Ciceronian rhetorical form and. The importance of Alcuin’s letter is that it brings attention to a monarchy and religious structure that appears to be suffering due to the populi and their “insane” ideas. In particular, Alcuin addresses the fact that the populi should not be allowed to speak or display any form of visual commentary that does not agree with the religious teachings that secure conversions.8 Alcuin is not presenting an argument about the element of text or textual creations by the populi, but of visual art. In the Middle Ages, the term “art” was recognized as a social creation of communication and innovative form of conversion.9 What elements of social evolution were prompting disregard for the voice of the populi? Did Alcuin not believe that by addressing this letter to the monarchy he was actually creating more awareness to the work of the populi and the populi’s intentions? What were the perceived intentions? What component of communication among the

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Religions teachings limited the populi’s ability to pose questions, read canonical texts and participate in any religious dialogue that would present questions for the clergy. The “religious teachings” were then limited to a simple formula: listen, do not ask questions, convert, and be saved. This left little forum for the populi to really understand their current social status as similar or less grandiose than the ones offered by the clergy (Menache 55). With no open communication, the populi was limited to images and art as a form to depict their support or disdain for the clergy’s teachings. 8 Menache: 60. 9 Images of saints, the virgin mother, and other relevant saints inside in the current church history were prominently displayed to the populi in the form of stain glass windows, woodcuts, and the pulpitum screen. The populi would learn of these characters through sermons and clergy counsel and were taught to revere these images as important in their individual salvation (McGinn, 128). It is interesting to note that the populi and the images they witnessed were not similar in physical appearance or situational contingence. Christianity brought about an elegance and beauty through these various forms of art that the populi were not familiar with (Stockard, 59).

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populi was gaining cultural and symbolic importance that the monarchy must be concerned to deal with? Alcuin’s letter is not the only document addressing a current need for socially constructed awareness. An echoed sentiment is seen in the later document of Pictor in Carmine, where the author writes: “Struck with the grief that in the sanctuary of God there would be foolish pictures, and what are rather misshapen monstrosities than ornaments, I wished if possible to occupy the minds and eyes of the faithful in a more comely and useful fashion. For since the eyes of our contemporaries are apt to be caught by a pleasure that is not only vain, but even profane, and since I did not think it would be easy to do away altogether with the meaningless paintings in churches, especially in cathedral and parish churches, where public stations take place, I think it an excusable concession that they should enjoy at least that class of pictures, which as being the books of the laity, can suggest divine things to the unlearned, and stir up the learned to the love of the scriptures.”10 While both documents span through a few centuries of the Middle Ages, the sense of urgency to silence and repair a mode of communication prevalent in the populi is clear. These are but two examples of the correspondence between the religious structures that monitored the education, economic expansion, and religious choices of the populi of the Middle Ages.11 The concern that plagued the letters between authorities was one for

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Murphy’s translation/transcription of the document remains unfinished due to the fact the complete manuscript is not available. Pictor in Carmine. Trans. By M.R. James (Cambridge MS). 11 Images of saints, the virgin mother, and other relevant saints inside in the current church history were prominently displayed to the populi in the form of stain glass windows, woodcuts, and the pulpitum screen. The populi would learn of these characters through sermons and clergy counsel and were taught to revere these images as important in their individual salvation. It is interesting to note that the populi and the images they witnessed were not similar in physical appearance or contingency. McGinn: 128.

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silencing the populi not only verbally, but through the expression of art. The participation of the populi in a socially constructed, religious environment was not valued. There was a need for reconstruction of ideas and perceptions of folklore versus celestial interpretations of art. By providing art selections for the use in church ceremony and clergy lectures that resolved their own agenda, the monarchy and the religious hegemony could ultimately do away with the pagan ideas and transfigured deities the populi would demonstrate through their speech acts and visual artistic acts. Art was used as both an argument and as a counter argument. While the monarchy could assess at the populi and argue illiteracy was a reason and purpose for conversion and enlightenment, the clergy also argued that eradicating paganism by use of art was also a goal of Christian enlightenment. This meant the presentation of counter arguments for any folkloric or cultural visual that represented polytheism and paganism.12 The populi were observed to be individuals with an intellectual disadvantage simply because they had so many folklore traditions, pagan gods, stories, and song. While the hegemony sought to convert the populi and teach them, the populi demonstrated, through their own exquisite visual representations and duplication of Christian icons, that the placements of new ideas and replacement of tradition would not be as simple as promised. Although the populi could not write a counter argument regarding the end of time, the populi understood, by social and civic events of the era, that what the pain and suffering of the end of times might

12

This request became a mandate shortly after Alcuin’s argument reached the monarchy. At that time, the social repercussions of breaking this mandate became punishable by death and interpreted as a form of heresy against the established church and monarchy. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. NY: OUP 2001.

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“look” like. Their visual depictions remained crude, monstrous, heretic, gory, and would exhibit hopelessness.13 Being that the religious hegemony of the time was offering hope and promising an afterlife, the fact that the populi refused to observe these ideas and create art that would challenge the religious hegemony is very significant.14 It clearly positions both parties in the midst of a classical argument expressed through sociocultural and ultimately visual rhetoric expression. The scholarly, artistic, or community contributions that resulted from the educated society, was sanctioned by the religious hegemony of the time.15 The term “art” remains the most acceptable in historiographical studies because it alludes to the involvement and creation of structures, architecture, and formal venue of gathering knowledge by (and for) the educated, religious, society.16 While the religious hegemony exploited art for purposes of conversion and imperialism, the populi was responding with propaganda of their own: awareness for what remained outside of the walls of hegemony. The art of the populi depicted many of the everyday atrocities of life: hunger, sickness, deformity, exile, death, torture, and exploitation.17 There is evidence throughout court manuscripts and ecclesiastical documents that charges of heresy and serious social repercussion would come to anyone

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Stockard: 50. Especially since art was most prominent in the country side, away from the gothic cathedrals. In these isolated environments, clergy often did not visit the populi (even though they did collect taxes at specific times). In this country side it was still acceptable to engage in celebrations to pagan gods. Symbols and icons representing these gods were often displayed without any immediate fear of charges of heresy or death. Stockard: 77. 15 Menache: 67. 16 Stockard: 61. 17 McGinn: 90. 14

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who dared “alter” the religious, pictorial representations of the era. Still, portentia emerged.18 The images presented by the populi in the Middle Ages were a visual rhetoric argument towards social change and reform outside the religious milieu. Apocalyptic art of the populi was a response, an utterance, to what the religious hegemony was imposing in terms of ideology and socially prescribed identity.19 The culture populaire of the Middle Ages was represented by the lower, social classes, and not by the socio-political elites.20 Rhetorical practices were dominated by the scholars, religious scholars, and those in monarchy and government position. The established social and religious hegemony was one and the same.21 The visual expressions of the populi during the Middle Ages have not been categorized as visual rhetoric or rhetorical artifacts. However, the term “art” cannot appropriately define or analyze the powerful rhetorical and persuasive content and context brought forth by the art of the populi. Due to the very nature of the rhetorical application of the populi “art” the term must be updated to reflect the structural components of a classical argument. By doing this, we recognize the art of the populi as a visual artifact in a rhetorical scheme. This creates a dialogue and opens the argument for the invention, arrangement, and stylistic components of the visual artifacts using Aristotle’s rhetorical genres.

18

Portentia is described by McGinn as “deformed monstrosities used as art in marginalia, illuminations, art, metal work, and wood cuts” (78). Portentia reflected specific Apocalyptic imagery that was of particular concern (and fear) to the populi. For example, the Mouth of Hell, which portrayed how those who went to hell would be slowly eaten by a beast, suffering throughout the ages and never really dying. McGinn: 79. 19 McGinn: 82. 20 Menache: 88. 21 Kennedy: 90.

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1.3 THE RHETORICAL ARTIFACT: MEDIEVAL APOCALYPTIC ART Social factors (events such as war, epidemics, and religious persecution) worked against the creation of significant Jewish and Christian art in the second and third century. Because of these social factors, Apocalyptic art is rarely found in early Christian art from before Constantine. Images and statues of gods were forbidden and considered graven images.22 In the Roman Necropolis, funerary art and the epideictic practice of burial rites created a certain focus and importance on symbols and images used for ceremonial purposes. A distinction between the imperial versus popular art as well as Christian versus Jewish art began to emerge. In the fourth century, the establishment of Christianity as the state religion brought about a significant number of illuminations and artistic interpretations into Apocalyptic imagery.23 The richest illustrations of the Apocalypse are found in paintings, stained glass illuminations, monumental sculptures, metalwork, and graphic arts of the medieval period. Not only is the artistry reflective of Christian worship during this era, but it is also reflective of the struggle between Christianity and other schools of thought in the medieval world view. It is important and possible to separate the art (the vision) from the written translation (the text) by looking at the synchronic and diachronic research elements involved. Religious and critical hermeneutics contemplate the Apocalypse synchronically: the narrative in the Book of Revelation (the Apocalypse) is understood as complete or fully developed, and the critic’s tasks include analytic reconstruction, interpretation, and/or critical evaluation.

22 23

Stockard: 91. Emmerson: 89.

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Elements of visual rhetoric employ more of a diachronic practice, locating social agents and their contribution to the developing story as well as its impact on social reality. Part of this work of research is to isolate the synchronic and diachronic components of theory surrounding the Apocalypse and use these tools to substantiate the rhetorical analysis that will result in a visual methodology for the art. 1.4 A CLOSER LOOK AT THE MIDDLE AGES The era known as the Middle Ages marks the period in European history from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance. During this time, most of Greco-Roman teachings and instruction were lost. Rhetoric, as a field of study did not disappear.24 Christian scholars preserved and study some surviving classical texts and under the influence of these texts, they created new forms of rhetoric suited to the developing European culture.25 In the first four centuries of the Common Era, Roman society under the emperors was torn in conflict. Political oppression increasingly confined rhetoric to the study of style and delivery. The intellectual elite were not churchmen but lay people of high social position, participants in the imperial bureaucracy.26 Continued political turmoil contributed to fragmentation and loss of knowledge. Communities were divided, discourse communities adopted specific dialect for communication. The lifestyle of the pagans and

24

The entire Greco-Roman teachings merged with multiple cultural concepts and folklore brought together new ideas for regime, new wars, and new ideologies. These new ideologies were extremely relevant for conversion purposes. Emmerson: 90. 25 Emmerson: 94. 26 Emmerson: 101.

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the Christians gained distinct social markers, as the sparse population of Europe survived in small local economic units, such as towns, religious houses, or noble families’ estates. Civil authority and religious authority were often linked. The bishop of Rome, was given secular as well as religious control of the city (by Constantine) as a means of maintaining civil order in the face of the pagan invasion. The bishop of Rome assumed the title of Pope.27 In the five centuries often termed “Dark Ages” the population would see a joining of civic, religious, and social life. These were the three distinct power structures in the Middle Ages.28 The civic and social structures had no real influence over one another. Rather they worked in confined and well-defined labor. However, the religious power structure had significant power when it came to matters pertaining to civic and social life. Religious hegemony, monarchy, and imperialism, created an arena where competition between monarchy and religious authority spilled over to the forum of public opinion. At risk, with choice, were ideas and conversions that could promise elevation of class, social stature, and economic security. 1.5 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT During the Middle Ages, art was dominated by the religious hegemony of the time. This is evident through court manuscripts and ecclesiastical documents that detail the results and threats against heresy for anyone who dared “alter” the religious, pictorial

27

Emmerson and McGinn address the fact that the decision to empower the religious hegemony with one title relied on the fact to unite the smaller sections of the populi and continue the work of conversion. However, the monarchy also had great input in the deliberate title attribution. Emmerson: 88. 28 Menache: 102.

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representations of the era.29 For the religious, monarchy, and social elite communities of the Middle Ages, art was considered a final product of enlightenment and conversion. The art reflected education, which in the Middle Ages was analogous to conversion.30 Apocalyptic art representations were of specific interest since they represented the ultimate outcome of heresy and religious neglect. While the religious hegemony exploited Apocalyptic art for the purposes of conversion and imperialism, the populi was responding with an Apocalyptic propaganda of their own. Art created by the populi was not simply “art” but visual rhetoric that conveyed a clear counter-arguments and social response to the Christian conversion practices of the time. The Apocalyptic images presented by the populi were a visual rhetoric argument for social change and reform outside the religious milieu. Apocalyptic art of the populi was a response, an utterance, to what the religious hegemony was imposing in terms of ideology and prescribed identity.31

29

Bildhauer: 77. Bildhauer: 82. 31 The religiously prescribed identity asked the populi to look at apocalyptic events in a matter contradictory to the term “apocalypse” itself. While the populi were not allowed or privileged enough to read the sacred text (Bible or Scriptures), Menache presents the fact that they relied on the images depicted from the religious lectern to make assumptions as to what the apocalyptic characters would appear to look like and what each one would do (44). However, in presenting the events of the apocalypse for the populi, the clergy often created discrepancies between the images that were portrayed in the scriptures and the ones that were created by monarchy sanctioned artists. For example, the lion was the animal chosen to replace the dragon in Chapter 14 of the Book of Revelation. These small discrepancies would seem insignificant except that the lion carried a symbolic, folkloric portrayal for the populi, while the dragon remained an elusive creature that was use in myth, not folklore. In his text The Iconography of the Mouth of Hell, Gary Schmidt explores the replacement of images from the populi community to the religious hegemony as an element of propaganda and infusion of awareness into “ignorance” on behalf of the populi for not having the correct beasts as part of their pagan rituals (55). Once again, it remains an argument for enlightenment and education by means of visual persuasion. 30

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These visual arguments, presented by the populi could very well be denouncing the religious teachings of the time. However, it is more logical to follow the historical line and observe that the visual rhetoric of the populi was not verging on insane, but rather on rebelling against the idea of one national, religious consciousness. The propaganda that was communicated through education (civic, social, and religious) was challenged by the lower social class who had a different social reality. The art of the populi is relevant in scholarship because it is a visual rhetoric argument for social change. In that category, the term “art” can be recognized as trivial and dismissive of the work contributed by the populi. During the Middle Ages, a visual rhetoric argument for social change would ensue centuries later. The change in question: how to convert and acculturate all the pagans into Christianity? The visual artifacts owned by the populi would initiate the dialogue. 1.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE METHODOLOGY To examine the Apocalyptic Art of the Middle Ages as an argument (visual rhetoric) instead of just artistic representations by the populi, is a rather new and almost dangerous exploratory excursion. The excursion creates an exigence for an organized structure from which to carefully analyze the arguments represented by the populi in this art. This structure, is already in place. By reclassifying the art as visual rhetoric, the classical model of argumentation and speech posited by Aristotle apply as a form of rhetorical criticism for these rhetorical artifacts.

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1.6.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric

Table 1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric. SOURCE: Adapted from Jasinki’s Model. See also Rhetoric Sourcebook.

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The rhetorical genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric provide an essential format for analyzing the art through: rhetorical genre, audience orientation, temporal orientation, dominant discursive strategy, subject matter and objective. The art of the Apocalypse can be seen as a single piece of monologia that challenges the platform of dialogism it relies on. M. M. Bakhtin’s Carnival is presented in a medieval historical setting and defined as “the unofficial, unprogrammed, unsubliminated, uncensored, unstratified, and irrepressible. What isn’t officially right.”32 This can be identified and determined by the use of Aristotle’s rhetorical genres. The denouncing of Carnivalesque and monstrous art to illuminate the Holy Scriptures is significant in the fact that visual rhetoric was placed in a chronotype model that included a challenge of the very ethos of the revelator, audience, and the appearance of a religious panopticism.33 In the Book of Revelation, nobody is allowed the luxurious role of the spectator, not even the revelator. Revelation of the Apocalypse creates an identity crisis. The events of the Apocalypse challenge and question the architectonic model surrounding a hierarchical move towards a utopian principal, utopian world. Carnival is an appropriate term to use in analysis of the art of the Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. It is the matter in which the prophecy, the passage through chaos to utopia is depicted outside the realm of

32

Farrell: 58. Text and translation of preface to Pictor in Carmine, begins with the writer asserting: “Struck with the grief that in the sanctuary of God there should be foolish pictures, and what are rather misshapen monstrosities than ornaments (picturarum ineptias et deformia quedam portenta magis quam ornamenta), I wished if possible to occupy the minds and eyes of the faithful in a more comely and useful fashion.” 33

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church and state. The vision was received outside the realm of church and state. However, artists were only able to create persuasive images within the religious ideology they possessed. This ideological restraint allowed for minimal reconstruction of cultural assumptions. As the translation of classical texts shed light on the ideology of the ancient world and now the medieval world, systems of thought were converging and colliding. From this collision course resulted artistic interpretations of the Apocalypse that challenged many social strictures. Some of these artistic interpretations were censored and ultimately banned. Reflecting on the classical components of this methodology, Aristotle’s forms of deliberative, forensic and epideictic rhetorical genre can be combined in a specific speech or written text. Two specific genres that serve as theoretical framework for researching medieval Apocalypse topics include Aristotle’s conceptualization of deliberative oratory and the epideictic discourse.34 These two genres are of significant importance when analyzing both the art and text of the Apocalypse in a critical heuristic manner because they have individual audience selection but the persuasive exigence remains constant. A closer examination into the visual components of the Apocalypse provides a cultural syncretism unique to the Apocalyptic discourse. Using Aristotle’s genres we can explore the temporal orientation and dominant discursive strategy for both visual and textual analysis as they rely on universal topoi focusing on example, enthymeme and amplification. This is reflected in speech (narratio) and utterances.

34

Aristotle. Rhetoric. W.R. Roberts, Trans. New York, Modern Library, 1954.

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Aristotle’s genres create a substantial basis for analysis of religious thought and philosophical ideals in the ancient and medieval period. Aristotle’s special topics and five canons of rhetoric are essential in accounting for content in many selections, but it is the monstrous Carnivalesque that truly embraces the age and art. In the medieval world, the dialogues of philosophical understanding explored the development of persuasive discourse and structures, focusing on social implications towards the religious teachings of the time. Aristotle’s genres provide a basis for study in both textual and artistic depictions of these persuasive dialogues. Aristotle’s genres and the use of speech acts, serve as research rubrics to examine the social institutions and the persuasive impact of religious dialogue in the Middle Ages (visual and textual). When analyzing the visual Apocalypse, it is important to consider the historiographical surrounding the socially defining systems of discourse and how these dictated standards of reason and normalcy as directed by a repressive authority. During the Middle Ages, this socially defining system was a religious, repressive authority.35 Aristotle provides a theoretical language and focus to examine these socially defined systems and note the representation of these systems in medieval Apocalyptic art. The component of visual rhetoric brings an additional epistemological construct that incorporates the role of the visual, human perception, and human understanding as central to deciphering visual images and their messages.36 A visual methodology brings together the contextual, visual perception and shares a visual culture where images are isolated

35 36

Menache: 104. Heywood: 56.

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outside their religious paradigm and placed in a critical area where the rhetorical artifact is analyzed based on the construction of meaning through images. The study of visual rhetoric is still in form and delivery, a new analytical schematic. It is applicable to all forms of visual artifacts, as they prevail to be persuasive and argumentative. In this study, the retro-active application of visual rhetoric to the art of the Middle Ages is an irrelevant study. The Middle Ages is the ideal time in history where we can truly observe the work of a religious hegemony develop and consume the social strata and monarchy of the time.37 The Middle Ages are significant as a time when literature, philosophy and religion were all at the embryonic placement of development, query, and result.

37

Piper: 99.

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CHAPTER II COLLECTION OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA 2.1 INTRODUCTION Medieval rhetoric was characterized by the immediate contact between communicator and audience.1 In this capacity, communication was specifically targeted to a discourse community with a clear purpose and goal: persuasion. The audience of the Middle Ages varied in significant, integral parts: social, economic, and political. During the Middle Ages, there were specific social groups that represented and monitored these integral parts. The success of a communication process, a rhetorical exchange, depended on recognizing and addressing all of the audiences present.2 The success of mass movements such as the Peace of God and the Gregorian Reform are two historical examples that serve of evidence of how the institutional use of propaganda by the state (also referred to as the monarchy) and the Catholic Church assumed a massive scope in

1

Menache, The Vox Dei, examines medieval society as a “whole” based on the “solidarity and homogeneity of the socioeconomic group” (9). Menache explores the impact of varied social strata to the framework of identity in the Middle Ages. The corporate structure (presented as the dominant religious structure of the time) would cement the individual to a specific niche in society and define this individual as a “group member” rather than an individual. Communication processes in the medieval era was relegated to kairos between the dominant, corporate, socioeconomic group and the framework of rural communities, guilds, assemblies, and ecclesiastical orders. 2 Two Latin terms that surface throughout ecclesiastical literature are vox populi (voice of the people) and vox Dei (voice of God). The authoritarian writings of the ecclesiastical scholars dismissed the vox populi in the Middle Ages. The monarchy and the church worked together in communicating and legitimizing the vox Dei as the dominant law for social change and community creation. However, the opinions of the populace could not have been completely overlooked. The constant need for the dominant church structure to “address” and “advise” the populace provides an initial stage of inquiry regarding the full adoption and acculturation into religious practices of the time, specifically Christianity.

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the Middle Ages.3 During this time, religious texts contained reflections of the culture’s religious ideology and philosophical beliefs. It has not been until the recent exploration and categorization of the rhetorical tradition canon that we can see differences in exigence and style between canonical and non-canonical texts. During the Middle Ages, national consciousness resulted in a split between vox Dei (voice of God) and vox populi (voice of the people), that ultimately resulted in three modes of rhetorical communication: the written word, the oral message, and the pictorial representations.4 In order to properly survey and analyze these modes of rhetorical communication, a bibliographical survey of literary and rhetorical sources is required. The challenge of accumulating cross-disciplinary references is the noticeable difference in rhetorical, literary, and religious grammar as it applies to texts, philosophical trends, and recognition of social communities in the Middle Ages. The terminology used in each of these specific fields of study evokes a need for employing a common dialect to explore and examine apocalyptic visual rhetoric exchanges of the Middle Ages. This is truly an impossible task, since it would require a linguistic convergence of terms that really resist

3

The “Christian Church” and/or “Catholic Church” are the preferred terms used by scholars and writers seeking to focus on the attempted, overall shaping of an organized, universal religious thought during the Middle Ages. Geographical historians have created chronological delimitations of how the fundamentals of Christianity were brought to existence through competitions of secular and religious authority. Medieval literature provides sufficient evidence of the “Church” in place being the Catholic Church. Some scholars believe the varied political communication between monarchies and conquests allow for an umbrella term (i.e. Christian Church) that implies a specific denominational title vacancy when examining historical documents. In this study we have opted for the proper use of “Catholic Church” to rightly represent the Christian governing group present in the Middle Ages. 4 Menache’s research investigates the communication in Medieval Society as it pertained to location, historical process and climate of opinion. None of these communication processes could exist on its own during the Middle Ages. They relied on one another for social sustenance and acceptance of law and authority figures. Menache: 44.

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cohabitation within the realms of rhetorical, literary, and religious theory and literary analysis.5 A compilation of texts exploring the communication, medieval rhetorical and philosophical milieu of the time are provided in an attempt to explore the dominant thought behind specific communication exchanges within these modes. Due to this need for exploration (and exposition) of terminology and application of rhetorical criticism, the bibliographical compilation of texts presented, attempt to bridge ideas between religious, literary, and rhetorical theory surrounding the various schools of thought exploring Apocalypticism and visual rhetoric. The main objective of this review of scholarship shares focus on the terminology embedded throughout the visual rhetoric analysis of the selected religious art and the rhetorical components presented in historical, literary documents. The literary focus revisits the exigence to explore the necessary terminology and critical theory applications outlined in Chapter One.6

5

One noted difficulty that would result from the mentioned linguistic convergence is the standardization of literary vs. religious vs. rhetorical analysis of Biblical texts. Each area of study explores issues of translation, transcription, prophecy / oratory, ethos and narratology in a different manner. Most of these differences emerge as a segmented use of language that isolates the research topoi into categorical structures. Eschatology, hermeneutics, literary criticism, critical theory and rhetorical criticism all employ a different form for exposition and analysis in research study. Reputable secondary sources of reference (such as encyclopedias and handbooks written for one specific field of study) are a great asset to the researcher. A more comprehensive list of sources is cited in the bibliography of this dissertation. 6 Aristotle and Bakhtin are outlined as the classical and critical theorists that contribute the necessary theoretical language and ideas for this study. Aristotle’s special topics, five canons of rhetoric, and conceptualization of deliberative, epideictic, and judiciary oratory create a specific theoretical framework for analyzing the rhetorical communication elements of the Middle Ages. Bakhtin’s theory on carnival, dialogism, polyphony, heteroglossia, and prosody, are important speech theories to analyze while considering the denouncing of carnivalesque and monstrous art in the Middle Ages.

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2.2 REFERENCING THE APOCALYPSE In 1931, M.R. James published his British Academy lectures on the Apocalypse in medieval art under the title The Apocalypse in Art.7 (London 1931). M.R. James presented a bibliography of illuminated manuscripts collected between 800 – 1500. The bibliographical materials were quite revered by the academic milieu.8 The lecture notes included Apocalypse manuscript that had been overlooked or since discovered, and provided a wealth of bibliographical (and geographical) references for researchers to isolate illuminated manuscripts. In the last decades, The Apocalypse in Art has become a landmark for research surrounding illuminations.9 To date, M.R. James’ bibliography is still the primary source document used by medievalists and scholars gathering data and bibliography documents on similar research topics. There is no doubt that M.R. James published an unparalleled, primary document that will arguably remain dominant in research throughout the decades. Unintentionally, The Apocalypse in Art secured the study of illuminated manuscripts as a dedicated area of research, solely “owned” and “managed” by theologians and historians exploring religious and philosophical transactions between a global Catholic Christianity and a local, historical body. The research monopoly results from the vast resources available in these areas of study, to further explore religious applications through the use of ancient languages, hermeneutics, and archeological design. The reality remains that scholarship

7

James, M.R. The Apocalypse in Art. 1st Edition. London: Bennbridge Publishers, 1931. Emmerson, Richard K. “Census and Bibliography of Medieval Manuscripts Containing Apocalypse Illustrations, ca. 800-1500.” Traditio 40 (1984): 337-379. 9 Emmerson: 170. 8

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in the field of apocalypse is best explored when research venues are available and proper research cataloguing is granted. For, example, theologians have a wider range of access to research established sources, and have additional resources to visit private collections of primary research documents focusing on religion, art and illuminated manuscripts. The result is that studies in these areas of specific art and religion topics are often categorized (and catalogued) as Old and New Testament Studies and Praxis.10 The Apocalypse in Art would inevitable be ready for modernization. The first scholars to attempt updating annotations in M.R. James’ bibliography were Richard Emmerson and Suzanne Lewis. In 1974, the editors prepared a Census and Bibliography of Medieval Manuscripts Containing Apocalypse Illustrations, ca. 800 – 1500. Emmerson and Lewis designed a compilation of documents on illustrations and manuscripts. The document was first printed in Tradio Journal under the title of Census. The authors excluded all references to Medieval Apocalypse representations in sculptures, paintings, and other media.11 They catalogued only art commissioned by the Christian Church and private Monarchia Establia. It is interesting to note that monarchy Art created by the medieval populi is not catalogued by James, Emmerson, or Lewis. The Census compiled by Emmerson and Lewis catalogued the census in the following manner:

10

In his introduction to The Apocalypse in Art, 1st Edition, James referenced several examples of research practices in religious studies. He cited examples of how interdisciplinary work would have to “transcend beyond the research methodologies of one school of thought [and] bring clarity to critical theoretical concepts married between literature, religious literature, philosophy, and rhetoric.” James: 31. 11 Emmerson and Lewis cite the necessity for this omission as the result of “the enormous amount of visual art that lacked cataloguing and would require more historiographical study than the manuscripts secured [and catalogued] through reputable museums and private collections.” Emmerson: 114.

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•

“The first 139 manuscripts are illustrated apocalypses, that is, manuscripts containing at least one illustration and whose first or primary test is either the Book of Revelation or a commentary on the Biblical text.”12

•

“The second category comprises 35 other manuscripts that do not reference the Apocalypses as defined above but include a minimum of five illustrations of the Apocalypse or an Apocalypse Commentario.”13

•

“Additional illustrations in the census illustrate only apocalyptic subjects. For example, the Antichrist, the Fifteen Signs of Doomsday, or Joachim’s Figurae. However, they do not reflect the Biblical text or any commentary.” 14

Emmerson and Lewis created a single document cataloguing only 174 entries similar to those catalogued by M.R. James. Throughout the Census the authors maintained a uniform level of objectivity and comprehensiveness in compiling the entries of manuscripts in a complete and accurate manner. It is important to understand that illuminations are not stagnant, and manuscripts travel through museums and private collections. It is also important to note that the research focus of M.R. James, Emmerson, and Lewis, is quite distinct in subject and matter to the research presented in this bibliography. Where the initial authors were focusing on illuminations that are tangible and viewable, this researcher is searching for the art that has been buried in catacombs,

12

Emmerson: 183. Emmerson: 198. 14 Emmerson: 201. 13

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private museums, and churches throughout Europe. The thematic focus for each reference listed in this bibliography is: The Art of the Medieval Vox Populi. During the Middle Ages, the majority of artistic productions and renditions were commissioned by the Catholic Church. A minimal part of the artistic productions (Biblical or secular) were commissioned by the established monarch. The Catholic Church commissioned the art for the sole purpose of persuasion, conversion, historical rite, and communal law. With this commission came specific details on the art (visual artifact) itself. Art was created by commissioned artists residing in the courts and churches.15 Courtier documents provide evidence that artists were well versed in philosophy and rhetoric. Commissioned artists had access to documents from late antiquity, and religious transcriptions were not difficult to reference.16 Versed in Aristotelian philosophy, commissioned artists were arguably aware that every argument contains a counterargument. This historical fact renders the theory of the unexpected resistance of the populi to Christian images, rather surprising. The counterargument was presented in equally diverse art, all produced, created, and supported by the populi. The populi did not have the luxury of participating in civic discourse or discussing matters of

15

In the first edition of this text, Southern explores the social contingencies between the three “community groups” of the Middle Ages: the populi, the monarchy, the Christian Church. Southern provides commissioner notes acquired through monarchy archives in the British Monarchy Library (1944). The commissioner’s note provided: 1) name of the artist commissioned for the art production; 2) payment for the art; 3) and honor code for the artist to sign indicating discretion and unconditional service to the Catholic Church (the Christian Church of the medieval era). Southern argues the artists were not paid until the art was commissioned and delivered to commissioning body (136). Southern, R.W. The Making of the Middle Ages. 1953. UK: YUP, 1999. 16 Southern: 267.

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the state.17 However, the vox populi was loud and evident in the artistic renditions of the Middle Ages. While they could not participate in civic discourse, the populi used the same elements of classical argumentation to develop visual rhetoric artifacts that served as a counterargument to the inevitable, mandatory process of Catholic Church conversion. Art of the populi was created by the most amateur artists of the time. While evidence of the artistic vox populi is extremely difficult to find, research cross referencing courtier documents, church letters, church documents, and an enormous collection of journals and monarchy correspondence, provides a glimpse at what the social milieu of the time was. Primary documents alert us to a rather problematic and challenging era, where illiteracy was common, but artistry and labor were a mode of survival. This bibliographical research begins here, in search of the art of vox populi and the historical vignettes that still exist to substantiate their disdain against the Catholic Church establishment and the reign of a questionably unethical monarchy. 2.3 REFERENCING THE VOX POPULI Bibliographies save time by providing the researcher with more time to read, assimilate, and write. What is necessary is an effective, catalogue design in order ensure the bibliography is effective. The scope of this bibliography contains both textual and

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Thrupp surveyed the educational “thread” of the populi, researching Christian Parish Countrymen Books (often referred to as a census for the medieval people). Thrupp produces evidence of contending conversations between the monarchy and the populi regarding the matters of state and civic duties. Thrupp argues the populi did not have evidence of formal education; hence they could not participate in the dialogues. However, they were aware of the contending discussions involving religious conversion, monarchy egress, and Christian doctrines that affected their “every day activities” (201). Thrupp, Sylvia, ed. Change in Medieval Society. NY: Appleton Century Crafts Publishers, 1964.

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artistic entries; all listed and catalogued in three genres of interdisciplinary fields of study: 1. Medieval Rhetoric 2. Classical Rhetoric and Biblical Theory in the Late Medieval Epoch 3. The Medieval Apocalypse and Visual Rhetoric The focus of this bibliographical collection is on the visual rhetoric of the vox populi. In this respect, research is focused on philosophical, religious, and historical catalysts that prompted the creation of these artistic renditions, all containing clear counterarguments against the propaganda for Catholic conversion of the Middle Ages. 2.4 CRITERIA FOR REFERENCE INCLUSION In their collaborative research, Sandy and O’Hare established the need for a “Bibliographical Criterion for Inclusion,” when selecting religious, bibliographical material to include in academic forums.18 The following questions are adapted from Sandy and O’Hare’s research criteria. Changes to the original questions are created in order to reflect the visual rhetoric focus of sources as well as emphasize the cross disciplinary relevance of the documents cited. The questions that guided decisions about the inclusion of the bibliographical material:

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O’Hare and Sandy are two of the contemporary theological researchers preparing annotated bibliographies for the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL). The IBR Bibliographical Series was initiated to collect religious literary resources and provide annotations for each entry. The annotations are in SBLHS Format and follow the format of a rhetorical précis. The annotations include additional cited source material and quotes from each citation’s editor or author. The purpose of the bibliographies is to initiate a research dialogue (with a cross disciplinary citation process) for research in a variety of fields. Sandy, Brent D., and Daniel M. O’Hare. “Prophecy and Apocalyptic: An Annotated Bibliography.” Craig A. Evans, editor. IBR Bibliographical Series No. 4. MI: Baker Academic: 2007.

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•

Does it advance the discussion of its subject in a significant way?

•

Does it reflect the breadth of issues involved?

•

Does the discussion have implications that reach beyond a few specific verses or beyond an isolated issue?

•

Does it reveal a turning point in the history of scholarship and have lasting value?

•

Does it represent the current status of scholarship?

•

Does it promote future scholarship of a variety of topics?

•

Does it stimulate questions and ideas for further research?

•

Does it introduce material that is adequate to cross disciplinary studies?

Individual reference material presented in this bibliographical document, meet two or more of the criteria listed above. These criteria assessments are provided in each section’s introduction. It is important to note that all research in the field of Apocalypticism, Medieval Art, and Visual Rhetoric, would result in findings too large for this dissertation. In order to be more selective, the simple guiding principle of including these works is that they are most helpful in grasping the present status of visual rhetoric driven research and that are most likely to stimulate future research. The range of this bibliographical project is vast. The objective of each annotation is to provide a summary, in a couple of sentences, of an author’s main point and contribution, though clearly the necessary brevity of such annotations cannot do justice to the breadth of contents. Evaluative comments about the strengths or weaknesses of a source generally seemed unnecessary, since the selections presented are strictly in place

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for their key contributory knowledge of the main subject. In organizing the material, the following format was established: 2.4.1 Format for Bibliographical Entries Title of Interdisciplinary Field of Study Primary Sources [Introduction and Annotations] Secondary Sources [Introduction] Tertiary Sources [Introduction] Critical Theory Collections and Reference Material [Introduction] Catalogued Book Series [Introduction] Print Journals and Online Journals [Introduction] Webliography and Databases [Introduction] Criteria Assessment of Bibliographical Material The introduction into each section contains a summary that addresses the thematic focus of the literature and isolated the relevance of each work to the research topic. Annotations are provided for all primary sources. The remaining sections contain brief notations on the currency and scholarly contribution of the sources and the authors. Due to the nature of primary, historiographical research material, no systematic attempt was made to include primary sources in this bibliography published after 2005. Primary sources are the only bibliographical material that is annotated in Chapter Three – Five. The purpose for annotating the primary sources is to provide a critical analysis of interdisciplinary, independent works that bring together a cohesive survey of the topics: 28

Apocalypticism, Visual Rhetoric, Middle Ages, and Art. Due to the fact that the primary sources were accumulated through interdisciplinary research, it seemed prudent to provide annotations that would focus each texts contribution to the cumulative work. The selection for bibliographical citation and preparation of document reference is the Society of Biblical Literature Handbook of Style (SBLHS). The SBLHS reference format and style most conducive to interdisciplinary research and source documentation. The interdisciplinary research presented in this bibliographical dissertation provides substantive evidence of M.R. James’s argument for the exigence of cross referencing and cataloguing of sources (both textual and visual) of heuristic research involving philosophical and religious topoi.

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CHAPTER III MEDIEVAL RHETORIC: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH 3.1 INTRODUCTION Whether the conventional divisions of history are viewed as reflections of the special concerns of successive periods, as conveniences of thought, or as substitutes for it, the use of categorical rhetorical artifacts can hardly be avoided when researching the Middle Ages. The collection of rhetorical artifacts is perhaps the only historical legacy that shapes medieval scholarship into a succession of well-defined ages that spanned ten centuries. Few historians will venture to say precisely when the Middle Ages began. Some historians have preferred to settle for titles that define cultural and societal expression and growth: Dark Ages, High Middle Ages, and Later Middle Ages.1 James J. Murphy defined the Middle Ages as the period “from the fall of the Roman Empire to the fifteenth century,” and outlined key philosophers, rhetoricians, and Christian scholars that shaped the rhetoric of the era.2 Murphy’s rhetoricians included Jerome (420CE), Augustine (430CE), Martinus Capella (428CE), and Archbishop Isidore de Seville (636 CE),

all of whom were trained in classical studies, Latin, medicine, and architecture.3

1

This book was originally published in its entirety as a separate volume to the MRTS Press collection of “Studies in Rhetoric” (1990). The text is still cited and cross referenced as an individual volume. SBLHS format text benefits from the “volume” citation as the entire document has been referenced as individual volume chapters in the ATLA research database. Murphy, James J. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of the Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance. Vol. 227. ZA: MRTS Press, 2001. 2 Murphy: 25. 3 Murphy: 33.

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Murphy’s survey of the rhetorical processes used during the Middle Ages, all have a caveat: during the Middle Ages, classical rhetoric became extinct and Christian rhetoric evolved.4 The merging of philosophy and Christian thought proved to be problematic for the populi (who could not read the original Latin texts), and problematic for the feudal society (who lost most of its power to the Catholic Church due to the great wealth absconded by the church). Most important in the study of visual rhetoric is the socially constructed reality imposed by the translation and transcription of Christian texts. From its inception, the transcription of Christian texts opened up questions of ethics surrounding authorial purpose and rhetoric. The philosophers of the medieval era were translating and transcribing text. A practice that was presented to the populi as “an explication of critical ideas. . . difficult to understand . . . rendered simple for barbarians.”5 What did the populi know about Christianity? How versed was the populi in the historical events surrounding the adoption of Catholic practices and the eradication of pagan practices? Images of early Christian thought are depicted in marginalia found in both illuminated manuscripts of the church and woodcuts produced by the populi. The populi was aware of the bloody history surrounding the imposing Catholic Church. Oral tradition, sharing of stories and tales was a practice most common in the medieval towns. Throughout the eras, the populi relied on orality to retain historical details not shared by 4

Murphy: 50. Map, Walter. De Nugis Curialim: Courtiers’ Trifles. Trans. M.R. James. Fascimille. Oxford Medieval Texts. UK: OUP. [Original publication date unknown]. 5

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the church body. An interesting example is the Catholic Church’s rendition of monumental deeds and horrific death of Peter and Paul (68CE). The church focused on the sainthood of these two characters, depicting images of minor torture and clear images of the soul returning to heaven postmortem6 (Menache, 45). The populi, whether by oral traditions carried through trade and/or custom, had a completely different narrative. This narrative did not involve images of saints or heaven, but rather graphic renditions of dragons rising from the ocean, ripping Peter and Paul apart, literally eating body parts (ff.157.56).7 The populi determined the cause of death of these two men was their engagement with the Christian church. Visually, the populi were already raising their voice about the perils of embracing Christianity. The Middle Ages demonstrate consistent themes of religious oppression, heresy, dynastic succession, and political oppression. The Catholic Church was relentless in its pursuit of veritas, and commissioned the translation/transcription of classical texts at an incredibly high rate and quick tempo. Unfortunately, the special interests of selected Christian texts left blind spots in the study of medieval rhetoric. Ultimately, the arrogance of philosophers and scribes translating text is evident only by written

6

Menache provides images of the sainted Peter and Paul during the “medieval conversion propaganda” (44). The importance of these two saints is rather “dubious” considering “the individual conversion and martyrdom of each one…the populi would only receive morsels of information pertaining to the deeds and deaths of these two individuals. The Catholic Church made no reservation of exploiting the deaths of these martyrs without expounding on the complexities (and historical importance) of the deeds” (66). 7 Apocalyptic illustration (ff.157.56) depicting tinted outline drawing of a sea dragon resembling the creatures summoned by the Greek god, Poseidon. Space for marginalia left for a mappa mundi on folio 26v. Image was never completed. Tinted outlines are missing initial details pertaining to the dragon. This indicates the image was never catalogued as portentia. Image not shown due to pending copyright.

