Visualizing elementary social studies methods 9780471720669, 0471720666

Table of contents :
1. What is social studies? --
2. Reflective social studies teaching --
3. Inquiry in social studies --
4. Standards, curriculum, and testing --
5. Teaching for historical understanding --
6. Teaching for geographic awareness --
7. Teaching for civic competence --
8. Direct teaching and learning --
9. Interactive teaching and learning --
10. Literacy in social studies --
11. Planning for active learning --
12. Teaching social studies in a diverse society --
13. Assessing learning --
14. Promoting student learning with technology.

Citation preview

VISUALIZING ELEMENTARY SOCIAL STUDIES METHODS John K. Lee North Carolina State University

In collaboration with

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

C R E D I T S VICE PRESIDENT AND PUBLISHER Jay O’Callaghan MANAGING DIRECTOR Helen McInnis ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Robert Johnston DIRECTOR OF DEVELOPMENT Barbara Heaney DEVELOPMENT EDITOR Ann Greenberger PROGRAM ASSISTANT Eileen McKeever EXECUTIVE MARKETING MANAGER Jeffrey Rucker MEDIA EDITOR Lynn Pearlman PRODUCTION MANAGER Kelly Tavares; Full Service Production Provided by Camelot Editorial Services, LLC CREATIVE DIRECTOR Harry Nolan COVER DESIGNER Hope Miller INTERIOR DESIGN Vertigo Design PHOTO EDITOR Hilary Newman PHOTO RESEARCHER Stacy Gold, National Geographic Society SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Anna Melhorn COVER CREDITS Top photo: © Joel Sartore/NG Image Collection; Bottom photos (left to right): © NG Maps; Hugh Sitton/Getty Images; Charles Thatcher/Stone/Getty Images; Martin Puddy/The Image Bank/Getty Images; Robert Manella/Iconica/Getty Images

This book was set in New Baskerville by Preparé, Inc., and printed and bound by Quebecor World. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color. Wiley 200th Anniversary logo designed by Richard J. Pacifico. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate percopy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, Web site http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. To order books or for customer service, please call 1-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945). ISBN 8: 0471-72066-6 ISBN 13: 978-0471-72066-9 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

FOREWORD From the Publisher isualizing Elementary Social Studies is designed to help your students learn effectively. Created in collaboration with the National Geographic Society and our Wiley Visualizing Consulting Editor, Professor Jan Plass of New York University, Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies integrates rich visuals with text to direct students’ attention to important information. This approach represents complex processes, organizes related pieces of information, and integrates information into clear representations. Beautifully illustrated, Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies shows your students what the discipline is all about, its main concepts and applications, while also instilling an appreciation and excitement about the richness of the subject. Visuals, as used throughout this text, are instructional components that display facts, concepts, processes, or principles. They create the foundation for the text and do more than simply support the written or spoken word. The visuals include diagrams, graphs, maps, photographs, and illustrations. Why should a textbook based on visuals be effective? Research shows that we learn better from integrated text and visuals than from either medium separately. Beginners in a subject benefit most from reading about the topic, attending class, and studying well-designed and integrated visuals. A visual, with good accompanying discussion, really can be worth a thousand words! Well-designed visuals can also improve the efficiency with which a learner processes information. The more effectively we process information, the more

V

Teaching Cycle — a specific four part sequence of events which encompasses various acts involved in the teaching. Reflections should occur during all phases of the teaching cycle.

Developing Subject Matter Knowledge.

Instructional Planning: Planning to Teach.

1

2

The initial action a teacher takes in the teaching cycle. The desire to develop new subject matter knowledge is often initiated by some previous teaching and reflection.

Involves the development of teaching goals, objectives, activities, and assessment strategies.

Reflection

Rethinking the Lesson.

4

Involves systematic reflection on action. .

Instructional Practice: The Act of Teaching.

3

Involves the implementation of this plan.

likely it is that we will learn. This processing of information takes place in our working memory. As we learn, we integrate new information in our working memory with existing knowledge in our long-term memory. Have you ever read a paragraph or a page in a book, stopped, and said to yourself: “I don’t remember one thing I just read?” This may happen when your working memory has been overloaded, and the text you read was not successfully integrated into long-term memory. Visuals don’t automatically solve the problem of overload, but well-designed visuals can reduce the number of elements that working memor y must process, thus aiding learning. You, as the instructor, facilitate your students’ learning. Well-designed visuals, used in class, can help you in that effort. Here are six methods for using the visuals in the Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies in classroom instruction. 1. Assign students visuals to study in addition to reading the text. Instead of assigning only one medium of presentation, it is important to make sure your students know that the visuals are just as essential as the text. 2. Use visuals during class discussions or presentations. By pointing out important information as the students look at the visuals during class discussions, you can help focus students’ attention on key elements of the visuals and help them begin to organize the information and develop an integrated model of understanding. The verbal

explanation of important information combined with the visual representation can be highly effective. 3. Use visuals to review content knowledge. Students can review key concepts, principles, processes, vocabular y, and relationships displayed visually. Better understanding results when new information in working memory is linked to prior knowledge. 4. Use visuals for assignments or when assessing learning. Visuals can be used for comprehension activities or assessments. For example, you could ask students to identify examples of concepts portrayed in visuals. Higher-level thinking activities that require critical thinking, deductive and inductive reasoning, and prediction can also be based on visuals. Visuals can be very useful for drawing inferences, for predicting, and for problem solving.

maps, and other materials from the National Geographic Society collections and other sources. Students using Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies also benefit from the long history and rich, fascinating resources of National Geographic. National Geographic has also performed an invaluable service in fact-checking Visualizing Elementary So5. Use visuals to situate learning in authentic cial Studies: they have verified every fact in the book with contexts. two outside sources, ensuring the accuracy and curLearning is made more meaningful when a rency of the text. learner can apply facts, concepts, and princiGiven all of its strengths and resources, Visualizing ples to realistic situations or examples. Visuals Elementary Social Studies will immerse your students in can provide that realistic context. the discipline, its main concepts and applications, while also instilling an appreciation and excitement about 6. Use visuals to encourage collaboration. the richness of the subject area. Collaborative groups often are required to pracAdditional information on learning and instructice interactive processes such as giving explational design is provided in a special guide to using nations, asking questions, clarifying ideas, this book, Learning from Visuals: How and Why Viand arguing a case. These interactive, facesuals Can Help Students Learn, prepared by Authentic to-face processes provide the informaLearning Matthew Leavitt of Arizona State UniverHighly focused tion needed to build a verbal mental learning that sity. This article is available at the Wiley revolves around student model. Learners also benefit from Web site: www.wiley.com/college/ interests and resources collaboration in many instances from the historical visualizing. The online Instructor’s period being studied such as decision making or probManual also provides guidelines lem solving. Active Learning and suggestions on using More focused learning activities the text and visuals most Visualizing Elementary Social Studthat require students to reorganize or re-represent background material effectively. ies aids student learning through extraordinar y use of photos, vi

Foreword

Direct Learning/Transmission Facts and details that provide background for later learning activities

PREFACE his debut edition of Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies offers students a unique way to explore issues and ideas about how to teach social studies using text, pictures, and graphics brought together in a stimulating and thoughtful design. In this book, content and pedagogy are blended to take advantage of the rich visual context that National Geographic images provide. Students who use this book will explore central teacher education topics in elementary social studies along with concepts and ideas from social studies disciplines including history, geography, political science, economics, and behavioral sciences. Visualizing Elementary Social Studies is infused with explorations of how to teach in subject matter contexts given the democratic purposes of social studies. Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies begins with a consideration of the parameters and purposes of social studies. The book then examines the special role that social studies can play in the elementary classroom. As a field, social studies often receives less instructional time than other core areas such as math and literacy. We made a special effort in this book to situate social studies in the core area of literacy as being particularly well suited for inquiry and reflective learning. In Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies, instruction in social studies is presented as central to the elementary classroom. Through an emphasis on the integrative and in-

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Academic Standards in • History • Government • Geography, and • Economics

State Standards are mostly mandatory and are a significant driving force in the development of curriculum

Skills-Based Standards from organizations such as the National Council for the Social Studies

..... Local Curriculum including goals for instructional planning, assessment, and testing.

terdisciplinary nature of social studies, this book makes an argument for authentic and regular social studies teaching and learning in the elementary classroom. As methods books go, Visualizing Elementary Social Studies might seem a bit different. Although many of the chapters deal with typical sorts of topics you might expect in a methods book (e.g., curriculum, assessment, technology), the visual style and subject matter emphasis are by no means ordinary. Through rich visual presentations, we present social studies teaching methods and issues as embedded in social studies subject matter. For example, we discuss a method for reading instruction called “Challenge Reading” in the context of the archeological debate over the arrival of the first humans on the North American continent. In Chapter 4, we look at the impact of standards and

curriculum on the way teachers approach instruction in the context of the Dolley Madison stor y. Both of these examples include visual representations of the subject matter that enhance the context for the discussion of social studies teaching methods and issues. Visualizing Elementar y Social Studies does not include exhaustive lists of instructional approaches or lockstep procedures for implementing particular approaches to instruction. Instead, we present contextualized and authentic methods of instruction with as much attention to how instruction looks in the classroom as to the distilled steps in a procedure. Given the wide range of backgrounds that students will bring to the experience of using this book, we made no assumption about the subject matter background of readers. Visualizing Elementary Social Studies instead suggests that pre-service and beginning teachers can learn how to teach best when they consider the purposes, methods, and issues associated with social studies in authentic and subject-based contexts. Readers will find singular subject matter references throughout the book––for example, the Xosha people of South Africa, life for children in Georgia Colony, the story of John

Legislative Branch

Executive Branch

Judicial Branch

Henry, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Salish Indian totem poles, Ponce de Leon and the Fountain of Youth, climate and the Earth’s movement around the Sun, and advantages and disadvantages of nuclear technology. These subject matter references reflect both curriculum and the times in which we live. Some subject matter topics appear in multiple places; Abraham Lincoln, immigration, and colonial American history are three such thematic subject matter points of focus. Each of these symbolizes an important way of representing subject matter in social studies: Lincoln represents biography; immigration is a concept; and Colonial American history is an episodic period. Using the rich visual resources of National Geographic we explore these three topics, along with others, in multiple social studies contexts. Visualizing Elementary Social Studies can be used in a one-semester class devoted to social studies or as part of a general methods course that includes social studies.

ORGANIZATION Visualizing Elementary Social Studies is organized around the notion that social studies is best taught in elementary school grades when it is deeply integrated into the larger curriculum. We believe that readers will find the social studies content presented in Visualizing Elementary Social Studies to be purposeful, authentic, integrative, and rich. The book contains four main sections that specifically address: (1) the purposes of social studies, (2) the relationship between social studies subject matter and methods, (3) the interdisciplinary nature of social studies, and (4) the planning, teaching, and assessing processes involved in successful elementar y school teaching. The first section of Visualizing Elementary Social Studies includes Chapters 1–3 and focuses on the purposes and ideals of social studies. Chapter 1 addresses the question, what is social studies? and presents various definitions of social studies as well as the history of the field and descriptions of social studies as it is currently taught and learned. Chapter 2 presents the notion that teaching social studies is a particularly reflective endeavor. The special focus on human relationships in social studies makes reflection a particularly important activity. Chapter 3 considers inquir y as a central method and means of organizing social studies. We see inquiry, in its various forms, as fulfilling the ultimate purpose of social studies: citizenship preparation. The second section, Chapters 4–7, deals with methods in social studies by considering authentic subject matter contexts for teaching at the elementary school level. Chapter 4 considers curriculum, standards, and testing as subject matter contexts that inform the development of instructional ideas. This chapter pays special attention to the manner in which teachers can construct rich and detailed subject matter–based instructional activities in curricular environments that might not on the surface seem to enable such teaching and learning. Chapters 5–7 focus on methods that are related to the three most common academic subject matter areas in social studies: history, geography, and civics. Chapter 5 examines the ways that instruction can facilitate historical

understanding. Chapter 6 centers on teaching for geographic awareness. Chapter 7 deals with teaching and learning in elementary social studies for civic awareness. Chapters 8–10 form the third section, addressing the integrative and interdisciplinar y nature of social studies at the elementary level. Chapter 8 considers direct instructional approaches in social studies, while Chapter 9 focuses on collaborative ways to incorporate social studies into the elementary classroom. Chapter 10 considers literacy as a context for social studies teaching and learning given the important role of literacy instruction in elementary grades. The fourth section, Chapters 11–14, presents social studies instruction as a process that involves planning, teaching, and assessing given a variety of unique contexts. Chapter 11 presents planning, teaching, and assessing in social studies in the context of active student involvement in the learning process. Chapter 12 discusses planning, teaching, and assessment in diverse cultural contexts, and Chapter 13 focuses directly on assessment as an essential and often underemphasized part of the instructional process. Chapter 14 considers the role of technology in planning and teaching.

ILLUSTRATED BOOK TOUR A number of pedagogical features using visuals have been developed specifically for Visualizing Elementary Social Studies. These features reflect and highlight the interdisciplinary nature of social studies. The Illustrated Book Tour on the following pages provides a guide to the diverse features that contribute to the Visualizing Elementary Social Studies pedagogical plan. Preface

ix

ILLUSTRATED CHAPTER INTRODUCTIONS illustrate a particular idea in the chapter with relevant stories as a way to heighten and initiate a consideration of the main theme of the chapter. These narratives are featured alongside accompanying photographs. The chapter openers also include illustrated CHAPTER OUTLINES that use thumbnails of illustrations from the chapter to refer visually to the content. CHAPTER OUTLINE

6

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hat does it mean to know one’s place in the world? How does it feel to have a sense of belonging to a place or a people? The study of geography can position children to answer these and other questions about place, people, and the relationships between them. In a classroom in Virginia, elementary school students in a social studies class stand before a map, looking to pinpoint a place unknown to them. In this case it’s Mustang, Nepal. The location on this map is not very meaningful, but it can become meaningful if they also see a photograph of a young girl with a basket of harvested grain held on her back by a sling across the top of her head. These schoolchildren in Virginia might be able to describe how their lives differ from hers. They might construct a mental map of her home. They might come to understand the challenges and joys of living in the place this girl calls home. Geography can help children move beyond simple map skills and enable them to see the world as a whole place, teeming with a variety of interesting human experiences. Geography is the discipline that enables us to develop knowledge about places and environments.

■ The Need for Geographic

Awareness p. 140

■ How Children Develop

Geographic Awareness p. 148

■ Elements of Geographic

Understanding: Spaces, Places, and Systems p. 154

■ Using Maps to Teach Geographic

Awareness p. 166

Storyboarding in history Figure 5.4

This young girl in Mustang, Nepal carries a basket using a sling on her head. What does the image suggest about life in Nepal?

138

Visualizing

Storyboarding in History

Introduce Characters and Setting

Introduction to the Characters in the Story

Beginning Events

Interesting Idea or Problem

Pocahontas Example: Rev. Alexander Whitaker John Rolfe John Smith

Inquiry in Practice Figure 3.10

Who made this flat-top hill, and how did they make it? Let’s consider this question using the four steps of inquiry given scientific, social, and historical approaches. 1. Encourage emerging learner interests. The Mississippi River pictured here flows under the Eads Bridge, with the Gateway Arch in St. Louis in the background, just 15 miles from the Indian city of Cahokia. What would Mississippian Indians, who built these earthen mounds, think of St. Louis today? 2. Clarify students’ inquiries on the Mississippian Mound Builders, focusing on: • construction of the mounds (scientific inquiry), • the fate of the Mound Builders (social inquiry), • or the purpose of the mounds (historical inquiry).

As a young girl, Pocahontas meets John Smith and develops a friendship. She regularly goes to the Jamestown Example: settlement, where she spends considerable time with the English, helping them understand her native Algonquian ways.

Process Diagram

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

3. Examine the resources, given students’ prior knowledge. Scientific, social, and historical inquiries become more distinct during the examination. Whereas scientific inquiry relies on testing a hypothesis (the mounds were built as a fort or for housing), social inquiry might focus on religious purposes of the mounds. 4. Students will propose or suggest a solution given their examination. What happened to the people who built the mounds? Each approach might yield a different “answer.”

Aerial view of Monk’s Mound at Cahokia Mounds Park in Illinois, where ancient Indian temples once stood in the city of Cahokia

Eads Bridge, Mississippi River, St. Louis, Missouri

A burial mound at the Etowah Indian Mounds State Historic Site, Cartersville, Georgia. The Etowah Valley was home to a Mississippian Indian culture that thrived there between A.D. 1,000 and A.D. 1,500. This sophisticated culture spanned much of the north, south, and central areas of what is now the United States and was North America’s last prehistoric culture. It flourished from approximately A.D. 800 until the arrival of European explorers.

VISUALIZING features are specially designed multipart visual spreads that focus on a key issue, concept, or topic in the chapter, exploring it in detail or in broader context using a combination of photos.

Middle Events

Supporting Information or Solving the Problem

Ending Events

Interesting Outcome or Problem Solved

Pocahontas is captured by English colonists in the Virginia colony at her home along the Chickahominy River and held as a pawn in negotiations between leaders of the Virginia colony and her father, Chief Powhatan, the leader of the Example: Indians living in the area. She is eventually moved to the “Citie of Henricus” up the James River from Jamestown. She converts to Christianity while living with Rev. Alexander Whitaker and is christened with the English name Rebecca.

In 1614, after a brief courtship, Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, a tobacco farmer in the Virginia colony. She lives with Rolfe and travels to England as a celebrity. While in Example: England, Pocahontas dies. Today, people see Pocahontas as a bridge between European colonists and Native Americans. Her life in both cultures is praised and remembered as a positive symbol of interaction between Europeans and Native Americans.

What are the critical events in the beginning, middle, and end of this story? How might the story capture students’ interests and lead to a deeper investigation of relations between the Virginia colony and the Native Americans?

PROCESS DIAGRAMS present diagrams and figures, photos, or illustrations that describe and depict a complex process, helping students to observe, follow, and understand the process.

BOOK TOUR LESSON

LESSONS explain a specific instructional plan for teaching using one of the approaches presented in the book. Each lesson includes illustrations and photos and focuses on authentic and curriculumbased subject matter for age-appropriate elementary audiences. Lessons include background subject matter information, goals and objectives, procedures, and assessment ideas.

The Abrahamic Religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam INTRODUCTION The three religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a striking similarity. All three religions believe in the same God. Despite this similarity, many people think of these religions as being different or even in conflict. In fact they have not always lived easily together, but there were times of harmony—most notably in Islamic Spain, when the three religions mostly coexisted side by side. All three religions trace their spiritual heritage to one person named Abraham and all share a belief in one God—the God of Abraham. In this activity, children will describe the genealogical relationships between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Consider the following fourth- or fifth-grade lesson on the three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). As you read the lesson, reflect on the complications that accompany teaching about religion.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

• Abraham has two sons, Isaac and Ishmael—about 1905 and 1891 B.C., respectively • The Jews, who were Abraham’s descendents from his son Isaac, travel to Egypt and are enslaved—1500 to 1300 B.C. • Abraham’s descendents from his son Ishmael settle to the south of Mesopotamia, establishing Arabia—1500 to 1300 B.C. • Jewish exodus from Egypt led by Moses—1300 B.C. • Saul, David, and Solomon establish the Jewish Kingdom of Israel—1000 B.C. • Jesus (the founder of Christianity) is born in Israel to a Jewish family descended from Isaac—1 A.D. La Mezquita Mosque in Cordoba, Spain. Originally built as an Umayyad Islamic mosque in the 9th century, it represents a unique and historic confluence of Islamic, Christian, and Jewish culture. After over 400 years as a mosque, a Christian church was built inside; all the while Jews dominated the intellectual and cultural scene in Cordoba. For centuries, these three religions existed and in many ways thrived side by side in Cordoba.

• Jesus dies—33 A.D. • Roman Empire adopts Christianity—300 A.D. • Muhammad (founder of Islam) is born in Arabia to an Arab family descended from Ishmael—570 A.D. • Muhammad dies—632 A.D.

students complete the timeline, they should write an explanation for why the older events are less historically certain than the more recent events and also should explain the consequences of the uncertainty of the older events. After students have completed their work on this question, the teacher should lead a class discussion about the similarities between the religions and introduce other similarities including the following:

• The Crusades—1095 to 1291 A.D.

The overall goal of this lesson is to identify events relating to similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Students will use this information in either a story or a series of illustrations to show the relationships between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

PROCEDURES In this lesson students will develop a timeline of events related to the origin of each of the Abrahamic religions. Students should incorporate the events listed below into a timeline. Also, all of the dates for these events are based on a Christian calendar. Students should know this and should be challenged to consider why we use a Christian calendar. • Abraham is born in Ur, a city in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq)—about 1991 B.C.

• Islamic Spain—1150 to 1492 A.D. When the timeline is complete, students should study their work and answer the following question: Given your timeline, what are the connections between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam? To some degree, all of the events in the timeline are controversial and unsettled. For the most part, the closer in time an event is to today, the more evidence we have to support that event. For example, we have plenty of evidence from various sources to verify that the Crusades occurred from about 1000 to 1200 A . D . and that Muslims controlled Spain from 1150 to 1450 A.D.. We have much less evidence about Abraham’s birth and the lives of his sons Isaac and Ishmael. After

• All three religions are monotheistic (belief in one God). • The stor y of creation is consistent in all three religions. • All three feature basic laws, given by God. • They all describe a route to personal salvation. • All three religions include ideas of heaven and hell.

ASSESSMENT The primary assessment should be a separate activity in which students write a story or draw an illustration that describes how Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are similar. The teacher should give students very clear expectations about what to write or draw. One possible criterion, which could be provided to students, might include the following: Your stor y or drawing should include a main idea and at least three pieces of evidence supporting your main idea. The teacher can also assess the timeline for accuracy (was the event copied correctly) and event placement on the timeline (was it placed in the correct proportion to other events).

In the Classroom

A BRIEF CASE STUDY ON TEACHING ABOUT THE CONSTITUTION

Social and Cultural Explorations

A new approach for social studies in China Social studies serves important purposes for different groups of people around the world. Often these purposes change over time. This idea of change over time is evident in China, where social studies has evolved to reflect new ideological priorities. In the past, social studies served in support of a command economy and state authority. This traditional Chinese focus on command economics results in a very different social studies curriculum from what we see in the United States, where the emphasis is on a free market economy and a democratic system. Despite the long-standing traditional focus in China, in recent years the Chinese school curriculum has opened up to focus more on market economics and individual issues. How has the Chinese social studies curriculum reflected these changes? Certainly, a communal approach would result in different social studies experiences than would an emphasis on the individual. One way to illustrate these changes is through a consideration of recent Chinese history, as seen in these three photos. How do these images demonstrate tensions between individualist and communal interests? How might these different interests influence social studies? Each image portrays something iconic in China that is situated in a part of Chinese history. Think about how China has changed from its dynastic past prior to the 1911 fall of the last Chinese Emperor Pu Yi, through nationalist and communist periods of the twentieth century, to the current market reforms under way in China. Think about how each of these images supports or contradicts command and free market economic ideas and authoritarian and democratic ideals. Then consider how the social studies curricula in China and the United States might be designed to reflect the various influences resulting from economic and social structures. Chairman Mao Tse Dung portrait at the Forbidden City

A Joan Childress finished an undergraduate teacher education program and started her first teaching job four months ago. She has a passion for teaching that is partly driven by her love for children as well as her insatiable appetite for learning new things. On this day, Joan was teaching about the United States Constitution. She provided students with visual prompts to get them to think about how the Constitution addressed particular actions. Joan became interested in the case of Elian Gonzales, a young boy from Cuba living in the United States who was about the age of students in her class. Elian was being deported as an illegal alien against the wishes of some of his family who were legally in the United States. Elian was ultimately returned to Cuba, which angered some of his U.S. supporters, who are shown in the photo (A) of protestors in front of the White House. Joan used this photo to illustrate protected rights in the Constitution; most students can readily identify the rights to free speech and assembly. Her students not only successfully identified these First Amendment protections, they also were able to describe why we need such rights. Joan extended the discussion to talk about the limits of free speech and the consequences of restricting free speech. Joan was so confident in her students’ responses that she continued to teach about additional constitutional rights.

Bank of China building in Hong Kong

Home of a Mao Brigade member in Hainan island commune, Guangdong Province, 1981

50

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS focus on social studies methods and issues through the lens of culture and society using images of people from diverse places in the world.

CHAPTER 2

On the next day, Joan introduced the topic of constitutional rights for undocumented workers in the United States. Unlike the previous day, Joan was not very successful in encouraging student discussion about the Constitution. Instead of thinking about how the Constitution deals with issues related to the rights or lack of rights for undocumented workers in the United States, students simply wanted to give their opinion of immigration. To complicate matters, several students had politically divergent opinions about immigration and, in fact, two of these students were themselves recent immigrants. Joan suspected that since students were so personally involved in the new subject matter, a new instructional approach was needed. Joan decided to develop an additional context or scaffold to help her students understand the complexities of the rights of undocumented workers in the United States and to help her students use their personal interests to develop new knowledge. Scaffolds are tools that enable students to consider new information and develop new knowledge. Joan decided to refocus students on a series of imaginary events such as the one depicted in the border patrol photo (B). This enabled her to explore some of the constitutional issues she wanted her students to learn as each event unfolded in the imagined series of events. Joan learned that her students’ interest in subject matter was important, but such interest required a different instructional approach than when students might not be as personally interested.

B

Reflective Social Studies Teaching

IN THE CLASSROOM features a specific event or series of events from an elementary classroom that highlight or provide an in-depth view of a specific idea from the chapter.

xi

OTHER PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES Elements of Civic Competence LEARNING OBJECTIVES Recognize and distinguish between the rights and the responsibilities afforded to children in the United States. Describe the role of government and what children in elementary grades should know about government’s function. Explain the role of reasoning in a multicultural democracy.

Personal responsibilities: • Taking care of themselves • Accepting responsibility for the consequences of their actions • Taking advantage of the opportunity to be educated and curriculum might be a starting point, powerful • Supporting their families teaching requires that teachers have knowledge that Civic responsibilities: extends beyond the curriculum.

UNDERSTANDING RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

C

gests that children should learn about both personal and civic responsibilities.

hildren’s ability to understand their rights and responsibilities as citizens in the United States is closely linked to

teacher Ms. Johnson uses an expanding horizons curriculum guide to plan a lesson on endangered animals.

• Obeying the law CONCEPT CHECK

• Respecting the rights of others

STOP

Fifth graders in California are expected to understand History–Social Science Content Standard #5: “Students understand the political, religious, social, and economic institutions that evolved in the colonial era.” This includes that they “Understand the influence of location and physical setting on the founding of the original 13 colonies, and identify on a map the locations of the colonies and of the American Indian nations already inhabiting these areas.”

LEARNING OBJECTIVES at the beginning of each section head indicate in behavioral terms what the student must be able to do to demonstrate mastery of the material in the chapter.

How might such a standard influence the development of curriculum?

What specific subject matter might be taught and learned?

An engraved map showing the United Colonies at the beginning of the Revolutionary War, circa 1775.

What subject matter topics might appear in a fifthgrade social studies curriculum on the study of America’s thirteen colonies? Consider how the physical setting of the colonies affected their development.

CONCEPT CHECK questions at the end of each section give students the opportunity to test their comprehension of the learning objectives. Civic competence

The knowledge and skills needed to actively and productively participate in democratic life.

Civic virtue The necessary moral nature of participation in a democracy.

MARGINAL GLOSSARY TERMS (IN GREEN BOLDFACE) introduce each chapter’s most important terms.

What is happening in this picture Teaching children about patriotism is complicated. Teachers often rely on iconic representations of national unity or national identity. How does this image represent either patriotic notions of national unity or identity?

xii

?

The Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island, New York City. What messages about Americans do we associate with the Statue of Liberty, in the sense of both its physical and its emotional characteristics?

WHAT IS HAPPENING IN THIS PICTURE? presents students with a photograph that is relevant to a chapter topic but that illustrates a situation they are not likely to have encountered previously. The photograph is paired with questions designed to stimulate creative thinking.

OTHER PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES VISUAL SUMMARY

1

What Is Reflection?

2

Good teaching requires reflection. Without reflection, teaching can become stale and stagnant. Donald Schön classified reflection as occurring during an event (reflection in action) or after (reflection on action). Reflection can occur during all thinking about teaching. The processes involved in teaching can be thought of as a teaching cycle. This cycle includes developing subject matter knowledge, planning to teach, teaching, and reconsidering what was taught. Reflection can and should occur during all parts of the teaching cycle.

3

Reflection During and After Instruction

The delivery of meaningful and effective instruction also requires consistent reflection. Reflection during instruction enables teachers to be more dynamic and enables them to better meet the needs of learners. Reflection on teaching is part of a teaching cycle that includes the processes of learning new subject matter, planning for instruction, teaching, and deliberate reflection.

5

Reflection Prior to Instruction

In order to be effective, teachers must continually develop their subject matter knowledge throughout their professional career. Given the interdisciplinary nature of teaching, elementary teachers have a particular need to stay on top of subject matter. When developing subject matter knowledge, teachers must consistently reflect on their personal interests, the curriculum, and the misunderstandings that emerge from teaching and learning. Teaching is a process that might be compared to artistic performance. Donald Schön called this artful doing. As teachers “perform” they must give themselves opportunities to grow. This is best achieved through reflection.

4

KEY TERMS ■ citizen, p. 176

■ tolerance, p. 178

■ democratic reasoning, p. 189

■ civic, p. 176

■ conscience, p. 180

■ ideology, p. 196

■ civic competence, p. 177

■ patriotism, p. 182

The CHAPTER SUMMARY revisits the learning objective and provides a brief review of each major section. The summaries are illustrated with a relevant photo from the respective chapter section. A list of KEY TERMS is also included.

Using Reflection to Increase a Teacher’s Professional Knowledge

Teachers must reflect not only about subject matter and instruction, but also about other elements of teacher knowledge. Teachers must consider their learners, the curriculum, the community, the contexts for education, and the ends of education. All of these areas are part of what is called teacher knowledge.

Reflection as Inquiry

As we reflect on teaching and in teaching experiences, we must plan our reflection to achieve the most desirable outcomes. John Dewey suggested that we can inquire through reflection, but cautioned that the circumstances surrounding our reflections are in constant flux. Given that there is not a formal body of teacher knowledge, a good source for learning about how to teach is case studies of teaching episodes. We can use these case studies to conduct reflective inquiries aimed at further developing our teacher knowledge.

SELF-TESTS provide a series of questions, a number of them incorporating visuals from the chapter, that review the major concepts.

SELF-TEST CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

The work of government is complicated and in a democracy is seemingly inefficient. Consider the following montage of images that represent the three branches of government in the United States.

•

1. What is civic competence? How is this image representative of a form of civic competence?

How can social studies teachers help children understand why the framers of the United States Constitution created a system of government with three separate branches of government that in operation is complicated and seemingly inefficient?

6. Which of the following is least important in a democracy? a. appreciating and respecting authority b. developing an affection for country c. understanding how to contribute to political campaigns d. participating in civic dialogue and conversations 7. How does democratic reasoning relate to civic competence in a multicultural or pluralist society such as the United States? 8. Which is not a branch of government? a. legislative b. judicial c. appeals d. executive 9. How does ideology affect learning civic competency? 10. What is democratic reasoning? How might students engage democratic reasoning to address the pollution problem illustrated in this photo?

2. How can teachers avoid civic self-centeredness through social studies experiences? a. require students to behave in class b. test students on civic knowledge c. develop a sense of community in the class d. encourage students to do their homework

CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS encourage critical thinking and highlight each chapter’s important concepts and applications. Each feature uses a prominent photo as the context for a central question that is designed to elicit an extension of a concept or issue in the chapter.

3. _______________ is the capacity to recognize and respect the beliefs or practices of others. 4. Which of the following is most important in a democracy? a. civic competency b. patriotism c. personal conscience d. all of the above 5. Which of the following forms of talk is most common in a teacher-centered classroom? a. conversation b. discussion c. dialogue d. discourse

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAPS appear through the book in a variety of contexts and for a variety of purposes.

LESSON

FROM NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAP ESSENTIALS

Population Density (cont.)

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Figure 4.5 The Memorial includes the Three Servicemen Statue (A), the Nurse Comforts a Soldier (B), and the famous Wall of Names (C), designed by Maya Ying Lin, which contains the names of the 58,220 men and women who were killed or remain missing from the war. The enormous size of the wall with tens of thousands of names combined with the beauty of the reflective black granite leaves most people who visit the wall deeply moved. Students might study the symbolism of the Wall of Names by comparing it to other national symbols or by describing how they feel when they look at images of the Wall.

A

C

xiv

B

ILLUSTRATIONS AND PHOTOS support concepts covered in the text, elaborate on relevant issues, and add visual detail. Many of the photos originate from National Geographic’s rich sources.

BOOK COMPANION SITE (www.wiley.com/college/Lee) Instructor resources on the book companion site include an Instructor’s Manual by Amy Good, East Carolina University, and all illustrations and photos in the text in jpeg format.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS PROFESSIONAL FEEDBACK Throughout the process of writing and developing this text and the visual pedagogy, I benefited from the comments and constructive criticism provided by the instructors and colleagues listed below. My sincere appreciation to these individuals for their helpful reviews: Margaret Beddow, California State University at Sacramento Geraldine Brown, Drexel University Sandra Byrd, University of North Carolina at Ashville

Thomas B. Goodkind, University of Connecticut

Joan Purkey, Newman University

Peter Hester, Rider University

Sandy Rakes, Delta State University

Betty Kansler, College of Notre Dame

Yolanda Ramirez, University of Texas of the Permian Basin

Sandra Kaser, University of Arizona

Beverly Ray, Idaho State University

Allan Cook, University of Illinois at Springfield

Laurie Katz, Ohio State University

Lois Schaefer, Trinity Baptist College

Mary Couillard, Saginaw Valley State University

Marilyn May, Brenau University

Julia Shahid, Austin College

Kristie Fowler, Hollins University

Cathy Nelson, University of St. Francis

Jean Spears, Monmouth University

Jeri Gillin, Providence College

Debbie Noyes, Greenville College

Reese Todd, Texas Tech University

Amy Good, East Carolina University

Crystal Olson, California State University at Sacramento

Scott Waters, Emporia State University

Susan Gooden, University of Southern Indiana

Donna Pearson, University of North Dakota

Saundra Wetig, University of Nebraska

Preface

xv

FOCUS GROUPS AND TELESESSION PARTICIPANTS A number of professors and students participated in focus groups and telesessions, providing feedback on the text, visuals, and pedagogy. Our thanks to the following participants for their helpful comments and suggestions: Sylvester Allred, Northern Arizona University

Roger Hangarter, Indiana University

Walter Little, University at Albany, SUNY

David Bastedo, San Bernardino Valley College

Michael Harman, North Harris College

Mary Meiners, San Diego Miramar College

Ann Brandt-Williams, Glendale Community College

Terry Harrison, Arapahoe Community College

Scott Miller, Penn State University

Natalie Bursztyn, Bakersfield College

Javier Hasbun, University of West Georgia

Jane Murphy, Virginia College Online

Stan Celestian, Glendale Community College

Stephen Hasiotis, University of Kansas

Bethany Myers, Wichita State University

O. Pauline Chow, Harrisburg Area Community College

Adam Hayashi, Central Florida Community College

Terri Oltman, Westwood College

Diane Clemens-Knott, California State University, Fullerton

Laura Hubbard, University of California, Berkeley

Keith Prufer, Wichita State University

Mitchell Colgan, College of Charleston

James Hutcheon, Georgia Southern University

Linda Crow, Montgomery College

Scott Jeffrey, Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus

Ann Somers, University of North Carolina, Greensboro

Smruti Desai, Cy-Fair College Charles Dick, Pasco-Hernando Community College Donald Glassman, Des Moines Area Community College Mark Grobner, California State University, Stanislaus Michael Hackett, Westchester Community College Gale Haigh, McNeese State University

xvi

Preface

Donald Thieme, Georgia Perimeter College

Matther Kapell, Wayne State University

Kip Thompson, Ozarks Technical Community College

Arnold Karpoff, University of Louisville

Judy Voelker, Northern Kentucky University

Dale Lambert, Tarrant County College NE

Arthur Washington, Florida A&M University

Arthur Lee, Roane State Community College

Stephen Williams, Glendale Community College

Harvey Liftin, Broward Community College

Feranda Williamson, Capella University

SPECIAL THANKS I am extremely grateful to the many members of the editorial and production staff at John Wiley and Sons who guided me through the challenging steps of developing this book. Their tireless enthusiasm, professional assistance, and endless patience smoothed the path as I found my way. I thank in particular: Robert Johnston, Acquisitions Editor, who directed the process; Helen McInnis, Managing Director, Wiley Visualizing, who oversaw the concept and development of the book; Eileen McKeever, Editorial Assistant, who was always unfailingly responsive; Kelly Tavares, Associate Production Manager, who stepped in whenever I needed expert advice; Jay O’Callaghan, Vice President and Publisher, who oversaw the entire project; and the marketing team of Jeffrey Rucker and Emily Struetker, who adeptly represent the Visualizing imprint. I wish also to acknowledge the contributions of Vertigo Design for the interior design concept; Harry Nolan, Wiley’s Creative Director, who gave art direction and refined the design and other elements; and Hope Miller, who designed the cover. I appreciate the efforts of Hilary Newman in obtaining some of the text photos, and Anna Melhorn, Senior Illustration Editor, for her expertise in managing the illustration program. I especially want to thank Stacy Gold, Research Editor and Account Executive at the National Geographic Image Collection, for her valuable expertise in selecting NGS photos. Many other individuals at National Geographic offered their expertise and assistance in developing this book: Francis Downey, Vice President and Publisher, and Richard Easby, Supervising Editor, National Geographic School Division; Mimi Dornack, Sales Manager, and Lori Franklin, Assistant Account Executive, National Geographic Image Collection; Dierdre Bevington-Attardi, Project Manager, and Kevin Allen, Director of Map Services, National Geographic Maps. I appreciate their contributions and support. Lastly, I would like to thank my family and personal colleagues who have given me invaluable suggestions and support. Their encouragement, ideas, and patient considerations have made this project a tolerable and in fact enjoyable endeavor.

Preface

xvii

CONTENTS in Brief Foreword v Preface vii 1 What Is Social Studies?

xviii

2

2 Reflective Social Studies Teaching

30

3 Inquiry in Social Studies

54

4 Standards, Curriculum, and Testing

82

5 Teaching for Historical Understanding

110

6 Teaching for Geographic Awareness

138

7 Teaching for Civic Competence

174

8 Direct Teaching and Learning

202

9 Interactive Teaching and Learning

226

10 Literacy in Social Studies

256

11 Planning for Active Learning

288

12 Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

314

13 Assessing Learning

338

14 Promoting Student Learning with Technology

364

Appendix A 385 Appendix B 401 Glossary 403 References 409 Credits 411 Index 415

xix

CONTENTS

2

Reflective Social Studies Teaching

30

What Is Reflection? 32

1

What Is Social Studies?

Defining Social Studies 5 What Is Social Studies? 5 The Nature of Social Studies 6

Social Studies as a School Subject 8 The History of Social Studies 8 Early Purposes of Social Studies 9

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 10 Approaches to Social Studies 11 Three Approaches to Social Studies 11

IN THE CLASSROOM: TEACHING ABOUT CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 12 LESSON: IS DRILLING FOR OIL IN THE AMAZON RIVER BASIN WORTH THE CONSEQUENCES? 16 Interdisciplinary Social Studies in School 18

Social Studies and Content Disciplines 20 History 20 Geography 21 Civics 22 Economics 22 Behavioral Sciences 23

Standards-Based Social Studies 24

2

Reflection in Action 32 Reflection on Action 33

Reflection Prior to Instruction 35 Personal Subject Matter Interests 36 Focusing on Curricular Subject Matter 36 Reflecting on Subject Matter Misunderstandings 36

LESSON: THE ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS 38 Transforming Subject Matter Into Pedagogy 40 Reflection When Planning for Instruction 41

Reflection During and After Instruction 42 Reflecting During Teaching 42 Reflecting After a Lesson 43

IN THE CLASSROOM: ACCOUNTING FOR STUDENTS’ PRIOR KNOWLEDGE 44 Using Reflection to Increase a Teacher’s Professional Knowledge 45 Professional Development and Reflecting on the Learner 45 Professional Development and Reflecting on Community Needs 46 Professional Development and Reflecting on Curriculum 46 Professional Development and Reflecting on the Purposes of Education 47

Reflection as Inquiry 48 Learning About Teaching From Case Studies 49

IN THE CLASSROOM: A BRIEF CASE STUDY ON TEACHING ABOUT THE CONSTITUTION 50

xx

4

Standards, Curriculum, and Testing

82

Standards and Curriculum 84 Where State Standards Are Born: Professional Organizations and National Standards 85 Standards and Curriculum: The Starting Point For Powerful Teaching 86

IN THE CLASSROOM: A CURRICULUM UNIT ON ANIMALS 88 Two Models of Elementary Social Studies Curriculum 89

3

Inquiry in Social Studies

54

Inquiry as Learning 56 What Is Inquiry? 56

Standards and Testing 90 High-Stakes and Low-Stakes Tests 90 Authentic Learning Connected To Testing 93

Inquiry in Social Studies 60 Emerging Interests: Students Craft the Inquiry Question 61 Clarification: Helping Students Activate Prior Knowledge 62 Examination: Students Work with Authentic Materials 63 Suggested Solution: Students Develop and Propose an Answer 64

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 65 Designing a Successful Inquiry 66 Managing Time in Inquiry Activities 66 Managing Subject Matter in an Inquiry 66 Prior Knowledge and Inquiry 66

IN THE CLASSROOM: INQUIRING ABOUT THE TELLICO DAM 67 Supporting and Scaffolding Students’ Inquiries 68

LESSON: A GREAT SCIENTIST IN HISTORY 69 Forms of Inquiry 70 Social Science Inquiry 70 Social Inquiry 70 Historical Inquiry 71

Inquiry and the Curriculum 74 Inquiry-Driven Curriculum and Standards 74 Inquiry, Assessment, and Standardized Testing 74

LESSON: “THAT’S NOT FAIR”: AN INQUIRY LESSON INTO THE MEANING OF “FAIR” 76

Teaching Subject Matter In-Depth While “Covering” the Curriculum 94 Creating Detailed Lessons from Broadly Stated Curriculum 94

LESSON: MAP ESSENTIALS

96 Translating Curriculum Into Classroom Lessons: The Question of Depth vs. Breadth 98 Making Decisions Based on Instructional Time, Resources, and Meaningful Study 98

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 99 Authentic Teaching with Standards 100 Adapting Standards and Curriculum to Teacher Circumstances 103

LESSON: GO WITH THE FLOW . . . RESOURCES

104

Contents

xxi

6

Teaching for Geographic Awareness 138

The Need for Geographic Awareness 140 What Is Geographic Awareness? 140 Geographic Concepts and Ideas For Elementary School Children 141 How Children Relate to Places 144 Geography as the Starting Point for Social Studies 145 Learning How to Use Maps 147

5

Teaching for Historical Understanding

How Children Develop Geographic Awareness 148

110

History in the Schools 112 The Need For History in the Elementary Schools 112 What Do Elementary School Children Need to Know About History? 112 History and The Curriculum 113

Constructing Historical Knowledge 114 Historical Thinking and Historical Understanding 114 Encouraging Historical Understanding Through Direct Instruction and Explanation 115

IN THE CLASSROOM: USING HISTORICAL ARTIFACTS 116 Four Ways to Think Historically 118

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 119 Forms of Historical Understanding: Timelines, Stories, and Empathy 121 Historical Understanding as Chronology 121 Historical Understanding as Story 122 Historical Empathy 122 Understanding What Is Significant from the Past 124 Understanding the Relationship Between the Past and the Present 125

Three Approaches to Teaching History 126 Direct Learning in History 126 Active Learning in History 126

LESSON: THE FIRST THANKSGIVING

128 Learning in History Using Authentic Resources 130

xxii

Contents

Human and Cultural Geographic Awareness 148

IN THE CLASSROOM: UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL PLACE 150 How Children Understand the World Around Them 151

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 152 Elements of Geographic Understanding: Spaces, Places, and Systems 154 Spatial Understanding 154 Places and Regions 155 Human Systems 155

LESSON: POPULATION DENSITY

156

Physical Systems 164

Using Maps to Teach Geographic Awareness 166 Using Maps and Other Geographic Representations 166 Developing Spatial Reasoning Skills 166 Using Geography to Understand the Past 166

LESSON: MY CITY: PLANNING A NEW CITY 168

Washington Olympia

Maine North Dakota

Helena

New Hampshire

Montana

Vermont

Salem

Bismark

Oregon

Minnesota

Idaho

St. Paul

Michigan

Iowa

Cheyenne

Albany Boston New York Hartford

Lansing

Madison

Pierre

Wyoming

Sacramento

Montpelier Concord Massachusetts

Wisconsin

South Dakota Boise

Pennsylvania

Carson City Nevada

Nebraska

Salt Lake City Denver Utah

Des Moines

Illinois

Indiana

Ohio Springfield

Indianapolis

Missouri Kansas

Arkansas

Maryland

Charleston Virginia Raleigh

Nashville Tennessee

Oklahoma

Santa Fe New Mexico

New Jersey Dover Delaware

Kentucky

Jefferson City

Arizona

West Annapolis Virginia Richmond

Frankfort

Topeka

North Carolina South Carolina

Oklahoma City

Columbia

Atlanta

Little Rock Phoenix

Alabama Jackson

Georgia

Louisiana Texas

Mississippi

Austin

Montgomery

Baton Rouge

Tallahassee

Florida Hawaii

Honolulu

Alaska Juneau

8 7

Teaching for Civic Competence

174

The Need for Civic Competence 176 Why Do We Need a Competent Civic Body? 176 What Does it Mean to Possess Civic Competence? 177 How Do We Achieve Civic Competence? 178

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS Forms of Civic Awareness 180

179

Respect for Authority and Respect for Others 180 Patriotism, Good or Bad 182

IN THE CLASSROOM: CIVIC ACTION: SETTING CLASS RULES 183 Knowledge of Social Issues 184 Conversation, Discussion, and Dialogue in a Democracy 186

Elements of Civic Competence 187 Understanding Rights and Responsibilities 187 Understanding the Role and Processes of Government 188 Democratic Reasoning and Multicultural Understanding 188

LESSON: TINKER V. DES MOINES AND THE FEDERAL COURTS 190 Participating and Taking Action in Democratic Communities 192

Promoting Civic Competence 192 Using Stories to Communicate Civic Values 192

IN THE CLASSROOM: THE STORY OF CÉSAR CHÁVEZ 194 Developing Civic Knowledge 195 Engaging in Civic Activity 195 Social Studies Content, Teacher and Student Opinions, and Ideology 196

Direct Teaching and Learning

202

Direct Instruction and Teacher-Directed Instruction 204 What Is Direct Instruction? 205 What Is Teacher-Directed Instruction? 205 A Comparison of Direct and Teacher-Directed Instruction 207

IN THE CLASSROOM: TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION— LEARNING ABOUT THE PURPOSE AND LEVEL OF GOVERNMENT 208 Factors Influencing Teacher-Directed Instruction 210 Subject Matter and Teacher-Directed Instruction 210 Teacher-Directed Instruction and Active Learning 210 Curriculum: When to Use Teacher-Directed Instruction 212

LESSON: USING TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION IN A LESSON ON AN IMPORTANT INVENTION 213 Types of Teacher-Directed Instruction 214 Direct Explanation 214 Storytelling 215 Taking It Apart: Higher-Order Thinking Skills 216 Other Teacher-Directed Activities 216

Whole Class and Independent Teacher-Directed Instruction 218 Whole Class Teacher-Directed Instruction 218 Independent Teacher-Directed Instruction 218

IN THE CLASSROOM: DECISION MAKING 219 LESSON: HOW MUCH SPACE IS ENOUGH? 220

Providence Rhode Island Connecticut

Trenton

Harrisburg

Columbus

Lincoln

Colorado California

Augusta

9

Interactive Teaching and Learning

226

What Is Interactive Instruction? 228

LESSON: INTERACTIVE LESSON ON STATE GEOGRAPHY 232 Characteristics of Interactive Instruction 234 Active and Meaningful Learning During Interactive Instruction 234 Dynamic Instruction and Active Learning 236 Interactive Instruction and Challenging Subject Matter 237

Types of Interactive Instruction 238 Solving Problems Together 238 Making Decisions Together 238 Putting Things Together 240 Other Approaches to Interactive Activities 241

Grouping Strategies 243 Why Group Students? 243 How to Group Students 243 Specific Grouping Strategies 243

Interactive Instruction and Learners 248 Collaboration and Interactive Instruction 248 Adapting Interactive Instruction 248

IN THE CLASSROOM: AN INTERACTIVE APPROACH ABOUT SOCIETAL RULES 250

TO LEARNING

xxiv

Contents

256

The Importance of Literacy 258

Defining Interactive Instruction 228 The Structure of Interactive Instruction 229 Assessing Children’s Knowledge When Planning For Interactive Instruction 231

IN THE CLASSROOM: LEARNING ABOUT CIVIC LEADERS

10 Literacy in Social Studies

235

Defining Literacy 258 Literacy, Society, and Decision Making 259

Reading in Social Studies 262 General Approaches to Reading in Social Studies 262 Reading and Instruction 263

IN THE CLASSROOM: USING LITERARY RESOURCES IN A LESSON ABOUT TRANSPORTATION 264 Specific Approaches to Reading in Social Studies 265 Determining Reading Levels 267

Using Textbooks in Social Studies 268 Three Approaches to Using TextbookS 268 Textbook Structure and Analysis 270 Limitations of the Textbook 270

Using Authentic Texts in Social Studies 271 Authentic Intellectual Work 271

IN THE CLASSROOM: AUTHENTIC LEARNING ABOUT CUSTOMS 272 Authentic Learning Materials 273

Writing in Social Studies 275 Writing for Social Studies 275 Writing for Learning 276

LESSON: USING WRITING SKILLS TO ARGUE ALTERNATIVE ENERGY POWER 278 Literacy and the Social Studies Curriculum 280 Literacy in the Curriculum 280 Literacy, Social Studies, and Language Arts 282

12 Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

314

Teaching Children in Diverse Environments 316

11 Planning for Active Learning

288

Active Learning in Social Studies 290 Goals For Active Instruction 291 Active Learning and Authentic Social Studies 292 Active Learning and Subject Matter 292

LESSON: WEATHER AND THE EARTH’S MOVEMENTS 294 Initial Considerations for Instructional Planning 296 Reorganizing Knowledge: Content to Subject Matter 296 Transforming Subject Matter Into Pedagogical Ideas 296

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 298 Planning Instruction for Active Learning 302 Developing Procedures for Facilitating Students’ Learning 302 Selecting and Using Resources 305 Choosing Meaningful Assessment Techniques 306

Lesson Plans and Reflection 307 Writing Lesson Plans 307 Reflection 309

Forms of Diversity 316 Diversity in School 318 Diversity in Society 319 Diversity in Learning: Intelligences and Learning Styles 320

Cultural Diversity and Social Studies 322 How Does the Social Studies Curriculum Reflect Cultural Diversity? 322 Cultural Diversity and Instruction in Social Studies 324 Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning 324

IN THE CLASSROOM: TEACHING ABOUT CALENDARS Individual Diversity and Social Studies 326

325

Diversity and Individual Learning Personalities 326 Accounting for Individual Diversity When Teaching Social Studies 328

IN THE CLASSROOM: DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION IN A LESSON ABOUT PIONEER LIFE IN AMERICA 329 Teaching in Schools with Homogeneous Social and Cultural Characteristics 330 General Considerations for Teaching in Homogeneous Settings 331

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATIONS 332 Curriculum And Homogeneous Cultural Settings 333

Contents

xxv

1 4 Developing subject matter knowledge

2 3

Instructional Planning: Planning to teach

Assessment as part of the teaching cycle

Rethinking the lesson

Instructional Practice: The act of teaching

13 Assessing Learning

338

Types of Assessment 340

348

Planning for Assessment 349 Implementing Assessment 349

Planning for Teaching with Technology 376

Using Computer-Based Games 378

Assessment Results and Effective Teaching 351

LESSON: THE DEATH OF TUTANKHAMEN 352 IN THE CLASSROOM: A NEW METAPHOR: CHANGING METHODS FOR EXPLANATION DURING A LESSON 354 Reteaching and Remediation 355 Assessment Case Studies 356

Contents

What Is Technology? 366 The Why and When of Technology Use 367 Guidelines for Using Technology 368 Developmentally Appropriate Technology 370

LESSON: TECHNOLOGY TIMELINE 377

Using Assessments to Improve Teaching and Learning 351

xxvi

Using Technology in Social Studies 366

Instruction and Technology 376

Assessment in the Teaching Cycle 346

Purpose of Assessment Rubrics 358 Components of Assessment Rubrics 359 Uses of Assessment Rubrics 360

364

Finding and Using Web-Based Resources and Information 371 Technology, Democracy, and the Human Experience 372

Assessment as a Part of Instruction 346

IN THE CLASSROOM: AN ASSESSMENT CASE STUDY Designing and Using Rubrics 358

with Technology

Technological Applications 371

What Is Assessment? 341 Formal and Informal Assessment 341 Formative and Summative Assessment 344

IN THE CLASSROOM: ASSESSMENT AS INSTRUCTION

14 Promoting Student Learning

357

IN THE CLASSROOM: GAMES AS INSTRUCTION 379

Appendix A 385 Appendix B 401 Glossary 403 References 409 Credits 411 Index 415

VISUALIZING FEATURES

PROCESS DIAGRAMS

Chapter 1

Chapter 1

An Investigation of Maps in Social Studies

Inside/Outside Interdisciplinary Planning Process

Chapter 2

Chapter 2

Reflecting on Stereotypes of Places in the United States

The Reflective Teaching Cycle

Inquiry in Practice

Chapter 4 Standards

Chapter 5 Timelines

Visualizing

An Investigation of Maps in Social Studies Figure 1.7

Because maps are only representations of physical characteristics, they can be hard for students to appreciate. In this activity, an ancient map conjures students’ imagination about a place far away and encourages them to consider how this place has changed over time (Figure 1.7a). This map depicts Cartagena or Carthago Nova (New Carthage). In 227 BC, the Carthaginians founded Cartagena on the southeastern Iberian Peninsula. The simplicity of the illustrations and clarity of the ideas presented make this map accessible and interesting. What might students notice about the map? What does it tell them about the people who lived there? Students might comment on the houses, ships, and vegetation. These are represented on the map in the places and maybe even quantities that we might expect existed in Cartagena. Now consider a more modern representation of Cartagena, as shown in Figure 1.7B. How do the map and the twentieth century image of Cartagena, Spain, illustrate technological change? How have recent technological innovations (e.g., TV, refrigeration, and computers) changed our A One of the first maps of Cartagena, Spain lives? These questions can prompt students to investigate their world. B A man fixes a TV antenna on a rooftop in modern Cartagena. In the background is the city, enveloped in pollution from local industry, against the outline of a mountain.

Chapter 6

Inside/Outside Interdisciplinary Planning Process Figure

1. How is the topic studied withIN social studies? The first step is to identify a substantive concept “inside” or within social studies. These concepts will often emerge from standards or curriculum guides. For example, social studies students in primary grades often learn about weather and the seasons, particularly how the weather affects their local community.

Chapter 3

2. How is the topic studied OUTside social studies? The next step is to consider the manner in which this concept is studied outside social studies. Continuing with our example of weather and the seasons, we know that these topics are also studied in science. Typically, that study is more focused on the actual physical forces that influence weather and seasonal phenomena.

The Inquiry Process 3. What are the interdisciplinary connections? The final step is to look for the overlapping areas as points of pedagogical leverage for planning an interdisciplinary lesson. Students might study local weather conditions and the local economy in social studies and use those same weather patterns in a science lesson on understanding the physical forces influencing weather phenomena.

Chapter 4 Another example of how to plan an interdisciplinary lesson using the Inside/Outside Interdisciplinary Planning Process might be focused on food sources and production.

The Influence of Standards on Curriculum

1. The social and cultural uses of milk Inside or within social studies we study the cultural uses of food.

2. The science of milk pasteurization The processes for producing food are typically studied in science classes.

Chapter 5

3. A lesson on a milk plant in a local community The question then becomes: How do we find pedagogical ways to represent this subject matter given both the uses of food and the processes for producing food? The resulting ideas will be interdisciplinary in nature. For example, in California there are well over 100 milk production facilities. In the communities where these plants are located, students could complete an interdisciplinary social studies, science, and health activity studying the uses of milk, the effects of milk production on the economy, and the health benefits of milk.

Storyboarding in History

Cultural Geography

The reflective teaching cycle Figure 2.2

Chapter 7

Constructing Maps with Children

Social Action Visualizing

Reflecting on Stereotypes of Places in the United States Figure 2.4 B Hopsewee Plantation, South Carolina.

C Craftsbury Common, Vermont.

Chapter 7

Ponce De Leon and the Fountain of Youth

Chapter 9

Process Diagram

Chapter 6

Chapter 8

Process Diagram

Chapter 3

Inside/Outside interdisciplinary planning process Figure 1.9

Making the Transition from Respect for Authority to Personal Conscience AHead

41

Grouping Based on Subject Matter

Teaching Cycle — a specific four-part sequence of events that encompasses various acts involved in teaching. Reflections should occur during all phases of the teaching cycle.

Developing Subject Matter Knowledge.

Instructional Planning: Planning to Teach.

1

2

The initial action a teacher takes in the teaching cycle. The desire to develop new subject matter knowledge is often informed by some previous teaching and reflection.

Involves the development of teaching goals, objectives, activities, and assessment strategies.

Reflection

Rethinking the Lesson.

4

Involves systematic reflection on action.

Instructional Practice: The Act of Teaching.

3

Involves the implementation of this plan.

The teaching cycle displayed in the diagram includes four major phases: developing subject matter knowledge, planning to teach, the act of teaching, and rethinking the lesson. Reflection should occur during all four phases of the teaching cycle. Developing subject matter knowledge is typically the initial action a teacher takes in the teaching cycle, but these learning experiences are often informed by some previous teaching and reflection. Instructional planning involves the development of teaching goals, objectives, activities, and assessment strategies. Instruction involves the implementation of this plan, and rethinking involves systematic reflection on action.

Chapter 8 The Hunter Method of Direct Instruction

Chapter 9 Chapter 10

Planning for Interactive Learning

Skills-Based Writing in Social Studies

Chapter 10 Chapter 11

The Writing Process

The Narrowing of Subject Matter: Connecting Past to Present

Chapter 11 Planning Instruction for Active Learning

Chapter 12 Multiple Intelligences

Chapter 12 The Elements of Individual Learning Personalities

Chapter 13 Teaching and Assessing About Climate Types

Chapter 13 Assessment in the Reflective Teaching Cycle

Chapter 14 A Web Search in Social Studies

Chapter 14 Finding Web-Based Information

Contents

xxvii

What Is Social Studies?

I

n the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, many students went to their social studies teacher with questions. Often when students are confused or bothered by events in the world, the social studies classroom is where they seek refuge and answers. A teacher in an elementary classroom has many opportunities to use real-life events, such as Hurricane Katrina, as a context for children learning about curriculum-based content. For example, in the second grade children often learn about their community. Elementary-grade teachers might work with their students to learn how communities prepare for disasters or how communities respond when problems arise. Learning about events such as Hurricane Katrina helps children make connections between school and the world around them. One of the central characteristics of social studies and all school experiences is that the subject matter comes from life experiences. To some extent, social studies educators always capitalize on the relationship between social studies curricular subject matter and life experiences. In the early twentieth century, when social studies was a nascent school subject, John Dewey wrote extensively about the need to draw on life experience when developing and teaching social studies, and for that matter, all school curriculum. Today, educators continue to make connections between life experience and school curriculum. What feelings emerge when looking at images of the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina? How do these feelings translate into interests that we can pursue in the social studies classroom? How can teachers integrate students’ interests into the scope and sequence of curriculum?

2

1

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Defining Social Studies p. 5

■ Social Studies as a School

Subject p. 8

■ Approaches to Social Studies

p. 11

■ Social Studies and Content

Disciplines p. 20

■ Standards-Based Social Studies

p. 24

hildren learn early in life that the world around them is a complicated and sometimes confusing place. Through social studies, we can help children make sense of the people, places, and events that make up our human experience. When children learn about events such as Hurricane Katrina, they are not just learning about content, they are learning about life. Social studies is often thought of as a place where young people can develop into responsible adults, capable of contributing to the economic, political, and social good of society. Some view this school mission as focused on the inculcation of traditional values, while others view it as most appropriately focused on preparation for future economic participation. Still others view social studies as an opportunity to engage students in social critiques aimed at promoting democratic freedom and equality. Of course, most people have a complex view of social studies that includes parts of all these approaches, as well as others. Look at the image in Figure 1.1 and think about how you would approach social studies with a diverse group of students. Social studies can play a central role in preparing young people for adulthood. Social studies is centered on human experiences, and in social studies classes,

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Figure 1.1 What type of approach to social studies does this image suggest?

students learn and apply skills to Disciplinary the study of human experiRelating to a specific ences. With each year of social field of academic studies classes, learning opporstudy in which tunities occur in increasingly unique rules for complex disciplinary contexts. acquiring knowledge Social studies knowledge have been estaband skills have important reallished and are world applications. Social studies practiced. students learn how to critically appraise sources of information, tolerate different dispositions, recognize points of view, and evaluate appeals from those seeking political approval or authority. These skills are an important part of everyday democratic life. When we get along with our friends and colleagues, work out differences of opinions with others, participate in conversations about public issues, and vote in elections, we use social studies knowledge and skills. In this chapter, we will explore the definitions and purposes of social studies. We will look at approaches to social studies in the classroom that involve historical, sociological, and anthropological perspectives. In the context of these academic disciplines, we will also review major disciplinar y standards for teaching social studies.