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reflections of these same scholars, lamenting their own work. Work commissioned by the Catholic Church. 3.2 PRIMARY SOURCES The primary documents created during the Middle Ages engage scholars in questions of transcription, translation, and authorial evidence. The philosophers of the era were challenged by ethical dilemmas surrounding commission of work, religious bias, political bias, and scholarly knowledge of rhetorical purpose and process. In writings regarding The Medieval Body Social and the use of Prayer for Matters of Conversion, philosophers John of Salisbury and Peter Damiani, both demonstrated how difficult it was for writers of the time to set aside classical philosophy and embrace the new Christian philosophy.8 Salisbury wrote of the peasants, the works, and the great intellectual difference between the laborers and the monarchy. He also wrote on matters of Christian Commonwealth, and the virtues of financial spiritual authority.9 However, near the end of his life, Salisbury (much like his philosophical contemporaries), retracted once uncontested belief in the “Catholic Church Body Superiority” and denounced the temporal financial backing provided by writers by the Catholic Church.10 Salisbury challenged scholars of his time to embrace a reform against the unethical and problematic transcription of ancient texts. Contemporaries such as Pierre du Bois, Nicholas of Cusa, Otto Freising, and Philippe de Commines, wrestled with proper philosophical translations 8

Haskins compiles a list of philosophers, scribes, and religious writers that failed the cardinal rule of ‘practice what you preach.’ Haskins’ research indicates a high level of corruption with the philosophical structure of commissioned work and the problematic Christian translation of those commissioned work (201-240). Haskins, Charles H. Studies in Medieval Culture. UK: Oxford Clarendon Press, 1929. Print. 9 Haskins: 250. 10 Haskins: 260.

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of the term “reform” as it took about a different historical application, bringing about the insurrection of the populi.11 Philosophers were not the only scholars of the era that wrestled with the ethical components of transcription and translation. Courtiers and monarchy appointed secretaries to the noblemen were often faced with the dilemma of depicting historical events retroactively, often adding critical details that never occurred.12 The thought surrounding such a practice was to ensure the monarchy received due respect and a nobleman’s ethos was well depicted in courtier memoirs and letters. The world picture of the Middle Ages then seems lost in a myriad of historical texts that often lack substantiation and have more than one rendition of landmark events. For example, Matthew Paris, commissioned by the Catholic Church, wrote a manifesto on Missionaries and Merchants in which the work of Friars in Cathay Mission, and the journey through new lands often resulted in barbaric treatment of those “carrying the word of enlightenment to the barbarians.”13 In documents written at the same time (commissioned by monarchy), writers focused on the noble reform of finding new poets story-tellers, musicians, surgeons, and philosophers that practiced the seven liberal arts of the era.14 There is a significant contrast between urgency and compliance among the artists and the seven liberal arts. In the midst of these prolific writings we find the simple

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Haskins: 300. Reynolds provides primary documentation regarding monarchy practices on “re-vision” of text. The documented accounts of what occurred in court and in church were reviewed by those in charge of Secretariat duties within the editorial rooms in the castles and the church properties (33). Reynolds, Suzanne. Medieval Reading: Grammar, Rhetoric and the Classical Text. UK: CUP, 1996. 13 Map: i-ix. 14 Map: i-ix. 12

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visual rhetoric renditions of the populi, demonstrating literary and artistic ability to depict the social confusion surrounding them. The collected annotations reflect a current study into the socially constructed realities imposed on the populi by the weighted structure of the Catholic Church, the monarchy, and the powerful wealthy noblemen. The cumulative research into the translation and transcription of texts during the Middle Ages demonstrates a tryphectai of the status of scholarship encountered by writers of the era: 1) the proper translation of ancient texts; 2) the rhetorical implications of biased transcription and use of philosophical texts for religious altruism; and, 3) the ethical responsibility of writing for the church, monarchy, noblemen, for oral delivery of message to the populi – maintaining the ethos in the dialect use. Authors in this bibliographical section also advance the discussion of the topic of the carnivalesque and monstrous nature of the Middle Ages, isolating historical incidents that document events of apocalyptic grandeur: disease, death, heresy, social reformation, poverty, and, forced labor.15 The collaborative themes in this bibliographical discussion are the multiple religious implications and isolated catalysts that prompted the vox populi. For example, the translation of Biblical monsters, the use of iconography, and the living metaphors of the apocalypse – all evident in physically deformed bodies of the populi – prompted discussion among the populi.16 Discussions that ultimately resulted in an agreement for the necessary reform of image 15

Claster’s research cites the work of Bakhtin as it pertains to the carnivalesque. However, Claster is very careful to develop the terminology in a religious manner, eliminating critical theory or “the misconception of dialogism within two theoretically diverse schools of thought” (25-46). Claster, Jill N. The Medieval Experience: 300 – 1400. NY: OUP, 1982. 16 Map: xii.

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and message filtered through power structures of the Middle Ages. The dialogic transactions between the populi resulted in a collaborative, educational effort among the populi, philosophers, members of monarchy and Christian scholars. The evidentiary material to substantiate these dialogic transactions is seen through the visual artifacts created by the populi for the purpose of vox. 3.2.1 Bibliographical Entries Augustine. Fascimille. Trans. Sturtz Nemmy. 1891. UK: The Exeter Press, 1900. Nemmy presents a critical translation of Augustine’s work, surveying the influence of Augustine’s philosophy in the polis and populi of the Middle Ages. Nemmy presents a specific timeline of Augustine’s life and introduces influential heuristic studies in theology referenced in Augustine’s manuscripts. Nemmy’s introductory chapter outlines how Augustine’s research into theogeny influenced the translations of ancient text, rendering Augustine’s work a transcription not a translation. The author explores Augustine’s struggle between philosophical and religious influences, creating parallels between ancient and current philosophical trends of the era that she posits is why Augustine’s true purpose and ethics in writing is questionable due to the religious institution that financially subsidized his work. Amsler, Mark. Etymology and Grammatical Discourse in the Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1989. Amsler explores the technical, etymology, and exegetical components of Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages. Amsler argues that definitions, grammatical criticism, technical grammar, and literary dialect, were critical elements to the transcription of the Old Testament and New Testament. Amsler works with primary translation texts of Late Antiquity to demonstrate how culture and religion played a significant part in the final translation of the Bible. 36

Benedict, Kimberly, M. Empowering Collaborations: Writing Partnerships Between Religious Women and Scribes in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 2003. Benedict introduces the medieval researcher to a unique perspective of writing and literary partnership in the Middle Ages. Benedict presents evidence to demonstrate the collaboration between religious women and scribes in the monarchy and religious houses. These collaborations, the end writing, demonstrate a unique perspective into the social relations and the urgency of the vox populi to be heard. Benedict demonstrates the transactions for documents as historical cataloguing required during the era. These transactions often required the selling, ownership, and prostitution of women. Bildhauer, Bettina, R. Mills, eds. The Monstrous Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 2000. Bildhauer argues the figure of monsters in medieval culture functioned as a vehicle for a range of intellectual and spiritual enquiries, from questions of language and social representation, to issues of moral, theological, and cultural value. Mills argues that monsters embodied cultural traditions and terrors that went beyond the idea of physical monsters to the interpretation of a religious monstrosity. The authors bring together an understanding of the art of the polis and the apocalyptic semblance of the polis monsters, as examples of the monstrous behavior of the Catholic Church. Brooke, C. Churches and Churchmen in Medieval Europe. UK: The Hambledon Press, 1999. Brooks argues that art penetrated the early and late Middle Ages in order to promote and engage religious prosecution and monarchy abuse anchored in heretic lifestyles. Brook’s research of ancient manuscripts by the medieval polis supports the argument of religious persecution and the “legalis doctrina” to provide church and monarchy the power to “torture and slaughter” any member of society that refused to join the ranks of the Enlitus Cristiana (58).

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Bynum, Carolin, and Paul Freedman, eds. Last Things: Death and the Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1999. Bynum and Freedman explore the “last events” of the Middle Ages as separate realities, and not locations such as heaven, hell, or purgatory. The authors argue that the locations were end limits to which the soul would go. The realities were considered the accounting, the calling to judgment that would end life. Bynum and Freedman argue that at different stages of the Middle Ages, the Latin term meaning ”last events” would become “last things” and this term would dominate Catholic conversion dialect. The “last things” for the populi were controversial theories posited by a Christian entity that extracted all human sensibilities and allocated fear into the polis, describing hell and purgatory as the only end location and ultimate reality to fear. Camille, Michael. Image on the Edge: The Margins of Medieval Art. 1954. London: Reaktin Publishers, 1990. Camille researches a significant amount of medieval manuscripts that contain art and marginalia favorable to the cause of the populi and their quest for “intellectual division from the Catholic Church” [144]. Camille argues that medieval images featured two different stories: religious and popul. The monarchy is seldom presented in marginalia. Camille’s research presents a compelling argument on the social and religious agenda of the Middle Ages, demonstrating that the marginalia of the time served as a reminder for the religious speakers of who their audience was. The iconography represented in the marginalia often depicted images from the book of Revelation and Daniel, such as monsters, dragons, hell mouth, and an impersonation of death as a dark figure riding a dark horse. Cantor, Norman, F. Inventing the Middle Ages. NY: Quill William Marrow Press, 1931. Cantor argues that the medieval world is a rhetorical artifact of invention and philosophy that cannot be studied or critically analyzed through religious texts; instead, 38

the research must use elements of critical theory. Cantor presents evidence of the intricacies of the medieval civilization and the struggle for ultimate power between the monarchy and the Catholic Church. Cantor argues that the social descent of the populi and the monarchy brought about an autodidactic learning processes, prominent in populi art. Cantor states that these artistic renditions of “social invention later proved dangerous to monarchy and opened the door for a much needed reformation” [151]. Carruthers, Mary, and Jan M. Ziolkowski, eds. 1984. The Medieval Craft of Memory. PA: University of Pennsylvania, 2002. Print. Carruthers and Ziolkowski compare the use of rhetorical memoria with the religious exegesis of medieval texts. The authors present evidence that the texts of the Middle Ages were not just a craft in translation and transcription; the texts were a task in the practice of memory and delivery (two canons in Aristotle’s five canons of rhetoric). Carruthers and Ziolkowski argue that the religious act of oration, transcription and translation of a text was a necessary tool for collection and reconciliation of Christian philosophy and classical texts. The authors present evidence that homiletics was not a practice solely used by the Catholic scholars. Homiletics was used by the populi to their own advantage during carnival renditions of daily life; oratories were memorized and delivered in the center of town. The populi noticed the difference (in oratio) of the classical texts and the religious propaganda inserted in the text. Memoria allowed the populi to denounce the religious messages, citing the changes in translation. Classen, Albrecht, ed. Violence in Medieval Courtly Literature: A Casebook. 1968. NY: PUP, 2001. Classen explores the dark side of courtly literature. He argues that the courtly “literature” contained more graphic art than words. In the collected essays, Classen demonstrates that the quest for love in the world of medieval courtly literature was truly underpinned by violence, mistrust, excessive rule, rape, and torture. Classen provides courtier sketches and a collection of drawings that demonstrate how medieval courtly 39

“literature” was more art than words; it was graphic art the populi would understand. Courtiers were often elevated to the status of scholars and philosophers. This became problematic as subjective courtier writings became more common. The term “courtier literature” is problematic, according to Classen, due to the fact that the graphic art depicting rape and torture (in the royal courts) also depicted the way in which “literature” was transported and delivered during this time. Classen proves that this form of literature was transported by means of human trafficking and distributed to the royal courts along with “slaves, whores, bastards, and tax evaders” (66). Claster, Jill, N. The Medieval Experience: 300 – 1400. NY: OUP, 1982. Claster compiles a general survey of the Middle Ages’ economy, society, culture, and focuses on the daily (expected) tasks of the vox populi, monarchy, scribes, and war lords. Claster argues that there is little understanding of the socially difficult aspects of populi daily life and the rampant fear of death (by illness or by monarchy rule). The daily life of the vox populi in the Middle Ages consisted of: labor, taxes, illness, genocide, religious prosecution, heresy, and rape. Claster argues that these daily life aspects were catalysts to all the change that surrounded the religious tension and civil unrest between 300 – 1400. Consaale, B. All the Animals of the Bible and Middle Ages. 1820. UK: Essex Press, 1899. Print. Consaale provides an overview of the physically existing animals during the Middle Ages and compares these to the ones presented in the Bibles use in the Middle Ages. Consaale outlines detailed accounts of how animals were commissioned for use in the Biblical and medieval era. According to Consaale, animals were used only for food, sacrifice, trade, atonement, payment to the monarchy, and gifts for the clergy. The animal representation in art was used as a cautionary tale of good versus evil, and the perils of choosing evil. Consaale explores how the physical appearances of animals allowed for the populi to

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understand the painted portraits of evil and demise presented by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages, for example, the dragon in the book of Revelation. Cook, Theodore Andrea. Medieval Towns. UK: Rowen Artesan Press, 1899. Cook introduces early period examples of medieval towns, their social structure and how daily life translated to the architecture and “placement” of citizens. Cook explores social hierarchy in the medieval era and demonstrates how culture shaped a social structure that could not sustain both systems of folklore and systems of wealth. Instead, the culture embraced religion and monarchy above all other social structures. Cook argues that the early medieval architecture structures were critical in visually endorsing the cast system and elevating religious agenda above that of the monarchy. Coutlon, G. G. The Medieval Scene: An Informal Introduction to the Middle Ages. UK: CUP, 1930. Coulton focuses on social conditions and hierarchy in the Middle Ages. Coulton explores the multiple social scenes of trade, labor, work, and rule, between 510 – 600 CE. The details provided eliminate the idea of a rather “ignorant” medieval populi, and presents a new image of a populi filled with thriving trade, civic responsibility, and pagan traditions. Coulton dispenses the theory that the populi simply worked. Coutlon offers evidence that the populi did gathered to discuss the social status of their community. Coulton argues that it was during these meetings that social structures collided. The result, was the participation of “rogue” members of the monarchy and/or the clergy engaging in conversation with the populi and offering training in the arts of reading, writing, and illustrations. Cutts, Penerend Edward L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. UK: Essex Archeological Society Press, 1925. In the first edition of this text, Cutts examines the social division among the populi and religious community of the Middle Ages, in order to establish and support the religious 41

hierarchy of the time. Cutts provides sketches and literary references that catalogue the Catholic church’s sanctions of torture of the populi, on any given charges of heresy. Cutts argues that the multiple communities of the Middle Ages joined in social contracts of power” that assisted the Catholic church in gathering information against “heretics and pagans” among the populi (14). The imposition of religious and state statues ensured that the populi remain oppressed and exploited by labor in order to secure their conversion. Duby, Georges. A History of Private Life: Revelations of the Medieval World. Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. MA: CUP, 1975. Duby presents a concise history of the populi life in the Middle Ages, in order to establish the inception of social, religious, and political groups, all willing to fight against monarchy rule. Duby argues that the Catholic Church has eliminated details of the Middle Ages civil wars against the monarchy in order to create the perception of a country that lacked morals and not social rule. Duby goes beyond a mere “conspiracy theory” to produce documents from the Vatican Library that support his argument. Dyson, R.W. Augustine: The City of God Against the Pagans. NY: CUP, 1941. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Sez. 5. Print. Dyson translates the first rendition of The City of God in order to demonstrate the significance of transcription errors dating back to 410CE Dyson’s works includes bibliographical and autobiographical notes, journals, and records by Augustine, where Augustine writes of ethical struggles to properly translate the texts given to him by the Catholic Church. Dyson’s work was deemed controversial due to the ethical ramifications and outcome of the translation. Significant changes in style, prose, and overall message disrupted many theological discussions at the time. While Dyson’s work is seldom cited in philosophy and rhetoric texts, his translation of Augustine’s work has been validated and revisited by third parties honoring only the translation and not the value of ethical content in Augustine’s work. 42

Ekelund, Robert, et. al. Sacred Trust: The Medieval Church as an Economical Firm. NY, OUP, 1996. The authors explore the extraordinary wealth and social control over the populi and the monarchy, by the Roman Catholic Church. Research presented explores the historical ransacking of populi towns, and documents treaties between the church and the monarchy in which the church used persuasion by means of torture and death, to acquire riches. The wealth accumulated by the Roman Catholic Church was used as a recruitment tool to bring the populi into the service of the church; in this way sustaining the task of acquiring riches. Friedman, John Block. The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought. NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000. Friedman presents primary research to construct a model of the “monstrous” figures of medieval art and places the art in two categories: ecumenical and theological. Friedman explores monstrous races of animals as derivatives of late antiquity sculptures and medieval folklore. He explores how and images resulting from trade and expansion were used by the Roman Catholic Church as decoration piece in abbeys. Friedman states that the process of creating frightening images for the populi became more complex with the introduction of the elements of Christianity and the apocalypse in the late Middle Ages. Gentry, Francis, G. ed. Medieval Perspectives on the Entry Into Language. 4 Vols. Word Outward. NY: CUP, 1901. “Language and art in the Middle Ages were synonymous . . . Art portrayed arguments, events, and celebrated a culture; Language was used to separate the literate from the illiterate, creating a social structure that would eminently collapses” [16]. Gentry explores the Middle Ages paeida and the art of the populi that ensued from the lack of proper language training. The illiteracy of the populi brought about an expressive form of art. However, it also created an awareness of the “lack of proper education” in the 43

vast majority of the populi of the Middle Ages. Gentry argues that the use of art by the populi brought about a social construction of language that was different than any used by monarchy or church. Gilson, Elianne. The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy. Trans. AHC, Downes. IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1936. Gilson compares the “human spirit” and the “medieval spirit” stating that populi were still themselves (human spirit), but they were under a dangerous religious rule (medieval spirit). Gilson presents evidence by specifically cross referencing literature that states the problems of Christianity and philosophy. The evidence demonstrates critical errors in the translation and use of New Testament texts in the Middle Ages. Gilson credits the populi with philosophical knowledge of text by forms of oral tradition of scribes and oracles. This understanding created a window of revolt and overrule of the religious agenda surrounding the populi and the New Testament texts. Glasscoe, Marion, ed. The Medieval Mystical Tradition. UK: St. Edmundsbury Press. Print. Exeter Symposium, 1999. Fascimile. Authors in this selection explore the mystics in the Middle Ages as a separate community often overlooked by researchers. The authors argue that mystical traditions in the Middle Ages influenced every day activity, including the acceptance and adoption of Christianity. The author’s argument is supported by the lack of effective translation of the low style of verbiage used by the populi and the high florid style of the church. Authors contend that mystics were used as oracles to present options for the populi on whether or not individual families should (or should not) join the Roman Catholic Church. Citing the use of the New Testament as one studied by the mystics, the authors provide evidence of a “deciphered apocalypse” that eliminated fear of death in a large majority of the populi.

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Hamel, C.E. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminators. 1967. Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1980. Hamel catalogues the work of medieval craftsman and scribes. He compartmentalizes the work of these individuals into three tasks for the medieval trinity: Catholic Church, monarchy, and the populi” [88]. Hamel explains how and why illuminated scripts were necessary. The authorial and artistic work contained examples of the process of manuscript preparation necessary for research into the production of text. Hamel supports the theory of conscious anonymity by craftsmen and scribes, who worked with great discretion in order to avoid being charged with heresy. Haskins, Charles H. Studies in Medieval Culture. UK: Oxford Clarendon Press, 1929. Print. Haskins explores culture and society in the Middle Ages in order to establish how the culture was corrupted (socially and ethically) and structurally precarious, due to the ominous presence of the Roman Catholic Church. Haskin argues that the culture of the Middle Ages has been relegated to the simplistic terms of “ignorant, illiterate, perverse” [97]. In his research, Haskin presents primary source evidence that supports the theory of a well-versed, cultured, populi, which was aware of the persuasive techniques presented by the Roman Catholic Church for conversion and subjugation. Herlihy, David. Medieval Households. MA: CUP, 1985. Herlihy explores questions regarding family units of the Middle Ages. Herlihy argues that societies lacked the concept of a sacred family unit as a moral unit. This resulted in the display of a variety of living arrangements that present an incestuous, sexually deprived community that in return “was seen as a conversion project by the Catholic Church” [15]. Herlihy states that this dysfunctional order of the family units was a persuasive tool used by the Catholic Church to attempt a forced conversion instead of

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considering the great poverty that was an inherent force sustaining the dysfunctional units of the medieval homes. Herrin, Judith. A Medieval Miscellany. NY: OUP, 2001. Herrin presents a collection of catalogued illuminated manuscripts, paintings, and correspondence from scholars, teachers, and scribes, which focus on the chronological change of social structure, art, and Christian rule in the sixteenth and fifteenth century. Herrin argues that social elements of hierarchy and class systems resulted from “commissioned education” in the classical trivium and the liberal arts (34). The education opened the door for selected artists and writers to participate in the creation of illuminations, paintings, and writings commissioned by the Catholic Church. Herrin presents evidence supporting her argument that the church was creating a class system in medieval towns. Holsinger, Bruce. The Pre-Modern Condition: Medievalism and the Making of Theory. NY: OUP, 2005. Holsinger explores the medieval studies that created medieval rhetorical theory. Holsinger argues that the preoccupation for medieval culture and practices has eliminated the interest of medieval monarchy and religious houses. The monarchy and religious bodies in these houses were ultimately responsible for cataloguing all visual art of the medieval period. Holsinger presents evidence that theory was later created after analyzing the art of the populi. This creates a “historically problematic interpretation of purpose by the populi” [66] and provides only one area of study in theory which is now monitored by the Vatican Library. Kaufmann, Walter. Critique of Religion and Philosophy. NJ: PUP, 1958. Print. Kaufmann explores the intersections of religion and philosophy in late antiquity and medieval times. Kaufmann argues that issues of translation and transcription in religious texts opened the door for the misinterpretation of the apocalypse. Kaufmann 46

disputes the proper use of translation and transcription by citing specific examples of the book of Revelation, where medieval philosophers translated documents for oral dissemination and not textual analysis. Kiekhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. 1989. UK: CUP, 2001. Kiekhefer surveys the growth and development of magic in the Middle Ages, in order to demonstrate the visual and multi-sensory arts that caused descent throughout the populi once the Roman Catholic Church established its presence. Kiekhefer examines the relationship of magic, comparing it to the religion, science, philosophy, art, and politics, of the era. Kiekhefer’s comparison analyzes primary documents introducing the reasoning behind the practice of magic during an era of forced Christian conversion. Leupin, Alexander. Fiction and Incarnation: Rhetoric, Theology and Literature in the Middle Ages. Trans. David Loatsch. MN: University of MN Press, 2001. Leupin offers a wide range of theoretical, primary, investigations into the relationship between Christian discourse and literature from Roman antiquity, in order to demonstrate the elements of fiction transcribed into liturgy texts. Leupin examines the medieval translations of Quintillian, Capella, Tertullias, Saint Augustine, and brings to the forefront the disparity between the translation and delivery of the texts defeats the persuasive ethos of the Roman Catholic Church. Little, Lester. Religious Poverty and the Profit Economy in Medieval Europe. 1978. NY: CUP, 1983. Little argues that the religious ideal in the Middle Ages required too much money and benefits be extracted from the populi. Little states that involuntary poverty opened the door for the populi to rebel and provide intellectual applications of the revolt into daily affairs and productions. For example: art, painting, trade, pamphlets, and monstrous carnivals. Little argues that the Roman Catholic Church was too engrossed in

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accumulating riches and neglected to see the benefits of collaborating with the populi to overthrow the monarchy. Map, Walter. DeNugis Curialim: Courtiers’ Triffles. 1914. Trans. M.R. James. UK: OUP, 1943. Print. The translated edition of DeNugis Curialim provides critical insight into the composition of medieval texts from inception in the halls of monarchy, to revisionary segments in the quarters of clergy. The introduction to the DeNugis Curialim provides a clear purpose for the revisionary work that must be completed by the clergy: “To teach the ignorant and indigent populi” [15]. The compiled manuscripts demonstrate the rhetorical applications of persuasion used in the translation of the clergy in order to accommodate the populi. Map argues that such “accommodations” were not for the populi to understand the documents, but rather these were revisions that secured conversion numbers for the Roman Catholic Church. McAvoy, L. H., and T. Walters, eds. Consuming Narratives: Gender and Monstrous Appetite in Middle Ages.. UK: University of Wales Press, 2000. The authors analyze representations of monstrous appetite for mysticism, paganism, and religion. Citing specific rituals, writings, and gender imposed human sacrifice, the authors’ research into the production and maintenance of visual texts and depict a specific time during the Middle Ages where women held intellectual and pagan power. The authors argue that the much like the ancient Greeks, medieval women were privy to conversations in the bedrooms of monarchs and Christian men. What they heard was conveyed to the populi by means of drawings and sketches. Authors argue that the main topic of conversation in these bedrooms was the wealth of the church and the need for Catholic Church Christian conversion. The inconsistencies between the ethical public lives and the private lives of the clergy were of much interest to the populi. The populi used the images captured by these women to support their argument against an “corrupt church” (22). 48

McGarrett, A. The Medieval Underworld: Plague, Illness, and Religion. UK: Exeter Press, 1940. Print. McGarrett introduces the reader to a medieval underworld that is rarely represented in critical research. The social groups discussed include: outlaws, brigands, homosexuals, heretics, witches, prostitutes, beggars, and vagabonds. McGarrett argues that these are all extremely relevant social groups in the Middle Ages. These groups were responsible for the “extraordinary embrace of the possibility of heaven and hell…due to the social living conditions and pain they were experiencing” [44]. McGarrett provides evidence of how these groups were more than willing to “embrace the Eucharist and be whole into another world…yet they were turned away because they were less than the populi…they were disabled” [67]. Menache, Sophia. The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1990. Menache delineates the various forms of communication used in the Middle Ages, in order to establish the hierarchy and power struggles of the time. Menache separates communication bodies into three discourse communities: the Catholic Church; the monarchy; and, the populi. Menache provides evidence of the cataclysmic power of heresy and its repercussions in each community. She argues that decorum and discretion in communication was the only option for survival. Monson, D.A. Andreas Capellanus: Scholasticism, and the Courtly Tradition. 1st Edition. DC: Catholic University Press, 1980. Monson prepared the first study in English devoted entirely to Andreas Caellanus’ De Ammore. Monson presents a comprehensive inquiry into the influence of scholasticism on the structure and organization of the transcription of early Christian documents. The author argues that applying traditional scholasticism translation methods is not the ethical way to deliver accurate information from medieval primary sources. Monson’s tedious translation of ‘De Ammore results in the discovery of problematic translations of 49

Caellanus’ text. The translation changed the ethical rubric of scholasticism and questions the commission behind the use of such translation efforts. Murphy, James, J. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of the Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance. Vol. 227. AZ: MRTS Press, 2001. Murphy examines the rhetorical impact in the writing, translations, and transcriptions of classical texts in the Middle Ages. Using rhetorical theory as the rubric for analysis, Murphy dissects arguments from St. Augustine in order to establish a starting point for the reflective criticism of the perils of translation during the Middle Ages. Murphy presents critical proof of how ancient traditions were used in manuscript preparations and added into the Middle Ages religious, canonical texts. ---. The Medieval Rhetorical Arts. Vol. 228. AZ: MRTS Press, 2000. Murphy presents and develops an exquisite study on the prominent medieval trivium. The arts were designed for the composition and preparation of poems, letters, hymns, and sermons. Murphy describes the process of the trivium and sheds light on the individuals chosen to carry out the task of teaching and participating in the arts. The first to participate in the art were members of the clergy (those in good standing) and individuals working with correspondence for the Vatican. The second groups to participate were the scholars and philosophers that provided communication for the monarchy and the church. According to Murphy, the extent to which the medieval populi participated in these arts is very limited. ---. Medieval Rhetoric: A Selected Bibliography. 2nd Edition. 1968. Canada: UTP, 1986. Murphy compiled a list of primary sources, in order to explore medieval rhetorical artifacts belonging to the scholarly study of: ars dictaminis, ars poeticae, and ars praedicandi. Murphy’s bibliography compiled original sources through 1808 and used multiple entries from M.R. James’ primary bibliography.

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Ozment, Steven. The Age of Reform: 1250-1550: An Intellectual and Religious History of Late Medieval and Reformation Europe. London: YUP, 1980. Ozment posits the theory that the Reformation was a continuation of certain aspects of medieval thought and writings against the Catholic Church. Ozment outlines the religious and historical events of 1250-1550, and partners these events with the carnivalesque behavior of the medieval populi. Ozment argues that art and folklore symbols used by the populi prompted more contention and rebellion against the church than any art or writings commissioned by the monarchy. Puppi, Lionello. Verso Gerusalemme: Imagini e temi di Urbanistica de Architettura Simboliche. Spain: Casa del Libro Editrice, 1968. Puppi explores the architecture of the Middle Ages and describes them as zoning structures. He demonstrates the many symbolic representations of class, monarchy, and religion during 400 – 1000 era, visible through the architecture. Puppi argues that the vox populi could not be heard or seen due to the large architectural structures strategically placed to eliminate any evidence of them. Poverty, whore houses, and dark markets were kept away from line of site pertaining to the wealthy and the religious social groups of the Middle Ages. Reynolds, Suzanne. Medieval Reading: Grammar, Rhetoric and the Classical Text. UK: CUP, 1996. Reynolds argues for a radically new approach to the history of reading and literacy in the Middle Ages. Reynolds investigates the use of complex literary texts as the social encapsulation of authorial and social status. The anointment of scholarship and eradication of the populi was achieved through medieval texts that “prompted awareness for the eminent need to eradicate and murder any member of the populi that would not convert” [33]. Reynolds argues the florid language used and exclusive grammar taught

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to the monarchy and clergy, eliminated any dialogue that would preserve (or even enlighten) the populi of their rights. Sekules, Veronica. Medieval Art. 1999. NY: OUP, 2002. Sekules explores the impact of art in the late Middle Ages. Sekules presents a historical period where the Catholic Church commissioned individual artists to roam through Europe, cataloguing the pagan images of the populi and creating hybrid samples of new images that catered to religious propaganda. Sekules argues that the importance of commissioned art was not to explore, share, or better understand the populi. Instead, it was an effective manner to coalesce the religious with the pagan, creating a rather familiar image for the populi to embrace. Shimomura, Sachi. Disabled Bodies and Visible Ends in Medieval Literature. 1986. NY: YUP, 2000. Shimomura explores the disabled bodies in the Middle Ages and argues that these were used as examples of the apocalyptic chaos that would soon ensue the populi. Shimomura develops an argument that disability and the monstrous deformations in members of society provided the perfect conversion topic for the church. According to Shimomura, the reality of the metaphoric beasts in the apocalypse became a reality for the populi when human deformities occurred in their communities. Shimomura develops a bold statement regarding the reasons behind the monstrous deformities and presents an interesting theory as to how involved the church was in creating disabled bodies. Southern, R.W. The Making of the Middle Ages. 1953. UK: YUP, 1999. Southern portrays a study of the main personalities and influences that molded the history of the Western Europe from the late tenth to the early thirteenth centuries. Southern argues that the formative periods of the modern Western civilization were carefully constructed by political and religious organizations. The purpose for the design of a community in the Middle Ages came from the monarchy and the church’s 52

attempts to gain wealth through war and the eradication of the populi. Southern provides evidence that the existence (and necessary eradication) of the populi was a constant topic of dialogue among the monarchy and the Catholic Church. Starkey, Kathryn. Reading the Medieval Book. IN: UND, 2002. Starkey explores the oral, visual, and formative way in which medieval illustrations communicated theory, life, and social unrest in the Middle Ages. Starkey argues that the persuasive nature of the “Medieval Book” demonstrates mysterious transitional, pagan traditions, and was developed only for reading out loud to the illiterate populi. Starkey presents evidence that while canonical texts were left for viewing in the churches, the populi would not be able to read the text, but they would be able to recognize the images present in the marginalia. As a result the marginalia in the medieval texts supported what the populi believed to be true, oral delivery of the text. At first, the populi did not doubt the clergy. Thrupp, Sylvia, ed. Change in Medieval Society. NY: Appleton Century Crafts Publishers, 1964. In this collection, authors explore the changes in medieval society and theorize on what brought about questions of the academic knowledge prevalent in the populi. A collective study of the communities, monarchy, and church support the argument that the populi was not as ignorant as most historical research demonstrated. Authors’ present evidence in text and in calligraphy dictamus that indicates the populi was aware of the methods of communication used by the monarchy and the church. Authors introduce the theory that the populi always had alliances in the monarchy and/or the church entity. These alliances would inform the populi of what changes would ensue.

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Verner, Lisa. The Epistemology of the Monstrous in the Middle Ages. Ed. Francis G. Gentry. Studies in Medieval History and Cultural Series. NY: HUP, 1999. Verner argues the monstrous Middle Ages was a self-imposed term used by the populi to properly define the reactive aversion to the monarchy and church commissioned art. The populi was privy to this art by means of banners, fliers, logos, and permanent tattoos given to decedents of the true faith. Verner argues that epistemology of the monstrous cannot be examined through a religious lens, and that the monstrous and carnivalesque behavior of the populi was simply created to rebut the canonical art evident in every facet of their lives. Verner determines that a sociological and rhetorical criticism of the monstrous art will yield more evidence of inexplicable behavior by the church towards the populi. White, Lynn. Medieval Technology and Social Change. NY: OUP, 1998. White examines the role of technological innovation in the rise of social groups during the Middle Ages. Between the sixth and tenth centuries, a cluster of inventions profoundly altered peasant life, increasing food supplies and providing a basis of civilization. This gave way to the forms of a technology driven society. White asserts that such advancements were only available to certain communities in the Middle Ages; often communities that embraced clergy as part of their social group. Other communities did not benefit from this technology. Williams, David. Deformed Discourse: The Function of the Monstrous in the Medieval Thought and Literature. 1960. Canada: Montreal and Kopston, 1967. Print Williams focuses on the definition and concept of “monster” in the Middle Ages. Examining philosophical and theological roots and symbolic features of the Middle Ages, Williams provides a comprehensive study of the grotesque in medieval aesthetic presentation. Although the grotesque was condoned by the Catholic Church, Williams argues that the paintings commissioned by the church still contained monsters for the 54

sole purpose to remind the populi of the deformed bodies among them and to remind them of the perils of non-conversion. 3.3 SECONDARY SOURCES A historiographic study of the Middle Ages demonstrates a thematic focus of theatrical interpretations of daily life in the medieval towns: scholasticism, culture, gender, social status, monarchy, nobility, and religion. Throughout the majority of secondary sources, historians reference the daily lives of the populi and refer to it as a “theater.” The term was first coined by Baldesare Castiglione, in his courtier documents.17 Castiglione described the tenants in the medieval towns as dramatic characters in a play, participating in a theatrical rendition of life.18 The theatre of the Middle Ages was not one that engaged a dramatic performance on stage. The theatre of the Middle Ages representing the recurring horrors of daily life of the populi and their constant struggles to maintain customs, beliefs, and a world view that would not impose more fear into their lives.19 Themes of the theatre included topics on the end of the world, conversion, heresy, and an obsession for apocalyptic references that engendered conversion through fear. A narrow focus on the current status of architecture, monarchy rule, and the Christian dispensation of rules against pagan rituals, provides a different 17

Castiglione, Baldesaré. Sil Lé Libre De Courtiér. Trans. E. Cultour. UK: OUP, 1967. Castiglione: 51. 19 Bolton’s research focuses on specific “fear elements” that emerged in the Middle Ages. Referring to these “fear elements” as “daily interferences in the lives of the populi, Bolton argues that these were imposed on the populi by two entities: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. “On any given day, the populi would wake up to find that their homes were no longer theirs, that a new illness had emerged in the town –to which no remedy within the community would be provided. Basic Human needs such as clean water, food, and clothing, could be taken away from the populi overnight” (78-101). Bolton provides examples of populi customs and beliefs that were branded “pagan” and “demonic” by the Catholic Church, resulting in a ban of these practices. Bolton, W.F. The Middle Ages. 1st Edition. UK: Glasgow Press, 1969. 18

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perspective into the renewed interest into the study of apocalyptic transferences into the social milieu at a foundational level of the Middle Ages. In order to best understand the theatrical lives of the Middle Ages, the authors in this section all reference historical landmarks of the medieval era. For example, the massive achievement, the recovery and assimilation in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of a great body of Greek and Arabic philosophy and science, marked the beginning of European intellectual leadership and the start of a class system that would last through the renaissance.20 In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the vigor of medieval civilization, though still great, was more widely diffused. The authority of the Catholic Church, especially of the papal monarchy, was challenged by temporal claims of heresy and movements for reform. The later centuries saw the continuance and sometimes the perfection, as well as the transformation and decline, of many earlier ideals and institutions, including, the social structures and class systems that survived the first centuries of the Middle Ages. Each historical landmark addressed by the authors, represents a social landmark in the culture of the Middle Ages. Castiglione’s “theatre” is open to reinterpretation, as researchers explore more of the social change that ensued near the end of the Middle Ages; a social change that later prompted the reformation. In a final observance of the theatrical populi, an anonymous monarchy courtier wrote:

20

These are not rhetorical theories. These are historiographical elements of significance to the Middle Ages. Bolton: 59.

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“How do you change the theatre? There is a need for new actors, reformed performances, and fear that the outcome of the story will be written and enacted only by those in power. But should not be the way the theatre plays out? The ignorant and the poor have no place on stage.”21 3.3.1 Bibliographical Entries Abrams, D. Cathedrals and Castles: A Guide to Building in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1998. Adams, Jeremy duQuesnay. Patterns of Medieval Society. UK: OUP, 1969. Artz, Frederick. The Mind of the Middle Ages: An Historical Survey A.D. 200 – 1500. NY: OUP, 1953. Bailey, Michael. Battling Demons: Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1999. Baldwin, Charles Sears. Medieval Rhetoric and Poetics to 1400. UK: Peterson Press, 1959 Barradough, Geoffrey. The Medieval Papacy. 1st Edition. UK: Thomas & Hudson, 1959. Bigongiari, D. The Political Ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas. NY: OUP, 1953. Bolton, W.F. The Middle Ages. 1st Edition. UK: Glasgow Press, 1969. Broadie, Alexander. Introduction to Medieval Logic. 2nd Edition. NY: OUP, 1993. Brooke, C. Churches and Churchmen in Medieval Europe. UK: The Exeter Press, 1901. Cabezón, José Ignacio. Scholasticism: Cross Culture and Comparative Perspectives. NY: SUNY Press, 1998. 21

Bolton: 70.

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Cantor, Norman F. Medieval Lives: Eight Charismatic Men and Women of the Middle Ages. 1993. NY: CUP, 2000. Castiglione, Baldesaré. Sil Lé Libré de Courtiér. Trans. E. Cultour. UK: OUP, 1967. Cohn, Norman. Europe’s Inner Demons: The Demonization of Christians in Medieval Christendom. Revised 1st Edition. IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993. Coldstreem, N. Medieval Architecture. NY: OUP, 2002. Connell, Robert J., S.J. “Imagination and Metaphysics in St. Augustine.” The Aquinas Lecture, 1966. NY: Marquette University Press, 1966. Copleston, F.S. ed. Aquinas. 1st Edition. NY: Clays Ltd, 1955. Print. Copleston, F.C. Medieval Philosophy: An Introduction. NY: OUP, 1980. Cook, William R., and Ronald B. Herzman. The Medieval World View: An Introduction. NY: OUP, 2004. Danow, David K. The Thought of Mikhail Bakhtin: From World to Culture. NY: OUP, 1991. Davies, Brian, and G.R. Evans, eds. Anselm of Canterbury: The Major Works. NY: OUP, 1998. DeWare, M. Philosophy and Civilization in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1962. Di Pasquale, Giovanni, ed. Medieval Times. 1st Edition. UK: CUP, 1980. Duby, Georges. Art and Society: In the Middle Ages. UK: CUP, 1995. Dyson, R.W. Acquinas: Politiqué Writings. UK: CUP, 2000. Ekelund, Robert, et.al. Sacred Text: The Medieval Church as an Economic Firm. NY: OUP, 1996. 58

Erickson, Carolly, ed. The Medieval Vision: Essays in History and Perception. 1st Edition. UK: OUP, 1976. Evans, Michael. The Death of Kings: Royal Deaths in Medieval England. 1st Edition. UL: Hambledon Continuum, 1990. Fitchen, John. The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals: A Study of Medieval Vault Erection. IL: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Fleming, Robin. Doomsday Book and the Law: Society and Legal Custom in Early Medieval England. MA: CUP, 2000. Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminators. UK: British Museum Press, 1902. Harrington, K.P, et. Al. Medieval Latin. 2nd Edition. IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997. Heer, Friedrich. The Medieval World: Europe 110 – 1350. London: Orion Publishers, 1961. Hirschkop, Ken. Mikhail Bakhtin: An Aesthetic for Democracy. 1999. NY: OUP, 2001. Hull, C. and A. Jostischky. Historical Atlas of the Medieval World. 2nd Edition. MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2005. Jones, Timothy S., and David A. Springer, eds. Marvels, Monsters, and Miracles: Studies in the Medieval and Early Modern Imagination. Studies in Medieval Culture XLII. MI: Western Michigan University, 2002. Kitzinger, Earnst. Early Medieval Art. 1st Edition. IN: IUP, 1940. Kraus, Henry. The Living Theatre: Medieval Art. 1st Edition. UK: OUP, 1967.

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Lewis, C.S. The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature. NY: CUP, 1964. Little, Lester K. Religious Poverty and the Profit Economy in Medieval Europe. NY: Cornell University Press, 1978. Luscombe, David. Medieval Thought. NY: OUP, 1945. Mayer, Lauryn. Words Made Flesh: Reading Medieval Manuscript Culture. Ed. Francis G. Gentry. Studies in Medieval History and Culture Series. NY: HUP, 2004. Mitchell, Sabrina. Medieval Manuscript Painting. NY: OUP, 1964. Nolan, Barbara. The Gothic Visionary Perspective: A Study in Gothic Medieval Concept. NJ: PUP, 1977. Pernoud, Régine. Those Terrible Middle Ages. CA: Ignatius Press, 1905. Peters, Edward, ed. Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe. PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980. Power, Eileen. Medieval People. 1st Edition. UK: Metheun & Co., 1924. Rand, E.K. Founders of the Middle Ages. NY: Dover Publications, 1928. Robertson, D.W. Trans. St. Augustine: On Christian Doctrine. Facsimile. NY: CUP, 1901. Ross, Bruce James, and Mary Martin McLaughan, eds. The Portable Medieval Reader. NY: CUP, 1949. Ruxted, V. Violence & Daily Life: Reading, Art, and Polemics in Medieval Moralia. UK: CUP, 1970. Russell, Jeffrey Burton. A History of Medieval Christianity. CA: UCLA, 1834. 60

Schapiro, Meyer, ed. Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Arté. NY: George Braziller, Inc. 1979. Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. Readings in Medieval Philosophy. NY: OUP, 1996. Scott, Robert. The Gothic Enterprise: A Guide to Understanding the Medieval Church. LA: University of California Press, 2003. Souther, R.W. Western Society and Church in the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. UK: Thomas & Hudson, 1965. Stranes, Colin. Augustine’s Conversion: A Guide to the Argument of Confession I – IX. Canada: Wilfried Laurier University Press, 1990. Stewart, H.F. and E.K. Rand. Boethius Tractutes Lé Consolatium Philosophé. Trans. S.J. Tester. UK: CUP, 1963. Troyan, Scott, ed. Medieval Rhetoric: A Casebook. NY: OUP, 2003. Van Engen, John. The Past and Future of Medieval Studies. 1st Edition. UK: University of Notre Dame, 1988. Whalen, Brett E. Dominion of God: Christendom and Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. MA: HUP, 2003. Wickham, Chris. Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400 – 800. UK: OUP, 2005. Winks, Robert, et. al. Medieval Europe and the World: From Late Antiquity to Modernity, 400 – 1500. NY: OUP, 2002. Wood, Michael. In Search of the Dark Ages. NY: OUP, 1987.

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3.4 TERTIARY SOURCES Throughout the classical study of medieval rhetoric, there is little focus on apocalyptic themes. The ideas and concepts of the apocalypse were not foreign to individuals of the Middle Ages. Specific ideas in philosophy and religion constantly collided, leaving social change as a casualty to be addressed from the church pulpit. The philosophy of the Middle Ages was one of symbolic relevance, where tradition and interpretation were merging into one religious culture. In order to fully appreciate the literary and liturgical practices of the Middle Ages, it is important to look at the modes of rhetoric used at the time.22 Literary theory explores medieval texts using formal literary criticism verbiage and mechanics. The elements of iconography and illuminations are often relegated to tertiary source research material, and often left as a footnote in the literary interpretation of text. In indirect ways (and using rhetorical verbiage), medieval philosophers have separated the literary texts from the rhetorical texts, resulting in compilations of research focused on specific historical events all presented through diverse terministic lenses. In the study of medieval apocalyptic themes, tertiary sources prove to be most helpful in gathering a physical and psychological portrait of what the populi endured on a daily basis. The evidence points to physical torture (as a result of heresy) and psychological torture (as a result of non-conversion). References on living conditions of the populi

22

The tertiary sources provided present research and time lines of the Middle Ages from the fifth to sixteenth century (Fall of Rome to Renaissance). These dates are in accordance with research presented by the Oxford Companion to Medieval Philosophy. What is most relevant and important in these tertiary sources is their compilation of historical details in small, textual vignettes.

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during the Middle Ages include: death, plague, poverty, rape, incest, slavery, imprisonment, and ominous architectural structures (castles, dungeons, torture chambers, abbeys, and churches) set in place to validate power structures in the community. The tertiary sources listed below provide an intricate look at the social tragedies (arguably apocalyptic), due to the Biblical similarities to events predicted to occur during the end of the world. These predictions were introduced through homiletics and later reinforced by the theatre of daily medieval life. 3.4.1 Bibliographical Entries Bauer, Susan. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. NY: Norton, 2010. Bishop, Morris. The Middle Ages. NY: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. Cahill, Thomas. Mysteries of the Middle Ages: The Beginning of the Modern World. NY: Random Books, 2006. Cawley, A. Medieval Miracle Plays. 2nd Edition. UK: The Spartan Press, 1974. Colby, R. Duns Scotus. NY: OUP, 1999. Fines, John. Who’s Who in the Middle Ages: From the Collapse of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. NY: Routledge Press, 1988. Goodspeed, E. The Apocrypha. NY: Vintage Books, 1989. Haywood, J. Historical Atlas of the Medieval World. NY: Metro Books, 2000. Keightley, Thomas. Secret Societies of the Middle Ages. MA: Weiser Books, 2005.

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Lambert, Malcolm. Medieval Heresy: Popular Monuments from the Gregorian Reform and the Reformation. NY: OUP, 1977. Runciman, Steven. The First Crusade. NY: CUP, 1951. Sanello, Frank. The Knights Templars: Medieval Godly Warriors and the Devil’s Bankers. MD: Landam, Press, 2000. Sigmund, Paul. St. Thomas Aquinas on Politics and Ethics. NY: Norton, 1988. Stalley, R. Early Medieval Architecture. 2nd Edition. NY: OUP, 1999. 3.5 CRITICAL THEORY COLLECTION AND REFERENCE MATERIAL As a research standard, Critical Theory revisits philosophical and religious applications of ideas and social conventions. The collections and references listed here focus on three fundamentally insoluble questions basic to the study of shaping Medieval Christian Doctrine: 1) What elements of persuasion are necessary for conversion?; 2) What are the principles necessary for forced conversion; and, 3) What social factors must be addressed in order for the monarchy embrace the doctrines of the Christian Church? The Medieval Christian Doctrine was solely promoted by the Catholic Church. The doctrines promoted were introduced by the Catholic Church and enforced by the monarchy under the simple pretense of eliminating the barbaric nature of the populi (Fortin, 36). The dialogue to engage both church and monarchy in one specific cause required an unprecedented number written documents: letters, proposals, edicts, military contracts, and more. The difficulty ensued when the Catholic Church purposely delivered the communication in Latin, forcing the monarchy to request help from the bishops and cardinals to translate the documents. The conflict of interests in translation 64

is noted here. The reference materials selected provide a general introduction to the literature of the Middle Ages, focusing on the problems encountered in the reading of transcribed literature. Critical Theory Collection Fortin, Ernest L. The Birth of Philosophic Christianity: Studies in early Christian and Medieval Thought. Trans. J. Brian Bernestad. Volume 1. NY: Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 1986. ---. The Birth of Philosophic Christianity: Studies in early Christian and Medieval Thought. Trans. J. Brian Bernestad. Volume 2. NY: Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 1986. ---.The Birth of Philosophic Christianity: Studies in early Christian and Medieval Thought. Trans. J. Brian Bernestad. Volume 3. NY: Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 1986. Viator. Medieval and Renaissance Studies. Volume 5. UK: London Press, 1974. ---. Medieval and Renaissance Studies. Volume 6. UK: London Press, 1975. ---.Medieval and Renaissance Studies. Volume 7. UK: London Press, 1976. ---.Medieval and Renaissance Studies. Volume 8. UK: London Press, 1977. ---.Medieval and Renaissance Studies. Volume 9. UK: London Press, 1978. Reference Materials Bauer, Susan W. The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. NY: OUP, 2010. Broadie, Alex. Introduction to Medieval Logic. 2nd Edition. London: OUP, 1993. Cantor, Norman F., ed. The Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. New York: OUP, 1999.

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Chambers, E.K. The Medieval Stage. 1st Edition. 1 of 2 Volumes. London: OUP, 1903. ---.The Medieval Stage. 1st Edition. 2 of 2 Volumes. London: OUP, 1903. ---.The Medieval Stage. 2nd Edition. 1 of 2 Volumes. London: OUP, 1915. ---.The Medieval Stage. 2nd Edition. 2 of 2 Volumes. London: OUP, 1915. Copeland, Rita, and Alastair Minnis, eds. Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts. UK: CUP, 1995. Cosman, M.P., ed. Terms and Expressions from Medieval Art and Literary Culture. NY: PUP, 1996. Cutts, E.L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co., 1926. Delort, Robert, ed. Life in the Middle Ages. Trans. Robert Allen. NY: Universe Books, 1972. Evans, G.R. Art and Faith in the Medieval World. IL: Intervarsity Press, 2002. Fossier, Robert, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 950 – 1250. UK: CUP, 1997. Frank, Daniel H., and Oliver Leaman, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Medieval – Jewish Philosophy. UK: CUP, 2003. Fussell, Paul. The Rhetorical World of Augustan Humanism: Ethics and the Imagery from Swift to Burke. London: OUP, 1965. Hamburger, Jeffrey, ed. St. John The Divine: The Defied Evangelist in medieval Art and Theology. CA, UCLA Press, 2002. Haywood, John. Historical Atlas of the Medieval World: 600 – 1492. NY: CUP, 2000. 66

Hourihane, Coliem, ed. Interactions: Artistic Interchange Between the Eastern and Western Worlds in the Medieval Period. NY: PUP, 2007. Jaeger, Stephen, C., ed. The Envy of Angels: Cathedral School Structures and Social Ideas of Medieval Europe: 950 – 1200. PA: University of Pennsylvania, 1993. Kretzmann, Norman, Anthony Kenny, and Jan Pinborg, eds. The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy. London: CUP, 1982. Kretzmann, Norman, Eleanore Stump. The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas. 1993. NY: CUP, 2006. Le Goff, Jasquez. La Civilisation de l’Occident Médiéval. Paris: Arthaud, 1956. Meehan, Bernard. The Book of Kells. 1st Edition. UK: Thomas and Hudson, 1899. Page, Sophie. Astrology in Medieval Manuscripts. Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1990. Power, Eileen. Medieval People. Folio Edition. London: Folio Society, 1999. Previté-Orton, C.W. The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. 1st Edition. 1 of 2 Volumes. UK: CUP, 1953. Print. ---.The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. 1st Edition. 2 of 2 Volumes. UK: CUP, 1954. Print. McKitterick, Rosamond. Atlas of the Medieval World. NY: OUP, 2004 Shaver-Crandellm, Annie. The Cambridge Introduction to Art: The Middle Ages. MA: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Riddle, John, ed. A History of Middle Ages: 3000 – 1500. NY: 2008.

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St. Anselm Basic Writings: Proslogium, Monogiu, Cur Deus Homo. Trans. S. N. Deane. UK: Open Court Publishing, 1962. Sidwell, Keith. Reading Medieval Latin. UK: CUP, 1995. Spufford, Peter. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. London: Thomas & Hudson, 1903. Starkey, Kathryn. Reading the Medieval Book. IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001. Vossler, Kard, ed. Medieval Culture. 1st Edition. 1 Volume of 2. NY: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1929. Print. ---. Medieval Culture. 1st Edition. 2 Volume of 2. NY: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1929. Print. 3.6 MEDIEVAL BOOK SERIES In the past fifteen years, a variety of book series on topics surrounding the various social structures of the Middle Ages have been published and are available for research. The value of these series is found in the primary and secondary sources provided in the bibliographies. The series undergo a three year edition update, prompting peer edited, scholarly essays focused on current interdisciplinary medieval topics. These updates often eliminate valuable primary sources critical to research, in particular research in the modes of living conditions, art, and visual rhetoric of the Middle Ages. The most popular and widely used book series is published by Palgrave: The New Middle Ages. The first edition of this book series was printed in hardback and

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paperback. The collection of books contains no individual volume number and is listed only by authors, editors, or contributors. The first editions have the most valuable bibliographies for researchers. Several books in the series have already undergone a second printing. The current texts demonstrate a significant change in bibliographical references. First editions of all edited books are available as e-texts through the publisher. Updated essays in the series reflect the current research which is now mostly focused on popular culture themes of the medieval era. 3.8.1 Bibliographical Entries Allen, Valerie, ed. On Farting: Language and Laughter in the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2002. Series: The New Middle Ages. Antowe, L. Engaging Words. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Biernoff, Suzannah. Sight and Embodiment in the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Berserman, Lawrence. Sacred and Secular in the Medieval and Early Modern Cultures. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Burns, Jane, ed. Medieval Fabrications: Dress, Textiles, Clothwork, and Other Cultural Imaginings. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 1999. Series: The New Middle Ages. Campbell, Emma, et. al. Troubled Vision. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Classen, Albrecht. The Medieval Chastity Belt. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Series: The New Middle Ages. 69

Cohen, Jeffrey Jerome, ed. Hybridity, Identity, and Monstrosity in Medieval Times. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Series: The New Middle Ages. Cohen, Jeffrey Jerome, ed. Cultural Diversity in British Middle Ages. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Drayson, Elizabeth. The King and the Whore: Sexual Status Roles in Medieval Times. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Series: The New Middle Ages. Edwards, Robert. The Flight From Desire. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 1999. Series: The New Middle Ages. Farina, Lara. Erotic Discourse and Early English Religious Writing. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 1999. Series: The New Middle Ages. Grady, Frank, ed. Representing Righteous Heathens in Late Medieval England. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 1999. Series: The New Middle Ages. Jaeger, Stephen C., ed. Magnificence and the Sublime in Medieval Aesthetics: Art, Architecture, Literature, Music. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Jordan, Erin, ed. Women, Power, and Religious Patronage in the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Series: The New Middle Ages. Kamerick, Kathleen, ed. Popular Piety and Art in the Late Middle Ages: Image Worship and Idolatry in England 1350 – 1500. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Lerud, Theodore. Memory, Images and the English Corpus Christi Drama. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Liftshitz, Felice, et. al. Paradigms and Methods in Early Medieval Studies. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. 70

Milner, Stephen, ed. The Erotics of Consolation. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Ranft, Patricia, ed. The Theology of Work. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Robertson, Elizabeth, et. al. Medieval and Early Modern Devotional Objects in Global Perspective: Translations of the Sacred. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Shaw, David. Necessary Conjunctions: The Social Self in Medieval England. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2002. Series: The New Middle Ages. Scala, Elizabeth, ed. Absent Narratives: Manuscripts, Textuality, and Literacy Structure in Late Medieval England. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2002. Series: The New Middle Ages. Sweeny, Eileen, ed. Logic, Theology, and Poetry in Boethius, Abelard, and Alan of Lille: Words in the Absence of Things. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Series: The New Middle Ages. Tinkle, Theresa. Gender and Power in Medieval Exegesis. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2001. Series: The New Middle Ages. Uebel, Michael, ed. Estatic Transformation: On the Use of Alterity in the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 1999. Series: The New Middle Ages. Warren, Nancy, et. al. The Vernacular Spirit. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2000. Series: The New Middle Ages. Weisl, Angela Jane. The Persistence of Medievalism. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2002. Series: The New Middle Ages.

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Wheeler, Bonnie. Mindful Spirit in Late Medieval Literature. 1st Edition. 134 Vols. NY: Palgrave, 2002. Series: The New Middle Ages. 3.7 MEDIEVAL PRINT JOURNALS AND ONLINE JOURNALS The number of medieval print journals relevant to the study of apocalyptic art is quite limited. In the last few decades, research in the field of apocalyptic imagery in the Middle Ages (particularly with regard to illuminated manuscripts), has increased. The inception of online journals has opened a new forum for discussion and future publication of research in the field of medieval Apocalypticism and visual rhetoric. The study of visual rhetoric and the apocalypse is an interdisciplinary research process. Individual journals in both areas of study must be researched and this requires a collaborative research rubric that isolates the critical databases containing selective primary resources. Peer critiqued journals listed are resources for primary research into the specific topic of: medieval rhetoric, visual rhetoric, and the Middle Ages. Online journals featuring primary research on medieval Christian doctrines are limited to discipline specific databases, for example, the American Theological Library Association Database (ATLA). The availability of the journals (print or online) is listed with each entry. 3.7.1 Bibliographical Entries Anistoriton [Print] Bryn Mawr Classical Review [Print] Chronicon [Online] Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies [Print and Online]

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CROMOHS: Cyber Review of modern Historiography and Electronic Library of Historical Texts [Online] DIDASCALIA: A Journal for Philosophy and Philology from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance [Online] Disputatio: An International Transdisciplinary Journal of the Late Middle Ages [Print and Online] Edinburgh Mediaeval Journal [Print] Essays in Medieval Studies [Print] Interscripta [Print] Medieval Life [Online] Medieval Review [Print and Online] Speculum [Print and Online] Spolia [Print and Online] The Innes Review [Print and Online] The Medieval History Journal [Print] Traditio [Print and Online] 3.8 MEDIEVAL RESEARCH DATABASES AND WEBLIOGRAPHY Bibliographical research is no longer limited to hard copy archival material. Web resources are a critical part of bibliographical research. However, the search for ethical and credible web resources is very tedious, particularly in the field of study of medieval rhetoric. In general, web resources in the form of webliographies, provide primary 73

research references that can further the theoretical integration of interdisciplinary research topics. A Webliography is simply a vetted source of online research that harbors both primary and secondary sources for review. It is critical to recognize that a Webliography is constantly changing and evolving through cyberspace. No longer are URL’s the standard of measure for searching a recommended Webliography source. One must have the original name of the web base or have a concept as to where the Webliography was hosted and what organization sponsored it. A Webliography for the study of medieval topics is difficult to assess. Databases are not as difficult to assess are now listed in Webliography. There are no exclusive databases for medieval rhetoric research. Databases that collect and cache material on medieval rhetoric are cross referenced with literature databases (Gale), history databases (CLIO), and religious databases (ATLA). The standard of measure for undergraduate research in medieval rhetoric is usually relegated to database access through a college or university library, and/or access to private databases through interlibrary loan items. With the growing number of Webliography available for research, more and more databases are providing online access to a minimum number of their research resources. This is an invaluable tool for researchers. Listed below are primary Webliography sites that provide primary and secondary sources for medieval rhetoric research.

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3.8.1 Bibliographical Entries Webliography www.labyrinth.georgetown.edu/ “Labyrinth” is a Web page for mediaevalists generally, maintained at Georgetown University. It contains a list of secondary sites for research. www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project contains Greek, Latin, and Medieval texts. It has an online library with primary source listings for researchers. www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook Internet Medieval Sourcebook, containing essays and secondary sources relevant to medieval logic and philosophy. www.iclnet.org/ The International Christian Library site contains a guide to early church documents from the Middle Ages. www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/ Site is maintained by the University of Notre Dame. The Center has a number of online texts on St. Thomas Aquinas and Medieval Philosophy. www.tilburguniversity.edu/nl/over-tilburg-university/schools/theologie/ The site is maintained by the Thomas Instituut te Utrecht, and sponsored through the Tilburg School of Theology. Site contains numerous primary e-resources on Aquinas.

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www.medievalacademy.org/ The official site of the Medieval Academy contains primary resources, conferences papers, and symposium transcripts all based on studies of the Middle Ages. www.pims.ca/ Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies is an institute for advanced studies in the intellectual, cultural, and religious material of the Mediaeval Period. libraries.slu.edu/special/vfl/ The Vatican Film Library contains the largest number of Vatican Library manuscripts of the Middle Ages in microfilm. Site is sponsored by the Vatican City. www.hmml.org/ The Hill Monastic Manuscript Library contains a large amount of medieval documents and is responsible for preserving the original text. Numerous translations and transcriptions of original text are provided for the researcher to view. www.vrin.com/ The Librairie Philosphique J. Vrin is responsible for editing and publishing the largest collection of classic works in mediaeval philosophy. The site is available in French and English. www.library.furman.edu/resources/subject/hist/medieval.htm Medieval Studies Resources sponsored by the Furman University Libraries. The site contains resources from Cambridge, Oxford, Harvard, and all publishing houses that reference “medieval studies” in their catalogues.

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www.efn.org/~acd/medievalpage.html The Medieval Page is a collection of web sites, e-journals, primary and secondary sources on a wide variety of medieval topics. The site is ideal for initial research by graduate students. web.cn.edu/kwheeler/medieval_websites.html The Medieval Literature External Resources is sponsored by the Library of Congress. The site contains a very selective of some basic medieval website for graduate students to view. Databases: Databases are usually located in libraries and accessed through coding that ensures proper copyright use of the material. There are over 100,000 databases available for this research topic. Careful discretion was used to select the databases that would prove most useful in document preparation and research. The following databases are available through the Library of Congress (LOC) and The Medieval Academy of America (MAA). Acto Sanctorum Analecta Carminum Saecularium Medii aevi (Posterioris) Analecta Hymnica Medii aevi Dictionary of Old English / Old English Corpus Electronic Capito Project Europa Sacra ITER: Gateway to Middle Ages and Renaissance

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Iter Italicum International Directory of Medievalists International Medieval Bibliography and Bibliographie de Civilization Medieval Index to Medieval Manuscripts at Fordham International Medieval Sourcebook Library of Latin Texts (CLCLT) MediciArchives Medieval and Byzantine Texts Medieval and Early modern Sources Online Medieval Review Medieval Sources Online Middle English Compendium National Archives of England, Wales, and the United Kingdom Online Medieval and Classical Library Parliament Rolls of Medieval England Patrologia Latina 3.9 CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL The Middle Ages brought about a fusion of the varied elements of classical, Christian, and barbarian. The civilizing influence of the Christian Church and the emergence of feudal bonds restored some measure of order in medieval society and 78

sanctioned the translation and transcription of classical texts. Literature exploring the rhetoric of the Middle Ages, focuses on the broad impact of rhetoric, philosophy, and religion, in the intellectual and institutional production of the era. The contribution of classical rhetoric to the building and practice of scholasticism and Christian logic are well documented. In order to establish the criteria assessment for this bibliographical material, it is necessary to provide a narrative overview of the theoretical research material presented. In the entry for medieval rhetoric,23 Thomas Sloane surveys medieval rhetoric from the perspective of transmission and reception of ancient sources within the medieval genres of rhetorical precept, including preaching. Sloane cites most of the authors presented in this bibliographical segment. These authors all advance the discussion of use, purpose, and scholarship of medieval rhetoric and the similarities is the use of these rhetorical traditions today. Other surveys of medieval rhetoric focus on critical Medieval and classical rhetoricians including Aristotle, Cicero, Augustine, and Boethius.24 A more definitive analysis of medieval rhetoric is presented in current scholarship, where Murphy and James are among critically cited sources that create scholarly connections and further questions of research between classical and religious rhetoric. In Three Medieval Rhetorical Arts, James J. Murphy outlines the classical application of rhetoric in the Middle Ages. Murphy provides background on the nature 23

Sloane, T.O. ed. The Encyclopedia of Rhetoric. 2001: 469. Of research importance in this survey study is the work of Bizzell and Herzberg in The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Time to the Present. 2nd Edition. 2001. The collection of texts rings focus to specific cultural and societal movements initiated by writers of the time, such as Christine de Pizan. The selections also outline other pertinent social issues creating dissension between the philosophy and religious thought of the time, including gender and race issues. 24

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of training necessary for the preparation and delivery of poems, letters, hymns, sermons, and other composition practices that were key to civic life in the Middle Ages.25 Citing the necessary translation of texts by Cicero, Aristotle, Quintillian, and Isocrates, Murphy states that the developments of ars grammatica and ars poetica were key components in religious literature of the Middle Ages.26 These are also key rhetorical components in various disciplines (examples provided throughout the bibliography). Further examination of ancient rhetorical theory and its varied continuations and modes, is an area of inquiry that Murphy explores. These modes, or genres, consist of ars poetriae, ars dictaminis, and ars praedicandi. Murphy argues that the creation of specific rhetorical genres was necessary in order to ensure the survival of the classical traditions of rhetoric.27 The genres created the foundation for the “rediscovery” of Middle Ages texts through translations and transcriptions. Each genre was initially explored and later combined in critical analysis. This method of research opened up a dialogue for rhetorical implications reflective of a scholarly “aura of dialectical respectability” necessary to examine texts, rhetorically and objectively within the religious sphere of the Middle Ages. Murphy extends the rediscovery of Middle Ages texts in his research compilation Medieval Rhetoric: A Selected Bibliography. The collection of primary sources listed in this book reflects a critical approach to rhetorical analysis of the texts in the Middle Ages. It also reflects a turning point in the history of medieval rhetoric

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Murphy, James J. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of the Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance. Vol. 227. AZ: MRTS Press, 2001. 26 Murphy: 71. 27 Murphy: 89.

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scholarship and its applications to current research today. Contributions by Murphy, Emmerson, Souther, Menache, and Monson, are only a few of the classical reviews towards a comparative analysis of medieval uses of rhetoric. One significant recurring concern in rhetorical criticism and analysis of medieval rhetoric is the interjection of hermeneutics as well as eschatology reviews.28 Both of these theoretical approaches use a specific dialect between them. Menache argues towards a clear understanding and definition and use of Biblical and theoretical terminology in order to best ascertain the communication models present in medieval rhetoric.29 Menache focuses on the need for adequate terminology and verbiage while examining canonical and courtier texts of medieval times. Adequate terminology, according to Menache, allows for concise focus on how medieval rhetoric focused on persuasion for the purpose of Christian conversion. Citing language as the focus of all philosophical inquiry into medieval rhetoric, Menache examines this rhetorical framework of study as a “new utterance” that clearly provides a field of study for exploring the application of Aristotle’s five canons of rhetoric to the persuasive campaign launched by the Christian church in the Middle Ages.30 28

Hermeneutics is primarily concerned with interpretation and usually is defined as the practice and / or art of interpretation. Eschatology explores the ‘meta-narrative’ or all-encompassing story, as one giving the meaning of all reality in narrative form; It is the story of the whole world and of God’s relationship with it from its creation to its end. The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought, (2000). 29 Menache: 180. 30 It is important to note that while Wilder uses the term “utterances” to describe the necessity of language exactness and exposition for study of Biblical literature, he does not explore the term in context with M.M.Bakhtin’s Speech Genres. Wilder uses the term as one that he has envisioned on his own in order to better describe the need for a common dialect among scholarly explorations of specific audiences addressed in Biblical texts. His argument presents the need to establish one, specific audience for each Biblical text (specifically, each book of the Bible). Wilder’s call for rhetorical hermeneutics is not unique. However, his use of un-cited theory is relevant because it poses the question of authorial ethos when

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The compilation of authorial bibliographical contributions in this chapter, does establish that there are research implications that go beyond a few specific topics of the Middle Ages. One of the most relevant and important topics addressed in the bibliographical entries is that of translation and transcription of canonical and philosophy texts. The assessment criterion clearly establishes that these questions for further research can only be objectively answered through interdisciplinary dialogue and research. Exploring Biblical texts as rhetorical artifacts is consistent with medieval philosophy and oratory practice. S.M. Oberhelman, Rhetorics and Homiletics in FourthCentury Christian Literature, focuses on textual analysis of works by Augustine, Cicero, Aristotle, and the techniques of persuasion used in translation and delivery of these rhetors in Christian literature. Martin Warner, The Bible as Rhetoric takes this research a step further by examining not only the models of persuasion presented in Biblical narratives, but examining (and challenging) the ethos and credibility of the Biblical “rhetorical sublime” as it pertains to translations of Aristotelian texts. Warner revisits Kennedy’s claim of “authoritative proclamation, not rational persuasion” as it pertains to texts of the New Testament. Warner argues that textual boundaries around the term ‘rational’ can further explain how ethos applies to classical texts and translation (23).31 In placing translation and transcription within the literary ethics of the Middle

merging philosophy and religious scholarship. Wilder: 104. 31 Warner’s collection of essays attempts to challenge the classical, rhetorical analysis of Kennedy’s work in Christian texts and canons by evoking a necessary review of religious ethos in New Testament authors / writers. Warner uses the methodical research outlined by W.C. Booth, in The Rhetoric of Fiction, as empirical form to recapulate on the “missing objectivity of Kennedy’s approach to rhetorical process in religious, textual inquiry” (16). Warner attributes Kennedy’s use of the classical model of rhetoric as a narrow scope of analysis for the New Testament literature.

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Ages, Rita Copeland’s Rhetoric, Hermeneutics and Translation in the Middle Ages is a valuable compilation of primary sources of research engaged with the argument of defining the vernacular translation within the systems of rhetoric and hermeneutics in the Middle Ages. Copeland’s premise is that translation played a crucial role in the emergence of a vernacular literary culture of the Middle Ages. Copeland’s scholarship focuses on the “fusion of grammar and rhetoric” in the tradition of Roman and Latin translations (and transcriptions) of classical texts during the Middle Ages (9).32 The idea of vernacular, audience, and message reception (as it pertains to Biblical texts) is critically explored in Dale Patrick’s work, The Rhetoric of Revelation in the Hebrew Bible.33 Patrick focuses on the nature of ethos in scriptural authority and how these translate to rhetorical revelation. Of importance in Patrick’s work is the exploration of ethos in the character and authorship of the Hebrew Bible, including a segment on The Revelator, John.34 Patrick examines the instruction and persuasion of Biblical texts, but does not elaborate on the topic of communication (and its value in transcription and translation) during the Middle Ages.

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Copeland’s use of the term “vernacular literary culture” is not attributed to any previous research. However, the term is used throughout The Encyclopedia of Christianity (Oxford). Often the term is placed within definitions pertaining to religion, philosophy, and rhetoric. The entries use “vernacular literary culture” to describe discourse communities immersed in both the oral and written traditions. Copeland: 54. 33 Patrick’s work focuses on the Hebrew Bible; however, current scholars use the model of vernacular exploration in other versions and translation of the Bible. The focus of ethos in Biblical translation is a significant field of study and research in eschatology, hermeneutics, and religious narratology. Patrick does not shed light on current research in this field. Patrick: 77. 34 Patrick uses the term revelation to describe discovery and create an exigence for the need of ethos in the quest for discovery and contribution of authorship in the Hebrew Bible. The most significant part of Patrick’s work is not the reference to the Apocalypse, but rather the bibliographical reference to primary text that examines ethos in the translation, transcription and preparation of Bibles. Patrick: 99.

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A primary text that does analyze the initial dialogue for medieval rhetoric (and how this rhetoric translated into medieval philosophy) is Medieval Rhetoric and Poetics (to 1400), by Charles Sears Baldwin. Baldwin charts a course through sophistic rhetoric, and poetic achievements in medieval vernacular. The historical account presented examines the contributions of the Roman schools (the use of five canons of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery), Monastic translations, elements of rhetoric used in preaching and logic, and the use of rhetorical conventions of style and poetics in hymns and religious vernacular for the people of the Middle Ages.35 Current scholarship continues to focus on ethical translation / transcription of vernacular in the Middle Ages. This focus brings specific attention to the philosophy of the Middle Ages and how it affected the resulting translation and transcriptions of manuscripts. Significant work on this area of study has been completed by numerous scholars including: Introduction to Medieval Logic (Brodie), Philosophy and Civilization in the Middle Ages (DeWulf), The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gilson), Scholasticism: Personalities and Problems of Medieval Philosophy (Pieper), Medieval Reading: Grammar, Rhetoric and the Classical Text (Reynolds). In these books, the authors have compiled resources containing anthology entries (primary and secondary material) with commentaries on the philosophy of the Middle Ages and how it was affected by the strong religious presence of Christianity.

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The time line created by Baldwin is extremely relevant to any form of rhetorical analysis surrounding Biblical texts and scholarships. However, Baldwin is not one of the sources cited by authors such as Copeland and Patrick who attempt to recreate a philosophical and religious milieu of ideas that ultimately resulted in historical “rhetoric” useful to religious scholars. Copeland: 82.

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These works, though anthologized, do answer a basic question for those researching the philosophy and rhetoric of the Middle Ages: how can you isolate the classical rhetorical canon from the religious, clerical canon of the medieval era? Scholarship in rhetorical criticism focuses on individual texts of the Middle Ages and the contribution of these texts and authors to the rhetorical tradition, today. Therefore, the answer for this research query lies in the necessity to delve into primary historical texts and primary medieval readings that would provide a broader, ideological perspective away from the religious milieu. These texts also provide name and references to authors and key contributors to medieval philosophy. Writers and scholars of the Middle Ages contain a strange mixture of devotion and worldliness. There is evidence that writers of the Middle Ages were involved in more than one social discourse community. Often these different communities had contending ideologies. Secondary sources and compilations of texts addressing these ideas include: The Birth of Philosophic Christianity: Studies in Early Christian and Medieval Thought (Fortin), Critique of Religion and Philosophy (Kaufmann), Fiction and Incarnation: Rhetoric, Theology and Literature in the Middle Ages (Leupin). The scholarly quest to examine the many faces of authorship and ideology before reading a theory or a specific translated document is a relevant query of academe. Scholars in the field of rhetoric and medieval philosophy cannot overlook the multiple facets of writers and scribes of the era. These individuals shared numerous career lives: the scholar, the preacher, the justice, royal clerk, archdeacon, courtier, nun, and convert. In examining the multiple writings and scholars of the time, publishing houses such as 85

Oxford and Cambridge still lead the way with reference material and collections of readings from medieval texts. Leading volumes of work from these publishing houses include: The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts (2 Volumes); The Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy; Oxford Encyclopedia of Christianity; The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought; The Oxford Companion to Philosophy; The Oxford Companion to Christian Worship. Secondary sources in edited collections by Palgrave and Chapel Hill are reliable sources for historiographical analysis of rhetoric and philosophy in the Middle Ages. Palgrave’s collection entitled The New Middle Ages contains a selection of over twenty texts that also serve as historical research sources. The collection is still printing additional texts for 2007-2008. Other independent publishing editions on the subject include: The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation (4 Volumes); World Biblical Commentary (53 Volumes); The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (5 Volumes). All the selections presented in this chapter present a specific problem with a specific solution. Problem: The unethical translation and transcription of texts for the purpose of the Catholic Church’s conversion of the populi. Solution: The retraction of the erroneous translation and transcription and the replacement of these texts with the proper translation and transcription. What was the delay in rectifying such critical literature of the Middle Ages? Did the Catholic Church fear the populi would eventually join the ranks of the literary groups and question he translations? Why did the monarchy wait until 1200CE to secure translators for their courtly documents as well as transcribers 86

that would review the work of the Catholic Church? Classical rhetoric and Biblical theory provide answers to these questions.

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CHAPTER IV CLASSICAL RHETORIC AND BIBLICAL THEORY IN THE LATE MEDIEVAL EPOCH 4.1 INTRODUCTION Extended analysis of classical rhetoric and biblical theory must begin with an understanding of the political, cultural, and religious forces that played a pivotal role in the development of the Christian Church at the intersection of the late Middle Ages: The Gothic Age (500CE – 1100CE).1 While the two disciplines approach this period with different trends of research analysis, the literary and critical theory themes merge at the Gothic Age. The classical canon focuses on the primary influence of ancient rhetoric and its contribution of topoi into the Renaissance Age. Biblical theory explores this period as a hermeneutical analysis into the heuristics that prompted the Reformation Age. Both disciplines reach a common point at the research crossroads: ancient literature, education, arts, oratorio, and symposiums illuminated a new path into perception of power and social structure in the medieval era. This new perception became a reality, as the monarchy and the Catholic Church were introduced to conflicting philosophies. 1

The Gothic age (1150-1500CE) is revered as a time when architecture and structural design defined the diverse landscape of the European countries. However, more important than mere landscape is the list of populi builders that participated in these architectural masterpieces. The builders of Gothic cathedrals were chosen by the skill (building task) they mastered. Individuals building religious cathedrals were part of the populi and often did not share in the Christian beliefs. Some were not even baptized members of the church. The builders received no monarchy recommendation or church endorsement. In the context of Christian conversion during the early Middle Ages, this fact is quite remarkable. As outlined in Chapter Three, the individuals known as the populi (the heretic pagan group), now played an important role in the purpose of structures, artistry, and architectural design of Christian cathedrals. Manchester, William. A World Lit Only By Fire. UK: London Press, 1972.

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In early 500CE, the Christian Church was still struggling to find an ideal way to conquer the urgency for conversion of all the “unwashed masses” of the populi (Zink, 55). Paganism was rampant and the frightful lore of pagan folklore still outweighed the frightful lore of the Christian hell mouth. While the Catholic Church required conversion to ensure an “enlightened populi” the monarchy still revered education as a mark of both Christianity and nobility. The education in place was one versed in antiquity and in the teachings of ancient Greeks. In the early ninth-century, the ‘requirements’ for the social acculturation of the populi into European modernity brought about an obvious distinction between the requirements of the monarchy versus the Catholic Church (Bettenson, 77). Between the ninth-century and the twelfth-century, the issue of transcription and translation of scriptures once again created conflict among the medieval social structures. Philosophers returned to the ancient text exploring the Greek New Testament in a different way. Classical rhetoric and Biblical theory closely parallel in research venues. Philosophers re-established textual connections and proper translations from ancient pagans such as Aristotle and Cicero. Adding their own emphasis on the superstition and ignorance that supposedly dominated the populi medieval culture; these same translations were scrutinized (and adopted) by the Catholic Church.2 For a brief moment, the Catholic Church’s call to repentance from the fires of the apocalypse lost momentum as courtiers, philosophers, and transcriptionists provided

2

It is noteworthy that at this time, the Catholic Church did not share their religious skepticism that they later argued during the Enlightenment that Protestants has emerged due to the “fabricated and inept” philosophical views of the Middle Ages. Ehrman, Bart D. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture: The Effect of Early Christological Controversies in the Text of the New Testament. NY: OUP, 1993.