Defining Social Studies LEARNING OBJECTIVES Construct a definition of social studies.

WHAT IS SOCIAL STUDIES? ocial studies is ultimately a set of courses that enables students to understand human experiences. The means for developing this understanding may differ greatly, but at the center of social studies is a critical acceptance of the idea that humans have an innate interest in knowing how and why we live as we do. The two words that make up the term social studies have powerful connotations. The word “social” most typically refers to human society and the means by which it is organized, but originally it meant a simple association between people or groups of people. The meaning of “social” is quite important, for we know that the meaning of the word “studies” leaves

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Describe the three dispositions for learning social studies content.

little room for disagreement. The manner in which people give meaning to the word social often hints at how they might approach social studies. Some people think of the meaning of “social” as it relates to society, or an action directed at changing society in a positive way—social change. Thought of in this way, social studies might be a ver y active endeavor focused on improvSocial change ing the human condition An action or actions directed at changing through collective action. For society in some posithose who focus more on the tive way. meaning of social as it connotes individual action, social studies might be a set of courses designed to prepare young people to be economically and intellectually independent (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Xhosa tribespeople in Zinyoka, near King William’s town, Cape of Good Hope Province, South Africa. What does this image suggest about the meaning of the word social? Are these men focused on large societal concerns, individual concerns, or a combination of both? What do you think is the best connotation of the word social?

The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) offers the broadest definition for social studies. In 1992, the Board of Directors of NCSS adopted this definition: Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and huThe integrated study manities to promote civic compeof the social scitence. Within the school program, ences and humanisocial studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such ties to promote civic disciplines as anthropology, archaecompetence. ology, economics, geography, histor y, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.

Social studies

THE NATURE OF SOCIAL STUDIES

Civic curriculums in countries all competence The over the world. knowledge and skills Civic competence has also needed to actively been conceptualized by a host and productively of national and international participate in demoorganizations as including not cratic life. only knowledge components, but also skills. The Center for Civic virtue The Civic Education has developed a necessary moral narange of programs for developture of participation ing civic competence in young in a democracy. people in the United States focused on civic virtue, civic participation, and civic knowledge and skills. Other organizations such as CIVITAS International, which focuses on strengthening civic education in new and established democracies around the world, aim to extend civic education beyond formal schooling to include public and private organizations acting to promote civic democratic practices.

Multiple Disciplinary Social Studies For many The NCSS definition attempts to include three distinct dispositions about the field. First, NCSS claims that social studies is designed to promote civic competence. Second, the NCSS definition involves a multiple disciplinary approach to social studies. Third, the definition puts forth a rationale for social studies aimed at a public or common good. In the following sections we explore each of these dispositions.

Social Studies for Civic Competence The knowledge and skills needed to be an effective citizen in a democracy are multifaceted. Some organizations, such as the Core Knowledge Foundation, have suggested that a core body of knowledge is Democracy Most a prerequisite for meaningful typically thought of civic dialogue and action. What as government by that body of knowledge includes the people, either in is less important than agreement direct or representathat a body of knowledge is comtive form, but also monly developed by school chilmeant to refer more dren in an academic setting. This broadly to principles approach is embodied in naof social cooperation tional standards movements in and individual rights. the United States and national 6

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teachers and researchers, social studies is multidisciplinary. For some this means that social studies is a collection of discrete disciplines, while others approach it as a synthesis of academic disciplines or some combination of both. NCSS views the academic disciplines of anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology as collectively contributing toward the delivery of effective social studies learning. Other organizations have taken the separate disciplines approach and attempted to exert more extensive control over social studies curriculum, knowledge, and practice. Organizations within the discipline of history have been particularly active in trying to shape social studies. In its infancy, social studies was deeply influenced by historians in the American Historical Association (AHA) who called for history to be the focus of the social studies. Today the AHA, the Organization of American Historians (OAH), and the World History Association (WHA) continue to recommend that history be the focus of social studies. Likewise, the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) has called for the discipline of geography to occupy a central place in the social studies curriculum.

Figure 1.3 These children are working together to solve a problem related to land use. How can such activities be focused on the common good?

Social Studies for the Common Good In its 1994 standards publication, NCSS defined the common good as “the general welfare of all individuals and groups within the community.” This definition reflects some significant differences in how teachers approach teaching for the common good. What does the term “common good” actually represent and how can social studies Common good The general welfare teachers promote a common of all individuals and good? (See Figure 1.3.) groups within a In order to understand the community. NCSS definition of the common good, we must consider the role of ideology—specifically, as it relates to individuals and communities. Liberals tend to want to focus on com-

CONCEPT CHECK

munity group action when thinking about the common good, and many liberal educators believe that the common good must ultimately take form through community group–based social action. Such a belief might suggest that social studies teachers should prepare their students for social action. Conser vatives tend to be more concerned with the improvement or welfare of individuals as opposed to groups. Thus, an instructional focus on individual learning outcomes and personal responsibility is typically more in line with conservative approaches to promoting the common good. NCSS has deliberately attempted to weave through the complications of potential ideological discord by endorsing the common good as dependent on both individual (conservative) and collective (liberal) action.

STOP

NCSS sees the common good as central to social studies instruction. What types of common good are evident in this image?

What contradictions emerge when considering social studies for the common good as opposed to social studies as a discipline?

In what ways can these two purposes be unified or made more similar?

Firefighters in an Oakland, California, residential area battle a blazing fire that killed, 24 people and destroyed 2,500 homes.

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Social Studies as a School Subject LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe when and why social studies first emerged as a school subject. Explain the early evolution of social studies in the public schools. Recognize the origins of current perspectives on social studies purposes.

THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL STUDIES ocial studies appeared by name in the public schools in the years just before World War I. The concept of social studies and the social studies course both have a long and interesting history. David Warren Saxe (1991) has argued that social studies has its roots in the Social Welfare movement, which emerged in Britain in the 1820s. The movement provided a starting point for organized efforts to address and consider social prob-

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lems in democracies. This movement would eventually lead to the development of an academic field of study called social science as well as social science organizations. By the 1880s, the formal study of social sciences had been introduced in British and American schools. An Episcopal minister and scholar named R. Heber Newton coined the term “social study” in 1887 to refer to studies within the social sciences directed at improving conditions for poor urban workers (Figure 1.4). By 1900, calls for “social education” in public schools and “social-centered” education were proliferating. One of the first formal programs in social studies was founded by Hampton University professor Thomas Jesse Jones, but public school social studies programs did not emerge until after a 1916 recommendation for the inclusion of social studies in public school curriculum by committees working through the National Educational Association. Initial social studies courses were ver y similar to what we see in schools today—primarily history, geography, and civics courses focused on factual recall. How-

Figure 1.4 Two girls, one seated at a sewing machine and the other standing, work in a textile mill. How do the working conditions depicted in this image illustrate the problems R. Heber Newton might have seen in society?

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The influx of immigrants into the United States in ever, between 1916 and today, there have been two mathe late 19th century resulted in a different kind of edjor efforts to change social studies education. In the ucation—one that could help set the con1930s, social reconstructionists such as text for the assimilation of new immigrants George Counts and Harold Rugg aimed to Social reconas well as establish a means for social conredirect social studies practice toward colstructionists trol. In this environment, the National Edulective action and social change. The imActivists who aimed cation Association’s Committee on Social pact of their work was moderate, but to redirect social studies practice Studies through its mammoth Reorganizaquickly faded with the outbreak of World toward collective action of Secondar y Schools project introWar II. In the 1960s, a movement called the tion and social duced “social studies” to the mainstream New Social Studies (Figure 1.5) refocused change. educational community in 1916 by recomthe field, this time on inquiry. We still see mending a course in social studies as part of the legacy of new social studies in schools the standard curriculum. today, but the national standards movement of the Although the Committee on Social Studies was 1990s resulted in a return to the fact-and-recall social more likely to be in favor of a social education apstudies of the early 20th century. proach to the social studies, the implementation of social studies was decidedly more conservative. Instead of focusing on social problems and the improvement of EARLY PURPOSES OF SOCIAL STUDIES social conditions, as the committee’s report implied, most social studies instruction continued to be acadeFrom 1913 to 1916, Progressive Era committees orgamic in nature and focused on teaching students about nized by the National Education Association formally concepts and generalizations in various disciplines such called for social studies courses in the public schools. as history and geography. Conservatives and liberal proThese committees conducted their work in the wake of gressives disagreed over how social studies should be great social change brought on by the rapid industrialtaught. Despite consistent efforts to bridge the differization of large urban centers in the United States and ences over how social studies should be conceptualized northern Europe, as well as the influx of immigrants to and taught, this gulf is still with us today. the United States from all parts of Europe.

Figure 1.5 How might the protest outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention, pictured here, be used in a “New Social Studies” classroom? Think about how students might inquire into sixties-era upheaval in the United States over the Vietnam War and civil rights.

Social and Cultural Explorations

A new approach for social studies in China Social studies serves important purposes for different groups of people around the world. Often these purposes change over time. This idea of change over time is evident in China, where social studies has evolved to reflect new ideological priorities. In the past, social studies served in support of a command economy and state authority. This traditional Chinese focus on command economics results in a very different social studies curriculum from what we see in the United States, where the emphasis is on a free market economy and a democratic system. Despite the long-standing traditional focus in China, in recent years the Chinese school curriculum has opened up to focus more on market economics and individual issues. How has the Chinese social studies curriculum reflected these changes? Certainly, a communal approach would result in different social studies experiences than would an emphasis on the individual. One way to illustrate these changes is through a consideration of recent Chinese history, as seen in these three photos. How do these images demonstrate tensions between individualist and communal interests? How might these different interests influence social studies? Each image portrays something iconic in China that is situated in a part of Chinese history. Think about how China has changed from its dynastic past prior to the 1911 fall of the last Chinese Emperor Pu Yi, through nationalist and communist periods of the twentieth century, to the current market reforms under way in China. Think about how each of these images supports or contradicts command and free market economic ideas and authoritarian and democratic ideals. Then consider how the social studies curricula in China and the United States might be designed to reflect the various influences resulting from economic and social structures. Chairman Mao Tse Dung portrait at the Forbidden City

Home of a Mao Brigade member in Hainan island commune, Guangdong Province, 1981

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Bank of China building in Hong Kong

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How would the influx of immigrants at Ellis Island affect what was taught in school social studies programs at the time?

When might immigration have influenced how social studies was taught and what was taught in social studies?

The Registry Room at Ellis Island

Approaches to Social Studies LEARNING OBJECTIVES Recognize three common approaches to teaching social studies. Apply knowledge of the subject matter to different teaching situations. Make choices about how to represent your knowledge for pedagogical purposes. Describe the inside/outside process for thinking in an interdisciplinary way about concepts.

hroughout this book, we will be looking at models and specific examples of how teachers develop pedagogical knowledge by transforming their knowledge of social studies subject matter into knowledge of how to teach social studies. In this section, we will start with some basic approaches to teaching social studies that emerge from the central purposes of the discipline. Social studies is a complex subject. As teachers we can represent this complexity for children through the presentation of stories, investigations, and deliberations. The “In the Classroom” feature on page 12 describes a storytelling activity from a first-grade classroom about Christopher Columbus and the Taíno Native Americans. The “Visualizing” feature on page 15 explains how students might investigate changes over

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time in Cartagena, Spain, using a variety of sources. The “Lesson” on pages 16–17 describes how students might Pedagogy Most deliberate about problems and broadly, the act or opportunities associated with art of teaching; also the substance of the mining and drilling in the Amaknowledge of how to zon River Basin. Each of these teach. features highlights one of three unique approaches to social studies and is focused on specific subject matter adaptations that are part of a larger pedagogy of the subject.

THREE APPROACHES TO SOCIAL STUDIES Teachers craft social studies experiences for students to reflect their own talents and to take advantage of resources in the school and the community. Social studies practice should include practices with which teachers are comfortable and confident. These can be thought of as practical pedagogical approaches to teaching content. Jerome Bruner (1999) calls such practical approaches folk pedagogies and views this form of teacher knowledge as emerging from the experiences of those who are teaching or have taught. These teachers’ ideas about teaching are not formalized, but instead are passed on as traditions of success in the classroom.

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In the Classroom

TEACHING ABOUT CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

In a recent class, Mr. Gregory told the story of Columbus’s first contact with Native Americans to his first-grade students. The story is well known, but, like much of social studies, it is full of complexity, including conflict and violence. Mr. Gregory knows that if he includes too much of this conflict and violence, he may create anxiety among his young students, so he decides to cast the story as one of missed op-

portunities. In his story, Mr. Gregory describes Columbus as a man who was motivated to do good, but also was limited by greed and self-centeredness. He describes the Taíno Native Americans whom Columbus encountered as relatively naïve, simple, and primitive, but also brave in the face of this unknown group of Europeans.

Alonso de Hojeda, an agent of Columbus, cuts off an ear of a Taíno Indian during a trek to reinforce the inland fortress of Santo Tomas on Hispaniola Island. The incident, portrayed in a watercolor painting by Arthur Shilstone, occurred after one of the Indians was accused of stealing clothes from some Spaniards. How does this image illustrate the complexities of the relationship between the Spanish and Taíno?

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Three practical pedagogical approaches for elementary social studies include the following: 1. Storytelling 2. Investigating 3. Deliberating 1. Storytelling is a teaching approach that takes advantage of what educators call “direct” instructional pedagogical practices. You will read more about direct instruction later. For now we can think of this approach to teaching as capitalizing on teachers’ capacities as storytellers and lecturers. Levstik and Barton (2001) describe effective stor ytelling as engaging children’s interests as well as reflecting multiple interpretations. Children must understand that history is not based on a single narrative or a sole perspective. Every person has his or her own story and all stories have some value. Let’s look at an example of how we might develop a story from subject matter that might interest children. Consider the topic of famous women in the twentieth century. Two such women, Mary McLeod Bethune and Eleanor Roosevelt, worked to address social problems

in the 1930s and 1940s. This picture of Bethune and Roosevelt illustrates the closeness of their relationship (Figure 1.6). Bethune was Roosevelt’s “Special Advisor on Minority Affairs” for 1935–1944. The story of their friendship is also the story of African American emancipation and political involvement in the middle of the 20th century. If we were to use the stor ytelling approach to teaching this subject matter, students might hear a ten-minute story about Bethune and Roosevelt using the women’s friendship as an organizing framework. Casting the work of these women in the frame of friendship should help students better relate to the subject matter and thus potentially lead to better retention of the facts presented in the story. As students relate to subject matter, they begin to see themselves as part of the stories they are being told. Students might be more likely to remember the stor y of Bethune and Roosevelt, as well as assorted facts related to their lives, if they associate these facts to something meaningful to them, such as the concept of friendship. Cognitive psychologists call this process semantic elaboration.

Figure 1.6 Mary McLeod Bethune (left) and Eleanor Roosevelt (right)

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2. Investigating is a student-centered teaching approach that enables learners to consider problems, topics, people, places, events, and other social phenomena that have some meaning or relevance to them. To better explain this teaching approach, look at the feature on page 15 titled “Visualizing: An Investigation of Maps in Social Studies” ( Figure 1.7 ). This feature describes an exercise on geographic and physical changes that occur over time in a place. Investigation exercises such as this are based on questions or unexplained events or ideas. An investigation requires the use of sources such as maps or pictures and should result in students better understanding something that was previously unknown or misunderstood. 3. Deliberating is a teaching approach to social studies that focuses on the development of students’ dispositions about social problems. In this approach, students clarify what they think is most important in situations and places where conflict or limited resources are present. For example, much controversy has existed over how humans have used and continue to use natural resources. Students can deliberate about the uses of natural resources in social studies. Consider the cost and benefits of mining and drilling in the Amazon River Basin and how teachers can facilitate their students’ deliberations. First, let’s look at some of the issues involved in the controversy over the Amazon River Basin. For decades, conservationists and environmentalists have expressed alarm at the rate at which the

world’s forests are being depleted. Indigenous populations in Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Central Africa, and Central and South America are particularly concerned about deforestation and the related gradual loss of their way of life. A significant portion of deforestation has been attributed to the mining and petroleum industries. One of the most celebrated examples of native protest against deforestation has been in the Amazon region, where indigenous populations have garnered a tremendous amount of worldwide support. Environmentalists are concerned about the loss of natural habitats and the acceleration of species extinction that accompanies deforestation. The mining and petroleum industries believe that they can steward the land in efficient and effective ways. Many corporations involved in drilling and mining have made concerted efforts in recent years to consider the cost of new exploration on biodiversity and indigenous people. At the same time, demand for oil and precious metals continues to rise, with consumers in countries such as the United States, India, and China pushing for new sources of these resources. See the “Lesson” on pages 16–17 for an in-depth explanation of how a teacher might guide students through a deliberation about drilling and mining in the Amazon River Basin. How might you encourage a student investigation about the subject matter suggested in Figure 1.8? How would your lesson be different if you used a direct instructional approach or a student-centered approach?

Investigating Figure 1.8 A Sioux medicine man offers a ritual prayer to the buffalo.

Visualizing

An Investigation of Maps in Social Studies Figure 1.7

Because maps are only representations of physical characteristics, they can be hard for students to appreciate. In this activity, an ancient map conjures students’ imagination about a place far away and encourages them to consider how this place has changed over time (Figure 1.7a). This map depicts Cartagena or Carthago Nova (New Carthage). In 227 BC, the Carthaginians founded Cartagena on the southeastern Iberian Peninsula. The simplicity of the illustrations and clarity of the ideas presented make this map accessible and interesting. What might students notice about the map? What does it tell them about the people who lived there? Students might comment on the houses, ships, and vegetation. These are represented on the map in the places and maybe even quantities that we might expect existed in Cartagena. Now consider a more modern representation of Cartagena, as shown in Figure 1.7B. How do the map and the twentieth century image of Cartagena, Spain, illustrate technological change? How have recent technological innovations (e.g., TV, refrigeration, and computers) changed our A One of the first maps of Cartagena, Spain lives? These questions can prompt students to investigate their world. B A man fixes a TV antenna on a rooftop in modern Cartagena. In the background is the city, enveloped in pollution from local industry, against the outline of a mountain.

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LESSON

Is drilling for oil in the Amazon River Basin worth the consequences? INTRODUCTION

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lthough cooperation is beginning to ease some of the tension between environmentalists and industrialists, there are fundamental differences between the two groups. In this lesson, students will deliberate about the problems resulting from oil drilling and mineral mining in the Amazon basin.

Urucu, an oil-drilling plant in the middle of the Amazon rainforest, threatens the Yanomami Indians, who are one of the last Stone Age tribes in the world.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The goal is to enable students to calculate the cost and benefits of a specific oil-drilling project in Peru and to make a purposeful decision about what action should be taken. This activity is appropriate for third-, fourth-, or fifth-grade students, but requires adaptation to meet the needs of specific learning environments.

PROCEDURES A series of increasingly detailed questions for deliberation drives this lesson. The teacher presents each question along with some suggestions for how to implement students’ deliberation about the questions. Remember that the teacher must adapt all of the ideas in this lesson, and must understand the subject matter and be comfortable with the pedagogy suggested in this lesson. How much do you consume? Show students how to determine their ecological footprint online at http://www.earthday.net/Footprint. The Earth Day Network developed this calculation to determine the amount of land it takes to produce the products we consume in one year. The average ecological footprint of an American adult is 24 acres. A child’s footprint might be half that number. Give students examples of how much area 24 or 12 acres take up. Determine the acreage of the school or compare a space children may be familiar with such as a football field, which is 1.3 acres.

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Why is the Amazon River Basin such a special place? Provide a map of the Amazon River Basin, showing the tributaries and rivers that flow into the Amazon River. Tell students that the amount of water that flows through the Amazon River Basin to the Atlantic Ocean is ten times greater than the annual flow of the Mississippi. The Amazon River Basin is home to the world’s most complex ecosystem. The area encompasses over two million square miles and has over 11,000 tributaries and thousands of identified plant and animal species. There are 170 Indian cultural groups living in the Amazon area. The Amazon region also contains large oil reserves and mineral deposits including gold, silver, and uranium. Five countries are within the Amazon River Basin: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. Significant oil deposits exist in each of these countries; some say it may be billions of barrels of oil, although much is untapped. Why do we need oil? Ask students to go back to their ecological footprint and think about their personal life habits. How much do they ride in a car or on

a bus? How much gas do those vehicles use? Explain that gasoline is produced from oil—the same oil that is drilled from the ground in places like the Amazon River Basin area. Continue the discussion about sources of energy use. Ask students to list the things they do that require energy use. Where do people in the United States get their oil? The United States imports about 300 million barrels of oil a month. Almost 20 million, or 7%, come from the five countries in the Amazon River Basin. Students might graph or chart these data and should consider the consequences of not having that oil in the future. Ask students what would happen to oil prices if the supply of oil were reduced. What are the costs of oil production in the Amazon River Basin? There are numerous resources on the Web that describe some of the consequences of drilling for oil deep in the forests of Ecuador and Peru. For example, see http://www.chevrontoxico.org/, a Web site created by plaintiffs in a lawsuit brought on behalf of indigenous people in Ecuador. The lawsuit claims that Chevron/Texaco Corporation is liable for massive environmental damage over decades of oil drilling beginning in the 1960s. Teachers have to make reasoned decisions about how their students interact with these resources, select appropriate resources, adapt them, and present them for students, given the objectives of the lesson, students’ prior knowledge, and the time allocated. Can we have the oil and protect the environment and people of the Amazon at the same time? Students should work in groups to deliberate on this question. Group students so that a variety of opinions are represented in each group. Within a group, each student should propose an answer to the question. These answers should be shared with the group. Then have students revise their answers, taking into account what others in the group have said. All students should write or somehow illustrate a response to the question as a culminating activity.

The following additional resources may be useful when planning and/or teaching this lesson: • The Pachamama Alliance http://www.pachamama.org/ • Earth Day Network Ecological Footprint http://www.earthday.net/Footprint • United States Geological Survey Energy Resources Information http://energy.cr.usgs.gov/ • Rainforest Action Network http://www.ran.org/ • Earth Trends from the World Resources Network http://earthtrends.wri.org/ • Chevron Corporation information on social responsibility http://www.chevron.com/social_responsibility/ • Texaco Latin America http://www.texaco.com/worldwide/ latinamerica/

ASSESSMENT Informal assessment should take place throughout the lesson. Determine your students’ understanding based on their responses to questions and adapt instruction accordingly. Ensure that students understand their tasks, both when they begin their group work and when they begin the culminating activity. Determine a grade using the following criteria: • Was the response an appropriate length? • Was the paragraph free of grammatical mistakes? • Did the paragraph include a topic sentence and at least two supporting pieces of information? • Did the paragraph address the substantial content question?

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INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL STUDIES IN SCHOOL Social studies lessons, units, and even courses are often adapted for other curricular purposes. Social studies actually has countless inter- or cross-disciplinary opportunities Interdisciplinary built into the subject matter. SoRelating to two or cial studies is perfect for intermore academic disciplines and the reladisciplinary teaching because it tions and includes the study of concepts connections beand themes, ideas and beliefs, tween these and people and places, all of disciplines. which incorporate knowledge learned in other school subjects. There are many ways to consider the interdisciplinary nature of social studies (we will consider several of these in Chapters 8, 9, and 10). For now, let’s look at concepts that are relevant for social studies and other classroom subject areas. Concepts help to form the foundation of subject matter. When we consider the interdisciplinary characteristics of concepts, we can make deep and meaningful connections between subject areas. Some examples of concepts that are important in social studies, and also have other school subject relevance, include: mapping, weather, evolution, supply and de-

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How might a teacher present the subject matter depicted in the photo inside or within social studies and outside social studies?

What are some other ideas and concepts that students similarly learn both within and outside social studies?

A scientist in Costa Rica puts an unidentified caterpillar, and the leaf it is walking on, into a plastic bag.

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mand, religion and myth, and food and food production. The relationships suggested here between specific social studies concepts and other school subjects emerged from the application of a method called the inside/outside process, as shown in the Process Diagram on page 19 (Figure 1.9). This process can be used whenever a teacher wishes to make connections between social studies and other subject areas.

Summary of the Inside/Outside Interdisciplinary Planning Process 1. How do students learn the concept inside or within social studies? Find an example of specific subject matter related to the concept as it is taught in social studies. 2. How do students learn the concept outside social studies? Develop a parallel “other” academic understanding of how the subject is taught. 3. What are the commonalities or connections between the findings in steps one and two? These become the interdisciplinary characteristics of the subject matter that will form the substance for an interdisciplinary lesson or unit.

Process Diagram

Inside/Outside interdisciplinary planning process Figure 1.9 Inside/Outside Interdisciplinary Planning Process Figure

1. How is the topic studied withIN social studies? The first step is to identify a substantive concept “inside” or within social studies. These concepts will often emerge from standards or curriculum guides. For example, social studies students in primary grades often learn about weather and the seasons, particularly how the weather affects their local community.

2. How is the topic studied OUTside social studies? The next step is to consider the manner in which this concept is studied outside social studies. Continuing with our example of weather and the seasons, we know that these topics are also studied in science. Typically, that study is more focused on the actual physical forces that influence weather and seasonal phenomena.

3. What are the interdisciplinary connections? The final step is to look for the overlapping areas as points of pedagogical leverage for planning an interdisciplinary lesson. Students might study local weather conditions and the local economy in social studies and use those same weather patterns in a science lesson on understanding the physical forces influencing weather phenomena.

Another example of how to plan an interdisciplinary lesson using the Inside/Outside Interdisciplinary Planning Process might be focused on food sources and production.

1. The social and cultural uses of milk Inside or within social studies we study the cultural uses of food.

2. The science of milk pasteurization The processes for producing food are typically studied in science classes.

3. A lesson on a milk plant in a local community The question then becomes: How do we find pedagogical ways to represent this subject matter given both the uses of food and the processes for producing food? The resulting ideas will be interdisciplinary in nature. For example, in California there are well over 100 milk production facilities. In the communities where these plants are located, students could complete an interdisciplinary social studies, science, and health activity studying the uses of milk, the effects of milk production on the economy, and the health benefits of milk.

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Social Studies and Content Disciplines LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify the major content disciplines in social studies. Explain the role of history, geography, government/civics, and economics in social studies. Describe the relative importance of each content discipline in social studies.

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ypically, social studies includes content from five major areas: • History

structures. Substantive structures are used to create knowledge in a discipline, and syntactic structures are used to confirm or verify that knowledge. For social studies there are no such structures formally operating at the highest levels of learning in colleges and universities. Think about it: Have you ever taken a social studies class in college? Outside of education there are very few places where you can major in “social studies.” Social studies might be best thought of as a collection of academic disciplines. Let’s review these social studies disciplines, and consider how experts in each of these five disciplines would work with the same subject matter: the settlement of Jamestown, Virginia (Figure 1.10).

• Geography • Civics

HISTORY

• Economics • Behavioral sciences Each of the disciplines in social studies includes unique knowledge and structures. In his influential 1964 work Structure of the Disciplines, Joseph Schwab describes how knowledge is constructed in academic disciplines and develops rules for what makes a discipline legitimate. In this section, we will look at five social studies disciplines. First, we must take note that social studies itself might not be considered a discipline. Joseph Schwab claims that disciplines have unique substantive and syntactic

Figure 1.10 Archaeologist William Kelso’s team uncovers two large semicircles located on the southern side of the James Fort’s wall at the historic Jamestown settlement in Virginia.

History is the study of the past using the remains of the past. We will look at the structures of the discipline in more depth in Chapter 5, but for now let us consider how we construct knowledge in history. Historians create knowledge about the past by taking the incomplete record of the past as depicted in primary sources (letters, diaries, official records, pictures, etc.) and piecing together a story, which communicates the historian’s understanding of past experiences. Historical knowledge is always interpretative or a product of a historian’s own perspective and bias. The connections between social studies and history are so profound and long standing that often the focus of social studies lessons is history. When planning to teach history, teachers must transform their knowledge of the past into strategies that will help children learn. That transformative process is, in some ways, the focus of this book. In effective history classes, children use the evidence of people’s lives from the past (artifacts, writings) to learn about people and events from the past (the social aspect of history). Let’s consider the story of the Jamestown Colony. What questions might a student who is studying the history of Jamestown ask about the social reasons for settling in the New World? In order to investigate this question, children will need access to information from and about the past. Their teacher can provide that in-

formation in a concise or summarized manner, perhaps through a short lecture, a reading passage, or even a video. Children might also be encouraged to construct their own knowledge by investigating materials from the past, such as journal entries from Jamestown residents or records from the Jamestown Corporation. Students might investigate the following excerpt from the Virginia Company given to Captain John Smith for the initial voyage to Virginia in 1617 in an effort to understand the reasons for the location of the settlement of Jamestown. When it shall please God to send you on the coast of Virginia, you shall do your best endeavour to find out a safe port in the entrance of some navigable river, making choice of such a one as runneth farthest into the land, and if you happen to discover divers portable rivers, and amongst them any one that hath two main branches, if the difference be not great, make choice of that which bendeth most toward the North-west for that way you shall soonest find the other sea.

Such work requires that teachers understand and transform their knowledge of the past and of the discipline of history to facilitate their students’ construction of knowledge.

GEOGRAPHY Geography is the discipline that enables us to develop knowledge about places and environments so we can appreciate and understand our physical surroundings. Geographers use maps as representations of physical or spatial surroundings (Figure 1.11), but geography is much more than studying maps and learning about spatial forms. Children also need to develop an awareness of the space around them. For example, children should develop mental maps of their home or their neighborhood. As they grow older, they should expand the dimensions of these mental maps. The maps help children and adults understand and explain their surroundings and make sense of new places. When learning about geography, children should consider meaningful problems and issues using the tools of geography. Children should investigate geographic problems that, when addressed, lead to solutions that make life better (e.g., problems with overpopulation and pollution). Geographic awareness can enrich and enhance daily civic life as well. We will learn more about the discipline of geography in Chapter 6, but for now let’s consider our

Figure 1.11 What does this map of the world tell us about the place we call Earth? Why do we need to know about the land surfaces represented on this map? How might people working in various social studies disciplines use this map?

Social Studies and Content Disciplines

21

Jamestown example. What would a geographer want to know about the location of Jamestown? How does this knowledge help children understand the social story of the Jamestown settlement? By using the discipline of geography, students can answer these questions. Geographers describe a location in terms of its value for humans. In the case of Jamestown, the location was along a major water way that extended in such a way that protected the settlement from attack. It was also easily accessible for ships coming from England. This knowledge helps us understand the precarious circumstances that the Jamestown settlers faced. They were far from home in a potentially hostile site and were dependent on a landscape they knew little about.

CIVICS Part of the purpose of social studies is to instill in students a sense of civic responsibility. When children learn civics, they learn about how their government works, as well as the rights and responsibilities of citizens who live in this democracy. The students we teach in social studies are emerging citizens in the American democracy. To be productive citizens, they must participate in civic life. Civic life demands that we take positions on issues that are often contested and sometimes ideologically driven (e.g., Who should be the next president? How do we reduce the number of drunk drivers on the road?). The knowledge and skills that students develop in school support them in pursuing a meaningful civic life, and thus in carrying out democracy. Students construct their civic knowledge within the discipline of political science. Political scientists study the processes, principles, and structures of government. They study politics and political behavior and institutions. The knowledge they construct is the basis for civics in social studies. Again, we devote a full chapter to civics, so let’s think about our Jamestown example with special attention on political science or civics. What would a political scientist think about the construction of a fort as one of the first actions of the settlers of Jamestown? A political scientist would focus on the relationships that existed between the colonists and the native Indians as well as the political forces that compelled the Jamestown settlers to go to the Americas. The construc22

CHAPTER 1

What Is Social Studies?

tion of a fort at Jamestown reflected the hostility that existed between European settlers and natives as well as the expansionist political environment in England. Students can use the processes used by political scientists as well as the content knowledge they develop to better understand the Jamestown story, elements of which are relevant in social studies.

ECONOMICS Economics is the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and ser vices in a cultural setting. Most of us never think about how economies function, but understanding the process is central to a transparent and fair economy. If we do not understand how people get money and why some people have more than others, we may be less able to enrich our own lives or live comfortably within our means. Societies that are structured to protect small groups who control most of the wealth in the society do not allow citizens to learn about and participate equally in the economy. Students must develop a certain level of economic knowledge that will enable them to participate as economic actors, protecting their interests while understanding their responsibilities. Students must also understand how to manage their personal economics (e.g., balancing a checkbook), while developing an understanding of the larger macro forces that shape economic thought and action on a global scale. How might teachers integrate the economics of Jamestown into social studies? How would an economist evaluate the value or potential value of the Jamestown settlement? An economist would look at the costs incurred when developing the colony and would compare them to the benefits that resulted from the settlement. For the first few years, Jamestown lost money and human resources. Hundreds of people died and the investors spent more than they got back. After time, the colony began to pay off. In the long run, the value of the Jamestown colony in paving the way for future settlement is incalculable. Such an analysis is of course only one side of the story. An economic evaluation of the Jamestown settlement from the Powhatan native Indian perspective would yield almost opposite findings. The Indians lost everything including their land, their culture, and ultimately their lives.

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES The behavioral sciences include psychology, anthropology, and sociology. Although subject matter from these disciplines is rarely if ever formally studied in elementary social studies, concepts and topics common in the fields are part of most social studies curriculums. For example, social studies curriculums often include concepts from sociology, such as family and culture. The behavioral sciences investigate human behavior, each using a different technique to explain human action. Psychology focuses on human actions and cognition in the present. Anthropologists look at human cultures, both past and present. Sociologists attempt to explain collective human action and behavior. For example, we study the reasons why people wanted to settle in Jamestown. What would a psychologist or anthropologist or sociologist find interesting about the work of William Kelso at Jamestown (see Figure 1.10)? Behavioral scientists can help us understand how the social structures of the English settlers conflicted with the natives who already lived in the area. For example, the natives did not understand the notion of private property. The English had constructed an entire culture around the protection of private property. Conflict over land reflected the differences the two groups had over how humans should interact with the land.

CONCEPT CHECK

Figure 1.12 An American scientist and local Krongs in Burma study animal species around a fire.

Now, consider another case of two groups that have come together, the situation of an American scientist in Burma. How might the subject of this American scientist in Burma (Figure 1.12) prompt teaching in the social studies disciplines (histor y, geography, civics, economics, and behavioral sciences)? Think beyond the subject matter depicted in the picture to consider the place, the broader activity taking place, the different cultures represented, and the possible roles of each person in the activity.

STOP

How might a teacher present this image of an untouchable woman and child at a weaving loom as subject matter in each of the social studies content disciplines?

What are some of the economic, political, and geographic influences of the caste system in Indian history?

The untouchables are at the bottom of the caste social system that orders much of life in India. Although the caste system was banned in 1947, vestiges are still present.

Social Studies and Content Disciplines

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Standards-Based Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe how standards have influenced social studies. Compare the five major social studies-related standards projects. Contrast positive and negative consequences of social studies standards.

ocial studies, like all school subjects, has been deeply influenced by the recent development of national, state, and local standards. In many ways, the standards movement has been beneficial. National standards have helped teachers and researchers focus their understanding of the syntactic structures that provide Standards rules to guide how the academic Criteria or goals by disciplines within social studies which one can judge are organized. The standards the quality of educaprojects have also pushed extional achievement. perts to grapple with what substance should be taught, and unfortunately this has often resulted in significant conflict. Despite the shortterm conflicts, the resulting standards have been a positive force in helping to clarify and unify social studies and the related academic disciplines. National standards have had some negative side effects for social studies educators. Critics argue that standards limit flexibility and creativity in the classroom. Some educators are concerned that their ideas or voices are left out of standards. Others worry that standards projects tend to focus on a lowest common learning denominator, or that standards pressure teachers and students to do too much with too little depth in a school year. Despite the criticisms, well-written standards establish reasonable benchmarks for subject matter understanding. They also help us to argue for challenging academic experiences for all children, regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. When standards are used to develop local curriculum and ultimately lessons and activities, children from diverse backgrounds have similar opportunities to learn similar things. In theory,

S

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this form of equal treatment can level the educational experiences for children who are potentially at risk. There are five major national social studies standards documents, and all fifty states have developed additional social studies standards. Four of the five national projects were a product of a congressional mandate to develop academic standards in major school subject areas. Social studies was not included; instead, history, geography, government/civics, and economics standards were developed (Figure 1.13). A brief description of each of those standards documents follows. Although these standards were created through an act of Congress, the adoption of the standards by states is voluntary. 1. National History Standards from the National Center for History in the Schools. The National Histor y Standards came to life amid a swirl of controversy. Conservative critics panned a first draft as anti-American and overly pessimistic. At the direction of the United States Senate, the National Center for Histor y in the Schools redrafted the standards, which were overwhelmingly approved. The document puts forth

Figure 1.13 This ancient map and these navigation tools are representative of the major social studies disciplines (history, geography, political science, economics, and behavioral sciences). Consider how each discipline might develop standards related to some element of knowledge derived from this image.

separate standards for grades K–4 and 5–12 in historical thinking and historical understanding. Available online at http://nchs.ucla.edu/ standards/ 2. Geography for Life: National Geography Standards from the National Council for Geographic Education. In 1994 the Geography Education Standards Project (a partnership of four major geography groups) published Geography for Life: National Geography Standards. Geography for Life was offered as a replacement for the “Five Themes of Geography” developed by a Joint Committee on Geographic Education of the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and the Association of American Geographers (AAG). The new geography standards focus on six essential elements of geography: the world in spatial terms, places and regions, physical systems, human systems, environment and society, and the uses of geography. Available online at http://www.national geographic.com/xpeditions/standards/ 3. National Standards for Civics and Government from the Center for Civic Education. Separate K–4 and 5–12 standards for civics and government teaching are organized around five central questions. (1) What are civic life, politics, and government? (2) What are the foundations of the American political system? (3) How does the government established by the Constitution embody the purposes, values, and principles of American democracy? (4) What is the relationship of the United States to other nations and to world affairs? (5) What are the roles of the citizen in American democracy? Available online at http://www.civiced.org/ stds.html CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Can you find a topic in each of the five social studies standards that relates to this image of a soldier in the conflictriddled Middle East?

Which of the NCSS themes can you see in this image?

U.S. Army troops and Iraqi civilians search for a downed U.S. pilot during the Iraq War in 2003.

4. Voluntary National Standards in Economics from the National Council on Economic Education. The National Standards in Economics are a concise package of twenty standards that consist of detailed explanations and benchmarks for achievement at the fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades. These standards focus on concepts such as scarcity, supply and demand, markets, and entrepreneurs. The overall emphasis of the standards is to encourage economic literacy directed at children learning how to participate in economic life. Available online at http://www.ncee.net/ ea/standards/ 5. Curriculum Standards for Social Studies from the National Council for the Social Studies. These are a separate, nonmandated set of social studies standards developed by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). NCSS standards focus on ten themes and draw from a wide range of humanities-based academic knowledge. The ten themes include Culture; Time; Continuity and Change; People, Places, and Environment; Individual Development and Identity; Individuals, Groups, and Institutions; Power, Authority, and Governance; Production, Distribution, and Consumption; Science, Technology, and Society; Global Connections; and Civic Ideals and Practices. Available online at http://www.ncss.org/ standards/ States and communities use each of these five sets of standards differently. Since adoption is voluntary, some states have chosen to simply use the five national standards documents in social studies to inform the development of their own state social studies standards.

What is happening in this picture ■ Describe how we

A slave family in a Georgia cotton field, c.1866

might teach about the people in this photo in an elementary social studies class, given the various purposes for social studies set forth in this chapter.

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

Defining Social Studies

The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) defines social studies as a school subject that helps prepare students to be effective participants in a democratic society. According to NCSS, good social studies instruction should promote civic competence using a multiple disciplinary approach. Furthermore, social studies instruction should be aimed at the promotion of a common good.

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CHAPTER 1

?

What Is Social Studies?

2

Social Studies as a School Subject

Social studies emerged as a formal subject well over one hundred years ago. The origins of social studies are sometimes situated in the social reform movement of Britain in the late 19th century. The National Educational Association (NEA) suggested the creation of a school subject called social studies in its 1916 report on the reorganization of public schools.

3

Approaches to Social Studies

Educators and the general public have conflicting opinions on how best to teach social studies. Some argue that social studies should involve the transmission of cultural ideas and knowledge, while others argue for a more active approach focused on social action and change. Still others see social studies as a combination of academic disciplinary activities. No matter what approach is selected, social studies is well suited for interdisciplinary work. Subject matter in social studies draws from the vast repository of life experiences and can be easily formed or adapted for study from disciplines including the language arts, mathematics, and science.

4

Social Studies and Content Disciplines

Social studies is often considered a collection of academic or content disciplines including history, geography, government (civics), economics, and the behavioral sciences, which include psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

Visual Summary

27

5

Standards-Based Social Studies

The current standards movement has deeply affected social studies. The development of state and national standards in the 1980s and 1990s has significantly influenced the development of curriculum in local school systems and the teaching of social studies in classrooms. There are four disciplinary standards projects, in history, geography, government/civics, and economics, as well as a national social studies standards project developed by the National Council for the Social Studies.

KEY TERMS ■ disciplinary, p. 4

■ civic competence, p. 6

■ pedagogy, p. 11

■ social change, p. 5

■ civic virtue, p. 6

■ interdisciplinary, p. 18

■ social studies, p. 6

■ common good, p. 7

■ standards, p. 24

■ democracy, p. 6

■ social reconstructionists, p. 9

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS Consider the role of patriotism in social studies instruction, as indicated by this photo.

In the days after the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center and U.S. Pentagon, many Americans showed signs of patriotism—such as this man resting after his work on a mural dedicated to 9/11 rescue workers.

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•

How do such representations of national emotion reflect social studies purposes?

•

Are patriotic emotions central to social studies, at odds with social studies, or possibly some combination?

•

Or are patriotic emotions irrelevant in social studies?

SELF-TEST 1. What kind of social studies is suggested by this photo? How does the meaning of the word “social” influence the meaning of social studies?

2. Which of the following ideas is not incorporated into the National Council for the Social Studies official definition of social studies? a. civic competence b. social discourse c. multiple disciplinary approach d. public or common good 3. Which discipline has had the most influence on the development of social studies? a. history b. geography c. economics d. political science

7. How does interdisciplinary teaching and learning differ from disciplinary teaching and learning? Consider the archeological work at Jamestown pictured in the image below as you answer the question.

8. With what form of knowledge does the inside/outside interdisciplinary planning method work well? 9. How are the disciplines of history, geography, political science, economics, and the behavioral sciences different and unique? 10. What are educational standards?

4. Which two educators were considered leaders of the social reconstructionist movement? a. John Dewey b. Harold Rugg c. Thomas Jesse Jones d. George Counts 5. What is pedagogy? 6. How do storytelling, investigating, and deliberating differ as approaches to learning social studies?

Self-Test

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Reflective Social Studies Teaching

S

arah Suez had a great plan to teach her first-grade class about the concept of time: She asked her students to construct a large timeline about recreation in the 20th century. Each student was responsible for depicting some form of 20th century recreation. She provided them with construction paper and picture clues such as this photo of auto camping in the 1920s. At the end of the project, students answered questions about the timeline. Ms. Suez covered up parts of it and prompted students to remember what happened in that time period. She also had students turn away from the timeline after studying it and try to recall the order in which things occurred. Students had success with these informal assessments, and Ms. Suez felt comfortable that her instruction was working until the next part of the activity. Ms. Suez next asked students to pick their favorite item from the timeline and compare it to another item from the timeline. Students selected the second item by counting backward or forward about seventy-five years from the date of the first item. She wanted them to be able to describe how life had changed over the seventy-five-year period, which is an average life span. Students had significant difficulty with this task, particularly with conceptualizing a seventy-five-year period of time. Ms. Suez realized that she would have to provide students with tangible examples of “seventy-five years” in order for them to understand the concept. She decided to use her mother’s life as an example. Ms. Suez recalled research suggesting that students begin to develop temporal understanding around the first grade, but they need concrete examples to support their developing understanding. Her reflections on this research caused her to change her lesson plan and construct another activity focused on temporal understanding. She made the adaptation because her students struggled with the assignment, demonstrating how important it is for teachers to reflect during instruction.

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2

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ What Is Reflection? p. 32

■ Reflection Prior to Instruction

p. 35

■ Reflection During and After

Instruction p. 42

■ Using Reflection to Increase a

Teacher’s Professional Knowledge p. 45

■ Reflection as Inquiry p. 48

s. Suez’s experience teaching her stuteaching period is not central to the process. What is dents about the concept of time demoncentral is that the reflection take place and that teachstrates that effective teaching is a ers act on their reflections in some meaningful and proprocess that requires consistent reflecductive manner. This chapter argues for consistent and tion on practice and a willingness to act on one’s reflecdeliberate reflection and provides examples of how retions. Acts of reflection, such as Ms. Suez’s realization flection informs social studies planning and teaching. that her students needed help understandGiven the nature of the subject matter in ing a seventy-five-year period, are most apsocial studies, reflection is particularly imReflection To repropriately embedded in the pedagogical portant. Elementary social studies curricula flect or think about practices of planning and teaching. As tend to be vague and less emphasized than something carefully; teachers implement their plans through other areas such as math and language arts. formal reflection acts of teaching, they are establishing conElementary teachers must think very caremay include the use texts for reflection. Whether a teacher refully about how to teach and integrate soof particular repeatflects during or after a planning and cial studies in their classrooms. able procedures for

M

careful thinking.

What Is Reflection? LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify the need for reflection in everyday teaching.

professional practice in education allows teachers to adapt to changing educative conditions and account for new ideas and unforeseen circumstances.

Distinguish between reflection in action and reflection on action. Analyze how reflection fits into the teaching cycle.

n the 1980s, Donald Schön introduced the idea that reflection is a critical component of professional practice in education and other professions. Schön (1983) suggested that professionals should consistently and systematically reflect in action and reflect on action. Reflection in action might be thought of as thinking on your feet. We certainly can appreciate the importance of this in an elementary classroom. A class full of energetic children might be one of the most dynamic and fluid professional environments that exists. Without the ability to “think on her feet,” a teacher would be severely limited, but professional reflection includes more than just thinking on your feet. It must also include a reasoned post-event action. In other words, teachers must also reflect after they teach—what Schön called reflect on action. Reflection in and on

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REFLECTION IN ACTION How can teachers actually reflect during their instructional practice? Often teachers will pause, physically or mentally, to rethink something that is not working. This kind of adaptation is in fact a hallmark of good teaching. Essentially, it means that teachers understand that action in the classroom is not static and can never be perfectly predicted. Instead of trying to predict what will happen in a class, reflective teachers maintain flexibility by preparing a variety of options for what they plan to teach. This allows teachers to choose what will work best in their classroom. The most common forms of reflection in action are informal. We expect teachers to respond to new conditions as they emerge in the classroom, but at the same time we do not want teachers to just react to problems. Reflection is not simply putting out fires. Instead, reflective teachers need to expect the unexpected during their teaching. As is illustrated in Figure 2.1, reflec-

ing about teaching and consider the purpose of the reflection and what this teacher resolved through reflection.

Leaders and Followers: Coaxing Participation of Shy Students, by Jenelle Smith

Figure 2.1 The teacher in Figure 2.1 is willing to listen to her student as he tries to make sense of a story in his textbook. Why is it important for the teacher to reflect as she works with her student?

tive teachers can solve teaching problems in a positive and productive way by opening themselves to the idea that teaching can be adaptive and even experimental.

REFLECTION ON ACTION After a teaching and learning episode, one of the most important intellectual tasks confronting a teacher is systematic reflection. Reflection on action allows teachers to consider what went right and what went wrong. Far too often teachers get stuck in the rut of looking ahead and planning for the next lesson without considering where they have been. In order to prepare for the next day, teachers have to consider what their students have achieved to date, and that requires reflection. Meaningful reflection on action should include a deliberate effort to see the teaching and learning events that just unfolded as a narrative, or story. Just like the events in a story, teaching and learning episodes are full of unexpected occurrences, twists, and turns. When teachers reflect, they are thinking about unforeseen events, mistakes, or unresolved problems from a classroom teaching experience and trying to generate some resolution (just like the resolution to a story!). What does reflection on action look like? Read the following internal monologue of a student teacher think-

I thought my students were going to love my lesson on colonial Georgia. I developed what I thought was an interesting and personal lesson on comparisons between life in colonial Georgia and life in Georgia today. I planned for students to learn about clothing, housing, schooling, and employment and to think about the advantages that they may have today over children who lived in colonial times. First, I gave students a letter written by a young girl named Elizabeth who lived at that time. In the letter, Elizabeth talks about colonial schools, transportation, clothing, and housing. The students answered questions comparing Elizabeth’s life to their own everyday lives today. For the main activity, students sat in groups. I gave each group a laminated card, which displayed a colonial item they were to assemble. The items included a horn book, a quill pen, a pomander ball, and a whirligig, along with assembly instructions. Each group took turns describing their object to the other students. They appeared to really enjoy this lesson, but that is not to say it went over without incident. As happens often with group work, there were students who completed the majority of the work for the group, and students who sat back and let the others finish the task. I thought this happened because my grouping strategy did not compel shy students to participate. In an attempt to adjust this lesson for the following periods, I selected the groupings before the students came to class. These groups were based on the students’ personalities and work habits. I placed students that were less likely to take charge with those I was certain would do just that. In a further effort to guarantee participation of all students, I assigned a group leader, based on past behavior and participation habits. The leader was in charge of making sure each group member had a job in the activity. I hoped that this would improve participation for those students who were more likely to leave the work to others, whether it was through laziness or shyness. I found that participation What Is Reflection?

33

was much higher with the prearranged grouping and the group leaders. The students I selected as leaders did a great job at keeping their classmates motivated. In a further effort to ensure equal group participation, especially from those who were shy, each student was to complete a step in the construction of their assigned item. The instructions I gave to each group were arranged by steps, so this adjustment was an easy one to make. To avoid bickering over the steps, the students counted off. Their number was the step assigned to them. Giving each student a specific job really helped ensure participation. Ultimately, I found that what I tried worked pretty well, and I really learned how important it is to constantly think about my teaching.

Schön’s ideas about reflection in and on action are only two ways to conceptualize the act of reflection. We might also think about reflection as being part of a cycle of thinking. Reflection is one critical compoTeaching cycle nent in the development of A specific four-part sequence of events knowledge about how to that encompasses teach—what we call pedagogivarious acts involved cal knowledge. In fact, pedain teaching. gogical knowledge cannot be developed or sustained without reflection. The reflective teaching cycle Process Diagram, Figure 2.2, describes a process for teaching with reflection.

The reflective teaching cycle Figure 2.2

Process Diagram

Teaching Cycle — a specific four-part sequence of events that encompasses various acts involved in teaching. Reflections should occur during all phases of the teaching cycle.

Developing Subject Matter Knowledge.

Instructional Planning: Planning to Teach.

1

2

The initial action a teacher takes in the teaching cycle. The desire to develop new subject matter knowledge is often informed by some previous teaching and reflection.

Involves the development of teaching goals, objectives, activities, and assessment strategies.

Reflection

Rethinking the Lesson.

4

Involves systematic reflection on action.

Instructional Practice: The Act of Teaching.

3

Involves the implementation of this plan.

The teaching cycle displayed in the diagram includes four major phases: developing subject matter knowledge, planning to teach, the act of teaching, and rethinking the lesson. Reflection should occur during all four phases of the teaching cycle. Developing subject matter knowledge is typically the initial action a teacher takes in the teaching cycle, but these learning experiences are often informed by some previous teaching and reflection. Instructional planning involves the development of teaching goals, objectives, activities, and assessment strategies. Instruction involves the implementation of this plan, and rethinking involves systematic reflection on action.

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CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Imagine you are teaching about 1950s culture in the United States. The image of this Washington, D.C., diner represents this unique period of time in American cultural life.

How might students with different cultural backgrounds react differently to the image?

How might reflecting on possible student reactions play out in a teaching episode?

What adjustments might you make if not all students recognize this image as a soda shop?

What if some students have never heard of a soda shop or a diner?

Reflection Prior to Instruction their time learning new material. These decisions occur during and after reflection. Identify how to reflect on subject matter knowledge derived Reflection on subject matter presumes that we are from personal interests. always seeking to enhance or improve our understandDistinguish between curricular and personal subject matter. ing of some topic. Reflection on subject matter focuses not just on what we know and what curriculum requires Analyze the reflective process as it relates to subject matter misunderstandings. us to teach about, but also our misunderstandings of that subject matter. These reflections on misunderIdentify the role of reflection in instructional planning. standings allow us to improve our knowledge about what we teach and thus be better able to teach. One ne specific form of reflection for all commonly misunderstood area is the causes of the teachers occurs in the process of develAmerican Civil War. Often people tr y to distill these oping subject matter knowledge. For causes to a short list or even a single cause. Reflection example, teachers often reflect on their generally leads people to a realization that the causes of personal interests in the process of learning the Civil War were complex and, as histonew subject matter. Think about your farian Edward Ayers has said, emotional and Subject matter vorite topic in social studies and why you uninformed. knowledge are interested in the topic. Your interests Reflection allows teachers to consider Understanding about content in a can serve as a starting point for reflection. what they know about their students, the specific academic Think about why people who live in your curriculum, and the community in which area, such as history. city would be interested in the history of the they teach. Through reflection, teachers bearea. Your thinking about those interests is gin to reshape and reform their knowledge reflection on subject matter. At the same time, teachers of subject matter for pedagogical contexts. Knowing must develop curricular-based subject matter knowlabout the American Civil War is one thing, but knowing edge regardless of their personal interests. The interhow and what to teach about the Civil War is another. play between personal interests and the demands of Reflection on what you know about the Civil War given curriculum is also a subject of reflection for teachers. a need to teach about the subject should change what Teachers constantly make decisions about how to spend you know about the subject. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

O

Reflection Prior to Instruction

35

PERSONAL SUBJECT MATTER INTERESTS Each of us has a set of personal likes and dislikes, experiences, and interests that drive our personal quests for knowledge. Professional growth is dependent on using our personal interests of subject matter to motivate us to continually develop our knowledge. Unless we have some well-developed context, such as personal interests, into which we place our new understandings, we will most likely be limited in our opportunities for growth. Consider planning for a lesson on space. A teacher who is interested in space or space travel will be compelled by his or her interest to study a wide range of topics related to space. Absent that personal interest, teachers must rely on external motivators such as curriculum, parental expectations, or school administrative requirements for turning in lessons. Sometimes our quest for new knowledge is driven by a desire to address a subject matter knowledge deficit. There are many events that might help us realize our subject matter deficiencies. Often these events are social or academic. For example, we might have a conversation with another teacher or a friend and realize that our knowledge is limited. Or, we might take a class in college and find out that there are large gaps in our knowledge of content. As teachers, we should continually give ourselves opportunities to find out what we do not know. These opportunities to grow in our knowledge of subject matter will make us better teachers.

FOCUSING ON CURRICULAR SUBJECT MATTER Teachers have a professional obligation to continually develop their knowledge of curricular subject matter. Teachers who are employed by a school system are contractually obliged to “know” what they are teaching about as well as morally responsible to not mislead their students and others about the subject matter. Elementary teachers have considerable responsibilities with regard to what they know. They must develop knowledge in all academic areas and consider how these bodies of knowledge interact. Given these conditions, reflection 36

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on understanding of curricular subject matter is particularly important in elementary settings. How can teachers enhance their knowledge of curricular subject matter through reflection? First, the process requires engagement with curriculum at local, state, and national levels. Let’s look at a specific example of how teachers might reflect on some curricular subject matter. Consider the curricular requirement that social studies should include instruction about major world religions. One way to approach religion in elementary social studies is to focus on the three major world religions, which were all founded in the Middle East and, in some way, owe their origin to Abraham (see “Lesson” on pp. 38–39). A lesson on a topic such as religion will often generate questions from students. Such questions can promote reflection and, if engaged, should lead to a deeper understanding of the pedagogy of the subject matter.

REFLECTING ON SUBJECT MATTER MISUNDERSTANDINGS We all have misunderstandings about subject matter. We considered misunderstandings about the causes of the Civil War earlier. Think of a subject matter misunderstanding you might have corrected at some point in your life. For example, maybe you could not remember the original 13 American colonies or confused the dates of historical events. If you have corrected these misunderstandings (or when you correct them!), it will probably be because you were either unsatisfied with your knowledge or unsure about what you knew. Being unsatisfied or unsure usually results from reflection, or taking the time to think about what we know and do not know. Too frequently, teachers develop subject matter knowledge at a hurried pace—without enough time to reflect. It is often an unfortunate reality that teachers are tr ying to stay a day ahead of students. Reflection can help ameliorate the problem of limited or shallow subject knowledge that results from teaching conditions in which teachers, particularly new teachers, have to learn subject matter as they teach. Reflection aimed at uncovering misunderstandings requires that teachers are willing to recognize their limitations. When working with children who are developing new knowledge, teachers must have confidence in

their own subject matter knowledge, but of course there is a danger with not being open to our knowledge limitations. Accepting what we do not understand and then considering why we do not understand something can lead us to the pursuit of new knowledge, which might correct a misunderstanding or extend our knowledge in unforeseen ways. For example, it is not uncommon for people to misunderstand regional climate due to mistaken generalities about expected temperatures. A teacher might encounter this misunderstanding when planning to teach or while actually teaching. The goal is not to get everything right the first time, but to be reflective enough to realize when something is wrong. Let’s consider one specific misunderstanding about climate in the United States.

If we look at a map such as the one in Figure 2.3, we might expect places such as Flagstaff, Arizona, and Charlotte, North Carolina, to have similar climates. Both cities are about 35 degrees north of the equator, but Flagstaff has much colder winters with an average temperature that is 10 degrees colder than that of Charlotte. Flagstaff also averages over 100 inches of snow per year, while Charlotte only averages 6 inches. So, if the two cities are at about the same place relative to the equator, why are the climates so different? The climate difference between the two cities is due to Flagstaff’s elevation at 6,905 feet above sea level. In this case, the simple application of the principle of climate similarity based on latitude resulted in a misunderstanding. As this example illustrates, we must always be willing to consider new knowledge.

Climate in the United States Figure 2.3 Common misunderstandings about climate can occur due to mistaken generalizations. When viewing this map, students might assume that Flagstaff, Arizona, and Charlotte, North Carolina, have similar climates, but that is not the case. Other factors affect the climate.

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LESSON

The Abrahamic Religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam INTRODUCTION The three religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a striking similarity. All three religions believe in the same God. Despite this similarity, many people think of these religions as being different or even in conflict. In fact they have not always lived easily together, but there were times of harmony—most notably in Islamic Spain, when the three religions mostly coexisted side by side. All three religions trace their spiritual heritage to one person named Abraham and all share a belief in one God—the God of Abraham. In this activity, children will describe the genealogical relationships between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Consider the following fourth- or fifth-grade lesson on the three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). As you read the lesson, reflect on the complications that accompany teaching about religion.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The overall goal of this lesson is to identify events relating to similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Students will use this information in either a story or a series of illustrations to show the relationships between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

PROCEDURES In this lesson students will develop a timeline of events related to the origin of each of the Abrahamic religions. Students should incorporate the events listed below into a timeline. Also, all of the dates for these events are based on a Christian calendar. Students should know this and should be challenged to consider why we use a Christian calendar. • Abraham is born in Ur, a city in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq)—about 1991 B.C. 38

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• Abraham has two sons, Isaac and Ishmael—about 1905 and 1891 B.C., respectively • The Jews, who were Abraham’s descendents from his son Isaac, travel to Egypt and are enslaved—1500 to 1300 B.C. • Abraham’s descendents from his son Ishmael settle to the south of Mesopotamia, establishing Arabia—1500 to 1300 B.C. • Jewish exodus from Egypt led by Moses—1300 B.C. • Saul, David, and Solomon establish the Jewish Kingdom of Israel—1000 B.C. • Jesus (the founder of Christianity) is born in Israel to a Jewish family descended from Isaac—1 A.D. • Jesus dies—33 A.D. • Roman Empire adopts Christianity—300 A.D. • Muhammad (founder of Islam) is born in Arabia to an Arab family descended from Ishmael—570 A.D. • Muhammad dies—632 A.D. • The Crusades—1095 to 1291 A.D. • Islamic Spain—1150 to 1492 A.D. When the timeline is complete, students should study their work and answer the following question: Given your timeline, what are the connections between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam? To some degree, all of the events in the timeline are controversial and unsettled. For the most part, the closer in time an event is to today, the more evidence we have to support that event. For example, we have plenty of evidence from various sources to verify that the Crusades occurred from about 1000 to 1200 A . D . and that Muslims controlled Spain from 1150 to 1450 A.D.. We have much less evidence about Abraham’s birth and the lives of his sons Isaac and Ishmael. After

La Mezquita Mosque in Cordoba, Spain. Originally built as an Umayyad Islamic mosque in the 9th century, it represents a unique and historic confluence of Islamic, Christian, and Jewish culture. After over 400 years as a mosque, a Christian church was built inside; all the while Jews dominated the intellectual and cultural scene in Cordoba. For centuries, these three religions existed and in many ways thrived side by side in Cordoba.

students complete the timeline, they should write an explanation for why the older events are less historically certain than the more recent events and also should explain the consequences of the uncertainty of the older events. After students have completed their work on this question, the teacher should lead a class discussion about the similarities between the religions and introduce other similarities including the following: • All three religions are monotheistic (belief in one God). • The stor y of creation is consistent in all three religions. • All three feature basic laws, given by God. • They all describe a route to personal salvation. • All three religions include ideas of heaven and hell.

ASSESSMENT The primary assessment should be a separate activity in which students write a story or draw an illustration that describes how Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are similar. The teacher should give students very clear expectations about what to write or draw. One possible criterion, which could be provided to students, might include the following: Your stor y or drawing should include a main idea and at least three pieces of evidence supporting your main idea. The teacher can also assess the timeline for accuracy (was the event copied correctly) and event placement on the timeline (was it placed in the correct proportion to other events). Reflection Prior to Instruction

39

enslaved. Later, children might learn more about the conditions that led to the rebellion or may study the legal struggle that Unique forms of resulted from Cinque’s capture and subThe processes involved in transforming subknowledge about sequent trial for murder. ject matter into pedagogy should include how to teach that As teachers transform their knowledge opportunities for reflection. Lee Shulman take into account a of subject matter into pedagogy, they have calls the results of this transformation pedteacher’s knowledge to reflect on what they know and why they agogical content knowledge (PCK). Pedaof subject matter, know it. Teachers might reflect on the stugogical content knowledge consists of curriculum, learners, dents who will be involved in the lesson understanding how to teach certain subject and communities, as about Cinque. Should the teacher make matter. PCK is professional knowledge, but well as contexts and any specific adaptations for students? it is not necessarily in the form of a lesson ends for education. Younger learners might focus on the plan. For example, a teacher may know that wrongness of slavery and the struggle of slaves to imsome parts of the story of Cinque, a North American prove their condition. Older children might study slave who led a slave rebellion in 1839, are not approabout the complexities of the social system that suppriate for younger learners. Before a certain age (perported slavery and resisted efforts to end the practice haps fifth grade) the story of Cinque often takes shape of slavery. These considerations are important because as a heroic tale of a group of people who refused to be

TRANSFORMING SUBJECT MATTER INTO PEDAGOGY

A Grand Teton, Wyoming.

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

This visual narrative from a third-grade social studies classroom describes how a teacher might reflect on general misunderstandings about places in the United States as she prepares for a lesson about states in the U.S. Consider how these images represent knowledge about specific places in the United States. In some ways, the images represent stereotypes and communicate narrow understandings of the place. What are some stereotypes these images convey? How do these images tell a story about places in the United States? Consider climate, recreation, work, and geography of each place. What might happen in the classroom when students learn about states, and in particular, look at images such as these? Students of different ages and diverse places will have different reactions. Some may see the image of a plantation in South Carolina (B) and think plantation life was the typical “story” of the American South. However, the Hopsewee Plantation is atypical and in some ways represents a mythology about the South. How can we plan for reflection in action in a lesson about culture when students’ prior knowledge stories may be informed by historical myth? What changes are needed to plan a lesson about U.S. states considering how students might react? This thinking is a form of reflection and is a part of planning and teaching.

they cause teachers to think about the scope of their knowledge and the extent to which students should possess the same forms of knowledge.

REFLECTION WHEN PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION Meaningful reflection when planning a lesson allows teachers to rethink the fundamental purpose and shape of an instructional lesson. We typically think about instructional lessons as a plan for action in a classroom. They are often written to include certain parts, such as procedures and materials. These lesson parts can be generally applied to multiple classroom settings. This approach to lesson planning is easy to learn and is in fact often distilled into routine procedures.

Some of the more common components of a lesson plan include a lesson opening, a listing of behavioral objectives, connections to standards, procedures, materials, and assessment. All of the information in these categories is essential to quality instruction, but when teachers think in the boxes that confine the categories, they often lose a dynamic character in their lessons. When the planning process is more open and active, lesson plans can be adapted and take shape as learning conditions change. Reflection during lesson planning should result in lessons being more of a plan of action than a recipe for action. A recipe prescribes a how-to procedure, with little room for adaptation. A reflective lesson plan is structured without closing avenues to possible alterations in the plan. See Figure 2.4 “Visualizing: Reflecting on Stereotypes of Places in the United States” for an example of reflecting on teaching students about states in the United States.

Visualizing

Reflecting on Stereotypes of Places in the United States Figure 2.4 B Hopsewee Plantation, South Carolina.

C Craftsbury Common, Vermont.

AHead

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CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Given your knowledge of South Africa,

How do these images of Ndebele men compare with “typical” representations of South Africa?

What misconceptions could arise if one of these pictures were used as a sole representation of Ndebele men?

Reflect on the differences between the two images.

How might these images, if viewed separately, lead to an incomplete understanding of the Ndebele people?

Young Ndebele men in South Africa after a traditional rite of passage: a two-month initiation marking their passing into manhood.

S.S. Skosana was chief minister in the 1980s of KwaNdebele, a region of South Africa inhabited primarily by Ndebele people.

Reflection During and After Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the importance of reflecting during instruction. Identify formal and informal means for reflection during instruction. Consider how and why teachers should reflect after instruction.

eaching can be a solitary endeavor. During a lesson, the teacher might be the only adult in the classroom. In elementary classes, teachers have very few opportunities to talk with others about the progress of their lesson. Consider other professions—how many of them require that practitioners operate in such an isolated setting? Can you imagine an accountant who could not immediately consult with another accountant when preparing a tax return? How about a lawyer who would

T

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be made to argue a case in a courtroom without assistance or opportunities for on-the-spot professional consultation? Teachers, typically, do not have such luxuries, so they have to develop routines and habits of mind that enable them to support themselves while acting without other professionals in the room. An important part of this procedure is developing the habits of reflection.

REFLECTING DURING TEACHING Earlier in this chapter, we learned about Schön’s notion of reflection in action. Schön imagines that professional practice is “artful doing,” a particular way of thinking about professional action. For teachers, this means that instruction can be envisioned as a performance, where teachers direct their actions for an audience of student learners. Of course, there are numerous nuances to teaching as performance. For

one thing, teachers interact with their students on a number of levels: individually, in small groups, or as a whole class. Reflecting during the act of teaching enables teachers to capitalize on the moment and to address many instructional concerns in the moment. A significant part of reflection in action triggers a process that results in teachers developing new ideas about instruction. These instructional insights might result from a poorly conceived method or an unexpected amount of time being required for an activity. They might also be a product of an unplanned-for level of student misunderstanding or unexpected outcomes. What do you think of when you see the image in Figure 2.5 ? In a second-grade classroom that is studying weather, children might ask for an explanation of how lightning works. A lot of good social studies teachers might not know the answer. A teacher who is not willing to reflect on this question might just say “I don’t know.” A reflective teacher who takes time to think about the consequences of dismissing the question might respond that lightning is a common occurrence, but many people do not know how or why it happens. She might have to admit to not knowing the exact reasons why and how lightning occurs, but could tell students that since lightning is so powerful and potentially harmful, they should find out the answer. What other types of questions would you expect students to ask about lightning in that second-grade class? In a classroom

where reflection is not valued, specific facts are taught and questions rarely emerge. Children in classrooms where reflection is valued learn that it is acceptable to explore and ask questions even when the teacher might not know the answer.

REFLECTING AFTER A LESSON Reflection after a lesson allows teachers to rethink how and why a lesson went the way it did. The most important thing to remember during reflection is that a good lesson plan should look different after it has been taught compared to before. No matter how much teachers know about their students, no lesson can actually predict learning circumstances. It is vital to the process of professional and pedagogical growth for teachers to think about what went right and what went wrong in a lesson. Too often, teachers are unwilling or even afraid to think about what went wrong. But considering the limitations of a lesson does not have to be the same as admitting failure. Most often, problems in the implementation of a lesson are the product of not anticipating some circumstance of learning. Rethinking the lesson plan with knowledge of what happened should result in new pedagogical understandings and growth. In fact, reflection often prompts teachers to seek out new knowledge.

A thunderstorm in New Mexico Figure 2.5 This image might provoke children to ask a host of unforeseen questions.

In the Classroom

ACCOUNTING FOR STUDENTS’ PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Valeria June’s fifth-grade social studies class was studying India. To help her students understand the diversity of life in that country, Ms. June showed her students three images of India. Each image represented something that Ms. June wanted the students to learn about—the modern India, the historical India, and the traditional India. The first image (A) was of modern Mumbai. Most of her students thought this image of Mumbai was of New York City. The students thought that India did not have high-rise buildings or metropolitan cities like the United States.

C Residents and pilgrims bathe in the Ganges River to purify body and soul.

A Mumbai, India. The next image (B) represented India’s past. Most students recognized the Taj Mahal and were either able to name it or place it in some location outside of the United States.

B Taj Mahal at sunrise, Agra, India.

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The third image (C) was of a ritual Hindu cleansing in the Ganges River. Many of Ms. June’s students thought the people in the photo were caught in a flood, and very few were able to place the people in India. Ms. June began to think about why her students had these impressions about India. She realized that they were informally learning about India outside the classroom. The fact that some of her fifth graders, who had never formally studied India, recognized the Taj Mahal and were able to place it in India was important. Ms. June began to think about how media in the United States create simple representations of places like India using iconic images like the Taj Mahal, but the Taj Mahal by itself gives only a narrow view of India’s long history. The building was built by Shah Jahan, a Mughal (Mongolian Muslim) ruler of India. The Mughals ruled India for just over 200 years of India’s rich 3,000-year history. During the instruction, Ms. June realized that she needed not only to teach her students something new, but also to help them expand their prior conceptions and ideas about India. This type of reflection was a product of Ms. June’s direct and purposeful reflection on her students’ actions during class. Ms. June quickly adapted her lesson to address students’ prior misconceptions of Indian culture. She started with a simple graph that illustrated the percentage of Hindus and Muslims, which is about 80% and 14%, respectively. Ms. June had recently read Salman Rushdie’s book Midnight Children in which two children, one Hindu and one Muslim, are switched at birth and grow up in opposite cultural environments. She shared a simple version of the story with her students and also reviewed the division of Pakistan and Bangladesh from India and noted that both Pakistan and Bangladesh are over 90% Muslim. Her goal was to provide students with an opportunity to explore the diversity of the Indian subcontinent and to expand on students’ prior knowledge.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Think about “artfully doing” a lesson on community services.

What community services must be in place for the girl in the photo to safely push her baby carriage down the street?

Reflect on your own experiences with community services. How might your experiences with community services influence a lesson on the topic?

Using Reflection to Increase a Teacher’s Professional Knowledge LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how reflection relates to the development of professional teacher knowledge. Compare various forms of reflection that increase professional teacher knowledge.

eing a teacher demands knowledge in areas other than subject matter and pedagogy. Teachers must possess professional knowledge about the learners in their classes, the communities from which these learners come, the curriculum for the Teacher classes they teach, and the broad knowledge purposes of education. Each of A formal body of inthese areas provides context and formation that opportunities for deliberate recomprises our unflection directed at purposeful derstanding of how growth in teacher knowledge.

B

to teach.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND REFLECTING ON THE LEARNER When we think about children in our classes, we are confronted with a wide range of considerations. Teachers must determine the prior knowledge of their students, the skills they possess, their dispositions to learn, and the sociocultural contexts within which they live. Teachers, schools, and school systems try to systemati-

cally collect this information through surveys, assessments, counseling, and conferencing, but teachers can never have too much information about the students in their classroom. For this reason, teachers must reflect on the specific needs of the learners in their classes. This type of reflection is, in practice, a reconsideration of what teachers know about their students in the context of classroom activities. A teacher may develop an activity, for example, designed for a child or group of children who are interested in a particular subject—say, airplanes. In the pursuit of these students’ interest in airplanes, the teacher might develop a small activity related to a unit on inventions. The teacher could provide pictures of various airplanes, such as the one in Figure 2.6, and

The “Silver Dart” Figure 2.6 The Silver Dart biplane 6, in Hammondsport, New York, was designed by Douglas McCurdy of the Aerial Experiment Association and was the first airplane to fly in Canada.

ask her students to draw their own picture of an airplane and write a description of how the airplane manages to stay aloft. The teacher could extend the activity by working with students to consider how air transportation changed life in the United States in the 20th century. The lesson has curricular relevance (the importance of air travel) and came about as a result of the teacher’s knowledge of her students’ interest. She could have chosen a number of different inventions on which to focus, but selected airplanes upon reflection on the learners in her class.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND REFLECTING ON COMMUNITY NEEDS Teachers must also reflect on the needs of the community at large. As is the case with learner needs, schools typically make a deliberate effort to engage communities through focus groups and advisory councils. These vehicles provide school personnel with valuable insight into what the community wants and expects from their school, but teachers must do more. Teachers must continually think about their actions in community contexts. Each community has unique needs and wants. Teachers should be aware of these needs and wants and should tr y to address them through their teaching. Consider a community with a high immigrant population. Teachers in such environments must provide their students with special opportunities to learn what we may other wise take for granted with our students. These children and their parents may need special help getting around the community or learning how to get services from the school or other agencies. Other communities have special needs that result from patterns of development or historical inequities. Jonathon Kozol’s powerful book Savage Inequalities details the problems ingrained in poor communities all across the United States. Teachers in such environments must know about the conditions in which their children live, how these conditions emerged, and what

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they can do to support children who are tr ying to learn there.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND REFLECTING ON CURRICULUM Ever y day, teachers wonder how they will facilitate curriculum through their teaching. This planning is very Curriculum important and time consumCourses of study in ing. Social studies scholar an academic discipline or the scope Stephen Thornton talks about and sequence of this process as “gatekeeping” specific subject mat(Thornton, 2004) and suggests ter within a single that teachers must make active academic course. and informed decisions about how to implement curriculum. When teachers reflect on curriculum, they are essentially assessing the extent to which a lesson meets particular curricular goals. This type of reflection can help a teacher make adjustments to a lesson given the requirements of the curriculum. Far too often, we think about curriculum as being received from authorities (the school district, for example) and unable to be altered or reworked. However, most curriculums leave significant room for interpretation. For example, the National Histor y Standards state that students in grades K through 4 should be able to “describe local community life long ago, including jobs, schooling, transportation, communication, religious observances, and recreation.” How might a teacher encourage students to consider transportation or recreation among the Eskimo Indians? Consider the picture of Inuit Eskimos from the early 20th centur y in Figure 2.7 . Look at the dress and consider what you already know about the climate of the Eskimo Indians’ homeland. For example, the climate would limit year-around water transportation. If we add information about the learning context, such as a first-grade class located in the Deep South, how does your curricular thinking change? The changes that you are thinking about are a product of reflection, which occurs as new contexts and information are added to the thinking process.

Inuit Eskimos in 1909 Figure 2.7 A mixed group of Inuit Eskimo men, women, and children pose for this informal group portrait taken by Robert Peary in front of Red Cliff House in McCormick Bay, Greenland.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND REFLECTING ON THE PURPOSES OF EDUCATION Conversations about the purposes of education take place in multiple contexts. Teachers talk with colleagues at their schools and in larger professional communities. These conversations enable us to expand our beliefs about the purposes of social studies. Some teacher leaders might ser ve on curriculum or textbook selection committees charged with making important decisions based on beliefs about the purposes of education. All of these activities should occur through dialogue and as such are a form of public professional reflection. For example, the last several years have seen a dramatic decrease in the amount of time

spent on social studies instruction in elementar y school. Discussions about the consequences of these changes are influenced by public opinion and public discourse. In early 2006, the Center on Education Policy released a study that found that almost three quarters of schools nationwide had cut back on social studies instruction. Some schools, according to the study, allocated as little as 30 minutes a week to social studies. Conversations about the purpose of education and specifically the purpose of social studies became national news with the release of this report, and elementar y school teachers across the countr y played (and continue to play) an important role in the national dialogue over the proper place of social studies in school.

Using Reflection to Increase a Teacher’s Professional Knowledge

47

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Reflect on a common topic in elementary social studies, such as farming. How has farming changed in the last hundred years?

How might a lesson on changes in farming relate to community interests?

This threshing machine is in cornfields in the hills above the Platte Valley north of Shelton, Nebraska. How does the context of this photo shape our understanding of the needs of children who live in Platte Valley?

Reflection as Inquiry Reflective

LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the relationship between inquiry and reflection. Describe ways that inquiry can be informed and enhanced by reflection. Analyze case studies of teacher knowledge using reflective inquiry methods.

eflective inquiry combines the inquiry approach to learning with the idea that reflection is a way of knowing things. In his 1910 book How We Think, John Dewey talked about reflective inquir y as “the elaboration of an idea, or working hypothesis, through conjoint comparison and contrast, terminating in

R

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definition or formulation.” In inquiry A process other words, Dewey thought of developing new that reflective inquir y in a knowledge, which is democracy was a process that contingent upon a enabled learners to learn procedure that assomething given ever changing sumes knowledge is conditions related to that ever changing and knowledge. For example, stuevolving. dents in social studies who learned about space and time in the early 20th century learned that space and time were absolute. After Einstein’s theory of relativity, we now learn about time as relative to motion. Other forms of knowledge change over time due to changing perceptions. In the past, some teachers taught about slaver y as a benign parochial system that was eventually dismantled

through a natural course of events. Today, students learn about the brutality of slavery and the struggles (including the Civil War) that resulted in the end of slavery. We can even reflect on the purposes of social studies. Consider the democratic purposes of social studies that were suggested in Chapter 1. What does the image in Figure 2.8 of an Iraqi woman voting suggest about the purposes of social studies? Given the complexity of democracy and various global experiences with democracy, what do you think are social studies educators’ responsibilities in preparing young people to participate in democratic life? Consider what changes you are making in your thinking about social studies as you read and learn more about social studies.

Figure 2.8 An Iraqi woman puts her vote into a ballot box.

LEARNING ABOUT TEACHING FROM CASE STUDIES One condition for reflective inquiry is that there is a body of knowledge upon which to reflect. Unfortunately, we do not have a formal body of knowledge about how to teach. Other professions—for example, the professions of law, accounting, and medicine— have this formal body of knowledge. However, an emerging body of knowledge taken from case studies of teaching practice can be used as a source for reflective inquiry. In the last twenty years, cases of teacher practice have been assembled as a foundation for general knowledge about how to teach. Cases on teaching are most appropriately what social studies scholar O. L. Davis calls “wise practice” (Davis & Yeager, 2005). These “wise practice” Case studies case studies are exemplars that Descriptions of entail elements of successful professional action, teaching in local situations, and such as teaching, that have some exalso enable us to explore how planatory qualities. the teaching episode can be extended or even improved. When inquiring using these cases, teachers transfer meaningful knowledge about how to teach from the situations described in the case to their own teaching situations. The “In the Classroom” feature on page 50 describes a case study of a first-year fifth-grade teacher’s efforts to teach about the Constitution. Consider what you and other social studies teachers can learn from this case. By reading case studies, teachers can begin to learn about common problems such as the one Joan faced. What did Joan learn that might be useful in other situations? Perhaps Joan’s experience adapting her lesson given her students’ interests can be transferred to other teaching and learning situations. As teachers read more case studies, they begin to form generalizations, which in turn inform their planning and teaching. Although case studies can be powerful, we have to be careful not to directly apply the lessons learned in a case. Rather, the key is to transfer the knowledge gained by reading the case into a personal body of knowledge that we can then apply in new and unique settings.

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In the Classroom

A BRIEF CASE STUDY ON TEACHING ABOUT THE CONSTITUTION

A Joan Childress finished an undergraduate teacher education program and started her first teaching job four months ago. She has a passion for teaching that is partly driven by her love for children as well as her insatiable appetite for learning new things. On this day, Joan was teaching about the United States Constitution. She provided students with visual prompts to get them to think about how the Constitution addressed particular actions. Joan became interested in the case of Elian Gonzales, a young boy from Cuba living in the United States who was about the age of students in her class. Elian was being deported as an illegal alien against the wishes of some of his family who were legally in the United States. Elian was ultimately returned to Cuba, which angered some of his U.S. supporters, who are shown in the photo (A) of protestors in front of the White House. Joan used this photo to illustrate protected rights in the Constitution; most students can readily identify the rights to free speech and assembly. Her students not only successfully identified these First Amendment protections, they also were able to describe why we need such rights. Joan extended the discussion to talk about the limits of free speech and the consequences of restricting free speech. Joan was so confident in her students’ responses that she continued to teach about additional constitutional rights.

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On the next day, Joan introduced the topic of constitutional rights for undocumented workers in the United States. Unlike the previous day, Joan was not very successful in encouraging student discussion about the Constitution. Instead of thinking about how the Constitution deals with issues related to the rights or lack of rights for undocumented workers in the United States, students simply wanted to give their opinion of immigration. To complicate matters, several students had politically divergent opinions about immigration and, in fact, two of these students were themselves recent immigrants. Joan suspected that since students were so personally involved in the new subject matter, a new instructional approach was needed. Joan decided to develop an additional context or scaffold to help her students understand the complexities of the rights of undocumented workers in the United States and to help her students use their personal interests to develop new knowledge. Scaffolds are tools that enable students to consider new information and develop new knowledge. Joan decided to refocus students on a series of imaginary events such as the one depicted in the border patrol photo (B). This enabled her to explore some of the constitutional issues she wanted her students to learn as each event unfolded in the imagined series of events. Joan learned that her students’ interest in subject matter was important, but such interest required a different instructional approach than when students might not be as personally interested.

B

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

What Constitutional rights are in play in this image of a Vietnam War protester?

How might students respond to a discussion on freedoms depicted in this image of protest?

A Vietnam War protester holds a flower at the tip of a soldier’s gun. The protester is a participant in a “flower power” protest.

What is happening in this picture Reflect on this image of

?

Two Afghan children, wearing traditional dress, ride a donkey.

children in Afghanistan. ■ Where do you think the

picture was taken and when? ■ What do you think these two

children are doing? Ask someone else what they think of the image and compare your reactions. ■ Consider what life experi-

ences and prior knowledge informed each of your reflections and how these contexts might continue to impact your professional reflection on teaching.

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VISUAL SUMMARY

1

What Is Reflection?

2

Good teaching requires reflection. Without reflection, teaching can become stale and stagnant. Donald Schön classified reflection as occurring during an event (reflection in action) or after (reflection on action). Reflection can occur during all thinking about teaching. The processes involved in teaching can be thought of as a teaching cycle. This cycle includes developing subject matter knowledge, planning to teach, teaching, and reconsidering what was taught. Reflection can and should occur during all parts of the teaching cycle.

3

Reflection During and After Instruction

The delivery of meaningful and effective instruction also requires consistent reflection. Reflection during instruction enables teachers to be more dynamic and enables them to better meet the needs of learners. Reflection on teaching is part of a teaching cycle that includes the processes of learning new subject matter, planning for instruction, teaching, and deliberate reflection.

5

Reflection as Inquiry

As we reflect on teaching and in teaching experiences, we must plan our reflection to achieve the most desirable outcomes. John Dewey suggested that we can inquire through reflection, but cautioned that the circumstances surrounding our reflections are in constant flux. Given that there is not a formal body of teacher knowledge, a good source for learning about how to teach is case studies of teaching episodes. We can use these case studies to conduct reflective inquiries aimed at further developing our teacher knowledge.

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CHAPTER 2

Reflection Prior to Instruction

In order to be effective, teachers must continually develop their subject matter knowledge throughout their professional career. Given the interdisciplinary nature of teaching, elementary teachers have a particular need to stay on top of subject matter. When developing subject matter knowledge, teachers must consistently reflect on their personal interests, the curriculum, and the misunderstandings that emerge from teaching and learning. Teaching is a process that might be compared to artistic performance. Donald Schön called this artful doing. As teachers “perform” they must give themselves opportunities to grow. This is best achieved through reflection.

4

Using Reflection to Increase a Teacher’s Professional Knowledge

Teachers must reflect not only about subject matter and instruction, but also about other elements of teacher knowledge. Teachers must consider their learners, the curriculum, the community, the contexts for education, and the ends of education. All of these areas are part of what is called teacher knowledge.

KEY TERMS ■ reflection, p. 32

■ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), p. 40

■ curriculum, p. 46

■ teaching cycle, p. 34 ■ subject matter knowledge, p. 35

■ teacher knowledge, p. 45

■ case studies, p. 49

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

Mato-hehuloghecha, or Hollow Horn Bear, born in 1850, was a Brule warrior and chief who participated in many famous conflicts with the United States. In the late 1860s, he quickly rose to lead his people in many conflicts with U.S. troops along the Bozeman Trail, including the Fetterman massacre of 1866.

Hollow Horn Bear

■ reflective inquiry, p. 48

In the 1870s, Hollow Horn Bear moved onto a reservation and became a captain of the Indian Police at Crow Agency. Instead of fighting U.S. authorities, he began to help them. He was responsible for the arrest of Crow Dog, the murderer of the famous Sioux chief Spotted Tail. Later in life, Hollow Horn Bear took on the role of conciliator between his people and the U.S. government and was selected as one of the Native Americans to ride in Theodore Roosevelt’s inaugural parade in 1905. Hollow Horn Bear died in 1913. His portrait was later used on a 14-cent U.S. stamp that was issued in 1922.

•

How do we reconcile these two distinct life roles played by Hollow Horn Bear?

•

Have other figures from the past fought an enemy and later turned to work with them?

•

Are there inconsistencies in Hollow Horn Bear’s life story that need to be reconciled?

•

If Americans honor Hollow Horn Bear, do you think Native Americans should do the same?

All of these questions emerge from reflection on the story of Hollow Horn Bear as presented here. Reflect more on his story and consider what else we do not know or might want to know about this person.

SELF-TEST 1. Why is reflection important in social studies? 2. Which of the following statements is correct? a. Reflection on action should only occur after teaching. b. Reflection in action should occur after teaching. c. Reflection on action should only occur before teaching. d. Reflection in action should occur during teaching. 3. Label the four-part sequence of events in the reflective teaching cycle in the figure below:

1

2 Reflection

4

.

3

4. What do we call knowledge of how to teach? a. Pedagogical knowledge b. Content knowledge c. Subject knowledge d. Curricular knowledge

5. Which of the following is not a major consideration when teachers reflect on their subject matter knowledge? a. personal interests c. misunderstandings b. curriculum d. political interests 6. What is the distinction between reflection during and after instruction? 7. Reflecting is part of what cyclical activity? a. lecturing c. teaching b. studying d. explaining 8. When teachers reflect about professional knowledge, which of the following would they be less likely to consider? a. learners c. community b. facilities d. purposes 9. What did John Dewey argue were the benefits of reflection as inquiry in a democracy? 10. How do case studies aid in the development of our knowledge about how to teach?

Self-Test

53

Inquiry in Social Studies

W

hether you own a car or not, when the price of gas goes up and down it affects you in the wallet. Is it fair that gas companies make money when prices go up while those on fixed incomes suffer? This question can serve as the basis for a social studies inquiry. There have been several increases in oil prices and disruptions in oil supply recently in the United States. In 1973, the Organization of Petroleum Producing Countries (OPEC) cut off oil supplies to the United States over political disputes, resulting in shortages. In the early 1980s, oil supply was restricted by conflict in the Middle East and increasing demand in the United States. This happened again beginning in 2004 when disruptions in oil supply (the Iraq War), disruptions in oil refining (2004 hurricanes) and increasing demand resulted in sharp increases in oil prices. Elementary school–age children may ask why the price of gas changes. One good inquiry question might be to explore whether it is fair for gas and oil companies to make more money when prices go up. Such an inquiry requires that teachers involve their students by generating some interest, then provide students with the means to answer the question. Imagine this dialogue in a fourth-grade classroom. TEACHER: Has anyone seen the price of gas lately? STUDENT 1: Yes, my mom complains about it every time we fill up with gas. TEACHER: I don’t blame her. Why do you all think gas prices are on the rise? STUDENT 2: Because the gas station wants to make more money? STUDENT 3: No, it’s because it costs more to make it and find it? TEACHER: Is it unfair for the gas companies who make the gas to make more money if it is costing them more to make the gas? STUDENT 2: Yeah, they’re not being fair. TEACHER: Let’s think about why gas companies might make more when gas prices go up and why it might be fair or unfair.

54

3

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Inquiry as Learning p. 56

■ Inquiry in Social Studies p. 60

■ Designing a Successful Inquiry

p. 66

■ Forms of Inquiry p. 70

■ Inquiry and the Curriculum

p. 74

T

he teacher/student dialogue about gas prices demonstrates how we can use real-world contexts to encourage elementary social studies inquiry. Inquiry

skills enable students to explore their interests, address meaningful problems, and work with real-world, authentic resources. In this chapter, we will explore inquiry as an instructional approach in social studies.

Inquiry as Learning LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define inquiry. Describe the four steps of the inquiry process. Explain how the learning cycle and the inquiry process are similar.

WHAT IS INQUIRY? nquir y holds different meanings depending on the discipline. For example, in the legal field, an inquiry is an activity centered on justice, right, and wrong. In science, inquiry is equally precise, but more focused on improving human conditions through technical advancement. In social studies, inquiry is both of these things and more. Inquiry is a way of learning and teaching that Inquiry A method uses real-world resources to inof teaching and vestigate authentic and meaninglearning that makes ful topics and problems. use of authentic Inquiry, in its broadest sense, resources in the investigation of is simply a questioning and anmeaningful topics swering process infused with purand problems. pose and meaning. Inquiry has been a part of educational practice almost since the inception of social studies at the start of the twentieth century. Early promoters of social studies such as John Dewey believed in inquiry, and Dewey’s work in particular has influenced the development of inquiry in practice. In his book How We Think (1910), Dewey described inquiry as being rooted in experience and reflection. For Dewey, reflective inquiry or thought emerges from experiences that are driven by human curiosity. Dewey felt that curiosity occurs naturally in young children as they try to make sense of the

I

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strange aspects of the world around them. Experiences that emerge from children’s curiosity result in learning, and these experiences lead to intellectual knowledge. Teachers can facilitate experiential learning opportunities by grounding their students’ work in relevant, interesting, and meaningful problems (Figure 3.1). Effective inquir y models should be based in students’ interests. Bertram Bruce and Judith Davidson (1996) argue for a literacy-based inquiry model that is centered on student interests. They view inquiry as beginning with students understanding their own role in learning or seeing a need to learn. The process then moves into a web of activities that include reflection, dialogue, writing, experimentation, observation, draw-

Figure 3.1 What does this real-life context offer with regard to learning in social studies? Consider questions about how the food in the market was produced and the means by which it got to market. How does the vendor set the prices? How does the consumer decide what to purchase?

ing, music, or any other action resulting from immersion in an A self-perpetuating inquir y activity. Other specific learning system in approaches to inquiry will be exwhich new learning plored later in this chapter, but opportunities result first, let’s look at the process of from existing learning experiences. inquiry (Figure 3.2). As early as first grade, children can participate in purposeful inquir y activities. The inquir y process in social studies exists within a self-propelling learning cycle, which is much like the

Learning cycle

reflective teaching cycle as presented in Chapter 2. David Kolb and Roger Fry (1975) developed one of the first theoretical learning cycle models. Their model includes four parts: • Concrete experience • Observation of and reflection on that experience • Formation of abstract concepts based upon the reflection • Testing the new concepts

Process Diagram

The inquiry process Figure 3.2 The parts and process of inquiry

1 Emergence: A question or topic emerges from students’

2 Clarification: What we know about the answer or topic and what

interests and the curriculum

we do not know about the answer or topic

Emergence Clarification

Proposed solution

solution: 4 Proposed A proposed answer to the question or response to the topic

Examination

3 Examination: A systematic effort directed at answering the question or addressing the topic

Inquiry as Learning

57

According to Kolb and Fry, learning can begin at any one of these four points and proceeds in a spiral through constant repeating and regeneration. Much like Kolb and Fr y’s learning cycle, the inquiry process includes a cyclical sequence of regenerating elements. There are four parts to the inquir y process, and each part is dependent on the others. The Inquiry Process 1. The emergence of learner interest in a question or problem 2. The clarification of the question or problem based on standards and curriculum 3. The examination of resources related to the question or problem 4. A suggestion, a proposed answer to the question, or a solution to the problem This inquir y process can be thought of as a whole learning experience made up of several parts. Each of these parts is dependent on the other, just as each piece of a puzzle is dependent on the other pieces to make the puzzle complete. These parts create a cycle of

Volga River, Yaroslavl, Russia Figure 3.3 What is flowing into this river?

activity. This conceptualization of inquir y as both separate parts and a cycle allows us to consider inquiry as a whole and as individual activities that have unique characteristics. As students work through an inquiry on a particular topic or question toward a suggestion (step 4), they will ver y likely find new questions and topics (step 1). Students’ interests in solving these problems may well fuel new learning opportunities—moving them to step 2 again for more clarification before they examine materials and resources to address the problem (step 3), and finally come up with a proposed solution (step 4). At any point in the inquiry process, students may go back to a previous step as they work through the inquir y problem. Now, let us explore in detail how questions and topics emerge and are clarified. The development of a child’s interest in learning is an essential task for teachers at the onset of an inquiry activity. Children may very well find the two photos in Figures 3.3 and 3.4 evocative in their own way. Consider what children might be interested in learning about after being prompted with these images.

The first image of the Volga River might prompt students to consider pollution and might result in questions such as, What is flowing into this river? Is the green water flowing into the river harmful? The second picture might generate similar, yet more informed questions, given that many students might be familiar with images similar to this one. Student questions must be situated in the local curriculum in order for the question to become a school-based learning experience. Any activities related to the subject matter in these images should ideally emerge from a dual consideration of learners’ interests and the curriculum. Teachers have to learn how to balance between the sometimes conflicting demands of the curriculum and student interest, but inquir y requires that teachers consider their students’ interests first. As we proceed through this chapter, we will explore how teachers can balance these demands between the curriculum and student interests.

CONCEPT CHECK

Figure 3.4 An Indian traffic policeman waves exhaust fumes from a reversing police vehicle away from his face in New Delhi.

STOP

Why should teachers try to stimulate their students’ interests as they begin inquiry activities?

What questions might young students raise for an inquiry activity on dinosaurs?

How might you plan an inquiry activity around student questions such as, what did dinosaurs eat?

A sculptor’s depiction of a Sinornithosaurus, a birdlike dinosaur that lived 120 million years ago. The creature, which was about the size of a turkey, may represent an early link between dinosaurs and birds. What steps might students engage in when conducting an inquiry on whether dinosaurs could fly?

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59

Inquiry in Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Distinguish social studies inquiry from inquiry in science. Explain how to craft an inquiry question based on students’ emerging interests. Explain how to use prior knowledge to clarify the question or problem. Identify how examining authentic materials supports inquiry learning. Describe how to support students in suggesting solutions to their inquiry.

n social studies, inquiry has unique characteristics. Much like a scientist who is seeking to improve living conditions through inquiry and experimentation, social studies students are seeking to understand social problems and dilemmas so that they can participate in society in Experimentation a meaningful and productive A form of learning manner. For example, underthat results from the standing why we have rules can implementation of a help children appreciate the designed set of actions aimed at verifyneed for rules and might help ing relationships children be more likely to obey between rules at school and home. Inphenomena. quiry in social studies ultimately is aimed at improving students’ understanding of the world around them. Although there are similarities between inquiry in science and social studies, school-based social studies inquiry differs from school-based science. While children studying science sometimes use the inquir y

I

method to learn about originally conceived problems, much of elementar y-level, school-based scientific inquiry is directed at the reproduction of scientific experiments. This is not the case with social studies inquiry. Kindergarten through grade 12 social studies focuses on encouraging and preparing students for participatory civic action. There are no “experiments” in social studies, primarily because there are no social studies experiments to recreate. Instead, in social studies we borrow and adapt methods of inquir y from academic disciplines, such as history and geography, and apply them in various contexts. Table 3.1 describes two social studies inquir y topics and how we might address these inquiries in social studies. Let’s look at one of the examples from Table 3.1 in more detail. In early grades, children learn about the structure of the family and might conduct an inquiry focused on the question, what is a family? Such inquiries can involve students investigating various sources to develop their own ideas about family. Students’ inquiries can begin with a clarification of what they think a family is and then expand to consider different family structures, such as the one pictured in Figure 3.5. As students investigate various sources and collect data about the structure of selected families from around the world, they can begin to put together a new and better informed conceptualization of family. Later in this chapter, we will look specifically at inquiry in social studies-related academic disciplines such as geography and history. First, let us look more closely at the four steps for inquiry: • Emergence of learner interest • Clarification of the question or problem • Examination of resources • Suggested answers or solutions

Social studies inquiry topics Table 3.1

60

Inquiry topic

How we address this topic in social studies

Possible resources

What is a family?

Study of a child’s family; studying families in other places in the world

Students’ life stories; textbooks; images of families from other places

Why is Abraham Lincoln considered a great president?

Students might read primary sources, historians’ descriptions of presidential greatness, and might look at opinion polls of great presidents

Primary sources; textbooks; opinion polls

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Inquiry in Social Studies

Figure 3.5 A multigeneration portrait of a family in Yunnan Province, Lijiang, China, in April 1997. This family is part of the Naxi tribe. How is this family similar to or different from what children in the United States might describe as a family?

EMERGING INTERESTS: STUDENTS CRAFT THE INQUIRY QUESTION Developing students’ interest in inquir y activities is closely connected to developing good questions for inquiry. The task of developing an inquiry question is one of the most important pedagogical issues facing teachers when preparing for inquiry in social studies. Constructing a question that has the capacity for open-ended investigation is a complex task for young children. Look at Figure 3.6. How might you help students construct an inquiry question about the shape of the earth that is open-ended and would be of interest to students? Teachers must work very closely with their students in order for questions to have the appropriate level of open-endedness and curricular focus. For example, a question such as, who was Paul Revere? is not an inquiry question. Inquiry demands that we have the potential for some differences in the answers proposed. An inquiry question about Paul Revere might be, why is Paul Revere so famous?

The goal of social studies inquiry is to nurture students’ interests while staying within the bounds of curriculum and standards. Teachers must also be cognizant of their students’ prior knowledge when helping to craft inquiry questions. Teachers need to assist students with developing questions but without squashing their interest in the subject. Let’s consider an inquiry about another famous person, with special attention to the

Students making papier-mâché globes Figure 3.6

ways in which teachers can engage students’ interests when crafting an inquiry question. In first grade, children begin to explore folk tales to learn moral lessons and how stories about the past are constructed. In many first-grade classrooms, children learn about tall tales, myths, and legends with characters such as Johnny Appleseed, Anansi, and the famous freed American slave John Henry. John Henry ( Figure 3.7 ) is thought to have worked for a railroad construction company in the late 1800s as a steel driver, pounding holes in solid rock so explosives could be inserted to blast into the mountains. In an effort to speed work, some railroad companies began to use steam-powered drills instead of men such as Henry. The legend of John Henry centers on a fictional contest between Henry and one of these steam drills. Like many legends, Henry’s story contains a mix of both fact and fiction. Scholars disagree about many of the facts, but there is agreement that Henry was a real man, was born a slave, and after being freed worked as a steel-driver for the C&O Railroad. The legend of his life carries important moral and character lessons, which are central to the purpose and substance of firstgrade social studies.

Students in the first grade might investigate the life of the historical John Henry so that they might better understand the values presented in the story of John Henry. A teacher could frame this lesson around two questions: 1. Which parts of the story of John Henry are real, and which parts might not be real? 2. Why is John Henry’s story so important? These questions serve as a starting point for an inquiry and capitalize on the interests young children have in distinguishing between real and make-believe. While encouraging children’s understanding of reality, teachers also need to nurture students’ sense of make-believe to aid in the development of abstract thinking. The boundary between fact and fiction is very narrow for young children. Early childhood teachers need to recognize that their students are just beginning to make distinctions between what is real and what is makebelieve. The experiences that children have learning about these differences are very interesting for them. A question focused on the distinctions between real and make-believe will likely initiate a meaningful inquiry.

CLARIFICATION: HELPING STUDENTS ACTIVATE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Figure 3.7 The legend of “John Henry,” illustrated by Steve McCracken for a filmstrip called Stories in Song

After students’ interests have been shaped into an inquir y question, it is important to uncover any prior knowledge students have about the inquir y topic. Teachers can assist students in this process of clarifying their prior knowledge. All new learning requires some consideration of prior learning, but in an inquiry activity, prior knowledge assessment is particularly important. Inquiry is a personal form of learning. When inquiring, students depend less on the teacher for the transmission of information. In order for students to make sense of the materials they will use in an inquiry, they will need some existing knowledge and schema to guide them. A schema is a way of thinking about existing knowledge or Schema An experiences. Personal schemas understanding or frame new perceptions or expepattern that repreriences and the development sents a complex of new knowledge. set of ideas or experiences.

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Let’s look at a specific example: A class is going to study the preservation of a historical property in their town. In preparation, the teacher wants to use the inquiry method to help students understand how other communities have dealt with historical property preservation, and one of the examples the teacher provides is the Alamo in San Antonio, Texas. After the students learn about the Alamo, the teacher might ask them to think about whether the Alamo should be preserved. Students’ thinking will be influenced by their prior knowledge of the Alamo. If they have never visited or studied the Alamo, they may draw on inaccurate or misleading artistic representations of the Alamo. Such an unrealistic representation is shown in this movie set, which recreates the Alamo (Figure 3.8a). Students who live in the area, have visited, or have studied about the Alamo know that it actually sits in the middle of a bustling modern city ( Figure 3.8b ). This knowledge might very well change an inquiry into a topic related to the preservation of the Alamo. When a historical property is located on valuable property, as the Alamo is, decisions about whether to preserve it are more complicated than if the building is located in a more remote area. Prior knowledge can be ver y important in an inquiry activity. When planning for inquiry, teachers

must determine what students need to know, what they actually know, and what activities might be needed to bolster their knowledge.

EXAMINATION: STUDENTS WORK WITH AUTHENTIC MATERIALS After students develop an inAuthentic quir y question and activate materials Materitheir prior knowledge, it’s time als drawn from realworld contexts that to select resource materials to can be used to supfurther examine the problem. port learning and The materials needed for an ininstruction. quiry should be specific to the question or problem being addressed. It’s important to use authentic materials from real-world contexts. Selecting and preparing specific materials for a social studies inquiry includes the following steps for teachers: 1. Narrowing and/or highlighting the subject matter conveyed in the resources 2. Hypothesizing about possible student outcomes when they interact with the resources 3. Prioritizing the resources

The Alamo Figure 3.8 A A replica of the Alamo

B The Alamo, as seen with a hotel in the background in downtown San Antonio, Texas

Attending to each of these processes will make the resources more manageable for students. Not ever y resource needs to be treated the same way. Some resources may need only a simple narrowing, while others may need more extensive treatment. The process of preparing or pedagogically adapting resources means taking into consideration the learners’ prior knowledge and existing skills. It also means considering the time available for the activity and the depth with which students will engage the resources. Returning to our example of historic preservation, let’s consider an inquir y on whether a school building in a community should be preser ved. Such an inquir y might involve students reading a newspaper article or local history book or even talking with local officials. Each of these resources is valuable for specific reasons. Teachers can give students the best chance of success in their inquiry by narrowing the resources to only the relevant material, then considering what students might think about the material and providing students with the resources according to their value for the specific inquiry.

through a combination of modeling and coaching. There might be a temptation to give students answers, particularly when they are struggling. However, the goal in an inquiry activity should always be for students to construct knowledge on their own terms. (For an inquiry lesson that helps students construct knowledge on their own terms, read “Social and Cultural Explorations: Traffic Around the World.”) The task then becomes one of helping students by providing a model or an example to follow. Then the teacher can present the reasoning process behind the development of an answer without proposing an answer. Coaching serves the same function. When students are coached toward a solution, teachers provide consistent support through clues, helpful hints, reminders, and even motivational comments. Formal structures must be used to provide students with scaffolds upon which to build their knowledge. These scaffolds might be procedural steps, graphic organizers, or inquiry charts—three ideas among many that can serve to support student learning in inquiry activities.

SUGGESTED SOLUTION: STUDENTS DEVELOP AND PROPOSE AN ANSWER In the final phase of the inquiry process, students develop and suggest an answer to their inquiry question. Teachers must support their students’ work at this stage CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

What inquiries might students conduct about how places in the world cope with the constant threat of natural disaster?

What level of prior knowledge will be needed at grades 1, 3, and 5 for an inquiry into how the threat of disaster affects daily life?

How might you narrow the subject matter in this inquiry, hypothesizing about student outcomes, prioritizing resources, and representing the subject matter in the materials?

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Pakistani rescue workers in Islamabad gather at a building damaged by an earthquake felt across the Indian subcontinent on October 8, 2005. Scores of people were feared killed or trapped in two apartment blocks reduced to rubble by a major earthquake, centered 60 miles northeast of the Pakistani capital.

Traffic is an issue that many children deal with on a daily basis. Students might be interested in inquiring about “traffic jams” in different parts of the world. A question driving such an inquiry activity could be: What do traffic jams tell us about the way people in different places live? After the teacher poses the question and students have clarified what they already understand about the subject, they can begin the inquiry. The places depicted in these images (Bikaner, India, and Hangzhou, China) convey certain ideas and lifestyles. From these images, students can make broad assumptions about how people in these two places live. For example, students might suggest that driving and biking are important in Bikaner, or that water transportation is important to people in Hangzhou. When planning an inquiry lesson, it’s important for teachers to hypothesize about the type of responses students will conjure up. Given these hypothetical outcomes, teachers can make decisions about what resources to use. This type of work recognizes that teachers must establish some control over the desired learning outcomes in an activity, but without limiting students to a single response. Within the set of potential outcomes, teachers can prioritize resources. In order to facilitate the examination phase of the inquiry process, teachers should re-represent the subject matter in the resources. This might mean providing a summary of a document or an explanation of a map (for example, highlighting population densities) or a caption for a picture. These representations of subject matter become contextual clues for students as they conduct their inquiries. Finally, teachers need to support students as they work toward an answer to the questions. A simple graphic organizer might help students collect and compare information. The organizer might include rows with the names of various cities (in our example, Bikaner, India, and Hangzhou, China) and columns entitled “location,” “population,” “main type of transportation,” “how long it takes to get places,” and “what travel might be like in this place.”

A Traffic jam in Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. Students might investigate how traffic patterns help us understand the way people in different places live.

B Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province, China, Grand Canal traffic jam. How would you compare this traffic jam to the one in India? How does each traffic jam affect the people of that place? What materials might you present to help students understand the traffic jam in Hangzhou?

Inquiry in Social Studies

65

Social and Cultural Explorations

Traffic around the world

Designing a Successful Inquiry LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe ideal conditions for inquiry in social studies. Explain the limitations on inquiry relating to time, subject matter, and prior knowledge.

hat is involved in designing a successful inquir y? We’ve mentioned that teachers must consider issues of time, subject matter, prior knowledge, and methods for supporting students. Let us take a closer look at the conditions that must be in place for a successful inquiry approach.

W

MANAGING TIME IN INQUIRY ACTIVITIES A good inquir y activity can take several days to complete, but teachers may be concerned about spending that amount of class time to conduct an inquiry activity. If the subject matter covered in the inquiry is narrow in scope, then it may be hard to justify the use of extended time on the activity. However, there is an important caveat to consider. We have to be clear about what we mean when we say a teacher has “covered” material. Teachers often talk about “covering” subject matter as if that is equivalent to students’ developing meaningful knowledge about that subject. Assessment is the only realistic means for determining whether students have learned, and teachers must resist the temptation to think that just because they taught the subject matter, students have learned about it. Instead of thinking in terms of coverage, teachers need to conduct a cost/benefit analysis of sorts, when determining what method to use. If a teacher covers a lot of material but the learning is limited, then the time saved might not have been worth it.

MANAGING SUBJECT MATTER IN AN INQUIRY In addition to considerations about the amount of time spent on an inquiry activity, there are decisions to be 66

CHAPTER 3

Inquiry in Social Studies

Recognize the importance of supporting and scaffolding students’ work during inquiry activities.

made about the subject matter. How narrow or broad should the scope of an inquiry activity be? Unfortunately, standardized tests and curriculums often address low-level subject matter such as names and dates. Later in this chapter (see “Inquiry and the Curriculum”), we will look directly at how teachers can coordinate inquiry with the curriculum and plan for success in high-stakes testing environments. A true inquiry activity requires that students engage subject matter to develop an understanding about some problem. Instead of learning about subject matter that is disconnected from problems and issues, students should learn that our knowledge is woven into patterns of understanding related to meaningful experiences and problem solving. Consider the example of the snail darter in “In the Classroom: Inquiring About the Tellico Dam.” Knowing about the Tellico Dam project is meaningless without understanding the problems and issues related to environmentalist policy at the time. This context makes it a good subject for further investigation through an inquiry activity.

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND INQUIRY Inquiry activities work best when students are given the time to engage subject matter in depth. However, such activities require more prior knowledge and take more time. Prior knowledge might include understanding how to conduct an inquiry and having specific knowledge of the subject matter related to the inquiry. Often teachers assume their students need more prior subject matter knowledge than they actually need. Consider an inquiry about great scientists in our history. To complete such an inquiry, students need knowledge of what makes a person great. They do not need to know about specific people.

In the Classroom

INQUIRING ABOUT THE TELLICO DAM

What should be done if a construction project is scheduled— in this case in Tennessee––that might wipe out a species of fish? This critical issue came to the forefront in Tennessee in the 1970s with the Tellico Dam project, as it did in other places, such as in Washington State over the spotted owl. The construction of the dam was delayed when it was discovered that an endangered fish called the snail darter lived exclusively in the area of the dam and that the species might be driven to extinction due to the construction of the project. Al Arnold teaches fourth grade in Tennessee and uses the controversy over the construction of the Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River to help his students learn about a host of standardized subject matter. The National History Standards for K–4 include the following standard, which is relevant for this topic: Identify and describe various technological developments to control fire, water, wind, and soil, and to utilize natural resources such as trees, coal, oil, and gas in order to satisfy the basic human needs for food, water, clothing, and shelter.

Snail darter found near Cleveland, Tennessee

Students in Mr. Arnold’s class inquire about the decisions such major projects require of citizens, and conduct an in-depth inquiry on the specifics of the Tellico Dam and the snail darter. Although this inquiry takes center stage in Mr. Arnold’s class, the bulk of the subject matter students learn is more broadly focused. The key to Mr. Arnold’s teaching is the way he contextualizes the inquiry, to relate it to issues, concepts, events, and people from the curriculum. As the students in Mr. Arnold’s class engage in the inquiry, they focus on curricular subject matter. For example, the students learn about the Endangered Species Act (which provides protection to endangered animal species such as the snail darter), the New Deal and Franklin Roosevelt (who created the Tennessee Valley Authority, which constructed the Tellico Dam), economic conditions in Appalachia, and the constitutional right to due process. All of these topics become more meaningful in the context of the inquiry about the Tellico Dam.

The Tellico Dam, Tennessee

Designing a Successful Inquiry

67

When time is limited and prior knowledge is minimal, more planning is needed for a successful inquiry experience. One option is for teachers to select some or all of the resources students will use in their investigation, instead of allowing students to find their own resources (which can be very time consuming). Teachers might also wish to pose a small set of alternative solutions or answers to a predesigned inquiry question, as in the following “Lesson: A Great Scientist in History.”

SUPPORTING AND SCAFFOLDING STUDENTS’ INQUIRIES When designing inquir y activities, particularly highly structured, problem-solving tasks, teachers must continually scaffold and support their learners’ work. This process begins in the earliest stages of the inquir y process. For example, at the start of an inquir y activity, teachers need to suggest ideas rooted in curriculum that might interest students, tied to what they like and dislike. One example of curriculum-based subject matter that most students like can be found in economics. In California, students in the third grade learn sub-

Scaffolds

Specific forms of support for new learning that allow students to grow as independent learners. These supports are gradually removed as students develop autonomous knowledge.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How can the conditions

How much time might

for inquiry be met for a simple inquiry about this petroglyph depicting a Native American dance?

be allotted to such an inquiry?

How deep might be students’ engagement with this subject matter?

How much prior knowledge and scaffolding will students need to support inquiries about Pueblo culture?

Petroglyph carved on a sandstone cliff depicting an Anasazi/Pueblo Indian ceremonial Kachina dance

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ject matter related to the following standard related to economics: Discuss the relationship of students’ “work” in school and their personal human capital.

Teachers might find that students are very interested in thinking about how their schoolwork can be thought of as having economic value. Some may even decide they should be paid for their work. Certainly, discussions of money and wants and needs will at least engage most students. Teachers have to help students develop suitable questions and select resources. Often, the resources need to be adapted or modified. Teachers mediate student experiences with the resources by providing scaffolds such as reading guides or questions, analytical activities, prompts, graphic organizers, and outlines. As information emerges, teachers can provide students with ways to record and organize information and to shape this information into potential answers to the inquiry questions. The process of scaffolding can be very involved and affects every aspect of inquiry, but at all times, teachers must remember the purpose of scaffolds. These pedagogical devices are meant to be short-term aids, which are slowly withdrawn as students become more autonomous in their learning. For example, as students get better at using resources such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, they will need less scaffolding in this area.

LESSON

A Great Scientist in History INTRODUCTION

PROCEDURES

Sometimes children ask quite complex questions. For example, looking at the hummingbird image and caption, students might ask, what would happen if I traveled at the speed of light? Albert Einstein may have posed such a question. Of course, his answer to this question radically altered our understanding of our physical world. How might we summarize, for young children, the achievements of Albert Einstein?

The activity requires that teachers make a list of great scientists. One possible list could include the following people:

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Who are the greatest scientists in history? This question can guide an inquiry by third-grade students about the history of science in the United States. In this lesson, students will conduct an inquiry into what makes a great scientist and a list of criteria.

• Nicholas Copernicus • Marie Curie • Charles Darwin • Leonardo da Vinci • René Descartes • Thomas Alva Edison • Albert Einstein • Benjamin Franklin • Galileo Galilei

This tiny hummingbird flaps its wings 80 times per second. Imagine this bird flying 80 miles in a second! Now multiply that by 2,345, and you can approach the speed of light––186,282.397.

• Isaac Newton • Max Planck • Carl Sagan Provide students with two- or three-sentence descriptions of the achievements of each scientist. Students’ work in this inquiry will be focused on determining the greatest scientist. One approach is to ask students to rank the scientists. In order to rank the scientists or select the “greatest” one, ask students to brainstorm what makes a great scientist. The criteria should include something about the number of people helped by the scientist’s work. These criteria can then be used by the students to rank-order the scientists. Students should include a reason for their ranking.

ASSESSMENT The assessment of students’ learning should include their ranking, the reasons for their ranking, and the criteria they used to make their ranking.

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Forms of Inquiry LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe social science inquiry. Discuss the unique qualities of social inquiry. Explain the role of historical inquiry in social studies.

lthough social studies inquir y is a unique form of teaching and learning, it is dependent on inquir y in other areas. In this section, we will review related forms of inquiry—social science inquiry, social inquiry, and historical inquiry. Each of these types of inquiry is practiced in social studies classes.

A

SOCIAL SCIENCE INQUIRY Social science inquiry Inquiry that involves disciplinary investigations focused on observation, hypothesis generation, data collection, and the proposal of a solution.

Social science inquiry is ver y similar to scientific inquiry and involves specific disciplinary investigations focused on observation, hypothesis generation, data collection, and the proposal of a solution. Social science inquir y in social studies is highly structured and aimed at answering direct questions about observable

phenomena. An example of social science inquiry is an investigation of the causes of homelessness. The method for social science inquiry parallels the scientific method; however, the social science inquiry is not attempting to replicate specific experiments. Social science inquiry begins with observation. In their observations, students find some incongruence or unexplained phenomenon and consider it in the form of a problem. Once a problem has been identified, students then proceed through the steps of scientific inquiry by defining a question, proposing a hypothesis, testing their hypothesis through some form of data analysis, forming conclusions from the data analysis, and proposing a theory.

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Many schools and school systems have organized social science fairs designed to showcase students’ social science inquiries. These experiences stimulate students’ interests in social studies topics and motivate students through the public display of their work. A typical social science fair project might include the following components. • The research question • A physical project display describing the research process • A research paper report on the results of an inquiry into the research question • An oral presentation or Q/A about the process and research inquiry product A social science project presentation is the culmination of student research on a guiding research question. Following are social science questions from award-winning projects in Virginia in 2006. • How did the belief in the afterlife affect Egypt? • Ancient Amish culture: Has it changed through the years? • Holidays––How do you celebrate? • Snake handling: What’s all the hissing about? • How did the 1970s fads and trends affect American culture? • Plains and Pueblo Indians: How did the land determine their style of living?

SOCIAL INQUIRY Social inquiry Social inquiry is a distinctly different form of inquir y that focuses on the investigation of common problems whose solution will improve the human condition. It is often thought of as involving the following steps:

Inquiry that focuses on the investigation of common problems whose solution will improve the human condition.

1. Identifying a problem 2. Determining the resources needed to solve the problem 3. Developing a potential solution 4. Implementing the solution The most important characteristic of social inquiry is that it is focused on a problem that has real-world social characteristics. In fact, the problem being investigated is more important than the product of the inquiry. For example, an inquiry into the limits of civil liberties during wartime is a problem that has been and will continue to be very important in the United States. Students’ inquiry-based understandings or opinions, while important, are not as important as their understanding that the United States has continued and will continue to struggle with this issue. The social inquiry approach to learning values process and action as a form of understanding more than it values products and performance. Given that the “answers” are not easy to come by, involving students in their learning might present some complexities, but in the long run students will be more excited about their learning. As students take action on the problem they are addressing, either through their thinking or through some community action, they become invested in the solution and thus more interested in the outcome.

HISTORICAL INQUIRY Historical inquiry plays an important role in social studies instruction and requires students form of asking and to construct an interpretation of answering questions the past. Historical inquir y is a that makes use of specific form of asking and anhistorical resources swering questions that makes use and particular of historical resources and particmethodologies in order to construct ular methodologies. For examan interpretation of ple, an inquir y about the effect the past. of the 1930s Depression on families (Figure 3.9) might make use of photos from the time or letters and diaries written by people who lived through that time.

Historical inquiry A specific

Figure 3.9 A breadline at the intersection of 6th Avenue and 42nd Street in New York City during the Great Depression that followed the Wall Street crash. What hardships must have faced the families of the men who were desperate enough to stand in lines this long just to get free bread?

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Definitions and examples of inquiry in social studies Table 3.2 Type of inquiry

Definition

Example of an inquiry question

Social science inquiry

Investigations focused on observation, hypothesis generation, data collection, and the proposal of a solution

How does supply and demand affect the price of basketball shoes?

Social inquiry

The investigation of common problems whose solution will improve the human condition

What can be done to protect young people from secondhand tobacco smoke?

Historical inquiry

Asking and answering questions that make use of historical resources and particular methodologies

Why was President Richard Nixon impeached?

As early as second or third grade, children can participate in historical inquiries. The products of these inquiries can be ver y productive in helping children understand their social world. Historical inquir y requires that children develop an interest in a topic or historical problem, and then perform an analysis of resources. The analysis is directed at constructing an interpretation of the past. Doolittle and Hicks (2003) described the analysis of resources as including five

CONCEPT CHECK

distinct steps: summarizing, contextualizing, inferring, monitoring, and corroborating (SCIM-C). We will read more about the SCIM-C method in Chapter 5. Historical inquiry, like social science and social inquir y, involves unique traits. Read “Visualizing: Inquir y in Practice” ( Figure 3.10 ), and think about the differences and similarities among these three types of inquir y. Table 3.2 provides some ideas for different types of inquiry.

STOP

How might students conduct scientific, social, and historical inquiries about the trading of ivory from elephant tusks?

What are some of the potential inquiry questions that might arise from an investigation of this image?

Hunters and traders sitting atop elephant tusks in Zanzibar, Tanzania, in the late nineteenth century.

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Visualizing

Inquiry in Practice Figure 3.10

Who made this flat-top hill, and how did they make it? Let’s consider this question using the four steps of inquiry given scientific, social, and historical approaches. 1. Encourage emerging learner interests. The Mississippi River pictured here flows under the Eads Bridge, with the Gateway Arch in St. Louis in the background, just 15 miles from the Indian city of Cahokia. What would Mississippian Indians, who built these earthen mounds, think of St. Louis today? 2. Clarify students’ inquiries on the Mississippian Mound Builders, focusing on: • construction of the mounds (scientific inquiry), • the fate of the Mound Builders (social inquiry), • or the purpose of the mounds (historical inquiry). 3. Examine the resources, given students’ prior knowledge. Scientific, social, and historical inquiries become more distinct during the examination. Whereas scientific inquiry relies on testing a hypothesis (the mounds were built as a fort or for housing), social inquiry might focus on religious purposes of the mounds. 4. Students will propose or suggest a solution given their examination. What happened to the people who built the mounds? Each approach might yield a different “answer.”

Aerial view of Monk’s Mound at Cahokia Mounds Park in Illinois, where ancient Indian temples once stood in the city of Cahokia

Eads Bridge, Mississippi River, St. Louis, Missouri

A burial mound at the Etowah Indian Mounds State Historic Site, Cartersville, Georgia. The Etowah Valley was home to a Mississippian Indian culture that thrived there between A.D. 1,000 and A.D. 1,500. This sophisticated culture spanned much of the north, south, and central areas of what is now the United States and was North America’s last prehistoric culture. It flourished from approximately A.D. 800 until the arrival of European explorers.

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Inquiry and the Curriculum LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe how inquiry can be successfully implemented in highly structured curricular contexts. Identify how inquiry can be standardized in terms of testing and assessment.

INQUIRY-DRIVEN CURRICULUM AND STANDARDS s noted earlier in this chapter, one of the most significant limitations to inquiry is the difficulty in reconciling the sometimes narrow curricular focus of inquiry activities with the need to cover a substantial amount of subject matter. There are many things social studies teachers can do when developing inquiry activities to ensure that the activity fits within the curriculum. First, start planning for the inquir y within the bounds of curriculum and stay within the curriculum throughout the planning and teaching phases of the lesson. This also means that teachers need to encourage their students’ interest in topics that are relevant to the curriculum.

A

National History Standards suggest that students in grades K–4 should “Analyze the dance, music, and arts of various cultures around the world.” How might we make connections between the children in grades K–4 learning about the content suggested in this standard and the dancing tradition displayed by the young San Bushman women in Namibia (Figure 3.11)? Let’s look at a curriculum-based inquir y that includes some of the hallmarks of inquir y we have reviewed in this chapter. New Jersey Social Studies Core Curriculum Content Standards require students to explore basic concepts of diversity, tolerance, fairness, and respect for others by the end of the second grade. Elementary-grade teachers in New Jersey might develop inquir y activities related to this curriculum standard (see “Lesson” on pages 76–77).