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evidence of a tainted translation of the New Testament. This was a significant blow to the socially established ethos of the Catholic Church. This factual, verifiable information of tainted translations was not lost on the monarchy. The Catholic Church attempted to establish questions of proper education among the monarchy, as the reason why the monarchy did not understand the initial translations by the church (Ehrman, 20). This only resulted in the monarchy securing lead philosophers and linguists to translate the documents one more time, initiating a rift between the Catholic Church and the established monarchy. The efforts of the Catholic Church to ‘rehabilitate’ the populi proved most difficult, as the populi became more literate, more industrial, and more aware of the crumbling partnership among the monarchy and the church.3 It was at this point in history that the first appearances of humanists’ writings emerged. Humanism remains one of the most characteristic traits of the European Renaissance (Sloane, 350). The preRenaissance humanism was particularly concerned with the study and imitation of classical antiquity, “which is typical of the period and finds its expression in scholarship, education, and in many areas, including arts and sciences” (350). Near the thirteenthcentury and fourteenth-century, writers became enamored of the culture of ancient Rome, the spirit of which they aspired to recover from what they believed to be a period of

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It was in the early eleventh-century that the Court Secretaries (often called Courtiers in the early Middle Ages) were given the title of Secretaries and Historians. The privilege of these titles was the responsibility of dangerous travel among medieval towns, courts, and churches, all in an effort to collect documents for archiving in The Vatican. However, the initial documents collected were not of the liking of the Catholic Church because they did not contain sufficient graphic material to create fear in the populi, resulting in conversion. These were the humanist documents that later prompted a Reformation that would ultimately change the medieval landscape. Ehrman: 89.

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‘obscurity’: the Middle Ages. 4 Philosophy and literature became competing readings among the elite and florid religious circles. Philosophy became the catalyst for social incorporation for the populi in the most practical manner. Rudimentary appreciation for building, architecture, and design following the form of antiquity’s masonry gave way to medieval masonry. Art and physical sciences began to prevail during the thirteenthcentury, when both church and monarchy required powerful structures and warriors for battle. The populi were active participants in the industrial and architectural projects requested and this brought about a historical period where the trinity of the medieval era worked together: church, monarchy, and populi.5 Medieval philosophy is very varied. However, in the thirteenth-century, there was a specific variety of topoi set against a common well-defined medieval philosophy background. There was certainly original thought and a common effort that demonstrates a philosophical ‘teamwork’ emerging, if only to satisfy the question of translation and transcription (Copleston, 199). The thirteenth-century philosophers criticized one another’s opinions; but they accepted not only the same religious faith but also, for the 4

Humanists of the middle and late medieval era include Francesco Petrarch (1304) and Flavio Biondo (1388). Both writers advocated the humanist tradition first introduced by medieval scholasticism. Petrarch and Biondo are the first writers to attribute a name to the medieval era: se product (the product). The definition resulted in a humanist ideal that there was a social evolution; from “crude human beings” humanity was now ready for beauty. These would be found in the study of the trivium and poetic arts of antiquity. Later, it was Biondo that spoke of the middle period as roughly a millennium in length, thus giving it “more or less precise limits and potentially a shape of its own”; ultimately this would result in the use of the term: medium aevum or ‘Middle Age’ (this term became pluralized in the 17th Century. Zink, Michel. The Enchantment of the Middle Ages. MD: John Hopkins University, 1974. 5 The premise that the populi were enlightened at this time is considerably exaggerated. In their work, Biller and Hudson analyze the primary reason for the populi’s integration to the “high end society” of the monarchy and the church. Often the populi served as servants who had access to literature. Posts of the populi, serving in the church as builders for abbeys was not uncommon. However, it is relevant to note that even with this new collaboration, the social integration did not result in a high rate of conversion or adoption of Christian thought. Zink: 32.

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most part, the same appreciation for the building and industrial changes of the late medieval era. Naturally, the Catholic Church retained its first ‘philosophical tenant’ to be one of conversion ‘to ensure possible salvation for the unwashed masses’ (Aune, 128). Christian philosophy, apart from this natural concentration of interest, was not radically hostile to the study of the world. In the case of thirteenth-century philosophers such as St. Albert the Great and Roger Bacon, there is rather fluid merging of the classical and religious (134). Ultimately, the philosophical development carried on by men of independent minds was at the same time a common development, to which the individual philosophers made their several contributions. At the beginning of the fourteenth-century the initial impact of philosophy was one of both humanism and individualism. Even among Christian writers, the impact of classical studies was seen in the complex historical changes affecting the delivery of homiletics (Peannick, 87). The Gothic Age brought together classical and Christian scholars into philosophical dialogues that would later be cited during the Reformation Age and the Renaissance. Scholars of the medieval epoch began to situate themselves confidently in the new age, lauding the renewal of cultural virtues of antiquity. Regarding the late medieval epoch as separate from antiquity, philosophers began to question whether the early, middle or intervening period was something rather “finished” and in this query brought the basic tenants of medieval philosophy and Christian philosophy together (Wilson, 41). Both philosophies employed the use of ancient literature, and methods of education. Both philosophies engaged in the practice and delivery of classical argumentation (deliberative oratories) and homiletics. Both philosophies embraced a 92

diverse array of art and architecture, placing these at the center of culture in the early Renaissance epoch. Ultimately, these shared philosophical principles illuminated a new path into perception of power, social structure, collaborative dialogues, which foreshadowed the religious milieu of the late medieval era. 4.2 PRIMARY SOURCES To say the populi no longer suffered under the rule of monarchy and the Catholic Church during the late medieval epoch would be inaccurate. The primary research into the collaborative classical and Christian philosophies demonstrates that the populi now suffered a different fate; one most often presented in the form of two questions: 1) how useful are the barbarians with respect to hard labor and architectural construction necessary for the Catholic Church and the monarchy?;6 2) what will be the punishment for continued heresy, attempts towards literacy or ‘carnivalesque’ behavior and pagan worship by the barbarians?7 The primary sources demonstrate the constant trend throughout the Middle Ages to control the populi and require of them conversion, 6

According to Brooks, the populi were still referred to as ‘barbarians’ well into the late medieval era. Brooks argues that the identifying factors for a ‘barbarian’ was the lack of social grace to mingle with the monarchy and the lack of proper literacy to understand the “Word of God as it was graciously offered to them every Sunday in minor worship areas, never a cathedral – even if the populi has assisted in building the cathedral” (156). Brooks, Nicholas. Anglo-Saxon Myths: State and Church, 400-1066. 1st Edition. London: The Hambledon Press, 1970. 7 Farrell presents the argument of the carnivalesque behavior of the populi during the medieval epoch. Farrell used Bakhtin’s concept of the carnivalesque to describe the behaviors of all the communities in the Middle Ages: monarchy, Catholic Church, and populi. According to Farrell, each community exhibited this behavior. The populi displayed it through art, accusations of heresy, and non-conversion. The monarchy exhibited carnivalesque behavior in the manner in which civil law (“law of the land”) was dispensed; often with little evidence to support judgment. Finally, the Catholic Church exhibited the most egregious carnivalesque behavior by demonstrating a duplicitous Christian philosophy complete with contradictions of adherence to scripture and bloody retaliation for the populi that would not convert. Farrell: 59.

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devotion to the monarchy, and service to church and state. Refusal to adopt and adapt these requirements of conversion, devotion, and service, brought about a torturous death. The populi were still used as scapegoats by both the monarchy and the Catholic Church (Girard, 17). Still, the populi continued to persevere in their attempt to maintain their folklore and traditions, refusing conversion, embracing a hyphenated philosophy (between pagan and Christian) that would ultimately provide balance in the social structure they were part of. The primary sources listed here provide a better understanding of: 1) humanist and individualism theories permeating the teachings of the Catholic Church and the treatise of the monarchy; 2) the second attempt at translation and transcription of classical texts and the Greek New Testament; 3) the continued oppression of the populi and their industrial contribution in the late Middle Ages; and, 4) the continued physically threatening oppression of the populi and their hyphenated identity in an age of philosophical, industrial and architectural growth. 4.2.1 Bibliographical Entries Bettenson, Henry, and Chris Maunders, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. 3rd Edition. 1951. New York: OUP, 1999. Bettenson and Maunders examine rare documents in depositories and monarchy archives, in order to isolate specific historical moments that affect the ‘traditional’ Christian timeline established by the Roman Catholic Church. The selections presented are original manuscripts from various faith-dialogues that were finally compiled for research and study. Although recently updated to include new manuscripts found in international religious libraries, Bettenson and Maunders retain the landmark essential 94

references and sources that were once only exclusive to the Vatican Research Counsel. Among the documents are orphan Bible pages dating to the Middle Ages containing marginalia and small in scripts of medieval life at the time when the “sermon” (the one that used the specific Biblical text), was delivered. Important to Apocalyptic research are the notes regarding the selected chapters of the Book of Revelation and their selective use in medieval homiletics. Biller, Peter and Anne Hudson, ed. Heresy and Literacy, 1000-1530. UK: CUP, 1994. Biller and Hudson have compiled a succinct analysis of primary research that addresses the question: did growing literacy in the later medieval period foster popular heresy, or did heresy provide a crucial stimulus to the spread of literacy? Text present outline the importance of the following to the study of visual rhetoric: the simultaneous growth and ultimate collision of carnivalesque art by the populi to refute Christian doctrine; and the surge of heresy once literacy spread to the populi. Brooks, Nicholas. Anglo-Saxon Myths: State and Church, 400-1066. 1st Edition. London: The Hambledon Press, 1970. Brooks identifies the elements the shaped the preview to the understanding and application of the Book of Revelation during the Middle Ages. Brooks identifies myths and forgeries in selected chapters of the Book of Revelation and isolates the purpose for the Church sanctioned ‘limited study of the apocalypse for the ignorant, poor tenants’ of the medieval towns brought about by the monarchy census evaluation of the ‘poor tenants being nothing more than barbarians that cannot understand Christianity” (45). Brooks focuses on the monarchy rule and its relentless control over privileged education and control over literacy that supported the Catholic Church’s argument for only “elucidating those that will rule…not the barbaric populi (67).”

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De Ste. Croix, G.E.M. Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy. 1998. NY: OUP, 2009. De Ste. Croix presents a revealing historical survey of martyrdom and orthodoxy as present during the Middle Ages. Exploring the topics of heresy and persecution, de Ste. Croix presents evidence substantiating the argument of the vox populi against the total reign and conversion presented by the Catholic Church. The populi served as evidentiary proof of strength between the monarchy and the church. Killed for heresy and non-conversion, de Ste. Croix demonstrates how the populi was not “aware of what these terms meant or what they were being accused of . . .creating panic among the populi to either submit to the Christian Church doctrine or support the corrupt monarchy. De Ste. Croix provides early courtier and secretarial manuscripts to provide the ‘reasons’ for persecution and martyrdom in the Middle Ages. The first tenant of being: “ability to read the Holy Scriptures” (13). Ehrman, Bart D. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture: The Effect of Early Christological Controversies in the Text of the New Testament. NY: OUP, 1993. Ehrman aligns the scholarship of the New Testament with critical theological and historical issues, for the purpose of examining how the “orthodoxy” affected the transmission of critical New Testament texts throughout the Middle Ages. Exploring ‘transmission’ as the term for “ethical sharing of scriptures in their correct interpretation” (22), Ehrman argues that the New Testament was a critical text in the Catholic Church’s call to establish campaigns for conversion and social change during the Middle Ages. Combining theological hermeneutics with historical periods of Christian conversion, Ehrman isolates the “abbreviated New Testament presented to the populi during the Middle Ages” and demonstrates how it was “abridged for the purpose of fear and conversion” (30).

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Farrell, Thomas J. Bakhtin and Medieval Voices. FL: University Press, 1995. Farrell introduces Bakhtin’s Carnivalesque into the medieval voices of the populi, in order to present critical theory into a most theological field of study. Farrell provides a survey of all the communities in the medieval era: populi, monarchy, and church, Farrel expands on each embedded theological concept of these communities, culminating in the observation of the carnivalesque behavior of the monarchy and the church against the populi. Felch, Susan M. and Paul J. Contino, eds. Bakhtin and Religion: A Feeling for Faith. IL: Northwestern University Press, 2001. Felch and Contino present a sociological analysis of “religion and life” in the critical theory writings of Bakhtin. The text presents Bakhtin’s concern and reaction for religious ideas informed in linguistic and aesthetic theories. Felch and Contino argue for an insightful look at Bakhtin’s engagement with religious ideas and the impact of his theories in religious studies and how these conflict with rhetorical studies. Fortin, Ernest L. The Birth of Philosophic Christianity in early Christian and Medieval Thought. NY: Rowman & Littlefield, 1996. Fortin surveys the historical landmarks of the medieval era that lead to the conflict between philosophy and Christian thought. Citing initial medieval rhetoric of St. Augustine, Clement of Alexandria, and critical texts of Aristotle and Aquinas, Fortin argues that the insurrection of reformation resulted from the textual dissonance between the populi, monarchy and Catholic Church. Fortin presents evidence that the dissonance resulted not from the unethical transcription and translation of medieval texts, but rather from the conscious effort of the Christian church to eliminate any possibility access of primary texts by the populi.

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Girard, René. Violence and the Sacred. Trans. Patrick Gregory. 1960. MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972. Girard argues that the forceful implementation of Christian conversion disrupted the dynamics of the medieval society and culture. Girard focuses his research on historical trends of documented threats of violence and torture, if the populi did not adhere to conversion tactics presented by the Catholic Church. The author outlines the social tragedies inflicted on the populi in the name of the ‘sacred’ and the result of their social and religious unrest during the medieval era. Girard, René. The Scapegoat. Trans. Yvonne Frecerro. 1972. MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982. Girard researches medieval narratives of persecution in order to isolate the socially constructed historical landmarks where classical mythology, folklore, and Christianity interested and created religious persecution for the populi. Girard explores similarities between myth and persecution during the Middle Ages and provides evidence of how the Catholic Church labeled the folklore traditions as “pagan worship and idolatry” (55) in the attempt to convert the populi. Girard argues that the lack of explication of terminology for the populi resulted in documented massacres. Persecution of the populi who celebrated pagan holidays (such as the traditional celebration of harvest), resulted in charges of pagan practices, devil worshipping, and crimes against Christianity. Girard argues that these charges were purposefully not explicated to the populi. Hence, the populi continued to engage in their cultural, folklore, traditions, resulting in deaths. Girard argues that the folklore of the populi brought about their eminent demise.

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Hofstadter, Albert and Richard Kuhns, eds. Philosophies of Art and Beauty: Selected Readings in Aesthetics from Plato to Heidegger. 1964. IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1976. Editors Hofstdter and Kuhns. compile primary essays that provide invaluable insight into the recurrent ideas concerning art, beauty, critical method, and the nature of representation in the medieval world of the populi. Authors in this compilation write of the importance of general philosophical and rhetorical appreciations to visual art, art history, and literary criticism. Hofstdter and Kuhns focus on the social impact of these new ideas in a world where identity had not yet been established as an individual charge, but instead belonged to the Catholic Church and the monarchy. The populi’s identity rested on who they served or worshipped. Kennedy, George, A. Greek Rhetoric Under Christian Emperors. NJ: Princeton University, 1983. Kennedy provides a comprehensive analysis of theological treatise on Greek Rhetoric from late antiquity to the Middle Ages. Using both pagan and Christian literature, Kennedy outlines how rhetorical theory shaped the transcription and translation of religious texts of that era. Kennedy focuses on oratorio as the preferred mode of rhetorical training for the exigent social matters of the medieval era. ---. A New History of Classical Rhetoric. NJ: PUP, 1994. Kennedy organizes a historical map to identify the rhetorical features of early Greek literature that anticipated the formulation of “meta-rhetoric,” theory into Greco-Roman periods (67). Kennedy focuses on oratory as the primary rhetorical rhetoric; a concept that translates into the rhetoric of the Middle Ages.

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---. Classical Rhetoric in Its Christian and Secular Tradition: From Ancient to Modern Times. 2nd Edition. NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1999. Kennedy explores the creation of classical rhetoric as used in ancient Rome and Greece and demonstrates how classical rhetoric re-evolved during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Kennedy’s survey of rhetoric and its use through society, demonstrates how each “new” society modified classical rhetoric to serve their means of persuasion, epistemic knowledge, and reformation. Kirk, Alan, and Tom Thatcher, eds. Memory, Traditions, and Text: Uses of the Past in Early Christianity. NY: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005. Kirk and Thatcher present research that directs the study of the apocalypse through social and cultural memory theory. The authors provide evidence that the reconstruction and memory of canonical and Biblical tests of the medieval apocalypse is problematic. The authors call for a rhetorical structure of research that focuses on elements of delivery and memory of the Book of Revelation, as it was presented to the populi, in order to understand the historical value of the text for the medieval society. Hallman, Elizabeth. Chronicles of the Crusades. NY: OUP, 1989. Hallman presents a concise chronicle of the hundreds of years of Crusade journeys and conquests. The author uses the timeline to isolate the ‘travel’ of rare court documents, manuscripts, and paintings by the populi. Hallman argues that research into the documents of the Middle Ages cannot be accomplished without access to international primary libraries that contain these primary documents. Harding, Mark. Early Christian Life and Thought in Social Context. NY: Continuum Books, 2003. Harding compiles essays that integrate concise explanatory comment on various aspects of the historical and social situation of the early Christians, with substantial extracts 100

from early Greco-Roman texts. Harding asserts that the early Christians, literature and communities are to be understood from within their historical and social context. This is referred to as “responsible research” (44) that according to Harding may not depict any religious entity at its ‘best’ but represents the philosophical school of thought at the time. Humphrey, Edith M. And I turned to See the Voice: The Rhetoric of Vision in the New Testament. MI: Baker Academic, 2005. Humphrey challenges the rhetoric of oratory, translation, and authorship, in the New Testament. Humphrey argues that the translation and transcription of texts in the Middle Ages creates linguistics, literacy, and rhetorical complications for researchers exploring the original version of the New Testament used in the church sanctioned conversion mandates. Humphrey’s argument is a call for research in the original vernacular of the New Testament of the Middle Ages, arguing that the interpretation of the New Testament was responsible for the death of the populi and the rule of a corrupt monarchy. Madigan, Kevin. The Passions of Christ in High-Medieval Thought: An Essay on Christological Development. NY: OUP, 1999. Madigan explores how the medieval theologians struggled to create a tangible Christian tradition from Greek and Latin passages they had inherited. The necessity for a single church structure was challenged by interpretation of lexicons. Madigan establishes that under the guides of Christian conversion and assimilation, the single unanimous tradition of textual analysis provided an opportunity for the Catholic Church to impose radical change, novelty, and even heterodoxy during the medieval era. Madigan argues that the populi were never aware of these developments. Metzger, Bruce M., and Bert D. Ehrman. The Text of the New Testament: Its Corruption and Restriction. 1964. NY: OUP, 1992. Metzger and Ehrman examine religious scholarship dialogues, focused on Greek manuscripts and the methods of textual translation criterion used in the Middle Ages to 101

translate the New Testament. The research into the translation techniques integrates new archeological material for the study of translation in apocalyptic texts. The authors argue that archeological depictions of the apocalypse and new electronic research evaluations of the text demonstrate corruption of the New Testament original texts in order to establish new ideological influences of the Middle Age. The authors establish that the populi never had the opportunity for appreciation and exposure of the Apocalypse at it was presented in the Book of Revelation. Ortony, Andrew, ed. Metaphor and Thought. 1979. NY: CUP, 1981. Ortony explores the use of metaphor in literary analysis as well as metaphor as archetypes for visual studies. Ortony selects a variety of essays to substantiate his argument that literary theory has created a window of opportunity for hybrid research topics in the field of visual rhetoric, oratory, religion, and archeology. Ortony states that studies into fields of oratory in rhetoric and/or religion cannot occur without individual analysis of metaphors. Osborne, Grant R. The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. 1st Edition. NY: OUP, 1988. Osborne explores the rudiments of theological study surrounding Biblical Interpretation of Apocalyptic texts. Osborne contends that hermeneutics is fundamentally shaped as a spiral from text to context; from original meaning of texts to their significance for the Christian Church today (15). Three major sections of Osborne’s work that focuses on the heuristics of apocalyptic text: general hermeneutics, genre analysis, and applied hermeneutics. Peannick, Nigel, and Prudence Stones. A History of Pagan Europe. MA: CUP, 1995. Peannick and Stone explore pagan history and tradition from the third millennium to the Middle Ages. The authors argue that the practice of pagan rituals continued through centuries, allowing religious groups to marginalize those who believed in paganism. The 102

impact of pagan worship in the Middle Ages influenced the reflective imagery and paintings use by the populi to interpret and ‘make sense’ of the apocalypse (17). The authors argue that the practice of paganism was critical to the ‘social resistance’ by the populi to accept conversion (19). Plantinga, Alvin. God, Freedom, and Evil. 1974. MI: B.E. Publishers, 1991. Plantinga explores and exemplifies philosophy of religion on philosophical reflection on central themes of religion. Plantinga’s research begins with the ancient philosophical interpretations of religion and intersects the argument of definition of Christianity during the middles ages. Plantinga argues for exemplification and definite explicators of the apocalypse that are relevant to philosophical reflections of religion in the Middle Ages. Resseguie, James. Narrative Criticism of the New Testament. MI: Baker Academic, 2005. Resseguie points out the intrinsic nature of research in diverse academic communities as a catalyst for primary creation of ‘reason’ in analyzing the New Testament scriptures. Resseguie argues that any interdisciplinary study of the New Testament must engage both literary and rhetorical criticism of the artifact in question. Resseguie argues for interdisciplinary study of New Testament texts, specifically the apocalypse. Thiselton, Anthony. New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The Theory and Practice of Transforming Biblical Reading. MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992. Thiselton explores the discipline of hermeneutics and how it accounts for a large range of comprehensive theoretical models of religious readings and interpretation. Thiselton’s research evaluates how hermeneutics and other disciplines (the marriage of both) is the only practical form of research that allows for methodological application of taxonomy review within individual Biblical readings.

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Wilson, Thomas. The Arte of Rhetorique. 1st Edition. London. 1553. Print. In the first edition, Wilson wrote a tripartite treatise concerned only with the process of oratory, and moral end of persuasion in religious speech. Wilson focused on Ciceronian tradition to explore the liturgy of Christian versus rhetorical oratory. Wilson claimed that religious use of rhetorical principles was amoral if used as a tool to move audiences for the purpose of unethical affections. Zink, Michel. The Enchantment of the Middle Ages. 1st Edition. Trans. Jean Pitriche. UK: CUP, 1970. Zing explores cultural history and societies in the medieval era and argues for a new method of research to explore the cast system evident during this historical era. Zink argues that literary criticism has only ‘enchanted’ critics to examine literary selections of fiction and courtier writers of the Middle Ages; not to engage in critical research focused on the nuances of civility and oppression of the medieval era. 4.3 SECONDARY SOURCES The return to the classical canon and literature of antiquity affected everyday life in the medieval epoch. In the twelfth-century, intellectual renaissance took many forms and flowed into many medieval channels, but at its heart was the recovery of a great part of Greek philosophy and science, through Latin study and the revived study of Roman law. Aristotle’s works on logic, metaphysics, and natural science confronted medieval scholars with a new world of scientific knowledge and speculation, seeming to offer for the first time the possibility of a rational understanding of the physical universe and the place of man in relation to God and the moral order. Classical rhetoric and Biblical theory are research companions for anyone vested in exploring the transition of the monarchy

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and the establishment of a papal rule that changed the face of European history (Bratsiotis, 189). The secondary sources outlined in this section demonstrate a wide range of interdisciplinary topics and ongoing research into the integration and subjugation of social structures of the Middle Ages. The purpose and focus of these sources is to provide an objective historical backdrop to what was happening around the late Middle Ages. While philosophers looked to theory to explain world events, the Catholic Church focused on the new translations brought forth from antiquity, attempting reconciliation among new documents, even though the first translations were completed by the clergy (Ehrman, 98). The populi worked side by side with the Catholic Church and the monarchy in architectural feats, Crusades, and military venues. The populi served as architects, masons, and held important posts in the Crusades, often tending to the ships and the armor of those that fought in battle (McDonald, 61). However, secondary sources still substantiate the fact that the populi continued to be marginalized, socially excluded, and suffered greatly at the hands of both the church and the monarchy (McDonald, 66). Current research scholars have embraced the critical theory of Bakhtin, Foucault, and Aristotle to create a unique trivium of moral ethicist concepts, power structures, and the classical reasoning necessary to establish a foundation for the Biblical and rhetorical theory necessary in the study of the late Middle Ages (Niesel, 102). Classical, philosophical, and religious texts presented here support Niesel’s argument for establishing a foundation for research theory. 105

4.3.1 Bibliographical Entries Aristotle. Aristotle’s On The Soul. Trans. Hippocrates G. Apostle. NY: OUP, 1981. Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz. Reformation Theology. UK: CUP, 2002. Ball, Arnetha F., and Sarah Warshauer Freedman, eds. Bakhtinian Perspectives on Language, Literacy, and Learning. NY: CUP, 2004. Banta, Peter, et. al. Carnivalizing Difference: Bakhtin and the Other. NY: Routledge, 2001. Barr, James. The Concept of Biblical Theology. London: St. Albans, Press, 1980. Bernard-Donals, Michael. Mikhail Bakhtin: Between Phenomenology and Marxism. NY: CUP, 1994. Berrong, Richard M. Rabelais and Bakhtin: Popular Culture in Gargantua and Pantagruel. NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzberg, eds. The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present. 2nd Edition. NY: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication. NY: SUNY, 2001. Bostad, Finn, et. al. Bakhtinian Perspectives on Language and Culture: Meaning in Language, Art and New Media. NY: OUP, 2004. Brandist, Craig. The Bakhtin Circle: Philosophy, Culture and Politics. VA: Prestigue Press, 2002. Bratsiotis, Panagiotis. The Greek Orthodox Church. Trans. Joseph Blenkinsopp. London: University of Notre Dame, 1968.

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Brunner, Emil. The Christine Doctrine of Creation and Redemption. Vol. II. Trans. Olive Wyon. London: Lutterworth Press, 1952. Buxton, Richard, ed. From Myth to Reason: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought. NY: OUP, 1999. Coffa, J. Alberto. The Semantic Tradition from Kant to Carnap. 1991. Editor Linda Wessels. UK: CUP, 1998. Cornford, F.M. From Religion to Philosophy: A Study in the Origins of Western Speculations. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. Craig, Clarence Tucker. The Beginning of Christianity. New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1942. Denith, Simon. Bakhtinian Thought: An Introductory Reader. NY: CUP, 1996. Ehrman, Bart D. The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture. NY: OUP, 1996. ---.. Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make it Into the New Testament. NY: OUP, 2003. ---. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faith We Never Knew. NY: OUP, 2005. Ennis, Petter. Poetry & Wisdom: New Testament. MI: Baker Books, 1997. Evans, G.R. St. Augustine: Concerning the City of God Against the Pagans. Trans. Henry Bettenson. UK: Lay Ltd. St. Ives Publishers, 1947. Farrel, Thomas B. Norms of Rhetorical Culture. UK: Yale University Press, 1993. Fletcher, Richard. The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity. CA: UCLA Press, 1997.

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Florvsky, Georges. Bible, Church, Tradition: An Eastern Orthodox View. MA: Norland Publishing Co., 1972. Foxe, John. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. 1st Edition. 1563 Fascimille. Day Publishers. Felch, Susan M., and Paul J. Contino, eds. Bakhtin and Religion: A Feeling for Faith. IL: Northwestern University Press, 2001. Gilson, Etienne. The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. Trans. L.K. Shook. IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. Gorman, Michael J. Elements of Biblical Exegesis. NY: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. Grassi, Ernesto. Rhetoric as Philosophy: The Humanist Tradition. Trans. John Michael Krois and Azizeh Azodi. IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1980. Green, Barbara. Mikhail Bakhtin and Biblical Scholarship: An Introduction. Editor Danna Nolan Fewell. The Society of Biblical Literature Semeia Studies. Ser. 38. GA: The Society of Biblical Literature, 2000. Gross, Alan G. and Arthur E. Walzer, eds. Rereading Aristotle’s Rhetoric. IL: Southern Illinois Press, 2002. Gumpel, Liselotte. Metaphor Re-Examined: A Non-Aristotelian Period. IN: Indiana University Press 1984. Herrick, James H. The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction. 2nd Edition. MA: CUP, 2001. Holquist, Michael. Dialogism: Bakhtin in and His World. 1990. NY: Routledge Press, 1997. ---. Bakhtin and His World. 2nd Edition. NY: Routledge Press, 2001.

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Howells, Edward, and Peter Tyler. Sources of Transformation: Revitalizing Christian Spirituality. NY: Continuum Press, 2001. Hunsten, Susan, and Geoff Thompson, eds. Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and Construction of Discourse. NY: OUP, 2002. Kee, Howard Clark, et. al. Understanding The New Testament. 2nd Edition. NY: OUP, 1973. Kennedy, George A. New Testament Interpretation Through Rhetorical Criticism. NC: North Carolina Press, 1984. Ladd, George Eldon. The New Testament and Criticism. 1967. MI: William B. Eerdman Publishing Company, 1983. Lindsay, Thomas M. The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries. NY: Hodder and Stoughton, 1903. McDermott, Timothy. St. Thomas Quinas Summa Theologia: A Concise Translation. London: Westminster Press, 1991. McDonald, Le Martin, et al. Early Christianity and its Sacred Literature. MA: Hedrickson Publishers Inc., 2000. McGiffert, Arthur Cushman. A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age. NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1916. McGinn, Bernard. Christian Mysticism. NY: OUP, 2000. McGrath, Alister, E. Theology: Terminology for the Middle Ages. 1992. UK: CUP, 1990. ---. Theology: The Basics. UK: CUP, 2001.

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Madison, G.B. ed. The Hermenutics of Postmodernity: Figures and Themes. IN: Indianapolis Press, 1998. Mandelker, Amy, ed. Bakhtin in Context Across the Disciplines. IL: Northwestern University Press, 1995. Miller, David. Christs: Meditation on Archetypal Images on Christian Theology. 1981. UK: CUP, 2001. Montgomery, Michael V. Carnivals and Commonplaces: Bakhtin’s Chronotope, Cultural Studies, Film. NY: American University Study Press, 1983. Morris, Pam, ed. The Bakhtin Reader: Selected Writings of Bakhtin, Medvedev, Voshinov. NY: OUP, 1994. Morson, Gary S., ed. Bakhtin: Essays and Dialogues on the Work. 1981. University of Chicago Press, 1986. Mueller-Vollmer, Kurt. The Hermeneutics Reader. NY: OUP, 1994. Niesel, Wilhelm. The Gospel and The Churches: A comparison of Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. PA: Westminster Press, 1962. O’Collins, Gerald, and Mario Farrugia. Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. 1989. NY: OUP, 2001. Oberhelman, Steven M. Rhetoric and Homiletics in Fourth-Century Christian Literature. American Classical Studies. Ser. 26. GA: Scholars Press, 1969. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy. 1982. NY: Routledge Press, 1988. Perelman, Chaim. The Realm of Rhetoric. Trans. William Kluback. IN: University of Notre Dame, 1982.

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Phelan, James. Narrative as Rhetoric: Technique, Audiences, Ethics, Ideology. OH: Ohio State University Press, 1996. Poulakos, John and Takis Poulakos. Classical Theory. 2nd Edition. NY: Albany Press, 1999. Porter, Stanley E., and Lee Martin McDonald. New Testament Introduction. MI: Baker Books, 1995. Quasten, Johannes, and Joseph C. Plumpe. Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation. DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1964. Resseguie, James L. Narrative Criticism of the New Testament: An Introduction. MI: Baker Academic Press, 2005. Richards, I.A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. NY: OUP, 1936. Richter, David H., ed. The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends. NY: Albany Press, 1998. Rhetoricae Distinctiones in Quintillianum. Trans. Carole Newlands. IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986. Todorov, Tzvetan. Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. Trans. By Vlad Godzich. MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1998. Turner, Kathleen, ed. Doing Rhetorical History: Concepts and Cases. AL: The University of Alabama Press, 1998. Walker, Jeffrey. Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity. NY: OUP, 2000. Warner, Martin, ed. The Bible as Rhetoric: Studies in Biblical Persuasion and Credibility. NY: OUP, 1989.

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Watson, Duane, ed. Persuasive Artistry: Studies in New Testament Rhetoric in Honor of George A. Kennedy. London: The University of Sheffield, 1991. Whale, J.S. The Protestant Tradition. 1st Edition. UK: CUP, 1955. White, Andrew D. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. UK: CUP, 1993. Wilken, Robert Louis. The Spirit of Early Christian Thought: Seeking the Face of God. UK: YUP, 2003. Zappen, James. The Rebirth of Dialogue: Bakhtin, Socrates, and the Rhetorical Tradition. NY: SUNY Press, 2001. 4.4 TERTIARY SOURCES Biblical theory is a form of research present in most all disciplines of literary study and philosophy. The Middle Ages have long been studied through the terministic lens of Biblical theory and literary criticism. The adoption of rhetorical analysis (in this study, the specific use of visual rhetoric), has enhanced the interdisciplinary options for research into all this medieval. The sources listed here display a small purview of the core philosophical and religious background necessary to understand the rhetorical hermeneutics involved in the translation of classical texts in the late Middle Ages. The nuances of the hermeneutic tradition in the late Middle Ages shed light on the rhetorical function of the transcribed texts and their significance in populi life. A common theme in these sources is the urgency expressed by all authors to explore the ethical lines that were completely obliterated by the Catholic Church in its attempt to translate texts for their [Catholic Church] own monetary and social gain over the populi and the monarchy. 112

4.4.1 Bibliographical Entries Argall, Randal A., et al. For a Later Generation: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism and Early Christianity. PA: Trinity Press, 1998. Cory, Catherine A. New Collegeville Bible Commentary: The Book of Revelation. MN: Liturgical Press, 2001. Dorsey, James. The Prophetic Tradition and Radical Rhetoric in America. NY: New York University Press, 1997. Felch, Susan M., and Paul J. Contino, eds. Bakhtin and Religion: A Feeling for Faith. IL: Northwestern University Press, 2001. Feurbach, Ludwig. The Essence of Christianity. 1841. NY: Baker Publishers, 2004. Fisher, Alec. Critical Thinking: An Introduction. NY:CUP, 2001. Goodspeed, Edgar. The Apocrypha. NY: Vintage Books Press, 1989. Griffith-Jones, Robin. The Four Witnesses. CA: Harper Collins, 2000. Gross, Alan G., and William M. Keith, eds. Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science. NY: SUNY Press, 1997. Hastings, Adrian, et al. Key Thinkers in Christianity. NJ: Continuum Press, 2001. Holland, Tom. Millennium: The End of the World and the Forging of Christendom. UK: Little Brown Publishers, 1999. Jaeger, Werner. Early Christianity and Greek Paideia. MA: Harvard University Press, 1961. Jardine, Lisa, et. al. Francis Bacon: The New Organon. 1990. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy.UK: CUP, 2002. 113

Johnson, Paul. A History of Christianity. NY: Simon & Schuster, 1976. Keener, Craig. Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. IL: Intervarsity Press, 1993. Kennedy, George A. Comparative Rhetoric: A Historical and Cross-Cultural Introduction. NY: OUP, 1998. McGuckin, John. Patristic Theology. 2nd Edition. London: Westminster Press, 2004. McReynolds, Paul R., ed. Word Study Greek-English New Testament. 1966. IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. 1983. MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. NJ: Viking Press, 2001. MacDonald, Dennis R. Does the New Testament Imitate Homer? Four Cases from the Acts of the Apostles. UK: YUP, 2003. Morson, Gary Saul and Caryl Emerson. Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of Prosaics. CA: Stanford University Press, 1990. Port, Stephen, et. al. Altruism and Altruistic Love: Science, Philosophy, and Religion in Dialogue. NY: OUP, 2002. Reed, Walter L. Dialogues of the Word: The Bible as Literature According to Bakhtin. NY: OUP, 1993. Sarup, Madan. Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism. 2nd Edition. GA: The University of Georgia Press, 1993. Smith, Huston. Beyond the Post-Modern Mind. 4th Edition. IL: Quest Books, 1996. Smith, Laura. The Illustrated Timeline of Religion. London: Sterling Publishers, 1999.

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Wilder, Amos. Early Christian Rhetoric: The Language of Gospel. MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc. 1990. Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. DC: Regency Publishing, 1999. 4.5 CRITICAL THEORY COLLECTIONS AND REFERENCE MATERIAL As a research standard, critical theory revisits philosophical and religious applications of ideas and social conventions. The collections and references listed here focus on four fundamentally insoluble questions basic to the study of classical rhetoric and Biblical theory through the lens of critical theory. The collections focus on the timeline of the late medieval epoch, however it addresses the four fundamental questions in a broad scope, inviting answers from the Dark Middle Ages as well. The question are: 1) how did texts from antiquity change or challenge The Hermeneutic Situation8 used by the Catholic Church for the understanding and critique of Biblical texts; 2) what are the functions of aphorisms in the context of revised (corrected) translation and transcription of the Greek New Testament?; 3) what where the main philosophical shifts that brought about a merging of classical and religious criticism?; and, 4) What is the timeline for the shift in philosophical, social, and religious thought in the Gothic Age?

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Jasinski outlines The Hermeneutics Situation of the medieval times as one that had not yet embraced or established an ontological relationship with rhetorical means. The primary function of the model used by the church was flawed in that is did not have a theoretical structure (not enough Biblical or rhetorical criticism) to provide an objective exchange. The Hermeneutics Situation of the medieval times: “need for delivery of Biblical text” Æ “understanding of Biblical text completed by clergy by means of conversation among peers Æ “acts of interpretation of Biblical text; interpretation focused on social issues current in the populi and monarchy communities” Æ “creation of meaning by use of symbols and metaphors” Æ “delivery of homily; the homily was different for each community: the clergy, the monarchy, and the populi.” Jasinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies. London: Sage Publications, 2001.

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4.5.1 Bibliographical Entries Aune, David E. The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament & Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric. London: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003. Barton, John, editor. The Cambridge Companion to Biblical Interpretation. UK: CUP, 1998. Barton, John, and John Muddiman. The Oxford Bible Commentary. NY: OUP, 2001. Blackburn, Simon. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. 1st Edition. NY: OUP, 1994. Bowden, John, ed. Encyclopedia of Christianity. 1965. NY: OUP, 2005. Coogan, Michael, ed. The Oxford History of the Biblical World. NY: OUP, 1998. Douglas, J.D., editor. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. MI: Zondervan, Publishing House. 1974. Ferguson. Everett. Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. 2nd Edition. NY: Garland Publishing, 1998. Geisler, Norman. Church Last Things. MN: Bethany House, 2005. Vol. 4 Systematic Theology. 4 Vols. To date, 1990 – 2005. Gunton, Colin E., editor. The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine. UK: CUP, 1997. Hastings, Adrian, et. al. The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought. NY: OUP, 2000. Jasinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies. London: Sage Publications, 2001. McGlinn, Marguerite, ed. The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric: Understanding the Nature and Function of Language. PA: Paul D. Books, 2002.