INQUIRY, ASSESSMENT, AND STANDARDIZED TESTING There is no one-size-fits-all approach to assessing inquiry activities. Each student’s work in inquiry activities has to be considered on its own merits. This can

Figure 3.11 The San people partake in ritual communal dances, such as the one displayed here, that have spiritual and medicinal purposes. The energy of the dance is thought to heal both physical and psychological illnesses.

Sample rubric for assessing student work on the lesson about the meaning of “fair” Table 3.3 Score

1

2

3

Criterion 1: Students construct a definition of the concept of fair that includes three ways to determine whether something is fair.

Definition includes 0–1 way(s) to determine whether something is fair.

Definition includes 2 ways to determine whether something is fair.

Definition includes 3 ways to determine whether something is fair.

Criterion 2: Students will apply their definition in a consistent manner with an explanation or reasons supporting their application.

Students do not apply their definition to new situations in a consistent manner.

Students apply their definition to new situations in a consistent manner.

Students apply their definition to new situations in a consistent manner and provide reasons why each example is or is not fair.

be accomplished by using assessment rubrics that aid in determining the structural for evaluating learnsoundness of students’ work. We ing that includes will look at rubrics in detail in a multiple criteria and later chapter. For now, let’s reperformance levels view the basic assumptions befor each criterion. hind rubrics. Assessment rubrics are mechanisms for appraising students’ work based on specific criteria. Typically, rubrics have numerous criteria and performance levels for each criterion. Teachers construct the criteria based on the objectives of the lesson and set performance levels based on expectations and prior knowledge. In an inquiry activity, assessment criteria might relate to syntactic or process-oriented student knowledge as well as substantive content knowledge. Syntactic knowledge might be the student’s thinking skills, while

Assessment rubric A method

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How might an inquiry about rural ways of life in the Ivory Coast be connected to the National History Standards, your state’s social studies standards, or your local curriculum?

What are some discrete pieces of information that might emerge from an inquiry about life in the Ivory Coast?

In the Ivory Coast, rural food vendors sell pineapples, coconuts, and corn, among other items.

substantive knowledge might be Discrete facts such as dates or the names knowledge Ideas of famous people. Teachers and concepts that should emphasize these forms of share no obvious discrete knowledge, such as the characteristics and names of famous people, in inare understood quiry activities. These details are separately. the facts that are typically found on high-stakes tests. The sample rubric in Table 3.3 details how criteria and performance levels might be constructed for the lesson on the concept of “fair.” Although this lesson does not include typical “facts,” students are expected to achieve at fixed and clearly communicated levels. Rubrics provide teachers with a means to communicate expectations in a clear manner and are particularly important when using methods such as inquiry.

LESSON

“That’s Not Fair”: An Inquiry Lesson Into the Meaning of “Fair” INTRODUCTION All inquiry activities should begin with a question and take into consideration students’ interests. A possible inquiry activity could be built around exploring the meaning of fairness.

LEARNING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

on the board, along with additional examples provided by the teacher, to examine some commonalities among the incidents. Questions to facilitate this part of the activity might include: • What are some of the things that happened to people in the same way?

In this lesson, students will create their own definition of “fair” and apply that definition to various situations.

• Have any of the things we talked about in class happened to you?

PROCEDURE

• Which of the things we have talked about were the most unfair?

The first task for teachers in this lesson is to nurture the emergence of student interest. To accomplish this, begin with a demonstration or explanation of an event or action in which a child thinks he is being treated unfairly. Here is an example. Leticia and Nadia were riding bikes together when the next-door neighbor Matthew came outside. “Can I ride with you?” asked Matthew. The girls did not want Matthew playing with them. They were planning to go to Leticia’s house to play her new video game. “We’re playing girl stuff,” Nadia said. Matthew felt bad. He didn’t think it was fair for the girls to not let him play. After sharing this or a similar story, ask students what they think was or was not fair about the situation. This discussion should aid in the clarification of what students think is fair and not fair. Continue the discussion by asking students if they can think of times when they were treated unfairly, and make a list on the board of these incidents. After a few minutes of discussion, share with students the learning goal for the lesson (create your own definition of “fair”). As a result of this activity, students will create their own definition of what it means to be fair and compare their definition to others. The definition that students create needs to be set in their own experience. The next part of this activity requires students to use the list

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As students begin the process of narrowing the ideas about fairness, the teacher should introduce some fairness principles or an existing definition. Although research shows that children are more likely to be positively influenced by real-life examples than principles, the inclusion of principles will provide students with a starting point for developing their own beliefs about fairness. Following are a few existing definitions of fairness: • Everyone gets what they need. • A person is treated honestly. • People follow the same rules. • No one feels left out. • The same rules are applied to everybody. Following the presentation of these existing ideas about fairness, the teacher might want to give some historical and current examples of fairness. Historical examples might include episodes from the past when groups of people were treated differently. For example, we might suggest that it wasn’t fair to exclude black children from white public schools in the early twentieth century. Another example of fairness might be an anecdote about an activity children are familiar with, such as the following story about checkers:

These children are playing chess. How do issues of fairness arise when children play games? How can we use children’s life experiences playing games as a context for learning about concepts such as fairness?

Chris and Jorge are playing the game of checkers. When the game started, both boys thought the game was fair. Each player had the same number of game pieces and they would follow the same rules. After a few moves, Chris started to complain that the game was not fair. Jorge had quickly taken half of Chris’s pieces. Chris complained, “You didn’t tell me how good you were. That’s not fair.” Jorge wasn’t happy either. He didn’t want his friend to be mad, so he decided to change the rules and let Chris automatically have king pieces, even before he got to the end of the board. Jorge asked Chris, “Is it fair now?”

After sharing this short anecdote, ask students if they think this game of checkers as it unfolded was fair.

ASSESSMENT The general question students are examining is, what is fair? At this point in the lesson, students should be asked to propose their own solution with a short description or definition of fairness. The definition should be written down by each student and then applied to the situations on the board. The teacher can review each of the situations listed and ask students whether the person was treated fairly or unfairly given their definition. As a culminating activity, students should be asked to revise and share their definitions of fairness.

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What is happening in this picture

?

Look closely at this picture taken in Trinidad, Cuba. What can you tell about the history, geography, politics, and economics of this place by examining the photo? How might the content that emerges from this photo analysis

A bike rider passes a picture of Che Guevara painted on a wall in Trinidad, Cuba.

serve as a context for an inquiry?

VISUAL SUMMARY 1 Emergence: A question or topic emerges from students’

2 Clarification: What we know about the answer or topic and what

interests and the curriculum

we do not know about the answer or topic

Emergence Clarification

Proposed solution

solution: 4 Proposed A proposed answer to the question or response to the topic

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Examination

3 Examination: A systematic effort directed at answering the question or addressing the topic

Inquiry in Social Studies

1

Inquiry as Learning

Inquiry as a method of teaching and learning makes use of authentic resources in the investigation of meaningful topics and problems. Inquiry includes four parts: (1) the emergence of learner interest in a question or problem; (2) the clarification of the question or problem given standards and the curriculum; (3) the examination of resources related to the question or problem; and (4) a suggested answer to the question or solution to the problem.

2

Inquiry in Social Studies

Thoughtful inquiry in social studies requires that we carefully select or help students develop questions. Teachers must also carefully consider their students’ prior knowledge and select materials that are appropriate for a given inquiry. As students develop answers to their inquiry question, teachers should support their work through modeling and coaching.

3

Designing a Successful Inquiry

When teachers design inquiry activities in social studies, they must pay special attention to the conditions of the inquiry. Teachers should use inquiry-based learning in concert with other forms of instruction. Teachers must also carefully consider the amount of time they will devote to the activity and how their students will engage specific subject matter. Finally, teachers must carefully scaffold activities during inquiry learning.

4

Forms of Inquiry

Inquiry in social studies can be in a scientific, social, or historical context. Each of these approaches is related but also unique, particularly with regard to the types of questions that might be appropriate. Scientific inquiry follows a prescribed process and focuses on improving living conditions. Social inquiry addresses current problems and particularly harmful situations in society. Historical inquiry functions to help us understand the past so we can better understand our current conditions.

5

Inquiry and the Curriculum

When designing inquiry activities, teachers need to pay careful attention to curricular concerns. Inquiry activities must be grounded in local and state curriculum and standards at all levels. Although standards and curriculum might seem limiting, they in fact can invigorate planning as long as teachers make early and consistent curricular connections.

KEY TERMS ■ inquiry, p. 56

■ authentic materials, p. 63

■ historical inquiry, p. 71

■ learning cycle, p. 57

■ scaffolds, p. 68

■ assessment rubric, p. 75

■ experimentation, p. 60

■ social science inquiry, p. 70

■ discrete knowledge, p. 75

■ schema, p. 62

■ social inquiry, p. 70

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS How and why do children learn the national anthem? The answer to this question might be more difficult than trying to actually teach children the song. In fact, methods for teaching children about the Star-Spangled Banner are informed by our beliefs about why we should learn it. Students need to understand why the song is important to many people who live in the United States. This will help students develop meaning for the anthem, which will result in a deeper and more active learning experience. When children who understand the meaning and purpose of the national anthem learn the words to the song, they will understand them better and probably remember them better.

The flag that inspired the Star-Spangled Banner, in the Grand Entrance Hall of the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.

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SELF-TEST 1. What is inquiry? What can we learn about the subject of this image through inquiry?

5. Label the four main parts of the inquiry process on the figure below.

1

4

2

3

2. Inquiry makes use of ___________ resources. 3. Which of the following statements about inquiry is true? a. Inquiry is fact oriented. b. Inquiry requires a good question. c. Students do not need much prior knowledge to conduct an inquiry. d. Students can complete inquiry activities without using outside resources. 4. Which process is not part of the inquiry method? a. emergence of learner interest in a question or problem b. open exploration of the question that the teacher gives the students c. examination of resources related to the question or problem d. answer to the question or solution to the problem

6. What are scaffolds? 7. Which of the following would not be an appropriate scaffold for an inquiry activity? a. graphic organizer c. newspaper article b. outline d. reading guide 8. How do inquiry questions determine the form of inquiry that teachers might use in a social studies lesson? How might inquiry questions about the Great Depression be altered or reformed to facilitate various forms of inquiry? 9. Which of the following is not a form of inquiry that we commonly find in social studies? a. scientific c. conceptual b. historical d. social 10. Which curriculum idea would support inquiry? a. the dates of the American Revolution b. reasons for the three branches of American government c. the number of states in the United States d. the difference between a peninsula and an island

Self-Test

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Standards, Curriculum, and Testing

T

eachers at Lake Elementary School in North Carolina instituted a project to connect standards and curriculum. The project, called the Flat Stanley Project, grew out of a series of children’s books by Jeff Brown about a boy named Stanley who is squashed flat by a falling bulletin board and has adventures visiting his friends by traveling in an envelope. Second-grade students created their own Flat Stanleys and sent them to friends around the country and the world. The friends who received Flat Stanley took his picture and wrote descriptions of where he visited. Throughout the process, students plotted Stanley’s travels on maps and shared descriptions of his travels. The activity excited students and motivated them to learn about different places as well as to develop letter writing and journaling literacy skills. The goal of this journaling project was to connect standards and curriculum. In North Carolina, state social studies standards require students to “identify the absolute and relative location of communities” and “interpret maps, charts, and pictures of locations.” The Flat Stanley project allowed students to work with absolute and relative locations for the places their Stanley traveled, as well as to use maps of these places to interpret the accompanying letters about Stanley’s travels. Students’ authentic work, which was incorporated into the curriculum through social studies and literacy, positioned them to be successful in later tests on curriculum- and standards-correlated skills and subject matter. What topics might come up in a letter from Stanley in San Francisco? How might these topics be related to standards in North Carolina, such as identifying absolute and relative location and interpreting pictures of locations?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Standards and Curriculum p. 84

■ Standards and Testing p. 90

■ Teaching Subject Matter In-Depth

While “Covering” the Curriculum p. 94

■ Authentic Teaching with

Standards p. 100

t schools such as Lake Elementary, the teachers and administrators are committed to the educational achievement of their students. The teachers have expectations for the Lake elementary students based on state standards, curriculum, and testing. Administrators, parents and guardians, communities, and all interested educational stakeholders set these expectations collectively. Often, these expectations are driven by public statements about what is to be taught and learned, and then these expectations are expressed in standards, curriculum, and tests. Teachers must be fluent in standards and curriculum and must be able to implement them given a host of local conditions. We can understand these local connections between standards, curriculum, testing, and the classroom by considering the constituents teachers serve. Teachers work for the parents and guardians of their students as well as the larger local communities, which pay for education. Teachers are public employees charged with guiding young people in the community. As professionals, teachers are given considerable leeway to develop and implement pedagogical strategies for helping their students learn. The question of what these students learn is a different matter. The what of education, or the content

A

of instruction, is a public issue. The public, through its representatives in public education, sets policies for determining what gets taught. This content takes form through standards, curriculum, and ultimately testing programs. Of course, this system does nothing to ensure that standards, curriculum, and testing are of high quality. Professional educators in the classroom have an obligation to become involved in the processes associated with the development of standards, curriculum, and testing programs. But when these systems are in place, teachers have a professional, ethical, and moral responsibility to implement the plans. Often high-stakes tests are associated with curriculum and standards. These tests at the culmination of a course or at year-end, or curriculum-based standardized tests and criterion-referenced tests, are used to communicate relative success in meeting standards and curriculum goals. In this chapter, we consider teaching methods and the curriculum in the context of standards and high-stakes as well as lowstakes tests. We also examine how teachers can teach subjects in-depth while providing instruction across the curriculum. Finally, we look at authentic and meaningful connections between standards, curriculum, and tests.

Standards and Curriculum LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe the standards that directly and indirectly influence the local curriculum. Evaluate various approaches for developing the curriculum from standards. Explain how the elementary social studies curriculum is typically constructed.

L 84

ook at the photograph of the Old Meeting House in Jaffrey, New Hampshire, in Figure 4.1, and take a minute to respond to the questions in the caption. Is

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this information on local govStandards The ernment important informamost generalized tion to include in standards? and public representations of expectaThe answer depends on whether tions for teaching we are talking about state or and learning. national standards, and it depends on the state that is being considered. Certainly in New England states such as New Hampshire, standards for elementary social studies would set forth an expectation that students learn about the development of “Town Hall”-style local government. This standardized expectation for learning might not be evident in states outside the area.

Figure 4.1 The Old Meeting House, c. 1775, in the historic town of Jaffrey, New Hampshire, was originally built to serve the community as both town hall and church. How might the development of local government in the earliest days of the United States be represented in standards? Do you think standards would require students to know about this local subject matter?

When teachers plan for instruction on a specific topic such as the development of government in the United States, how do they know what to teach? Standards provide teachers with guidance in answering this question. Although there are multiple national, state, and even local standards that may be relevant for any given lesson, teachers tend to rely on the state standards and possibly a related national disciplinar y standards project.

WHERE STATE STANDARDS ARE BORN: PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND NATIONAL STANDARDS Standards seem to be everywhere in education. Each of the subject areas in K–12 have developed national vol-

untary standards; grade-level-specific professional organizations have standards; specialty organizations focused on skills development, such as the Center for Media Literacy, have standards; and all 50 states have detailed standards. As we saw in Chapter 1, in social studies, standards from four major academic professional organizations in hisCurriculum An tor y, government, geography, organized body of and economics as well as stansubject matter developed from standards dards from the National Counand arranged with cil for the Social Studies consideration for apcomplement state standards in propriate scope and all 50 states. These state stansequence. dards are mostly mandator y and are a significant driving force in the development of the local curriculum.

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Process Diagram

The influence of standards on curriculum Figure 4.2

Academic Standards in • History • Government • Geography and • Economics

State Standards are mostly mandatory and are a significant driving force in the development of curriculum.

Skills-Based Standards from organizations such as the National Council for the Social Studies

..... Local Curriculum including goals for instructional planning, assessment, and testing

Figure 4.2 details the typical pattern of influence that national and state standards have in local schools. In Chapter 1, we looked at standards from five national social studies organizations: • National Histor y Standards from the National Center for History in the Schools • Geography for Life: National Geography Standards from the National Council for Geographic Education • National Standards for Civics and Government from the Center for Civic Education • Voluntary National Standards in Economics from the National Council on Economic Education • Curriculum Standards for Social Studies from the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Each of these standards projects influences, to some degree, the state standards. For example, the state standards in Arkansas, called the Arkansas Social Studies Curriculum Framework (revised 2000), are closely 86

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aligned with the National Council for the Social Studies standards with specific content standards arranged according to the ten NCSS themes. Other states’ standards are organized more like the national standards in discipline areas. For example, Virginia and California have standards that are similar in structure to the National History Standards. Standards in states such as Arkansas, Virginia, and California serve as frameworks for local school systems in these states to develop curriculums. No state has a one-size-fits-all curriculum. Instead, states enable local school systems to develop their own curriculum that is based on the state standards.

STANDARDS AND CURRICULUM: THE STARTING POINT FOR POWERFUL TEACHING How will standards and curriculum impact the way you teach in the classroom? The answer to this question influences much of the instructional planning and teaching process. The connections between curriculum and

daily teaching are much more obvious than the connections between standards and teaching. Standards are most often too broad to actually influence the development of a daily lesson. But teachers need to understand standards, and in particular, how the standards have influenced the development of the local curriculum. Teachers are also often required to correlate their teaching objectives with state standards in order to ensure that the subject being taught is within the context of one or multiple standards. The curriculum, on the other hand, is closely connected to planning and teaching. In fact, teachers often directly use local school system curriculum guides when planning their daily instruction. Curriculums, which are most typically developed at the school-system level, often include pacing guides, which help teachers understand what they should teach and when. If a pacing guide is not included, curriculums will typically include some general information about the amount of material to teach in a given period of time (scope) and the order in which to teach it (sequence). Teachers who are uncertain about their own pedagogical and subject matter knowledge might appreciate these details in a curriculum. Teachers who are very comfortable with their knowledge of teaching may find detailed curriculums more restricting. Consider how two teachers with different levels of knowledge might teach about the burning of Washington, D.C. during the War of 1812.

The approach of a novice teacher A novice teacher might know the story of Dolley Madison and her reported effort to save valuable items from the White House as the British marched on the city. State standards and local curriculums all across the United States mention this event, often as a tale intended to help children develop an understanding of the concept of courage. A novice teacher, with little knowledge of the Dolley Madison story, might plan a lesson about it, relying on what he learned directly from standards and supporting materials. Several standards/curriculum projects suggest using books about the event such as Dolley Madison: First Lady (Spirit of American Our People) by Cynthia Fitterer Klingel and Robert B. Noyed (2002). This 32-page book briefly describes the life of Dolley Madison, including her efforts during the War of 1812. A novice teacher might have students read the book for the purpose of reconstructing the events of 1812 or reflecting on the courage of Dolley Madison (Figure 4.3). This reading could be part of a lesson that focuses on the reasons why the British and the Americans were at war. Madison’s courageous actions in rescuing valuable documents and materials from the White House might serve as the central focus of the lesson. The novice teacher could implement these ideas in a meaningful way in a best effort to teach about a topic about which he knows very little.

Dolley Madison Figure 4.3 A This miniature painting of Dolley Payne Madison (1768–1849) shows her at age 26. The portrait was done the year of her courtship and marriage to James Madison. Does she have the appearance of a hero? Why might it be important to portray Dolley Madison as a hero?

B This plate memorializes Dolley Madison as a character of almost royal dimensions. Consider how the story of her heroics at the White House in 1814 might have influenced the production of this plate. How does the story of her actions influence our current perception of Dolley Madison?

In the Classroom

A CURRICULUM UNIT ON ANIMALS

Eloise Johnson’s first-grade classroom is filled with animals. She has all the live animals her school will allow (a snake, a bird, a hamster, and a turtle). In addition, the walls are covered with lively pictures of animals in various habitats. Ms. Johnson uses animals whenever she can as a context for her teaching. She groups the students using animal names. Animals serve as mnemonics for important learning activities such as Ralphie the Reading Rabbit and the Majestic Math Macaws. Given her love for animals, Ms. Johnson brings a special passion to a unit on endangered species. The unit centers on the responsibilities of children and adults to consider how they can balance their needs with the needs of animal wildlife. The local school curriculums in social studies and science address this subject matter. For example, students in Ms. Johnson’s school are expected to “understand the responsibilities of humans to care for their environment and animal wildlife.” She combines this curricular idea from social studies with a science curricular focus, which requires that students “know, through care of plants and animals in class, that all living things have basic needs, grow, reproduce, and die.” Over the years, Ms. Johnson has developed her unit around different endangered species. One year the focus was on whales. Another year she focused on sea turtles. Ms. Johnson’s favorite curriculum unit centers on the bald eagle. For Ms. Johnson, no other animal conjures as much emotion as the bald eagle. Students work to learn about the habitat of the bald eagle, studying the common locations of the eagle. They consider the responsibilities of humans to care for endangered animals such as the American bald eagle in this photo. Students also study the civic symbolism of the bald eagle by exploring the process that resulted in the bald eagle being recognized as a symbol of the United States. These activities are connected to curriculum, but they also are extensions to the curriculum that represent Ms. Johnson’s knowledge and passion for teaching about endangered animals.

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A northern American bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascensis) sits on a tree’s perch just above a waving American flag. What emotions does the bald eagle conjure in some American citizens?

The approach of an experienced teacher Compare the novice teacher’s lesson with a lesson taught by a teacher who has more advanced knowledge of the Dolley Madison story. Instead of relying solely on the guidance that standards and curriculum provide, the expert teacher makes use of her own knowledge about the story. She knows the story behind the story of Madison’s efforts in 1814. What the expert teacher knows is that Dolley Madison shaped our knowledge of her today by influencing her earliest biographer, Margaret Bayard Smith, to feature Madison’s actions at the White House in 1814. The biography was published in 1836 and included very little on the personal life of Dolley Madison except her rescue of White House items, including a famous painting of George Washington and important documents. Given the expert teacher’s knowledge, she might extend an activity focused on the heroics of Dolley Madison to facilitate students’ exploration of the way this historical story was constructed. The differences in the knowledge of the novice teacher and the experienced teacher are important. Although they tell us little about these teachers’ abilities to implement their lessons, the expert teacher has a much more sophisticated knowledge. The expert teacher reaches beyond the curriculum to emphasize how we know what we know, and delves into how our knowledge of the past is constructed. While standards and curriculum might be a starting point, powerful teaching requires that teachers have knowledge that extends beyond the curriculum. CONCEPT CHECK

TWO MODELS OF ELEMENTARY SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM Because the curriculum is central to the everyday practice of most teachers, careful consideration of the curriculum and its structure is important. Curriculums can have unique characteristics, but social studies curriculums in general take one of two forms, either the expanding horizons model or a disciplinary subject matter model. The expanding horizons curriculum model focuses on community life in kindergarten, first, and second grade and gradually expands the focus away from the study of local communities to the study of states, nations, and the world. A disciplinary subject matter approach to the curriculum is more closely aligned with the way a specific social studies discipline might organize knowledge in that field. In histor y, this means studying the past in chronological order. In geography, the curricular focus might revolve around ways of thinking about the discipline such as the Five Themes of Geography, as outlined in Guidelines for Geographic Education, Elementary and Secondary Schools from the Joint Committee on Geographic Education of the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and the Association of American Geographers (AAG). “In the Classroom” focuses on how first-grade teacher Ms. Johnson uses an expanding horizons curriculum guide to plan a lesson on endangered animals.

STOP

Fifth graders in California are expected to understand History–Social Science Content Standard #5: “Students understand the political, religious, social, and economic institutions that evolved in the colonial era.” This includes that they “Understand the influence of location and physical setting on the founding of the original 13 colonies, and identify on a map the locations of the colonies and of the American Indian nations already inhabiting these areas.”

How might such a standard influence the development of curriculum?

What specific subject matter might be taught and learned?

What subject matter topics might appear in a fifthgrade social studies curriculum on the study of America’s thirteen colonies? Consider how the physical setting of the colonies affected their development.

An engraved map showing the United Colonies at the beginning of the Revolutionary War, circa 1775.

Standards and Testing LEARNING O BJECTIVES Contrast high-stakes standardized testing with lower-stakes teacher-developed testing.

Identify teaching methods for ensuring that students are prepared for standards-based tests.

Identify how standards influence test item development.

T

he relationship between standards and testing is very important. Standards set the expectations for what students should learn, and tests measure what

students learn. Instruction and testing that are organized around standards provide students with the best opportunities to succeed. This section explores how teachers can deliberately connect testing to standards through curriculum and instruction.

HIGH-STAKES AND LOW-STAKES TESTS Tests provide teachers, administrators, and the community around a school with valuable information about the progress of students. Many of the tests teachers give their students High-stakes are directly connected to stantests Standardized dards. Some of these tests are assessments of stuhigh-stakes and might be used to dent learning that help determine a final grade or are used to make dewhether students can progress to cisions about, the next grade level. These tests among other things, are standardized, meaning that students’ progress all students in a school or district to the next grade level or another get the same test or at least simicourse, a school’s lar versions of the same test. standing at the local Other tests are more individualor state level, and/or ized. These are developed by indithe need for special vidual teachers or possibly by a services or instrucdepartment in a school. Such tional opportunities tests are often used to assess stufor students in a school.

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dents’ knowledge at the end of a unit or even the end of a several-week period or a quarter. These tests are important, but have lower stakes than the school- and districtwide tests, which might determine whether a student goes to the next grade. Teacher-developed low-stakes tests should also be connected to standards. Understanding how standards are associated with high-stakes and more common teacher-developed low-stakes tests is an important part of ensuring student success on tests. To reach this goal, teachers need to learn how standards influence test item development. Teachers should consider offering students opportunities to take low-stakes tests with a structure similar to that of high-stakes tests, to give students practice with the format of high-stakes tests. High-stakes tests are by their design tightly correlated with state standards. Students are more likely to experience success on high-stakes tests when teachers connect their own low-stakes testing program to state stanLow-stakes dards. Low-stakes tests assess tests Tests that assess students’ students’ knowledge in specific knowledge in specontent areas on a regular basis. cific content areas This means that students learn on a regular basis so the state standards throughout that students learn the school year, not just in the state standards preparation for a one-time anthroughout the nual high-stakes test. school year, not just In order to connect stanin preparation for a dards to teacher-developed one-time annual tests, teachers must carefully high-stakes test. consider the format of their tests and with some tests try to use the same format as a standardized test. For example, teachers can use mul-

How standards influence test item development Figure 4.4

A specific state standard

Subject matter from the standard as expressed in curriculum

Depth of knowledge as expressed in a standard and curriculum

tiple choice, short writing samples, or other standardized test formats in developing their own tests. These tests are not the same as practice standardized tests. Instead, teachers can determine how standardized test formats might be used to check for student understanding of subject matter taken directly from classroom experiences. Connecting standards to tests involves a systematic consideration of subject matter covered in learning experiences. Such subject matter needs to be based in standards and/or curriculum and should take into consideration the depth of knowledge expected of students. Figure 4.4 illustrates how standards should influence the development of a test item. Let’s look at a specific example of how standards influence test item development. In Illinois, students in upper elementary grades are expected to “identify major political events and leaders within the United States historical eras since the adoption of the Constitution, including the westward expansion, Louisiana Purchase, Civil War, and twentieth century wars as well as the roles of Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.” Of course, this standard is very broad, and much work must be done to determine the exact subject matter to include in a lesson. In the Chicago, Illinois, city schools curriculum, this state standard has been expanded to include sev-

Teaching and learning experiences

Test item

eral areas of focus including the following: “Interpret the symbolism of the images/icons found on historical memorials, murals, or monuments.” Planning to teach about symbolism and memorials will require that the teacher make important decisions about the subject matter focus of the lesson. The subject matter selected might relate to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial (Figures 4.5A, B, and C) on page 92. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is one of the most powerful monuments in Washington, D.C. The monument combines statues of soldiers, nurses, and the famous granite Wall of Names inscribed with the names of fallen soldiers from the war. What kinds of symbolism are evident in the memorial? How might an elementary-level teacher use this memorial to teach about the symbolic value of images and icons? Student work such as this can be tested in a number of ways. A test question might be very discrete or “fact” based. For example, “How many fallen soldiers’ names are on the wall?” Or a teacher might move test items to a higher level by asking why such a memorial would be constructed or how it compares to other memorials such as the Washington Monument. Because most standardized tests are reduced to multiplechoice items, the teacher would have to carefully develop such a question to reflect meaningful instructional activities about the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.

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The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Figure 4.5 The Memorial includes the Three Servicemen Statue (A), the Nurse Comforts a Soldier (B), and the famous Wall of Names (C), designed by Maya Ying Lin, which contains the names of the 58,220 men and women who were killed or remain missing from the war. The enormous size of the wall with tens of thousands of names combined with the beauty of the reflective black granite leaves most people who visit the wall deeply moved. Students might study the symbolism of the Wall of Names by comparing it to other national symbols or by describing how they feel when they look at images of the Wall.

A

C

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B

Here are examples of two questions, each requiring very different forms of knowledge:

To create authentic learning experiences that relate to high-stakes tests, teachers can do the following:

1. Approximately how many soldiers’ names are listed on the Wall of Names at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial? a. 120,000 c. 58,000 b. 24,000 d. 2,000

1. Understand the scope and nature of high-stakes tests. Such knowledge demystifies the test and enables teachers to incorporate subject knowledge in the tests into everyday instruction.

2. Which words best describe how you would compare the Vietnam Veterans Memorial to the Washington Memorial? a. They are similar in all ways, including size and shape. b. One honors a group of people and the other honors a single person. c. They are different and not even in the same city. d. One is located inside a building and the other is outside. The first question simply requires that students remember a fact. The second item requires that students know several things, including whom the Vietnam Veterans Memorial and Washington Monument honor. Question 2 also requires that students know the two structures are different in size and shape and that they are both located outside in the same city. As this second question illustrates, standardized test items can reflect broader and more in-depth knowledge than teachers might assume.

AUTHENTIC LEARNING CONNECTED TO TESTING Most teachers want to avoid “teaching to the test,” but teachers are frequently motivated to teach content they know will be covered on standardized tests. It makes professional sense to take high-stakes tests seriously. Teachers are charged by public officials with guiding students as they construct new knowledge. Testing is a measurement of learned knowledge. The question becomes: How can teachers consider the need to prepare students to perform well on tests, without sacrificing learning opportunities that might be less directly connected with test items?

2. Weave test-like experiences into daily instruction in a seamless and productive manner. This does not mean reproducing tests or even giving practice tests. Instead, teachers should provide authentic instructional opportunities that position students to learn subject matter at the levels that reflect test items. 3. Correlate instructional plans with testing guides. Most high-stakes tests have accompanying testing guides. These guides are often very similar to standards and include objectives or actual subject matter areas that are covered in the tests. Teachers can use these guides to frame or at least correlate their instructional plans.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How might test items about Brazil’s northwestern sertão region desert differ in low-stakes and highstakes tests?

What are some facts about the sertão region of Brazil that might be tested in high-stakes tests?

A person rides a horse along the water’s edge at a sand dune in northeast Brazil. Brazil is quite diverse, with tropical rainforest and desert separated by just a few hundred miles. How is it possible for Brazil to have rainforests and deserts so close to each other?

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Teaching Subject Matter In-Depth While “Covering” the Curriculum LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe how a classroom lesson might address the curriculum in more detail. Explain how curriculum translates into the classroom given considerations for breadth and depth of instruction. Describe how a teacher decides how much time and the depth of study to allow for a given item in the curriculum.

ew teachers often misunderstand the degree to which the curriculum facilitates and encourages depth in teaching. Often what teachers need to know and teach is not directly stated in standards and curriculum. For example, consider teaching students about Paul Revere. What do students need to know about Paul Revere? Many state standards and local curriculums mention Paul Revere by name. In Virginia the state standards include the following: “identifying examples of past events in legends and historical accounts, including Paul Revere’s ride.” How does the reference to “legend” change what we might teach about Paul Revere (Figure 4.6)? Does the curriculum excerpt quoted above give us enough detail to determine how teachers should present the legend of Paul Revere? In this section, we consider how standards and curriculum are connected to classroom learning and how to translate curriculum for use in the classroom. Then we explore the knowledge and skills teachers need to implement the curriculum.

N

CREATING DETAILED LESSONS FROM BROADLY STATED CURRICULUM No matter how much detail or description is included in a curriculum, implementing the curriculum requires teacher knowledge beyond what is written in the curriculum. Let’s examine a common early childhood social studies topic—the study of maps. Children in kindergarten and first grade begin to develop an 94

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Figure 4.6 The Old North Church, officially Christ Church, was built in 1723 and is the oldest house of worship in Boston. Paul Revere made his famous ride after having two lanterns signaling British movements placed in the church’s steeple. How is this image representative of the legend of Paul Revere? How do we balance the legend with the historical accounts of Paul Revere’s ride?

understanding of maps as resources that represent physical places on flat surfaces. Children learn how to make and use maps by creating maps of their own classroom (Figure 4.7). The local curriculum often requires students to develop map skills. They can often develop

Teaching map essentials Figure 4.7

these skills in authentic contexts such as learning about the classroom as a community. Children need to understand the physical space of the classroom as a community space of shared and individual value. First-grade students can learn about their classroom through scavenger hunts, explorations, and map-making activities. The National Geographic Society has developed a series of geography-related elementary social studies activities called Map Essentials, which connect with curriculum and standards. One of these activities, entitled “Inside the Classroom” (a different feature than the one in this text), is presented in the “Lesson” on pages 96–97. The activity enables students to recognize that maps represent places. In the activity, first-grade students use directional words to describe the location of places in their classroom. Students then use a pre-made map of a classroom to describe the location of various things in the room. The activity suggests that teachers create a map of their classroom to extend students’ work to authentic contexts. As a culminating project, students can create maps of some other space, such as a room in their home. The lesson works with the

National Geography Standards as well as the National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies from the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). This activity requires students to go more in-depth than might be suggested in the standards or curriculum. The related National Geography Standards are very broad. They state that students should learn: How to use maps and other geographic representations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process, and report information from a spatial perspective

The related NCSS standard is similarly broad. It requires that students learn how to: Construct and use mental maps of locales, regions, and the world that demonstrate understanding of relative location, direction, size, and shape

State standards and local curriculums typically do not provide much more explicit description, but they do open the door to a wide range of interesting learning opportunities. The classroom map-making activity is a detailed pedagogical expression of the broad national standards related to map skills. When planning Teaching Subject Matter In-Depth

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LESSON Map Essentials

Activity

2 Inside the

Classroom

Key Ideas A map shows where things are.

Look around your classroom. You can see many things. Look at this classroom map. A map shows where things are.

Right

Left

Map of Classroom 1B

Tr y This!

6

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1. How many chairs are on the map? 2. Think about Maps Find the sink. Why are the paints and brushes next to the sink?

Standards, Curriculum, and Testing

FROM NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAP ESSENTIALS

What a surprise the class will have! The bunny got out of its cage. Find the bunny. Where is it?

Right

Left

Map of Classroom 1B

Tr y This! 1. Is the bunny on the left or right side of the classroom? 2. Find the cage. Is the bunny near or far from its cage? On Your Own Draw a map of a room in your home. Write a sentence to tell about it. Ask a friend to find something on your map.

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Authentic teaching Teach-

instruction, teachers must realize that standards provide only ing to accurately repbroad direction. Authentic resent the real teaching and learning requires world; how stanthat teachers go beyond standards become real in dards and use curriculum to crethe classroom. ate learning experiences for students that are based on standards but also interpret the standards and curriculum more specifically and purposefully for their individual classrooms.

TRANSLATING CURRICULUM INTO CLASSROOM LESSONS: THE QUESTION OF DEPTH VS. BREADTH When teachers are comfortable with standards as broad representations of what should be taught, they should be able to see how these standards inform the development of curriculum. Curriculum itself is more narrowly focused than standards and provides guidance for a sequence of instructional activities (which isn’t addressed in state Instructional and national standards) as well scope The breadth of instrucas some explanation of the intional activities. structional scope or breadth of these activities. In other words, curriculums tell how wide teachers should cast their instructional net. Stated another way, curriculums tell instructors which topics to teach. But curriculums rarely address how deep into a subject a lesson should delve. Teachers must use their knowledge of other conditions affecting the classroom and their knowledge of subject matter to prepare lessons of appropriate depth for their students. The next paragraph provides an example from a curriculum, and discusses how the teacher might translate this into classroom lessons and activities that address an appropriate depth of subject matter as required in the curriculum. The Montgomer y County, Mar yland, curriculum guide for second-grade social studies includes three suggested units of focus: Political Systems in Action, Economics: Making Important Decisions, and Biographies: Leadership Past & Present. Accompanying each of these focal units are “Instructional Flow” charts and suggested unit topics. For each unit, three or four “Lesson Sequence” over views are suggested. These re98

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sources provide teachers with information about how to sequence instruction and information on the breadth of the subject matter they should cover. However, neither of these documents directly suggests the depth of student engagement with subject matter. Instead, these resources enable teachers to go into depth in specific subject matter areas as the teacher sees fit. One lesson sequence suggested in the Montgomery County curriculum recommends that teachers develop an activity on the biographies of Abraham Lincoln, Harriet Tubman, and Frederick Douglass “to determine the characteristics that made each of these people a leader in the community.” This suggests depth, but does not make explicit the extent or nature of this depth of focus. Teachers must use their expert knowledge to create activities that reflect what they believe would be an appropriate depth of engagement with the subject matter. For example, do students need to know about Abraham Lincoln’s birth or childhood? Do they need to learn about his education or early legal career? Should children study about Lincoln’s personal family life or his religious beliefs? Answers to these questions should emerge from teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter as well as the materials, resources, time, and other conditions that affect instruction in the classroom such as the amount of time available for the lesson, the prior knowledge of students, the expectations of the community, and the broader purposes of the instruction.

MAKING DECISIONS BASED ON INSTRUCTIONAL TIME, RESOURCES, AND MEANINGFUL STUDY How do teachers determine how much time to devote to any particular part of the curriculum? How does a teacher decide whether to cover just the facts or require students to think critically and do research? The answer to this question is dependent on several additional questions. 1. How much instructional time is available? 2. How meaningful is the study of this subject for students in the class? 3. What resources are available to support in-depth work in a particular subject matter area? 4. How much does the teacher know about the subject?

Tennessee state curriculum standards include benchmarks for achievement by the end of third grade. One of these benchmarks requires that students “recognize some of the major components of a culture (i.e., language, clothing, food, art, and music).” There are, of course, many ways to provide students with opportunities to achieve this standard. The instructional course of action a teacher chooses will reflect decisions the teacher has made about the depth of study they wish their students to attain. Let’s look at a couple of options. What do these images of music in Japan tell us about music in the world? Consider the origin of the violin and traditional music in Japan.

Geishas sit cross-legged on mats at their graduation ceremony at Gionkobu Kaburenjo, where they studied conversation, dance, and traditional music.

These children in Japan learn to play the violin using the Suzuki method.

With the answers to these questions, teachers can begin to make decisions about the depth of engagement on specific curriculum-related subject matter areas. Consider these questions in the discussion of subject matter related to culture, as presented in the “Social and Cultural Explorations” box. One way to approach the Tennessee objective on cultures in the world mentioned in the “Social and Cultural Explorations” feature is to focus on a single area of culture. The objective suggests language, food, clothing, music, and art as potential areas of focus. An indepth exploration of all of these areas of culture for all areas of the world would probably take too much time, so a teacher who is preparing a lesson or unit on this topic will have to make some decisions about the focus of the lesson.

A starting place is to consider the big ideas that underlie the objectives. In this case there are at least two. First, cultures around the world have amazing and very unique characteristics. Second, technologies have enabled people around the world to know and appreciate cultures different from their own. The image of children in Japan playing the violin illustrates this second idea. Although teachers in Japan celebrate local and traditional music forms, they also embrace musical forms and instruments that originated in other cultures, such as the classical music of Europe. A lesson or activity on Japanese musical diversity might enable teachers to generalize about other cultures in the world with regard to the original two areas of focus––the uniqueness of cultural traditions in specific places and the widespread appreciation of a particular culture’s traditions in most places around the world. Teaching Subject Matter In-Depth

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Social and Cultural Explorations

Teaching about music in Japan

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

What kind of resources might a teacher use in a lesson on the ways that different cultures use art to represent their own beliefs?

How meaningful is the study of this subject for students in elementary social studies?

Kachina dolls such as these are representative of a native Indian art form that has developed over hundreds of years.

Authentic Teaching with Standards Authentic

LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the authentic connections between curriculum, standards, and testing programs. Describe how curriculum, standards, and testing programs can be adapted for specific classroom contexts.

ow many students like tests? Of course, the answer is not many, if any. But tests are important tools for teachers and school administrators to determine how much students have learned. The reputation of the “test” is sometimes deser ved. Students and teachers often feel limited or restrained by testing pressures, but it does not have to be like this. Tests can and should support and encourage authentic and meaningful instruction and learning. Teachers can make these connections most effectively by situating tests with expectations set by standards and curriculum. In this section, we will look at how testing, standards, and curriculum can be connected in authentic and meaningful ways to teaching and learning in the classroom.

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A rea-

When we refer to somesonable or actual thing as being “authentic” we representation of are suggesting that it is “real.” some real-world In social studies, real means difphenomenon. ferent things at different times. Is Chan Chanin, as depicted in Figure 4.8, real? Or do we have to create other representations of the “real” world to help children learn? One way around this dilemma is to consider subject matter as being authentic as opposed to “real.” When we consider something to be authentic we think that it is an accurate representation of a real thing. Students can learn about authentic places such as Chan Chanin without ever knowing the real place. National Geography Standard 12 suggests that “Students must develop an understanding of the fundamental processes, patterns, and functions of human settlement across the Earth’s surface, and thereby come to appreciate the spatially ordered ways in which Earth has become the home of people.” Chan Chanin is a historical example of the spatial ordering of human settlement. How might the study of this settlement be considered authentic?

We use the word authentic in education a great deal. In Chapter 3, we read about how John Dewey suggested that inquir y should be rooted in the experiences of children in school. Dewey considered these experiences authentic, but left open what authentic actually means. There are at least two distinct ways of thinking about authentic learning. Educational philosopher Ernest von Glasersfeld (1995) describes authentic learning experiences as learning about a personally meaningful problem. This approach can be contrasted with the approach of Russian educational psychologist Lev Vygotsky (2006/1930), who suggested that authentic learning is set within a social or cultural context. No matter which approach we use to find authentic contexts for our students, the actual teaching and learning that take place in the classroom represent a real world, in that a lesson plan, standards, curriculum, and testing are representations of some aspect of

real-world instruction and learning. Understanding these representations can help us realize the authenticity of standards, curriculum, and testing. How do standards become authentic in the classroom? First, teachers must translate standards for application in the classroom. This process involves “unpacking” a standard, using the teacher’s content and pedagogical knowledge. The unpacking process involves a determination of the facts, concepts, and propositions that combine to give the standard meaning. Let’s look at a specific standard related to urban life from the National History Standards. This standard is from topic four of the K–4 National Histor y Standards, which is entitled “The history of peoples of many cultures around the world.” The standard reads: “Describe life in urban areas and communities of various cultures of the world at various times in their history.”

Figure 4.8 Aerial photo of Chan Chan in Trujillo, Peru, once capital of the pre-Inca Chimu Empire. Chan Chan was one of South America’s first true cities and at one time the largest. It covered about 7.8 square miles and was situated in the northern coastal desert area of Peru.

In the Visualizing feature ( Figure 4.9 ) you’ll find photos and information that address this standard by investigating specific urban areas in Turkey, Hong Kong, and California. This standard, like most, includes propositions, several concepts, and innumerable facts. The main propositions in the standard suggest that there are “urban areas” and “communities of various cultures” and that these communities have existed throughout history. The main concepts include life, urban, communities, cultures, the

world, and history. Additional propositions and concepts as well as various facts emerge from an analysis of the standard. Such an analysis involves teachers making decisions about which facts, new concepts, and new propositions are relevant for their instruction. The process of a teacher’s determining which facts, concepts, and propositions should be included requires reasoned judgments that are based on what the teacher knows about the topic and what he knows about the students he is teaching.

Visualizing

Standards Figure 4.9

Imagine that a third-grade teacher wants to help students understand how people have lived in urban areas at different times in history. Life in the walled city of Nicaea 1,000 years ago was very different from life in urban places today, but was also interestingly similar. In what ways are spatial arrangements displayed in the pictures of Nicaea, Hong Kong, and Daly City similar and different? An activity focused on such a comparison requires teachers to provide their students with opportunities to encounter and work with subject matter that is much more detailed than anything spelled out in curriculum. The process of detailing specific subject matter and pedagogical knowledge from a standard helps to generate authenticity around the standard and should be a regular practice for teachers as they plan for instruction.

A The ancient Seljuk city of Nicaea in Turkey was walled on all sides and protected by Lake Ascanius in the rear. The design of this urban area created a very particular way of life for people in the city. How might life have been different for people who lived inside and outside the walled city?

B Aerial view of Hong Kong’s skyline in the 1990s C Daly City, a suburban California city alongside the San Andreas valley just south of San Francisco

ADAPTING STANDARDS AND CURRICULUM TO TEACHER CIRCUMSTANCES When something is meaningful to us, we gain understanding that is personal, powerful, and often beyond what words can convey. How can standards, curriculum, and testing be meaningful in such a way? The best way for teachers to find this kind of deep meaning in standards, curriculum, and testing is to regularly engage the materials as a part of their everyday work life. When teachers engage standards, curriculum, and testing continuously, the use of these materials becomes internalized and comfortable. This comfort does not mean that teachers should be uncritical. In fact, just the opposite is likely to happen. For example, when teachers encounter a standard or an area of the curriculum that they think is problematic, a deep understanding of the material will enable them to adapt or adjust the material to meet their needs. After analyzing a standard, given local curriculum, teachers can plan for instruction. Implementing a lesson is where teachers can have the most influence, and it is where teachers can ensure that the personal and powerful connections between standards, curriculum, testing, teaching, and learning are authentic. At least two actions can guide teachers as they consider standards, curriculum, and testing in an authentic and meaningful manner. 1. Teachers should develop a deep and personal understanding of standards, curriculum, and testing programs. When teachers understand the content of a standard, they begin to develop pedagogical content knowledge. This special knowledge is what a teacher knows about content given her instructional needs. This knowledge is connected to a teacher’s personal needs. 2. Teachers should invest in the successful implementation of standards, curriculum, and testing programs. A plan for instruction that is closely connected to a personal understanding of standards and curriculum becomes an investment in this understanding. The more invested teachers are in their personal understanding, the more powerful their understanding is. Sometimes the pursuit of deep and personal knowledge will cause problems for teachers. One particular content area that causes some concern among teachers

is the histor y of westward migration in the United States. The K–4 National History Standards from the Center for History in the Schools devote one standard to this topic: Standard 5A: Demonstrate understanding of the movements of large groups of people into his or her own and other states in the United States now and long ago.

This standard includes five substandards or indicators. Three of these indicators deal with what some might consider contentious issues: forced relocation of Native Americans, the experience of immigrant groups, and the movement of groups such as “freed African Americans, Mexican and Puerto Rican migrant workers, and Dust Bowl farm families.” The other two indicators refer to the use of primary sources and to the movement of people from “farm to city.” Although all of these indicators are important, they do not encourage the study of other less contentious movements of people such as migration into the West and Sun Belt in the late 19th century and again in the mid-20th century. Teachers critical of Standard 5 can voice their critique because they understand and have internalized the standard. In fact, the power of their critique shows the depth of their knowledge about not only what is included in the standard, but also what is left out. Teachers benefit from extensive knowledge beyond the broad representations of knowledge that standards, curriculum, and tests provide. We might want to think of this deep knowledge as surplus curricular knowledge. It is the knowledge that enables teachers to apply, adapt, and adjust standards and curriculum to specific teacher circumstances. CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How can teachers develop authentic and meaningful connections to standards about United States government?

How can we create meaning and authenticity related to the study of the role of Congress?

This view of the United States Capitol, home of the Congress of the United States, suggests power and elegance. What is the power of the U.S. Congress?

LESSON Go with the Flow . . . Resources

INTRODUCTION This lesson is appropriate for students in grades 3–5. Concepts, events, and ideas related to “flow resources” (water, wind, sunlight) are some of the most consistently mentioned subject areas in elementary social studies standards, curriculum, and tests. Flow resources are essential for human survival. In this lesson, students will study how humans use flow resources. National Geography Standard 16 describes flow resources such as water, wind, and sunlight as “neither renewable nor nonrenewable because they must be used as, when, and where they occur.” All four major national standards projects mention flow resources in some way. The National Geography Standards (NGS) mention flow resources in every one of the 18 standards. In this lesson, students investigate how flow resources are used by humans in everyday life.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The student will determine how humans use flow resources such as water, wind, and sunlight and how the location and availability of these resources affect human settlement and quality of life.

PROCEDURES Opening: This lesson begins with students making observations from their homes and in school regarding how water, wind, and sunlight are used to make life better for humans. The day before the actual lesson, the teacher asks her students to observe how water, wind, and sunlight are used and to write down at least one use of each resource. When students start class the next day, the teacher has students organize their ideas in a chart. The teacher asks students to share their

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ideas with the class and records the students’ ideas on the board. The sharing session should include a discussion about how, according to NGS 16, the “location [and availability] of resources influences the distribution of people and their activities.” After this work activating students’ prior knowledge on the uses of flow resources, the teacher introduces new information in the form of a problem-solving activity. Problem-solving activity: In this part of the lesson, the teacher places students in groups of three and gives them the following multi-part problem to solve. Each student in the group should be expected to work on one aspect of the problem. The problem: Pretend you live in one of the following places: Saudi Arabia (A), Bangladesh (B), or Kamchatka (C). How would the availability or lack of availability of flow resources affect the way you live? What types of flow resources would you expect to be available? Think about how you would use water, land, and sunlight. Also, think about how you would make up for not having these resources. How would you use your flow resources to make life more comfortable? In which place would you want to live, where would you not want to live, and why?

ASSESSMENT Have students draw a representation of the ideal place to live, paying special attention to flow resources. They should include a written or verbal explanation of how the availability and location of flow resources affect the quality of life for the people who might live in this ideal place. This student work is directly connected to the NGS 16 and the objective for this lesson.

A Workers prepare concrete at a construction site in front of the Jumeira Beach Residence towers in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, Tuesday, Oct. 4, 2005.

B A new mother in a sari walks with her baby along the shore of a pond. In the rural countryside and in the more populated cities, water is an important part of life in Bangladesh.

C Laundry waves in the breeze, and a fishing boat plies the water of the Bering Sea on a windy, cloudy day in Petropavlovsk Kamchatskiy, Kamchatka, Russia.

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What is happening in this picture Consider these

?

An aerial view of land clearing and burning in the Pantanal region of Brazil.

images of Earth. ■ How do we distin-

guish between what National Geography Standard #3 refers to as the “features of Earth’s surface” and “activities that take place on Earth’s surface”? ■ How are features of

the Earth’s surface as depicted here complemented or complicated by the image of farmhands

A dust-covered farmhand stands next to a tractor near Chapada dos Guimaraes in the Pantanal region of Brazil. The men have just finished plowing a field that will be used to plant cotton or soybeans.

working in the same region?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

Academic Standards in • History • Government • Geography and • Economics

Standards and Curriculum

State standards directly influence the development of local curriculum. National standards have a more indirect influence than do state standards on the development of local curriculum. Curriculum is very closely connected to the day-to-day teaching activities in a classroom. In fact, instruction must directly account for curriculum expectations. Effective instruction requires that teachers extend their understanding of the curriculum to develop lessons and activities that reflect the goals and objectives of all relevant standards and curriculum.

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State Standards are mostly mandatory and are a significant driving force in the development of curriculum.

..... Local Curriculum including goals for instructional planning, assessment, and testing

Skills-Based Standards from organizations such as the National Council for the Social Studies

2

Standards and Testing

A specific Subject matter from the Depth of knowledge as Standards and related testing programs state standard as expressed expressed in a standard set the expectations for what students standard in curriculum and curriculum should learn and how we measure what they learn. Testing programs can be highstakes or low-stakes. Teachers have considerable control over low-stakes testing. When developing test items, teachers should consider subject matter in depth and create realistic learning opportunities directly related to their in-depth understanding of the standard. Depth of knowledge as expressed in teaching and testing helps to ensure more productive, authentic, and meaningful learning.

3

Teaching Subject Matter In-Depth While “Covering” the Curriculum

Standards, curriculum, and testing programs are usually shallow representations of content knowledge. Teachers must extend their knowledge beyond the expectations that are presented in standards, curriculum, and testing programs. As teachers plan for instruction, they can use curriculum to help determine the breadth of their instruction (instructional scope). Curriculum does not provide much guidance on the depth of instruction. Teachers must rely on their knowledge of the subject matter and the contexts for teaching to determine the depth to which they will teach the subject matter. Several questions arise when teachers create in-depth lessons. How much instructional time is available given curriculum expectations? How meaningful is the study of this subject for students in the class? What resources are available to support indepth work in a particular subject area? How much does the teacher know about the subject?

4

Teaching and learning experiences

Test item

Authentic Teaching with Standards

Making standards, curriculum, and testing programs authentic and meaningful is essential for quality teaching and learning. Authenticity can be a personal or a communal experience. The authentic or “real”-world character of standards, curriculum, and testing is a product of teachers’ willingness to see these educational resources as valuable and informative. Standards, curriculum, and testing are only authentic when teachers personalize their understanding of these materials and invest in the success of their implementation. Teachers should not accept standards, curriculum, and testing programs unquestioningly, but work to implement and improve these resources in meaningful ways.

KEY TERMS ■ standards, p. 84

■ low-stakes tests, p. 90

■ curriculum, p. 85

■ authentic teaching, p. 98

■ high-stakes tests, p. 90

■ instructional scope, p. 98

■ authentic, p. 100

Key Terms

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CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

Most elementary social studies curriculums include some mention of the expedition of Lewis and Clark. 1. How might you teach about this story from America’s past? 2. How would you approach teaching about the actual expedition? 3. How would you address the people involved, such as Meriwether Lewis, George Clark, and Sacagawea?

4. How might students imagine the place Lewis and Clark explored has changed over time? 5. How might the study of Lewis and Clark’s expedition include some study of the way the rivers they traveled are used today?

SELF-TEST 1. Standards projects exist at which levels? a. national and local b. state and national c. local and state 2. Curriculum, which details topics such as the thirteen original colonies pictured in this map, is most common and influential at which level? a. national b. state c. local

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6. The Lower Monumental Dam in Washington, one of many dams along the Snake River, impounds water for power and navigation into Idaho. Its course follows the route of explorers Lewis and Clark. Consider how the river has been used over the last 200 years.

3. Briefly explain how standards and curriculum are different and how are they alike. How might the subject matter related to the thirteen colonies be represented in standards and in curriculum? 4. Which of the following national organizations has a multidisciplinary social studies standards project? a. National Council for the Social Studies b. National Center for History in the Schools c. National Center for Civic Education d. National Council for Geographic Education

8. What is the relationship between standards and testing? How might the work the students are doing with this map in the photo below be standards-based and tested? 9. How do high-stakes and low-stakes tests differ? 10. What are two actions teachers can take to promote meaningful and authentic uses of standards, curriculum, and testing?

5. How do academic, skills-based, and state standards influence the development of local curriculum? 6. What are scope and sequence with regard to curriculum? 7. Which of the following is an accurate description of the expanding horizons curriculum? a. Students study topics of interest to them. b. Students study topics that relate to their developmental societal needs. c. Topics for study are drawn from academic disciplines. d. Students study topics in chronological order.

Self-Test

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Teaching for Historical Understanding

5

I

n the popular Harry Potter children’s book series, one of Harry’s teachers is Professor Binns, who teaches history of magic. Author J. K. Rowling casts Professor Binns as a ghost who died at school one day, but kept on teaching as though nothing had happened. As you might suspect, his classes are “deadly” boring. The only thing exciting that happens is that as a ghost he sometimes passes through walls in the classroom. Rowling has, of course, tapped into many students’ general sense of displeasure with history classes. How can we help students avoid the fate of Harry and his classmates? How do young children learn about the past? What should they know about the past? How does knowledge of history help young children in life? The answers to these questions must be answered if elementary teachers are to be effective when including history in their classes. First and foremost, elementary school teachers must keep their students’ interest and the value of historical content in mind when teaching history. Not everything that happened in the past can be taught in elementary school. The process of deciding what to teach and how requires careful consideration. How might Professor Binns make his class more interesting? He needs to situate the subject matter in the context of his students’ interests and needs. Harry Potter and his friends are very interested in the history of magic. It is possible to make this subject matter come to life for the children, but instead Professor Binns drones on with his lectures. This teaching method requires intense concentration and internal motivation on the part of students. Over time children develop these skills, so that as young adults they should be capable of learning in such classrooms.

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Harry Potter and his friend Ron Weasley in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ History in the Schools p. 112

■ Constructing Historical

Knowledge p. 114

■ Forms of Historical Understanding:

Timelines, Stories, and Empathy p. 121

■ Three Approaches to Teaching

History p. 126

s Professor Binns from the Harry Potter stories shows, bringing the past alive requires a good teacher. Good histor y teachers help their students see how the past is important, and understanding the past can help us in the present. Effective history teachers know how

A

histor y is constructed and how we use histor y to improve the human condition. This chapter focuses on how to help children learn about local and national stories from the past and provides strategies for meaningful historical learning.

History in the Schools LEARNING O BJECTIVES Explain why we study history in school. Describe some of the things students can learn about history in elementary school. Analyze the role of history in the elementary curriculum.

THE NEED FOR HISTORY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS People live in the present. They plan for and worry about the future. Histor y, however, is the study of the past. Given all the demands that press in from living in the present and anticipating what is yet to come, why bother with what has been? Peter Stearns, 1998

Peter Stearns posed this question in an essay he wrote for the American Historical Association in 1998. Stearns wanted his readers to think about the purpose of history. For ancient historians, like the famous Greek historian Thucydides, histor y was a chronicle of the past, without much concern for cause and effect or how understanding the past can help us in the present. Unlike Thucydides, modern historians see their field as a workspace for understanding human experiences in many contexts. Yet, histor y in school is often just a chronicle, much like Thucydides writing about the Peloponnesian War—a simple listing of people, dates, and events. History can and should be so much more than lists of facts. For young children, history helps them understand their place in the great sweep of human progress—from the discovery of electricity, to the advent of iPods; from a countr y of British settlers to a diverse culture of Asian, Hispanic, and African Americans. History is a compass that orients us for action in 112

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the present. Stearns, in response to his question, said that histor y “harbors beauty,” and exposure to the beauty of histor y makes us better. For children, this might take form through studying role models and heroes (Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King, Jr., or Susan B. Anthony) or by learning about events that shaped our collective identity (the Civil War or the Civil Rights movement), or by seeing that tragedy occurs and can be overcome by persistence and courage (e.g., the stories of Joseph Cinque or Sitting Bull). By studying these stories and others, children can be inspired to act more responsibly, study harder, and even care more about their fellow humans.

WHAT DO ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN NEED TO KNOW ABOUT HISTORY? Tr ying to determine exactly what children need to know about the past has been the source of much controversy. Some of the more salient questions that generate disagreement include: • Should elementary-age children study history at the local, state, national, and/or global level? • Should history instruction focus on facts or stories, individuals or groups, memorization or inquiry? • Can learning about history help us live better in the present? • Are there certain people and events that all children should study? Many of these questions raise dichotomies, which shape our thinking about histor y. Far too often these dichotomies, such as memorization versus inquiry, limit

Teaching for Historical Understanding

our ability to conceptualize appropriate subject matter and teaching methods. We might best answer the question of what to teach in history and how to teach it by considering why we study history. If as teachers we want children to learn history so that they might distinguish themselves from others by their possession of knowledge, then children should memorize facts about the past. If we want children to independently use resources to learn, then we can provide children with historical documents and artifacts to make inferences about what has happened in the past. If we want children to learn lessons from the past so they might act with wisdom in the present, then we offer opportunities for children to study morally relevant and authentic stories from the past. All of these approaches to learning the past are equally appropriate. The question becomes, how do we select content for historical study that meets these wide-ranging goals?

HISTORY AND THE CURRICULUM Curriculum is typically developed given standards for learning. All 50 states have their own standards projects, and many were influenced by the National Histor y Standards. This project includes standards for historical thinking and understanding for grades K–4. The standards for understanding focus on five topics. Topic 1—Living and Working Together in Families and Communities, Now and Long Ago Topic 2—The History of the Students’ Own State or Region Topic 3—The History of the United States: Democratic Principles and Values and the Peoples from

Figure 5.1 Several covered wagons pulled by mules string out across the desolate prairie in a historical recreation of a journey on the Oregon Trail.

Many Cultures Who Contributed to Its Cultural, Economic, and Political Heritage Topic 4—The History of Peoples of Many Cultures around the World Ultimately, making determinations about what to study is a standards-based curricular question. Even though most curriculums are developed by small committees and then given to teachers for implementation, the process of curriculum development does not end with implementation. Teachers have to fill in considerable blanks when they implement a curriculum. For example, consider Westward Expansion, a common item in most elementary United States history curriculums. In Kansas, where studing westward expansion is personal, one specific reference to this subject matter in the State Curricular Standards reads as follows: Describe life on the Santa Fe and Oregon-California Trails (e.g., interactions between different cultural groups, hardships such as lack of water, mountains and rivers to cross, weather, need for medical care, size of wagon).