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Macey, David. Dictionary of Critical Theory. NY: OUP, 2000. Marias, Julian. History of Philosophy. Trans. Clarence C. Strowbridge and Stanley Applebaum. NY: CUP, 1967. Mason, Jeff. Philosophical Rhetoric: The Function of Indirection in Philosophical Writing. NY: Routldge, 1989. Lang, Stephen, ed. Everyday Biblical Literacy: The Essential Guide to Biblical Allusions in Art, Literature, and Life. UK: Burnell House, 2001. McGinn, Bernard, ed. Christian Spirituality: Origins to the Twelfth Century. NY: Herder and Herder Press, 1985. Vol 16 of 25 Vols to date, 1999. McManners, John, ed. The Oxford History of Christianity. NY: OUP, 2002. Metzger, Bruce M., and Michael D. Coogan. The Oxford Illustrated Companion to the Bible. London: OUP, 2005. Price, David, and Charles C. Ryrie, eds. An Illustrated History of the English Bible from Wycliff to the King James Version. Dubai: Emirates Printing Press, 2004. Proventi, John, ed. A Dictionary of Continental Philosophy. London: YUP, 2005. Rogerson, John, editor. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Bible. NY: OUP, 2001. Rohmann, Chris. A World of Ideas: A Dictionary of Important Theories, concepts, Beliefs, and Thinkers. NY: Ballantine Books, 1999. Rorty, Amelie Oksenberg, ed. The Many Faces of Philosophy: Reflections from Plato to Arendt. NY: OUP, 2003. Rosen, Stanley. The Philosopher’s Handbook: Essential Readings from Plato to Kant. Toronto: Random House Reference, 2000.

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Sloane, Thomas O., ed. Encyclopedia of Rhetoric. NY: OUP, 2001. Tenry, Merrill C., et al. The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. NY: Zondervan Press, 2009. Vol 1 of 5 Vols to date, 2009. --- . The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. NY: Zondervan Press, 2009. Vol 2 of 5 Vols to date, 2009. --- . The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. NY: Zondervan Press, 2009. Vol 3 of 5 Vols to date, 2009. --- . The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. NY: Zondervan Press, 2009. Vol 4 of 5 Vols to date, 2009. --- . The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. NY: Zondervan Press, 2009. Vol 5 of 5 Vols to date, 2009. Wainwright, Geoffrey, and Karen B. Westerfield Tucker, eds. The Oxford History of Christian Worship. NY: OUP, 2006. 4.6 CATALOGUED BOOK SERIES The enormous number of catalogued book series in the area of classical rhetoric, philosophy, and religion is simply too broad to contain in this bibliographical study. However, a trend in the compilation of book series entries and definitions found in these catalogued book series make the task of isolating those relevant to this research manageable. Cambridge University Press (CUP), Oxford University Press (OUP), and Westminster Press (both the Zondervan Press and John Knox Press), all contain the largest compilation of primary texts for catalogued books series in almost all areas of religious, philosophical, and medieval studies. The decision to compile book series into

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‘commentaries’ and/or ‘independent reference series’ occurred in 1916 when the narrative text of the entries became so lengthy that they no longer fell under the category of reference material (Marshall, 10). The entries below are a compilation of catalogued book series, compressed into both commentaries and references. The distinction is simply the extensive narrative content (a trademark of catalogued book series), used throughout the texts (15). 4.6.1 Bibliographical Entries Aune, David E. ed. World Biblical Commentary: Revelation 17-22. TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998. Vol. 52a of World Biblical Commentary Book Series. 52 Vols to date. 1998 – ---. World Biblical Commentary: Revelation 17-22. TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998. Vol. 52b of World Biblical Commentary Book Series. 52 Vols to date. 1998 – ---. World Biblical Commentary: Revelation 17-22. TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998. Vol. 52c of World Biblical Commentary Book Series. 52 Vols to date. 1998 – Balz, Hors, and Gerhard Schneider, eds. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. 1 of 3. 3 Vols to date. 1992 – 2000. ---. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. 2 of 3. 3 Vols to date. 1992 – 2000. ---. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. 3 of 3. 3 Vols to date. 1992 – 2000. Bromiley, Geoffrey, ed. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. UK: William Eerdmann Publishers, 1915. Vol. 1 of 4 [A – D]. 4 Vols to date. 1915 – 1930.

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---. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. UK: William Eerdmann Publishers, 1915. Vol. 2 of 4 [E – J]. 4 Vols to date. 1915 – 1930. ---. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. UK: William Eerdmann Publishers, 1915. Vol. 3 of 4 [Q – Z]. 4 Vols to date. 1915 – 1930. ---. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. UK: William Eerdmann Publishers, 1915. Vol. 4 of 4 [K – P]. 4 Vols to date. 1915 – 1930. Eaton, Markus, et al. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. NY: Abingdon Press, 1962. Vol. 1 of 4 [A – D]. 4 Vols to date. 1962 – 1974. ---. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. NY: Abingdon Press, 1962. Vol. 2 of 4 [E – J]. 4 Vols to date. 1962 – 1974. ---. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. NY: Abingdon Press, 1962. Vol. 3 of 4 [K – Q]. 4 Vols to date. 1962 – 1974. ---. The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. NY: Abingdon Press, 1962. Vol. 4 of 4 [R – Z]. 4 Vols to date. 1962 – 1974. Edwards, Paul, ed. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Abingdon Press, 1967. Vol. 1 of 5 [1 & 2]. 5 Vols to date. 1967 – 1979. ---. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Abingdon Press, 1967. Vol. 2 of 5 [3 & 4]. 5 Vols to date. 1967 – 1979. ---. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Abingdon Press, 1967. Vol. 3 of 5 [5 & 6]. 5 Vols to date. 1967 – 1979. ---. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Abingdon Press, 1967. Vol. 4 of 5 [7 & 8]. 5 Vols to date. 1967 – 1979.

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---. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Abingdon Press, 1967. Vol. 5 of 5 [Supplements: A-Z Cumulative Index]. 5 Vols to date. 1967 – 1979. Fahlbusch, Erwin, et al. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. NY: CUP, 1986. Vol. 1 of 5 [A – D]. 5 Vols to date. 1986 – 1999. ---. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. NY: CUP, 1986. Vol. 2 of 5 [E – I]. 5 Vols to date. 1986 – 1999. ---. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. NY: CUP, 1986. Vol. 3 of 5 [J – O]. 5 Vols to date. 1986 – 1999. ---. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. NY: CUP, 1986. Vol. 4 of 5 [P – Sh]. 5 Vols to date. 1986 – 1999. ---. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. NY: CUP, 1986. Vol. 5 of 5 [Si – Z]. 5 Vols to date. 1986 – 1999. Hayes, John, ed. Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation. UK: CUP, 1968. Vol 1 of 2 [A – J]. 2 Vols to date. 1968 – 1980. ---. Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation. UK: CUP, 1968. Vol 2 of 2 [K – Z]. 2 Vols to date. 1968 – 1980. Froom, LeRoy Edwin. The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation, 1950-1954. Vol. 1 of 4. MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. 1950-1954. ---. The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation, 1950-1954. Vol. 2 of 4. MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. 1950-1954.

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---. The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation, 1950-1954. Vol. 3 of 4. MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. 1950-1954. ---. The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation, 1950-1954. Vol. 4 of 4. MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. 1950-1954. Goldingay, John. Word Biblical Commentary: Daniel. TX: Word Books, Publishers, 1989. Vol. 30 of World Biblical Commentary Book Series. 53 Vols to date. 1989 –. Hillerbrand, K., et al. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. UK: OUP, 1996. Vol. 1 of 4 [ABST/DOOP]. 4 Vols to date. 1996 --. ---. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. UK: OUP, 1996. Vol. 2 of 4 [DORD/MANU]. 4 Vols to date. 1996 --. ---. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. UK: OUP, 1996. Vol. 3 of 4 [MARB/SCAN]. 4 Vols to date. 1996 --. ---. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. UK: OUP, 1996. Vol. 4 of 4 [SCHA/ZWINz]. 4 Vols to date. 1996 --. McGrath, Alister, ed. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Theology. NY: Blackwell Publishers, 1993. Marshall, Howard, ed. New Testament Theology. PA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001. Richardson, Alan, and John Bowden, eds. The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. PA: Westminster Press, 1983. Sakenfield, Katharine Doob, et al. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. UK: CUP, 2006. Vol. 1 of 5 [A – C]. 5 Vols to date. 2006 – .

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---. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. UK: CUP, 2006. Vol. 2 of 5 [D – H]. 5 Vols to date. 2006 – . ---. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. UK: CUP, 2006. Vol. 3 of 5 [I – Ma]. 5 Vols to date. 2006 – . ---. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. UK: CUP, 2006. Vol. 4 of 5 [Me – R]. 5 Vols to date. 2006 – . ---. The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. UK: CUP, 2006. Vol. 5 of 5 [S – Z]. 5 Vols to date. 2006 – . Vanhoozer, Kevin J., ed. Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible. MI: Baker Academics, 2003. Kvanvig, Jonathan L., ed. Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Religion. Vol 1 Oxford Studies in Philosophy and Religion Book Series. 2 Vols to date, 2009 – . ---. Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Religion. Vol 2 Oxford Studies in Philosophy and Religion Book Series. 2 Vols to date, 2009 – . McGinn, Bernard. The Foundation of Mysticism: Origins to the Fifth Century. NY: The Crossroads Publishing Company. Vol. 1 of The Presence of God: A History of Western Christian Mysticism. 4 Vols. To date, 1998 – . ---. The Growth of Mysticism: Gregory the Great Through the 12th Century. NY: The Crossroads Publishing Company. Vol. 2 of The Presence of God: A History of Western Christian Mysticism. 4 Vols. To date, 1998 – . ---. The Flowering of Mysticism: Men and Women in the New Mysticism: 1200-1350. NY: The Crossroads Publishing Company. Vol. 3 of The Presence of God: A History of Western Christian Mysticism. 4 Vols. To date, 1998 – .

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---. The Harvest of Mysticism in Medieval Germany. NY: The Crossroads Publishing Company. Vol. 4 of The Presence of God: A History of Western Christian Mysticism. 4 Vols. To date, 1998 – . Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1975. Vol. 1 of The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. 5 Vols. To date, 1971 – 1991. ---. The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600-1700). IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1975. Vol. 2 of The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. 5 Vols. To date, 1971 – 1991. ---. The Growth of Medieval Theology (600-1300). IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1975. Vol. 3 of The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. 5 Vols. To date, 1971 – 1991. ---. Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300-1700). IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1975. Vol. 4 of The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. 5 Vols. To date, 1971 – 1991. ---. Christian Doctrine and Modern Culture (since 1700). IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1975. Vol. 5 of The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. 5 Vols. To date, 1971 – 1991. 4.7 PRINT JOURNALS AND ONLINE JOURNALS The bibliographical entries in this chapter focus on two areas of research: classical rhetoric and Biblical theory. Research emphasis is given to Biblical theory due to the main focus and analysis of Apocalypticism in this bibliographical study. Individual journals in both areas of study must be researched and this requires a collaborative research rubric that isolates the critical databases containing selective primary sources 124

focused on (but not limited to): religion in late antiquity, humanism, individualism, hermeneutics, religion and rhetoric, philosophy and religion. Online journals featuring primary research in these areas of study are limited to discipline specific databases. The availability of the journals (print or online) is listed with each entry. 4.7.1 Bibliographical Entries American Theological Inquiry [Print and Online] Ars Disputandi: Online Journal for Philosophy of Religion [Online] Biblica: Commentarii ad rem Biblican Pontifi Investigandam [Online] Colloquia Maruliana: Humanism and Theology [Online] Harvard Theological Review [Print and Online] Homiletic: A Review of Publications in Religious Communication [Print and Online] HTS Teologiese Studies: Theological Studies [Online] Journal for Christian Theological Research [Online] Journal for Cultural and Religious Theory [Online] Journal of Biblical Studies [Online] Journal of Philosophy and Scripture [Print and Online] Journal of Religion and Society [Print and Online] Kairos: Evangelical Journal of Theology and Ethics [Online] The Saint Anselm Journal of Medieval Religion [Online] TC: A Journal of Biblical Textual Criticism [Print and Online] 125

Veritas: Revista de Filosofia y Teologia [Online] 4.8 RESEARCH DATABASES AND WEBLIOGRAPHY Bibliographical research is no longer limited to archival material. Web resources are a critical part of bibliographical research. However, the search for ethical and credible web resources is very tedious, particularly in the field of religious studies. In general, web resources in the form of Webliography, provide primary research references that can further the theoretical integration of interdisciplinary research topics. A Webliography is simply a vetted source of online research that harbors both primary and secondary sources for review. It is critical to recognize that a Webliography y is constantly changing and evolving through cyberspace. No longer are URL’s the standard of measure for searching a recommended Webliography source. One must have the original name of the web base or have a concept as to where the Webliography was hosted and what organization sponsored it. A Webliography for religious studies is difficult to assess due to the ethical nature of the sources catalogued in the Webliography. There is an exclusive database for religious studies: ATLA. Access to ATLA may be difficult due to the nature of exclusive religious databases that often exclude Boolean searches for interdisciplinary topics. ATLA is the standard for any research involving religion and philosophy in any and all historical periods. Listed below are primary Webliography sites that provide primary and secondary sources for Biblical theory pertaining to the late medieval era where classical texts were re-introduced.

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4.8.1 Bibliographical Entries www.acpa-main.org/ Analytical Philosophy of Religion is a broad range of web resources on philosophy of religion in the analytic philosophical tradition, including religious epistemology, theistic arguments, medieval philosophy, and classical studies. The site is maintained by the Michigan Institute of Religion. www.arts.ualberta.ca/axismundi/ Axis Mundi is an online web archive of articles on Biblical Eschatology of the New Testament. The site is maintained by the University of Alberta. Topics of religious studies dating to the late medieval era are provided. www.philreligion.nd.edu/ The Center for Philosophy of Religion was established in the fall of 1976 in order to promote, support and disseminate scholarly work in philosophy of religion and Christian philosophy through Webliography sources. All work is concerned with the traditional topics and questions - the theistic proofs, the rationality of belief in God, the problem of evil, the nature of religious language, and more. The site is maintained by at the University of Notre Dame. www.hds.harvard.edu/news/archive Harvard Divinity Bulletin is Webliography archive that includes articles, reviews, and opinion pieces on religion and contemporary life, antiquity, religion and the arts, religious history, and the study of religion. The site is maintained by the Harvard Divinity School.

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www.bu.edu/sth/sthlib/resources.html Religion and Philosophy Resources on the Internet is an annotated, selected web listing of local and world-wide Internet sources for religion and philosophy, maintained by the Boston University School of Theology. www.journals.cambridge.org/religiousstudies/ Religious Studies is an international Webliography archive devoted to the problems of the philosophy of religion as they arise out of classical and contemporary discussions and from varied religious traditions. The site is maintained by Cambridge University. Databases through Library of Congress: American Theological Library Association (ATLA) Academic Search Premiere: Religious and Philosophy Database Christian Liturgy in Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy Christian Thought and History Christian Thought and History: Medieval Epoch Christian Philosophy: Ancient to Renaissance Classical and Medieval Hermeneutics Doctrinal Theology Hermeneutics History of Christian Worship History of Religion Theology and Culture 128

Theological and Religious Studies Theological Studies: Early Middle Ages to Renaissance Translation of Christian Texts: Early to Late Medieval Epoch World Religions Electronic Journal Databases through ATLA: Acta Sanctorum Antiquity Biblical Theory Classical Studies: Medieval Rhetoric and Philosophy Classical Studies: Religion in the Middle Ages Classical Rhetorique Disputatio e’ Religione Medievale Homiletics and Oratoria Index to Late Antiquity Primary Sources Library of Greek Texts Medieval Review Medieval Religious Studies Medieval and Classical Library Roman Law in Medieval Philosophy Scripto: Medieval Religious Texts 129

Transcriptio 4.9 CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL At the dawn of the Gothic Age, the medieval populi was undergoing a hyphenated identity, working with the Catholic Church and serving the monarchy as well. The events that led up to this seemingly collaborative exchange between the populi and the Catholic Church are described as “a schizophrenic reaction by the Catholic Church to maintain any ethos as new translations of the classical texts disproved the church’s base for conversion and rule, demonstrating the church’s agenda for manipulation of medieval texts” (Osborne, 41). The basis for such a strong statement of usurpation of power and misuse of literary resources results from the events that occurred between the sixthcentury and the fourteenth-century. The populi witnessed and participated in conquests of lands and architectural feats, all under the constant demand for conversion. The church sanctioned Crusades and the monarchy sanctioned conquests of the crusades. There is no doubt that the populi were very careful which ruling power to join. The kings of the age would send the populi to war for land and the Catholic Church would send them to conquer lands by methods of conversion (Peannick, 105). The political, cultural, and religious milieu of the late Middle Ages changed with the acquisition of classical texts and the proper translation of the Greek New Testament (Brooks, 130). The proper translation of the Greek New Testament plays a significant role in the interpretation and the homiletics of the apocalypse for the populi. The outcome of the new translation resulted in an influx in literacy throughout the populi (144). New

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philosophical ideas challenged Christian thought and provided substantiation for the populi to continue their resistant to Catholic conversion. With the introduction of classical texts to the literary arena of the medieval era, the populi were able to respond (in a dialectic manner) to the monarchy and the Catholic Church by means of rudimentary, effective oratories in towns across Europe (Metzger, 155). The objective translation of philosophical texts benefitted the populi in that it prompted a solution for their problematic angst against conversion: there were new ideas out there that encouraged the populi to remain separate from the church (158). The bibliographical citations from Metzger, Osborne, and Ortony, all support the necessary advancement of the discussion of transcription and translation in both rhetorical and Biblical criticism. The ethical implications of the translations sanctioned by the Catholic Church (ones later found erroneous when translated with the original text) opens up the discussion for future topics of research in this area. Questions to be placed in context for future research: Where are the original documents presented by the Catholic Church requesting the translation of specific texts from antiquity? Why did the philosophers and writers commissioned by the Catholic Church to complete transcriptions retract the validity of their work centuries before? The use of interdisciplinary studies also helps advance the substantiated evidence provided by Girard and Fortin regarding the persistent theme of persecution against the populi in the Middle Ages. Girard introduces material that outlines the social tragedies inflicted on the populi in the name of the ‘sacred’ and the result of their social and religious unrest during the medieval era (178). Barr and Berrong present secondary 131

sources that demonstrate the implications that reach beyond a few specific, isolated issues in this historical era: the populi engaged in social negotiations that translated into opportunities for architectural design and apprenticeship in the Gothic Age (Barr, 58); literacy among the populi began a slow incline and prepared the way for oratory/literary collaboration with writers of the time. The cumulative bibliographical entries and annotations demonstrate the necessity for the use of cross-disciplinary research in all areas of medieval life, literature, philosophy, and religion. New adoptions applications of humanism and individualism thought created a philosophical impact that transcended to the reformation and renaissance. In order to understand the breadth and depth of the political, cultural, and religious forces that played a pivotal role in the development of the Christian Church at the intersection of the Gothic Age must be analyzed using both rhetorical and religious criticism.

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CHAPTER V THE MEDIEVAL APOCALYPSE AND VISUAL RHETORIC 5.1 INTRODUCTION Between 300CE and 800CE, the medieval towns and villages enjoyed a relatively stable industrial trade, regardless of the religious instability. The populi were involved in craft guilds (Malina, 33). Craft guilds were one of the most important institutions of medieval urban life. The guild was an association of merchants or craftsmen and retailers that regulated work practices giving all members social and financial support (37). There was no particular membership for the guild. The only requirement was that the members be well versed in the craft brought for contribution. Craft guilds were responsible for the basic revolve of the populi towns. Craft guilds included: weavers, dyers, cutlers, haberdashers, bakers, butchers, carpenters, swordsmiths, metal work, and painters1. The tasks in each were used for projects commissioned during trade routes or for trade across the villages (40). Profit, whether by barter or by coin, assisted in the survival of the populi.2

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These painters were not artists. They were responsible for painting lances, creating logos for armory, and houses (40). Malina, Bruce J. and John J. Pilch. Social Science Commentary on the Book of Revelation. MN: Fortress Press, 2000. 2 When the Catholic Church condemned the populi of heresy and tortured them, the church did not close down the trade routes in any attempt to bring an economic demise to the populi. Instead, the church collected half of the earnings of the populi, and called it “tithe for reconciliation of sins” a term that was never used after the late Middle Ages, when trade routes became open for missionaries to travel and share the holy message. Malina: 67.

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While the populi enjoyed certain stable trade, they lived in a dangerous era where their livelihood could be destroyed at any time. Rivalry among the villages, dangerous neighbors, rape, genocide, prostitution, murder, and disease were rampant and an unfortunate part of everyday life (Malina, 50). During the Dark Middle Ages, the law of the land had a similar tone to the golden rule: do unto others. The populi avenged cruelties, made peace with their neighbors, disengaged plans of battle with an enemy, and in the most basic of human nature took care of one another. The method in which they avenged cruelties has been deemed as “barbaric” by anthropologists and philosophers. Their method of documenting their successes and failures was through oral tradition and sketching.3 By 700CE, the populi was using heavy wheeled ploughs, rigid collars, draught horses, and water mills that were adapted for olive pressing and crushing mash for beer (90). These were all replicates of the engineering the populi had witnessed during trade routes. Among the populi community, everyone worked. Men, women, and children all worked in the fields. This ‘barbarian’ community had to work together to ensure details such as food for the winter, training children into craft (for the guilds), and maintaining the folklore and pagan traditions alive in the community (104). While the horrific experiences of the everyday did not contain the ‘apocalyptic’ title until the Christian Church provided it for the populi, the landscape of populi life was changing dramatically.

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The oral tradition of the populi was similar in nature to the traditions explored by Walter Ong. The populi had tribal rituals involving narration of folklore heroes and village lore. There were icons, symbols, and sketches of human frames to accompany the stories. However, literacy was not part of the tradition. The folklore and pagan rituals of the populi were not in excess ‘strange’ or ‘unusual’ as compared to other cultures of the era. The folklore and myth they shared in oral traditions set the tone for the sketches of people, animals, and supernatural beings they would later use to counter the apocalypse of the Catholic Church. Ong, Walter. Orality and Tradition. 2nd Edition. NY: Routledge, 2002.

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5.2 A BRIEF SURVEY OF MEDIEVAL RULE In 719CE, the populi witnessed power struggles and displacements of religious and monarchy appointments. The power struggle between nobles, knights, popes and the secular rule (the monarchy) – especially the Holy Roman Emperors, was one of the most enduring and far-reaching issues during the course of the Middle Ages. The monarchy appeared to be at a disadvantage when it came to the power struggles with the Catholic Church. Each castle contained a church maintained by the Catholic priests.4 When Pope Leo II announced the papal endorsement to Charlemagne, King of the Franks, by crowning him Emperor in Rome (800CE), the post came at a great cost. Charlemagne was required to provide all military protection to the pope and all papal estates. This was a preview of significant conflict between the papacy and the empire: who was supreme over whom? (Aberth,33). In the tenth-century and early eleventhcentury, the weakness of the papacy and the need for reform within the church safeguarded imperial perspectives. At the time, popes were controlled by powerful Roman nobles. The life style examples demonstrated by the popes and their constituents, left the nobles with serious concern for the empire’s support for the corrupt church (Collins, 51). 4

The medieval castles are still revered for their architectural design. In 500CE, the castles were reinforced and reinvented to provide special quarters for “a religious presence within the castle walls” (17). The churches were not entirely within castle walls. Half of the church remained as an appendage to the castle. Some kings left this entry open for noblemen and even the populi to visit once a year for mass. Whether the kings and noblemen (the monarchy), expected any problems to ensue with the Christian Church at this is not documented. However, several centuries later, once the Catholic Church implemented the papal seal, the monarchy closed the outside church entries and requested only one priest for service to the castle (25). The visual relevance of this is quite important. It demonstrates an initial partnership of both church and monarchy, then a clear division of church and monarchy (a ruling body that later adopted the term ‘state’ in the late Middle Ages). Aberth, John. From the Brinks of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague, and Death in the Latter Middle Ages. NY: Routledge Press, 2000.

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The reputation of the church was suffering from excessive abuses, especially simony – the sale or purchase of church office. The clerical marriage was more than problematic for the nobles, who witnesses the active participation of popes (and their holy constituents), in brothels, and illicit sexual acts condemned by the church (Aberth, 71).5 The nobles objected to clerical marriage both on spiritual considerations and practical duties. An unmarried priest would in theory, tend best to the medieval flock. While the nobles addressed these issues, the papacy was ineffective in making headway towards fixing the problems. During the mid eleventh-century, Pope VII made enemies of emperors and kings by engaging in reform that would require the monarchy to change and conform, accepting as ultimate power the symbol of the papal seal. The refusal of the emperors and kings to acknowledge the papal seal resulted in broken treatises and a promise of war against the infraction committed by the Catholic Church (Maier, 22). In the previous centuries, there were specific predictors and patterns in history that could have prevented this overtake by the Catholic Church. In order to understand the process and implication of the medieval apocalypse, it is necessary survey the historical landmarks that ensure the ultimate rule over the emperors and monarchy by the Catholic Church.

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Prostitution, brothels, and incest, were not uncommon incidents in the lives of the populi. The medieval towns had a ‘structure’ and thrived on a variety of commerce long before the church insisted on the conversion of populi and the abolishment of prostitution and brothels (16). The inconsistencies the nobility witnessed were also witnessed by the populi. Centuries after the early medieval towns were considered ‘heretic’ for their refusal to convert to “a life of Christ like living” the Catholic Church’s use of prostitutes and brothels had increased (22). The cognitive dissonance in the message and the actions of the Catholic Church were proved “inconsistent in every way to the populi” (Aberth, 44).

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The Roman Empire was in turmoil during the end of the fourth-century and the fifth-century, as barbarian tribes migrated westward (Backus, 100). In c.370CE, the Huns arrived in South Russia, and in the next century, led by Attila, they attacked the Eastern Roman Empire before invading Gaul. The Visigoths were admitted into the empire in 376CE, and they moved west sacking Rome thirty years later (Harpur, 79). Later, the Visigoths founded a kingdom in South France. The Vandals, a Germanic Tribe, moved first to Gaul and in the fifth-century continues towards North Africa. The Osogoths founded a Kingdom in Italy, centered on Ravenna. At that same time, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes left the continental mainland and invaded Britain (85). This began an expansion into Russia, Germany, and Spain. In the nineteenth-century, the Varangians settled in what we know now as Russia. They fought and defeated communities of Slav people living near the rivers used as highways into the interior. The Varangians used the rivers and founded posts to monitor trade, commute, and any arrival of competing warriors. Through these rivers, Christian missionaries reached the Varangians (Harpur, 104). During the tenth-century, Grand Prince Vladimir was converted by Byzantine missionaries to the Orthodox Church. Vladimir marries the sister of Basil II, the Byzantine emperor, settling an alliance between the empires. Vladimir’s regime practiced Byzantine Church rituals, worship, and followed in the trends of Byzantine architecture and art. All these elements were introduced into Russian life (110). The Russian province citizens were not all happy to engage in new religious practices and rituals, and quickly organized a small group of organized militants (once part of the Varangians militia) that organized a revolt against 137

the Byzantine Church. Through a legacy of princes and Lords, in the thirteenth-century, the Grand Dukes of the House of Moscow Guards established control over a significant portion of Moscow and honored the architecture and establishing the Russian Orthodox Church. The main center of religious control was created in Moscow (Bowden, 330).6 During the exchange of power in Russia, the military focus was on Spain. The dominant theme through the medieval era in Spain was the Reconquista (the re-conquest) by Spanish Christian armies of territories held by the Moors. The Moors were Muslims who had invaded the Iberian Peninsula (Aberth, 329). Spain has been under control of the Visigoths, a Germanic people who had crossed the Pyrenees in 456CE and settled with the native Spanish-Roman inhabitants in the area. By 718CE the Visigoths were conquered by the Moors (331). During the next three centuries, Spain’s complex medieval culture in which Muslims, Muzarabs, and Jews (all with separate religious ideology), made the city the most sophisticated and diverse in Western Europe. The Moors had philosophers trained in ancient languages and artists that later contributed the art of the Middle Ages (340).7 In 1212CE, the Reconquista received military support from the Catholic Church and gained victory over their neighbors in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (342). The

6

The Slav people were considered ‘pagans’ with extreme pagan rituals that went against the Christian thought. The reign of Vladimir brought an introduction to Byzantine worship and beliefs. While the Byzantine Church still honored their folklore (which entailed several conquest community’s deities and merged images of saints), the Catholic Church chose not to interfere with the Byzantine Church at this time in history. The Catholic Church did not find the Byzantine Church to be of any threat to their “conversion cause” in the Middle Ages. Aberth: 144. 7 The Moors are attributed with training philosophers that would assist with the proper translation and transcription of the Greek New Testament in the late Middle Ages. The Moors also trained artists in the classical form of style and design. These artists later contributed to both the populi art of the Middle Ages and worked with commissioned artists of the Catholic Church. Albreth: 360.

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Moors remained in Spain but converted to Christianity.8 The Christian Crusades were ongoing. Between the late twelfth-century and sixteenth-century, the Order of Teutonic Nights brought the spiral of the Christian Crusades into the Holy Land (Maier, 88). The conversions were not in vain. Germanic tribes aligned with the Oder of Teutonic Nights and took control of North Germany, forming an alliance with the then established German order of Knights of the Brothers Sword, who controlled the East Baltic Islands.9 The expansion of Christianity into Russia, Germany, and Spain, demonstrated the social and military control of the Roman Catholic Church through the early to late Middle Ages. The church took a strong hold on European castles, princes, noblemen, kings, and the strategic continents that would later assist the church in the war against reformation; an apocalypse all of its own. 5.3 THE APOCALYPSE The Book of Revelation was written c.95CE. It is likely that Revelation was in fact written by John, a Palestinian Jew, a conclusion suggested by several factors: 1) Revelation contains more than 300 allusions to the Old Testaments (OT), in Greek translation; 2) The author uses the literary genre apocalypse – a genre almost exclusively 8

As with any of the conquests that led to communities embracing Christianity, the term ‘Christianity’ used by all the authors cited in this chapter refers to the Christianity of the Catholic Church. 9 The Teutonic Knights were a military-religious order of knights that restricted membership to Germans. They were part of the original Hospitallers (in the Hospital of the Blessed Virgin), but under Hermann von Salza they split from the main branch and founded their own order, taking on a very distinctive white cloak bearing a stark black cross on the left shoulder. Upon the fall of Acre in 1291CE they retired to Venice where Emperor Frederick II commissioned them to convert the heathens in Prussia, Lithuania, and Estonia, becoming a very successful order headquartered in Marienburg from 1309-1509. The order to conversion was not accepted by the knights and they dispersed. Many of them sought refuge and alliance with the Templar Knights, who were also part of a restricted military order of the Catholic Church. Albreth: 200.

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used in Palestine Judaism -- as a vehicle for his message; 3) the author exhibits familiarity with the Temple of Jerusalem and its cult10 (McGinn, 198). The Book of Revelation belongs to an ancient tradition of “apocalyptic literature,” in which the secrets of the world’s future are to be revealed. The image ‘seen’ is a future in which the faithful will be rewarded and the evil will be punished (220). Although popularly understood as denoting a world-ending disaster, in fact the word apocalypse has a far more positive origin: apokalypsis, a Greek word meaning “the lifting of a veil,” or revelation (Grubb, 7). The genre apocalypse falls into two broad types: 1) a heavenly journey in which the seer receives the message in the celestial realm through the mediation of an angel; 2) the message is conveyed on earth but also through the agency of some celestial figure. Secrets are revealed through both visual and auditory means. The apocalyptic revelation is part of a broad movement away from the word of God conveyed in oral proclamation and tradition and toward the word of God fixed in written texts11 (McGinn, 18). The new and challenging nature of the religious vision found in the apocalypse reveals a God of kind Salvation (78). However, this was not the message conveyed to the populi. 10

The most direct and obvious aspect of the Apocalypse’s influence in the Middle Ages is to be found in the history of exegesis. The reemergence of ancient mythical patterns in apocalyptic eschatology gives the apocalyptic view of history not only much of its symbolic power, but also a dualistic coloring, both through its emphasis on the cosmic battle between good and evil and the present evil age, and the good, messianic era to come. Note:This intersection of rhetorical and religious studies was presented in Chapter Four. McGinn, Bernard. Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages. NY: CUP, 1979. McGinn: 10. 11 An apocalypse differs from a prophecy, although both convey information from a divine source. Prophecy is communicated directly to the prophet by God, who often takes visible form. An apocalyptic message is transmitted through an intermediary such as an angel (translated in Greek as “messenger”) and most often in the form of a vision or a dream (289). Bull, Malcolm. Seeing Things Hidden: Apocalypse, Vision, and Totality. UK: Verso, 1999.

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The Book of Revelation was introduced to the populi as a vision of horrid things to come if they did not convert to Christianity. The complex plot, characters, and language of The Book of Revelation made it almost impossible for the priests to quote the Latin version from it at length. The homiletics engaged more into a familiar organization model for the populi: oral tradition (Barr, 76). The Book of Revelation had heroes, beasts, death, future demise, and good versus evil and specific mythical characters that were easily translatable to the folklore of the populi. The text was open to interpretation and that is what the populi heard: a variety of interpretations that sought to bring in their folklore while condemning it at the same time (Crenshaw, 90). The homiletics also provided a sense of hidden meaning to the text. There were no straightforward summaries provided. The priests did not have any understanding of the text. Little time had been spent analyzing the true nature of the Book of Revelation. Still, the priests used their own ignorance as a caveat, making it clear to the populi that the concepts of the apocalypse would be revealed only and slowly to believers by those who would lead and know better: the priests of the Catholic Church (Duff, 89). The apocalypses were products of learned elite. Sociologically speaking, they appear to be tied to the challenges to more traditional priestly authority by scribes with skills to compose the interpreted scared writings (McGinn, 145). The Catholic Church relied on this fact. The homiletics on The Book of Revelation were often shared an average of twenty to twenty two times a month. During the days when the church was open for visitation from the populi to speak to a priest, the illuminated Bibles were left open on the pages of The Book of Revelation. The illiterate populi could not read the 141

Bible, but the images surrounding the text spoke for themselves. The marginalia in the illuminated texts were first created and distributed by church commissioned artists who carefully followed the guidelines of the beastiary12 (Duff, 121). The tactic was simple: conversion by fear. The hell mouth became a permanent fixture in portentia and pulpitum screens inside the church. The commissioned church artists were given free rein to explore the beasts of the apocalypse and include marginalia of the beasts in the illuminated texts of The Book of Revelation (145). Between 1289 - 1312CE, the Catholic Church was effective in the conversion of the pagan populi. Then, the populi had an epiphany, an epiphany that came at a great cost of lives (Emmerson, 58). By 1347-48CE, the world had changed. New land was being discovered. Voyages at sea were more common than ever. The Crafts Guild was a “well oiled trade machine” as the populi worked with the monarchy and the church to devise armor and tools,

12

The Medieval Bestiary was an exclusive collection of sketches and paintings of mythical and real animals and beasts, c.900, that evolved in c.1600 when Columbus brought new images of animals, insects, and savages from the New World (Cunningham, 60). The medieval bestiary contained original drawings compiled in loose leaf artist portfolios that were shared and copied throughout the European continent and through trade routes (82). In late antiquity, the collectors of ‘bestial’ sketches were often anthropologists (cataloguing visual reproductions of animals and insects), and scientists (cataloguing the muscles and organ images of dead bodies during dissection). The Greeks often had a commissioned artist with them at hand, to assist with the artistic visual reproduction of these images (87). The bestiary served to give “visual identity” to the gods and goddesses in Greek mythology, such as Pegasus and Cyclopes. The practice of drawing beasts from myth and folklore never died. In early medieval era, the practice of drawing beasts of folklore and oral tradition were not relegated to pen and paper. Images were carved in stone, inside caves, and used in guilds to represent a family, a town, or a cult (90). The ‘Medieval Bestiary’ received it’s official name in c.1390, when the illumination of The Book of Revelation was commissioned and completed by the Catholic Church. However, the illuminations presented a ‘problematic rendition of animals that did not evoke sufficient terror in the populi In return, the populi contributed to the illuminations with graffiti and marginalia that was exclusive to their pagan rendition of beasts (99). Current explications and copies of the Medieval Bestiary only contain truncated images of beasts and paintings of late antiquity through the renaissance (120). The exact location and design of the bestial images is very difficult to pinpoint due to the variety of locations where images continue to be found and archived. It is not rare for illuminated manuscripts and bestial folio images outside their physical region and culture (131). Cunningham, Andrew, and Peter Grell. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. NY: CUP, 2000.

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everything needed for war and Crusades (Duff, 91). Travelers suffered sickness at sea and bringing the illness to their homes. The black plague swept England and Europe. It was estimated that one out of every five people in England died. The plague was spread by rats and the fleas on the rats. The huge rat population was difficult to control (100). The disease was airborne and through the bloodstream if bit by a rat. The disease is characterized by the victim turning having dark purple tumors through the body and compromising the respiratory track. Respiratory failure gave the victims purple black hue hours before their death, hence the name, black plague. The numbers of dead were so significant that they were left to rot in the streets (104). The monarchy and the Catholic Church took no initiative to resolve this problem of the rotting bodies in the street. Instead they took shelter in their own quarters. After centuries of preaching the apocalypse, it appeared to have finally have arrived in medieval towns. The populi did not recognize what was happening outside the purview of their town. The illness among them was nothing they had experienced or witnessed before. Due to the illness in the ships, trade routes were abandoned. This created problems in the medieval towns, as the chain of horrible events unfolded: no trade, no money, poverty, extremely unhealthy living quarters, excessive spread of the plague. Meanwhile, the monarchy and the clergy hid in their castles and their cathedrals (Orr, 77). The indifference displayed by the monarchy was not a surprise for the populi.

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The indifference displayed by the Catholic Church evoked rage in the populi.13 For decades, the priests had expressed how the answers to the apocalypse would be revealed only to those who converted. Among the converted populi the rumblings of disbelief began. In the absence of Biblical answers, the populi returned to the folklore they had set aside as part of their conversion practices. There was comfort in the pagan rituals that did seem to provide answers (89). The ‘oracles’ among the populi, those that still practice folklore healing came together to solve the problem of the dead rotting in the streets. The travels with the Crafts Guild had provided exposure to different cultures, healing practices, and a basis for apothecary knowledge (101). While the populi buried or burned their dead in cages, Pope Clement VI interceded for them in public prayer from the comfort and distance of the Catholic Cathedrals. The populi certainly seemed to living through one of the plagues promised by the apocalypse. The heightened state of panic, despair and the increase in poverty among the populi were social conditions that Pope Clement VI was not oblivious to. At a time when the populi looked for meaning in the losses created by the plague, Pope Clement VI appeared to be more concerned with how 13

During the plague, the Catholic Church opened monasteries and small abbeys for the use of sick (infected) clergy, noblemen, and monarchy. These makeshift hospitals were run by the Catholic Church and admission into them was only ‘invitation’ of the pope (200). The techniques for containment of the plague derived from the work of the Roman physician, Galen. While the Catholic Church had sanctioned Galen’s teachings and practices as pagan in previous decades, they now embraced the medical advice in attempts to keep the clergy, the noblemen, and the monarchy safe and alive (212). The role of the Catholic Church during the quick spread of the plague soon became a contentious topic among the populi. While the Catholic Church cared for their own, the populi only received news of how they were responsible for this plague. As church sanctioned groups such as the ‘Flaggelants’ to visit the medieval towns and ‘atone the populi’ by promoting beatings and whipping; a practice that only promoted the spread of the plague, as open wounds were exposed to the viral components of the plague (220). What the populi noted was that church was losing loyal followers among them. Church documents note an increase in gifts to religious institutions, but a shrinking number of churches. Historians point out a general decline in moral standards, but at the same time, a flowering of personal piety and a revival of individual spiritual fervor (230). Collins, Adela Yarbro. Crisis & Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. PA: The Westminster Press, 1984.

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to continue using The Book of Revelation as a different, advanced tool of conversion. The Book of Revelation had lost credibility with the outbreak of the plague and the reaction and lack of engagement with the populi by the Catholic Church (Bynum, 73). Pople Clement VI continued to preach of the day of death.14 However, he did not meet the populi half way and his words went unheard and discarded by the populi who now abandoned their conversion and returned to their pagan roots. In 1351CE, Pope Clement VI began a visual rhetoric propaganda against the populi. No longer was the apocalyptic text necessary. The images would speak of more disaster and plague to come. However, the selection of the ‘right’ images to use from The Book of Revelation proved to be complicated. Requesting the help of friars, bishops, and clergy from across the European continent, Pope Clement VI outlined the most socially significant chapters of The Book of Revelation that would address the populi lifestyle and would uplift church’s visual representation of the apocalypse beasts as valid and realistic metaphors of plagues to come (88). Using the populi’s folklore heroes and basic ‘town characters’ and characterizing them as evil, Pope Clement VI unveiled the chapters and images that would most incite a reaction from the populi (90). The chosen chapters and the images from The Book of Revelation remained the chosen apocalyptic themes of ‘conversion art’

14

Pope Clement VI preached to the populi for days. A courtier document outlines the daily prayers of the pope combined with fasting (156). “Speaking from a far away tower is different than commiserating with the ill. All that the Catholic Church had accomplished was lost with that one visual disregard for the dying. They were just not important enough for him to help them bury the dead. That spoke volumes to a community that held deep rooted pagan beliefs on what happened to the spirits of the dead if their bodies were mistreated” (160). Duff, Paul, B. Who Rides the Beast? Prophetic Rivalry and the Rhetoric of Crisis in the Churches of the Apocalypse. NY: OUP, 2000.

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that continued through the reformation and the renaissance. The order of selections is presented here: 1. The Last Judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). The Last Judgment has adorned the western walls and portals of Catholic Churches and monasteries since the ninth century. The Byzantine artists had various renditions of the image that were later commissioned to travel to Rome for archiving. The Last Judgment focuses on two angels (witnesses) holding a book (Rev. 20:12), situated on both sides of the divine judge: God. The book represented the compilation of names in judgment at the time as well as a list of Saints that would not be judged due to their pious lifestyle15 (Cunningham, 189). The heavenly city visual borrowed from the medieval literature to present between 1100 – 1400CE. The populi were not part of the Saints in the Holy Land (O’Leary, 95). 2. St. Michael as the Dragon Slayer (Rev. 12). This image was chosen as a visual artifact that could transcend the divide between folklore and Christian teachings. St. Michael was also referred to as the Christ-Horseman. Although this image captures several references of the apocalyptic text, St. Michael Slaying the Dragon was presented as both a future and present event. The main purpose was to present the dragon as the metaphoric ‘plague’ that could only be slain by heavenly beings (O’Leary, 87). The image was also called the Christ-Horseman

15

This is an example of how ‘loose translation’ of the images provided were delivered by the Catholic Church. The hermeneutical and exegetical study of The Book of Revelation provides a concise definition of Rev. 20:12. The wrong definitions were used to the benefit of the visual campaign by Pope Clement VI under the pretense that the populi would never understand The Book of Revelation (Duff, 190).

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for the purpose of collaborative artistic practices with the monarchy.16 The Rider is “faithful and true” and rides on a white imperial horse, ready for adventure and conquest (Rev. 19:11-16). The image of the perfect white horse immediately dismissed the possibility that the populi were part of the experience of The ChristHorseman (McGinn, 168). 3. Whore of Babylon (Rev. 18:2-7). This was a necessary and important image for both the Catholic Church and the populi. The Catholic Church made little effort to explain the metaphoric nature of the whore as it pertained to the city of Babylon. Instead, the similarities between the moral characters of women in the Middle Ages became a topic of discussion in the weekly homiletics. In order for the apocalypse not to ravage the medieval towns, pious living and moral character were needed. However, this message did not seem to apply to the behavior of the clergy in brothels. The visual details of the whore resembled much of the social portrait of a whore in the medieval towns. The detail of jewelry adornment, the dress, and even the ‘pose’ of the whore riding the dragon was a social and moral statement against the lifestyle of the populi.17 The Catholic Church emphasized the moral character of the whore and in doing so could not foresee the fascination 16

In the great effort to create elite, frightening images of the apocalypse, the Catholic Church had to request assistance from the few artists of the monarchy that remained to assist in this visual campaign for conversion. In the c.1400CE, the Catholic Church had to maintain a civil alliance with the monarchy, regardless of their power struggles. Duff: 121. 17 The Whore of Babylon is one of the visual images presented that demonstrated the most reaction by the populi for the mere fact that clergy and noblemen were regular visitors to the medieval town whore houses. The abbeys and small churches in the European region of medieval towns often solicited the presence of populi prostitutes inside the ‘holy walls’ that provided sanctuary for the heathen. The populi reacted first to this image simply for the fact that they qualified that if an exchange with a whore was evil, then the church was not clean of evil exchanges at all. Duff: 222.

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the populi would have with the beast she was riding: its meaning purpose and questions of folkore as the whore seemingly appeared to tame the dragon (McGinn, 208). 4. The Seven Angels with Trumpets and Messages of Woe and Destruction (Rev. 8:6 – 10:8). These images were placed as centerpieces in choir windows and screens inside the cathedrals and churches. Each angel was given a specific weapon of war to use in their charge as predicted in the text of The Book of Revelation (O’Leary, 110). The messages of woe and destruction became the most significant art production for the Catholic Church. Tapestries were required with individual panels of imagery for the populi to view. These were the main visual artifacts from The Book of Revelation chosen by Pope Clement VI. With full backing of the monarchy, the papal estates became the quick and laborious work of shaping the illuminations, screens, choir windows, and marginalia to overlay in the Bibles found throughout the medieval towns (Orr, 199). The artists borrowed from Byzantine and Russian art already depicting the six selections by the Catholic Church. However, the Catholic Church could not predict that the visual campaign would not be productive but disruptive in the medieval towns. For the populi had folklore beasts and apocalypse of their own, and after the Catholic Church’s lack of assistance during the plague, the populi were wiser to the conversion techniques that emerged to bring them ‘back to the fold and protection of the Catholic Church, with the Pope Father caring for the populi’ (Bulley, 51).

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5.4 VISUAL RHETORIC METHODOLOGY FOR THE POPULI’S APOCALYPSE In the study of visual rhetoric, Arnheim argues that visual analysis of any rhetorical artifact must contain a psychological component (14). Following in Arnheim’s argument for the psychological analysis in visual rhetorical artifacts, theorist Bright contends that the beasts and characters of the apocalypse can only be understood through psychological analysis and sociological criticism (55). Bright outlines the necessity to place the artifact within its anthropological, historical, and sociological milieu. A thorough analysis of what was happening at the time and how the artifact is relevant to the historical era (60). Elkins demonstrates how the art critics cannot see beyond the ‘obvious’ and must rely on an object’s own “internal sense of organization in historical placement” (44), a concept that would work well with the images created by the populi to counter those produced by the Catholic Church. In contending with visual rhetoric theory, one of the most relevant theorists is Dondis, who introduces the necessity for an “applied visual methodology and art history module to properly understand the visual artifact at hand” (23). Dondis’ argument for an applied visual methodology simply requires a basic taxonomy of elements for analysis. How do these theoretical constructs translate into a methodology for the analysis of populi medieval apocalyptic art? A taxonomy table that could address the rhetorical genres of the medieval era already exists in Aristotle’s Rhetoric.18

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Aristotle. Trans. by G.T. Phillips at the British Library, 1934.

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Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres have not been used for the purpose of study in visual rhetoric, specifically in medieval artifacts. The rhetorical genres are divided into three categories: deliberative, forensic, and epideictic. The medieval apocalypse contained elements that meet the category of each genre. The visual rhetoric analysis of populi art that dealt in the carnivalesque and the monstrous should be analyzed using the deliberative, forensic, and epideictic genres for the simple fact that the genres also explore: audience orientation, temporal orientation, dominant discursive strategy, subject matter, and objective. All of these rhetorical components are critical in the understanding of the visual rhetoric component of both the imagery in The Book of Revelation and the imagery in the medieval theatre of the apocalypse. In analyzing the populi’s visual response to the images produced by the Catholic Church, it is important to note that the populi artists incorporated elements of the monstrous and carnivalesque that pertained not only to their daily lives but were part of their folklore.19 Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres acknowledges temporal definitions between each genre and the secondary components pertaining to the genre.

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The populi used images of folklore to contend with the images of the Catholic Church. The beasts, the mythical celestial creatures, the depiction of the whore --- all these images took a monstrous appearance that was actually more frightful than what the Catholic Church could ever produce (14). Bildhauer, Bettina, and Robert Mills. The Monstrous Middle Ages. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.

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5.4.1 Table: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres

Table 1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric. SOURCE: Adapted from Jasinki’s Model. See also Rhetoric Sourcebook.

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There is no question of the contention present throughout the Middle Ages among the three social structures: the populi, the monarchy, the Catholic Church. As established earlier in this chapter, the populi engaged in trade and traveled across a specifically charted trade route for bartering and financial trade [Figure 1.1]. During their travels across the various seas and channels, the populi were introduced not only to other cultures and social strictures, but also to the art and visual artifacts of the culture (Morgan, 14). Often the images encountered by the populi were of revolt, contention, labor to the monarchy, and creative art (19). This became obvious as the populi entered the twelve century with a visual rhetoric module that portrayed art methods of populi painting from other European medieval towns. It appears that the populi throughout the European and Nordic continents shared the common experience of oppression by the monarchy and contending conversion battles with the Catholic Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Orthodox Church20 (25). The medieval apocalypse had reached all areas of the Europe: Aragon, Belgrade, Castile, Dublin, England, France, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Scotland, Sicily, Sweden, and Russia (30). For years the populi had traveled, traded, and spent time with these various cultures as they were formed and shaped through barbarian conquest, war, crusades, and monarchy rule. Through traditional forms of art history, a researcher can appreciate the common themes among these continents, islands, and peninsulas: origins of man, sin, salvation, torture, death, and the afterlife (Ross, 51). 20

In the first two sections of the folio Pictur in Carmine, the author describes these three distinct titles for the medieval churches “in reign” and offers only the explication that three names served to represent “three different forms of worship and converts” (Pictur in Carmine).

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The Black Death had a powerful impact on the medieval artists across these lands, bringing awareness of the true nature of an apocalypse and how the Catholic Church could not promise enlightenment and salvation. Conversion had been offered as the only way towards salvation and the only way to avoid the apocalypse. Conversion failed. The populi now had to respond to a visual attack that not only angered them but also created alliances between other cities, artists, and medieval towns that shared the same demise as the European populi. In c.1355CE, the Catholic Church commissioned artist Fra Angelico to provide adequate detail and training to other commissioned artists for the rendition of visual art of the apocalypse (Morgan, 78). Angelico was a Dominican friar in the monastery a Fiesole commissioned to decorate the friars cells with frescoes painted directly on the cut plaster walls (80). The paintings were loose depictions of Biblical stories and often had both erotic and bestiary content to them. However, Angelico was invited to train the new artists under the same pretense for which he was commissioned to work on the frescoes: to loosely interpret the visual art of the apocalypse (88). The task of selecting artists that would work with Angelico became even more difficult due to the religious requirements of the candidates. Individuals were expected to join the Catholic Church and follow all of its religious tenants in order to be part of this “collaboration” of art (90). The conversion had to occur before the artist could submit their portfolio for viewing by Angelico. The collaboration began, but it was not without difficulty. Angelico had to work through dozens of artist folios containing bestiary painting samples and lettering samples (including the modern calligraphy). 154

The artist presenting folios to Angelico received specific guidelines on what artistic pieces to deliver for critique and analysis. The artist had to demonstrate significant artistry techniques in: 1) two portrait paintings of a noble family; 2) one portrait painting of a cardinal in the Catholic Church; 3) five images from the bestiary; 4) original adaptations of the images selected from the bestiary (to make it modern); and, 5) celestial beings (Morgan, 89). The artists often had to work within a very truncated timeline. The lettering samples were simply listing of all the font type the artist could work in [Figure 1.2]. The task of finding an artist with suitable bestiary artistry proved to be difficult. Many of the artists of the era were skilled in the craft of “beautiful” and not “monstrous” sketch and design (Morgan, 92). The images catalogued as primary folios submitted to Angelico demonstrate little understanding by the anonymous artists to understand the need for monstrous representation of the beasts. The artist were often shy about presenting the monstrous beasts required (100). For example, Nordic mythology revered the lion as a forceful beast and the populi guilds depicted the animal in a frightful manner. For the populi a lion was not a The artists commissioned by the Catholic Church were lacking in the proper understanding of the powerful nature of folklore and myth as it applied to the bestiary for the apocalypse [Figure 1.3].

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Figure 1.2: “The Artist’s Letter and Calligraphy Folio Sheet” (11 x 17) in heavy parchment paper to absorb the ink. Folio sheets were often left in the charge of the commissioning body. The artist had to duplicate these by hand. Source: Vatican City Archives, Rome.

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Figure 1.3: Anonymous Artist Folio Sheet Depicting a Happy Lion. A visual rhetoric artifact that fell short of the required monstrous depiction that was familiar to the populi. Source: Vatican City Archives, Rome.

Proper representation of beasts and loose interpretations of the apocalyptic texts were not the only problem encountered by Angelico. He found that the populi were prominent guests in the in the cathedrals and the castles, working as laborers around the delicate portraits Angelico was furiously trying to complete. In a letter to the papal state, Angelico described:

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“The difficulty with containing the essence of the art is the continual interruptions by the commission of artists that have not fully taken their task of the Pope Father to heart. The artists lack in monstrous images and detest the idea of inaccurate translations of The Book of Revelation. Even while it is clear it will help the barbarians understand judgment day. There has been a grotesque addition to our work, none of which comes from the hands of the Papal Father’s graces and commission to service. The tapestries can only be painted in small sections. I fear barbarians in our mists. Any additions of beast cannot fully be eradicated from the tapestry. We can only paint over the beasts in small sections, since our materials are not as solid as the ones that overtake our careful shapes” (Morgan, 91).

Angelico had discovered an inside working of populi artists that knew textile, paint, design techniques, and knew when to graffiti the church commissioned art. The commissioned art, the overlays of textile over the illuminated manuscripts in Bibles across the medieval towns, as well as the Bibles inside the church structures in the monarchy housing were tampered with by the populi. The populi had collaborated with the church craftsmen to build cathedrals and structures so elegant that they created fear by their mere architecture. The populi collaborated in the Crusades, often serving as captains in ship armadas and tending to the technical day by day care of ships. The monarchy had invited the populi to help fill the ranks of militia and even sanctioned the building of weapons, blacksmith work, for the Crusades. The populi had infiltrated all necessary posts to present their social counterarguments (Morgan, 101). This was done by altering the visual syllogisms of the Catholic Church.

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The populi artist demonstrated the ability to recreate bestiary images containing beast of myth and folklore as well as faces closely mimicking the features of the religious artists. Through their work in the castles and with clergy, the populi had taken careful notice of the images in the illuminated manuscripts, cloisters, paintings, cathedral ceilings, and woodcuts (Duff, 101). There was little art the the populi had not encountered. They were versed in blacksmith labor where the artistry of emblems and logos became part of their task. With trade and travel in the Crafts Guild, the populi had secured a specific knowledge of the necessary tools of the trade to create, deface, and alter images in cloth, wood, cement, and sculpture [Figure 1.4]. The populi were advanced artists with the ability to access and insert marginalia into illuminated texts that only had the scratch board (not the actual painting yet), as well as the illuminated manuscripts that were complete. The task of painting over cloisters using fine lines that still imitated the run of a single thread of fabric was outstanding! The complete illuminated manuscripts in the pulpitum and in books inside the church often had the most populi marginalia (graffiti). The populi could interject monstrous images with limited time and scarce tools for the task [Figure 1.5]. While Angelico searched for the perfect art folio from the Catholic Church commissioned artists, the populi already had their own portfolios. Images of folklore, symbols of pagan tradition, and shapes of ghouls and spirits (all part of the populi culture), filled the walls of their homes and filtered through to affect and respond to the visual rhetoric argument presented by the Catholic Church.

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Figure 1.4: The Image Cartouche of the Populi, c.602. Random drawings that served as evidence of populi artistry. The cartouche remained with the artist during the guild travels. This could be one of the ways in which the populi in various continents shared their art. Source: Hermitage Museum Manuscript and Illumination Vault, St. Petersburg, Russia.

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Figure 1.5: “Illuminated Book of Genesis” c.891. The original right hand overlay (containing angels and the image of God) was commissioned art by the Catholic Church. The falling demons on the lower left hand side and the images of ghouls approaching Adam and Eve in the garden is a representation of the fall of man as depicted by the clergy. The populi inserted specific ghouls and demons to demonstrate the story was more complex than they had been told. Source: Hermitage Museum Manuscript and Illumination Vault, St. Petersburg, Russia.

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5.5 ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOLARSHIP Throughout the research involved in the art of populi and their response to the visual propaganda of the Catholic Church, the research methodology of choice has been the rhetorical genres structure by Aristotle. Using this model, the original contribution to scholarship in the area of visual rhetoric of the medieval apocalypse required an elaborate travel itinerary to find and catalogue the responses of the populi to the six apocalyptic themes in chapters of The Book of Revelation.21 These are the themes presented by Pope Clement VI. The apocalyptic themes presented by the Catholic Church were: I.

The Last Judgment

II.

St. Michael as the Dragon Slayer: The Christ-Horseman

III.

The Whore of Babylon

IV.

The Seven Angels with Messages of Woe and Destruction; The Great Controversy

I. The Last Judgment The Last Judgment was presented in the early Middle Ages as “judgment that would exclude those who were converted into Christianity” (Reston, 34). After the fourteenthcentury, the populi who had converted witnessed how the Catholic Church could not truly predict the future of apocalypse. They also witnessed the behavior of the church officials during questionable apocalyptic events. Before the plague, the populi had already witnessed the visual arguments by the Catholic Church. The populi was aware that the

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The list of travel locations, chapels, catacombs, museum curators, art societies, and international locations for all artifacts found are presented in Appendix A.

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visual images created by the church commissioned artists were indeed arguments for conversion. The visual images by the Catholic Church of the late thirteenth-century present a different judgment, a loosely translated judgment that incorporated both elements of apocalyptic vision and folklore. In a series of seven color paintings with golden threaded frames, The Last Judgment presented a deteriorating image of the holy city and its inhabitants and the judgment ensued. The first painting depicts a city with saints and a monarchy unaffected by the apocalyptic beast (with seven heads) at the center of the city, standing on a pedestal. The seven angels of the apocalypse are present in the painting. One is reading from the scroll, while two other watch the unfolding events. A fourth angel is pouring a cup of destruction on the apocalyptic beast, while the last two angels tend to the land the souls of those hidden under the city [Figure 1.6]. The second painting is divided into three horizontal panel sections. The first depicts an image of the Holy God with a sheep, one of the beasts from the apocalypse. The second panel portrays the toiling of the medieval town, with the vision of quiet oceans (predecessor to the bloody waters brought by the sound of the second trumpet), with saints praying to the Holy God and paying no attention to the oceans. The third panel contains one of the most important symbolic representations of the populi’s demise in The Last Judgment: the ladder to salvation. Climbing the later is a member of the populi, who is three rungs up the ladder that is placed within the scene of a medieval town. The medieval town has images of nuns, friars, and clergy. The medieval town is depicted as a quiet settled town [Figure 1.7]. 163

Figure 1.6: “The Last Judgment” c.1290. Source: Monastic archives in the Sacred Island of Delos, Greece.

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Figure 1.7: “The Ladder of Salvation” c.1310. Source: Monastic archives in the Sacred Island of Delos, Greece.

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The remaining five paintings in this set take a usually macabre tone to The Last Judgment and the image of a medieval town. It is relevant to note that these five paintings were not found together with the first two. There is no evidence to support that these paintings were ever presented or collected at the same time. The grotesque demons and gargoyles made an appearance in the paintings. The third painting introduces the folklore image of the reaper, lurking through abbeys, churches, and castles, as an angel reads through a scroll. The image of the reaper was not uncommon to the populi folklore. An important visual inclusion in this painting is the “floating face” of what appears to be God. Still, there are no previous markers to indicate the trend for this image of God. However, the face is presented in the Byzantine artistic technique of a wide halo, which creates another problem identifying the face: the halo used does not have smooth borders and this could indicate the figure is that of St. Peter, not of God [Figure 1.8]. Regardless of their disdain for the pagan populi, the Catholic Church was immersed in Nordic, Greek, and Byzantine folklore and myth. The art demonstrates this. The central heavenly images share incredibly close resemblances to Nordic Kings of the early medieval era. Surrounding these images are other celestial beings such as the myth of the Byzantine goddess of beauty (represented by a female angel bearing wings of peacock feathers). Surrounding the kings are falling crowns and bestial gargoyles reading what appears to be religious texts (note the location of the texts). The image of any beast reading was an obvious attack at the literary abilities of the populi as well as a comparison of reasonable abilities of understanding the Christian literature between animals and man [Figure 1.9 and Figure 1.10]. 166

Figure 1.8: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse, c.1311. Source: Orthodox Monastery, Patmos Island, Greece.

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Figure 1.9: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse, c.1311. Source: Orthodox Monastery, Patmos Island, Greece.

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Figure 1.10: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse, c.1311. Source: Orthodox Monastery, Patmos Island, Greece.

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Continuing in the artistic trend of the macabre and the gothic, the last two paintings present the image of a Hell Mouth at the lower tier of the story line. The Hell Mouth is in the shape of a monstrous beast. The paintings are easier to appreciate by viewing as rungs in a ladder (from the bottom up), where the story seems to begin. The first Hell Mouth has demons pushing the populi into their doom. The physical features of the demons and the facial features from the previous paintings are both complimentary and conflicting. Significant to the Images of Judgment and Apocalypse is the obvious cast system depicted by the three horizontal separations in the paintings [Figure 1.11]. The populi inhabit the section of the Hell Mouth, the clergy and the monarchy inhabit the middle section, while angels guide them to the top rung where God reigns on a thrown. These are all acceptable premises that were presented to the populi during the weekly homily offered at the Cathedrals. The final painting depicts a second Hell Mouth opening for the exit of a soul reaper with sword on hand and bestial creatures following. The top tier of both paintings present a combination of the Holy God, the Horseman of the Apocalypse, and dual images of suffering through quests of the Crusades or the fall of nobility, which ultimately would doom the populi [Figure 1.12]. Observing these images, it is necessary to note how the populi would quickly understand the argument conveyed by these paintings. The detail provided by the Catholic Church artists was exquisite. The details surrounding the Hell Mouth and the demons are very detailed. However, the populi contained a different form of art that was truly more realistic in depicting the ongoing events of the apocalypse in their era. 170

Figure 1.11: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse, c.1311. Source: Orthodox Monastery, Patmos Island, Greece.

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Figure 1.12: Images of Judgment and Apocalypse, c.1311. Source: Orthodox Monastery, Patmos Island, Greece.

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While commissioned artists had endless art supply resources at their disposal, the populi had limited resources for the production of original art. Often they worked with art supplies they had on hand. For example, wood. For The Last Judgment, the populi artists devoted their talent to three images in woodcuts and scratchboard. The images represented the daily judgment the populi were currently living. The first three images presented here, were created in the same timeline as The Last Judgment series by the Catholic Church. Although the populi images were not as beautiful in color and artistry as their counterparts, the argument of the populi is very clear. The populi addressed the ladder of salvation, demonstrating the impossibility of climbing up the rungs and the quadratic division of what was happening above. Above, the angels were consorting with monstrous beasts. Below, the tree of good and evil was placed in the right corner (this is equivalent of where the tree would be found in individual interpretations of the Hell Mouth). The tree was set aside and no monster or human was close to it. Instead, away from the tree there are monstrous beasts either elevated the populi to the top rungs of the ladder, or eating them [Figure 1.13].

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Figure 1.14: “The Torture of the Unconverted” c.650. Source: Biblioteca Apostolica, Ephesus, Turkey.

The populi were living the last judgment and the images presented in the in the woodcuts were of torture [Figure 1.14]. Several bodies are tortures in the second woodcut; however, the most obvious body is one of a naked woman being tortured by devil creatures and monstrous beasts and ghouls. The devil creatures have truncated bodies containing two faces (following the Gallic myths of creatures that were ravenous and hungry and had two mouths and two stomachs to satisfy themselves). The image is 175

representative of the torture inflicted in the populi who refused to convert and where found guilty of heresy. A different Hell Mouth is depicted in the last scratchboard image of the populi. The populi are seen trapped inside castle walls by monstrous beasts, ghouls, and demonic figures. As with the previous woodcut, this image portrays the architecture of the castle in quarters. This offers a few tell-tale signs of religious architecture of the era. The “quartered” architecture is one the populi would have collaborated in with both the monarchy and the church in building castles and cathedrals. The castle module is evident with the high walls and high stone structures. The traditional stone ledge of a citadel is demonstrated in this image. The art depicts a fortress and inside corner of a castle. At the bottom of the scratchboard image there is a trapped group of populi, slowly burning in hell fire while others are slowly cooked in a brick stove. The entry way to the room is through church archways (the same structural arch basis for the Gothic Cathedrals). While the monarchy (the castle) has mangled bodies and roped individuals, the church (the basement room in the castle), resembles more an entry to hell. It is important to note that the construct of the building is significant in many ways. As mentioned, the castles had to accommodate a church within a specific amount of space (specific space that would enter the monarchy castle). In this image, the populi selected items shared by the monarchy and the clergy in the hybrid castle/cathedral module. The brick stove was a staple architectural feature in all church modules that were placed inside castles. The church was responsible for their own heating accents.

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Figure 1.15: “The Structure of Judgment” c.782. Source: Vatican Library Archives, Rome.

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The diverse artistic scope of the medieval populi was evident in every visual artifact that would counter any argument visually presented by the Catholic Church. While it is difficult to properly date the art by the populi (mostly due to the delivery process which was focused on carnival celebrations where the art would be displayed), there are certain pieces of art that demonstrate collaboration with an artist inside the artist’s circles, commissioned by the Catholic Church (cited in Chapters One and Two). The initial seven paintings commissioned by the church (c.1400), had one equally colorful and elegant populi painting. The painting demonstrates an overuse of the apocalyptic beasts and places them in religious historical contexts such as the Crusades, and locally the confessional and the rectory. The beasts are also fighting for or sharing the papal staff. The beasts presented are monstrous rats dressed as friars. One of the rats touches the forehead of the king, and in the painting the next in line for the same touch is the pope. Considering the dated mark on the paintings, it is obvious that the Black Plague is addressed in a retaliatory manner, touching those that received sanctuary in the Gothic Cathedrals and king’s castles [Figures 1.16 – 1.20]. As the first apocalyptic theme of conversion art, The Last Judgment was meant to strike fear in the populi. The paintings by the Catholic Church became less elaborate before reaching the renaissance peak. The populi in Russia and in the Kingdom of Serbia also generated images of The Last Judgment. These images were not in direct response to the Catholic Church, but rather in solidarity with the medieval towns across the various empires.

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Figure 1.16: The Last Judgment Revised, c.1390. Source: The Hermitage Museum Tapestry and Painting Reserve. Moscow, Russia.

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Figure 1.17: The Last Judgment Refined, c.1400. Source: Exeter College Museum Vault, University of Oxford, London.

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Figure 1.18: “The Entitled Noblemen” c.410. The names of saints that will not be judged are etched in the doorway. The saint gives command for the Judgment to John the Revelator. Source: Church in Amorgos Repository, Greece.

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II. St. Michael as the Dragon Slayer The dragon was a powerful mythological creature in almost all pagan communities, in myth, folklore and folk tales (Bulley, 22). The stories of battling the dragon created a cautionary message between ‘right and wrong’ among communities in these battles. There was a villain and there was a hero. Through ancient antiquity and through the Late Middle Ages, the hero always killed the dragon (30). Christian iconography of St. Michael, slaying the dragon created a rather ominous new symbolic meaning for the populi: one-sided imbalance. No longer were the heroes’ everyday men and women. The Catholic Church had established a new. The only hero that could slay a dragon was St. Michael (41). The first painting commissioned for St. Michael was c.1410 [Figure 1.21], and it began as a black and white sketch that was quickly dismissed as “inadequate in that it displayed a pious, shy St. Michael” (Kessler, 45). The second version more on the Christ Horseman and was in color and the image contained more detail [Figure 1.22]. St. Michael was riding on a white horse, symbolic of the monarchy, and wearing a cardinal’s robe (50). However, the image lacked ethos. A dragon slayer needed the appeal of a warrior. Before a third portrait was commissioned by the Catholic Church, the populi created both a hero and a warrior in a portrait of St. Michael. The populi enhanced the warrior ethos by providing St. Michael with a sword, not a burning chalice (torch). However, St. Michael was now riding on a spotted black horse (not representative of monarchy training), and appeared to be exiting the mouth of a black dog which still remains a symbol of the Hell’s Hounds.

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In this counter argument to the Catholic Church’s presentation of St. Michael, it would appear that the populi created the heroic image for the church! In medieval folklore, a black dog had mystical powers [Figure 1.23]. The dog would be spiritually bound to a human companion, a warrior. If the warrior was wounded in battle, the black dog would lie next to the warrior and heal all wounds (Davis-Weyer, 115). The contradicting symbols and images created a pagan hero. The populi had managed to establish St. Michael as a pagan hero by the very use of the beasts in the painting. In all paintings, the veil of the apocalypse is portrayed in a different way, specific to each discourse community.

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III. The Whore of Babylon. “Come, I will show you the judgment of the great whore who is seated on the many water, with whom the kings of the earth have committed fornication, and with the wine of whose fornication the inhabitants of the earth have become drunk” (Rev. 17: 1-3). The first seven verses of Revelation 17, are a detailed personification of the city of Babylon as a whore. However, through the early to late medieval era, the symbolic and metaphoric nature of the whore was not explicated to the populi (Duby, 56). The initial paintings commissioned and provided by the Fra Angelico apprentices and masters, depicted the Whore of Babylon as a noblewoman, a distinct part of the monarchy. This was not a compliment to the noblewoman of any era. The initial paintings demonstrated a mythological representation of the woman. The Greek idea of the maiden, the lady, and the crone appear to be depicted in the images used to represent The Whore of Babylon. Most of the depictions demonstrated the symbolic social status of the whore houses. In Italy, the image was painted in tapestry and held up to cover an open wall in a medieval abbey [Figure 1.25]. By 1440, the diverse populi communities across the European continent interpreted the Whore of Babylon in their own way.

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Figure 1.25. “The Whore of Babylon” c.1440. Casale Santa Brigida Monastery, Calvi del’Umbria, Italy.

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Dublin and Russia populi shared another tapestry rendition of the Whore of Babylon. The woman portrayed wore a scarlet coat. In this particular region, a scarlet coat was a symbol of a high priced concubine for the monarchy (Ferguson, 33). The concubine was holding a chalice that pre-dated the tenth-century in Russia [Figure 1.26]. The chalice is reminiscent of the Chalice of Dubai, in the Moorish reign (222).

Figure 1.26: “The Noble Whore” c.799. Source: Tapestry Vault of Medieval Works, The Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.

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The Sicilian populi focused on honoring the two witnesses by demonstrating their participation in helping the saints of the church burn the Whore of Babylon. Interesting in the design of the anonymous Sicilian painting is the contorted shape of the red beast (not a dragon). The beast has no resemblance to any animal in the medieval bestiary. The whore is the only one (in this set of paintings and tapestries), that is dressed in the correct purple/red colors. However, she is wearing a crown that is distinctive to the Sicilian Monarchy in thirteenth-century [Figure 1.27]. Across diverse cultures, the populi depicted The Whore of Babylon in the same way that the commissioned Catholic Church artists did: as a noblewoman. The populi always presented a visual counter argument to the paintings by the commissioned church artists. Why would there be similarities in this particular subject and visual interpretation?

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Figure 1.27: “Burning the Whore of Babylon and Her Liege” c.932. Source: The Covaja Palace, private archives, Sicily, Italy.

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The Scandinavian monarchy commissioned the art of the apocalypse to the populi during the late tenth-century. This time pre-dated the pursuit of mages by the Catholic Church; however, it supports the theory that most of the populi in any European country that experienced ‘conversion’ began painting the apocalypse right away. The Scandinavian depiction of the Whore of Babylon has a distinct image. The first important detail to note is that she riding the wrong beast. Scandinavian lore dealt with myths of late antiquity and Dionysus wore similar attire. The woman is placed in front of a mirror but there is no reflection of her. The two witnesses are in a compromising position, as one angel seems to be carrying the other. Another complication to the social perception of the Whore of Babylon in the Scandinavian image is the fact that she is not holding a chalice or a cup, but rather a bottle of perfume. The bottle resembled the structure of Russian palaces [Figure 1.28]. The Scandinavian interpretation of the Whore of Babylon was not problematic to the Catholic Church. It certainly provides a challenge for rhetorical criticism. While the images of the populi were not catalogued under curator titles and numbers, the populi often wrote phrases in corners or in the back of their paintings and cloisters. The importance of noting the signature phrases is the translation of the art selection itself. Although the image is meant to represent The Whore of Babylon, the translation introduces the woman in the painting as The Princess of Deception [Figure 1.28].

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IV.The Seven Angels with Messages of Woe and Destruction: The Great Controversy The Catholic Church preached that The Last Judgment would not occur without a final battle. The commissioned art of the apocalypse had produced very few images of the angels involved in the final battle (Duff, 301). Instead, the images of the angels were left to each individual chapter of The Book of Revelation, and cloth overlays were placed on the illuminated Bibles22 [Figure 1.29]. Images of angels conducting the horrors of the apocalypse were common in populi art and design [Figure 1.30]. The difference between the populi’s rendition of The Seven Angels and the artistic rendition of the church commissioned artist was the clear reference to the chapter and verse of The Book of Revelation. The populi did not include text with their images of The Seven Angels with Message of Woe and Destruction. The church commissioned artists always included the biblical text under the quartered paintings.

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The difficulty with the cloth overlays was the manner in which the painting was bound to the illuminated text. Often it required metal brackets that would hold the cloth in its proper place (DavisWeyer, 209). The cloth overlays were difficult to paint and as with any tapestry art, the piece of cloth was separated into four vertical or horizontal equal parts to ensure the dimensions of the images were as exact at possible (211). This particular cloth overlay demonstrates the four vertical lines that keep the proportions of the image effective in design.

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Figure 1.29: “The Message of the Second Angel” c.1452. Source: Vatican Archives, Rome.

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Figure 1.30: “The Angel Pouring Water on the Beast as it Emerges” c.642. Source: Topkapi Palace Museum, Turkey.

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Figure 1.31: “The Four Tiers of Heaven and the Feasts of the Saints” c.620. Source: Topkapi Palace Museum, Turkey. In this tapestry, the populi have used the doorways of heaven (where the name of the Saints were engraved in the castles), as literal tombs for the populi, as the saints look down and watch the carnage.

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Figure 1.32: “The Two Witnesses” c.701. Topkapi Palace Museum, Turkey. The messengers are holding the Book of Saints (known as the Book of Doom) for the populi. The witness on the left has royal apparel and what appears to be a crown placed over the wing. The first witness bears the sainted circle of a friar (not a saint) and seems to be holding the book open for the witness on the right to inspect.

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Figure 1.33: “The Dark Angel Leads the Beast” c.699. Source: Istanbul Museum Turkish and Islamic Art, Turkey. The beast with seven heads seems to be led by a dark angel bearing a collar moon as a point for attention by the beast. The importance of a dark angel (wearing black), is that the color scheme of good angels was white and the bad angels was black. It appears that a dark entity has risen with the beast as well.

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Overall images of the result of the Seven Angels Message were depicted in monumental tapestry designs of the Great Controversy (the battle preceding The Last Judgment). The work of this tapestry art was commissioned to the artists of the Catholic Church. However, the populi had more experience working with tapestry in their guilds, and consultations were in order (Bulley, 287). Consultations are not collaborations, and the Catholic Church soon discovered that the populi participation in the tapestry art was affecting the intended message. However, as with the image of St. Michael slaying the dragon, the populi proved to contribute more to the cause of a frightening Great Controversy than the church had anticipated. The tapestries demonstrate a convoluted, confused image of a final battle that brings together separate visual elements of each chapter of The Book of Revelation. The detail is simply outstanding and demonstrates a unity to the art between the populi and the Catholic Church. The first tapestry is intricate in detail, and synoptic is short images [Figure 1.34]. For example, there are short images depicting Michael and his angels fighting Satan and his attendants (left of tapestry); the woman is receiving wings and flying away (center of tapestry); there is an image of the beast worshipped and above the scene, the lamb on an alter, facing Zion (top right of the tapestry); the beast of the earth is attacking the saints (bottom right of tapestry).

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The second tapestry was created at the same time as the first [Figure 1.35]. The contrasting images (compared to the first tapestry) are dissonant and less detailed, lacking in dimension and placement of characters. The second tapestry also presents short synoptic images of The Book of Revelation. For example, there is a distribution of the angels and trumpets; the rain of fire is mingled with hail and the mountain is (as predicted) casted into the sea; there is a great multitude with branches (center of tapestry); the fire breathing leopard horse and the great angel with legs of fire is giving the little book to John the Revelation (bottom right).

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Between the fourth-century and fourteenth-century, it is estimated that the populi created over twenty thousand art depictions of the apocalypse and the Book of Revelation (Gellrich, 79). It is important to make the distinction between the apocalypse of the populi (outlined in chapters three and four), and the images of The Book of Revelation. Most of the paintings, woodcuts, tapestry and cloth overlays of apocalyptic images survived war, Crusades, change in monarchy, and the papal rule. Where did these artifacts go? In order to substantiate the use of methodology for analysis of the medieval apocalyptic art of the populi there must be an understanding of how these images have traveled and where they currently reside. A better understanding of the production and upkeep of manuscripts and paintings is relevant in this research. During the early Middle Ages, illuminated manuscripts were not bound [Figure 1.36]. Rather, each individual artist completed pages that would later be entered into an already bound text with blank pages that would allow for the illuminations to fold into the book without additional binding (Kostelnick, 56). The practice of inserting single leaflets of art into illuminated manuscripts began as early as 510CE, when monasteries maintained thematic libraries that contained similar topic manuscripts frequently updated [Figure 1.37]. When pages were added into the illuminated manuscripts, the weight made the additional pages permanent fixtures in the text [Figure 1.38].

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The art of the populi was never bound or placed in artist folios. The art was displayed during medieval town carnivals and most likely traveled through the trade route for display, sale, and barter. This is certainly a valid assumption for the multiple locations and varied artistic techniques of individual medieval populi apocalyptic art. Similar renditions of the same visual artifact created by populi are found literally across the world. The unique artistry is useful in determining where the artifact originated. For example, the Byzantium art was very specific in artistic style and technique. However, selected Byzantium art of the populi has traveled across continents! The art of the populi was also not restricted to woodcuts, scratchboard, cloisters, or metal works. Some of the most relevant and poignant medieval apocalyptic art of the populi is found in the architecture of the time. Cathedrals, castles, caverns, and even temples were selected canvases for the art of the populi. The artistic techniques of the varied canvases demonstrate a fascinating fact: the populi traveled within and outside trade routes and left their own cultural artistic renditions of the apocalypse in architectural and natural canvases of places they were visiting.

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Figure 1.40: Catholic Church commissioned apocalyptic rendition of the dragon vomiting water on the woman now holding the Christ child as she has earned her wings, c.806. Source: Church in Athens, Religious Archive.

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During the Renaissance Era, the acquisition of apocalyptic medieval populi art became a project for the Catholic Church, kings and queens, and noblemen (Duff, 119). Some of the art was displayed, some were reconstructed (segments of the art duplicated by artists of the era), and some of the art was stored and simply quoted by medieval curators in now abandoned artistic monarchy archives.

Figure 1.41: “Queen Eleanor’s Apocalypse Image” c.1210. The Queen sent a curator to find images of the populi apocalypse, The Last Judgment. Source: Queen Catherine’s Palace, Pushkin, Russia.