A scene such as the one depicted in Figure 5.1 of covered wagons would have been familiar to nineteenth century pioneers traveling on the California or Oregon Trail. Teachers might want their students to learn about the hardships that pioneers endured on the trail, just as the curriculum standard indicates. The question is how to go about doing this. Students could read first-hand accounts of life on the trail. They could listen to a teacher lecture. They could watch a video or slideshow. They could assemble evidence to construct their own interpretation of the hardships. Each of these approaches meets the curriculum standard. Ultimately, teachers make decisions about how their students will learn this material best and then select the appropriate method.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Given your beliefs, why is it

Why should students learn about

important for children to study history?

What contradictions might there

commonly taught historical content, such as the Dust Bowl farm families?

be in your reasoning about the importance of studying history?

A giant dust storm engulfs Goodwell, Oklahoma, in June 1937.

Constructing Historical Knowledge LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define historical understanding and historical thinking. Describe how historical thinking complements historical understanding. Explain the process for historical thinking.

istorical knowledge is what we know about the past that helps us live in the present. Although many historians are suspicious of the notion that we can learn any lessons from the past, studying the past allows us to engage our flaws, indulge our greatness, marvel at our wisdom, and genuinely reflect on our progress. Learning history is part of the human endeavor to better ourselves, what Keith Barton and Linda Levstik (2004) call the “common good.” Teachers can teach

H

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more effectively about the past when they have a clear purpose for studying the accumulated knowledge about the past.

Common good An agreed-upon vision of what best suits the multiple interests of people in pluralistic societies.

HISTORICAL THINKING AND HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING In their National Histor y Standards project, the National Center for History in the Schools suggests that historical understanding and historical thinking are equally imHistorical understanding portant and central to social Knowledge of the studies instruction. Historical unpast that develops derstanding develops out of an out of intrinsic interactive interest in history. Histori-

Teaching for Historical Understanding

est and active interpretation.

cal understanding is at times both inordinately simple and quite complex. Historical understanding means knowing the importance of a historical event, for example. It’s not just reciting the facts or recounting the story of the first Thanksgiving. Historical understanding means having a grasp on why that first Thanksgiving was important and what impact it had on the people involved. For example, a historian understands the causes of the Civil War as a web of interlocking social, political, and economic circumstances that played out over decades in countless places and in countless contexts—this is historical understanding. Knowing the names of the major battles in the Civil War is not historical understanding. School children often know these same complex causes as a short list of three or four distilled ideas, mostly unassociated from the contexts within which these ideas were set forth. Knowing a list of possible causes of the Civil War is not historical understanding. Historical understanding of the Civil War would include knowing which causes of the Civil War are most important and how we came to agree on a list of causes of the Civil War. Historical thinking is a set of Historical cognitive activities that help in dethinking veloping historical understandCognitive activities ing. The National Center for that help students Histor y in the Schools (NCHS) develop historical defines historical thinking activiunderstanding. ties as including • Chronological Thinking • Historical Comprehension • Historical Analysis and Interpretation • Historical Research Capabilities • Historical Issues: Analysis and Decision-Making

Based on the NCHS report, students in the early elementar y grades can use historical thinking skills— summarizing a document, for example—to develop an understanding of that piece of histor y. Historical thinking might include determining why a document was produced. “In the Classroom” (pages 116–117) looks at how students’ thinking about history with the use of historical artifacts can result in meaningful historical understanding.

ENCOURAGING HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING THROUGH DIRECT INSTRUCTION AND EXPLANATION The most common teaching method for historical understanding is lecture or direct instruction. In elementar y school, this approach often takes the form of storytelling, discussion, and conversation. All of these forms of direct history instruction should center on explanation as opposed to exploration, particularly in elementary grades. Explanation is at the core of direct instruction in history. Explanations simplify and clarify. Good explanations make use of symbols, metaphors, analogies, descriptions, comparisons, and restatements. Explanations should focus on making known the unknown, but should also make use of what students already know. (It is not useful to give an explanation that contains an analogy to something students are not familiar with.) It is also important to involve students in the process, so an explanation takes shape more as a conversation than a lecture. Explaining to students requires patience, especially when they often need multiple restatements or descriptions of the idea or concept.

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115

In the Classroom

USING HISTORICAL ARTIFACTS

Robin Collingwood teaches fourth grade, and one of her favorite lessons is on ancient history. She knows that most students might balk at the idea of ancient history unless she makes it interesting. So, she takes every opportunity to help students learn about the past in active and meaningful ways. For a lesson on the Roman Empire and Christianity, Ms. Collingwood uses coins—an authentic resource—as historical evidence to help her students understand how the Romans lived. The coins will help her students develop historical understanding of topics such as religion, republican forms of government, Roman art and architecture, and the Roman virtues of veritas (truth) and dignitas (dignity).

Next, Ms. Collingwood shows students a coin that depicts a Roman ruler named Vespasian who ruled the Roman Empire from A.D. 69 to 79. One side of the coin shows Vespasian’s head with the inscription “IMP CAES VESP AVG P M COS IIII,” which is an abbreviation for Vespasian’s official Latin title “Imperator, Caesar, Vespasianus, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul IIII.” The other side of the coin depicts Vespasian riding in a four-horse chariot.

Does the person on this coin appear to be important? Why do you think so? How would you describe the actions of the people depicted on this coin?

First, Ms. Collingwood shows her students an image of this Roman coin, above, which depicts a woman in mourning with the word “Judea” inscribed below. She asks students to begin their historical thinking by summarizing what they see when they look at the coin. Summarizing the content often initiates a historical investigation—what do their descriptions of the coin suggest about the Romans? Why would they have a coin with a woman mourning? Ms. Collingwood tells students that the coin is symbolic of the downfall of Judea to the Romans in the first century B.C. Judea was one of many Roman colonies. Students can develop a historical understanding of the reach of the Roman Empire by studying this coin and related materials such as a map of the Roman Empire.

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After being provided a translation of the words on the coin and told the story of Vespasian, the teacher asks the students to summarize what they see. This summary and context can become the basis for students beginning to develop an understanding of Roman government, which vacillated between autocracy, dictatorship, and republic. Such an understanding would require that students continue to engage information about Rome that describes various examples of Roman rule. The story of Vespasian is part of the grand story of kings, political leaders, and emperors. Vespasian was one of Rome’s early emperors (he ruled from A.D. 69–79). Among his most important accomplishments, Vespasian brought peace to the Roman Empire for the first time in dozens of years.

Teaching for Historical Understanding

Another coin that depicts a temple excavated in Caesarea Maritima serves as a starting point for an investigation of Roman religion. Ms. Collingwood asks her students to describe the coin.

MS. COLLINGWOOD: This was a public building, where a lot of people might go. What kinds of buildings are used by big groups of people? STUDENT: Schools? OTHER STUDENTS: A store, a club, a church? MS. COLLINGWOOD: Yes, a church, or as the early Romans called it, a temple. Temples were public buildings where the early Romans would worship their gods. Remember learning about all the Roman gods? STUDENT: Yes, like Jupiter and Apollo? MS. COLLINGWOOD: Correct. Toward the end of the Roman Empire, they gave up their worship of multiple gods and started to worship a single God. Does anyone remember what religions worship a single God? STUDENT: Christianity? MS. COLLINGWOOD: Yes, as well as Judaism. Christians worshiped one God the same as Jews, and over time Romans adopted this approach to religion themselves. In fact, toward the end of the Roman Empire about A.D. 300, the Romans officially adopted Christianity.

What do you see on this coin?

Students typically do not recognize the structure on the coin as a temple, so Ms. Collingwood tells them about the gradual adoption of Christianity by the Romans. When the Romans produced this coin, they worshiped a variety of gods at temples such as the one depicted. Thinking about the image on this coin can prompt students to consider how the Romans’ views of religion changed during the first two centuries. The following dialogue illustrates how the coin can be used as a starting point to describe the Roman adoption of Christianity. MS. COLLINGWOOD: Can someone tell me what you see on this coin? STUDENT: Is it a building? MS. COLLINGWOOD: Yes, it is a building. What kind of building is it? STUDENT: Maybe an outdoor building. MS. COLLINGWOOD: OK, what do you think people did in this building? STUDENT: Is it a house or maybe . . .

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117

There are many other techniques for direct instruction, such as lecture, which will be reviewed in upcoming chapters, but for now we continue the focus on explanation. A specific teaching example that makes use of explanation appears at right: “Social and Cultural Explorations: Life along the Cuyahoga River.”

FOUR WAYS TO THINK HISTORICALLY Encouraging historical thinking can provide students opportunities to develop meaningful historical understanding. Because young children bring very little in the way of prior knowledge and skills to the task of developing historical understanding, they must be provided with systematic thinking strategies. These strategies revolve around four ways to think historically: • Comprehension • Awareness • Investigation • Judgment In order to develop meaningful and consistent historical understanding, teachers should provide their students as many opportunities as possible to think historically using these four methods. Teachers can structure historical thinking exercises to support their students’ work toward understanding the past. First and foremost, teachers can support students in comprehending essential information about the topic they are studying. To comprehend something means that you grasp the meaning or importance of that thing. Historical comprehension requires students to identify and recall, as well as to describe, explain, and compare. For example, consider students in Vermont learning about Ethan Allen. What might we expect these students to comprehend about Ethan Allen? Why was Ethan Allen important? Why do we need to know about Ethan Allen? Answering these questions enables students to comprehend Ethan Allen as an historical figure. Historical awareness allows people to be well informed about the past. An awareness of Ethan Allen would mean that students are familiar with when and where Allen lived and the contributions that make him famous. We 118

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might think of this knowledge as factual, but those facts are situated in a context. Facts are often maligned in social studies as boring, but when applied to real historical settings (a context), factual knowledge contributes to students’ awareness of historical significance. The image in Figure 5.2 suggests important factual information about Ethan Allen. Allen is shown in the middle of the image with a sword in his right hand. If students use this image along with other resources, they will learn that Ethan Allen was a citizen of Vermont who commanded a local militia group called the Green Mountain Boys during the American Revolution. While the facts of Allen’s life are important and can lead to an awareness of his significance, these facts have more meaning when we ask about their historical relevance. Such work can be facilitated through historical investigation, by enabling students to determine the importance, or relevance, of the contributions of Ethan Allen in the American Revolution using specific historical resources like this picture. An investigation of the image should result in students understanding that Ethan Allen is famous because he was promoted as a hero by writers and historians during the American Revolution and just after. Students conduct historical investigations not only to learn the facts, but also to learn why certain facts are important.

Figure 5.2 American Colonel Ethan Allen (1738–1789) (second left), leader of the Green Mountain Boys, a Continental paramilitary group, surprises British Captain William Delaplace outside his chambers as the Americans capture the British garrison at Fort Ticonderoga during the American Revolution, Ticonderoga, New York, May 10, 1775. How does this image promote historical awareness of Ethan Allen?

In the state of Ohio, students study how the history of human development has impacted and is impacted by the surrounding environment. One example of this human relationship with the land involves the Cuyahoga River. These two dramatically different images are both pictures of the Cuyahoga A Industrial activity along the CuyaRiver, one taken outside Cleveland in 1969 hoga River, just south of Cleveland in (A) and the other at Brandywine Falls 1969. What does this photo tell you over 20 years later (B), but just 20 or so about how people interact with the miles from the site of the first picture. environment? A teacher in Ohio might want to use the Cuyahoga River and these images to explain how humans interact with the environment. Following is an explanation of how Native Americans, Europeans, and Americans have used the Cuyahoga River throughout history. The Cuyahoga River is a source of food, transportation, and energy. Seneca and Cayuga Native American Indians settled along the river many hundreds of years ago. So did European settlers just over two hundred fifty years ago. More recently, Americans have built factories and the city of Cleveland along the banks of the river. Over the years, Native Americans, European settlers, and Americans have developed villages, towns, and cities along the river. Each of these groups has made use of something the Cuyahoga has to offer. For the Native American and European settlers, this was transportation and food. For Americans, the Cuyahoga was used for transportation and food sources as well as a source of energy. The habit of settling close to rivers helps explain growth patterns across the United States. As they explain how people have used rivers throughout history, teachers can continue to situate their explanations in examples from Native American Indian and white settlements. These general ideas simplify the complexity of settlement and growth and thus serve to help explain the past rather than just describe it. Ultimately, students need to learn B A view of the Cuyahow to construct explanations themhoga River at the 33,000selves. In fact, elementary school stuacre Cuyahoga National dents in Ohio are expected to “explain the Recreational Area from impact of settlement, industrialization, the top of Brandywine and transportation on the expansion of Falls. What explanation the United States.” Staying with our exmight an elementary ample, a teacher might want to prompt school student need in students to think of specific examples of how rivers provide sources of food and order to compare these energy and can be used for transportatwo photos and theretion. This work might require that stufore gain historical undents access additional historical derstanding of the resources and will most certainly require Cuyahoga River? that students engage in systematic historical thinking aimed at developing historical understanding.

Social and Cultural Explorations

Life along the Cuyahoga River

Historical judgment requires that students make decisions about the value or importance of people and events from the past. Students are essentially filling in the blanks from historical sources. The record of the past is always tentative, and when working with historical sources, students have to make decisions that result in a more complete understanding of the past. For example, students might see the depiction of Ethan Allen in the middle of this image as heroic, positioned to take the British leader William Delaplace captive. Allen’s most notable military accomplishment was the capture of Ticonderoga, which was manned by only 50 British soldiers, but his greatest military challenge was a miserable defeat—namely, the 1775 attack on Montréal during which he was captured by the British. Ethan Allen was perhaps best known for his inspirational writing. His book Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen’s Captivity (writ-

CONCEPT CHECK

ten in 1779) was one of the most popular books of its time and served as an inspiration to American colonists during the Revolutionary War. Students learn to appreciate the importance of careful consideration of historical information when they are given potentially contradictor y evidence (such as the painting and reports of the attack on Montréal). Using historical judgment results in students making decisions about what to believe and what to not to believe. Should we believe that Ethan Allen is a hero? Should we promote this belief among our students? The best approach is to allow students to decide for themselves. As students consider Allen’s legacy by comprehending information, developing an awareness of his legacy, examining information, and making judgments, students can begin to understand the past as a more complete story.

STOP

Consider the distinctions between historical thinking and historical understanding.

A view of a salt camel caravan outside the Fachi oasis in Niger. What does this image tell you about the lifestyle and culture of these West African salt traders?

How might a teacher encourage students to use historical thinking skills to develop their historical understanding of the African salt trade?

What explanations or resources might students need to support their work?

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Forms of Historical Understanding: Timelines, Stories, and Empathy quires different types of instruction that reflect varying beliefs about why we study the past.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how to use timelines and stories in history instruction.

HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING AS CHRONOLOGY

Evaluate the role of empathy in developing historical understanding. Explain how presentism can limit historical understanding.

emember that students practice thinking about history by comprehending information, increasing their awareness, investigating historical information, and making judgments. All of these lead to students’ understanding of history. But what does an understanding of histor y “look like”? Historical understanding takes shape in a number of ways. Students might understand the past as a chronology, as a story, or through empathetic experience. They also understand the past as a series of significant events and as explanations of the present. Each of these approaches and contexts re-

R

Understanding the past through chronology is probably the most obvious and common way to learn history. We tell the stories of our life using chronology, and we use stories to help children make sense of the past. Timelines and storyboards are two chronologically oriented learning structures that help students develop their understanding of the past. Timelines are a very important pedagogical tool for social studies teachers. The timeline incorporates discrete subject matter into patterns. Timelines help students remember events from the past and consider cause and effect. A good timeline should be clearly focused on a specific body of subject matter and should have sensible and meaningful beginnings and ends. See Figure 5.3, “Visualizing: Timelines” for an example of how students can investigate timelines.

Visualizing Timelines Figure 5.3

Timelines display visual and numerical characteristics. Teachers can emphasize these visual factors for students for whom English is a second language, or for students with language deficits. Following is a very simple visual timeline depicting famous buildings over time. Each structure represents some human effort to glorify, entertain, or govern. Students might investigate these concepts by studying the structures and the contexts in which they were built.

c. 3000 B.C. The Pyramids of Giza, Egypt. Why are these pyramids famous?

3000 B.C

2500 B.C

2000 B.C

A.D.

82. The Colosseum in Rome, Italy. Why was the Colosseum built? What were the Romans hoping to accomplish?

1500 B.C

1000 B.C

500 B.C

0

A.D.

1973. The Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia. How do you think the people of Sydney feel about the Opera House? What does this building tell us about their culture?

500 A.D.

1000 A.D.

1500 A.D.

2000 A.D.

HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING AS STORY Storytelling is another form of historical understanding that is central to social studies teaching. Good stor ytellers keep their listeners’ attention by building a sense of suspense and drama that is typically resolved at the end of the story. Drama can be a powerful context for teaching history. Students can participate in dramatic role-playing activities and simulations. Such activities require varying levels of scaffolding. Small role-playing activities can often be constructed by students with very few teacher scaffolds. Larger simulations require more scaffolding and support. At the extreme, teachers can write scripts for students. More effective and authentic simulations should involve some student work in developing the content of the simulation. Story structure plays an important pedagogical role in education. Stories have a beginning, middle, and end, and they often have a dramatic turning point in the middle. Because stories develop in patterns that are somewhat predictable and easy for students to manage, they are ideal for introducing unfamiliar material. Stories about families and schools also provide a good pedagogical construct for students to begin to develop meaningful understanding about the past. Children might interview their parents, grandparents, or elders in their community to learn about events from the past that were important or relevant for these participants in history. Historical fiction is another powerful way to engage students in stories about the past. This special form of literature blends information about the past with a fictional literary form to create engaging stories. Works such as Esther Forbes’s Johnny Tremain provide students with access to the past through engaging storylines. Johnny Tremain is the fictional story of a young apprentice silversmith who injures his hand and joins the Boston Observer, a local newspaper. At the newspaper, Johnny stands witness to the dramatic events of the mid-1770s alongside Sam Adams, James Otis, and other members of the Sons of Liberty. Teachers can use this fictional work as a context for elementary school children to learn about the events leading to and the outbreak of the American Revolution. Children’s books that are set in the past can also be valuable contexts for learning history. For example, Alan Armstrong’s 2005 book Whittington is a retelling of 122

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an English folktale called “Dick Whittington and His Cat.” The tale is told by a cat to a group of barnyard animals who are stuck in a barn during a snowstorm. Along with the animals is a young boy named Ben. The book weaves the story of Ben, who has dyslexia and is trying to learn how to read, with the actual folktale about Dick Whittington. The folktale is set in medieval England and can be a context for learning about this period in history. Such an approach can be used with virtually any book set in a historical context. All the events and people in these books can be windows into a past that teachers and students can construct around the story. Social studies teachers can work with their students to develop storyboards about historical events—using historical events, or historical fiction. A storyboard is a visual layout for the progression of events in a stor y. Figure 5.4, “Process Diagram: Storyboarding in history,” shows a typical storyboard structure. A historical storyboard should convey ideas about the past and help others understand something by presenting it in an interesting format. Storyboards should begin with an introduction to the characters in the story as well as the setting for the stor y. Following the introduction, the student should sequence the beginning, middle, and ending events according to the goals for the stor y. A student may want to use the story to explore a problem or simply an interesting idea. Figure 5.4 includes an example of a storyboard that a student might develop on the story of Pocahontas. The extent to which students assemble the information for the story or teachers provide scaffolds for their students’ work is dependent on the age and prior knowledge of the students.

HISTORICAL EMPATHY People experience the emotion of empathy in different ways. By definition, empathy is the identification with and understanding of another person’s situation, feelings, and motives. When a child empathizes with people or historical figures from the past, the child is seeking to understand the past in a personal way. Empathy can result in students feeling happy or sad; encouraged or discouraged; motivated or dejected. The degree to which a child might have an empathetic experience varies significantly, but in histor y we might

Teaching for Historical Understanding

Process Diagram

Storyboarding in history Figure 5.4

Storyboarding in History

Introduce Characters and Setting

Beginning Events

Middle Events

Ending Events

Introduction to the Characters in the Story

Interesting Idea or Problem

Supporting Information or Solving the Problem

Interesting Outcome or Problem Solved

Pocahontas Example: Rev. Alexander Whitaker John Rolfe John Smith

As a young girl, Pocahontas meets John Smith and develops a friendship. She regularly goes to the Jamestown Example: settlement, where she spends considerable time with the English, helping them understand her native Algonquian ways.

Pocahontas is captured by English colonists in the Virginia colony at her home along the Chickahominy River and held as a pawn in negotiations between leaders of the Virginia colony and her father, Chief Powhatan, the leader of the Example: Indians living in the area. She is eventually moved to the “Citie of Henricus” up the James River from Jamestown. She converts to Christianity while living with Rev. Alexander Whitaker and is christened with the English name Rebecca.

In 1614, after a brief courtship, Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, a tobacco farmer in the Virginia colony. She lives with Rolfe and travels to England as a celebrity. While in Example: England, Pocahontas dies. Today, people see Pocahontas as a bridge between European colonists and Native Americans. Her life in both cultures is praised and remembered as a positive symbol of interaction between Europeans and Native Americans.

What are the critical events in the beginning, middle, and end of this story? How might the story capture students’ interests and lead to a deeper investigation of relations between the Virginia colony and the Native Americans?

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want to encourage students to engage in limited empathy. Ideally, students need to be uplifted and encouraged through empathy, particularly at younger ages. Students can be encouraged to empathize with a range of historical figures. The more interesting or personal the figure, the more likely children are to empathize. For example, students might be asked to consider the images in Figure 5.5 of children in various social settings. Each child lives in a historical context that is depicted in the image. The boy on the donkey lives in Luxor, Egypt. The children gathered around the pole are Buddhists from Yunnan Province, China. How might students consider the historical contexts of the children in these photos, while still empathizing with the children depicted? Can you empathize with any of the people in these photos? Explain.

UNDERSTANDING WHAT IS SIGNIFICANT FROM THE PAST As students progress in their understanding of the past, they can make determinations about what is significant and what is not. Assigning significance is an extraordi-

narily complex act. Students will learn to take into account a range of factors that influence historical significance. First, they can decide what yardstick to use for measuring significance. In some instances, they will want to use ver y personal measures, such as how it makes them feel or whether it has local or community significance. On other occasions, students will need to use external measures given to them by the teacher as put forth in standards and curriculum. Historical significance is included in the curriculum, but when implementing the curriculum, teachers have to make decisions about which details to teach. Essentially, this means that teachers have to read between the lines in the curriculum. For example, if they are expected to teach about historical biographies (an expectation from the National History Standards for K–3 grades), which specific biographies would be significant? Consider students learning about the American Civil War. If they are learning about militar y planning, the records of President Abraham Lincoln might be more significant than the letters of a Civil War solider. If the topic is the life of a soldier, then the letters might be a better tool. Let’s think about how to look at the significance of a common curricular item such as the Emancipa-

Figure 5.5 A A young Egyptian boy rides a donkey along a dirt road in Luxor. Where do you think the boy is going, and why?

B Five Chinese Dai students dressed in the orange robes of a Buddhist monk in Yunnan Province

A Close-up of a copy of the Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation Figure 5.6

tion Proclamation ( Figure 5.6a ). Some teachers might simply want to emphasize the words in this document by requiring that students memorize the text or give dramatic readings. Other teachers might want to extend this activity by having their students consider how the Proclamation affected different groups of people such as the African-American Union soldiers (pictured in Figure 5.6b). The Emancipation Proclamation had a different significance for the African-American men in Figure 5.6b than it did for other people. Students have to weigh this information as they make determinations about assigning significance to past events.

UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PAST AND THE PRESENT Most of us have heard the common notion that “history repeats itself.” Although scholars might disagree about the extent to which this maxim is valid, on some level

CONCEPT CHECK

B African-American Union soldiers of the 29th Regiment from Connecticut, 1864. Why was the Emancipation Proclamation particularly significant for these African-American Union soldiers?

people are pressed to take certain actions in the present because of their impressions about the past. It is important to position students to understand the past in such a way that will result in actions in the present that are thoughtful and productive. We do this by selecting what we want students to understand about the past with care for how it projects into the present. For example, we expect students to study about George Washington as a hero and a moral character, so as to provide an example of good judgment for students. We do not study other characters from the time such as Vice President Aaron Burr, who killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel and went on to attempt a coup in the western territory of the United States. We must be particularly careful, when considering the past, not to indulge in presentism, or overemphasizing our present values and beliefs when developing an understanding of history.

STOP

Consider how children might understand Benjamin Franklin’s contributions to science.

How might we develop a timeline or a story depicting Franklin’s work with electricity?

What might be some empathetic approaches to studying Franklin?

How significant was Franklin’s work with electricity?

How can we judge the work of Franklin given modern expectations for science?

Politician and inventor Benjamin Franklin discovers that lightning is electricity in this painting of the famous 1752 experiment in Philadelphia.

Three Approaches to Teaching History Approaches to teaching history Figure 5.7

LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe the basic procedures involved in transmitting information through direct learning. Explain the expectations of active instruction.

Authentic Learning Highly focused learning that revolves around student interests and resources from the historical period being studied

Identify how to use authentic resources in teaching history.

I

n this section, we discuss three increasingly sophisticated learning activities in history (Figure 5.7):

Active Learning More focused learning activities that require students to reorganize or re-represent background material

1. Direct Learning/Transmission 2. Active Learning 3. Authentic Learning

Direct Learning/Transmission Facts and details that provide background for later learning activities

DIRECT LEARNING IN HISTORY Direct learning involves a form of instruction known as transmission. Instructional procedures that support transmission assume that a teacher is in possession of some knowledge and can effectively transfer his understanding to learners using direct instructional methods. Transmission The most common transmissionThe delivery by a oriented instructional method is teacher to students of predetermined lecture, but transmission might knowledge intended also include discussion, individto be learned as a ual and small group self-guided whole by the work, and multimedia presentastudent. tions. The central idea behind transmission is that a fixed body of knowledge is being transferred as a whole, without critical examination. Transmission instruction is well suited for curriculum and standards that focus on lowlevel forms of knowledge such as the dates of events and names of important characters in history. Ideally, transmission of historical knowledge should precede more sophisticated historical explorations. The Lesson on pages 128–129 on The First Thanksgiving is an example of a very common historical story that is often 126

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transmitted to students, but can also serve as the opening for an in-depth investigation.

ACTIVE LEARNING IN HISTORY After students have begun to learn historical information through transmission, they can more actively engage this information. Active learning enables students to assign meaning to facts (Figure 5.8 ). Teachers might use inquiry methods to facilitate active learning. Such learning helps students make connections between otherwise disconnected information. Teachers can help their students create meaning and make connections so they will better remember the information. Too often, curriculum and standardized tests emphasize subject matter without encouraging students to make these active connections. Consider the following test items from the New York State Grade 5 Elementary Social Studies Test.

Teaching for Historical Understanding

Figure 5.8 Children in a social studies class constructing a replica of a historical building. How are these students engaging in active learning in history?

How many immigrants came to the United States between 1840 and 1849? A. 200,000 B. 500,000 C. 1,500,000 D. 2,800,000 What do the stripes on the United States flag represent? A. The Presidents of the United States B. The immigrants from around the world C. The original 13 colonies

couraged to know that the United States is a nation of immigrants, and historical examples of our rich history of immigration can be found throughout American history. Students will benefit from understanding some of the challenges that confronted the United States as it incorporated hundreds of thousands of Irish immigrants into the national fabric in the 1840s and hundreds of thousands more, this time from Eastern Europe ( Figure 5.9 ), in the 1890s. We live in another period of massive immigration in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Students need to know how this continuing process of immigration has changed the United States over its history.

D. The wars the United States has fought Both of these questions reflect something important, but is knowing the answers what is important? Certainly, students should understand that immigration increased in the 1840s due to the Irish potato famine, but the exact number of immigrants approaches a triviality. Was it half a million, 1.5 million, or 2.5 million—do you know? Knowledge about the North American British colonies that rose up in revolt is important, but it is significant because of the context of the American Revolution. It is less important to be certain of why that many stripes are on the flag. Students need to possess historical knowledge that has meaning and context, and this is best developed through active learning. For example, students are en-

Figure 5.9 Immigrants heading for New York City in 1893 huddle in blankets outdoors in the steerage class of the Red Star Line’s S.S. Pennland.

LESSON The First Thanksgiving

INTRODUCTION

PROCEDURES

One of the first histories children learn in school is the story of the famous Thanksgiving feast involving Puritan settlers in the Plymouth Colony and the Wampanoag Native American who lived in the area. The story of this gathering is full of interesting people and important moral lessons about cooperation and gratitude. However, any consideration of an historical event such as the 1621 Thanksgiving feast at the Plymouth Colony must consider the historical context in which the event occurred.

Elementary school teachers should try to teach the 1621 Thanksgiving story in a way that interests their students and takes into consideration historical context. One way to do this is by having students read a letter by Edward Winslow, written on December 11, 1621, recounting the Thanksgiving feast. The letter by Winslow, who would become the governor of the Plymouth Colony in 1633, is the only known account of the 1621 Thanksgiving feast. Because the letter might be hard for students to understand, a modern translation can be read, perhaps as a dramatic presentation. By reading the modern version of the letter, students can gain access to information from a historical document about who attended the feast, why it was held, and what they ate. Students can record information from the letter and proceed to a second activity that focuses on events leading up to the 1621 Thanksgiving. A side-by-side comparison of Edward Winslow’s actual words and a modern translation of his December 11, 1621, letter describing the “Thanksgiving Feast” appears at right. Consider how other historical documents can be translated into a modern version. How can a teacher determine whether a translation is necessary?

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES This lesson activity focuses on an historical document, which describes the Thanksgiving feast. In the activity, students identify the reasons for the 1621 Thanksgiving gathering and evaluate the actions of the Puritans and Wampanoag Indians in the early years of the Plymouth Colony.

An artistic depiction of the Plymouth Thanksgiving in 1621: How well do you think this image portrays the event?

An excerpt from Edward Winslow’s December 11, 1621, letter to a “Loving, and old Friend”

A modern translation

Our Corne did proue well, & God be praysed, we had a good increase of Indian Corne,

Our corn crop did well. We have to thank God that we grew more corn this year than last year.

and our Barly indifferent good, but our Pease not worth the gathering, for we feared they were too late sowne, they came vp very well, and blossomed, but the Sunne parched them in the blossome;

Our barley wheat crop did all right. Our crop of peas did not do well. We planted the peas too late. They started to grow, but then burned up in the sun.

our harvest being gotten in, our Governour sent foure men on fowling,

Now that we have picked all our crops, our leader, the Governor, sent a group of four men out to hunt for turkey and other wild birds. Since the harvest went so well and we had such a good crop of corn, we planned to have a celebration. To go with corn and wheat, the hunting party got enough turkeys in one day, by themselves, to feed everyone in the colony for a week-long celebration.

that so we might after a more speciall manner reioyce together, after we had gathered the fruit of our labors; they foure in one day killed as much fowle, as with a little helpe beside, served the Company almost a weeke, at which time amongst other Recreations, we exercised our Armes, many of the Indians coming amongst vs, and among the rest their greatest King Massasoyt, with some nintie men,

whom for three dayes we entertained and feasted,

During the celebration, we put down all our weapons and many of the local Indians came into our colony camp. The leader of the local Indians, whose name is Massasoit, came to our celebration. He brought ninety of his men with him. Massasoit and his ninety men stayed for three days and the whole time we ate, played, and had a good time.

and they went out and killed fiue Deere, which they brought to the Plantation

The Indians brought five deer that they had killed to the celebration.

and bestowed upon our Governour, and upon the Captaine, and others.

They gave the deer as a present to our Governor, the captain, and other leaders.

And although it be not alwayes so plentifull, as it was at this time with vs, yet by the goodneses of God, we are so farre from want, that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.

Even though times might not always be this good, with the help of God we make it through. Things are going so well right now, I think we could send you some of our crops. We wish you were here to celebrate with us.

After reading the letter, students can develop a context for understanding the relationship between the Puritans at Plymouth and the local Native Americans. Some other events not described in the letter that teachers can introduce include the following: • The capture of Wampanoag Indians by English traders in 1614 • The arrival of the Plymouth settlers on the Mayflower in November 1620 • The theft of Wampanoag corn by the English colonists that same month • The arrival of Samoset and Tisquantum (Squanto) in the English colony • The signing of a treaty between Wampanoag chief Massasoit and Pilgrim leader William Bradford in March 1621 Teachers should have students record the facts and events they read about (or hear if the letter is read aloud). Using the facts they record, students can create a timeline, write a short story, or construct an illustrated portrayal of these events.

ASSESSMENT Learning about the Plymouth Thanksgiving and later events helps students understand the nature of the Wampanoag and English relationship as it existed at the time and after the famous 1621 feast. With the context more firmly established, students can reconsider the reasons for the 1621 Thanksgiving feast. Returning to the Winslow letter, students can write their own letter about the feast, suggesting new reasons for why it might have held so much importance. This activity can serve as an assessment of students’ knowledge of the Winslow letter and the events that followed the First Thanksgiving. The teacher should provide students some criteria for completing their letter, which should include: • Four facts from the letter, • Three events that followed the feast, • An opinion on why the relationship between the Puritans and Wampanoag deteriorated after 1621.

Developing this knowledge requires an active application of factual information. For example, immigration to the United States continues to be a dynamic and polarizing issue ( Figure 5.10 ). In order for students to make sense of issues surrounding immigration and its impact, they need historical understanding. Many of the same issues in play today were significant in the 1840s. But far too often adults who express opinions about topics such as immigration and who commit political acts based on these beliefs, lack the context that historical understanding provides. Unfortunately, remembering that 1.5 million people immigrated to the United States in the 1840s does not, on its own, help with developing such a context. Actively engaging information about immigration in the 1840s in the context of questions about immigration today does help students develop more meaningful understandings about the past. Also consider the question about the stripes in the U.S. flag. Students need to know that there were thir-

teen colonies, which, despite their significant social, political, and economic differences, joined in a rebellion against British rule. The significance of the number thirteen is that it was such a large and diverse group—more than two, more than five—13 colonies! Students use this fact in the act of assigning significance to the scope of the rebellion, which helps them understand a series of political events that has shaped our current political lives. This is an active process that requires that students reorganize information to suit their needs.

LEARNING IN HISTORY USING AUTHENTIC RESOURCES All learning in histor y should make use of authentic historical sources, and recent research suggests that children as young as those in first and second grade can reason historically using historical resources. This

Figure 5.10 Immigrant Salvadorians building a house in Fairfax County, Virginia. “Without this influx of immigrant labor, we wouldn’t come close to meeting the demand for housing in this area,” says Craig Havenner, former president of the Northern Virginia Building Industry Association.

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recognition is changing elementary social studies and necessitates a careful consideration of the nature and appropriate uses of historical sources. Authentic historical sources are fragments from the past that can serve as evidence for understanding more complete interpretations of the past. Whether the authentic source is a letter from a soldier in the Civil War, or a government transcript from the Watergate hearings, or a picture of Martin Luther King, Jr. giving a speech, these documents become important and meaningful when they are studied in the classroom. An authentic historical source is not static. These resources are given meaning by the learners who are using them as they seek to learn about and from the past. Types of authentic historical sources include: • Government records and documents • Oral histories • Historical photos • Letters and diaries • Physical artifacts How might students engage in active consideration of authentic historical resources? David Hicks and Peter Doolittle have developed a method for analyzing

authentic historical sources they call SCIM-C (summarize, contextualize, infer, monitor, corroborate). The process involves students completing the following tasks: • Summarize the content of a resource; • Contextualize the emerging knowledge in broader historical knowledge; • Infer from this knowledge some new information; • Monitor the process of summarization; and when multiple resources are involved, • Corroborate emerging understandings by considering the historical document. Students can and should engage in this process in primary grades, as early as first and second grade. The processes students follow when thinking historically with authentic historical resources lead to more thoughtful historical understanding. Consider all of the steps in Hicks and Doolittle’s SCIM-C process as you look at the authentic historical document in Figure 5.11. How might a student summarize the content of the immigration passport? How might a student contextualize it in broader historical knowledge, and infer new knowledge from it?

Figure 5.11 This is the 1923 passport of Greek immigrants Kalotina Kakias Fatolitis and her daughter Eleni who entered the United States through Ellis Island. What does the document tell us? (name of the individual, date of arrival, home country) The answers to these questions can initiate an historical examination using Hicks and Doolittle’s SCIM-C method. What steps would come next in the SCIM-C process?

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question would require an educated guess based on the students’ understanding of the document itself (e.g., her age can be summarized from the document) and the general context of the times (e.g., many women who entered the United States at this time worked in factories).

The process of working with this immigration passport using the SCIM-C model might unfold as follows: Summarize—This passport document includes text, a photo, an official stamp, and several signatures. Students can literally copy this information given the limited text, even using the same format. They would have to describe the picture, seal, and signatures.

Monitor—As they work, students have to doublecheck their work. This means returning to the summary while developing the context and returning to the context while making inferences. This interplay between each step is essential and allows new information to constantly emerge.

Contextualize—Students need to understand that this document is an official record that enables the person listed to enter the United States. The concept of immigration is an important part of the context, as is the relevant histor y of immigration. Teachers can provide students this information in a brief lecture or through helpful hints, or maybe even through guided questions. Infer—Any inference made about this document would require a question being raised. Proposing an answer to the question would compel students to make guesses or inferences. Students might ask what the woman who owned the passport did when she arrived in New York. A proposed answer to this

Corroborate—Students need to compare this document to others as they make inferences. If another document supports this one, then the inferences are stronger. Now, consider the excerpts of a letter in which Walt Whitman tells of his visits to wounded Civil War soldiers in Washington, D.C. (Figure 5.12). How can students use the SCIM-C model to learn about death and dying during the American Civil War?

Figure 5.12 Passage excerpted from a Walt Whitman letter in which he tells of his visits to wounded Civil War soldiers in Washington, D.C. TRANSCRIPTION: “I have never before had my feelings so thoroughly and (so far) permanently absorbed to the very roots as by these huge swarms of dear, wounded, sick, dying boys. I [give] very much attention to them, and many of them have come to depend on seeing me, and having me sit by them for a few minutes, as if for their lives.”

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Teaching for Historical Understanding

Figure 5.13 The Ta Lama (left of center), Grand Lama of Chung tien, and his Tibetan party at luncheon in the Yangtze Gorge above Ashi, May 1923, Northwest Yunnan

Using Historic Photos Historic photos often include important clues about how people live and what they are able to do and not do in their daily lives. What can you infer about the subject in Figure 5.13 ? Who is in this picture? What do you think they were doing when the picture was taken and before and after the picture was taken? Why do you think this picture was taken? What does it tell you about the lifestyles of

CONCEPT CHECK

the people shown there? What else would you need in order to learn more about these people? In order to make any inferences you will need to do some background research on Buddhism, particularly the role of the Ta Lama. While engaging in this exercise, consider how you will conduct your research and how you can facilitate students in elementary grades in doing this type of background research.

STOP

How might you develop activities that incorporate transmission, active learning, and authentic resources in a lesson on the social costs of the American Civil War?

How might you incorporate historic photos?

How might you use the letter by Walt Whitman?

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What is happening in this picture What type of ques-

?

Slave family picking cotton in the fields near Savannah, c.1860s

tions might a student of history ask about this picture? Think about the SCIM-C method to process this image. How can you summarize the content in this photo? What additional information do you need in order to contextualize it? What additional primary historical resources might be useful as students begin to infer about their questions?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

History in the Schools

The study of history helps us to understand better how to live in the present and prepare for the future. Although people widely disagree about the specific content for history instruction, general consensus exists about its importance as a school subject. We can learn history as a collection of facts, a series of skills, or moral lessons.

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2

Constructing Historical Knowledge

The manner in which children and adults construct historical knowledge is similar. We develop historical understanding using specific historical thinking skills. Children learn these skills (comprehension, awareness, investigation, and judgment) in school and internalize them as adults when trying to make sense out of the world around them.

3

Forms of Historical Understanding: Timelines, Stories, and Empathy

4

Historical understanding can take form at varying levels of complexity. At its simplest, historical understanding is chronological. More complex forms of understanding include understanding the past as a story and using empathy to understand the past. Another important task that children must carry out when developing historical understanding is to determine the significance of the historical events and people they are studying. These determinations help focus the study of the past and our teaching about the past.

c. 3000 B.C. The Pyramids of Giza, Egypt. Why are these pyramids famous?

3000 B.C

2500 B.C

2000 B.C

A.D.

82 The Colosseum in Rome, Italy. Why was the Colosseum built? What were the Romans hoping to accomplish?

1500 B.C

1000 B.C

KEY TERMS ■ common good, p. 114 ■ historical understanding, p. 114 ■ historical thinking, p. 115 ■ transmission, p. 126

500 B.C

0

Three Approaches to Teaching History

We can teach history through transmission activities, active learning activities, and activities involving authentic historical resources. The lowest level of historical engagement results from transmission forms of instruction. In this method, teachers try to pass on knowledge about the past. As we move to the higher levels, students begin to more actively engage meaningful events and people from the past. The more involved students are in this process and the more authentic the resources, the better able students are to understand and value the past.

A.D.

1973 The Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia. How do you think the people of Sydney feel about the Opera House? What does this building tell us about their culture?

500 A.D.

1000 A.D.

1500 A.D.

2000 A.D.

Authentic Learning Highly focused learning that revolves around student interests and resources from the historical period being studied

Active Learning More focused learning activities that require students to reorganize or re-represent background material

Direct Learning/Transmission Facts and details that provide background for later learning activities

Key Terms

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CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS This image of people working in a cotton field depicts an activity not unlike the image in the “What is happening in this picture?” feature. However, there are important differences between these two images. What clues might a historian look for to determine the differences between the images? What specific questions might emerge regarding these differences? What does the process you undergo when examining these differences tell us about how we learn about the past?

Sharecroppers in the American South working in a cotton field in the mid-20th century

SELF-TEST 1. Why do we study history in school? 2. Which of the following adequately distinguishes historical thinking and historical understanding? a. Historical understanding supports the development of historical thinking. b. Historical thinking supports the development of historical understanding. c. Historical thinking and understanding are both based in facts. d. Historical thinking and understanding are both based on inferences.

c. 3000 B.C. The Pyramids of Giza, Egypt. Why are these pyramids famous?

3000 B.C

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2500 B.C

2000 B.C

3. Which of the following is not a skill in history? a. comprehension b. savvy c. judgment d. awareness 4. The figure below is an example of a _______________________, an important pedagogical tool for social studies teachers.

A.D.

82. The Colosseum in Rome, Italy. Why was the Colosseum built? What were the Romans hoping to accomplish?

1500 B.C

1000 B.C

500 B.C

0

A.D.

1973. The Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia. How do you think the people of Sydney feel about the Opera House? What does this building tell us about their culture?

500 A.D.

1000 A.D.

1500 A.D.

2000 A.D.

5. What can students understand about history from this picture? What is this kind of understanding called?

9. Describe the relationships between these three types of learning activities in history. a. transmission activities b. active learning activities c. activities involving authentic historical resources 10. What makes an historical resource authentic? What makes this resource authentic?

6. What are the processes in Hicks, Doolittle, and Ewing’s SCIM-C method? 7. What are the defining characteristics of a historical story? 8. When do children begin to develop knowledge of the past? a. as toddlers b. as early as first or second grade c. in middle school d. in high school

Self-Test

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Teaching for Geographic Awareness

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hat does it mean to know one’s place in the world? How does it feel to have a sense of belonging to a place or a people? The study of geography can position children to answer these and other questions about place, people, and the relationships between them. In a classroom in Virginia, elementary school students in a social studies class stand before a map, looking to pinpoint a place unknown to them. In this case it’s Mustang, Nepal. The location on this map is not very meaningful, but it can become meaningful if they also see a photograph of a young girl with a basket of harvested grain held on her back by a sling across the top of her head. These schoolchildren in Virginia might be able to describe how their lives differ from hers. They might construct a mental map of her home. They might come to understand the challenges and joys of living in the place this girl calls home. Geography can help children move beyond simple map skills and enable them to see the world as a whole place, teeming with a variety of interesting human experiences. Geography is the discipline that enables us to develop knowledge about places and environments.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ The Need for Geographic

Awareness p. 140

■ How Children Develop

Geographic Awareness p. 148

■ Elements of Geographic

Understanding: Spaces, Places, and Systems p. 154

■ Using Maps to Teach Geographic

Awareness p. 166

This young girl in Mustang, Nepal carries a basket using a sling on her head. What does the image suggest about life in Nepal?

e use geography to make sense out of the world as well as to come to a greater understanding of its complexities and its difficulties. By studying places, we can learn about human achievement and tragedy. Students might study the Colorado River and the Hoover Dam or Hiroshima, Japan, and the dropping of the atomic bomb. By struggling to understand

W

complex relationships, we can be motivated to create a better place to live. This chapter focuses on ways to think about geography and the most effective strategies for enabling children to make use of geographic knowledge. We will explore what it means to have geographic awareness and how this geographic awareness enriches and enhances daily civic life.

The Need for Geographic Awareness LEARNING O BJECTIVES Understand why we study geography in the schools. Develop a personal rationale for studying geography. Analyze how geography is situated in the elementary school curriculum.

WHAT IS GEOGRAPHIC AWARENESS? id you know that most people cannot accurately estimate distances? In part, this is due to limited experience accurately measuring distance. Unfortunately, most of our “incidental” geographic knowledge is limited and often incorrect. Geography professor Reginald Golledge talks about geographic awareness as both “incidental” and “intentional.” Incidental geography is the Incidental knowledge we have developed geography from our everyday life and exThe geographic periences. As we navigate life, knowledge we have developed from we develop an awareness of everyday life and the space around us and how experiences. we interact with that space. This may result in having a sense of direction, or knowing how to get from one place to another. It might also mean that we sense that pollution is a problem or that some places have limited natural resources.

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We teach about geography to fill in the gaps and correct misperceptions. We can teach students geography skills, such as how to properly estimate distance, to help Intentional children understand the physigeography The geographic cal and cultural world around knowledge that we them. This learned or intenpurposely learn. tional geographic knowledge can improve our quality of life and enrich our personal experiences. For example, if we can properly estimate distance, we can better plan our day and perhaps avoid being late to events and gatherings (Figure 6.1). To be geographically aware means that we understand how our knowledge about geography is constructed, what its limitations are, and how to correct our misunderstandings. Children do not come to school with a tabula rasa. Instead, they have ideas that are often poorly formed or misinformed and we teach to help them advance their knowledge. For example, a first-grade child may be able to tell you how far away something is, maybe one mile or ten miles away, simply by remembering what he was told or by reading sign posts. However, children often do not understand the difference between distances such as one mile and ten miles. Most adults conceptualize one mile as a distance that is covered on foot at its fastest in four or five minutes but more commonly by walking 20–25 minutes. We do not consider ten miles to be a distance that we would travel on foot; consequently we tend to think about this distance as being

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

“Mom, I'm going to the candy store for a pack of gum. I'll be back in a few minutes”

Figure 6.1 Children can learn spatial values such as the distance that one or ten miles covers in early elementary grades. Think about how children learn these distances and how teachers can help children develop this knowledge.

helping us understand our backyard and the other side traversed in a car or train, or we might think of ten of the world. miles as the distance from our home to some landmark. This adult knowledge is incidental, based on experience, and it is developmentally situated. Children often struggle to consider what “distance” GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS AND means. One way we can help them understand the conIDEAS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL cept of distance is to use life experience. How far is one CHILDREN mile? We can help children understand by mapping a mile around the school campus or perhaps on a track Children need to understand a range of concepts and close to the school. We can do the same with ten miles ideas about geography in order to be contributing citimeasured as a distance from school to a parzens in our democratic society. Children Geography ticularly well-known place in the community. need to learn human geography, spatial The discipline that Geography can help us answer virtually understanding, and systems-based underteaches knowledge any question about human interaction. If standing. We discuss each of these geoabout places and students want to know why people live where graphic concepts in this chapter. Students’ environments. they do, geography can help. If they want to understanding in these areas takes shape understand why people in some areas are through the development of knowledge, Human wealthy and others are poor, geography can skills, and values. geography A help. When studying geography, students Human geography includes all the branch of geography can investigate relationships between peoconsiderations about how people interact that deals with ple, places, and environments and marvel at with the land and use natural resources. people, their envithe beauty of our world and its people. GeHuman geography is about the places and ronment, and their regions that humans have constructed and ography is both local and global, focused on interactions.

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in space. We can represent our Spatial understanding using a variety of understanding personal and formal methods. The ability to perFor example, maps are spatial ceive oneself and representations that most often other natural and conform to certain conventions human-made things ( Figure 6.2 ). We can teach in space. students these conventions by emphasizing legends, directional orientation, and other skills. We also construct personal representations of space. These might include mental maps or might take form in personal drawings or photographs.

the meaning we have given to these places. The study of geography often overlaps the study of human systems. We can study about human interaction separately—in courses about sociology, for example—but geography is often an integral part of studying people and their cultures and behaviors. For example, we cannot study the history of a place such as Iceland without taking into account its very unique and sometimes harsh physical geography. Iceland’s isolation from other areas and its long periods of light and day in winter and summer have deeply influenced the history of the place. Spatial understanding enables humans to place themselves and other natural and human-made things

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Teaching for Geographic Awareness

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Figure 6.3 Systems are combinations of related elements that fit together and, in geography, take form as cultural or physical. Geographic cultural systems describe how and why people move or settle in places and describe how we conduct economic and social life. Physical systems describe nonhuman structures, such as weather and landforms. All of these approaches to developing geographic knowledge in some way illustrate interaction. Consider the images in Figure 6.3 of places in Bosnia-Herzegovina. These two images suggest very different forms of interaction, yet the cities are less than 50 miles apart. Ask students to examine these photos to uncover similarities (e. g., both locations have hilly terrain and similar building materials) and differences (e. g., population density and related infrastructure). Point out to students that these impressions make sense only in the context of human interaction with the physical world. Have students consider how life would be different in these two places. How is it possible that landscapes such as these could be so apparently different, yet so close in distance and other characteristics?

A Nisici, Bosnia-Herzegovina

B Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina. How might life be different for people in Sarajevo and Nisici?

Cultural systems

How or why people move or settle in places and how they conduct economic and social life.

Physical systems

Nonhuman structures such as weather and landforms.

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HOW CHILDREN RELATE TO PLACES It’s important for children to consider how they relate to places that they are learning about. Our relationships with places are often very emotional and meaningful. People talk about place using words such as “home” and phrases such as “the place I am from.” We form powerful connections to places and use these connections, in part, to define ourselves. We define places such as regions, countries, communities, Region A specior neighborhoods by the expefied district, terririences and interactions we tory, or other often have in them. Of course, somecontinuous place on Earth’s surface. times we limit our understanding by rigidly valuing one place over another. For example, we might not be willing to learn about a neighborhood in another part of town if we think it is a bad part of town. The same might be

true of a region or even a nation. The more closely we associate ourselves, through experience, with a place the more likely we are to be willing and able to study that place. Ultimately, we must expand our horizons and create new appreciations of places that seem strange or different in order to better understand those places and the world in general. Teachers have to help their students expand on the attachment children and adults have to their home. The most powerful way to do this is to nurture students’ feeling about their home places, while facilitating their exploration of places outside the home. In many ways, standard social studies curriculums recognize this need and are structured to facilitate a careful exploration of “other” places while maintaining a focus on the home. In fact, the traditional expanding horizons curriculum in social studies enables children to study their home and community life in the earliest elementary grades and broadens the focus outward in successive years to in-

Figure 6.4

A A San Bushman and son hunt with bow and arrow on a savanna. Namibia.

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B This image depicts an ancient settlement in South Africa called Umtata, where Bantu-speaking people live to this day. The long history of migration of Bantu-speaking people has shaped the development of Africa, which is marked by intense conflict and significant movement.

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

clude the study of more distant places and experiences. The expanding horizons curriculum is structured to nurture children’s experiences with “other” places by gradually introducing them to places that are further and further away from the child both in distance and in time.

GEOGRAPHY AS THE STARTING POINT FOR SOCIAL STUDIES Southern Africa is home to a complex human system that has for hundreds of years embodied change and conflict. Evidence of human life dates back millions of years. Teachers can introduce children to the highly charged topics of colonialism and South African apartheid by looking at these subsystems from a geographic perspective. This might include a study of the place and its climate; the study of the movement of Bantu-speaking Africans and European whites into the area; and the study of settlement patterns in southern

Africa over the last 400 years. How do the images in Figure 6.4 depict those changes and patterns, or what do they suggest about the changes and patterns? Social studies at the elementary school level typically does not formally mention geography. Instead, geographic content is often woven deep into the social studies curriculum. This means that students might develop a limited understanding of what geography actually is and what it includes. As noted earlier, teachers often mistakenly communicate to their students that geography is simply the study of maps and development of related skills. An argument can be made for geography being the best academic context for elementar y social studies. Geography can support students’ understanding of the past. It can serve as a useful context for learning about cultures. Geography is well suited for the study of problems in society. As we have already seen, geography is even at the core of the common expanding horizons curriculum structure in elementary grades.

C Climate and soil make parts of southern Africa highly desirable. Places such as this tea plantation in the Pungwe Valley of Zimbabwe are the source of conflict between Bantuspeaking people migrating from the north and Europeans arriving by sea. After the arrival of permanent European settlers in the 17th century, a complex, sometimes problematic, human system emerged in southern Africa.

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Let’s look at an example of how a common topic in the elementary social studies curriculum, North American Native Indians, can be studied using geography as a starting point. In the state of Washington, for example, children in primary grades (K–3) are expected to examine the cultural traditions of local tribes. In the Northwest, Native Americans car ve totem poles to honor their ancestors, publicize their clan’s standing and accomplishments, and record memorable ceremonies and experiences. A totem is an animal, plant, or natural object that serves as an emblem representing a person, a group, or a clan. As students investigate totem poles such as the one pictured in Figure 6.5, they will need to examine cultural traditions that are represented in totem pole carving. This investigation, which in many ways is geographic in nature (Figure 6.5b ), would draw on work done by historians, anthropologists, and sociologists.

A A Salishan Indian totem pole in Princess Louisa Inlet, British Columbia, Canada

How do other disciplines contribute to the geographic study of this topic?

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• Anthropologists have uncovered some of the story-like meaning conveyed in some totem poles, particularly as these stories relate to cultural happenings such as weddings. • Sociologists help us understand the complex cultural phenomena that are represented on totem poles. For example, the arrangement of totems as the pole proceeds upward may reflect social hierarchy.

B The Native Americans that carved the totem pole in Figure 6.5A were among a diverse group of Indians in the region. How many different tribes are in this area of the northwest? How do you think the geography of the area influenced tribal relations?

Figure 6.5

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• Historians tell us that when Europeans first saw totem poles, they thought they were religious symbols and objects of worship. They are not, but these original misconceptions linger today.

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

LEARNING HOW TO USE MAPS Although geography is about more than just maps, maps and related reasoning skills play an important role in geography instruction. Maps are physical representations of data and information. They have spatial characteristics and can be used to explain concepts that are either too large or too complex for us to understand. Maps can be much more than depictions of places; they can also show ideas, concepts, relationships, and time. The map in Figure 6.6 illustrates information about human development in three ways: as “disturbed land,” as “built up areas,” and as “irrigated land.”

Figure 6.7 An early 16th-century Nahuatl glyph map of Aztec migration from Aztlan to Tenochtitlán illustrates imperial Aztec history and was produced by Aztec Indians right about the time of their contact with Europeans.

Virtually anything can be mapped. For example, we could construct a map of the totem pole in the previous section. Such a map might display the relative location of the emblems on the totem pole and represent more generalizable characteristics of totem poles. The sixteenth-century Native American map in Figure 6.7 is a good example of how ideas and events can be depicted in a map. The map was created by pre-Columbian natives living along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico around the Yucatan Peninsula. It illustrates a series of conquests and achievements. The map represents these activities by positioning them on the map and showing their relationship to one another.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How and why do How can geography we study geography?

How is Figure 6.6 This map illustrates geographic information in several areas. How are these sources of information related? What does the map help us understand about the United States?

geography more than just the study of maps?

help us understand the human relationship with place and space?

How Children Develop Geographic Awareness LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize how we become aware of our geography. Compare human and physical approaches to geography. Consider the ways in which children make geographic sense of their surroundings.

hildren develop geographic awareness through the study of people and places. Geographic study is best when it starts with people and the experiences they have in the world. Learning geography helps explain the world around us.

C

HUMAN AND CULTURAL GEOGRAPHIC AWARENESS The study of human culture occupies a central place in the social studies curriculum. These cultural studies cross all of the academic disciplines, but are particularly relevant in geography. Human culture In fact, much of the geography Social patterns, arts, taught in elementar y social beliefs, institutions, studies focuses on culture. The and all other prodUnited Nations Educational ucts of human work Scientific and Cultural Organiand thought that zation (UNESCO ) (2002) decontribute to a comscribes culture as “the set of

These traditional costumes are exciting and fun for children to explore, but as representations of culture they are very limited. What else do students need to know about the people in these pictures and about the places in which they were photographed? Culture is much more than costumes. According to National Geography Standard number 10, geography includes “social structure, languages, belief systems, institutions, technology, art, foods, and traditions of particular groups of humans.” Culture is concerned with ways people live. Students study culture so that they might understand a wide variety of cultures and appreciate and value cultures different from their own.

A Tenth International Children’s Folkdance Festival, Sliven, Bulgaria, 2006

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mon way of life for a group of people.

distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs.” The National Geography Standards address culture directly, suggesting that overlapping cultural experiences across the world create a cultural mosaic. Elementar y school social studies teachers need to prepare students for life in this cultural mosaic. The United States has a particularly unique experience in this cultural mosaic. The vast number of cultural experiences in the United States necessitates an understanding and appreciation of the concept of cultural diversity. Figure 6.8 “Visualizing: Cultural Geography” provides images that might spur discussion of Native American cultural geography. “In the

Classroom,” page 150, focuses on New Zealand as a context for understanding physical and cultural place. The study of culture can be a powerful way to organize instruction for children. “Social and Cultural Explorations” on pages 152–153, looks at soccer—the world's most popular sport—as a way to encourage student interest in geography. But the study of culture also has its pitfalls if taught using an approach that is too narrow or stereotypical. There is a tendency to simplify the study of culture by focusing on cultural pageants or role-playing, sampling of foods from different places, and dressing in traditional costumes associated with cultures. While these exercises can be meaningful, they must occur within a broader consideration of beliefs, social structures, and institutions.

Visualizing

Cultural Geography Figure 6.8

B This child is a participant at Mosaic, part of the annual Rainbow of Cultures celebration in Regina, Canada. How Children Develop Geographic Awareness

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In the Classroom

UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL PLACE A Maori tribesman wears a cloak made of kiwi feathers in Rotorua, New Zealand. Consider the differences in the climate between this jungle scene and the snow-capped mountains in the picture of Mount Cook.

Mount Cook, South Island, New Zealand

When explaining to children how human life develops and is sustained in a given place, social studies teachers need to prompt their students to consider both physical and cultural elements. For example, New Zealand has a remarkable physical geography and a complex cultural story. An investigation of Maori culture and the physical geography of New Zealand might result in students addressing questions such as these: •

What are the people like in New Zealand?

•

Where did they come from?

•

What does the country of New Zealand look like?

•

Where is it?

•

What is the land like?

Rotura

Students in elementary grades can engage these questions more effectively when the questions are cast in real-life contexts that reflect a range of geographical knowledge. When considering the Maori culture in the context of the physical geography of New Zealand, students can begin to understand how the physical lay of the land and cultural dynamics interact to shape life. Teachers might explore social contexts with students by having them research the controversies over the preservation of Maori culture. This project involves both physical and cultural geography.

Mount Cook

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HOW CHILDREN UNDERSTAND THE WORLD AROUND THEM What does it mean to talk about the “world”? A child in kindergarten may think the world is mostly within her or his physical grasp. Children may be unable to describe to an adult or in an adult-like way what the world is, but they do conceive of places like the world. Psychologists such as Jean Piaget have given us theories to explain how a child understands concepts such as the world. Piaget suggested that children progress through various stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) as they build their cognitive sophistication. These theoretical models provide some guidance for understanding how children perceive the world. In addition, teachers need to use their judgment and skills to help children develop an understanding of place. We often read that children under the age of 11 cannot engage in the spatial reasoning skills that are required to understand global patterns and relationships. While this may be true, students are nonetheless trying to create meaningful understanding and can be nurtured in their understanding. It would be a mistake to disregard geography in elementary school. Instead, the goal should be to engage children given their theories of how the world is structured and enable them to progress using resources that they understand. Children are particularly adept at representing their ideas and values in unique ways. The interesting map in Figure 6.9 was created by an 8-year-old girl living in America and is another example of how children can represent ideas and relationships using maps. CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Why is geography less prevalent in the social studies curriculum, particularly in elementary grades?

How do the geographic features inherent or implied in this image relate to the Social and Cultural Explorations on pages 152–153?

Men and boys play soccer while waiting to unload cotton at a textile facility in Asuncion, Paraguay.

Figure 6.9 A map of the world drawn in 2003 by then 8-year-old Emily Carroll of Burleigh Elementary School in Brookfield, WI. How does this student represent the world, particularly the relationships between places in the world?

Literature can also be a powerful context in which to engage children in geographic subject matter, as can images. Nigel Grey’s children’s book, A Country Far Away, is the story of two boys, one in America and one in Africa. The story unfolds in parallel succession as each boy tells of his school, family, and play experiences. Teachers in kindergarten and first grade can use the book to introduce the differences and likenesses between the United States and Africa and possibly begin to help children develop a more acute understanding of Africa.

Social and Cultural Explorations

Soccer around the world Soccer is the world’s most popular game. Students can learn about places and commonalities by studying the game that seems to transcend so many cultural, regional, and spatial boundaries. Children throughout the world play soccer wherever they can kick a ball. Elementary school students can investigate the places where children play soccer as a way to learn about the uniqueness of those places. As these photos illustrate, soccer transcends place and is played in remote and otherwise seemingly inhospitable environments. Teachers can use concepts such as the game of soccer as a context to support and encourage students’ learning about geographic subject matter. Because students are often interested in subjects such as sports, or food, or clothing, these concepts make good springboards for studying geography. Students can use their prior knowledge of the subject to engage in learning about new places and how people interact with their environment. Youths play soccer on this colonial street in Cartagena, Colombia.

Indonesian woodcutters playing soccer while others watch in a lumber camp in Borneo Island, Indonesia.

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Children play soccer almost literally in the shadows of Egyptian pyramids in Nazlet El Samman, Giza.

A boy juggles a soccer ball in the courtyard of the once elegant Villa Vanucci in San Giorgio a Cremano in Naples, Italy, near Mount Vesuvius.

San Giorgio a Cremano, Italy

Cartagena, Colombia Borneo Island,

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Elements of Geographic Understanding: Spaces, Places, and Systems LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify and describe the four elements of geographic understanding.

Understand that places and regions are distinguished by their unique charateristics.

Describe the importance of spatial understanding.

Distinguish human systems from cultural systems.

here are four elements in our geographic understanding: spatial understanding, places and regions, human systems, and physical systems. These elements are interdependent and interrelated. Each one of these elements encompasses a perspective on human experience given some organization of people or places. An exploration of each of these four elements can help in developing a more complete understanding of how we can construct geographic learning.

T

SPATIAL UNDERSTANDING As we saw earlier, spatial understanding involves making the nature of space knowable. In this instance we are talking about space as the area that something occupies, not “outer space.” Spatial structures can be as enormous as the Earth or as minuscule as personal space. Geography provides us with tools and skills to understand space

and the relationships between things in space. Maps are the most common of the tools, but any physical or mental representation of spatial structures is valid. There are many reasons to include spatial reasoning in elementary grades. Children will likely engage in some forms of spatial reasoning whether we help them or not. Well before kindergarten, children are encouraged to draw pictures to develop spatial skills. As children grow, they need opportunities to engage increasingly complex spatial structures. Consider a complex space such as Jerusalem (Figure 6.10). The physical space of the city is home to Muslims, Christians, and Jews. All three religions claim a special relationship with Jerusalem as a spiritual center of the religion. Children as young as those in first grade can depict these structures with simple drawings and then place them in general proximity to one another. These types of exercises

Global Locator Figure 6.10 An aerial view of Jerusalem depicting holy sites for Muslims, Christians, and Jews.

will begin to give children an opportunity to learn how close the religions are to one another in both space and, given their shared monotheistic traditions, structure.

PLACES AND REGIONS Most humans understand the large spaces around them according to generally agreed-upon place and regional distinctions. These distinctions include unique names and often shared physical and cultural characteristics within them. Streets, neighborhoods, cities and towns; the North and the South, West Coast, and Midwest; Asia and sub-Saharan Africa; the European Union and the developing world; online, the campus, and inside––all these are places and regions. Some are amorphous and some are very distinct. Place and regional distinctions need only human imagination and consistent and distinctive use to be meaningful. Children need to develop an understanding of the characteristics of places and regions as well as the distinctions of these areas. Many children will develop some very powerful and value-driven associations with places. We need to nurture these feelings while attempting to broaden students’ vistas. Consider the manner in which the students in Figure 6.11 are developing an identification with place. Teachers routinely engage elementary school students in activities related to national holidays and regional celebrations. As we continue to help students build selfawareness, we must also extend their awareness of other places and regions. The study of geography can help in this process.

HUMAN SYSTEMS Human systems are made up of people and their cultural and settlement patterns. The relationships between people are in constant flux, marked by changing levels of cooperation and conflict (Figure 6.12 ). Children understand the most basic elements of human systems, and we can use their experiences to build additional knowledge about how people live in large and small systems. Human systems typically involve three forms of action: movement, cooperation, and conflict. The Lesson from National Geographic Map Essentials, pages 156–163, on Population Density illustrates how teachers can plan for instruction on the topic of movement.

Figure 6.11 In Jayuya, Puerto Rico, students at Jayuya Elementary School celebrate Puerto Rican Discovery Day with a parade of the three cultural roots of Puerto Rico: Taino Indians, West African slaves, and the Spanish.

Figure 6.12 Women form a human chain to carry bricks used in the reconstruction of Dresden, March 1946, after Allied bombing had destroyed the city in February 1945. The steeple of the wrecked Roman Catholic cathedral can be seen in the background.

LESSON Population Density

20 Population Density

Activity

Key Ideas

Population density is the number of people who live in a square mile or square kilometer area.

What’s the difference between New York City and the far northwest of Alaska? Look at the land-use map on page 55 to learn one answer. The environment of New York City is urban, with lots of manufacturing activity. Northern Alaska, with a landscape of ice and snow, has little economic activity. Another big difference is people. Areas of difficult physical environments have few people. In northeastern Alaska, you can walk for miles without seeing a single person. In New York City, everywhere you go there are people! The number of people who live in a set area is called population density. Density means thickness. New York City is one of the most densely populated areas in the United States. Northern Alaska is among the least densely populated.

Population Density, 1890 56

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FROM NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAP ESSENTIALS •

•

• •

Population density maps show how many people live in an area. Study the map on this page. The map shows, in ranges, the number of people per square mile or square kilometer. Study the key. What is the lowest range of population density? Look at the map on page 56. It shows population density in the United States in 1890. You will notice that the range in the key is the same as the map on this page. Look at the shading on this map. What difference do you see between this map and the one of 1990? Population-density maps help to show where urban and rural areas are. Would you expect the population to be denser in an urban or a rural area? By comparing population-density maps from different years you can see how a population changes over time. The population of the United States was 62 million in 1890 and was

almost 249 million in 1990. It is no surprise that the 1990 map shows greater population density overall. Find Los Angeles on both maps. What do you notice?

• • •

Look at the coastal areas on the map on this page. Compare these two areas to the interior of the country. What patterns do you see? What do you think are the reasons for the patterns? Find New Jersey and Rhode Island on the map on this page. They are the most densely populated states in the country. Both are small states with few rural areas. These maps also show that patterns of population density have changed over time. On the 1890 map the eastern half of the country is much more densely populated than the western half. In 1990, the East was more densely populated than the West, but the difference was not as great. Where in the West has population density increased the most? The least?

Population Density, 1990 57

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LESSON Population Density (cont.)

A Changing Population The population of the United States has changed by more than just numbers in the last one hundred years. People from many different countries and continents have immigrated to the United States. In 1990, nearly 8 percent of the U.S. population was born in another country. The pie graphs on this page show the country or continent of origin of newcomers to the states of California and New York.

Soviet Union Africa Canada Caribbean South America Other

Asia

•

•

Europe

Mexico and Central America

• Origin of Immigrants Living in California, 1990

Europe

Asia

Other South America Caribbean

Soviet Union Africa Canada Mexico and Central America

Origin of Immigrants Living in New York, 1990 Source: United States Census

58

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More than 6 million of the approximately 30 million people in California in 1990 were born in another country or continent. From which area did the largest number of immigrants come? New York State had almost 18 million people in 1990. About 3 million of them were immigrants. Look at the pie graph for New York. The largest number of immigrants came from Europe. By comparing these graphs, you can see different patterns of immigration to these two states. What patterns do you notice? Explain these patterns. (Hint: The World Map on pages 70–71 will help you explain the patterns.)

FROM NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAP ESSENTIALS On Your Own Use pages 56-58 to help answer the questions. 1 . What does a population-density map show? How is it used? 2.

What was the population density of most of the state of Montana in 1990?

3.

From which country or continent did the second largest number of immigrants come to California in 1990?

4.

Were there more immigrants in California or New York in 1990?

Think Like a Geographer 5.

6.

Look at the 1990 map areas that are the least densely populated. Then find these areas on the land-use map on page 55. What is land use like in these areas? Why do you think there are more immigrants from Asia, Mexico, and Central America in California and more from Caribbean countries in New York? Explain.

7.

Since 1950, more people have moved to the “sunbelt” area of the United States, which includes the states of the South and Southwest. How do you see this movement of people reflected in the population-density map of 1990?

8.

Suppose you have a friend who wants to move from a crowded urban environment to a place that has few people and lots of open space. What are five states that you would recommend?

This satellite image of Los Angeles shows the majority of people live in the flat areas and along the water. The mountains appear to have few people.

Field Study Create a simple population density map by doing a survey of the number of students in each classroom in your school. First, create a floor plan, or simple map, showing the classrooms in all or part of your school. Then do a survey to find out how many people, including students and teachers, are in each classroom. Create a color-coded key for population density for each class. Include other school areas, such as the office and cafeteria, in your map by counting the number of people who work in each of these places. Create another map showing population density 30 minutes after school is out. Compare and contrast the two maps.

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LESSON Population Density (cont.) Internet Link

PLANNING GUIDE

• For teacher resources, visit the National Geographic Society website at: www.nationalgeographic.com/education

WHY IT’S ESSENTIAL By using this skill, students learn how demographic information can be conveyed in map form. Demographic information is vital to government and business. Government uses it for such things as voting and distribution of funds. Businesses might use it to locate their potential customers. The ability to analyze a population density map will enable students to understand where the United States population lives.

Blackline Master • Activity Master 20

Begin by defining population as the number of people in a specific area. Ask: What is the population of our classroom? (Answer will depend on the number of students in the classroom.) Then explain the term “density” as meaning “thickness.” Population density means “thickness of population” or how closely people live to one another in a specific area. Remind students about the difference between rural and urban areas, since these are key concepts to understanding population density. Ask: Would you expect the population of the United States to have become greater or smaller in the last 50 years? Why? (greater, because the population has grown, but the area of the country remains the same)

Optional Resources • Transparencies 3,3F

2. TEACH

Objectives • Interpret population density information presented in map form. • Compare population density maps from different time periods. • Analyze immigrant population data in the form of pie graphs.

Pacing 30–50 minutes Correlation to Standards • Geography Standard 9: The characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations on Earth’s surface • Geography Standard 10: The characteristics, distributions, and complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics • Social Studies Standard 3d: Estimate distance, calculate scale, and distinguish other geographic relationships such as population density and spatial distribution patterns For more details, see pages 8–9. 160

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Suggestions for page 56 Have students look at the map on page 56. Explain that this map shows 48 states and is a historical map as well as a population density map. Ask: How can you tell that this is a historical map? (The date 1890 appears in the title.) How are different population densities shown on this map? (Different colors show different ranges of population density.) Suggestions for page 57 Display Transparencies 3 and 3F for students, or use the map in the Student Book on page 57. Have students look for patterns to describe states and areas of the country that have relatively high and relatively low population densities. Have students compare the map on page 57 with the map on page 56. Have them locate the area where

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

FROM NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAP ESSENTIALS your hometown is situated and determine the population density in 1890 and 1990. Ask: Did the population density increase or decrease from 1890 to 1990? (probably increased) Ask: What generalization can you make about how the population density in the United States changed from 1890 to 1990? (it increased) Lead a discussion about why population density maps are useful and who might use them. Suggestions for page 58 Direct students’ attention to the graphs on page 58. Ask: How is the information on these graphs similar to and different from the information on the population density maps? (The graphs also give information about population. The graphs describe where immigrants come from.)

3. CLOSE/ASSESS Using Activity Master 20 To review and assess the skill, have students complete the Activity Master by creating a line graph showing population changes of California and New York. Students should then compare their graphs with the two maps in this activity.

EXTENSION ACTIVITIES

ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY 20 Page 57 • The lowest range of population density is 6 or fewer per square mile. • The population in 1990 was denser than in 1890. • Urban areas have denser populations. • The population density of Los Angeles has increased. • Coastal areas have denser populations. These areas were settled first and cities formed there. Coastal cities grew fast because of access to shipping. They also served as an entry point for those entering by boat. • The population density has increased most in California and has increased the least in Montana. Page 58 • Most came to California from Asia. • Answers may include: a greater percentage of New York immigrants came from Europe; few immigrants came to either state from Canada or Africa compared to other groups. Page 59 On your Own 1. the number of people who live in a set area, such as a square mile or square kilometer; to understand the distribution of the population across the country 2. six or fewer people per square mile

RETEACH

3. Mexico and Central America

Using Transparency 3F or the map on page 57, practice the skill by giving students a population density range from the key and asking them to find a place on the map with that population density.

4. California

CHALLENGE Have students locate a place on the map where the population density has increased dramatically from 1890 to 1990 (by more than two color ranges). Then have them research this area of the country in an effort to find some reasons behind the significant increase in population.

5. Western mountain states are among the least populated areas of the country. Land use in these states is mostly forest and grazing. 6. Asia, Mexico, and Central America are closer to California, and the Caribbean countries are closer to New York. 7. The population density has increased in these areas. 8. Answers may include: Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, New Mexico, South Dakota.

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LESSON Population Density (cont.)

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FROM NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAP ESSENTIALS

Elements of Geographic Understanding

163

PHYSICAL SYSTEMS The Earth has many physical features such as mountains, rivers, oceans, and valleys. These physical features are not static. The physical characteristics change; they are affected by the atmosphere, plants, and animals. These features and characteristics are what we mean by physical systems. Human and physical systems interact to shape how places look and are used by humans. For example, consider a place like the Redwood Forest in California. The aerial photo in Figure 6.13 shows a lumber plant, near the Redwood National Park in Crescent City, California. A redwood tree logging area is in the foreground––a place in which human activity is reshaping a physical system. Students can study physical systems in contexts such as this one to learn the physical characteristics of places and how humans interact with those places. In the National Geography Standards publication Geography for Life, the following questions are posed as reasons for studying physical systems:

Global Locator

• What does the surface of Earth look like? • How have its features been formed? • What is the nature of these features and how do they interact? • How and why are they changing? • What are the spatially distinct combinations of environmental features? The NGS suggest that physical processes shape physical places. There are four processes at work on the Earth: • The atmosphere (i.e., climate and meteorology) • The lithosphere (e.g., plate tectonics, erosion, and soil formation)

Figure 6.13 An aerial view of a lumber plant in the Redwood Forest in California.

elementary teachers need to pay special attention to aspects of the curriculum that directly deal with physical places and consider the questions and ideas posed here. For example, in Indiana, third-grade students are expected to meet the following standard:

• The hydrosphere (e.g., the circulation of the oceans and the hydrologic cycle) • The biosphere (e.g., plant and animal communities and ecosystems) These purposes for studying physical geography and processes of physical geography can be used to shape curriculum or adapt existing curriculum. Social studies

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Identify the continents and oceans, the equator, the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, and the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Students might learn about the continents and oceans by learning that these features are part of the lithosphere or hydrosphere, but they both interact with the atmosphere and support the biosphere.

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

Figure 6.14 Singapore lies at the tip of the Malay Peninsula.

Now, look at the image of the island city-state of Singapore (Figure 6.14). In Singapore, international banks stand next to corporate headquarters in a forest of high-rises in the city’s business/financial district. In CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

What are some of the

How might we use the

characteristics in the human and physical system portrayed in this image and the image in Figure 6.14?

context of this place— Singapore––to teach about human and physical geographic systems?

A trishaw rider with an empty cart leads traffic down a busy Singapore street that is lined with Chinese signs and shops and ends with the golden domes and minarets of the Sultan Mosque.

the background is Singapore Harbor, the world’s busiest port. Students might try to describe the physical systems that are at work in Singapore, based on looking at the photo.

Using Maps to Teach Geographic Awareness LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize specific approaches to teaching for geographic awareness.

Consider how maps might be used to develop students’ geographic awareness. Analyze the relationship of geography to the past.

USING MAPS AND OTHER GEOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS aps are the lingua franca of geography. In other words, maps enable people to communicate geographic knowledge and enable understanding when it might otherwise be difficult or impossible. Maps convey meaning and values. They give shape to information and can help children make sense out of the murkiness of raw data. We make a map when we display information using spatial information and physical representations. For example, we might know that there are a certain number of miles between given places in a community. We can map the community using the reference points and a scaled-down measure. Maps help us represent places, but they can do so much more. Maps can portray ideas, relationships, and movement, as well as places. (See Process Diagram: Constructing Maps with Children, Figure 6.15 .) Given these varied uses, we cannot simply construct maps without concern for what and how they represent places and ideas.

M

DEVELOPING SPATIAL REASONING SKILLS When children actively use maps in school, they are developing spatial reasoning skills. Spatial Spatial reasoning enables us to reasoning mentally organize information The ability to about people, places, and envimentally organize ronments. We think in spatial information about terms when we use the compopeople, places, and nents of spatial representations environments. on maps––points, lines, and areas.

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One of the primary goals for geography educators should be to help children develop spatial reasoning skills. To do this we have to provide children opportunities to apply their skills in creative and meaningful settings.

USING GEOGRAPHY TO UNDERSTAND THE PAST Geography can play a central role in the study of history. How and why do places change? What events in the past influenced these changes? When students study exploration, they can make extensive use of maps. These maps not only convey meaning about the location of explorers’ voyages, but historical maps also tell us something about the past. The simple map in Figure 6.16 illustrates the path of the first manned balloon flight in North

Figure 6.16 The path of the first manned balloon flight in North America by Jean-Pierre Blanchard

Process Diagram

Constructing maps with children Figure 6.15 Children reason best with maps when they have some role in constructing them. This may involve labeling a map or some creative coloring with a pre-drawn map. Children should also be encouraged to use maps to explain information. Interaction with maps helps children to learn about places and to form mental images of places. The following process can guide planning an activity in which students construct a map and develop specific map skills. The process involves three steps:

1) Determine a map type — Decide what type of map would be best for displaying the information you have. Students in social studies classes might use street maps to learn about local areas, world maps to see relationships, or thematic maps to learn about patterns.

2) Select information that will be on the map — Maps cannot show everything, so carefully selecting the information to display is very important. If students are creating a street map, they will need to decide what level of detail to include. Information that is conveyed on a map for learning should be selected with a focus on student learning, and additional information should be kept to a minimum. For example, a map depicting cities should not include information about natural resources or average rainfall unless that information helps illustrate something relevant for the study of cities.

3) Determine how information will be highlighted on the map — Maps communicate information, so it is important to highlight important details or features on the map. After carefully selecting the information that is presented on the map and limiting additional information, the most relevant information needs to be highlighted. The important information should clearly stand out on the map.

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LESSON My City: Planning a New City

INTRODUCTION In this activity, kindergarten or first-grade students use a variety of materials to plan a new city.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The goals or objectives for this lesson include identifying the resources a city needs in order to be safe and functional as well as planning the location and spatial arrangement of homes, services, and retail establishments.

PROCEDURES Children love to create, and this activity will give them an opportunity to create a whole city. The activity has two major parts; first, students create the buildings for the city by drawing homes, schools, businesses, emergency personnel, and recreation facilities. This can begin with small drawings done by individual students or small groups, but should ultimately be transferred to a large wall drawing to which all children contribute. The second part of the activity involves students planning the spatial organization of their city by selecting the location for the items they have created. They will also create the infrastructure for their city. The teacher might want it to be a natural setting complete with trees, rivers and streams, and even mountains. Students can begin creating the infrastructure by drawing major roads and bridges on the map and may decide to cut down trees or clear certain areas. Next, students should place parks or other large developments like a stadium or a school on the map. Last, students can add

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individual buildings such as homes and businesses. Students might complete their work by focusing on the structures (homes, retail establishments, etc.) they produced, or they might work on a particular part of the map. The placement of the various structures and roads is a central part of the activity. It is through their decision making when placing items on the map that students develop spatial reasoning skills. Teachers can scaffold this part of the activity by providing students with guiding questions such as: Where is the best place to put a park? Should the school be located close to a major road? As students place items on the map, they are constructing layers on the map. The teacher should explain that the map is a representation of a small part of the Earth’s surface, in this case the new city. Students might even want to categorize the things they are placing on the map. All of these strategies make use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Technological applications that enable GIS are available to complete tasks similar to the one described in this lesson activity. These software packages might be appropriate for upper elementary school grades.

ASSESSMENT Teachers can use the criteria they provide for making the maps to assess their students’ work. One criterion can include reasonable spatial organization of structures. For example, a collection of homes should not be placed in a body of water. A second criterion can be the adequate development of an infrastructure. This requirement can include transportation features and protected natural features.

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

America by Jean-Pierre Blanchard on January 9, 1793. The map only shows the starting and ending points of the voyage (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Woodbury, New Jersey) and one major feature, the Delaware River. The river’s placement on the map provides an absolute (fixed in space) reference for the relative location of the balloon voyage. If needed, students could refer to other maps to locate this section of the Delaware River in more recognizable contexts. The more we use these maps, the more we begin to automatically associate meaning with the features on the map.

CONCEPT CHECK

Many people associate the Delaware River with George Washington’s famous crossing during the American Revolution. In fact, Washington and his men crossed the river just north of Trenton, New Jersey, which is not depicted on this map. Some may recognize the area depicted on the map above the Delaware River next to the balloon’s path as the location of Philadelphia’s professional sports complex. These types of associations can be used to heighten children’s recognition of place through the use of maps.

STOP

How might a teacher

How might children organize

develop students’ spatial reasoning skills using this map of the United States?

Why do states in the West

their knowledge of the size of states?

tend to be larger than those in the East?

Washington New Hampshire Montana

Maine North Dakota

Vermont Minnesota

Oregon Idaho

Massachusetts

Wisconsin South Dakota

New York

Wyoming

Rhode Island

Michigan

Connecticut Pennsylvania

Iowa

New Jersey

Nebraska Nevada

Ohio Utah

Indiana

Illinois

Delaware West Virginia

Colorado California

Kansas

Missouri

Maryland Virginia

District of Columbia

Kentucky North Carolina Oklahoma Arizona

Tennessee South Carolina

Arkansas

New Mexico

Alabama

Georgia

Louisiana Texas

Mississippi

Florida Hawaii Alaska

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169

What is happening in this picture

?

This map depicts human development as a measure of both physical and human/cultural systems. What does the map tell us about where people live, how they live, and how resources are distributed throughout the world?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

The Need for Geographic Awareness

Geographic awareness means developing awareness of the space around us: understanding human geography, spatial understanding, and physical systems. Geographic awareness allows children to solve problems and correct mistakes that relate to place and location. Children need to learn how to use spatial understanding skills to understand both physical and human/cultural geography. This work includes children learning how to use maps. The elementary social studies curriculum is typically indirect with regard to geography, but developing children’s geographical awareness is important.

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2

How Children Develop Geographic Awareness

When explaining to children how human life develops and is sustained in a given place, social studies teachers can prompt their students to consider both physical and human/cultural elements of the place being studied. Through the study of human culture, students can learn to appreciate and understand other people and places. They can also begin to understand the concept of a world and their place in that world.

3

Elements of Geographic Understanding: Spaces, Places, and Systems

There are four elements in our geographic understanding: spatial understanding, places and regions, human systems, and physical systems. These four elements are interwoven. They work together to enable more robust understandings of the people and places around us.

4

Using Maps to Teach Geographic Awareness

When we teach for geographic awareness, we must facilitate children’s use of maps and other geographic tools to reason about subject matter in the present and past. We can 2) Select information that will be on the map — Maps cannot show everything, so carefully selecting teach students that the information to display is very 1) Determine a map type — Decide important. If students are creating what type of map would be best for a street map, they will need to the process of condisplaying the information you have. decide what level of detail to Students in social studies classes might include. Information which is use street maps to learn about local conveyed on a map for learning structing maps inareas, world maps to see relationships, whould be selected with a focus or thematic maps to learn about on student learning, and additional patterns. information should be kept to a volves (1) determining minimum. For example, a map depicting cities should not include information about natural the type of map that resources or average rainfall unless that information helps illustrate something relevant for is needed, (2) selectthe study of cities. ing the information that will be on the map, and (3) deciding how information should be highlighted or featured on the 3) Determine how information will be map. Geography can highlighted on the map — Maps communicate information, so it is important to highlight important details also be a useful context for exploring or features on the map. After carefully selecting the information that is presented on the map and limiting the common subject matter in social studies additional information, the most relevant information needs to be highlighted. The important information that might not otherwise be thought of as geoshould clearly stand out on the map. graphic, such as history.

KEY TERMS ■ incidental geography , p. 140

■ spatial understanding, p. 142

■ human culture, p. 148

■ intentional geography, p. 140

■ cultural systems, p. 143

■ population density, p. 156

■ geography, p. 141

■ physical systems, p. 143

■ spatial reasoning, p. 166

■ human geography, p. 141

■ region, p. 144

Key Terms

171

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

•

Why are state capitals located where they are?

•

Are some cities more likely to be (or not be) state capitals?

•

Are there any patterns to the location of state capitals?

•

How might these questions help students as they try to learn state capitals?

Washington Olympia

Maine North Dakota

Helena

New Hampshire

Montana

Vermont

Salem

Bismark

Oregon

Idaho

St. Paul

Albany

Michigan

Iowa

Cheyenne

Boston New York Hartford

Lansing

Madison

Pierre

Wyoming

Montpelier Concord Massachusetts

Wisconsin

South Dakota Boise

Pennsylvania

Carson City

Sacramento

Nevada

Nebraska

Salt Lake City Denver Utah

Des Moines

Illinois

Arkansas

Richmond

Virginia

Kentucky Raleigh Nashville Tennessee

Oklahoma

Annapolis

Charleston

Frankfort

Topeka Jefferson City

New Mexico

West Virginia

Indianapolis

Missouri Kansas

Santa Fe

Harrisburg

Columbus Ohio

Springfield

Arizona

Indiana

Lincoln

Colorado California

North Carolina South Carolina

Oklahoma City

Columbia

Atlanta

Little Rock Phoenix

Alabama Jackson

Georgia

Louisiana Texas

Mississippi

Austin

Baton Rouge

Montgomery Tallahassee

Florida Hawaii

Honolulu

Alaska Juneau

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Augusta

Minnesota

Teaching for Geographic Awareness

Providence Rhode Island Connecticut

Trenton New Jersey Dover Delaware Maryland

SELF-TEST 1. How is geography uniquely positioned to incorporate other social studies subjects? 2. Which is not a geographic system? a. graphical c. human b. spatial d. physical 3. Describe the information that is represented on this map of North America.

5. Which of the following is not a spatial reasoning skill in geography? a. comprehension c. judgment b. savvy d. awareness 6. _______________ are specified districts or territories or some other often continuous place on Earth’s surface. 7. What are three considerations for constructing maps in social studies? 8. Which of the following processes of physical geography is related to plate tectonics? a. the atmosphere c. the hydrosphere b. the lithosphere d. the biosphere 9. Which of the following is not a component of maps requiring spatial reasoning? a. points c. areas b. lines d. diagrams 10. How can we facilitate the study of history through geography? Consider this image and the historical geographic information it portrays.

4. How can the following cultural characteristics be understood by studying totem poles: social structure, languages, belief systems, institutions, technology, art, foods, and traditions of a particular group of people? How is this a geographic activity?

Self-Test

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Teaching for Civic Competence

7

H

annah Thornton, a fifth-grade teacher, was preparing a lesson on the Declaration of Independence. Ms. Thornton wanted to help her students understand the concepts of liberty and equality, and she believed that they would best learn about these concepts in real-world contexts. Ms. Thornton began by selecting resources to use in class. The Declaration of Independence was an obvious choice. She also wanted to find a resource that would set the concepts of liberty and equality into a more recent context, one that her students would understand. Ms. Thornton thought back to a course she took as a student in college and remembered a book about women and the American Revolution. This gave her an idea. Why not find examples of what women throughout American history think of the concepts of equality and freedom? Using the Web, she found an array of quotations from the serious to the humorous. One of the most entertaining was from Bella Abzug, the first Jewish woman in the United States Congress, who once said, “Women have been trained to speak softly and carry a lipstick. Those days are over.” She also decided to use the famous Susan B. Anthony quotation: “Men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less.” In addition, Ms. Thornton decided to prominently feature Abigail Adams’s famous advice to her husband, John Adams, written during the drafting of the United States Constitution. “Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.” Capitalizing on her students’ emerging recognition of gender difference, Ms. Thornton cast this activity on a serious civic topic in a context that she believed her students would understand and appreciate.

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A New York City suffrage parade, May 6, 1912. What does this image suggest about the role of the individual and of groups in civic life?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ The Need for Civic Competence

p. 176

■ Forms of Civic Awareness

p. 180

■ Elements of Civic Competence

p. 187

■ Promoting Civic Competence

p. 192

ow can elementary school students explore the issues of equality and freedom in their own lives? How can they use this understanding to become active citizens? Children will learn that civic competence—taking responsible actions as citizens—means taking positions on issues. The National Council for the Social Studies has called the promotion of civic competence the single most important purpose of social studies. Civic competence requires knowledge of the democratic system of government in the United States and the rights and re-

H

sponsibilities of citizens. This chapter explores various ways of learning about government and developing civic competencies. Civic life demands that we take positions on issues that are often contested and sometimes ideologically driven. Although schools do not always have the ability to reflect ideological environments that exist in less controlled civic arenas, schools can be powerful contexts for learning how to be a citizen. This chapter considers how children learn to develop civic dispositions in educational environments and how teachers facilitate that process.

The Need for Civic Competence LEARNING O BJECTIVES Consider why we study civics in the schools. Develop a personal rationale for studying civics. Analyze how civics fits into the elementary school curriculum.

WHY DO WE NEED A COMPETENT CIVIC BODY? emocracy is a messy business. From the earliest days in Greece and Rome, the complexities of democracy have been readily apparent. Given these complexities, democracies need competent and well-educated citizens. No other system of government asks as much of its citizens as a democracy. A citizen in a democracy must be critically aware of issues and problems in civil society and must be willing to use civic resources and materials in a cooperative and public manner to address these issues and solve problems. Much of what we know as Citizen A member adults about how the process of of a sovereign state citizenship works comes from who incurs certain our experiences as students. rights and responsiThomas Jefferson, one of Amerbilities associated ica’s earliest and most energetic with her or his supporters of public education, status. summed up the importance of

D

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education in a democracy as well as anyone when he wrote in a letter to a fellow Virginian and politician, Charles Yancey: “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be.” Although Jefferson did not say what it means to be civically competent, as teachers we must be ver y well versed in this knowledge. What does it mean to be civically competent? Certainly, knowledge does not simply enable civic life––it takes more. Civic participation requires a disposition toward public life. Without an inclination to act publicly, we are, as Walter Parker (2003) has put it, Civic Related to idiots. That is, we are out of being a citizen. touch with democratic life––we are what the Greeks called idios or self-centered. How do we avoid self-centeredness in civic life? The answer to this question starts with elementary school life and social studies. One of the most important tasks for social studies teachers is to provide students with opportunities to develop their beliefs and dispositions so that they see the value in having a public life. We can do this by: • Creating communities in our classrooms, • Engaging our student communities with increasing levels of respect for civil rights. While it might not be appropriate to give students “rights” that they are not developmentally prepared to enjoy, we must introduce the concepts that are the foun-

dation of our democracy. We can introduce the concept of equality through fair and equal treatment. We can introduce the concept of freedom by providing students with decision-making authority over certain noncritical classroom procedures and processes (Figure 7.1).

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO POSSESS CIVIC COMPETENCE? Civic competence Understanding important social issues, participating in dialogues and conversations about public social life, volunteering and serving in public roles, and taking action when problems demand involvement.

Civic competence is first and foremost an attitude. It is a disposition to be involved in the business of democracy. Civic competency requires that we understand important social issues, participate in dialogues and conversations about public social life, volunteer and serve in public roles, and take action when

problems demand our involvement. Of course, citizens in a democracy must also vote, but the act of voting is not what ensures the health of a democracy. If we were to simply vote and leave the business of democracy exclusively to elected representatives, what assurances would we have that these officials would act in the best interests of their constituents? Civic competence means that citizens must possess the knowledge and skills to oversee the work of our elected officials. Some in the past have suggested that only a small elite group of people is actually qualified to be politicians. This view, popularized by the British political philosopher Edmund Burke, implies that once elected, politicians will know what to do and will not need to worr y what citizens think about issues. Such views are generally frowned upon in modern democracies. Today, most people view elected representatives as beholden to their constituents. In fact, most politicians in the United States go to great lengths to listen to their constituents.

Figure 7.1 These students are pledging allegiance to the flag in a manner that they have determined. Of what other activities, such as pledging allegiance to the flag, can students be put in charge?

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HOW DO WE ACHIEVE CIVIC COMPETENCE? In large part, we develop civic competence in a democracy through school experiences. In schools we have opportunities to work with children from many social backgrounds with different interests. Children in school must learn to cooperate and discuss while developing appreciation and tolerance for differences. Many of the dispositions that are necessary for civil discourse are Tolerance developed in the context of the The capacity to social relationships that emerge recognize and in schools. Teachers must carerespect the beliefs or practices of fully manage and groom these others. relationships in all subject areas. Students must learn how to share and cooperate, to obey rules, and to understand their responsibilities. These are some of the dispositions for democracy. Students must also learn that they have emerging opportunities and rights. Social studies

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How might children at different ages in elementary grades respond differently to the social issue depicted in this image?

What might children think government can do about the flooding shown here?

How might children see themselves engaging this social problem?

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is the subject area where this is formally studied. We learn the dispositions for democracy by learning about the symbols and functions of government and by learning how to conduct civic discourse. In elementar y school, the development of civic competence begins with children learning to obey rules, respect authority, and appreciate symbols and traditions. Children are able to build on these compulsory behaviors toward more independent thinking by the end of their elementar y school years. A fifthgrade student should be starting to engage in discussion and dialogue about social issues and beginning to consider how he or she will participate in social public arenas. For example, fourth- or fifth-grade students might work in their community to improve the public facilities such as parks and recreation centers. Older elementary school students might organize efforts to provide assistance to those in need, such as victims of natural disasters. Children at this age are also beginning to understand the balance between rights and responsibilities.

Street sign submerged in floodwaters in Richmond, Virginia, after torrential spring rains in 1979

Some of the most important changes in recent world history have been associated with the advent of democracy in formerly undemocratic or authoritarian regimes. In many of these places, the citizens stood up and took action. On November 16, 1989, a peaceful student demonstration in Bratislava marked the inauspicious beginning to the Velvet Revolution in the former Czechoslovakia. The protest quickly spread to Prague (A) and other cities, and within weeks the 40-plus-year-old authoritarian communist government in Czechoslovakia collapsed and a democratic government took its place. In other places and at other times, citizens have taken action to prompt change within an existing system. Countless times in recent world history, students have been at the forefront of protests such as the one in Hong Kong (B), following the handover of Hong Kong from the British to the Chinese. These protests often have led to social change, government action, reforms in political structure, and sometimes, as in the case of Czechoslovakia, revolution. At other times, citizens in democracies feel the need to make their voices heard within a democratic system on important social or public issues, such as the student-led protest in the Campaign to Eliminate Conflict Diamonds. These students demanded that the U.S. Congress pass the Clean Diamond Act, which would require that diamonds sold in the United States (C) come from countries that protect diamond mine workers and limit unsanctioned diamond mining. Students need to learn at an early age the importance and power of public action in a democracy. Of course, not every action results in a desired outcome, but the cumulative impact of public actions certainly does influence the system. Consider the civil rights movement in the United States. No single protest or march caused the gradual overturning of Jim Crow laws in the South, but continued protest action over two decades beginning in the 1950s did result in monumental change.

A Led by students, the people of Prague engage in massive protests in November 1989 against the communist government. How is this protest democratic?

B In 1990 in the streets of Hong Kong, thousands of students demonstrated against a revised draft of Hong Kong’s Basic Law, a mini-constitution that protects the rights of the people. How might this protest have influenced the drafting of the Hong Kong Basic Law?

C Students in the United States calling for the passage of the Clean Diamond Act

Social and Cultural Explorations

Prompting action in a democracy

Forms of Civic Awareness LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify the reasons for teaching young children to respect authority and respect others.

RESPECT FOR AUTHORITY AND RESPECT FOR OTHERS

Helping children develop a sense of balance between respect for authority and respect for others (personal conscience) is essential. Identify social issues that should be addressed in Children in primary grades (K–3) need their attenelementary school. tion focused on respect for authority. In these early years, the idea of personal conscience can be introDistinguish between public dialogue, community involvement, and social action. duced in contrast with a simpler form of respect for authority. Works, such as The Emperor’s New Clothes by Hans Christian Anderson, might be used with younger children to illustrate the importance of following one’s own conscience. As children grow older, they can be given opportunities to investigate famous figures from he reality of our democratic system dehistor y who have followed their conscience against mands that as citizens we go beyond simauthority––for example, Mohandas Gandhi and Aung ply voting. There are several forms of San Suu Kyi. civic knowledge or awareness that we The Process Diagram ( Figure 7.2 ) illustrates need to attend to: how the introduction of personal conscience comes later in the primary years while rooting this emerging • We need to appreciate and respect authority while sense of right and wrong within an already established honoring our own conscience. respect for authority. Over time, personal conscience • We can develop affection for our country, our paoccupies a greater sphere of influence. triotism, while being critical of the actions of citiChildren as young as kindergarten age can learn to zens and politicians. distinguish right from wrong, but these early value judgments will most likely not be sophisticated enough to • We must understand how to contribute to our rise to the level of conscience. The idea of conscience is communities and how to get involved through soabstract and thus hard to teach to young children. It is cial action when needed. also embedded in cultural and societal norms with • We must make our voices heard through civic diawhich young children have limited experience. Chillogue and conversations. dren learn right and wrong in the classroom through their actions. If we can provide students with experiEach of these forms of civic knowledge or awareness is ences in nurturing and formative environments, a more unique and requires special consideration. The followpowerful and personal sense of right and ing sections provide a closer look at each of wrong should develop. these parts of civic awareness. Conscience The Consider the advantages and disadvantages inherent in patriotism.

T

willingness and ability to recognize and respect the beliefs or practices of others.

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The process for introducing personal conscience with an existing respect for authority

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Process Diagram

Making the transition from respect for authority to personal conscience Figure 7.2

PATRIOTISM, GOOD OR BAD When thinking about patriotism, some may think of Samuel Johnson, who once called patriotism “the last refuge of a scoundrel.” For others the notion of patriotism may conjure images of deep sympathy and love for Patriotism one’s country. The idea of patriGenerally thought otism is likely to evoke powerful of as love of and devotion to one’s emotions ( Figure 7.3 ). Socountry; it may be cial studies teachers have to be displayed in countvery well prepared to help chilless ways. dren navigate this tricky terrain. Elementary school teachers nurture in children a basic national identity. For example, in many classrooms children learn the National Anthem. Teachers also engage children in simple exercises focused on learning about national iconic figures (e.g., George Washington) and national symbols (e.g., the Statue of Liberty). Social studies teachers in elementar y grades can have students read materials that provide examples of national identity, in contexts that are easy to understand and appreciate. For example, the story of Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Im-

provement Association conveys the idea of courage, and the story of Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart, describes the entrepreneurial spirit that propels the capitalist business system. In the state of Arkansas, students in the first grade read Eve Bunting’s The Wall, which is about a boy who visits the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., with his father to find his grandfather’s name. The book is a touching and sentimental account of the contributions and sacrifices American soldiers made in the Vietnam War. Stories such as these can help build students’ sense of affection for their country in powerful ways. As students develop an understanding of their national identity, elementary social studies teachers must be careful to slowly introduce elements of critical understanding. By the fifth grade, students in Arkansas can begin to question the simple stories they may have learned in early grades about George Washington and the cherry tree, the travels of Johnny Appleseed, and the adventures of Davy Crockett. Through questions and critical thinking, children can begin to develop a more sophisticated understanding of national identity. For example, children might learn that the stor y of Washington and the cherry tree is a myth and was constructed to popularize George Washington after his death. Over time, children see that this does not make Washington any less great, and they see that the ways in which we honor and respect figures from the past are typically much more complicated than the simple stories we tell might suggest.

Figure 7.3 Rows of tombstones marked with American flags at Arlington National Cemetery. What type of feelings does the National Cemetery conjure?

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In the Classroom

CIVIC ACTION: SETTING CLASS RULES

“Today we are going to create our classroom rules.” Ms. Shirley announced to her second-grade students. Ms. Shirley knew that her students might not be used to participating in the development of classroom rules. She wanted to help them understand how they can participate in the development of the rules and how this is democracy in action. She started by asking students a simple question. “What is the most important thing we do in our class?” One student answered, “Learning stuff.” “Yes,” said Ms. Shirley, “but can we learn if there are other things going on in the class?” Another student quickly answered, “No, we have to listen and stay in our seat and raise our hand, and do other things.” “That’s correct,” said Ms. Shirley. “We have to have a safe and respectful classroom in order to learn. So, how do we do that?” Several students suggested more specific rules, until after some prodding one student said, “We need rules.” “Correct,” said Ms. Shirley, “and today, we are going to create our classroom rules. I would like everyone to think about some rules that our class needs. I want you to write the two most important rules you can think of on a piece of paper. We are going to read all these rules and see which ones you listed the most. These are going to be our classroom rules. I want you to take this seriously. Think about the rules we need so that everyone has a chance to learn. If your rule is silly, for instance, a rule that says everyone gets to have candy at 10:00, then we will not use it.” Students wrote down their two rules and Ms. Shirley listed all the rules on the board. Five rules were selected from the list. •

No running in the classroom.

•

Always raise your hand to ask a question.

•

No hitting, pushing, or pulling on other students.

•

Stay in your area while working.

•

Always finish your work.

Ms. Shirley liked the rules. If she had created them, they might have looked different, but she was pleased with the outcome. How much should children contribute to the development of class rules? This question is very important for elementary school teachers and for social studies. Conversations about class rules provide an excellent opportunity for children to understand and participate in a democratic experience. Of course, there must be some limits as there are in all democratic deliberations. When the United States Constitution was being drafted, James Madison expressed concern with the dangers of democracy by suggesting that the power to rule should not only be in the hands of representatives, but also that these representatives should be limited in their power by a complex system of checks and balances. Madison worried about a “tyranny of the majority.” He and others were concerned that simple majorities who made rules would do harm to those in the minority. As teachers, we must carry the same sense of concern. When we deliberate in a democratic manner with our students, we must carefully guide the experiences. After all, students are novices with developing ideas and knowledge about their own actions and the values and norms of society. Teachers must also be careful to not equate majority rule and voting with democracy. Deliberation, reflective thought, listening to all voices, and considering all opinions are just as important as a vote on an issue.

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KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL ISSUES Children as young as kindergarten age should begin to look at the world around them and ask questions about unexplained or problematic social issues. For ver y young children, these may be simple or even seemingly obvious obser vations. For example, when children learn safety rules, they may admonish and worry about adults who break these rules. A classic example can be found in traffic laws. After they learn about speed limits and stop signs, young children are often very critical of their parents and other adults who may casually break these traffic laws. For older children, the obser vation can be much more deliberate and complex. Older children may begin to understand why adults break certain traffic laws. They might learn that the consequences and the risks of getting caught are minimal. At the same time, children in upper elementary grades often worry about issues and topics where the risks are obviously higher, such as environmental pollution or the fair treatment of people in poverty. The picture of poverty-stricken people in Port-auPrince, Haiti (Figure 7.4), might concern children. The section of Port au Prince called Cite Soleil is a slum of 200,000 and is one of the poorest places in the Western Hemisphere. The residents live in cardboard shacks built on a landfill, and often have to wade through human and animal waste when it rains. There is no run-

ning water or electricity, and the sewage ponds that are located throughout the slum contribute to numerous sanitation-related diseases. Children in upper elementary grades need to consider social problems as issues that people can collectively, through civic action, potentially address and solve. See Figure 7.5, “Visualizing: Social Action,” for images of a social problem that students might address. Social studies teachers need to provide children with carefully planned opportunities to encounter difficult social issues in safe, but provocative contexts. There are three important considerations to make when teaching about social issues: 1. Make sure children are never personally threatened, intimidated, or scared through their exposure to the problem. These considerations are age-specific and developmentally framed. 2. Always work toward a positive but realistic solution. Help children balance their desire to seek solutions with the realistic expectations of how the proposed solutions might be implemented. 3. Try to balance the role of individuals with the need for community effort in solving large social problems. Children need to understand that they can make a difference, but a community of committed people can be even more powerful.

Figure 7.4 Children play in a poverty stricken area of Port-auPrince, Haiti. How might this image of living conditions in Haiti cause concern among students? What types of social problems does the photo depict?

Visualizing

Social Action Figure 7.5

When children study social problems they often are compelled to find a fair solution. Teachers can design learning experiences for students that encourage them to take social action when faced with social problems. Teachers should ensure that these social action activities meet the expectations of parents, guardians, and the local community. Elementary school-age students might take action to solve an environmental problem. Students could lobby local or state government officials, improve a specific environmental condition, or raise public awareness of environmental problems. Each of these images represents a social problem. Consider actions students could take for each scenario. Vadgam, India (A) is five miles from the nearest river. It has been years since this river held water, and the people of Vadgam need water for daily life. Two water reservoir projects were proposed, but the environmental costs were high. How might students take action on a water issue closer to their home (B)?

A Students study in the Vadgam village school in the Sardar Sarovar Dam Area, Gujarat State, India. Virabhai Damanbhai teaches firstthrough seventh-graders in this one-room schoolhouse.

B This dirty stream, like thousands of others, might be cleaned up by students, who could even adopt the stream and keep it clean over time. What other actions directed at keeping physical space clean might students engage in?

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CONVERSATION, DISCUSSION, AND DIALOGUE IN A DEMOCRACY Children love to talk, and it is a good thing, because talk needs to be front and center in the social studies classroom. Organized forms of talking in class on meaningful subjects can take shape as conversation, discussion, dialogue, and discourse. Each of these ways of talking is unique and essential in a democracy. As social studies teachers we must develop our students’ skills in these forms of civic action. Conversation might be thought of as a casual way of talking. Conversation is important in a democracy, given the diversity of opinions and need for latitude in expressing one’s opinion. Social studies teachers should try to develop children’s sense of tolerance for other opinions and willingness to listen during conversations. Discussion is probably the most common type of talk in social studies. The central characteristic of discussion is the guidance provided by the teacher. Welldesigned discussions should have focused questions with follow-ups and a strict plan for achieving certain objectives. Democratic discussions are very common in local settings where community members are trying to learn about important issues. Dialogue is the most direct and purposeful form of talking in social studies. Well-constructed dialogue should be aimed at building a common understanding or shared vision. This type of consensus building is essential in a democracy ( Figure 7.6 ). Daniel Yankelovich, in his book, The Magic of Dialogue (2001), distinguishes dialogue from discussion using three characteristics. Dialogue, according to Yankelovich, is a special form of talk in which participants treat each other as equals, empathize with each other, and make all assumptions clear. When one of these conditions does not exist, the talk is discussion. CONCEPT CHECK

Children having a dialogue. How is dialogue different from discussion?

Debate is a highly focused form of talk (often argumentation) aimed at the resolution of some problematic or troublesome topic or the presentation of a specific idea. Social studies teachers often use debate to encourage their students to be involved in class activities. Debates allow students to express their opinions in an orderly fashion with students taking turns offering their ideas and responding to each other with thoughtful but critical replies. Think about a specific example in which a teacher might create a debate. In New York City on March 25, 1911, fire destroyed the Asch Building and killed 146 workers from the Triangle Shirtwaist Company who either jumped to their death or suffocated because the fire doors had been kept locked to prevent employee theft. Consider this topic as well as the image and questions in the Concept Check. How might a teacher engage her students in a debate about this fire in 1911?

STOP

How do the forms of civic awareness take shape when children are learning about a tragedy such as the fire of 1911 in New York City?

What form of talk would 186

Figure 7.6

best work in a lesson on this topic?

Fire hoses spray water on the upper floors of the Asch Building (housing the Triangle Shirtwaist Company) on Washington and Greene Streets, during the fire in New York City, March 25, 1911.

Elements of Civic Competence LEARNING OBJECTIVES Recognize and distinguish between the rights and the responsibilities afforded to children in the United States. Describe the role of government and what children in elementary grades should know about government’s function. Explain the role of reasoning in a multicultural democracy.

gests that children should learn about both personal and civic responsibilities. Personal responsibilities: • Taking care of themselves • Accepting responsibility for the consequences of their actions • Taking advantage of the opportunity to be educated

UNDERSTANDING RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

• Supporting their families

hildren’s ability to understand their rights and responsibilities as citizens in the United States is closely linked to their physical, emotional, and cognitive development. When they start school, most children are ready to understand what it means to be responsible for something. Children are taught at home at a ver y young age to obey rules, listen to adults, follow instructions, clean up after themselves, and so on (Figure 7.7 ). Social studies teachers need to build on this prior knowledge to expand their students’ understanding of what it means to be responsible in larger cultural and civic contexts. The National Standards for Civics and Government Education from the Center for Civic Education (CCE) sug-

• Obeying the law

C

Civic responsibilities:

• Respecting the rights of others • Being informed and attentive to the needs of their community • Paying attention to how well elected leaders are doing their jobs • Communicating with representatives in school, local, state, and national governments • Voting • Paying taxes • Serving on juries • Serving in the armed forces

Figure 7.7 These students are following directions and raising their hands. Why are actions such as following directions particularly important in social studies?

187

Gradually, children in elementar y social studies need to develop an appreciation for the rights afforded to citizens in the United States. This process is quite complicated. Children have to be taught that rights are not absolute, which is something that is not necessarily an issue when talking about responsibilities. Children also have to learn that their rights are limited until they are adults. The National Standards in Civics and Government mention numerous rights that should be explored by elementary school-age children. Rights of citizens: • Personal rights (e.g., to associate with whomever one pleases, live where one chooses, practice the religion of one’s choice, travel freely and return to the United States, emigrate) • Political rights (e.g., to vote, speak freely and criticize the government, join organizations that try to influence government policies, join a political party, seek and hold public office) • Economic rights (e.g., to own property, choose one’s work, change employment, join a labor union, establish a business) None of these civic rights is absolute and none of them is fully exercised by children. Limitations must be placed on civil and political rights so that an individual cannot do harm to another in the exercise of their rights. For example, the right to free speech does not excuse slander. Children are limited in their rights due to their inability to properly exercise rights in a reasoned and mature manner. At a certain age (in the United States, post-adolescence or between the ages of 16 and 21) children develop the experience and knowledge necessary to ensure the fair exercise of civil and political rights. The full enjoyment of these rights is delayed until children reach these appropriate ages.

UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE AND PROCESSES OF GOVERNMENT Understanding the processes of government is a common expectation of civic learning (along with patriotism). Of course, this knowledge, in and of itself, is lifeless. Understanding how government works without understanding how to work within government is akin 188

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to understanding how a car works but being unable to drive. Our knowledge of the processes of government is intimately entwined with our desire to actively participate in democratic life. For example, once we understand how a bill becomes a law, we can then involve ourselves actively in the legislative process. Other than the all-important legislative process, what other processes should children learn about in elementary grades? Students can begin by learning what government is and what it can do for children. The National Standards for Civics and Government from the Center for Civic Education suggest a series of questions that children should address related to the purposes of government. Purposes of government: • What is government? • Where do people in government get the authority to make, apply, and enforce rules and laws and manage disputes about them? • Why is government necessary? • What are some of the most important things governments do? • What are the purposes of rules and laws? • How can you evaluate rules and laws? • What are the differences between limited and unlimited governments? • Why is it important to limit the power of government? Each of these questions can serve as a starting point for the development of a lesson on the purpose and the processes of government. The Lesson on pages 190–191 provides an example of investigating the purpose and structure of one branch of government, the United States federal court system.

DEMOCRATIC REASONING AND MULTICULTURAL UNDERSTANDING The process of democratic reasoning is often neglected at all levels of public school, but is essential to the

health of democracies. Democratic reasoning includes the thinking and analytical skills that ing and analytical skills that are enare used when addressing social gaged when adproblems in democratic condressing social texts. For example, citizens use problems in demodemocratic reasoning when they cratic contexts. decide whom they will support in a political election or whether they will participate in a public forum on a local issue. Central to the idea of democratic reasoning is a vision of the United States as a pluralistic society with a vast number of ethnic, religious, and racial groups all vying for attention and acceptance. Children who are thinking about problems in a democracy need to appreciate and understand the importance of equality.

Democratic reasoning Think-

Children must have continual experiences with a wide range of cultural expressions in order to develop an appreciation of and respect for equality. These experiences might begin with simple activities such as those involving cultural appreciation. For example, children might explore Cuban, Dominican, or Haitian culture, particularly children in Florida or New York City, where the Cuban populations are significant. These activities might include explorations of dress, religion, food, dance, music, and literature (Figure 7.8a). It is also important for children to consider more serious issues that face the people of many cultures and backgrounds ( Figure 7.8b ). Teachers can support children in thinking about how these issues influence political debate and civic discourse in the United States.

Figure 7.8 A A Carnival parade lights up Santiago de Cuba, Cuba on a sul-

B Cuban dissident Francisco Moure (center) is aided by compa-

try July night as troupes of costumed dancers make their way down a street. How might this celebration be used to help children explore Caribbean culture? What more would need to be done in such an exploration?

triots Yusimy Gil (left) and Carlos Miguel Lopez at his house in Havana (August 10, 2004), where he remained on a hunger strike for 10 days, demanding Fidel Castro’s government liberate the prisoners of conscience from Cuban jails. How is this portrayal of Caribbean experiences different from an approach that focuses on cultural appreciation?

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LESSON Tinker v. Des Moines and the Federal Courts

INTRODUCTION

PROCEDURE

In this lesson, fifth-grade students investigate the purpose and structure of the United States federal court system. The judicial branch (or “the courts”) is one of the three branches of federal government. This branch of government has the responsibility of interpreting or explaining laws that are passed by the legislative branch (Congress).

Begin the lesson with a brief activity describing the basic structure of national government in the United States. One way to describe the federal government is to compare it to a three-legged stool. If possible, this can even be demonstrated for students. The idea is that the stool is the government, and each leg is a branch of the government. With one or two legs the stool will collapse. The same might be said about the United States government. Each branch of government––legislative, judicial, and executive––must function properly or the U.S. government will “collapse.” Table 7.1 may also be helpful.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The objective is to enable students to identify the purpose of the courts and to be able to arrange the courts according to how they act on legal cases. In addition, students can construct an opinion of the extent of student rights in schools.

Legislative Branch

Executive Branch

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Judicial Branch

Branches of U.S. Government Table 7.1 Legislative branch

Judicial branch

Executive branch

Congress

Courts

President

House of Representatives and Senate

Federal District Court, Court of Appeals, Supreme Court

President, heads of departments (cabinet), administrative officials

Power to make laws

Power to interpret or explain laws

Power to enforce laws

Place students into groups of three in order to learn more about the three branches of government. Ask each student in the group to describe one or two things from the news that each branch is currently engaging in. Continue by focusing on one branch, the federal courts. This activity might revolve around a real legal case. One case that might interest fifth-grade students is Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969). In this famous decision, the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that public school officials could not censor student expression (in this case, the wearing of black arm bands). The case, like all Supreme Court cases, started in the lower courts. Focus on how the case moved through the courts instead of the details of the case. However, a general understanding of the details of the case is important. The case involved three high school students who wore black arm bands to school in protest of the Vietnam War. The students were suspended for violating a school rule forbidding such protest. The students and their parents (the Tinkers and the Eckhardts) sued the school system in U.S. District Court. This first-level federal court ruled in favor of the school. The students and parents appealed the case to the U.S. Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals ruled the same as the District Court––in favor of the school. The parents and students made their final appeal to the Supreme Court, which reversed the other decisions and ruled in favor of the students.

The second group activity involves five groups. One group represents the students and their parents (the Tinkers and Eckhardts), the second group represents the school (Des Moines Schools), and the other three groups each represent one of the three U.S. courts (District, Appeals, and Supreme). The three “courts” each set up a table and chairs in one part of the room. The student group and the school group travel to each of the three court groups trying to talk them into agreeing with them. The Tinker/Eckhardt and Des Moines groups of students travel together and present their arguments in a preassigned order (one group, the other, and a rebuttal for each). The Tinker/ Eckhardt and Des Moines groups should visit each court in the order that the case moved through the system—District, Appeals, and finally Supreme. At the District level, the Tinker group should go first. Whoever wins at this level should go first at the next level.

ASSESSMENT Students can share their findings through an expressive activity. They might write a poem or a short story describing what they think are the rights students should enjoy in school and what they think the limits of these rights should be. Students can also prepare a short newspaper account of the case that highlights the facts and the decisions at each level.

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PARTICIPATING AND TAKING ACTION IN DEMOCRATIC COMMUNITIES For many children, their most meaningful experiences in school will be project-based activities that allow them to be involved in the community. These might be small-scale activities, such as a trip to a local community center, or more involved activities, perhaps even focused on some dramatic and public effort CONCEPT CHECK

to change public policy on an issue. Many examples exist of elementar y school-aged children who have taken some action in their community after being prompted by a social studies teacher. For example, children in an elementar y school in Rome, Georgia, organized a public drive to have the state legislature recognize the tree frog as the official state amphibian. After much effort, including directly lobbying state lawmakers, the students were successful.

STOP

How do the rights and responsibilities of children clash in this image?

What is gained and what is lost when students are required to say the Pledge?

Should all students be required to recite the Pledge of Allegiance at school?

Mexican-American students at Robert L. Martin School in Brownsville, Texas, say the Pledge of Allegiance in their classroom.

Promoting Civic Competence LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the role of stories in teaching civics and government. Compare how civic knowledge and civic activity can emerge from teaching activities on specific subject matter. Identify how ideology can influence civics curriculum and teaching.

USING STORIES TO COMMUNICATE CIVIC VALUES

A 192

s we learned in Chapter 5, stories have powerful communicative value. Teachers can use stories to help children develop civic competencies. Stories can

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convey important responsibilities. Through storytelling, teachers can help children understand the roles and processes of government. Stories can be a resource for exploring civic diversity and for reasoning in multicultural democratic contexts. Some stories can even provide a context for critical exploration of social issues and potentially for encouraging social activity. Elementary social studies teachers can use a variety of storytelling techniques including tales, parables, and fables to convey ideas, concepts, and values to students. Tales tend to be simple stories that may or may not have a message. Parables typically have no story structure, but convey a special and sometimes hidden message. Fables are perhaps the most useful pedagogical tool of the three in that they combine the story structure of a tale with the message of a parable. Teachers can make effective use of the famous fables assembled under the

legendary (and probably fictional) Aesop. These fables are culled from a wide range of African and European sources and date in some cases back thousands of years. Fables such as “The Tortoise and the Eagle,” about the tortoise who complains that he cannot fly and is then lifted aloft by an eagle only to be dropped and eaten by the eagle, might convey to children the value of appreciating their own talents and traits. Such stories help teachers to illustrate important values in cultural contexts that are part of social studies curriculum. Almost all cultures across the globe have their own traditions of fables and stor ytelling. The African tales of the Ashanti and the tales of African American slaves collected by Joel Chandler Harris in Uncle Remus Tales convey powerful messages through imagery and African animal mythology. Indian fables focused on the myster y and beauties of the VedicHindu tradition convey important cultural characteristics. Similar culturally situated tales have emerged in Korea, Japan, and China and throughout the Pacific region, as well as in the Caribbean and Central and South America. Books and stories about the processes of government are very important. Elementary school students will only develop a rudimentary knowledge of the details of how government works, but the generalities are very important at this age. David Catrow’s book, We the Kids: The Preamble to the Constitution, is a clever adaptation of the Preamble of the United States Constitution,

which explores government as an idea, as well as the rights and responsibilities of citizens and the processes of government. The subject of multicultural democratic life is one of the most vibrant subgenres of children’s social studies literature. Books ranging across the spectrum of multicultural topics are available, including books on cultural appreciation, individual achievement against cultural odds, cultural pluralism, and respect for cultural differences (see Table 7.2 ). In order to develop a sense of respect for a culture, it’s important to include books that present culturally valid images of individuals or groups of people that reinforce some indigenous value. Social studies teachers may use stories or books to explore social issues and to potentially encourage social activity. Lois Lowr y’s powerful 1993 book, The Giver, might be used in upper elementary classes (preferably fifth grade) to explore social issues related to historical memory, such as how people value differences and how we live with our past. In the book, the main character, a 12-year-old named Jonas, lives in a utopian world that knows nothing of its past, except for one person who holds this sacred but potentially destructive knowledge. When Jonas is selected to replace this person and is given knowledge of the past, he is unable to remain and flees the utopian community and its life of sameness for a new life where traditions and the past are known and differences are valued.

Sample of books with different multicultural foci Table 7.2 Book title

Author

Multicultural topic

Tenzin’s Deer: A Tibetan Tale

Barbara Soros

Cultural appreciation

Sequoyah: The Cherokee Man Who Gave His People Writing

James Rumford

Individual achievement against cultural odds

My Name Was Hussein

Hristo Kyuchukov

Cultural pluralism

Babushka Baba Yaga

Patricia Polacco

Respect for cultural differences

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In the Classroom

THE STORY OF CÉSAR CHÁVEZ

Children all over the United States, but particularly in California, learn the story of César Chávez. First-grade teacher Helen Librado teaches the Chávez story to her children every year. Chávez grew up as a poor migrant worker in Arizona and California’s Central Valley. He and his family struggled to make ends meet. After experiencing poverty first-hand, Chávez began organizing migrant workers. Eventually, he established the National Farm Workers Association and later the United Farm Workers. In this story, the children in Mrs. Librado’s class learn about the value of hard work and determination as they hear about Chávez as a boy with his family working as migrant farmers in California’s Central Valley. Mrs. Librado also has her students consider how the suffering of Chávez and his family might have encouraged

Farm workers harvest Pinot Noir wine grapes in October 2006 at the Byron Vineyard and Winery in Santa Maria, California. Cooler weather that year delayed the ripening of grapes at many West Coast vineyards.