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Figure 1.42: A replica of the last selection of “The Seven Cloisters” commissioned by the Catholic Church, c.1230. Henry IV sent scouts and curators to find these images and then had the images duplicated (artistic replication) by an artist of nobility. Source: Queen Catherine’s Palace, Pushkin, Russia.

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Figure 1.43: Populi apocalyptic paintings in the catacombs of the Konya Mevlana Museum, c.320. The image presents the locus swarming out of the bottomless pit. The woman is threatened by the dragon, her child is being taken away. One of the first images of the Ark of the Covenant is displayed here demonstrating integrated art of the both the Old and New Testament.

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Figure 1.44: Populi art demonstrating the door to heaven is not open, c.420. The door to the entry of heaven should be placed in the middle of the two dark winged angels at the top of the sphere. The images in the sphere are paintings of the twelve elders, guarded by the four angels (four corners) of the earth. This is one of the first replicates the populi attempted after viewing the sculpture for the image. Source: The Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.

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Figure 1.45: “The Beast From the Ocean” c.1810. The image used by the reformation artist had several borrowed artistic tenants from the folklore bestiary used by the populi. The image is presented to demonstrate how much the art of the populi affected the seventeenth and eighteenth-century artist purview. Source: Kings College Receptor, Oxford University, London.

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Figure 1.46: “Angels Losing the Fight Against the Populi Beasts” c.501. Tapestry. Source: National Museum of Prague, Czech Republic.

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The medieval apocalyptic populi art is not limited to the few visual artifacts presented in this research. However, all of the images presented can be analyzed further using Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres. The goal of the methodology study is to place the images in context of a visual rhetoric structure (see Chapter Six). It is a loss for the study of visual rhetoric and medieval art that most of the populi art has been displaced or destroyed. Much of the outcome of the images depended on how controversial they appeared. This fact should create a sense of urgency for the research and cataloguing of the few remaining precious apocalyptic art of the medieval populi. Images survived years of Crusades, conquests, overturn of monarchy, and papal rule. The lingering question for further study remains: how did these images travel to such distinct and random locations? 5.6 PRIMARY SOURCES The primary sources in this section results in a compilation of theoretical applications in the areas of the apocalypse, visual rhetoric, and art. The scholars listed as primary sources all contribute to their own discipline. It is the unique nature of the artistic pieces that has created a cohesive bibliography in this chapter. Scholars in the area of the apocalypse focus on the Biblical interpretations and prophetic impact of The Book of Revelation. The studies of synchronic and diachronic applications of the prophecy are relevant in the study of the images created by the populi. The theories of visual rhetoric are quite unique in this study. Biblical theory is still reluctant to embrace visual rhetoric as a field of study that can be used in interdisciplinary exegesis

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applications. The compilations of sources here represent a hopeful collaboration between Biblical, classical rhetoric, visual rhetoric, and critical theory. 5.6.1 Bibliographical Entries The Apocalypse Aberth, John. From the Brinks of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague, and Death in the Latter Middle Ages. NY: Routledge Press, 2000. Aberth focuses on the socially constructed description of the apocalypse in the Middle Ages. Introducing primary sources that list specific issues of plague, famine, and death, Aberth portrays an image of the populi that was searching for peace and not interested in conversion. Aberth argues the populi were living a daily apocalypse with famine, war and plague. Therefore, the Christian introduction of the apocalypse was not a new concept for the populi. Aberth argues that in order for the Catholic Church to effectively convert the populi the proper persuasion technique would have been to meet the populi at their apocalypse and provide much needed medical and financial support to combat famine and plague. Aerts, W.J. and E.A.A. Kortekaas, eds. Die Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius die Altesten Griechschen und Lateinischen Ubersetzungen. Vol 569. CA: Petters Publishing 1908. PRINT. Aerts examines medieval texts that were translated and transcribed in late medieval times. Aerts focuses on the apocalypse as the most “under translated” text [58] due to the Catholic Church’s desire to interpret the Biblical book orally and not textually. Aerts provides monographs used during homilies in the medieval church services, and uses these as evidence to demonstrate that the medieval apocalypse was delivered orally and not textually. The ‘snapshot images’ presented to the populi were folkloric in nature, so that they would understand the severity and repercussion of non-conversion.

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Backus, Irena. Reformation Readings of the Apocalypse. NY: OUP, 2000. Backus formulates a taxonomy approach to all literature of the apocalypse in the Middle Ages. Backus examines the possible scenarios for the distribution of this literature across Geneva, Zurich, and Wittenberg during the reformation. Readings of the apocalypse contained marginalia. The marginalia was surrounded by additional iconographic symbols and art throughout the pages. Backus argues that the rudimentary imagery and the specific use of artistry tools can be traced to the populi during the early and late medieval era. Backus, Irena. Reformation Readings of the Apocalypse: Geneva, Zurich, and Wittenberg. NY: OUP, 2000. Backus argues that the Reformation era was not a future-directed movement but rather a continuation of the patristic and medieval beliefs and behaviors surrounding the translations of the book of Revelation offered to the populi. Backus cited the erroneous translations of the book of Revelation and the use of these translations to re-organize a social coupe that would once again give power to the Roman Catholic Pope. Barnwell, Aster F. Meditations in the Apocalypse. MA: CUP, 1981. Barnwell explores the apocalypse through a spiritual lens, arguing that any application or interpretation of symbols in the book of Revelation is tainted by postmodern theories of symbolism. Barnwell draws examples of the increasing use of symbolism, spirituality and the pagan zodiac as examples of the unclear interpretation of signs and symbols in the Book of Revelation. Barr, David, ed. The Reality of Apocalypse Rhetoric and Politics in the Book of Revelation. GA: SBL Press, 2006. Barr argues that the Book of Revelation depicts socially constructed and sanctioned ‘medieval world’ where the cast system was strongly enforced in order to monitor [and 221

change] individual identity of a social group living under imperial rule: the populi. Barr uses rhetorical strategies and tactics revealed in the oratory of medieval apocalypse homilies to demonstrate how improper use of rhetoric challenged the Catholic Church’s effort to preach the apocalypse and not ‘teach’ it. Bauckham, Richard. The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation. Scotland: England Press, 1993. Bauckham disputes that the literary analysis in the book of Revelation is its claim to rhetorical significance in religious studies. Bauckham explores the book of Revelation as an integrated literary whole, and argues for rhetorical analysis of the text in order to properly identify the visual components of the book. Refuting the relationship between Revelation and the inception of Protestant religious roots, Bauckham argues that Revelation will only effectively convey meaning through rhetorical analysis and not the traditional Biblical literary criticism. Brummett, Bary. Contemporary Apocalyptic Rhetoric. NY: CUP, 1981. Brummett recasts insights from medieval scholars and theologians to create an organic, relevant, rhetorical examination of apocalyptic illustration in rhetorical discourse. Brummett focus on Aristotle’s Five Canons of Rhetoric and argues that the Book of Revelation is a rhetorical text of political communication relevant to the time in which it was written. Brummett classifies the Book of Revelation as a text that should be devoid of metaphoric interpretation and infused with rhetorical focus of audience and situationally contingent values. Bull, Malcolm. Seeing Things Hidden: Apocalypse, Vision, and Totality. UK: Verso, 1999. Bull constructs a theory that reunites philosophy, history, tradition, and religion in order to “unsubstantiated the political theory of what our postmodern society believes the apocalypse truly is” [16]. Arguing against the current trends of philosophical 222

applications of explaining the apocalypse, Bull establishes an interdisciplinary need to explore the apocalypse in an objective manner. Bull presents original Biblical and historical texts in order to debunk philosophical concepts of the ‘real’ apocalypse presented by writings of Kant, Hegel, Benjamin, and Derrida. Bynum, Caroline W., and Paul Freedman, eds. Last Things: Death and The Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. PA: PENN Publishers, 2000. Bynum and Freedmon bring together essays on the competing eschatology of the Middle Ages. The authors explore ways in which these exposed different sensibilities, different theories of the human person, and a different understanding of the body of time and the end. Key to the essays is the common thread of social dichotomies in the populi social structure and their struggle against the Catholic Church. Collins, Adela Yarbro. Crisis & Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. PA: The Westminster Press, 1984. Collins analyzes the recent religious and literary studies of the apocalypse in order to provide a new approach for interpretation of authorship of the Book of Revelation. Collin argues that the situations addressed in the Book of Revelation ad the social meanings involved merit a rhetorical analysis of argumentation and persuasion, not a literary review of metaphoric language. Crenshaw, James L. Prophets, Sages and Poets. MP: Chalice Press, 2004. Crenshaw explores ancient texts as historically informed perspectives that engage questions of authorship and narratives in religious prophets, mystics, sages, and Christian poets. Critical to Crenshaw’s work is the analysis of discourse, dialect and definitions for these categories of “wise people” in the Old and New Testament. Crenshaw enhances current research work on prophecies [and those that delivered the prophecies] by demonstrating how pagan and Christian tradition have blurred the lines of proper authorship, failing to admit their collaboration in interdisciplinary research. 223

Cunningham, Andrew, and Peter Grell. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. NY: CUP, 2000. Cunningham and Grell explore the visual components of the four horsemen of the apocalypse creating a rhetorical analysis to assert the symbolic representation of each horseman in medieval religious teachings. The authors link the crisis of the “Day of Judgment” to the social, religious expectations of the medieval era. Cunningham and Grell provide a rhetorical analysis of images of the horsemen without the dissonance of literary interpretation of use of metaphor in their research. Drane, John, ed. Revelation: The Apocalypse of St. John. The Classical Bible Series. Oxford University Studies in Philosophy and Religion. NY: OUP, 1997. Drane compiles a series of primary sources indicating how prophetic visions, themes, and images of the apocalypse have been accepted and deciphered in our culture. The author focuses on Christian translation and transcription of the apocalyptic texts to argue that continued review of these text must be completed using sources other than religious hermeneutics and theological scholarship. Duff, Paul B. Who Rides the Beast? Prophetic Rivalry and the Rhetoric of Crisis in the Churches of the Apocalypse. NY: OUP, 2000. Duff argues against the traditional theological interpretation of the Book of Revelation, presenting research to substantiate his claim that the book does not reflect any persecution or harassment of Christians. Duff provides evidence from the social and economic context of the medieval ages to support his rhetorical analysis of the Book of Revelation. Duff’s research disowns any legacy of Catholic persecution against Christians [as has been offered by theological exegesis of the Book of Revelation]. However, Duff leaves the Greco-Roman historical influences into medieval philosophy as rubrics for interpretation of the term ‘apocalypse’ itself.

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Emmerson, Richard K., and Bernard McGinn, eds. The Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. London: Cornell University press, 1993. Emmerson and McGinn compile interdisciplinary essays written by an array of leading medievalists, in order to offer an overview of the influence the apocalypse had in shaping the Christian culture of the Middle Ages. Essays focus on interpretation, representation of authorship through transcription and translation, manipulation in medieval historical and religious texts in order to keep the populi under monarchy and church control. Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler. The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment. 2nd Edition. MN: Fortress Press, 1998. In a comprehensive study of chapter five through twelve in the Book of Revelation, Fiorenza presents and uses classical argumentation to deliver historical landmarks in the medieval era that provide a visionary rhetoric of what the apocalypses was described ad during the Middle Ages and how similar the description is in our era. Fiorenza’s use of history, Christian and medieval philosophy presents a curious politics of interpretation that allows for a dialogic exploration of research in the study of the specific chapters of the Book of Revelation selected. Friedlander, Saul, et al. Visions of Apocalypse: End of Rebirth? 1961. NY: Holmes and Meier, 1985. Friedlander explores and outlines the history of apocalyptic thought, including beliefs that predict a total end for human kind. Isolating specific historical events and eras as the catalysts for the promulgation of this school of thought, Friedlander focuses on the Middle Ages as a critical time when ideas of Apocalypticism were engendered through art, speech, and social hierarchy. Friedlander argues this was the pinnacle of thought for the current Apocalyticism theories we use now.

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Friesen, Steven J. Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Rereading Revelation in the Ruins. NY: OUP, 2001. Friesen develops an interdisciplinary approach to the study of the Book of Revelation in order to properly understand the imperial cults present in the medieval era. Friesen argues for that the relationship between classical studies, art history, and Roman law is the most effective research technique to understand how the imperial presence enabled the ‘creation’ of the oration of the Book of Revelation. Friesen’s landmark work incorporates the use of visual rhetoric as an invaluable resource for Biblical scholars. Grubb, Nancy. Revelations: Art of the Apocalypse. NY: Abbeville Press, 1987. Grubb presents a limited collection of apocalyptic art from the high Middle Ages. The collection of art focuses on the “notion that there were additional, anonymous artists that contributed to the art of the high Middle Ages that were obsessed with monsters” [44]. Grubb’s theory contains the premise for “searching original work” in the disciplines of religion, art, philosophy, and rhetoric. Jones, Larry Parl, and Jerry L. Sumney. Preaching Apocalyptic Texts. KY: Chaice Press, 1996. The authors explore the increasing attention given to the apocalyptic texts. Using theories of hermeneutics and homiletics, Jones and Sumney outline a model on how to develop current scholarship in exegetical situations using various research communities. Jones and Sumney argue for interdisciplinary research for an effective, objective, study of apocalyptic texts. Landers, Richard, Andrew Gow, and David C. Van Meter. The Apocalyptic Year 1000: Religious Expectation and Social Change, 950 – 1050. NY: OUP, 2003. The authors explore the “tumultuous events and prodigies” [51] in Western Europe during the medieval era that resulted in a mutation of philosophical interpretations and 226

Christian belief that created challenging and heretic views of the apocalypse. The authors argue that political, cultural and religious dogma created an overall mentality of apocalyptic “hype and anxiety” [66] that has effectively carried through the millennia. McGinn, Bernard. Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages. NY: CUP, 1979. McGinn outlines the historical period 400ce – 1500ce, and provides a socio-cultural analysis of the populi tradition, beliefs, practices, and visions of the apocalypse, in order to negate the argument that literature and art of the populi was heretic. McGinn argues that the everyday life experience of the populi was apocalyptic it itself; the populi’s response to the predictions of chaos by the Catholic Church were not new events of daily life in the medieval towns. Maier, Henry O. Apocalypse Recalled: The Book of Revelation after Christendom. 1982. NY: OUP, 2000. Maier extrapolates exegetical information regarding author and narration of the apocalypse, in order to present a “plot” or journey of the text of the apocalypse. Maier argues that the Book of Revelation was written under duress, as St. John at Patmos was imprisoned when the vision came to him. Maier presents archeological evidence that demonstrates St. John did not have the necessary literary tools at his disposal to properly document the visions given to him. Therefore, the Book of Revelation has gone through many literary content revisions. Malina, Bruce J. and John J. Pilch. Social Science Commentary on the Book of Revelation. MN: Fortress Press, 2000. The authors address issues of altered states of consciousness, ancient economy, honor and shame, group formation process, and purity codes in the authorship and narrative of the Book of Revelation. Malina and Pilch create a critical image of the Catholic Church and pagan worship in late antiquity that translated into the Middle Ages and made the 227

message of the Book of Revelation difficult to translate to the populi and impossible to transcribe through Christian manuscripts. Montague, James Rhodes, O.M The Apocalypse in Art. UK: British Academy, 1927. Montague prepared a bibliographical text that serves as a guide to all writings of the apocalypse from 1900-1927. The author catalogued primary documents containing references to apocalyptic art commissioned by the monarchy and the Catholic Church during the medieval era. Montague’s research later served as a reference document for Richard Emmerson and James Murphy, as these authors also catalogued manuscripts listing placement of apocalyptic art commissioned by the monarchy and Catholic Church. Musto, Ronald G. Apocalypse in Rome. UK: YUP, 2005. Musto recounts the era between Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, as a time when communication and philosophical dialogue were necessary but not used. Musto argues that during the early Middle Ages, the translations of religious texts were overzealously transcribed and no guarantee for proper translation was attempted. Using primary documents to demonstrate the translation errors, Musto presents evidence that the Catholic Church was aware of the errors in translation and transcription and did nothing to resolve the problem because the errors served the church’s purpose well. O’Leary, Stephen. Arguing the Apocalypse: A Theory of Millennial Rhetoric. NY: OUP, 1994. Drawing on philosophers such as Aristotle, Kenneth Burke, Ricoeur, and Max Weber, O’Leary constructs a model of the rhetorical strategy of apocalyptic discourse that engages interdisciplinary verbiage and theories. O’Leary argues that rhetorical analysis of the Book of Revelation is impossible without the use of cultural studies, historian documents, and ‘millennial consciousness’ training. Millennial consciousness research is based on critical theory and postmodern philosophies.

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Orr, James. Revelation and Inspiration. 1910. British Columbia: Regent College Publishing, 2002. Orr presents a Biblical, philosophical instructive model from which the Book of Revelation can be studied using a rubric with Biblical theological and philosophical theories. Orr’s rubric outlines Biblical themes, current social, cultural and medieval subject coding. Orr argues for the integration of Systematic Theology and classical rhetoric as the proper approach to study the Book of Revelation. Reston, James. The Last Apocalypse: Europe at the Year 1000 A.D. London: Anchor Press, 1971. Reston recounts historical events during the three decades before 1000A.D. Reston establishes a timeline that demonstrates how the Christian Church converted, conquered, and slaughtered their way into dominance [15]. Reston attributes these events to the birth of a new civilization where the populi retained evidence of the unspeakable acts of the Church in the name of conversion. The author’s timeline suggests the populi only kept textual documents after 1400 and these were later transported to other countries as spoils of war. 5.6.2 Bibliographical Entries Visual Rhetoric and Art Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. 1969. CA: University of California Press, 1997. Arnheim argues that visual analysis of any artistic, rhetorical, and notably literary form, deserves the application of psychological terms of analysis. The premise of Arnheim’s argument is the detailed acknowledgment of the descriptive organization of the psychological interpretation necessary to objectively analyze art through the psychological lens.

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Beckwith, John. Early Medieval Art. NY: OUP, 1965 Beckwith presents a comprehensive history of medieval art containing illustrated luminous reproductions of the medieval era. Beckwith explores the artistic styles of the Ottonian period (Romanesque) as well as the Mustair art created for Charlemagne’s court. The goal of the historical illustrations is to demonstrate the breadth and depth of rational existence of symbolism in the art of the populi. Bright, Michael. The Revealing Natural History of Animals in the Bible: Beasts of the Field. SC: Anovia Press, 2006. Bright engages in critical research separating fact and fiction by examining the juxtaposition of myth and reality in the beasts and natural worlds presented in the Bible. A Natural Historicist, Bright explores the variety of animals, beasts, and mythic creatures in the Bible, ending in an overview of the mythic explication of beasts of the apocalypse and the bestiary of the Middle Ages. Bulley, Margaret. Ancient and Medieval Art. NY: OUP, 1914. Bulley historically catalogues the ancient and medieval art left in abandoned ruins and temples during the last Crusades. Bulley’s argument argues that the art in these locations were not original art, but art that contained adaptations and “graffiti” acquired during the ransacking of the Crusades. Bulley matches symbols from ancient Rome, later used in the art of the Middle Ages by the populi to the historical accounts of the art in the ruins and temples. Bulley catalogues an artistic transition between culture and religion of late antiquity and medieval ages. Byson, Norman, et. al. Visual Culture: Images and Interpretation. NH: Wesleyan University press, 1994. The authors reunite theories of trans-historical research, critical theory, and art history to support their claim that a critical criteria for evaluating visual rhetoric artifacts is 230

needed. Exploring individual applications of history and art, the authors argue for a cross-disciplinary shaping of study where all elements of visual rhetoric are tailored into clear rubrics of study. Carruthers, Mary. The Craft of Thought: Meditation, Rhetoric, and Making of Images, 400 – 1200. NY: NYU Press, 1998. Carruthers examines medieval monastic meditation as a catalyst for the creation of literature, art, and architecture between 400ce – 1200ce. Carruthers’ study focuses on the introduction of literacy and literature to the populi, arguing that this engaged the populi to respond to literature delivered orally during mass. Clanchy, M.T. From Memory to Written Record: England 1066-1307. MA: CUP, 1979. Clanchy’s research centers on the English Royal Administration during the Middle Ages. Clanchy focuses on the medieval social class division present among the populi, monarchy, and the Catholic Church. The argument is that literacy and how growing consciousness on publication and research of late antiquity texts empower the populi to continue on a ‘heretic’ approaches of rebellion against the monarchy. Davidson, Clifford, and Thomas H. Seiler, eds. The Iconography of Hell. Early Drama, Art, and Music Monograph Series, 17. MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1992. The authors in this selection explore the persuasive and mentally terrorizing “Hell Mouth” presented to the populi as the ultimate demise if they did not convert to the Catholic Church faith. Used as a monstrous apparition of the division of heaven and hell, the art was used to visually represent pagan rituals (in the hell section) and singing saints (in the heaven section). Hell Mouth was the only iconographic tool used by the Catholic Church that brought together images of “Clean Christianity and pagan disorder” [88].

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Dondis, Donis A. A Premise of Visual Literacy. DC: LOC/MIT, 1973. Dondis introduces readers to the numerous (and quickly growing) illustrative theoretical concepts applied in visual methodology and art history studies. The basic structure and analysis of visual communication is an original theoretical construct created by Dondis. The purpose of Dondis’ work is to properly outline the necessary lexicon and syntax that works from both writers and artists, as they study visual rhetoric. Elkins, James. The Domain of Images. London: Cornell University Press, 1999. Elkins argues that historians and art critics need to look beyond the “obvious” visual rhetoric artifacts and apply theory to other canonical and non-commercial artifacts. Quoting the great field of art history as “predictable and overused” [45], Elkins proposes a new way of engaging in visual analysis: rely on an object’s own internal sense of organization and historical placement. This can be accomplished by using classical rhetoric and visual rhetoric components. Evans, Jessica, and Stuart Hall, eds. Visual Culture: The Reader. 1994. SAGE Publications, 2004. In this collection of essays, the authors explore visual culture and the viewing of a subject. Authors present a broad study of culture and society, demonstrating intellectual gap between the study of meaning, subjectivity, progress, and research is presented through the lens of visual rhetoric analysis. Gellrich, Jene. Discourse and Dominion: Oral Contexts of Writing in Philosophy, Politics, and Poetry. NY: PUP, 1995. Gellrich embarks in a wide-range of language studies, oral tradition and poetics in order to establish the interplay or orality and literacy during the medieval era. Gellrich explores language use in a variety of discourse communities outside the religious and

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monarchy milieu and demonstrates how orality played a role in the political and philosophical views accepted by the populi Grant, Robert M. Early Christians and Animals. NY: CUP, 1998. Grant demonstrates the significance of animals in early church thought, tradition and art. In attempts to convert the populi, the Catholic Church attempted to ‘avoid sharing the bloody images of animal sacrifice for God in the Old Testament’ [109], and focused on the creation of a bestiary for use by artists. Grant demonstrates how the bestiary did not represent ‘normal’ animals, but rather hybrids that were consistent with the images provided by the apocalypse. Haynes, Deborah J. Bakhtin and the Visual Arts. NY: CUP, 1995. Haynes research provides a forum for analysis and new theoretical approaches to visual arts. Citing Bakhtin’s work of the carnivalesque and dialogism, Haynes applies the topics to visual art in literary theory, anthropology, and social history to the art of the populi. Haynes furthers the exploration into Bakhtin’s philosophy of creativity, which was never complete. Hill, Charles A. and Marguerite Helmers, eds. Defining Visual Rhetorics. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate Publishers, 2004. Hill and Helmers align contemporary essays on visual rhetoric with historical analysis of iconography. Contributors present diverse image productions such as architecture, paintings, film, and other symbolic representations of culture as a way to engage in the exploration of visual aspects of research through message, meaning, rhetorical forms, and mass communication.

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Heywood, Ian, and Barry Sandywell, eds. Interpreting Visual Culture: Exploration in the Hermeneutics of the Visual. NY: OUP, 2001. The editors incorporate social theories of art, logo logical interpretation of images, and hermeneutic, in order to examine the visual rhetoric of modernity. The editors compile perceptions in arts and ethics. The theoretical construct used in this study is relevant to the artistic element of modernity used in the populi art. James, Montague, Rhodes. The Apocalypse in Art. UK: British Academy, 1927. James provides a complete listing of art from the apocalypse. The selections span from medieval to renaissance with more emphasis on the late Middle Ages. The author compiles a list of historical events between the ninth and thirteenth century. These historical events brought about the creation of original art for use in illuminated manuscripts, portentia, pulpitum screens, and marginalia. Kessler, Herbert L. Spiritual Seeing: Picturing God’s Invisibility in Medieval Art. NY: OUP, 1990. Kessler argues that in medieval art, God was not only invisible, but instead a figure that was mineable for interpretation. Focusing on the Catholic Churches’ emphasis on graven images, Kessler argues that the commandment was largely set aside in order to make God a visible, powerful, forgiving figure for the populi. This concept of using graven images to establish a visible god for the populi is relevant to how the populi compared folklore images with religious images. The comparison was significant in the conversion process. Kessler, Herbert L. Seeing Medieval Art. 1984. NY: OUP, 2001. Kessler provides an innovative survey of the current research on medieval art history and presents a clear argument for focus of “seeing” and “reading” art of the Middle Ages

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outside the literary context. Kessler’s collection of art demonstrates the monopoly of bestiary images produced by the Catholic Church. King, A., and Gail Levin, eds. Ethics and the Visual Arts. NY: Allworth Press, 2006 King and Levins compile a series of critical theory essays that focus on ethics in the interpretation and research of visual rhetorics. Authors in this anthology write of the elements of phronesis in using rhetorical theory and critical theory for the purpose of cataloguing and academically “piecing” rhetorical visual artifacts. The ultimate goal of piecing rhetorical visual artifacts is to ethically catalogue visual artifacts from the late antiquity and medieval ages. Koerner, Joseph. The Reformation of the Image. IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2004. Koerner argues for the “demise” of bestiary art in the late Middle Ages and into the Reformation. Examining the elements of faith that changed the populi’s mind on “self expression,” Koerner argues that the crude paintings used by the vox populi expressed which expressed their politics, were exchanged by art that fell custom to monarchy and religious rule and ministry of a third party. Kostelnick, Charles, and Michael Hassett. Shaping Information: The Rhetoric of Visual Conventions. IL: Southern Illinois Press, 2003. Kostelnick and Hassett demonstrate how visual language in professional research and communication are shaped by conventional practices. Drawing on rhetorical theory and historical data, the authors explore how these conventional practices are invented, codified, and modified by uses in visual discourse communities. Kostelnick and Hassett’s research is relevant to the interpretation process of religious art.

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Kren, Thomas. French Illuminated Manuscripts in the J.Paul Gettty Museum. NY: OUP, 2007. Kren introduces scholarship that provides a critical perspective on the “travels” of illuminated manuscripts during the Crusades. Kren draws on historical documents that demonstrate how the classification and importance of illuminated manuscripts and art was determined during the spoils of war. Ken argues that the specific “art critics of the pre-renaissance era” [104] were well trained artists that were part of the war efforts simply to ensure the most important artifacts of the losing country would be catalogued and brought back to the monarchy rule. Lewis, Suzanne. Reading Images: Narrative Discourse and Reception in the ThirteenthCentury Illuminated Apocalypse. NY: CUP, 1995. Lewis argues for a multi-layered relationship between text, image, and reader, when examining apocalyptic manuscripts. Lewis substantiates her argument by exploring the cultural and social changes that occurred when the illuminated manuscripts of the medieval era surfaces. Lewis’ research focuses on the 13th Century illuminated images of the apocalypse. These manuscripts were commissioned and funded by the Catholic Church. Lewis, Suzanne and Norman Bryson, eds. The Rhetoric of Power in the Bayeux Tapestry. UK: CUP, 1998. Lewis reiterates the necessity of study into the Middle Ages and the inherent need for rhetorical approaches of images. Lewis covers a wide range of subjects, including artists, genres, periods, themes, and style of the late medieval pre-renaissance era in order to substantiate the argument that art of the Middle Ages is distinguished by the literal interpretation of literary images of the apocalypse into visual forms.

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Lowden, John. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. NY: Phaidon Press, Inc. 2003. Lowden summarizes the historical periods from early Christian life to the Renaissance. Lowden argues that the historical time period is one where medieval art was used as a “set sketch” [61] or rubric for painters and artists in the early years of the Renaissance. Separating art and artists, Lowden exposes an artistic plagiarism. The artists of the monarchy ravaged populi art and used the grotesque images of carnivalesque as representation of demons and devils in paintings of the Renaissance era. Mirzoeff, Nicholas, ed. Visual Culture Reader. NY: YUP, 2001. Authors in this compilation explore and respond to the rapid changes in the study and research of visual culture. Writers explore a wealth of visual forms of study, methodology, and trace through the historical development of theory and research involved in the growing field of visual rhetoric Mirzoeff, Nicholas. An Introduction to Visual Culture. NY: YUP, 1999. Miorzoeff explores the intersection of elements of visual culture that affect our appreciate of visual artifacts. For example: perspective, color, line, vision, and form. The author presents case studies to support his argument of a global visual culture that follows similar patterns of study to isolate elements of visual rhetoric. Mitchell, W.J. T. Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation. IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994. Mitchell explores the question: what are images and how do they differ from words? Mitchell explores techniques and models that demonstrate ways in which pictures function within cultural themes, representations of individuals and individual consciousness. Mitchell create a theoretical structure of interplay between the visible and readable. Mitchell’s structure is critical in understanding the art of the populi during the medieval era. 237

Morgan, David. Protestant and Pictures: Religion, Visual Culture, and the Age of American Mass Production. NY: OUP, 1999. Morgan demonstrates the important role that the Crusades, reformation, and protestant literature hat in aiding the formation of visual mass culture in the medieval era. Morgan argues that individual and mass produced images by the Catholic Church were countered by marginalia in illustrated manuscripts, Bibles, popular religious books of the Middle Ages, and engravings. Morgan establishes there is no particular time line to demonstrate if the populi or monarchy secretaries altered the documents. Morgan, Nigel. The Douce Apocalypse: Picturing the End of the World in the Middle Ages.l Bodleia Library, OUP: UK, 2006. Morgan interprets the original text of the Douce Apocalypse, a royal book prepared for King Edward I and his wife Eleanore of Castile in c.1270. Morgan textually catalogues the original apocalyptic paintings which vividly illustrates both the art of the monarchy and the populi, in apocalyptic interpretations of social events of the medieval era. Morgan uses the images to demonstrate the juxtapositioning of the two schools of artistic thought in the medieval era. Rose, Gillian. Visual Methodologies. CA: SAGE Publications, 2001. Rose constructs a critical introduction to the interpretation and study of visual culture. The text addresses recent debates on situating the social and cultural context of visual rhetoric with any research of religious artifacts. Rose demonstrates how different methods of research and interpretation can be used in interdisciplinary study for effective visual rhetoric analysis of Biblical art. Nees, Lawrence. Early Medieval Art. Oxford History of Art Series, 91. UK: OUP, 2002. Nees explores the Christian tradition and culture that resulted in a revolt of patronage for artists working on medieval secular art and polis artistic creations. Nees argues that 238

religious art marginalized the populi’s art subjects of the Middle Ages. The author states that the “rich and distinctive religious art tradition of the Middle Ages” was nothing more than commissioned work by the Catholic Church and lacked the “honest creativity and reality” found in the art of the populi. Ross, Leslie. Artists of the Middle Ages. 1990. UK: Greenwood Press, 2004. Ross examines the identities of artists attributed to the most famous and influential works of medieval art. The works explores by Ross do not contain historical records and are deemed non-authorial. However, Ross establishes a sound argument for the significance of the art and the exact relationship to what was occurring in the medieval towns at the time. Ross is one of the first scholars to provide necessary attention and credibility to anonymous art by the populi. Ruskin, John. The Two Paths: Prospects in Visual Rhetoric. IN: Parlor Press, 2004. Ruskin’s central argument is the analysis of theories of art and how these theories are not used within an “impartial society” [12]. Ruskin argues that there is a theoretical reconsideration of the rhetorical tradition from a visual perspective where social reform, cultural divisions, history, and political contexts are analyzed. Ruskin argues that any study in the field of visual rhetoric should not be coupled with interdisciplinary studies that may compromise the objective analysis of the visual artifact. Schmidt, Gary D. The Iconography of the Mouth of Hell. UK: Susquehanna University Press, 1985. Sutton presents an interdisciplinary process and philosophical approach for scholarship in the visual arts. Sutton argues that a global formation of cataloguing is lacking in research pertaining to visual artifacts of the medieval era. Interdisciplinary texts have not been accurately or sufficiently shared inter-scholarly. Sutton states that visual art is present in every facet of philosophy and should have global cataloguing for use in research across the disciplines. 239

Taylor, Richard. How to Read a Church: A Guide to Symbols and Images in Churches and Cathedrals. NY: OUP, 2003. Taylor presents a compelling argument on the structural meaning of church iconography and architecture from the Gothic Age. Taylor explores figures, stained glass windows and details in the structure of abbeys and cathedrals, in order to establish precedence for the architecture sanctioned by the monarchy and the Catholic Church. Taylor argues that all elements in a church represent a critical belief or idea that was used in attempts to convert the populi. Thomasson, Annie L. Ordinary Objects. London: OUP, 2007. Thomasson argues that inanimate, ordinary objects have become increasingly important to the study of religion and metaphysics, where objects lack unified, systemic ways of visual analysis. Thomasson presents evidence and a call for the study of ordinary objects in historical, rhetorical manner, for interdisciplinary appreciation of visual rhetoric and philosophy. 5.7 SECONDARY SOURCES The Middle Ages represented a particular time in history when the term “end of days” or “apocalypse” were not just sound bites during a weekly homiletic. These terms were relevant in the everyday lives of the populi who labored under monarchy rule and suffered under the conversion tactics of the Catholic Church. The secondary and tertiary sources listed for the apocalypse, visual rhetoric, and art, all explore the theoretical and heuristic application of terminology pertaining to the evolving historical events of the Middle Ages: What was the apocalypse to the populi? How did the apocalypse evolve from a threatening future demise to a current argument 240

the populi could counter against the Catholic Church? Why was apocalyptic art critical to the disposition of the Church to convert by means of fear and subjugation? The authors in this section explore these questions. 5.7.1 Bibliographical Entries The Apocalypse Aberth, John. From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague, and Death in the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 2007. Bauckham, Richard. The Theology of the Book of Revelation. UK: CUP, 1993. Caird, G.B. The Revelation of St. John the Divine. NY: Harper and Row, 1817. Carey, Greg. Elusive Apocalypse: Reading Authority in the Revelation to John. GA: Mercer University Press, 1979. Collins, Adela Yarbro. Crisis and Catharsis: The Power of the Apocalypse. PA: The Westminster Press, 1984. Faurer, Austin. The Rebirth of Images: The making of St. John’s Apocalypse. UK: London Press, 1963. Frilingos, Christopher, A. Spectacle of Empire: Monsters, Martyrs, and the Book of Revelation. PA: University of PA Press, 2004. Gentry, Kenneth. The Beast of Revelation. VA: University of Virginia Press, 1999. Greenberg, Mark, ed. Alpha and Omega: Visions of the Millennium. London, CUP, 1999. Hall, John. Apocalypse: From Antiquity to the Empire of Modernity. UK: Polity Press, 2009. 241

Lorie, Peter. Revelation: St. John’s Divine Prophecies for the Apocalypse and Beyond. London: Simon & Schuster, 1990. McGinn, Bernard. “Symbols of the Apocalypse in Medieval Culture.” Michigan Quarterly Review (1983): 265-285. PRINT. Morris, Henry M. The Revelation Recorded: a Scientific Commentary on the Prophetic Book of the End Times. CA: Tyndale Publishers, 1983. Ong, Walter. Orality and Tradition. 2nd Edition. NY: Routledge, 2002. Patrick, Dale. The Rhetoric of Revelation in the Hebrew Bible. MN: Fortress Press, 1999. Resten, James. The Last Apocalypse. NY: Anchor Books. 1998. Rowland, Christopher and John Barton, eds. Apocalypse in History and Tradition. NY: CUP, 1980. Swinburne, Richard. Revelation: From Metaphor to Analogy. NY: Clarendon Press, 2002. Watson, Duane. Intersections of Apocalyptic Discourse in the New Testament. NJ: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002. Weber, Eugen. Apocalypses: Prophecies, Cults, and Millennial Beliefs through the Ages. NY: HUP, 2000. Wilson, Robert R. Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel. 1946. PA: Fortress Press, 1980. Zamora,, Lois Parkinson. Writing the Apocalypse: Historical Vision in Contemporary U.S. and Latin American Fiction. NY: CUP, 1989.

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5.7.2 Bibliographical Entries Visual Rhetoric and Art Adkinson, Robert, ed. Sacred Symbols. 1st Edition. London: Thames & Hudson, 1995. Backes, Magnus, and Regine Dolling, eds. Art of the Dark Ages. NY: CUP, 1969. Backhouse, Janet. The Illuminated Page: Ten Centuries of Manuscript Painting. UK: The British Library 1997. Bartlett, Robert, ed. Medieval Panorama. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001. Beckwith, John. Early Christian and Byzantine Art. 1970. NY: CUP, 1986. Beckwith, John. El Primor Arte Medieval. UK: London Press, 1964. Benton, Janetta R. Art of the Middle Ages. NY: OUP, 1990. Bruce-Mitford, Miranda. The Illustrated Book of Signs and Symbols. NY: CUP, 1990. Chantilly, Musee Conde. The Tres Riches Heures of Jean, Duke of Berry. Trans. George Braziller. UK: HUP, 1969. Charbonneau-Lassay, Louis. The Bestiary of Christ. 1940. Trans. By D.M. Dooling. NY: CUP, 1991. Davis-Weyer, Caecilia. Early Medieval Art: 300 – 1150: Sources and Documents. London, OUP, 1986. Drury, John. Painting the Word: Christian Pictures and their Meanings. 3rd Edition. London: YUP, 2001. Duby, Goerges, ed. Medieval Art: The Making of the Christian West, 980 – 1140. 1st Edition. UK: D’Art Albert Skiva, 1966. Erlande-Brandenburg, Alain, ed. Gothic Art. Trans. By I.M. Paris. NY: OUP, 1983. 243

Ferguson, George. Signs & Symbols in Christian Art. 1954. NY: OUP, 1961. Ferguson, George. Signs and Symbols in Christian Art: Illustrations. NY: OUP, 1954. Gysin, Frederic. Medieval Tapestries. 1st Edition. UK: Swiss Press, 1915. Hart, Frederick. Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. 1st Edition. NY: CUP, 1976. Haskell, Francis, ed. History and its Images: Art and the Interpretation of the Past. UK: YUP, 1993. Hoving, Thomas, ed. The Middle Ages: Treasures from the Cloisters. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. UK: British Museum Press, 1967. Inglin, Erik. The Medieval Imagination: Art of Faces. UK: British Museum Press, 1940. Janson, H.W. History of Art: A Survey of the Major Visual Arts from the Dawn of History to Present Day. 2nd Edition. 1971. NY: HUP, 1977. Kondakov, Nikodim Pavlovich. Icons. UK: CUP, 1996. Kurth, Will, ed. The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer. UK: W. & G. Foyle, 1927. Libaw, William H. Painting in a World Transformed: How Modern Art Reflects our Conflicting Responses to Science and Change. NY: McFarland Art Press, 1990. Martindale, Andrew. Gothic Art. 1st Edition. UK: Thomas & Hudson, 1967. Morey, Charles Rufus. Medieval Art. NY: HUP, 1942. Morrison, Elizabeth. The Medieval Imagination: Beasts. UK: British Library, 1984. Nathan, Walter L. Art and the Message of the Church. PA: Westminster Press, 1961. Nes, Solrunn. The Mystical Language of Icons. 2nd Edition. UK: CUP, 2001. 244

Payne, Ann. Medieval Beasts. UK: The British Library, 1900. Roth, Christine, ed. The Two Paths: Lectures on Art and its Application to Decoration and Manufacture. Delivered in 1858 by John Ruskin. A Prospects of Visual Rhetoric Critical Edition. UK: British Press, 1902. Safran, Linda, ed. Heaven on Earth: Art and the Church in Byzantium. PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998. Sherrard, Philip, ed. The Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. NY: OUP, 1966. Snyder, James. Medieval Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture: 4th Century. NY: OUP, 1988. Stokstad, Marilyn. Medieval Art. 2nd Edition. MA: CUP, 2001. Taylor, Richard. How to Read a Church: Guide to Symbols and Images in Churches and Cathedrals. NJ: Hidden Spring Press, 2003. Whittemore, Carrell, ed. Symbols of the Church: Meaning of Symbols of the Christian Faith. NY: Abingdon Press, 1959. Williams, John. Early Spanish Manuscript Illustration. UK: Switzerland Imprimeries Reuines, 1907. Vogt, Von Ogden. Art and Religion. MA: CUP, 1991. Volbach, Wolfgang Fritz. Early Christian Art. NY: Harry N. Abrams Publishers, 1964. Voronova, Tamara, and Andrei Sterligov, eds. Western European Illuminated Manuscripts: 8th to 16th Centuries. 1st Edition. UK: Sirroco Press, 1995. White, T.H., ed. The Book of Beasts. 1954. Trans. A. Ross. NY: HUP, 1984.

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Whittemore, Carroll E., ed. Symbols of the Church. 1959. IL: Southern Illinois Press, 1987. Williamson, Beth. Christian Art: A Very Short Introduction. NY: OUP, 2003. Zarnecki, George. Art of the Medieval World. 1st Edition. UK: British Press, 1960. 5.7.3 Bibliographical Entries Tertiary Sources: The Apocalypse Carey, Greg. Ultimate Things: An Introduction to Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic Literature. MI: Chalice Press, 2005. Ehrman, Bart D. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium. NY: OUP, 1999. Overholt, Thomas W. Channels of Prophecy: The Social Dynamics of Prophetic Activity. OR: Wipht and Stocks Publishers, 1989. Pattemore, Stephen. The People of God in the Apocalypse: Discourse, Structure ad Exegesis. NY: CUP, 2004. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 128. Peterson, Rodney L. Preaching in the Last Days: The Theme of ‘Two Witnesses’ in the 16th and 17th Centuries. NY: OUP, 1993. Reid, John K.S. The Authority of Scripture: A Study of the Reformation of PostReformation Understanding of the Bible. London: Methuen & Co. Press, 1957. Robertson, Robin. Beginner’s Guide to Revelation: A Jungian Interpretation. MN: Nicolas-Hays Publishers, 1994. Rodriguez, Angel M. Future Glory: The Eight Greatest End-Time Prophecies in the Bible. MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 2002. Sawyer, John. Prophecy and Biblical Prophets. 1987. Revised Edition. NY: OUP, 1993

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Stierlin, Henri. La V Ɲrit Ɲ Sur L’Aocalyps: Essai De Reconstitotian Des Textes Originals. Switzerland: Imprimeries Réunies, 1978. Thiemann, Ronald F. Revelation and Theology: The Gospel as Narrated Promise. IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985. Thompson, Leonard L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire. NY: OUP, 2009. Ward, Keith. Religion and Revelation. 1904. UK: OUP, 2000. 5.7.4 Bibliographical Entries Tertiary Sources: Visual Rhetoric and Art Barnet, Sylvan. A Short Guide to Writing About Art. 8th Edition. NY: Pearson & Longman Publishers. Bietzel, Barry J., ed. Biblica: The Bible Atlas. 1st Edition. NY: OUP, 2006 Brown, Michelle P. Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms. CA: J. Paul Getty Trust Press, 1994. Brown, Stephanie. Religious Painting. London: Phaidon Press, 1979. Carl, K.H., and Victoria Charles. Gothic Art. NY: Parkztone International Press, 2008. Chevalier, Jean, and Alain Gheerbrant. Symbols. 1st Edition. Trans. By John BuchananBrown. NY: Clays Ltd., 1969. PRINT Count Goblet d’Alviella. The Migration of Symbols. UK: Westminster Books, 1894. Deacon, Richard, and Phillip Lindley. Image and Idol: Medieval Sculpture. UK: Tate Enterprise, 2001. Dhamjal, Beryl. Signs & Symbols in Middle Ages. UK: Regency Publishers, 2000. 247

Dodwell, C.R. The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800 – 1200. UK: YUP, 1993. Eldridge, Richard. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Art. UK: CUP, 2003. Evseyeva, Lilia, et al. A History of Icon Paintings. Moscow: Hermitage Press, 2000. Fagiolo dell’Aruo, Maurizio, ed. The Art of the Popes: From the Vatican Collection. Italia: Genich Press, 1982. Gowing, Sir Lawrence, ed. A History of Art. NY: Andromeda Books, 1995 Hanawalt, Barbara, A. The Middle Ages: An Illustrated History. NY: OUP, 1996. Myers, Bernard, ed. Art and Civilization. 2nd Edition. NY: SUNY Press, 1967. (1958). Onians, John, ed. Atlas of World Art. London: OUP, 2004. Rice, David T. Art of the Byzantine Era. NY: OUP, 1963. Steffler, Alva Williams. Symbols of the Christian Faith. MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002. 5.8 RESEARCH RESOURCES In the past fifteen years, research in the area of Apocalypticism has focused on the symbolism and visual metaphors of the Book of Revelation. While visual rhetoric remains in a different discipline of study, the exposition of symbols, applications of art, linguistics, and even semiotic principles has entered the field of visual rhetoric in the last ten years. Together, the studies of Apocalypticism and visual rhetoric share more than a few similarities. In attempts to further explore the historiographical applications of a visual artifact, there is much background research to complete. These two disciplines complement one another greatly. The sources listed in this section demonstrate a few of 248

the similarities between the two disciplines and serves as a bibliographical starting point for anyone interested in cross disciplinary research in visual rhetoric and Apocalypticism. 5.8.1 Bibliographical Entries The Apocalypse Aune, David E. Apocalyticism, Prophecy and Early Magic in Early Christianity. UK: Germany, GMBH & C. K.G. Tubingen Publishers, 2001. Blount, Brian K. Revelation: A Commentary. KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2009. Collins, John J. ed. The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity. NY: Continuum Press, 2000. Vol. 1 of 3. The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism. 3 Vols. to date, 2000 – 2004. ---. The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity. NY: Continuum Press, 2000. Vol. 2 of 3. The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism. 3 Vols. to date, 2000 – 2004. ---. The Origins of Apocalypticism in Judaism and Christianity. NY: Continuum Press, 2000. Vol. 3 of 3. The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism. 3 Vols. to date, 2000 – 2004. Epp, Theodore H. ed. Practical Studies in Revelation. 1 of 2 Vols. NE: The Good News Publishers, 1969. ---. Practical Studies in Revelation. 2 of 2 Volumes. NE: The Good News Publishers, 1969. McGinn, Bernard, John J. Collins, and Stephen J. Stein, eds. The Continuum History of Apocalypticism. NY; OUP, 2003. McGinn Bernard. Apocalypticism in Western History and Culture I. NY: continuum Press, 2000. Vol. 1 of The Encyclopedia of Apocalyticism. 3 Vols. To date, 2000 – 2004.

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---. Apocalypticism in Western History and Culture II. NY: continuum Press, 2000. Vol. 2 of The Encyclopedia of Apocalyticism. 3 Vols. To date, 2000 – 2004. ---. Apocalypticism in Western History and Culture III. NY: continuum Press, 2000. Vol. 3 of The Encyclopedia of Apocalyticism. 3 Vols. To date, 2000 – 2004. Osborne, Grant R., ed. Baker Exegetial Commentary on the New Testament. Revelation. MI: Baker Academic, 2002. Resseguie, James L. The Revelation of John: A Narrative Commentary. MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2009. Russell, Jack M. Symbols Unveiled: Revealing the Symbols in the Book of Revelation. 1960. OH: The Lockman Foundation, 1977. Smith, Robert H. Apocalypse: a Commentary on Revelation in Words and Images. MN: The Liturgical Press, 2000. Smith, Uriah. Daniel and the Revelation. Vol. 1 of 2 Volumes. DC: Review & Herald Publishing Association, 1944. ---. Daniel and the Revelation. Vol. 2 of 2 Volumes. DC: Review & Herald Publishing Association, 1944. Steinhauser, Kenneth B. “The Structure of Tyconiuss Apocalypse Commentary: A Correction.” Vigiliae Christianae. 35(1981): 354-357. Swete, Henry Barclay. The Apocalypse of St. John: The Greek Text. MI: WMB Publishing Company, 1968. The Cloisters Apocalypse. Vol. I and Vol. II. Conzett and Huber, Zurich, 1960. 14th Century Manuscript. Facsimile.

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Witherington, Ben. Revelation: The new Cambridge Bible Commentary. UK: CUP, 2003. 5.8.2 Bibliographical Entries Visual Rhetoric and Art Boardman, John, ed. The Oxford History of Classical Art. NY: OUP, 1993. Chilves, Ian. The Oxford Dictionary of Art. 1988. NY: OUP, 2004. ---. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Art & Artists. 1990. NY: OUP, 2003. ---.The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Art and Artists. 3rd Edition. NY: OUP, 2003. Clarke, Michael. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Art Terms. 2001. NY: OUP, 2003. ---. The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Art Terms. NY: OUP, 2001. Henderson, George, ed. Early Medieval Art and Civilization. Vol. 1 of The Age of Illumination. 3 Vols To date. 1977 – 1990. ---. Gothic Art and Civilization. Vol. 2 of The Age of Illumination. 3 Vols To date. 1977 – 1990. ---. Byzantine Art and Civilization. Vol. 3 of The Age of Illumination. 3 Vols To date. 1977 – 1990. Howlett, D.R., ed. Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources. London: The British Academy, 2006. Kemp, Martin, ed. The Oxford History of Western Art. 2000. NY: OUP, 2003. Mango, Cyril, ed. The Oxford History of Byzantium. UK: OUP, 2002. Mayer, Ralph. Art Terms and Techniques Reference Guide. MA: CUP, 1951.

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Moe, Dean. Christian Symbols Handbook. MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1985. Murray, Peter, and Linda Murray, eds. The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Art. 1996. NY: OUP, 2004. O’Connell, Mark, and Raje Airey. The Complete Encyclopedia of Signs and Symbols. London: H.H. House, 1990. Piper, David. The Illustrated History of Art. 1986. London: Bounty Books, 1991. Plazy, Gilles. The History of Art in Pictures. NY: OUP, 2001. Porter, J.R. The Illustrated Guide to The Bible. NY: OUP, 1995. Ross, Leslie. Medieval Art: A Topical Dictionary. UK: London Greenwood Press, 1996. Rudolph, Conrad, ed. A Companion to Medieval Art. UK: OUP, 2006 5.9 JOURNALS, LIST SERVS, DATABASES, AND WEBLIOGRAPHY Electronic sources for research in visual rhetoric and Apocalypticism is a challenge. Visual rhetoric encompasses broad topics and specific theoretical constructs for the analysis of a particular rhetorical artifact. Visual rhetoric is used in analysis of art (all means of art including sculpture and paintings), film, ancient archeological artifacts, and more. The journals and databases for visual rhetoric are specific and require attention to verbiage used for searching. The same challenge occurs for any research involving Apocalypticism or the Book of Revelation. Apocalypticism focuses on the study of individual or multiple texts and exegesis of the Book of Revelation. Particular focus is given to the similar metaphoric applications between the book of Daniel and the Book of

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Revelation. Art of the populi is not an easy area to search. The task is to work within the specific verbiage for each discipline and use the title or listing of a rhetorical artifact. The journals, databases, and Web pages outlined in this section provide the most accurate research details for the apocalypse, apocalyptic art, and visual rhetoric. 5.9.1 Bibliographical Entries Print Journals and Online Journals Angelaki: Theoretical Humanities [Online] Arts and Illusion [Online] Communication Monographs [Print and Online] Critical Studies in Mass Communication [Print and Online] Drain: A Journal of Contemporary Art and Culture [Online] Ethical Space [Online] La Revue Electronique de Communicatio [Online] Quarterly Journal of Speech [Print and Online] Journal of Visual Communication [Print and Online] Logos[Online] Postmodern Culture [Print and Online] List Servs and Webliography ACA-L - American Communication Association Compose an email to [email protected]; Moderated by NATCOM.

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CRTNET - Communication Research and Theory Network Compose an email to [email protected]; Moderated by NATCOM. RELIGCOM - Religious Communication and Contexts Compose an e-mail to: [email protected]; Moderated by SBL. POPCULTURE-L - the Stu of Popular Culture Compose an e-mail to: [email protected]; Moderated by University of Florida. www.lib.uiowa.edu Camera OBscura is a website devoted to collecting visual rhetoric peer edited articles on feminist iconography, popular culture, literature, and theory. The site is maintained by Iowa University the department of Humanities and Cultural Studies. Guest memberships are provided. for access. www.tandf.co.uk Communications Studies Webliography contains archived ''Studies in the general areas of interpersonal, intercultural, life-span, nonverbal, small group, organizational, instructional, health, persuasive, mass, political, and computer-mediated communication are appropriate. Site is sponsored by Taylor & Francis, UK Group. Guest memberships are provided. Databases through Library of Congress Communication Inquiry Ethical Space Logos

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Moving Image Source Rhetoric Review Rhetorica Rehtorique SPRAWL Public Culture 5.10 CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church, lead by Pope Clement VI, carefully outlined the four apocalyptic themes it would use in an aggressive visual campaign for conversion of the populi: 1) The Last Judgment; 2) St. Michael as the dragon slayer; 3) The Whore of Babylon; and, 4) The Seven Angels with Trumpets and Messages of Woe and Destruction. The Black Death had diminished the credibility of the church as a religious body that would take care of the flock. Therefore, a new strategy had to emerge. During the thirteenth-century and fourteenth-century, the emergence of competing art of the apocalypse between the Catholic Church and the populi created one of the most interesting and less researched periods of visual rhetoric. The populi across the European continent had their individual interpretations of apocalyptic images. These came together and served as a counter argument for the many artistic renditions offered by the Catholic Church in the great effort to convert the populi into Catholicism. What is the importance of these images by the Catholic Church? What is the importance and relevance of the counter argument by the populi? In an era when 255

documents from late antiquity were once again revisited and translated, the art of persuasion and argumentation was alive in all social structures of the Middle Ages: the monarchy, the Catholic Church, and the populi. The very construction of visual arguments (when the term “visual rhetoric” was not prevalent in the study of classical argumentation) is significant in that it reveals a turning point in the history of scholarship that had lasting value. The blending of both religious and classical disciplines allows for a unique visual rhetoric analysis that transcends the artistic application and solidifies a theoretical structure for histioriographical, archeological, anthropological, and even psychological criticism to advance the discussion of the art of the populi and the exigence for the art. Throughout the Middle Ages, historical events paved the way for the unexpected (but necessary) social intersection between the Catholic Church and the “unwashed masses” of the populi. The study of visual rhetoric would not be possible without specific historical components: The Crusades and the black plague. How does the art of the populi promote future scholarship of a variety of topics? The initial findings in this study demonstrate that there is additional populi art in the form of sculpture, woodcuts, paintings, and cloisters, waiting to be found. Once again, the question as to how these artifacts traveled to their final destinations is truly engaging. Many of the cloisters found had a heavy crease in the middle, as if the cloisters had not been rolled up but rather folded for transport purposes. With the proper resources, the search for additional populi art and artifacts would initiate a project similar to the one completed by Ottoman (Old Testament figurines), that would focus on only one New Testament book. The potential scholarship options are endless, particularly with the use 256

of Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres. The application of the genres as a taxonomy is further explained in Chapter Six. What is relevant in this chapter is the unique criterion that the genres create for visual rhetoric analysis. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genre presents critical analysis tools that are relevant to the visual rhetoric study of medieval apocalyptic art: rhetorical genre; audience orientation; temporal orientation; dominant discursive strategy; subject matter; and, objective. The medieval apocalypse contains a unique source of visual artifacts for researchers to study. The initial research presented here into the study of medieval apocalyptic art of the populi, is only a small rendition of potential research topics that are ready to be explored.

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CHAPTER VI THE VOX DEI AND THE VOX POPULI: CONCLUSION 6.1 INTRODUCTION The focus of this study is to introduce a visual methodology process that can provide an artistic rubric (stemming from visual rhetoric theory) from which to analyze specific apocalyptic art outside the stricture of a religious milieu. Why analyze specific apocalyptic art of the populi? As evidence has substantiated in previous chapters, apocalyptic art of the Middle Ages served as vox populi . In an era where the populi was oppressed by the monarchy, persecuted by the Catholic Church, and lived a dangerous daily existence, the only voice they had was art. Art used was varied, for example, paintings, woodcuts, scratchboards, and cloisters. The topoi of choice: the apocalypse. To analyze the art inside the stricture of a religious milieu would require understanding and recognizing the vox Dei, as represented by the dominant Catholic Church. The vox populi and the vox Dei encompass a clear yet distinct interpretation of the communication and the argumentation processes present in the Middle Ages. They cannot be separated in the pursuit of a visual rhetoric methodology. In the Middle Ages, the term “art” was recognized as a social creation of communication. What was conveyed through art were not simple apocalyptic expressions, they were classical arguments that met all the criteria for Aristotle’s rhetorical genres. The process of communication between the vox populi and the vox Dei was argument and counter argument, with the ultimate prize of death or

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conversion at stake. The Catholic Church heralded the term vox Dei, igniting a literal image and verbal statement that the Catholic Church, the Pope, was the voice of God. The populi simply did not agree with this implication. Visual argument ensued. How do Aristotle’s rhetorical genres serve as a methodology and rubric for the study of both the Catholic Church’s and the populi apocalyptic art? After the rhetorical genres are listed, all categorical elements serve as an enthymeme (with three components to establish a syllogism), for the topic of Apocalypticism and visual rhetoric. The genres are limited to: Rhetorical Genre; Audience Orientation; Temporal Orientation; Dominant Discursive Strategy; Subject Matter; and, Objective. Each one of these contains three areas of analysis focusing on a form of oratory: deliberative, forensic (legal), and/or epideictic. Regardless of which three areas of analysis are selected, any image by the populi can be analyzed and substantiated as a syllogism containing all elements of a classical argument. All visual image produced by the Catholic Church can be analyzed and substantiated as a syllogism containing all elements of a classical argument. Apocalyptic text may also be scrutinized using Aristotle’s genres because of its diachronic and synchronic nature. The conceptual theories surrounding Apocalypticism and the historiographical evidence of how the Catholic Church used the apocalypse to intimidate and subjugate the populi during the Middle Ages, is a verifiable, substantiated, statement when analyzed using Aristotle’s genres.

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6.2 APPLICATION OF RHETORICAL GENRES IN ARISTOTLE’S RHETORIC One of the most common marginalia in illuminated texts was the serpent (Rev. 12:15), and the red dragon with seven heads and ten horns and seven crowns on his heads. (Rev. 12: 3 - 4). Courtier documents indicate these were among the first images used to illustrate the Book of Revelation in illuminated manuscripts, Bibles, and in pulpitum screens. Imagine for a moment that you are part of the populi and you are visiting the cathedral for mass. You lack understanding of Latin phrases and you do not grasp the chanting, verse repetition, or singing during the mass. What is easy to absorb are the images throughout the church and in the portentia: statues of saints, the bowl with holy water for cleansing and healing, stained glass windows with images of men with swords, crosses, and victorious suns. There is no comprehension of the apocalyptic terms: plague, disease, and death, famish, and war. However, you can see these in these in the marginalia of a big Bible that rests in an individual pulpitum at the end of the church and the images are familiar to stories you have heard and shared in your community. As a member of the populi, you have the honor of walking past that Bible and looking at the open page as you exit the church. Images spoke loudly to the populi. In the tradition of the classical argument, images were used to persuade the populi into conversion. Conversion meant more than just the guarantee of everlasting life after death. Conversion required constant payment to the bishops and priests, in order to retain it. It is impossible to take away the religious context and interpretation of the apocalyptic text from images presented to the populi. 260

Images spoke loudly to the populi. The use of Aristotle’s genres creates dialogic questions in the analysis of apocalyptic images of the populi. How is it relevant to the apocalyptic text? A simple textual example based on the topic of the apocalypse is one way to begin noting the placement and effectiveness of the argument with the visual examples provided. During a weekly mass the populi received direct quotes from the Book of Revelation. The populi listened to the reading of the text. Explications were not truly warranted. The populi interpreted the text by using the measure of their daily lives, the way they interacted with their community, with trade communities, and with other medieval towns. The populi already had established laws and social order. As barbaric as these laws could be, they made sense to the populi. Phrases such as “an eye for an eye” were actually practiced in the medieval towns. Folklore and oral traditions created bonds between medieval towns and tenants. How did the Catholic Church create a visual argument for conversion in such an environment? The visual rhetoric of the apocalypse was familiar to the populi. The story of the apocalypse was familiar to the populi. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres are critical in understanding the success of the Catholic’s Church argument. The use of the methodology presented here begins by placing a text read and visually interpreted by the populi into Aristotle’s taxonomy: “Then from his mouth the serpent spewed water like a river, to overtake the woman and sweep her away with the torrent” (Revelation 12:15).

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Table 1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric. SOURCE: Adapted from Jasinki’s Model. See also Rhetoric Sourcebook.

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The Rhetorical Genre is forensic. The Book of Revelation is seen as a deliberative oratory where the message is delivered verbally before the images were ever put down on paper. Once the rhetorical genre shifts from deliberative to forensic, the tone of the Book of Revelation is altered. There is now a judgment in place. There is a term of litigation between parties. The Audience Orientation: participant/judge brings together the parties involved in this forensic oratory. Who are the participants? Who is the judge? In forensic oratory, those that hear the intended message, both primary and mediated audiences, become participants. The audience orientation contains two individuals: participants (primary and mediated audiences of the Middle Ages) and judge (in the religious context the judgment is rendered by an almighty God but in the context of the pagan populi judgment was delivered by the Catholic Church, who condemned and tortured those that did not convert to Christianity). The audience is problematic. There are gender inclusions and social issues surrounding this text. The text also speaks of power structures and the loss of power by the use of elements a pagan idea that was embraced throughout the Middle Ages. The Temporal Orientation is future. This orientation coincides with the images presented both by the populi and the Catholic Church. The events conveyed through the forensic oratory are expected to come to fruition in the future. The unintended message is that there is time (chromos) to settle any rhetorical constraints between the rhetorical

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genre and audience orientation. The action is happening to just one person: the woman. The populi would not understand the medieval theatre of one person in this example. The Dominant Discursive Strategy is “enthymeme; universal topoi, concerning wrong doing; accusation/defense. The Book of Revelation introduces several universal topoi. For example: if you are not a good person, no good things will come your way. The argument was simple: replace ‘good’ with ‘Christian’ and there is a clear understanding of the message given to the populi during a homily. The concept of time was very present for the populi. They were constantly reminded that the end of the world is coming. In this specific text, the woman is being accosted by the dragon. Why? What did she do? The Catholic Church preached that conversion was the only way to avoid the coming apocalypse. There was security and a promise of deliverance from pain if individuals converted.1 Could the expected horrid outcome of their [the populi] future change with conversion? The woman represented something the populi did not want to be: accosted by a dragon. The populi could visualize the dragon as a threatening power structure that was controlling their day to day activities and could eventually bring about the apocalypse. It is important to understand that the personification of visual artifacts translated to individuals in the community. The populi made sense of the visual metaphors by making them tangible. These tangible elements later served as a counter argument against conversion.  ϭ

Reference Chapter Five and the contents of the Black Plague. The promises of deliverance by way of conversion were unsubstantiated and the populi received no monetary, spiritual, physical, or emotional support from the Catholic Church during the events of the Black Plague.

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The Subject Matter is questions of guilt or innocence. In the context of Revelation 12, there are several questions focusing on guilt and/or innocence, all pertaining to the visual of a dragon. In Nordic myth, the dragon represents a formidable beast. The metaphoric applications and implications of the dragon were not explained by the Catholic Church, leaving the populi to equate the image with folklore they already knew about. According to Nordic traditions, a dragon did not attack “innocent” people. There was often revenge or an underlining cause to the effect of a dragon. As outlined in Chapter Five, the marginalia superimposed on the illuminated manuscripts (by the populi), often represented the images in a carnivalesque way, depicting a serpent where a dragon should be. The images of the Garden of Eden (guilt) were often superimposed by images of dead serpents (an attempt to the return of innocence). The populi carefully crafted the elements of persuasion in every drawing they superimposed or created on their own. With respect to the subject matter, the populi was unaware that the apocalypse was not properly translated. Oral tradition, storytelling, was a key element of the populi’s culture and society. The misrepresentations of verses from the apocalypse were not questioned by the populi until the subject matter became oppressive to their everyday lives. The final genre is the Objective, determining what is just/unjust; legal/illegal. In the context of the Book of Revelation, the objective is exactly this: determining what is just/unjust. For the populi, legality was marginalized to issues of monarchy and the Catholic Church. The object of just/unjust was determined by the nature of behavior the

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populi engaged in. In the context of the text: was it just for the woman to be swept away in the torrents of water and lose her baby? As conversion was the ultimate goal for the populi the Catholic Church had to focus on what was unjust (using the past as an example of unjust incidents and occurrences before conversion). On an almost superficial review of genres and applications, it is easy to note how Aristotle’s genres apply to the textual analysis of one chapter of the Book of Revelation. How do the genres apply to a visual? The use of the visual methodology is much simpler than the textual analysis. The visual methodology ensures that dialogic questions are delivered to engage the scholar in a critically objective study of the rhetorical artifact. The objective study requires a thorough historiographical review, placement of the visual in the context it was delivered, and in this study it also requires the validation of the full image to avoid misrepresentation of the image, the populi, or the exigence. Aristotle’s genres facilitate the dialogic process and provide a framework within the methodology (rubric) to establish a critical analysis of the populi art in question. Using the same text, we can explore a more complex use of Aristotle’s genres by creating dialogic questions to engage the text and analyze the visual depiction of the text. Now we incorporate the visual rhetoric to isolate the arguments and place them in the taxonomy. “Then from his mouth the serpent spewed water like a river, to overtake the woman and sweep her away with the torrent” (Revelation 12:15).

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Table 1.1 Rhetorical Genres in Aristotle’s Rhetoric. SOURCE: Adapted from Jasinki’s Model. See also Rhetoric Sourcebook.

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In using Aristotle’s genres for analysis, the images provide more questions than answers. This is a critical manner in which to engage the heuristics of the image, text, and visual rhetoric analysis. Every detail in the painted cloisters is significant. The questions then arise (based on the genres): 1. What are the visual differences between the art of the populi and the Catholic Church sanctioned artist? (Exploring Visual Images) 2. Does the populi painting have an underlined political statement? Does the Catholic artist have an underlined political statement? (Exploring Impact of Visual Images) 3. How do these images depict an epideictic representation of the woman and the dragon? (Rhetorical Genre) 4. Who is the spectator? Why is it important that they observe the event? (Audience Orientation) 5. How is the image placed in the present? What does it represent? Does the meaning translate from orality to textual in a linear manner to create a present shift of events? (Temporal Orientation) 6. What is the dragon doing? What is the woman doing? How do we analyze the element of amplification as it pertains to both characters? How do we analyze the elements of praise and/or blame as it pertains to both characters? Is one heroic? (Dominant Discursive Strategy)

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7. How is the text congruent with the image? Does it depict human character? Which qualities of human character are indirectly represented? Which human habits are indirectly represented? Are any characters or habits obviously represented? (Subject Matter) 8. What does the image convey? What elements of personification are present? Do the beasts follow in the tradition of the official bestiary? What is the thesis of the image in question? (Object) Using Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres, we can isolate the structural components of a classical argument in every painting of the Middle Ages. By doing this we recognize the rhetorical scheme present in the argument dialogue. Aristotle’s genres create a substantial basis for analysis of religious thought and philosophical ideals in the medieval period. In the medieval world, the dialogues of philosophical understanding explored the development of persuasive discourse and structures, focusing on social implications towards the religious hegemony of the time. Aristotle’s genres provide a basis for study in both textual and artistic depictions of persuasive dialogues. These genres can be used in biblical studies and provide substantial research structure that translates well into additional interdisciplinary research. 6.3 CONCLUSION The creation of a methodology for visual analysis of the images/imagery of the Apocalypse is a new area of research contribution, specifically when focused on the

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medieval populi. In the Apocalypse, prophecy first came as a vision. There were visionary, prophetic images presented to the revelator. Prophetic discourse took the order of: vision, interpretation, translation, and transcription. Without the images presented in the initial apocalyptic vision, there would be no rhetoric for the interpreter (revelator) to share. The focus of this study was to introduce a visual methodology process that would provide consistency in the study and analysis of images of the apocalypse. In order to create this methodology process, critical research into the components of apocalyptic imagery of the medieval era was necessary. Specific research components were: The Vox Dei and the Vox Populi; Medieval Rhetoric; Classical Rhetoric and Biblical Theory in the Late Medieval Epoch; and, The medieval apocalypse and visual Rhetoric. Every individual research component provided specific rubric elements to build the visual methodology. The definition of Vox Dei and Vox Populi created a foundation to explore how medieval rhetoric flourished and was used in social arguments pertaining to conversion of the populi. Conversion and religious adaptation are critical philosophical topics in medieval rhetoric. The prevalence of these topics engendered a religious milieu where philosophy and religion had to be “separated” resulting in translation and transcription errors unique to the medieval epoch. The Catholic Church remains the financial beacon for translation of late antiquity texts, including the Hebrew Bible. The Catholic Church retains the right to literary from the word, claiming to be the only body that can fully understand and 272

disseminate the Vox Dei. Monarchy rule and illiteracy surface as social problems for the Catholic Church. The monarchy contends that their rule is supreme while the pope contends his rule is sovereign. This contentious dialogue spills into the streets of the medieval town, where the daily life of the populi is scrutinized. From the pulpitum and the courtier documents emerge religious ultimatums and death decrees for all heretics. The populi constitute the largest group of heretics. The Catholic Church openly participates in the oral delivery of apocalyptic themes, igniting bloody and forced conversion among the populi. The apocalypse is narrated to the populi and when the story does not compliment the actual apocalyptic events such as the black plague, the populi begin to analyze the oral and visual images provided by the Catholic Church. These images are arguments the populi choose to challenge, discredit, and counter. Art became the common language across continents of medieval era populi, the monarchy, and the Catholic Church. While the religious hegemony exploited art for purposes of conversion and imperialism, the populi responded with a visual propaganda of their own. Art created by the populi was not simply “art” but visual rhetoric that conveyed a clear counter-arguments and social response to the Christian conversion practices of the time. The Apocalyptic images presented by the populi were a visual rhetoric argument for social change and reform outside the religious milieu. Apocalyptic art of the populi was a response, an utterance, to what the religious hegemony was imposing in terms of ideology and prescribed identity. The medieval visual rhetoric arena consisted of three players: 273

The Catholic Church (providing arguments for conversion), the monarchy (providing time arguments for or against the conversion techniques employed in medieval war, particularly Crusade), and the populi (providing arguments against forced conversion and supporting the arguments by demonstrating evidence of the torture they endured at the hands of the Catholic Church, attacking the church’s ethos). The study of visual rhetoric is still in form and delivery, a new analytical schematic. It is applicable to all forms of visual artifacts, and they prevail to be persuasive and argumentative. In this study, the retro-active application of visual rhetoric to the medieval apocalyptic art of the populi is extremely relevant topic of research. The Middle Ages are a significant historical era when literature, philosophy and religion were all at the embryonic placement of development, query, and result. Today, in our modern culture, we remain perplexed, cautionary, and fascinated by socially constructed resolutions and predictions of the end of the world. The apocalypse is not a social theme that ended with the Middle Ages. It transcends the biblical sphere to engage in issues of environmental practices and industrial catastrophes. The images created today are not different than the ones created by the populi. The same social and religious structures that resided and oppressed the populi still exist today and affect the modern populi in similar ways. The Middle Ages populi’s struggle is familiar. All this makes the study of visual rhetoric and Apocalypticism more relevant than ever.

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APPENDIX A Research Map

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APPENDIX B Copyright and Permit Letters

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APPENDIX C Glossary of Terms

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GLOSSARY The words included in this glossary are found in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd Edition, and The Rhetoric Sourcebook. These terms are referenced throughout the dissertation chapters. Apocalypse: a way of speaking of the last book of the Bible, the Revelation of St. John the Divine. Apocalyptic Discourse: a form of prophesy or prophetic speech that predicts when and how the world will end. Bestiary: collection of artistic templates for animals. Text was consolidated and published in manuscript form during the early Middle Ages. Biblical Theory and Criticism: scholars apply to biblical documents the same methods and perspectives which had already been applied to other literary and philosophical texts. Forms of biblical criticism include: textual, source, tradition, form, historical, redaction, canon, and literary. Carnival: a socially defined humorous excess of individuals; the medieval carnival represented the ridiculous nature of the medieval theatre (the daily lives of the populi) and the social conventions that criticized the erratic behavior of the populi.

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Carnivalesque: resembling a carnival; being excessive, disordered, chaotic, surreal, vital; during the Middle Ages the medieval theatre was seen as carnivalesque (adaptation of Bakhtin’s definition). Crafts Guild: medieval technique of learning a specific craft (becoming a craftsman), and traveling through trade routes to integrate new knowledge on the skills of the craft from other cultures. Cloisters: painted or embroidered tapestry that conveyed images of war, noblemen, religious figures, kings, biblical themes, and apocalyptic images. Crusades: any vigorous, aggressive movement for the defense or advancement of an idea, cause; during the Middle Ages it represented military expeditions undertaken by the Christians of Europe in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Muslims. Dark Ages: Middle Ages era and period of life c.500 – 900. Deliberative Genre: one of Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres. Focus on deliberative oratory. Diachronic: happening over a period of time. Dialogism: interaction between discursive meanings; everything means, is understood, as a part of greater whole. Early Middle Ages: Middle Ages era and period of life c.900 – 1306.

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Epideictic Genre: one of Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres. Focus on ceremonial oratory for celebration or adulation. Eschaton: The end. (Grk.) Ethos: one of the three modes of proof employed in rhetorical practice; ethos is commonly translated as “character” and is used to refer to the ways in which the perceived attributes of a speaker, manifest in discourse, are persuasive. Five Canons of Rhetoric: Aristotle’s Five Canons of Rhetoric are invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. The canons are used to create a classical argument that addressed and responds to counterarguments. Forensic Genre: one of Aristotle’s Rhetorical Genres. The focus is on the judiciary discovery for a terminal decision or argument. Gothic Age: Middle Ages era and period of life c.1150 – 1500. Hegemony: process of political domination through ideological domination; in the medieval era, the Catholic Church is defined as the hegemony. Hermeneutics: etymological process concerned with interpretation. High Middle Ages: Middle Ages era and period of life c.1000 – 1300. Historiography/Historiographic: research based on historical events; an impact survey of historical situations on a specific artifact or literary genre.

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Homiletic: pertaining to preaching or homilies. Icons: semiotics term of a sign or representation that stands for its object by virtue of a resemblance or analogy to it. An example in the Middle Ages would be the icon representation of a cross. Iconography: subject matter in the visual arts, especially with reference to the conventions regarding the treatment of a subject in artistic representation; An example in the Middle Ages would be the iconographic symbol of the crucifix (cross with a deity on it). Iconology: the study or analysis of subject matter and its meaning in the visual arts. For example, the study of a medieval crucifix in relation to the historiographical relevance of the creation of the crucifix. Why was it created? Illuminations: in Middle Ages, the decoration of a text (biblical or literary) to enhance the meaning of the characters and symbols in the text; decorations using color, calligraphy, and drawings. Illuminated Manuscripts: medieval manuscripts that contained illuminations; religious manuscripts contained the most illuminations. Interdisciplinary Studies: multiple areas of research and study taken from various academic disciplines; in the Middle Ages the interdisciplinary studies of scholasticism used the disciplines of religion and philosophy.

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Late Middle Ages: Middle Ages era and period of life c.1307 – 1470. Logos: one of the three modes of proof employed in rhetorical practice; logos is understood as rational argument or appeals based on reason. Middle Ages: historical era and period of life c.900 – 1500. Millennium: the period of 1,000 years in which, according to some schools of Christian eschatology, Christ will reign again gloriously on earth. Belief in the millennium, based on Revelation 20, has recurred in Christianity since the earliest times. Monarchia Esablia: title given to the established monarchy during a specific medieval age. Monarchy: form of government in which sovereignty is vested in a single person whose right to rule is generally hereditary and who is empowered to remain in office for life. Monstrous: bestiary conventions in the depiction of medieval art, medieval “theatre” of daily life, and social behavior. Narratology: in literary theory, the study of narrative structure. Narratology looks at what narratives have in common and what makes one different from another. In the medieval age, narratology and authorship were synonymous. Oral tradition dictated those sharing the story (narrating) were given author’s rights to modernize the story.

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Nobility: the noble class or nobles in a country that exuded grandeur and magnificence. During the Middle Ages this title was reserved to individuals working for the monarchy and relative of the king’s crown. Orality: a tendency to favor the spoken rather than the written form of language Oratory: the art of public speaking, especially in a formal and eloquent manner; a public recitation. Pathos: one of the three modes of proof employed in rhetorical practice; pathos is defined as an appeal to the emotions or passions of an audience. Patmos: island of the Dodecanese, in the Aegean Sea; traditionally known as the location where St. John wrote the book of Revelation (referenced entry in Revelation 1:9). Portentia: paintings of biblical content on movable screens used in medieval cathedrals. In the Middle Ages portentia divided the cathedrals and maintained the populi in one specific area of the cathedral during worship. Portentia contained apocalyptic scenes. Prophecy: a divinely inspired utterance or revelation; the foretelling or prediction of what is to come. Prophets: a person who speaks for God or a deity, or by divine inspiration. Pulpitum Screens: dividers that contains portentia; in the Middle Ages these were placed behind the pulpit and between pews in the audience.

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Religion: belief in a divine or superhuman power or powers to be obeyed and worshiped as the creator and ruler of the universe; any system of belief and worship, often involving a code of ethics and a philosophy. Renaissance: revival of art, literature, and specific styles and forms of architecture during the Renaissance period; the populi apocalyptic art resurfaced in several monarchy periods and the art was recreated (using only samplings of the populi art). Revelation: the lifting of a ‘veil’ to show what is underneath; in biblical contexts the term revelation was used to define a “knowing” or a “showing” of things to come; term belongs with prophetic discourse. Rhetorical Artifact: object/artifact studied within rhetorical conventions; artifacts can be visual, textual, or fall under the category of deliberative oratory genre. Simony: the sale or purchase of church office; in the Middle Ages the Catholic Church actively participated in this practice. Synchronic: happening at the same time. Taxonomy: a classification into ordered categories to simply research and allocate specific definitions to interdisciplinary terms. Topoi: topic. (Grk)

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Translation: an act or process of translating; the rendering of something into another language or into one's own from another language. In the Middle Ages translations from Greek and Latin were common in church commissioned literature reviews. Transcription: the arrangement of a composition for a medium other than that for which it was originally written; in the Middle Ages transcriptions were a result of study into interpretation from oral tradition and prophetic discourse. Utterances: any speech sequence consisting of one or more words and preceded and followed by silence: it may be coextensive with a sentence; the power of speaking. Visual Rhetoric: critical branch of rhetorical study (tree) that focuses on the visual components of the artifacts researched; historiographical research is used in visual rhetoric. Vox Dei: Latin term meaning “the voice of God”. Vox Populi: Latin term meaning “the voice of the people”. Webliography: research material compiled through online bibliography material (from the Web). Woodcuts: art constructed from one solid wood segment; art is carved and then smoothed to present relatively straight lines of design.

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APPENDIX D Signature Page

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