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young César to look for solutions to the problems of migrant workers. The talk in her classroom is conversational and is loosely focused on the Chávez family’s pain. Mrs. Librado takes care not to traumatize her students, but she does lead them to a recognition that action needed to be taken. Mrs. Librado has her students draw pictures of what they would want working conditions to be for migrant workers. She works with students to brainstorm how their community might help people today who suffer under unfair working conditions in their state and in the world. Mrs. Librado also often uses storybooks in her lesson, including Kathleen Krull’s book Harvesting Hope: The Story of César Chávez or Richard Griswold del Castillo’s César Chávez: The Struggle for Justice.

DEVELOPING CIVIC KNOWLEDGE Students can develop their civic knowledge through a range of activities, which might be student- or teachercentered. Local, state, and national standards and curriculum set forth the general substance of the knowledge children will learn. Teachers can plan specific lessons based on those standards. As part of civic education, teachers can base instruction on the following knowledge areas culled from the National Standards for Civics and Government: • The definition of government, its functions and powers • The basic values and principles that guide American democracy • The United States Constitution; individual civil and property rights • The common good • Comparative knowledge of other forms of government • The roles of a citizen in the American democracy What basic values and principles inherent in American democracy might we consider in the context of the women’s suffrage movement? What elements of the Constitution might be appropriate? How might children learn about the common good, or the role of individuals and groups in civic life? These questions, on virtually any subject matter, can result in authentic pedagogical ideas on the part of teachers and meaningful learning opportunities for students.

ENGAGING IN CIVIC ACTIVITY How do teachers get students involved in civic life? It begins at the earliest grades with some of the seminal school-based activities in which children engage. Activities such as meeting with community leaders (e.g., policemen and firemen); learning class rules and procedures; participating in school and classroombased community help events such as food drives and walk-a-thons help introduce children to the world around them and to their role in that world.

As children grow, teachers can seek out creative opportunities in community-based learning (also called service learning or social action). As children advance through the elementary grades, these experiences can become routine. By the third and fourth grades, children may be getting used to annual service events. It is incumbent upon the social studies teacher to seek out new and creative experiences. The most authentic and consequently meaningful service-oriented social studies activities emerge from local contexts. What are some activities in your local community that might engage students? On another level, how might students address the perennial problem of global hunger? Considering recent droughts in Africa can serve as a context for answering this question. In one of the worse cases, the failure of several rainy seasons in the early 1980s caused a devastating drought that helped bring on one of the most pervasive famines in the continent’s histor y ( Figure 7.9 ). Booming populations, civil strife, and unwise agricultural practices compounded the tragedy. In Ethiopia, over one million people died of starvation or disease. Few areas of the continent remained unaffected; the drought ravaged nearly 30 nations and touched 150 million people.

Figure 7.9 Starving children (drought victims) waiting at Korem refugee camp feeding center.

planning for instruction and teaching. Simple decisions such as what resources to use are often made using judgments informed by ideology. For example, consider a teacher who is planning an Earth Day activity. A simple decision over whether to focus on a topic such as global What opinions might emerge from a consideration warming, a topic that generates much controversy, might of the image of the Greenpeace protest in Figure reflect an ideological belief. 7.10? How might one’s political ideology or perspecIdeology may be present in social studies content, tive influence how one teaches about the military or debut those involved in education often attempt to mask its fense spending and preparation? influence. Publishers go to great lengths to remove ideoIdeology, or one’s view of the world, appears in logical overtones from textbooks. In a market as narrow many places in social studies, but the most obvious as the social studies textbook market, very few compaplace is in civics and government. In elementary school nies would risk sales by claiming to be driven social studies, students might learn about by a particular ideology. Likewise, social the political parties and might begin to unIdeology studies teachers are generally very careful to derstand that people have different beliefs A world view or set avoid revealing their political opinions, and about democratic ideals such as justice and of beliefs that explains human action most often attempt to hide their personal liberty. These representations become ideoand behavior. ideology behind their pedagogical practice. logical in that they explain the world. Great care needs to be taken to identify your Beyond the subject matter for instruction, own ideology as a teacher and continually check yourself ideology affects curriculum and instruction. Ideological to see whether that ideology unduly influences what you perspectives influence how specific curriculums are develteach and the way you teach. Knowing your own ideologoped. Evidence of the ideological character of curriculum ical stance requires reflection and serious consideration can be found in the recent contentious debate over the of what you believe about seminal contested issues national history standards. Ideology also influences teach(school choice, abortion, prayer in schools, etc.) and baers’ development of instructional ideas. Some teachers sic systems (e.g., free and market economies). might not even know they are acting ideologically when

SOCIAL STUDIES CONTENT, TEACHER AND STUDENT OPINIONS, AND IDEOLOGY

Figure 7.10 Greenpeace activists hold reproductions of B61 atomic bombs outside the Italian Parliament during a protest, in Rome, Friday, November 24, 2006. The activists are protesting against the holding of B61 atomic bombs in NATO headquarters in Italy, in view of the upcoming NATO summit in Riga, Latvia.

Figure 7.11 Martin Luther King, Jr., with other civil rights leaders on August 28, 1963, during the March on Washington

One common story in social studies with an ideological focus is the story of Martin Luther King, Jr. Read the following excerpt from King’s speech, “I Have a Dream.” Think about King’s call for social action and the ideology reflected in this famous speech during the 1963 March on Washington (Figure 7.11). We cannot walk alone. And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall march ahead. We cannot turn back. There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, “When will you be satisfied?” We can never be

CONCEPT CHECK

satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.

STOP

How can Martin Luther King, Jr.’s life story be represented to encourage the development of civic knowledge and facilitate civic activity?

What was King trying to say about civic action for a better society?

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197

What is happening in this picture Teaching children about patriotism is complicated. Teachers often rely on iconic representations of national unity or national identity. ■ How does this im-

age represent patriotic notions of either national unity or identity?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

The Need for Civic Competence

Civic competence is essential to democratic health. We must possess both the disposition and the knowledge that enable effective participation in democratic systems. Democracy depends on citizen participation for its existence. Social studies teachers have a role in the continuation and support of democracy through the preparation of young people to be citizens in the U.S. democracy. We achieve civic competence through closely managed school experiences, and social studies plays a major role in this process.

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?

The Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island, New York City. What messages about Americans do we associate with the Statue of Liberty, in the sense of both its physical and its emotional characteristics?

2

Forms of Civic Awareness

Civic awareness takes form through respect for authority, the parallel development of some patriotic sensibility, the development of personal conscience, and the possession of particular knowledge on civics and government. Although many forms of learning and experience are a part of civic life, none is more important than civic talk. Forms of civic talk include conversation, discussion, dialogue, and discourse.

4

3

Elements of Civic Competence

Civic competence among children means that they understand their rights and responsibilities as young citizens. Children must also understand the role and purposes of government and understand how to reason in a multicultural democracy. Children can learn the importance of participation in civic life and be provided with opportunities to engage in civic activities.

Promoting Civic Competence

We can use stories when teaching civics and government to help children understand the role of government, as a resource for exploring civic diversity, for multicultural reasoning, and to provide a context for exploring social issues. Children need to develop specific civic knowledge and to use that knowledge to take civic action. Teachers must take care to consider their own political opinion when preparing lessons and teaching.

Visual Summary

199

KEY TERMS ■ citizen, p. 176

■ tolerance, p. 178

■ democratic reasoning, p. 189

■ civic, p. 176

■ conscience, p. 180

■ ideology, p. 196

■ civic competence, p. 177

■ patriotism, p. 182

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

The work of government is complicated and in a democracy is seemingly inefficient. Consider the following montage of images that represent the three branches of government in the United States.

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•

How can social studies teachers help children understand why the framers of the United States Constitution created a system of government with three separate branches of government that in operation is complicated and seemingly inefficient?

SELF-TEST 1. What is civic competence? How is this image representative of a form of civic competence?

6. Which of the following is least important in a democracy? a. appreciating and respecting authority b. developing an affection for country c. understanding how to contribute to political campaigns d. participating in civic dialogue and conversations 7. How does democratic reasoning relate to civic competence in a multicultural or pluralist society such as the United States? 8. Which is not a branch of government? a. legislative b. judicial c. appeals d. executive 9. How does ideology affect learning civic competency? 10. What is democratic reasoning? How might students engage democratic reasoning to address the pollution problem illustrated in this photo?

2. How can teachers avoid civic self-centeredness through social studies experiences? a. require students to behave in class b. test students on civic knowledge c. develop a sense of community in the class d. encourage students to do their homework 3. _______________ is the capacity to recognize and respect the beliefs or practices of others. 4. Which of the following is most important in a democracy? a. civic competency b. patriotism c. personal conscience d. all of the above 5. Which of the following forms of talk is most common in a teacher-centered classroom? a. conversation b. discussion c. dialogue d. discourse

Self-Test

201

Direct Teaching and Learning

8

“H

ow am I supposed to teach about the history of European exploration in two days?” This question perplexed Donnie as he prepared a lesson on exploration for his fifth-grade students. Donnie knows plenty about the history of exploration and felt he needed to provide his students opportunities to learn about more than he had time for. In order to enable students to engage the maximum amount of subject matter, Donnie developed a plan that included three 15-minute lectures to deliver over the full two days. The lectures addressed what he thought were the three key topics: (1) the technology that enabled exploration, (2) the reasons for exploration, and (3) the consequences of exploration. The three mini-lectures were each followed by highly focused teacher-directed learning activities. Donnie’s final mini-lecture was on the establishment of the Spanish system of Encomienda and the consequential emergence of slave labor. The lecture contrasted the greed of the Spanish Conquistadores with some of the positive cultural and economic exchanges between the Spanish and Native Americans. The lecture included a definition of Encomienda, along with examples of how the Native Americans were treated. Students followed up by reading passages from The Devastation of the Indies, Bartolomé de Las Casas’ firsthand account of the maltreatment of Native Americans by the Conquistadores. After reading the passage, students summarized the difference of opinion between the Catholic Church and Spanish Conquistadores regarding treatment of Native Americans. Donnie then directed students as they considered other times in history when great powers have exerted their power and influence at the expense of others. Students also made a chart of the accomplishments and the failures of the Encomienda. These instructional activities all comprised a direct approach to teaching, which allowed Donnie to “cover” large amounts of material while still maintaining student interest and keeping students actively engaged.

202

The Burning of the Idols by Hernán Cortés, illustration from a facsimile of the 16th-century Mexican Indian picture history titled “Lienzo de Tlaxcala.”

CHAPTER OUTLINE ncor cor Montpe elier Conc el Albany Boston New York Hartforrd

Lansing Michigan

ois

Indiana

Pennsylvania

Columbus Ohio

eld

Indianapollis

Harrisburg

T

nnapoliss West Ann Virginia Richmond

■ Direct Instruction and

Teacher-Directed Instruction p. 204

■ Factors Influencing

Teacher-Directed Instruction p. 210

■ Types of Teacher-Directed

Instruction p. 214

■ Whole Class and Independent

Teacher-Directed Instruction p. 218

any teachers feel comfortable using didactic or direct instructional methods. These direct approaches, which include lecture, independent student work, and guided whole class instruction, provide teachers with the utmost control over the learning pace and classroom interaction. The primary goal of this chapter is to

M

consider various effective direct instructional methods and the most appropriate and meaningful contexts for implementing these techniques. We give special attention to specific reasons why direct instruction is important in social studies. Lecture plays an important role in social studies and so we cover it in depth in this chapter.

Direct Instruction and Teacher-Directed Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Consider how teachers use direct instruction in their practice. Describe the broad characteristics of teacher-directed instruction. Compare formal direct instruction and generalized teacherdirected instruction.

hink about how a teacher might direct students toward a specific subject matter–related learning goal associated with the image in Figure 8.1. For example, the teacher might say that the children and animals depicted in this image live in the Egyptian desert. The teacher might then prompt the students to notice

T

Figure 8.1 Boys and camels at Pushkar camel fair in India

what the children are wearing and ask why they think the children are dressed this way. The teacher might continue by providing students opportunities to think of other deserts in the world, even giving several examples of desert dress (Figure 8.2). This work becomes a form of practice with each succeeding example helping to further advance students’ knowledge. This example of teacher-directed or didactic instruction is just one of many ways to use that teaching method. All of these approaches to teaching position the teacher at the center of the instructional process, with the teacher delivering instruction through closely manDidactic aged techniques aimed at Another word for encouraging learning of specific a teacher-centered

Desert life in Algeria Figure 8.2

approach to teaching; also can mean a form of moral instruction.

and focused subject matter. Teacher-directed instruction takes form in precise ways, including specific educational practices such as the direct instruction method.

2. Students should learn subject matter or skills through repetition and should demonstrate their knowledge in multiple formats.

WHAT IS DIRECT INSTRUCTION?

3. All students should be actively learning the same thing in the activity.

Direct instruction is a specific method of teaching that enables teachers to take students Closely developed through a series of exercises that series of exercises provide the learners with continthat provide learners ual opportunities to interact with continual interaction limited but fundamental subject with limited, fundamatter and skills. The method mental subject was developed by Siegfried E. Enmatter. gelmann (Engelmann & Carnine, 1991) in the late 1960s and has been continually refined and adapted since. Although the direct instruction method is most commonly associated with math, it has an interdisciplinary application. Direct instruction requires teachers to closely develop activities that proceed with care given to learning outcomes. One of the names most closely associated with direct teaching is Madeline Hunter (1982). A method of direct teaching that she developed demonstrates in simple form some of the hallmarks of direct instruction. See the Process Diagram (Figure 8.3) on page 206 for the steps involved in teaching via direct instruction using the Hunter method.

Direct instruction

Teacherdirected instruction

WHAT IS TEACHERDIRECTED INSTRUCTION?

Teaching approach focused on clearly defined and organized teaching tasks and measurable incremental learning.

Teacher-directed instruction is a much broader way of thinking about teacher-centered instruction. As opposed to direct instruction, teacher-directed instruction is not a prescribed procedure. Instead, it is a flexible approach to instruction that incorporates four major priorities. Priorities for Teacher-Directed Instruction 1. The teacher needs to be ver y clear about the subject matter that will be learned.

4. The subject matter should be situated in meaningful contexts that will encourage students to learn the subject matter given what they already know. In social studies, teacher-directed instruction often takes the form of a lecture, but it might also include memorization, reading comprehension, map skills exercises, directed inquir y, role-play, group decisionmaking, and problem-solving exercises. Each one of these approaches to teaching could be adapted and taught as student-centered activities if any of the four priorities were not taken into consideration. Lecture is perhaps the most common approach to teaching social studies. Although lecture can sometimes be overused, well-planned lecture as a form of teacherdirected instruction is an essential part of social studies. See “In the Classroom” on page 208 for an example of how a fourth-grade teacher in Montana prepares for a 15-minute lecture on the purpose and various levels of government. As Ms. Rankin planned her lecture, she used multiple examples to support her explanations. Teaching by example is an effective and manageable way to enliven and enrich lecture and teacher-directed instruction. Providing examples is a way to follow up on previously introduced subject matter. Another way teachers might reinforce subject matter in a teacher-directed activity is through group work on topics that were previously introduced through lecture, or through whole group discussion and whole class reading activities. Following are additional teacher-directed instructional approaches to support active and meaningful student learning. • The teacher describes the context surrounding an inquiry question that students will be working on. • The teacher presents background information to prepare students for a simulation. • The teacher explains concepts and issues that will prepare students for a debate. • The teacher offers a lecture as a way to initiate a whole class discussion. Direct Instruction and Teacher-Directed Instruction

205

Process Diagram

The Hunter method of direct instruction Figure 8.3 Classroom Example of Direct Instruction: The Process Diagram details the steps in Hunter’s method that she once quite simply referred to by saying “Tell them what you’re going to say, say it, and then tell them what you said.” What does this kind of prescriptive teaching look like? Consider a lesson on famous people. First-grade students are often expected to know about the lives and accomplishments of selected men and women in early history. They learn about people such as Cleopatra, Mansa Musa, and Augustus Caesar. Here is how a direct instruction lesson on how Cleopatra might look, focused on an image of Cleopatra as depicted in the Temple of the Goddess Hathor, Dendera, Egypt.

2 Anticipatory set—An — initial teacher action with students that prepares them for f learning, by heightening their awareness of the subject matter and potentially bringing to the fforefront what they already know.

3 T Teaching sequence—Specific activities that enable learners to input new info f rmation and see that knowledge modeled by their teacher. These activities could involve multimedia teacher presentations with visual artifacts f cused on essential info f rmation nd an assignment that requires em to work with the info f rmation. The teaching sequence should also include modeling and checks for f understanding.

4 Guided practice/monitoring— Have students work with the same subject matter or skill as they worked with during the teaching sequence.

6 Ind practice The practice might take the fform of a homework assignment or a long-range project.

1 Learning objectives—Clear statements of specific measurable and observable student behaviors, skills, or knowledge that students will demonstrate after the instruction.

6 Independent practice— Ask students to make up a short story in which Cleopatra does something ffor her people and then present the story in class

1 Learning objectives • Students recognize Cleopatra as Egyptian • Students identify the time when she was queen. • Students recognize why her rule was important.

2

ory set—Show students this image of Cleopatra and ask them whether they recognize the place or people depicted.

5 Lesson closure—The teacher repeats the purpose of the ctivity and reinforces f the rimary learned subject matter or kills. T Tell students, very eliberately, y that the activity is ending and help them incorporate their newly learned knowledge into their existing knowledge framework.

Teaching sequence 3 T Input—Show students a picture of Cleopatra: tell them that she was the Queen of Egypt two thousand years go o and the last ffamous Egyptian haraoh. Cleopatra’s rule was marked by drama, intrigue, and tragedy. he people of Egypt worshiped her as a god, yet Cleopatra presided over the fall f of the Egyptian Empire. Her sensational relationships with Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Mark Antony ultimately led to the downfall f of Egypt and became the source of seemingly countless books, stories, plays, and movies. Cleopatra has become an almost mythical figure represented as beautiful, powerful, and, given her death at her own hands, ultimately a figure of tragic dimensions. Modeling—Ask — students to draw a picture of Cleopatra and describe (orally or in writing, depending on the abilities of the students) the role of a Pharaoh. In the direct instruction model, the teacher would also provide students with a model of this work. Check ffor understanding r — —As students produce their drawings, check ffor understanding to determine whether students’’ drawings and explanations are adequate.

4 Guided practice—To T reinforce f what students have learned about Cleopatra, have pairs of tudents tell each other story that they eveloped given the teacher’s model story about Cleopatra. The story should incorporate something about her “job “ ” as Pharaoh.

5 Lesson closure—Review the primary info f rmation learned by students in the lesson, including the name of Cleopatra and her position as Queen of Egypt 2,000 years ago nd the importance of leopatra as a historic nd mythic figure.

able approach that requires the teacher to make adjustments given the subject matter. Take for example the idea of state capitals, commonly taught in elementary grades (Figure 8.4). Depending on the desired learning outcome related to state capitals, a teacher may want to use different instructional approaches. Direct instruction is well suited for helping students to learn the names of the 50 state capitals. After establishing the learning objective, the teacher can provide students with the names of the 50 capitals in the form of a map or a simple list. The teacher can model the capital names by reciting them or by using mnemonic devices to help students remember––the memorization needed to effectively recognize all 50 state capitals requires consistent practice.

A COMPARISON OF DIRECT AND TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION The distinctions between direct instruction and teacherdirected instruction are important. Although both approaches place the teacher in the center of learning activities in the class, teacher-directed instruction is not as scripted and thus requires a greater degree of teacher knowledge and active involvement. Teacher-directed instruction might take form in a number of different activities, while direct instruction requires certain parameters for implementation. For example, if the particular subject matter does not lend itself to modeling or practice, then the direct instructional method might be of limited value. Teacher-directed instruction is a holistic adapt-

State capitals of the United States Figure 8.4

Washington Olympia

Maine North Dakota

Helena

New Hampshire

Montana

Vermont

Salem

Bismark

Oregon

Idaho

St. Paul

Boston New York Hartford

Lansing Michigan

Iowa

Cheyenne Sacramento

Albany

Madison

Pierre

Wyoming

Montpelier Concord Massachusetts

Wisconsin

South Dakota Boise

Pennsylvania

Carson City Nevada

Nebraska

Salt Lake City Denver Utah

Des Moines

Illinois

Topeka

Arkansas

Richmond

Trenton New Jersey Dover Delaware Maryland

Virginia

Kentucky Raleigh Nashville Tennessee

Oklahoma

Annapolis

Providence Rhode Island Connecticut

Charleston

Frankfort Jefferson City

Santa Fe

West Virginia

Indianapolis

Missouri Kansas

New Mexico

Harrisburg

Columbus Ohio

Springfield

Arizona

Indiana

Lincoln

Colorado California

Augusta

Minnesota

North Carolina South Carolina

Oklahoma City

Columbia

Atlanta

Little Rock Phoenix

Alabama Jackson

Georgia

Louisiana Texas

Mississippi

Austin

Baton Rouge

Montgomery Tallahassee

Florida Hawaii

Honolulu

Alaska Juneau

Direct Instruction and Teacher-Directed Instruction

207

In the Classroom

TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION—LECTURING ABOUT THE PURPOSE AND LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT

Jan Rankin is a fourth-grade teacher in Montana who is teaching her students about the purposes and levels of government. This topic is explicitly listed in the Montana state social studies standards, so Ms. Rankin wants to make sure students have a good opportunity to learn the material. She decided to start the lesson with a short lecture. Ms. Rankin has learned through experience that students will have a hard time paying attention for much longer than 10–15 minutes, so she planned to tailor her lecture to that amount of time. To meet these needs, Ms. Rankin decided to break her lecture into two sections with multiple subsections. The outline of the lecture consisted of the following: I. Purposes of government a. To protect citizens (see the image of the road and power line) b. To promote the common good (see the image of the national park) II. Levels of government a. National b. State c. Local d. Tribal Ms. Rankin focused on these six subtopics because they reflect subject matter specifically mentioned in state standards and local curriculum, but she still had plenty of work to do in developing the accompanying explanations. As Ms. Rankin continued to plan, she made sure to develop the lecture according to the directinstruction priorities deThese power lines and road in scribed earlier. The lesson Montana are regulated and material needed to be definmaintained by local and state itive and specific. In an efgovernment authorities. fort to keep the material focused, Ms. Rankin developed short descriptive and memorable explanations of the two primary purposes of government.

Glacier National Park in Montana is maintained by the U.S. government.

1. Government protects citizens from harm and protects citizens’ rights. 2. Government does things to make our country better and make our lives as comfortable as possible. When implementing this portion of the lecture, Ms. Rankin planned to repeat these two ideas three times in three different contexts, thus satisfying the second priority of teacherdirected instruction. She used the same approach with the subject matter on levels of government. The next step was deciding how the lecture could support additional activities for the class. She wanted these additional activities to be meaningful and active, so Ms. Rankin planned for students to make an illustrated timeline detailing the role of government in a week of their life. The timelines would have at least 10 events that involved some activity that is regulated, facilitated, overseen, or somehow influenced by government. Each one of these government actions would be labeled according to the level of government that was at work. This activity would build on subject matter students learned in the lecture. As suggested in the second priority for teacher-directed instruction, this would enable students to work with the subject matter in a new context, through repetition. When making their timelines, students would be actively involved, thus satisfying the third priority of teacher-directed instruction. By focusing on students’ lives, Ms. Rankin’s plan creates a meaningful context, thereby meeting the fourth priority of teacher-directed instruction.

If we change the learning expectation related to the 50 capitals, then the instructional approach needs to change also. Let’s say that instead of memorizing the capitals, students need to describe their characteristics. This subject matter may require a more flexible teacher-directed approach. Instead of providing students with information and then modeling and practicing, a social studies teacher might give student groups descriptions of the locations of all 50 capitals (maybe 2

CONCEPT CHECK

or 3 to a person). The teacher could then direct students as they discuss these characteristics and are led to realize that most state capitals are small- to medium-size cities located in the middle of their state. In this activity, the teacher directs the students to discover the shared characteristics of state capitals. This form of teacherdirected instruction is much more flexible than formalized direct instruction.

STOP

How might a teacher approach the subject matter conveyed in this image using direct instruction?

How might the learning objectives be different if the teacher used a more teacher-directed approach?

The Ilulissat glacier is Greenland’s fastest moving glacier and is a major part of the Arctic continental ice sheet. The glacier has shrunk by more than 10 kilometers in just a few years. This is an example of global warming in the Arctic region.

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Factors Influencing Teacher-Directed Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the types of subject matter that are well suited for teacher-directed instruction. Identify the conditions for active learning during teacherdirected instruction. Clarify how the curriculum might influence a teacher’s decision to use a teacher-directed approach to instruction.

SUBJECT MATTER AND TEACHERDIRECTED INSTRUCTION eciding what particular instructional method to use for a given lesson is a complicated task. There are a number of considerations to make related to curriculum, the prior knowledge and abilities of the learners, the purposes of education, and the needs of community, among others. First, consider the nature of the subject matter. Certain subject matter is learned better when teachers direct the instruction than when the environment is student-centered. Social studies subject matter is not immune to this phenomenon. Subject matter that is discrete or unassociated with larger themes, or subject matter that is more story-like, is well suited for teacher-directed instruction. How can you determine whether the subject is best suited to teacher-directed instruction? First, ask yourself whether the subject matter is limited in the manner in which it can be represented. For example, how might a teacher represent the dates of the American Revolution? The dates can be stated, written, and perhaps illustrated or drawn. Since dates can be represented only in these simple forms, it makes sense that a teacher direct students through their experience with this specific subject matter. A teacher can state the starting date of the Revolution as April 19, 1775, when British troops and colonial militia clashed at Concord, Massachusetts, and the ending date as October 19, 1781, when the British general Lord Cornwallis surrendered to George Washington. The teacher can write these dates on the board and also illustrate the dates on a timeline.

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Second, consider the extent Epistemological to which learners might quesA philosophical issue tion the subject matter. This that deals with the nature, origin, and epistemological question scope of knowledge. needs to be answered before the instruction can be planned. If the subject matter has very little room for interpretation, then teacher-directed instruction may be appropriate. Remember that there will always be some level of interpretation. For example, although there is virtually no disagreement on the dates of the American Revolution, there are complications with these dates. Some may argue the American Revolution did not end until the signing of the Treaty of Paris between America and Great Britain on September 3, 1783. The goal in teacher-directed instruction is to establish subject matter clarity. Introducing a new date does not have to undermine the first two dates, but can be included in the information given to students. Students can be taught when the fighting started, when it ended, and when the war officially ended.

TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION AND ACTIVE LEARNING One criticism of teacher-directed instruction is that it can induce passivity on the part of learners. Consider a lecture where the teacher does all the talking and students only listen and perhaps write down disconnected notes. Teacher-directed instruction should not result in student passivity. Teachers need to involve their students in the learning process by designing activities that • have meaning for students, • require them to take action, and • reflect their interests. “Visualizing: Ponce de Leon and the Fountain of Youth” ( Figure 8.5 ) examines the planning involved in an activity that is teacher-directed and includes active learning.

Active learning Learning that involves students creating their own knowledge in dynamic and focused ways.

Visualizing

Ponce de Leon and the Fountain of Youth Figure 8.5

In Florida, children learn about Ponce de Leon and the Fountain of Youth. As children learn the facts or details about Ponce de Leon (i.e., he was a Spanish explorer, the governor of Puerto Rico, and “discovered” Florida in 1513), they might be encouraged to be more active by questioning the existence of the fabled Fountain of Youth. Ponce de Leon was intrigued by legends he heard of the existence of a spring containing water that delayed aging. Some suggest that Ponce de Leon was searching for the Fountain of Youth when on Easter Sunday, March 27, 1513, he discovered a peninsula that he named La Florida (from the Spanish name for Easter, “Pascua Florida,” which in English means “Feast of Flowers”). Consider these images, which depict or reflect Ponce de Leon’s search for the Fountain of Youth. As children are delivered the facts and told the story of Ponce de Leon, they could become enchanted by the mystery of the Fountain of Youth. This process enables the teacher to connect the facts about Ponce de Leon and the founding of Florida to student interest in the possibility that the Fountain of Youth is real. Teachers might include a follow-up activity in which the students conjecture about the possibility of the Fountain of Youth being real.

A A painting of Ponce de Leon landing on the coast of Florida.

B A woman standing over the reputed Fountain of Youth.

C The entrance to a state park built around the reputed Fountain of Youth.

CURRICULUM: WHEN TO USE TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION Social studies curriculums are packed with information that offer opportunities for direct instructional methods. In fact, it may be tempting to see everything in the social studies curriculum as fit for teacher-directed instruction. Be careful to choose instructional methods that most effectively provide students with opportunities to learn subject matter in the depth and manner suggested by the curriculum. Teacher-directed instruction is generally appropriate for lower-level knowledge acquisition and skill development. In order to understand when to teach using teacher-directed instruction, we must know how to read the curriculum. A starting place for reading the curriculum is the set of standards that inform curriculum development. Generally speaking, each state develops its own standards, which are then used as a guide for local school systems in developing curriculum. State standards increasingly include more and more subject matter. In Texas, for example, local curriculum planners have to incorporate 59 knowledge and skills learning statements from the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Social Studies into third-grade curriculums. In Virginia, there are 12 densely packed state-level standards for third-grade social studies, including standards that might have 5, 10, even 20 discrete subjects mentioned. In Georgia, 10 third-grade standards in 4 academic social studies areas include subject matter on more than 100 discrete items. For teachers, this means we must teach substantial amounts of subject matter in a limited amount of time. Teacher-directed instruction plays an important role in the successful implementation of these dense curriculums. The following example from state standards helps illustrate how curriculums can be implemented using teacher-directed instruction. One of the 59 standards statements for the thirdgrade Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills sets forth the expectation that students will “identify scientists and inventors such as Louis Daguerre, Cyrus McCormick, Louis Pasteur, and Jonas Salk who have created or invented new technology.” Students are also expected to “identify the impact of new technology in photography, farm equipment, pasteurization, and medical vaccines 212

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on communities around the world.” Teaching about this subject matter requires a mixed method that combines teacher-directed instructional methods with more student-centered approaches. The subject matter in the first part of the standard can be introduced through teacher-directed instruction. There are several ways to direct students in a lesson on famous people. The “Lesson” at right describes an approach to teacherdirected instruction that focuses on inventions and inventors––in this example, Louis Daguerre. Other teacher-directed activities that focus on people might include the following: • Who am I? This is a question-and-answer approach to teacher-directed instruction, where the teacher guides students through a series of questions that progressively narrow the focus to a famous person and his or her contribution to society. • What makes you so famous? This is a good approach for a person whose name might not be familiar, but whose contribution is ver y well known. For example, Louis Pasteur is not a name students will recognize, but they will certainly be familiar with the product of his work, pasteurized milk. In this activity, the teacher should begin with the invention or contribution to society and work backward to the person responsible. • The Life and Times of . . . If the person who is being highlighted in the teacher-directed instruction is very well known, then you might want to use this approach. Present the person as a celebrity, focusing on his or her contribution, but also highlighting little-known facts. Bring the person to life and make her or him interesting. CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

What are some social studies topics you might teach that are well suited for a teacher-directed approach?

An Indian girl is administered polio vaccine as part of the national polio immunization campaign at a hospital in Bhubaneswar, India, Sunday, Jan. 7, 2007.

What teacher-directed approach might you use for a lesson about Jonas Salk and his invention of a vaccine for polio?

LESSON

Using Teacher-Directed Instruction in a Lesson on an Important Invention LOOK AT WHAT I DID! In this activity, the focus of the instruction is on an invention or significant contribution to society. By placing the focus on the invention, you can stimulate student interest with the element of surprise. Consider Louis Daguerre’s invention, the daguerreotype. This picture of Paris was taken using Daguerre’s invention. The image is thought to be the first photograph to show a human being. Pictures from this period of time are very rare. Before introducing the image, ask students to think about other ways humans have illustrated people through the years (drawing and paintings). Then ask students how they think the daguerreotype might have changed the way people lived and what they knew about other people and places.

You can direct students to information about the history of photography, allowing them to learn that the first known photograph was taken in 1826 by Joseph Niépce. The process of photography was popularized with the invention of a small device that could reliably produce photographic images. Louis Daguerre’s invention, the daguerreotype, which he named after himself, made photography available to thousands of people.

The camera used by Louis Daguerre that started a camera craze throughout the world.

Daguerreotype made in 1839 by Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre of a Paris boulevard, the first photograph to show a human being.

The focus of the teacher in this activity should be on the daguerreotype and how it literally changed the way people saw the world. During the instruction, attend to details and consistently emphasize the inventor’s name, Louis Daguerre, and his invention, the daguerreotype. The word itself is hard to pronounce. You would want to work directly with students, having them practice saying the word. (The phonetic pronunciation is d•-gâr’•t•p’.)

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Types of Teacher-Directed Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize specific types of teacher-directed instruction. Describe conditions that suggest using one approach to teacher-directed instruction over another.

hat exactly does teacher-directed instruction look like? In what forms does teacher-directed instruction take shape? A review of some unique teacher-directed forms of instruction will help illustrate the diversity of this approach to teaching.

W

DIRECT EXPLANATION When a teacher presents subject matter using direct explanation, there is an opportunity to clarify complicated subject matter. In this teacher-directed method, the teacher targets a concept, phenomenon, or event that is commonly misunderstood and works toward delivering a concise explanation. For example, the concept of time is typically quite difficult for young elementary school-age students to grasp. One problem is that time can be thought of on many different levels. One important task when teaching about time is to clarify the meaning of time for the purpose of the lesson. One meaning of time that has salience for young learners in social studies is to describe time as a sequence of events in the past, possibly extending into the present.

Consider appropriate subject matter for specific teacherdirected instructional approaches.

It’s important to continually reinforce the definition and support it with multiple representations of the concept. For example, the idea of time as a sequence of events can be represented as a day in the life of a student or a recounting of the events in class yesterday. At some point, students will need to engage time as a historical concept. This means that students will begin to develop the ability to sequence historical events given specific prior knowledge about events and general knowledge about history. Consider how a teacher might explain which of the two events depicted in Figure 8.6 is older. To help children understand which event took place first, make sure they know something about the people depicted. If students know who Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt were, they will know that Theodore Roosevelt was older than his cousin Franklin D. Roosevelt. That knowledge, along with contextual clues in the images such as the radio microphones and the horse, should be enough to begin the process of identifying the time depicted in each image. Most students will recognize the technology being displayed in the Franklin Roosevelt photo as more recent than the horsemanship seen in the photo of Theodore Roosevelt.

Figure 8.6 A American politician and future President of the United States of America, Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) during a visit to the Badlands of Dakota after the death of his first wife.

B U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt broadcasts an appeal to Americans for welfare funds, from the Oval Office at the White House, in Washington, D.C., on October 3, 1941.

STORYTELLING As discussed in Chapter 1, stories occupy an important place in social studies. The nature of subject matter in social studies is well suited for storytelling. When using storytelling in the classroom, be direct and transparent about what is factual and what is fictional. Good stories are often embellished, but in a social studies class students need to learn the boundaries between fact and fiction. A good story should be captivating, surprising, and values-based. These three elements can all be captured in the story of Dolley Madison and the burning of the White House (Figure 8.7). In Chapter 4 we looked at how novice and experienced teachers might have different knowledge of the Madison story. No matter how much knowledge a teacher might have, when told well, the story of Dolley Madison can be captivating, surprising, and values-based. A version of the stor y of Dolley Madison and the burning of the White House that includes all three story traits might go like this:

If you knew your house was about to be destroyed and you only had a few hours to decide what to take, what would you include? Now imagine that your house is the White House! This is the dilemma that First Lady Dolley Madison faced on August 24, 1814. President James Madison’s wife, Dolley Madison, was in the White House on that fateful August day as invading British forces closed in on Washington, D.C. The British and Americans had been at war for two years, and the British were making significant advances on the U.S. capital city. After the defeat of the American army at Bladensburg less than 10 miles from Washington, President Madison, who was at the battle site, and most of the government officials fled the capitol. A few servants and low-level government employees stayed behind along with Dolley Madison. She knew the British would likely burn the White House, so she calmly ordered the removal of important papers and a few meaningful items. One of the most important for Dolley Madison was a portrait of the first president of the United States, George Washington. With the British approaching and enemy cannon fire sounding in the distance, Mrs. Madison ordered the painting to be removed. There was just one problem: The massive picture was bolted to the wall and tools for its removal were nowhere to be

Figure 8.7 The Fall of Washington, or Maddy in Full Flight. Contemporary English cartoon comment on President James Madison and the burning of Washington, D.C., in August of 1814.

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found. Quickly, with almost no time to spare, Mrs. Madison ordered the picture frame to be smashed and the painting to be cut from the frame, a task that was completed by White House servants. Mrs. Madison, her staff, the important papers, and the picture of George Washington all made it out unharmed––due in large part to the courage and determination of Dolley Madison.

TAKING IT APART: HIGHER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS In addition to direct explanation and stor ytelling, teacher-directed instruction can incorporate activities for students to analyze ideas. Analytical activities help students develop higher-order thinking skills. Conducting an analysis means breaking down or taking apart a whole idea or concept into its component pieces. By focusing on how something can be “taken apart,” students conduct a specific analysis of the subject matter at hand, and also learn how to conduct analyses in general. One common analytical task in elementary social studies is to ask students to analyze opportunity costs in personal economic decisions. Simply put, opportunity cost is Opportunity cost The value of the value of what we decide not things not selected to spend our money on. In other in an economic words, when we make an ecosituation. nomic decision, there is always a next best alternative. The value of this next best alternative is opportunity cost. Students can learn how to analyze opportunity costs by taking apart any decision they might make to spend money. A teacher can direct students’ learning about opportunity costs by creating a classroom economy and paying students with classroom currency for good behavior or for completing classroom tasks such as cleaning up. At the end of a week, the teacher can open a class market with goods such as pencils and notebooks for sale. After students spend their classroom money, the teacher can direct students to analyze their spending for opportunity costs. Prior to this student work,

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the teacher can model his or her own thinking and opportunity costs related to some recent economic decision. Students make a list of the items they wanted to buy, in order from the most desired to least desired, and then list a reason why they wanted to buy the item. The reasons listed for all the items that were not purchased are ranked opportunity costs and represent the analysis of students’ purchasing rationale.

OTHER TEACHER-DIRECTED ACTIVITIES Helping Children Understand “Why?” Children love to ask “Why?” Their natural curiosity can create opportunities in the classroom. Teachers need to respond to students’ curiosity and desire to understand the meaning of things. When students raise questions, teachers should be as responsive as possible, looking to standards and curriculum for opportunities to provide students with answers to questions about why.

Decision Making An important higher-order social studies skill involves making decisions. Children in elementar y grades are learning how to make wellinformed decisions. In this teacher-directed activity, students and teachers work together to make a decision about a problem that emerges from subject matter in the curriculum. For example, students might consider various historical decisions that resulted in two countries or two groups of people engaging in conflicts. The more students can be involved in the process of recognizing the significance of the problem, the more they will be involved in the problem-solving activity. These problems can emerge from student interests and prior knowledge. Each problem, such as the one the United States faced in 1917 regarding whether to enter World War I, needs to be set in the context of students’ own understanding or interests. Direct Concept Development Teaching Children develop knowledge of concepts at very early ages. In social studies, examples of these concepts include history, shelter, home, citizenship, common good, earth, place,

money, and scarcity. Each one of these concepts can be developed in the mind of a child through teacher-directed instruction. Concept-development requires careful attention to definitions and representations of the concept in various contexts. Transportation is a very important concept and organizing theme in elementar y social studies. What does the image in Figure 8.8 tell us about how the Mississippi River is used for transporting people and goods? How might you teach about transportation on the Mississippi River using direct concept development or another teacher-directed approach?

Figure 8.8 Aerial view of barges traveling the Mississippi River past St. Louis.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Make a list of three topics related to shelter that would be best suited for storytelling.

An Italian peasant couple in the late 19th century in front of a hut in the Basilicata region. The hut was used as a day shelter only––the workers returned to town at night.

How might you plan three different teacherdirected activities on the concept of shelter?

Ethnic Karen women and children in Myanmar (Burma) in front of their bamboo hut in the village of Ei Htu Hta, Myanmar, Tuesday, May 9, 2006, near the Salween river along the Myanmar-Thai border. The refugee village sprang up after more than 13,000 ethnic Karen fled persecution by the Myanmar Army.

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Whole Class and Independent Teacher-Directed Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify some appropriate conditions for whole class teacher-directed instruction.

Distinguish between whole class and individually oriented teacher-directed instructional activities.

Recognize reasons why teacher-directed instructional activities might work best in individual settings.

lthough we generally think of teacherdirected instruction as a whole class approach to teaching, it can also work for individuals or small groups. How does a teacher know whether to use whole class, individual, or small group interaction? First, let’s look at some of the conditions required for whole class teacher-directed instruction.

A

WHOLE CLASS TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION Working with a whole class is the most typical context for teacher-directed instruction. When working with students in whole class settings, keep in mind: • All students need the same materials and resources. • Students need to be working toward the same learning outcomes. • Students must be informally assessed through random nonvoluntary questioning. CONCEPT CHECK

• Students’ seats in the classroom need to be arranged so that all students can focus on the teacher and the resources being used (i.e., whiteboard, blackboard, computer screen). All of the methods discussed in the previous section (storytelling, analyzing concepts, and so on) can be implemented in whole class settings. See the “In the Classroom” feature for a teacher-directed approach focused on decision making and how it works in a whole class setting.

INDEPENDENT TEACHER-DIRECTED INSTRUCTION Independent learning in a teacher-directed environment might seem like a contradiction. How can teachers direct student work if the students are working independently? The approach requires a procedure that involves segmenting students’ work and carefully managing all written or verbal teacher directions. For an example, see the activity in “Lesson: How much space is enough?” on pages 220–221.

STOP

How would you address the problem of overcrowding in urban areas using teacherdirected individual and whole class approaches?

What would be the primary distinctions between an individual and a whole class teacher-directed lesson on the problems of overpopulation in places like Ho Chi Minh City?

Dilapidated shacks on stilts crowd the sides of a canal in a poor section of Ho Chi Minh City. The city has one of the highest population densities in the world, more than 35,000 people per square mile.

A guest speaker is helping students to decide whether a road should be built next to their school.

In the Classroom

DECISION MAKING: TO BUILD A ROAD OR NOT?

Maria Mineta’s students were learning about a road project in their community. The project would widen and extend a rarely used two-lane road that leads to the school. The new road would have four lanes and would connect two parts of the city, thereby dramatically increasing traffic. About half of the students in the class live in a large neighborhood across the street from the school, close enough to walk. If the road was expanded, they would have to cross the new busy fourlane road to get to school. The other students live farther away from the school. The new road would make it easier for them to get to school on the bus. Ms. Mineta’s activity required students to learn about how the local government makes decisions affecting its citizens. Students had already listened to a presentation from a guest speaker representing the local city council. The councilperson told the students about the process for citizens to voice their opinions on issues being considered by the council. The students also completed an activity in which they looked at the pros and cons of the road project. Ms. Mineta decided on a teacher-directed activity because she wanted to ensure that students were exposed to all of the positions being presented on this issue. Her fourthgrade students were involved and even passionate about the issue. By using teacher-directed instruction, Ms. Mineta could control the flow of information and make sure that the students had an opportunity to hear every position. •

First, she summarized the role of the city council as presented by the guest speaker. In the process, Ms. Mineta

called on random nonvolunteers to check for understanding. •

Next, she asked all students to write a description of the road issue that they were considering. She called on several students to read their descriptions, making corrections and then summarizing with her own version. This provided students with opportunities to engage the material numerous times.

•

Then, Ms. Mineta asked students to name the pros and cons of the proposed road project. She listed these on the board and asked students to copy them in their notebooks.

•

Then, Ms. Mineta asked students to construct a chart for the purpose of organizing the pros and cons. She provided an example on the board.

Ms. Mineta was most interested in having students weigh their own interests with the interests of others in the community. Her goal was to engage students in a deliberative process that would result in some consensus, so the next step was to have students list and vote on the benefits and drawbacks of the project, given how it affects the people considered in the chart. The resulting list was then used by Ms. Mineta to suggest a position for the class. Although some students might have disagreed with the final position of the class, they had all contributed to the group decision on the project.

Pros and cons of proposed road Pros

Cons

Students who live a long way away will be able to get to school easier.

Students who live close to the school will have to cross a busy road.

Some people will be able to use the road to get to work.

People who live next to the road will have to listen to the traffic.

The new road may lead to new stores or businesses along the road.

The road will cost millions of dollars to build.

Building the road will give jobs to people working on the construction.

The construction of the road will be loud, dirty, and disruptive for students at the school and the people in nearby neighborhoods.

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LESSON How much space is enough?

INTRODUCTION A common geographic analysis for elementary school students is to consider how space is used for people to live in. In this activity, students in Grade 4 or 5 learn about population density and determining how much space they need or want in their own lives. The directions for this activity must be clear and to the point. Because the concepts may be difficult for students, the activity begins with a review of some of these concepts.

• represents a child 30 feet

20 feet

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The students will describe the amount of space they need to live comfortably. Students will also be able to calculate population density.

PROCEDURES To open the activity, have all the students in the class stand in a small section of classroom, and then ask them to spread out across the classroom. Prompt students to consider which they like better, being close to one another or being far away. This opening introduces students to the concept of population density. When students return to their seats, provide them with a definition of population density––the average number of people living in a given area. Ask them to individually draw a picture of the shape of the room. Demonstrate the room’s shape on the board, and tell students the dimensions of the room. Ask them to record this information on their drawings. Finally, ask students to count the number of students in the classroom and write that number below the classroom shape they just drew. Following these directions, provide students with a formula for calculating a “student density” of the classroom. Student density ⫽ Students in the classroom divided by the area of the classroom in square feet

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In this class, there were 24 students and the area was 600 square feet. Using the formula, the student density is 24 students per 600 square feet, or 1 student per 25 square feet. After leading students through this calculation, the teacher can introduce the concept of population density. Tell students that if they lived in the classroom, the population density would be very high. Population density is expressed in square miles or kilometers. Since one square mile equals over 27 million square feet, the population density of their classroom would be 112,500 people per square mile! Of course no place on Earth has a population density that high––the worldwide population density is 112 people per square mile. In order to accurately calculate the population density per square mile, students need to know how many people live in a given square mile, and that always includes spaces that are unoccupied. The National Geographic Human Population map highlights areas of the world with high population densities. Ask students to describe the differences between places with high and low population densities. Then, ask students a series of questions, each to be answered individually, to prompt further analysis.

Human Population • How much of the day do they think they could stand to spend in a room such as the classroom with a density of 1 person per 25 square feet or 112,500 people per square mile? • What would be a more acceptable density? • What are some good things about having a lot of people living close to you? • What are some of the bad things about having a lot of people living close to you?

ASSESSMENT These questions should lead to a culminating activity in which each student describes his or her “ideal” living space, taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of living around a lot of other people. Students’ responses to the questions should reflect their understanding of the amount of space they need in order to live comfortably as well as their ability to calculate population density.

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?

What is happening in this picture This allegorical scene adorns the dome of the United States Capitol building. Seated in the upper-left portion of the work is George Washington, with the Goddess of Liberty on his right and a winged idealization of Victory and Fame sounding a trumpet. The scene in the lower left depicts Freedom striking down Tyranny and Kingly Power. The lower center depicts Agriculture with Ceres, the Goddess of Harvests, and the Fields holding a horn of plenty. Young America, with a Liberty Cap, controls a pair of horses hitched to an American Reaper. ■ What does this image tell us about how

America idealized itself in the 19th century?

This painting by Constantino Brumidi done in 1865 is on the dome of the U.S. Capitol building.

■ How might you develop a teacher-directed

lesson using this knowledge about the 19th century “American ideal”?

VISUAL SUMMARY

Washington Olympia

Maine North Dakota

Helena

1

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Vermont

Salem

Bismark

Oregon

St. Paul

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Boston New York Hartford

Lansing

Madison

Michigan

Iowa

Cheyenne Sacramento

Montpelier Concord Massachusetts Albany

Wisconsin

South Dakota Pierre

Wyoming

Pennsylvania

Carson City Nevada

Nebraska

Salt Lake City Denver Utah

Des Moines

Illinois

Ohio Springfield

West Annapolis Virginia Richmond Charleston

Frankfort

Raleigh Nashville Tennessee

Arkansas

Virginia

Kentucky

Jefferson City

New Mexico

Indianapolis

Topeka

Oklahoma

Santa Fe

Harrisburg

Columbus

Missouri Kansas

Arizona

Indiana

Lincoln

Colorado California

North Carolina South Carolina

Oklahoma City

Columbia

Atlanta

Little Rock Phoenix

Alabama Jackson

Georgia

Louisiana Texas

Mississippi

Austin

Baton Rouge

Montgomery Tallahassee

Florida Hawaii

Honolulu

Alaska Juneau

Augusta

Minnesota

Idaho

Boise

Direct instruction is a formal procedure for teachercentered instruction. The method originated in the 1960s and continues to be widely practiced. Madeline Hunter developed one of the best known direct instructional methods, which includes the development of objectives; an anticipatory set; a teaching sequencing involving input, modeling, and checks for understanding; guided practice; closure; and independent practice. Teacher-directed instruction is a more generalized approach to teaching. This approach requires clarity in subject matter, student repetition of learned material, active learning, and meaningful learning contexts.

New Hampshire

Montana

Providence Rhode Island Connecticut

Trenton New Jersey Dover Delaware Maryland

2

Factors Influencing Teacher-Directed Instruction

At least three factors influence teacher-directed instruction. First, the subject matter under consideration will in some ways determine the instructional approach teachers will use. Social studies subject matter that is either discrete or story-like is well suited for teacher-directed instruction. Second, the extent to which student learning is active plays a large role in the effectiveness of teacher-directed instruction. As is the case with all forms of instruction, teacher-directed instruction must facilitate active learning. Third, the curriculum can have an enormous influence on what is taught and how it is taught. Teacher-directed instruction is appropriate for a wide range of curricular subject matter.

3

Types of Teacher-Directed Instruction

Some specific approaches to teacher-directed instruction include direct explanation, storytelling, whole class analysis, answering the question Why?, making whole class decisions, and direct concept development. Each of these approaches requires that the teacher be at the center of the instructional process. The teacher also may be one part of the activities in a lesson that also includes some student-centered activities.

4

Whole Class and Independent Teacher-Directed Instruction

Teachers may develop teacher-directed activities that require the whole class to work together or enable students to work independently. Whole class activities require that all students use the same materials, work toward a common learning outcome, and be able to see and access teacher aids and resources. Independent teacher-directed instruction requires a procedure that involves segmenting students’ work and carefully managing all written or verbal teacher directions.

Visual Summary

223

KEY TERMS ■ didactic, p. 204

■ teacher-directed instruction, p. 205

■ active learning, p. 210

■ direct instruction, p. 205

■ epistemological, p. 210

■ opportunity cost, p. 216

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS There are a lot of considerations in teaching about subject matter such as the story of Daniel Boone. Teachers must be careful to distinguish fact from fiction. Representations of Boone, such as the one at left, are highly romanticized and potentially racist. Stories about Daniel Boone’s life are typically filled with hyperbole and exaggeration. All of this requires critical thinking on the part of students.

A lithograph showing Daniel Boone rescuing his daughter Jemima and her friends Betsey and Fanny Callaway from the Shawnee Indians who had kidnapped them the previous day.

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•

Given this context, how might you encourage student learning about Daniel Boone using a teacher-directed activity?

•

How is this image romanticized?

•

What message does it portray about Native Americans?

SELF-TEST 1. What is direct instruction? How can this cartoon depicting the burning of Washington, D.C., be used in a direct instructional activity?

7. Which is not a teacher-directed approach to learning? a. storytelling b. analyzing concepts c. generalizing d. decision-making 8. Which of the following is not a context for whole class teacherdirected instruction? a. Students need the same materials and resources. b. Students need to be working toward different learning outcomes. c. Students must be informally assessed through random nonvoluntary questioning. d. Students’ seats in the classroom need to be arranged so that all students can focus on the teacher and the resources being used. 9. Explain how a teacher-directed lesson can focus on individual student activities. What is an individual teacher-directed activity that might focus on your state capital? 10. How can teacher-directed instruction about U.S. state capitals include opportunities for active student learning and avoid student passivity? Consider the location of the capitals as highlighted on the following map.

2. Name the sequence of teaching events of the Madeline Hunter direct instruction model. Washington

3. Which is not an example of an activity that could be part of the teaching sequence in a teacher-directed lesson? a. lecture b. solving problems c. checks for understanding d. modeling

Olympia

Maine North Dakota

Helena Montana Salem

Augusta Bismark

Oregon

Minnesota

Idaho

Conc ncor nc cor Montpel el elier Wisconsin

South Dakota St. Paul

Boise Wyoming

Madison

Pierre

Michigan

Iowa

Cheyenne Sacramento

Nevada

Nebraska

Salt Lake City Denver Utah

Des Moines

Illinois

Ohio

Kansas

Arizona

Santa Fe New Mexico

Indianapollis

Missouri

Colorado

nnapolis s West Ann Virginia Richmond Cha harleston a

Frankfort

Topeka

Arkansas

Virginia

Kentucky Raleigh Nashville Tennessee

Oklahoma

T

Harrisburg

Columbus

Lincoln Springfield

California

Indiana

North Carolina South Carolina

Oklahoma City

Columbia

Atlanta

Little Rock Phoenix

Alabama Jackson

5. Which type of subject matter is well suited for teacher-directed instruction? a. subject matter that is subject to multiple interpretations b. subject matter that is difficult to understand c. subject matter that is limited and focused d. subject matter that is complex

Pennsylvania

Carson City

Jefferson City

4. Teacher-directed lessons are not as _______________ as direct instruction.

Albany Boston New York Hartforrd

Lansing

Georgia

Louisiana Texas

Mississippi

Austin

Baton Rouge

Montgomery Tallahasse e

Florida

Alaska

6. What is an example of direct explanation?

Self-Test

225

Interactive Teaching and Learning

9

G

lenda McKnight is a third-grade teacher, and one of her favorite group assignments focuses on economic wants and needs. She starts the lesson by asking students what they want for their birthday or some other holiday. Students make individual lists. She then places students in groups and asks them to share their individual lists of what they want. The group makes a list of all the things the students want. Next, Ms. McKnight asks students to pretend they are stuck in the school and will not be able to leave for 10 days. The groups make a new list with the things they think they will need over the next 10 days. Ms. McKnight asks students to compare the two lists, looking for similarities. Then students look at their list of wants and think about why they want these things. Ms. McKnight asks the groups to think about why they listed certain things as needs. As a culminating activity, students individually describe the differences between their own wants and needs. In this activity, students interact with one another to generate a list of needs and to consider why they want and need certain things, but they work separately in other aspects of the assignment. This combination of individual and group work is one of the hallmarks of interactive instruction. The group functions to provide students support on developing complex or socially constructed forms of knowledge, which in this activity was the list of needs. In the culminating activity, students work individually to consider personal wants and to account for their knowledge.

226

Interactive learning includes various forms of student work. These children, like those in Glenda McKnight's class, are working individually as part of what could be an interactive learning activity.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ What Is Interactive Instruction?

p. 228

■ Characteristics of Interactive

Instruction p. 234

1

2

3

4

Question or Situation

Consequences

Possible Decisions

Decisions

■ Types of Interactive Instruction

p. 238

■ Grouping Strategies p. 243

■ Interactive Instruction and

Learners p. 248

ncouraging students to be actively involved in class is not always easy. Too much involvement and students might get off task. Not enough involvement and they are probably not learning much. How can we encourage students to be involved in class without going too far? Interactive instruction is one solution. When interacting in the classroom, students work with one another in controlled instructional contexts without sacrificing the individual student’s responsibility to learn. Enabling students to work in interactive learning environments is a powerful means to

E

promote active student learning ( Figure 9.1 ). At the center of interactive approaches to teaching and learning is this notion that children learn best when they interact. Consider how frequently we use knowledge in interaction. In fact, most of us almost never apply our knowledge outside of interactive or social contexts. In this chapter, we consider interactive instruction as an essential means for supporting active and meaningful learning in social studies.

Figure 9.1 Elementary school students in Schenectady, New York, use blocks and paper to create imaginary community.

What Is Interactive Instruction? DEFINING INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION

LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define interactive instruction. Describe the structure of interactive instruction. Explain the role of assessment in interactive learning.

nteraction is fundamental to education. Imagine learning in isolation, without the help of others. Self-guided learning, while important, is always constrained by individual limitations. When we interact we have the potential to extend our limitations and expand our learning opportunities. Although students must be accountable for their own learning, interaction enables social engagement and heightens our appreciation for others. Ideally, we will always seek a balance between individual and interactive learning.

I

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Interactive instruction is an apInteractive proach to teaching that enables instruction A teaching approach children to benefit from each that uses a combinaother in dynamic environments. tion of group and Classroom interaction can individual work; it heighten students’ interest and enables students to involvement in the learning benefit from each process. Interaction can also other in dynamic help students learn to value simenvironments. ilarities and differences. Most interactive instruction takes place in small to medium-size groups, but interactive instruction is not just about group work. Instead, it draws on the strengths of individuals in group settings. Interactive instruction is framed by the work of educational psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978). In the early

part of the 20th century, Vygotsky developed a theory of learning that suggested that learning occurs in social settings. His theory of social cognition holds that society influences both what students learn and how they learn. The children depicted in Figure 9.2 in Firozabad, India, work ten hours a day, seven days a week making bracelets. The parents send their children to work and receive cash from the workshop owner. How might the context of these children’s social condition affect the way they learn? Children learn within the context of culture, and that culture determines what knowledge is important. One of the ways these cultural contexts influence what children learn is through the development of curriculum. Children also learn in society by interacting with others. Vygotsky claimed that children initially interact with parents and other adults as they learn and adapt to their culture. Later, this learning becomes more independent, a process psychologists call adaptation. When children interact in the classroom they are adapting to cultural expectations about knowledge in a controlled environment. Through interactive instruction, teachers give students an opportunity to develop knowledge in social settings while also promoting the independence that is necessary for children to internalize what they are learning. During interactive instruction, students must maintain a dual focus on themselves and on the larger group. In fact, the most important aspect of interactive instruction is that each learner is ultimately responsible for his or her own learning. Individual responsibility for learning means that students will also have to account for their actions in the

Children working in Firozabad, India Figure 9.2

classroom, and this allows teachers to assess more fairly and consistently.

THE STRUCTURE OF INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION Interactive instruction should be dynamic, active, and meaningful. These three distinguishing characteristics inform the development of interactive instructional activities as well as the management of time and materials. The dynamic characteristics of interactive instruction require a flexible approach to organizing materials for instruction. Active involvement on the part of learners in interactive learning environments results from engaging other students. Children feel the learning is meaningful because they have worked together in an environment that parallels their everyday lives. What does interactive instruction look like? Consider this example. Chris Steele teaches fourth grade at an innovative elementary school where teachers are expected to teach in an interactive manner. One of Chris’s interactive lessons focuses on the effects of change in the students’ town and how they might predict and plan for future changes. • In order to get students’ interest, Chris asked the class to describe their favorite place in town. She followed up by working with students to make a list of things they liked and disliked about their town. • Next, students individually wrote a brief description of their town and drew a picture of one important place in their community. • After this individual work, Chris’s class and another class in the school constructed four learning stations: • two stations, which represented two different historical times in their community; • a third station, which presented information on the current community; • and a fourth station, which focused on the future in their town. • The students constructed the learning stations while working in cooperative groups. The learning stations included images, drawings, and text that described the particular time or explained the future. What Is Interactive Instruction?

229

• Interaction in this activity occurred on a number of levels: within groups, within a class, and between classes. The activity also included individual work at the beginning and the end of the lesson.

• Students in both classes also wrote three questions to go with their learning stations. • When they finished, the classes swapped rooms and visited the learning stations in the other class. At each station, students were to interact with the collection of resources and individually answer the three questions.

In Figure 9.3, “Process Diagram: Planning for Interactive Learning,” we look in detail at how to plan for interactive learning.

Process Diagram

Planning for interactive learning Figure 9.3 The process of developing interactive instruction requires that attention be paid to students' individual interests and the manner in which groups of children interact. Children's knowledge of subject matter initially informs the development of interactive learning activities. However, the ultimate goal of interactive learning is to enhance students' understanding of some curricular subject matter. There are four steps in the planning process for the interactive instructional process. Interactive lesson about Abraham Lincoln for the third grade. 1. Students are often interested in learning about what makes people “famous.” Focus a lesson on the causes of fame to engage students.

4. All students are required to expand on their initial reason for Lincoln’s fame by including one reason from the other two periods of Lincoln’s life.

2. Students can individually read a short story about Abraham Lincoln—e.g. Karen B. Winnick’s Mr. Lincoln’s Whiskers.

The Process of Interactive Instruction Step 1: Subject Matter Interest. Consider how to generate student interest in challenging subject matter.

Step 2: Initial Focus on the Individual. Plan for an initial individually-focused student activity.

Step 4: Individual Assessment. Assess individual students’ knowledge.

Step 3: Group Activity. Plan group activities designed to be:

1 1

3. In groups of three, students develop ideas for why Abraham Lincoln is famous. Each student should focus on a period in Lincoln’s life: childhood, young adulthood before politics, or political career. Students should use a creative means to represent their understanding of Lincoln’s fame and present these to the class.

Dynamic

Active

Meaningful

Dynamic Students use creative means to express their knowledge.

Active Students are talking and working together.

Meaningful Students are learning about an important figure from U.S. history.

ASSESSING CHILDREN’S KNOWLEDGE WHEN PLANNING FOR INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION The first step in the interactive instructional process calls for teachers to determine their students’ level of prior knowledge. This complicates the planning process, because students will not all be at the same place in their knowledge. It is a classic dilemma for teachers. Since interactive instruction includes work for groups of students, at what level should the teacher

CONCEPT CHECK

gear the subject matter? With interactive instruction, the goal should be to develop instructional approaches that capitalize on the individual student’s subject matter knowledge. Ultimately teachers must seek to promote unique learning experiences for each student while still enabling them to work in group settings. How can we use assessment information to plan for interactive instruction? “Lesson: Interactive lesson on state geography” on pages 232–233 uses information about students’ prior knowledge to structure a series of activities on state geography.

STOP

How might you prepare a lesson in which students interact to describe differences in urban and rural life? Contrast lifestyles in an unfamiliar place, such as Madagascar.

A An open-air market in the city of Antsirabe, Madagascar (110, 000 inhabitants)

How might students’ prior knowledge of Madagascar or of urban and rural lifestyles affect the process of planning an interactive lesson?

B Step rice farming in a village outside Ambositra, Madagascar

What Is Interactive Instruction?

231

LESSON Interactive Lesson on State Geography

INTRODUCTION In virtually every state in the United States, students study about their state in elementary grades. Social studies curriculums usually include the study of the physical geography of the state, and students often have very different levels of knowledge about their own state. Some of this results from migration. Children who live in the same place all or most of their lives are more likely to know about their home state than those who have just arrived. Some children may have parents who are more active in their talk about the place where they live. These factors influence students’ prior knowledge about place. This lesson uses interactive approaches to account for differing levels of prior knowledge that students might have about their state.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES In the United States, students are required to locate places within their own and nearby communities. In this lesson, students will identify the major water features and borders of their state by completing a travel guide. They will construct their travel guide after a role-playing activity that is set up given their prior knowledge. The students will make use of a variety of resources related to their state’s physical and cultural environment. This particular activity focuses on the state of Connecticut, but could be easily adapted for any state.

PROCEDURES This lesson on the physical and cultural environment of Connecticut involves students studying the location of major cities in the state including Bridgeport, New Haven, Hartford, Stamford, Waterbury, and Norwalk, as well as the physical borders of the state and major water features including the Connecticut River, Candlewood Lake, and the Long Island Sound. Students must be able to recognize each of these places on a map and

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describe the locations of these places relative to one another. An assessment of students’ prior knowledge about these places would probably result in a mixed level of understanding about the geography of the state. Some students would be very familiar with these places, while others would be unable to identify any. Given these assessment results, the first step in this lesson is to create an activity that enables each student to use their prior knowledge to interact with fellow students. The activity centers on role-playing. In this lesson, students with low levels of knowledge play the role of a business or an individual interested in moving to Connecticut. Student with higher levels of prior knowledge play the role of a representative of the state who is trying to encourage the student to move to Connecticut. The student playing the role of the representative of the state should prepare an information sheet for prospective residents. This sheet should include physical and cultural details such as: • Maps • Descriptions of state resources, parks, and tourist attractions • Descriptions of educational opportunities • A summary of population characteristics The students who are playing the part of a business leader should prepare a list of questions on what a prospective resident would like to know about the state. To make the activity interesting, have additional students who are knowledgeable about the area around the state prepare an information sheet on neighboring states such as Massachusetts or New York. The initial preparation should take place with students working individually to record as much information as they can about Connecticut or a neighboring state or to prepare questions they might like to have answered. Students should then move into structured

groups constructed around the initial roles (Connecticut representative groups, neighboring state groups, and prospective resident/business groups). The teacher should provide the groups with some scaffolding that would help them continue their work. The scaffolding should emerge from the students’ initial work. For example, if students are having a hard time developing questions, have a few suggestions ready for them such as: Why would a business want to locate in Connecticut? What are the major tourist attractions of the state? After the groups have completed their work, the students who are playing the role of the business or individual moving to the state could then entertain information from competing states and make a decision to move to the place that best suits their needs. Through-

out the activity, the teacher would have to make adaptations to address outcomes that were unforeseen in the planning of the lesson.

ASSESSMENT As an assessment, students can create individual travel brochures for the state. The brochures could be illustrated, but should include essential information from the lesson such as physical and cultural details—maps, descriptions of state resources, parks, and tourist attractions, as well as descriptions of educational opportunities and a summary of population characteristics. Students’ work can be assessed using a rubric that checks for minimum, proficient, and advanced knowledge on each area required for their brochure.

What Is Interactive Instruction?

233

Characteristics of Interactive Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify the conditions for active and meaningful learning during interactive instruction. Examine how and why interactive approaches to instruction should be dynamic. Describe ways to make instruction with challenging subject matter more effective with interactive instruction.

s we learned earlier, interactive instruction should involve active, meaningful, and dynamic experiences with challenging subject matter. These characteristics are consistent with the National Council for the Social Studies (1992) description of the central features of ideal social studies as meaningful, integrative, valuebased, challenging, and active. In this section we look at each of the characteristics of interactive learning as they relate to one another.

A

ACTIVE AND MEANINGFUL LEARNING DURING INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION When students learn about the political leaders in their community, they can engage meaningful material in an active manner by visiting city hall or by writing letters to civic leaders. This type of active and meaningful learning engages students in subject matter and requires them to adapt information for personal use. When developing interactive lessons that encourage active involvement, teachers should plan for students to work together to achieve personal learning goals. Active learning requires that students construct their own knowledge by manipulating information as opposed to learning passively by simply receiving information. Active learning exercises are typically at higher thinking levels than passive activities. This is not because active learning has to be at higher levels. But in most cases, passive learning does not allow for higherorder thinking. Consider the difference between an activity that requires students to listen to a story about Thomas Edi234

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son and one that requires them to actively consider how Edison and George Eastman worked together to develop and popularize photography. Figure 9.4 depicts the father of popular photography, George Eastman (left), in 1928 as he confers with the wizard of light, Thomas Edison, about an early motion picture camera. What do you know about these men, and how might their expertise have contributed to developing motion picture technology? In a lecture on Thomas Edison, students would receive information and perhaps engage in some dialogue. In an interactive activity, the teacher might ask students to describe how motion picture cameras work. Students might first work individually to brainstorm ideas and then move into groups to study Edison and Eastman. The group work could focus on Edison’s work with light and Eastman’s work with film. The teacher could then place students in new groups with a mixture of people who learned about Edison and Eastman so they could share what they learned about these men. They might then reconsider the original question about motion picture cameras. The goal would be for students to realize that Eastman and Edison collaborated on how to properly use light and film to record moving images. Students here work in a variety of settings (indi-

Figure 9.4 In 1928, the father of popular photography, Eastman Kodak Company founder George Eastman (on the left), confers with Thomas Edison about an early motion picture camera.

In the Classroom

LEARNING ABOUT CIVIC LEADERS

Jere Gravitt enjoys teaching his fourth-grade students about local government. His involvement in the local community makes this particular lesson very meaningful for Mr. Gravitt. In an effort to transfer that sense of meaningfulness to his students, Mr. Gravitt developed an interactive lesson in which students work together to collect information about a local issue and then personally lobby a city council member. The issue this year was zoning. The city wanted to change the rules for zoning some local property to include more high-density dwellings. This change would result in a greater number of apartments and town homes in the community. At the time of the proposal, most of the residential developments in town were single-family homes. Mr. Gravitt

described the role of the city council in determining what gets built where and gave his students their task. They were to research the zoning issue and write a group report on how the zoning process works. They also had to research arguments for and against the proposal. Each group had five members and there were five tasks in the group. Mr. Gravitt developed the tasks to take into account differing levels of prior knowledge among students. He wanted a student in the group with a high level of prior knowledge to write the section of the report describing the zoning procedure. A second student, also preferably with a high level of prior knowledge, would describe the specific zoning issue. Another student would describe the composition of the city council and the voting procedure. The other two students would list pros and cons for the zoning proposal. Once the report was complete, students would each develop their own position on the issue and write a brief letter to their councilperson outlining their position. This lesson enabled students to work together to develop knowledge about a meaningful topic. Mr. Gravitt situated the activity in the context of students’ personal lives. He started the lesson by describing what people had suggested would be the positive and negative consequences of changes in zoning and required students to individually describe these consequences. Many of the consequences would affect students in their schools by increasing enrollment. While this might result in overcrowding, it would also result in increased tax revenues and potentially mean more government services. The larger schools would also receive more money to buy additional equipment. Mr. Gravitt encouraged students to take a stand on a public issue and to write a letter to a real person. Students were able to follow the issue after they completed the activity, thereby connecting their school life with life outside the school. Students were also individually responsible for their learning. Mr. Gravitt’s primary objectives were to enable students to learn about their local city council and to observe it in action. These goals were achieved when students wrote their letters.

Two young girls helping out in their community painting a fence

Characteristics of Interactive Instruction

235

vidual and group). Their work with an uncertain or emerging topic is representative of interactive learning. In this series of individual and small group activities, students can actively construct their own knowledge of motion picture technology given their developing knowledge of Edison and Eastman. This context enables a more powerful and potentially more meaningful learning experience. Research suggests that such experiences result in more residual knowledge. In other words, students are more likely to remember what they learned in the active experience than in the passive one.

Unlike more scripted forms of teacher-directed instruction, interactive instruction requires a dynamic approach. When teaching in interactive contexts, teachers must constantly adapt their lessons. As groups work together, you will find that some students need more assistance than others. Some groups will not work together in the way you expected. Groups will complete parts of activities at different times, and additional work or shortened work will be necessary. Of course, these problems may also be present in individual work, but

grouping makes addressing problems more urgent. When groups are unable to complete a task, or if they finish work early, they may become disruptive. Being able to adapt a lesson is critical to keeping students focused and on task. A teacher’s ability to keep up with students working in groups is tied to the teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter. Often students have subject matter– oriented questions, which when addressed will enable them to get back on task. A teacher’s ability to find or adapt materials is often tied to subject matter knowledge. Consider an activity in which groups of students are working to develop profiles of the Hindu gods such as Shiva, Parvati, and Brahma (Figures 9.5 and 9.6). Students in each group are required to prepare a profile of one of these religious figures. Prior to this group work, students individually learned about the monotheistic nature of Hinduism. During the work, a student stops because she cannot understand how the Hindu religion can have so many gods while at the same time maintain a belief in a single Supreme God. The teacher who doesn’t have enough knowledge of Hinduism might not be able to provide a meaningful answer. An appropriate response might be to tell the students that Hindus believe that each god is a representa-

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

The Hindu gods Shiva and Parvati

The Hindu god Brahma

DYNAMIC INSTRUCTION AND ACTIVE LEARNING

tion of a Supreme God. In other words, God takes form in a number of ways for Hindus. If the teacher does not know how to respond because her subject matter knowledge is weak, she can be honest with students and work as quickly as possible to find the information students need. Sometimes students are off task because they are not interested in the subject matter or the task. This problem is more difficult to address during instruction. A well-planned lesson should take into account students’ interest, but if during the lesson students exhibit a lack of interest, the teacher might re-cast the task around something the students find interesting.

INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION AND CHALLENGING SUBJECT MATTER Not all subject matter is easy to present in a meaningful context. How can teachers engage students in an active and meaningful interactive lesson when the subject matter is seemingly uninteresting, complicated, or challenging? The first step is for the teacher to know and appreciate the subject matter. With an in-depth understanding of subject matter, teachers can bring a level of enthusiasm that is simply not possible other wise, but enthusiasm is not enough. Without intriguing instructional methods, even the most enthusiastic teachers will likely find themselves struggling to maintain student interest in a lesson focused on subject matter that is obscure or irrelevant for students. For most students, an inability to engage with subject matter in a meaningful way is often due to an inability to see how the material relates to them. Teachers

CONCEPT CHECK

Figure 9.7 President Ronald Reagan riding with his wife, Nancy, on his California ranch

can find ways to relate the subject matter to their students’ lives using interactive instructional settings. Subject matter that has been problematized is by nature more interesting. For example, students may be uninterested in memorizing the names of the presidents of the United States. However, when presented as an interactive problem-based activity, this subject matter is far more interesting. Figure 9.7 depicts popular former President Ronald Reagan riding a horse on his California ranch. How does this image influence our perception of President Reagan? To enliven the subject matter, teachers might ask students to rank-order presidents or list the top ten and bottom ten. They might want to analyze presidential backgrounds for birthplace, prior occupation, or experience in politics. Other options include looking at historians’ judgments of presidents, or public opinion of presidents when in office, or learning how popular representations of U.S. presidents shape our current opinion.

STOP

How can a lesson on the shapes of U.S. states be active, meaningful, and dynamic?

Why are some U.S. states small and others large?

WA

Why do some states

VT

MN

ID

have regular borders and others have irregular borders?

ME

ND

MT

OR

WI

SD WY

NV CO

How might you create AZ

an activity about the shapes of U.S. states?

PA

IA

NE UT

CA

IL KS

OK

NM

AK

OH

IN

MO

WV KY

TN SC AL

GA

LA FL

HI

VA NC

AR MS

TX

NY

MI

NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD DC

Types of Interactive Instruction LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize types of interactive instruction. Describe some of the pedagogical approaches to interactive instruction. Consider appropriate subject matter for specific interactive instructional approaches.

nteractive instruction may take several forms. As you learned earlier, interactive instruction should be active, meaningful, and dynamic. What are some specific interactive activities that social studies teachers can use in their class? In this section we will review several specific types of interactive instruction.

I

SOLVING PROBLEMS TOGETHER Solving problems helps us to succeed in life. In social studies, we can give students authentic opportunities to solve problems in interactive settings. With interactive problem solving, the individual students are ultimately responsible for the solution they pose for their problem, but each student is part of a group of fellow students who can help support their understanding. There are four components to an interactive problem-solving activity:

of the problem and develop possible solutions, but when it comes time to solve the problem each student is accountable for his or her own work. There are countless problems that can serve as contexts for problem-solving activities. Of course, if we are to use a specific problem in class it must fit within the boundaries of curriculum. One common curriculum area is natural resource usage. Developing and sustaining usable water supplies is one of the most vexing natural resource use problems in the world. Sometimes it seems as if water is everywhere we don’t want it and in short supply where we need it. In Figure 9.8a, flood waters surround a village at the intersection of the Jamuna and Padma Rivers in Bangladesh, a countr y in which the average annual rainfall is between 100 and 400 inches a year. At the other extreme is the Sahel region in the Sudan as seen in Figure 9.8b. This area on the southern rim of the Sahara desert is experiencing desertification as a result of drought, overgrazing, and deforestation. The encroaching desert has forced many to relocate in search of food, water, and shelter. An interesting problem-based interactive lesson might focus on the uneven availability of water in various places in the world. Students could work individually at first to develop an understanding of the problem in places like Bangladesh and the Sudan, and then come together in groups to propose solutions to the general problem. Each student would then select what he or she believes to be the best solution to the problem.

1. Identify a problem that is situated in a meaningful and authentic context. 2. Work with others in a group to develop an understanding of the dimensions of the problem. 3. Work within a group to develop possible solutions to the problem. 4. Individually select a solution to the problem and estimate the consequences of implementing the solution. Interactive problem solving is unique because students work with each other to build an understanding 238

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MAKING DECISIONS TOGETHER Decision making is an important skill. In free-market democracies such as the United States, people are continuously faced with decisions about how to spend their time, energy, and money. Children need to learn how to make good decisions in carefully constructed academic environments. Far too often, we make decisions without adequately considering other options and the consequences of our decisions. In an interactive deci-

The uneven availability of water Figure 9.8 A Flood waters surround a village at the intersection of the Jamuna and Padma Rivers in Bangladesh.

sion-making activity, these two considerations––options and their consequences––are front and center. Let’s begin with a question and proceed in an iterative fashion through a series of possible decisions given the consequences (Figure 9.9). During a decision-making activity, a set of possible decisions should be evident from an investigation of the question or situation. Each of the potential decisions has consequences. As we evaluate these consequences, we discard some of the possible decisions and retain others. Ultimately, we select a single, best decision. Although there is not always a “right” decision, a decision should be made and supported based on opinions and consequences. The situation for which a decision is to be made must be interesting and meaningful for students as well as being curriculum-based. Once the teacher has generated a question or situation, students work together in groups to develop a list of possible decisions. They then evaluate each possible decision for potential consequences. Each individual student takes into account the consequences of the decisions, and each student selects his or her own best decision.

B The Sahel region in the Sudan

1

2

3

4

Question or Situation

Consequences

Possible Decisions

Decisions

Figure 9.9 The interactive decision-making process.

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PUTTING THINGS TOGETHER One of the most underappreciated high-order thinking activities available in social studies is synthesis. We spend tremendous time and energy encouraging analysis, but Synthesis rarely consider its antecedent. The process of Synthesis is an important skill combining ideas or that enables children to develop objects to form a a whole understanding when manew whole thing. terial is presented in fragments. The concept attainment/development models of Jerome Bruner (1956) anf Hilda Taba (1962) are based on synthesis. These approaches to developing concept knowledge are inductive and involve students recognizing examples and non-examples of a concept as a way to develop knowledge of the concept. Synthesis activities work in a similar way, enabling interaction that is dynamic and active. All of the following interactive synthesis activities involve students working together to meet individual learning goals.

among regional Indians. It is rarer for students to consider Native American Indians as a whole. Since all synthesis-related activities need to have a central focus, an activity on Native Americans might focus on Indian dwellings such as the ones illustrated in Figures 9.10 and 9.11. This activity requires students to use several sources of information, such as these images of Caribou and Anasazi dwellings, to develop a whole understanding of some aspect of Native Indian life. Figure 9.10 shows two Caribou Inuit women sitting inside a cozy igloo, and Figure 9.11 shows a view inside ancient Anasazi Indian cliff dwellings. Students can use these sources to develop general statements about home life among Native American Indians. This means that students will synthesize—they will identify similarities among dwellings related to topics such as size, construction materials, and purpose. Students bring these findings together to construct substantive statements about Native Indian dwellings in general.

What’s in Common? In this activity, students begin with a collection of seemingly disconnected facts about famous people, places, or events. Teachers assign students in groups one of the facts, and the students work to determine the identity of their person, place, or event. After making the identification, students begin to work in the groups to determine similarities. The teacher can provide the group with a chart for listing similarities and differences. The final outcome should be an individual finding––namely, some similarity among the people, places, or events.

The Big Picture One of the things we try to do in social studies is help students understand overarching themes and storylines. Far too often, teachers and students become mired in the details of discrete information. In this activity, students must construct a “big picture” understanding from a series of related ideas that they have studied over time. Opportunities to do “big picture” synthesis occur frequently in the social studies curriculum. Curriculum often calls for students to learn about specific Native American tribes or, at best, similarities

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Figure 9.10 Two Caribou Inuit women sit inside an igloo.

OTHER APPROACHES TO INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES At its best, interactive instruction is creative. Teachers must create activities that reflect their students’ and their own interests and talents. In this section, we present several interactive activities as examples of the variety inherent in interactive instruction. Consider these pedagogical approaches as creative sparks for developing your own approaches to interactive instruction.

The Buzz Children love to talk and, like adults, their talk often follows trends and fashions. We might think of this talk as buzz or what everyone is talking about. This instructional approach takes advantage of our tendency to be attracted to gossipy talk. To start this activity, identify some curriculum-based subject matter. Also, focus the subject matter topic to reflect student interest. First, plant an idea with one student or a small group and facilitate interesting talk about the idea. As the talk proceeds, have students consider how the focus changes, comparing where they started to where they end. The goal is to demonstrate how talk can affect what we know, while learning about some substantive subject matter. It’s a Mystery “It’s a mystery” is an activity to use when you have an issue or topic that contains some element of uncertainty. For example, students could study the mystery of the disappearance of Amelia Earhart and the emergence of women in traditional male roles such as an aviator. Have students assemble in groups of three or four, and provide each group a one- or two-sentence description of the mystery. You could give each group a slightly different version. Once all the students have read their passage, create new groups with members from each of the previous groups. In these new groups have students share their version of the story. Each individual should then select the one version they think is most credible.

What Do You Know About It? This activity Figure 9.11 A view inside ancient Anasazi Indian cliff dwellings.

should relate to an issue or topic in social studies that is complex or difficult to understand—such as the concept of freedom. Ask students to share with each other what they know about freedom. Then, have students

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share their definition of freedom in small groups and come up with one example of freedom. Students could record each one of the ideas shared in the group, then move to new groups and share what they learned in their first group. This outcome should be an expanded understanding of the meaning of freedom. Young children will often hold an absolute or ideal belief about freedom. In practice, freedom is limited and conditional.

For and Against In this activity, students pair up and take opposing views on some controversial issue. The idea is that each student will have a script of sorts and will try to convince the other that they are right. The central characteristic of this activity is its structure. Be sure to give students a focused topic for discussion and a set of rules for tr ying to convince one another that they are right. The concept of economic choice is a good topical area for developing a “for and against” activity. Offer students two choices for to how to spend a sum of money. Have each student develop all or some part of an argument in favor of one choice. They would deliver

CONCEPT CHECK

their arguments in a controlled setting, perhaps each student having one or two minutes to present. The activity can take place in pairs, small groups, or as a whole class.

What’s the Question? Students are very familiar with the routine of answering questions posed by their teachers. In this activity, the tables are turned, and students ask the questions. In this activity, students formulate questions from teacher-delivered prompts. The goal of the activity is to encourage students to work together imagining the question that some information is answering. For example, students might be prompted to develop questions about the histor y of the founding of their local community. Such questions might focus on why people came to the area, how the community has changed since its founding, and the names and activities of the people who founded the community. As with all interactive activities, this approach should enable students to share possible questions, but ultimately each student should be responsible for selecting what he or she thinks is most correct.

STOP

Last Chance Gulch in Montana Territory is shown in a period photograph. It is one of hundreds of boomtowns created by the gold rush, which began after a miner found gold near Pikes Peak.

What might be the impact of the timing of the gold rushes in 1828 (Georgia), 1848 (California), and 1858 (Colorado) given other events occurring in the United States?

What interactive activities might emerge that are related to the gold rushes in the United States in the 19th century?

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Last Chance Gulch, in Montana Territory in the 1860s.

Interactive Teaching and Learning

Grouping Strategies LEARNING OBJECTIVES Recognize some reasons for grouping. Identify methods for grouping students for interactive instruction. Compare various goals for grouping students.

rouping is a ver y important part of interactive instruction. Although not all interactive instruction is conducted with groups, it is the most significant configuration of learners in interactive instructional settings. In “Visualizing: Grouping Based on Subject Matter” on page 244, we look at organizing groups around subjects such as history, politics, or geography.

G

WHY GROUP STUDENTS? There are two reasons for grouping students. First, grouping enables students to interact in a social environment. This means the physical characteristics of the grouping should meet the social needs of the group. If students are expected to talk in their group, they should face one another. If they need to share materials, they will need an area in which they can do this easily. If they are expected to read together, they will need the proximity that comes with being read to or reading to someone. The second reason for grouping is to facilitate instructional objectives. Interactive instruction requires that students work together, in a group, on some portion of an assignment. When planning an interactive activity, teachers need to consider the instructional needs of the group to determine the size, composition, and form of interaction for the group.

and (3) the level of understanding needed by each student. How many students should be in each group? The size of the group cannot be determined solely from the context of the activity and the individual learning goals for students. For example, a four-person group will not work if the instructional goal is for the group to vote by a majority on some issue. Here are some considerations that might determine the size of a group. 1. Are there specific roles or tasks for group members? If so, the number of these roles will determine the group size. 2. Will the group members be discussing information? Depending on the subject matter, smaller groups may be better. If the teacher expects all students to participate in the discussion or if the subject matter is particularly dense, smaller groups are better. 3. Are the group identities tied to subject matter? If they are, the number of groups and thus the group size will be influenced by the subject matter arrangement. For example, if students are studying the climates in North America, the teacher may want each group to represent a different climate type, which will influence the number of groups. 4. Will groups be rearranged for some extended activity? This regrouping will influence the size and number of groups. 5. Will the groups present information to the whole class? If presentations are a part of the activity, the number of groups will be influenced by the amount of time for presentations and the length of each presentation.

HOW TO GROUP STUDENTS

SPECIFIC GROUPING STRATEGIES

There are as many grouping strategies as the imagination can conjure. To manage the task of setting up groups, we can use three interrelated considerations: (1) the size of the group, (2) the purpose of the activity,

There are a number of ways to group students for learning experiences. The following sections address some of these approaches. These grouping strategies are organized as general forms of grouping, specialized Grouping Strategies

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Visualizing

Grouping Based on Subject Matter Figure 9.12

Consider the scope of subject matter conveyed in

figures a and b. Abu Simbel is a temple built by Ramses II (c.1279–1213 B.C.E.) in ancient Nubia (Egypt), where he wished to demonstrate his power and his divine nature. The temple has four colossal (65 feet high) statues of Ramses II that flank the entrance. The temple faces the east, and Re-Horakhty, a sun god, is inside the niche directly above the entrance. The alignment of the temple is such that twice a year the sun’s rays reach into the innermost sanctuary to illuminate the seated statues of Ptah, Amun-Re, Ramses II, and Re-Horakhty. The temple was cut out of the sandstone cliffs above the Nile River. What are some ways to group students in an activity related to Abu Simbel, Ramses II, and ancient Egypt? To organize an activity around the complex ideas suggested in these images, a teacher might plan an interactive lesson with groups based on subject matter areas implied in these images: •

geography (deserts and lakes in the Nile region),

•

ancient religion and politics (Egyptian pharaohs and sun god),

•

technology (carving techniques), modern preservation of the past, and

•

tourism.

A Abu Simbel, a temple built by Ramses II (c.1279–1213 B.C.E.), in ancient Nubia (Egypt)

B The Abu Simbel temple has four colossal (65 feet/20 meters high) statues of Ramses II that sit in pairs flanking the entrance.

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groupings, and instructional groupings. Consider all of these grouping techniques given the individualized accountability discussed earlier in the section on assessment and group work. When students work together in groups, they must continue to be held individually accountable for their work.

General Forms of Grouping Jigsaw grouping The jigsaw grouping strategy involves the development of a whole class activity that is broken into parts. Groups complete a part of the activity and are Jigsaw rearranged so that the whole acgrouping tivity can be put back together. A grouping approach There are a number of ways to that involves students working in arrange jigsaw groups. The most multiple groups on common approach is to have parts of a whole each group complete one part of activity. an activity and then reorganize the groups so that new groups have one member from each of the previous groups. The new groups then share what they learned in their previous groups. In Figure 9.13, students in groups A, B, and C are rearranged so there is one student from each group in the new group.

the enthusiasm that results from Dyad A twoworking with a friend. Or teachperson instructional ers might pair students with grouping. complementary learning styles or academic strengths. Teachers might also use dyads to partner low-achieving students with high-achieving ones. Maintaining individual learning outcomes is critically important if using this approach. Homogeneous grouping When some important characteristic among students in a group is shared, the grouping is said to be homogeneous. Teachers may want to group students together based on age, gender, prior knowledge, or ability. Homogeneous grouping should be productive and positive, not exclusionar y. For example, you would not want to make groups based on Homogeneous where students live, if the grouping groups will highlight some unA grouping strategy comfortable difference among that involves students being orgastudents such as wealth versus nized for group work poverty. according to like

Heterogeneous grouping The characteristics. most common form of grouping is heterogeneous groupHeterogeneous ing. When groups have a mix of grouping Dyads Dyads are groupings of two students who partstudent characteristics, they are A grouping strategy ner to achieve a learning objective. When creating heterogeneous. This form of that involves students being dyads, it is very important to consider the relationship grouping is often desired beorganized for group between the two students. Teachers may allow students cause it can shade differences work according to determine these groupings, hoping to capitalize on among students and is democto differing ratic in nature. characteristics. Groups of students of all Initial Group A: New Group John, Kato, Melissa, walks have an egalitarian feel. Most with students from: Maria often teachers will use characteristics that might otherwise be divisive for diA (Melissa) versifying student experiences, most importantly along the lines of race, socioeconomic status, and achievement Initial Group B: B (Jose) level. Eben, Liz, Carla, Jose

C (Theo) Initial Group C: Ryan, Mia, Theo, Juan

Figure 9.13 A common jigsaw grouping approach

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Specialized Groupings Subject-matter based grouping Occasionally, you may want to form groups based on subject matter. For example, if students are studying ethnic immigrant groups the teacher could form groups based on historic immigration patterns. If students are studying immigration to the United States, teachers could group students by ethnic immigrant groups such as the Chinese immigrant children in Figure 9.14 in San Francisco. Another group might represent Vietnamese immigrants, as seen in the photo of four Vietnamese children in Figure 9.15 who are holding drawings of their homes. How might a teacher create other subject-matter based groups in an exercise on immigration? Perhaps students could be grouped according to the time immigrants arrived. Figure 9.16 shows a group of newly arrived immigrants after their long journey to the United States as they await official approval here in 1917. Subject-matter grouping enables student groups to focus on specific subject matter and is useful in jigsaw activities. It also enables the actual grouping to serve as an instructional element, with group identities, such as ethnic immigrant groups, informing students about some subject-matter structure. Ability grouping Grouping students by their ability must be done very carefully. A general rule is to never group by ability unless the ability is based on something

that will not result in students feeling inferior. Instead of simply putting the brightest students in one group and struggling learners in another, use ability grouping based on specific abilities. For example, some students might be better at math and others might be better at writing. You can place the students who are good in mathematics together if this group has a task that requires advanced math skills. Student interest grouping Often the group task will concern something that is interesting to students. If groups have different tasks, it might make sense to group students according to their interests. This approach might be a good first grouping for a jigsaw activity. Multiple intelligence grouping The theory of multiple intelligences holds that children have tendencies to be stronger in certain cognitive areas such as verbal expression or kinesthetic ability. Grouping based on students’ dominant or stronger intelligence may enable them to better use their peers’ strengths in the group work. Learning style grouping Scholars suggest that students have different learning styles. Some students learn best by hearing information (audiotapes), others absorb and retain information better when there is visual presentation (DVD, film). These learning styles might be a good context for grouping given some subject matter task that demands a particular learning style.

Figure 9.14

Figure 9.15

Chinese immigrant children in San Francisco about 1900.

These children are members of Oklahoma City’s immigrant Vietnamese community, known as Little Saigon.

scribed method to answer these questions. Inquiry is typically done individually, but in groups the inquiry experience can be enhanced. When students conduct an inquiry in a group, individuals in the group can contribute specialized findings to a whole understanding. The best approach is to give the group a single inquiry question that can be simply segmented into multiple research tasks. Each task outcome should contribute in some way to the findings. Problem-based learning groups As we learned earlier, problem-based learning is very important in social studies. Some problems might be best addressed in group settings. Each group might address the same problem, completely different problems, different but complementar y problems, or even components of a single problem.

Figure 9.16 Immigration officials examining an immigrant family at Ellis Island in 1917 in a photo by Lewis Hine.

Instructional Groupings Instructional grouping involves placing students in groups based on a particular instructional activity. There are several grouping techniques that relate to specific instructional approaches. Following is a review of some of these instructional approaches to grouping. Inquiry groups As we learned in Chapter 3, inquiry involves students asking questions and using a pre-

CONCEPT CHECK

Task grouping This approach to grouping focuses on specific tasks that must be completed by different groups. You might use task grouping when you have multiple activities that need to be completed in order for a whole understanding to be developed. For example, groups might need to have a person who records information and another who reports for the group. These grouping techniques are very useful when you want to utilize individual talents or to ensure that each student in a group has a specific role during group work.

STOP

The U.S. National Park system began in 1872 with Yellowstone Park. Today, the system is made up of 391 areas covering more than 84 million acres. One of the most popular parks is Glacier National Park in Montana.

What forms of grouping might work when teaching about national parks?

How might students interact with this subject matter in groups?

What are some of the reasons we might teach about national parks?

A hiker pauses to read a map in Glacier National Park, Montana.

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Interactive Instruction and Learners LEARNING O BJECTIVES Distinguish between collaborative and cooperative learning and interactive instruction.

Recognize reasons why interactive instructional activities must be adapted for some learners.

Identify how the conditions for interactive instruction affect learners differently.

COLLABORATION AND INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION s we have seen, most of the learning that takes place in interactive environments is group oriented. Much attention has been given to group learning in educational settings over the last several decades. Often referred to as cooperative or collaborative learning, group-based learning is a mainstay of school today. Interactive instruction is closely tied to collaborative and cooperative forms of learning, but also has some very important differences. Cooperative learning occurs when students work together to accomplish shared learning goals. In cooperative learning activities, small groups of learners work together Cooperative as a team to solve a problem, learning An complete a task, or accomplish a approach to learning in which students common goal. Educational reshare learning goals searchers David Johnson and and work as a team Roger Johnson (1975) promote toward achieving cooperative learning, but they these goals. argue that cooperative learning is a sort of sink-or-swim proposition, with students being dependent on one another for success. The primar y criticism of cooperative learning is that learning will sink to the level of the weakest participant in the group. Proponents of cooperative learning argue that the cooperative learning process is a better approximation of real life. They contrast cooperative learning with competitive and individualistic approaches to learning and believe that for sociological

A

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reasons children need to learn to cooperate more than to compete. Interactive instruction recognizes the power and authenticity of cooperative and collaborative learning, but preserves an element of individual autonomy. How do these individual and collaborative elements compliment each other in an instructional setting? Think about the work the children in Figure 9.17 are doing. How might their work differ if it is interactive as opposed to being exclusively cooperative?

ADAPTING INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTION Some students are more suited for interactive instruction than others. What can we do about students who are reluctant to participate in interactive activities? First, remember that with interactive instruction children are individually responsible for their learning. If students are reluctant to be involved in the activity and are thus limited in their ability to construct knowledge, we must find ways to facilitate their learning. Because interactive instruction is dynamic, teachers can address unforeseen circumstances that emerge when students interact. This may involve adapting for individual learners’ needs. When adapting instruction, consider how you can address any discomfort a student may have with others. If a student is uncomfortable with specific students in the group, changing groups may resolve the problem. If the student is simply shy, then there needs to be a safe and comfortable environment in which he can express his ideas. The student may need you, the teacher,

Figure 9.17 Children working together in a group as part of a larger interactive activity

to be at his side. Or you might allow the student to work by himself or to work with different materials, using images or even written materials. Some students may be

CONCEPT CHECK

uninvolved because they are having difficulty working with the materials, in which case they can be provided with other resources.

STOP

How close does the government come to establishing religion through actions such as the Congressional chartering of the National Cathedral?

How might interactive groups learn about the limitations placed on government in establishing religion, or the reasons for the First Amendment?

How would this work differ from cooperative learning?

The National Cathedral in Washington, D. C. is affiliated with the U.S. government by an 1893 charter of Congress, but does not receive federal, state, or city funding.

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In the Classroom

AN INTERACTIVE APPROACH TO LEARNING ABOUT SOCIETAL RULES

The origin and purpose of rules is one of the most important social studies topics children study in elementary grades. In the early elementary grades, social studies teachers spend considerable time reinforcing classroom rules. As students grow older, teachers can begin to introduce to students the origin and purpose of rules in society. In this activity, fifth- or sixth-grade students are introduced to the origin and purpose of basic rules that govern the establishment of the United States democracy. To start the activity, place students in groups based on their knowledge of four historic sets of rules, the Code of Hammurabi, the Ten Commandments, Sharia law, and Magna Carta. Hammurabi’s Code, shown here inscribed in the Akkadian language of Babylonia on an eight-foot-tall black diorite

stone, is one of the earliest legal codes in world history. The goal is to try to include one or more students in each group with some knowledge of Hammurabi’s code and the rules laid forth in the Ten Commandments, Sharia law, and Magna Carta. To achieve this goal, you might provide each group with a brief summary of each of these sets of rules. The basic information students need is as follows. •

The Code of Hammurabi was developed over 3,000 years ago by the king of Babylonia.

•

The Ten Commandments were given to Moses by God over 3,000 years ago.

•

Sharia law is derived from Allah’s word written in the Koran almost 1,400 years ago as well as Muhammad’s words in the Hadith.

•

The Magna Carta comes from a group of powerful English nobles who forced King John of England to agree to their demands in 1215 A.D.

After students review this information, you would distribute a copy of the first few sentences of the Preamble to the United States Declaration of Independence. In their groups, each student should independently determine what he or she thinks the source is for the rights described in the Declaration of Independence. There might be a range of responses, which reflect students’ group work. The students in the groups with the Ten Commandments or Sharia law might be more prone to focus on the words “God” and “endowed by their Creator.” Students in the other groups may focus more on “Laws of Nature” or “Governments are instituted among Men.” The pedagogical goal should be to facilitate students in groups as they individually determine the extent to which the rights of life, liberty, and happiness are God-given and/or of human origin.

Hammurabi’s Code, inscribed in the Akkadian language of Babylonia on an eight-foot-tall black diorite stone

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From the Preamble to the United States Declaration of Independence We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.

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What is happening in this picture

?

■ Rusty junk overwhelms a beach on Ebeye Island, part of the Marshall Islands. The Marshall Islands in the Pacific are a territory of the United States. What is the central focus of this image? ■ What themes arise in an analysis of this image (e.g., nature vs. technology)? ■ Given the remote location of the Marshall Islands, where do you think the refuse on this beach originated? ■ How might students engage this topic in a jigsaw group activity?

A beach on Ebeye Island, part of the Marshall Islands

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

What Is Interactive Instruction?

Interactive instruction is most effective when it is active, meaningful, and dynamic. Planning for interactive instruction should revolve around student interest. An interactive activity typically begins with individual or whole class preparation. Students then work in groups to work on tasks that build on this preparatory work. As a culminating activity, individual students complete work that represents their understanding of the instructional objectives guiding the lesson development.

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Interactive lesson about Abraham Lincoln for the third grade. 1. Students are often interested in learning about what makes people “famous.” Focus a lesson on the causes of fame to engage students.

4. All students are required to expand on their initial reason for Lincoln’s fame by including one reason from the other two periods of Lincoln’s life.

2. Students can individually read a short story about Abraham Lincoln—e.g. Karen B. Winnick’s Mr. Lincoln’s Whiskers.

The Process of Interactive Instruction Step 1: Subject Matter Interest. Consider how to generate student interest in challenging subject matter.

Step 2: Initial Focus on the Individual. Plan for an initial individually-focused student activity.

Step 4: Individual Assessment. Assess individual students’ knowledge.

Step 3: Group Activity. Plan group activities designed to be:

1 1

3. In groups of three, students develop ideas for why Abraham Lincoln is famous. Each student should focus on a period in Lincoln’s life: childhood, young adulthood before politics, or political career. Students should use a creative means to represent their understanding of Lincoln’s fame and present these to the class.

Dynamic

Active

Meaningful

Dynamic Students use creative means to express their knowledge.

Active Students are talking and working together.

Meaningful Students are learning about an important figure from U.S. history.

2

Characteristics of Interactive Instruction

3

Active learning occurs when students must manipulate subject matter–related information in some manner. Meaningful learning results from students engaging with subject matter that has some personal connection. Interactive instruction requires a dynamic approach to teaching. Teachers must constantly adapt their lessons when teaching in interactive contexts. Teachers can engage students with challenging subject matter in interactive instructional contexts. These activities require that teachers have deep knowledge of subject matter and the ability to find avenues for connecting the subject matter to student interests.

4

Grouping Strategies

Interactive instruction can focus on solving problems, decision making, and synthesis. Each of these types of interactive instruction is easily shaped to a variety of subject matter areas. Other specific types of interactive instruction might focus on student talk, mystery, dialogue, and questions.

1

2

3

4

Question or Situation

Consequences

5

There are many ways to arrange students in groups. We can use three strategies to develop groups for interactive learning: (1) the size of the group, (2) the purpose of the activity, and (3) the level of understanding needed by each individual student. Some specific group strategies include generalized grouping approaches such as jigsaw, dyads, homogeneous, and heterogeneous grouping; specified approaches such as subject matter–based grouping, ability Initial Group A: New Group John, Kato, Melissa, with students from: grouping, and stuMaria dent interest A (Melissa) grouping; and instructional groupInitial Group B: B (Jose) Eben, Liz, Carla, Jose ing approaches focused on inquiry, C (Theo) problem-based learning, and Initial Group C: Ryan, Mia, Theo, Juan tasks.

Types of Interactive Instruction

Possible Decisions

Decisions

Interactive Instruction and Learners

Interactive instruction shares many characteristics with cooperative learning, but there are also distinct differences. Most importantly, interactive learning places individual accountability at the center of the planning process. All interactive instruction should facilitate individual student understanding. The grouping aspect of interactive instruction should facilitate individual learners as they develop their subject matter knowledge. All interactive instruction should be designed in such a way to accommodate learners with special needs. Students may have social or learning needs that require that some adaptation in the instruction be made for their learning.

KEY TERMS ■ interactive instruction, p. 228

■ dyad, p. 245

■ heterogeneous grouping, p. 245

■ synthesis, p. 240

■ homogeneous grouping, p. 245

■ cooperative learning, p. 248

■ jigsaw grouping, p. 245

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CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

How can a teacher use groups to develop an interactive activity focused on the branches of government in the United States? Think about the three branches of government and how you might structure groups to investigate the powers and responsibilities of each

A

A The judicial branch: Members

C

of the U.S. Supreme Court. B The executive branch: President Bush and guests. C The legislative branch: the 110th Congress

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branch of government (legislative, executive, and judicial). Consider the responsibilities of each branch, and think about how these roles might relate to group tasks.

B

SELF-TEST 1. Interactive instruction is most effective when it is a. active, meaningful, and dynamic. b. active, meaningful, and responsive. c. direct, dynamic, and meaningful. d. direct, active, and dynamic.

6. Label the 4 steps in the interactive decision-making process on the figure below.

2. Label the four steps in the planning process for the interactive instructional process on the figure below.

1

2

3

4

Interactive lesson about Abraham Lincoln for the third grade. 1. Students are often interested in learning about what makes people “famous.” Focus a lesson on the causes of fame to engage students.

4. All students are required to expand on their initial reason for Lincoln’s fame by including one reason from the other two periods of Lincoln’s life.

2. Students can individually read a short story about Abraham Lincoln—e.g. Karen B. Winnick’s Mr. Lincoln’s Whiskers.

The Process of Interactive Instruction Step 1:

Step 4:

Step 2:

1 1

Step 3:

3. In groups of three, students develop ideas for why Abraham Lincoln is famous. Each student should focus on a period in Lincoln’s life: childhood, young adulthood before politics, or political career. Students should use a creative means to represent their understanding of Lincoln’s fame and present these to the class.

Dynamic

Active

Meaningful

Dynamic Students use creative means to express their knowledge.

Active Students are talking and working together.

Meaningful Students are learning about an important figure from U.S. history.

3. How do individual activities fit into the interactive instructional approach? a. Individual activities are not a part of interactive instruction. b. Interactive instruction typically begins with individual activities. c. Individual activities and interactive instruction are one and the same thing.

7. Which of the following is less important as a consideration for developing groups for interactive learning? a. the size of the group b. the purpose of the activity c. the level of understanding needed by each individual student d. the length of the activity 8. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping? 9. How can subject matter be used to create groups of interactive learning activities? Think about the topics of immigration as an example of subject matter when answering the question. 10. How do interactive instruction and cooperative learning differ, and how are they alike?

4. Which of the following teacher activities is constantly needed in interactive instruction? a. adaptation c. attention b. control 5. Which of the following is not an interactive instructional approach? a. solving problems c. synthesis b. decision making d. lecturing

Self-Test

255

Literacy in Social Studies

10

W

illiam Mehta’s second-graders are emerging readers and writers at Taft Elementary School in Brooklyn, New York. Reading and writing skills are extremely important for all students. Unfortunately, Taft students received low scores on standardized tests and the school is under pressure to improve students’ reading and writing abilities. The school now requires that all second-grade teachers use a new reading and writing strategy, “Read, Write, First.” (See more about this strategy later in the chapter.) The approach encourages teachers to place reading and writing first on their list. “Get it Together” is one of Mr. Mehta’s favorite “Read, Write, First” activities. When students start a social studies lesson, he asks them to gather their thoughts on the topic of the day. Mr. Mehta plans all of his academic activities around reading and writing. When preparing for social studies, he thinks about how he can teach the content using reading and writing. He requires students to read and write every day—usually it is the first thing they do in a lesson. He incorporates all writing assignments into meaningful and authentic subject matter contexts. One day, the class was studying government, specifically the role of the president. Mr. Mehta asked his students to “Get it Together” and write down what they know about the president. To support their work, Mr. Mehta provided several prompts and questions as scaffolding. • Who is the president of the United States? • Why do we have a president? • What is the president’s job? • What kinds of things does the president do every day? • Who do you think can be president? Mr. Mehta was careful to tell students that they did not have to answer every question, just the ones they might know something about or might be interested in learning about. The activity served the purpose of activating students’ prior knowledge, encouraging their interest in the subject matter, and providing them with an opportunity to practice writing. 256

President George W. Bush at work in the White House. What does this picture suggest about the day-to-day job of the president of the United States?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ The Importance of Literacy p. 258

■ Reading in Social Studies p. 262

■ Using Textbooks in Social Studies

p. 268

■ Using Authentic Texts in Social

Studies p. 271

■ Writing in Social Studies p. 275

■ Literacy and the Social Studies

Curriculum p. 280

iteracy is a part of ever ything we do in school. When children read directions, when they make decisions, when they write an answer to a problem, they are using literacy skills. In its broadest sense, literacy means being knowledgeable in a particular field or subject. In elementary grades we often think of literacy more narrowly as relating to reading and writing.

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In this chapter, we will look at literacy in social studies given both narrow and broad constructs. We will also consider how a focus on literacy can help enliven social studies and make the subject more relevant given curriculum, standards, and testing, which emphasize literacy skills.

The Importance of Literacy LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define literacy. Describe various approaches to literacy instruction. Explain why literacy instruction is important in social studies.

hat do you think of when you see a child reading such as the child in Figure 10.1? How much reading do you think students should do during social studies class?

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Figure 10.1 What are the ideal conditions for reading in social studies?

Success in social studies is Literacy dependent on literacy. Reading Knowledge in a and writing are perhaps the particular field or subject; ability to most common forms of literacy read and write. and means for developing and expressing knowledge in social studies, but literacy is more than just reading and writing. In social studies, literacy enables children to study the past, investigate places, learn about government, examine economics, understand concepts, and provide evidence of student knowledge and achievement. Given its significance, it is important for us to first consider the definition of literacy.

DEFINING LITERACY In the past, literacy was often defined as the ability to read and write. Recently, the definition has expanded to include the ability to locate, evaluate, use, and communicate information using a wide range of resources such as text, visual, audio, and video sources (Deane, 2004). If we implement this broader definition of literacy, it means that all teachers have some responsibility for developing their students’ literacy skills. Several organizations are actively working to help define and explain the field of literacy. The National Forum on Information Literacy, an association of education, library, and business leaders, takes a broad approach to literacy. The association has identified seven literacy areas including business, computers, health, information, technology, and media. Other organizations

have taken a narrower approach. In its curriculum guide, Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) describes literacy as focused on specific skills related to using social studies content material. NCSS incorporates a number of literacy-related skills as essential for social studies: 1. Reading 2. Studying 3. Thinking 4. Decision making 5. Metacognition 6. Reference and information search skills 7. Technical skills in using electronic devices 8. The ability to organize and use information Thinking about inconsistencies such as the one suggested in Figure 10.2 requires literacy skills such as the ability to reference prior knowledge, apply that knowledge to expectations, and think about the processes that result in expectations. Whether defined broadly or narrowly, literacy is directly relevant for social studies, particularly given the unique civic-oriented mission of the field.

Figure 10.2 How might students use literacy skills when engaging this image of a Mayan pyramid at Chichen Itza?

LITERACY, SOCIETY, AND DECISION MAKING A literate population is important to the development of civilization. In the United States, as in other democracies, literate citizens form the basis of social order and stability. Citizens need literacy skills in order to participate in economic, political, and social life. In fact, one of the primary rationales for school is to prepare children to engage in such activities. Given this purpose, literacy must be of the utmost concern to all teachers and particularly for teachers in social studies. Literacy skills are among the tools that adults use when making life decisions. The smooth functioning of society depends on adults using these skills in everyday life. Which literacy skills are a part of social life? Many of these skills relate to making good decisions. Social studies teachers must work carefully with their students to develop these decision-making skills. How can we facilitate the development of decisionmaking literacy skills? There are at least two approaches: using real-life contexts and focusing on the curriculum. Teachers can use real-life contexts to prompt students to consider the consequences of their decisions. A kindergarten class might want to consider the consequences of not acting to prevent something unpleasant from happening. For example, kindergarten teachers can encourage their students to think about their school or their classroom and consider the consequences of not taking care of these places. Teachers might ask their students to decide how they will organize classroom-cleaning responsibilities. Individual students may tr y to get out of certain work, but they will quickly realize that if they make a decision to ignore their classroom, the classroom will become a mess. Such activities help children learn the social good that results from making good decisions.

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Another approach to good decision making is to focus more closely on curriculum-based subject matter and situate that subject matter in literacy and decisionmaking contexts. Consider an activity on the Underground Railroad in which students have to select from a number of alternative routes to freedom. Such an activity might be appropriate at any elementar y grade level—let’s look at an activity for fourth-grade students. National Geographic developed an interactive Web site that guides students through a series of decisionmaking mini-activities directed at helping students understand the reasons for the runaway slave system and Visit National Geographic’s Underground Railroad Experience at ➤

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/railroad

Figure 10.3 Various routes taken by escaping slaves in the 1840s and 1850s

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the means by which it operated. The Web site follows the path of an imagined runaway slave from Virginia as he moves to Maryland and onward to Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, and Canada. Figure 10.3 shows a simple illustrated map of various routes taken by escaping slaves in the 1840s and 1850s. • What kind of obstacles might runaway slaves have encountered as they followed the paths illustrated on this map? • What skills might students use when trying to evaluate the costs and benefits facing runaway slaves as they confronted these obstacles? In this activity, students can use resources such as those available on the National Geographic Web site (e.g.,

images, texts, maps, and a timeline) to determine how much risk slaves encountered when running away. Specific learning tasks might include a number of activities given curriculum requirements. However, the overall goal is to require students to engage literacy skills in the process of completing the activity. Some of these curriculum-related, literacy-based activities might include the following. Map reading: Requires students to describe the shortest and longest routes to freedom depicted on the map. Visualizing: Figure 10.4 shows a hiding place used by runaway slaves. This picture shows a hidden space inside the wall of the John Freeman Walls house. The space was used to conceal runaway slaves on the Underground Railroad. Several adults at a time could hide in this space. Students might describe how and why a slave could have endured staying for any length of time in such a place. Creative writing: After reading about some of the techniques used by runaway slaves, students might create their own escape plan. They would likely need a context for the activity, such as a description of the place and conditions from which the slaves are escaping.

CONCEPT CHECK

Figure 10.4 This fake bookshelf was used to hide runaway slaves in the Lakeshore Township, Ontario, home of John Freeman Walls, which is a museum today. His great-grandson, Allen Walls, looks out from behind the bookshelf.

All of these activities develop literacy and, at the same time, they advance students’ abilities to make decisions and function in society. The abilities to read text and non-text materials (such as maps, directions, and guides) or to take meaning from video and images are central to understanding and communicating in society.

STOP

How might students in elementary grades use three of the NCSS literacy skills important for social studies when learning about ancient Mississippian Native American Indians?

How might students seek information to help them understand the burial traditions of these Native Americans?

These skeletal remains were found in the Wickliffe Mounds in Kentucky. Wickliffe was home to a Mississippian community that thrived from A.D. 1100 to A.D. 1350.

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Reading in Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify approaches for facilitating reading in the social studies. Describe processes for determining reading abilities. Examine the influence of reading levels on instructional practice.

t is almost impossible to talk about social studies without considering reading skills. History learning is dominated by reading-related activities. Learning in civics, economics, and geography is also highly dependent on reading. Even when using maps in geography, students must read legends and labels. Given the importance of reading in social studies, what are some strategies for encouraging and developing reading skills in social studies instruction?

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GENERAL APPROACHES TO READING IN SOCIAL STUDIES Approaches to reading can be categorized by answering the following three questions, each of which addresses a pedagogical concern. 1. How would a written source benefit students when learning about a particular subject? 2. What are the conditions for the reading activity (time, length of the source, students’ reading ability, etc.)? 3. How should the reading resource be adapted and contextualized? First, teachers must ask themselves whether the subject matter is suited for a reading experience. Second, they must think about the conditions of the reading exercise. Third, teachers must adapt the reading source to meet their specific pedagogical goals and conditions.

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These considerations require that teachers use their knowledge of the subject matter, their knowledge of the curriculum, and their knowledge of resources related to the subject. For example, a fifth-grade teacher preparing a lesson on the economics of work remembers the story of Tom Sawyer and the picket fence. In Mark Twain’s book, Tom convinces several other boys to do his work painting a picket fence and even gets the boys to pay him for the “pleasure” of painting the fence. Twain writes in the book about what Tom learned. Tom said to himself that it was not such a hollow world, after all. He had discovered a great law of human action, without knowing it— namely, that in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make the thing difficult to attain. If he had been a great and wise philosopher, like the writer of this book, he would now have comprehended that Work consists of whatever a body is obliged to do, and that Play consists of whatever a body is not obliged to do. And this would help him to understand why constructing artificial flowers or performing on a tread-mill is work, while rolling ten-pins or climbing Mont Blanc is only amusement.

This teacher might have students read two or three pages of Tom Sawyer in support of students’ learning about work. Additional adaptations might be necessary given specific conditions. Consider the planning that might go into preparation for another activity—this one focused on transportation. Children at all grades learn about transportation. A lesson in the second grade might focus on identifying modes of transportation and categorizing these modes based on characteristics. Show students the image in Figure 10.5. Then ask: • What common modes of transportation are shown? • What do you think are the most desirable or common modes of transportation? To incorporate reading activities, consider how you might use written sources in activities designed to support the objectives. As planning proceeds, the process is quite iterative. Teachers must continually draw on

of time. Although each learning circumstance demands special consideration, 10–15 minutes is a reasonable maximum period of time to devote to reading in social studies. Following are two very different examples of how books might be incorporated into a social studies class given time constraints.

Figure 10.5 How might you characterize the modes of transportation depicted in this photo?

their knowledge of subject matter and resources as they plan for instruction. The following description of a teacher’s thinking about this lesson about transportation highlights the process of developing knowledge about how to teach with literacy resources.

READING AND INSTRUCTION How do reading activities fit into instruction? This question is very important given the amount of time it takes to read and the sometimes personal nature of reading. When planning an instructional activity that includes reading, teachers need to take into account the learners’ prior knowledge and existing skills (see “In the Classroom,” p. 264). Teachers can incorporate forms of silent reading, group reading, and teacher-directed reading into their instruction. Each one of these instructional reading approaches requires different considerations. Teachers should value all forms of reading in the class, but there are limitations on the amount of reading that can be effectively incorporated into the classroom. The most important limitation is time. Extended reading in the classroom is typically not a very good use

• Letters from a Slave Girl: The Story of Harriet Jacobs by Mary E. Lyons Fifth-grade teachers might be interested in this fictionalized account of Harriet Jacobs’s escape from slavery. The book is based on Harriet Jacobs’s own autobiography. Given its length at 176 pages, some teachers might be reluctant to use it. One approach is to segment the book and have students read portions silently or aloud over several class periods, and provide students with summarized overviews of other sections that they did not read. Of course, students can be asked to read the book out of class, but there is no guarantee that all students will read the entire book. If class assignments are dependent on all students reading the entire book, it’s best to limit the reading of the book to sections that can be read or summarized during class time. • Butter Battle Book by Theodore Geisel (Dr. Seuss) Theodore Geisel wrote the Butter Battle Book in 1983 at the height of the Cold War arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The book tells a cautionary tale about two imaginary groups, the “Zooks” and the “Yooks,” whom a wall separates, and the differences in the way they butter their bread. The book speaks to separate audiences on different levels. On one level, it is a simple Dr. Seuss morality tale about getting along, full of all the rhymes and imagination that distinguish his work. On another level, the Butter Battle Book is a serious missive about the Cold War, imagined differences between groups of people, and the 20th-century weapons race. Teachers can have younger children read the entire book aloud and gently introduce the themes of tolerance and cooperation. Older children might read the book and then explore the history of the Cold War and

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In the Classroom

USING LITERARY RESOURCES IN A LESSON ABOUT TRANSPORTATION

Clara Bryant knows a little bit about transportation. Certainly not an expert, she is at least conversant in the general history of major forms of transportation like planes, automobiles, and trains. Clara was planning for a lesson in her first-grade class on major forms of transportation. Given her school system’s curriculum, she had to design a lesson that would enable her students to identify six forms of transportation, describe the origins of each, and explain how these forms of transportation are used today. Clara began by identifying forms of transportation. She constructed a list of several, including planes, trains, boats, automobiles, bicycles, motorcycles, and helicopters. As she proceeded, Clara wondered what forms of transportation her students would think of. Perhaps they would think about skateboards, big wheels, in-line skates, and ice skates. Clara asked herself whether these are legitimate forms of transportation. She decided to exclude any devices that are not regularly used to transport or move people from one place to another. Bicycles were in and skateboards were out.

Clara opened her lesson with a whole class brainstorming activity in which students named forms of transportation. Clara then guided the class in the development of criteria (much like she had done) for modes of transportation. With this part of the lesson planned, Clara thought about how she could provide her students with opportunities to encounter information about forms of transportation. She decided that a group reading on forms of transportation was a good approach. The selection of appropriate resources was very important. Clara still needed to emphasize the origins and current uses of transportation, so she decided to use a classic book about transportation, Richard Scarry’s Cars and Trucks and Things That Go. The book is easy to read for first-graders and playfully explains dozens of forms of transportation in rich, colorful, action-packed contexts. Clara read the book to her students and asked them to describe the forms of transportation they saw in the book. Then students compared the forms of transportation in the book to the list they made.

Is this a “form of transportation?” How does the context of these two images help determine the extent to which each scooter is a form of transportation?

Is this a “form of transportation”?

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Figure 10.6 Over 50,000 people ignore the state of emergency and gather August 20, 1991, in front of the Russian parliament building in order to support Boris Yeltsin.

the complexities of our current nuclear condition. Figure 10.6 depicts a celebration after the failed last-ditch effort by Soviet Communists to prevent the collapse of the Soviet Union. The dramatic fall of the Soviet Union in part resulted from the inability of the Soviets to keep pace in the Cold War arms race of the 1980s. How does the collapse of the Soviet Union change the message of Theodore Geisel’s Butter Battle Book? Teachers can significantly expand the amount of reading material that a whole class can read by using group-reading techniques. The main idea in group reading is that each student reads a different part of a whole passage and in some way shares what he or she has read with others in a group. Teacher-directed reading involves teachers either reading to their students or directing students as they read all or parts of a reading selection. Much like silent reading, teacher-directed reading should last no more than 15 minutes.

SPECIFIC APPROACHES TO READING IN SOCIAL STUDIES While general approaches to reading are useful, sometimes teachers need more specific approaches. Reading

specialist Ray Jones suggests numerous specific approaches to reading at his Web site Readingquest.org. These strategies make use of scaffolds, metaphors, and schemas to support student reading. Each of these strategies supports and enhances students’ understanding of text. When presenting these strategies on Readingquest.org, Jones suggests that understanding text involves the activation of prior or background knowledge, active engagement in the content, and metacognition. Jones and Lapham (2004) further suggest that teachers must energize their students by 1. making them feel good about what they are reading, 2. providing them with interesting material, 3. actively engaging students, and 4. continuously adjusting instruction. The following reading activities make use of these four ideas.

Popup Reading This is a ver y common strategy that some people call popcorn reading. The idea is for one student to read a few sentences from a selected text and then choose another student to read next. The reading and selecting continues until the text has been completely read. To make the reading fun, students should pop up or stand up when they are selected. Reading in Social Studies

265

Reading Buddies Reading buddies are student pairs who work together to complete reading tasks. They might read passages aloud to each other, read the same thing silently and then question each other about what they have read, or read different parts of a single text and then tell each other about what they have read. The goal is to use a cooperative partnership between the students to encourage and extend reading skills and comprehension.

Reading Festival A reading festival is a comprehensive set of activities arranged around a single text. The teacher may prepare activities with games, food, and other fun things to do along with subject-matter activities associated with the text. Reading festivals work best with full-length books. For example, a teacher might plan a reading fest around Eric A. Kimmel’s Don Quixote and the Windmills or Barbara Kerley’s Walt Whitman: Words for America. Both of these books were on the National Council for the Social Studies Notable Books for Young People list for 2005. Imagine a reading festi-

Figure 10.7 Countryside around the late-fourteenth-century castle of San Servando outside of Toledo, Spain

val based on Don Quixote’s life in the Spanish countryside around the late-14th-centur y castle of San Servando outside of Toledo (Figure 10.7). What kinds of activities could a teacher plan for her students in association with reading the children’s book Don Quixote and the Windmills?

Shadow Reading This technique requires students to silently read a text, and then tr y to explain what they read to a group or to the whole class. The activity focuses on reading comprehension. The idea is to encourage students to remember as much of the reading as possible after an initial silent reading. The shadow metaphor represents students’ understanding of the text after they have read it once. Like a shadow, what students remember about what they have read is an image of the real thing. Teachers can use this activity to encourage their students to come as close as they can to making the “shadow” real by accurately retelling the story they have just read.

DETERMINING READING LEVELS

simple mathematical formula to determine grade-level readability:

When preparing for reading activities, teachers must determine the reading level of the materials and the reading abilities of their students. There are many techniques that teachers can use to determine reading levels. Edward Fry developed one of the best known and easiest to use techniques for determining the readability of a piece of writing. Fr y’s method involves randomly selecting 100-word passages from a reading source and counting the number of syllables and number of sentences per passage. The average number of syllables and sentences can then be plotted on graphs developed by Fry. Another simple and well-known readability test, the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level formula, makes use of a

ASL ⫽ average sentence length (the number of words divided by the number of sentences) ASW ⫽ average number of syllables per word (the number of syllables divided by the number of words) Many software programs also exist for checking readability of text. Teachers can even check the readability level of a passage using the Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level built into the newer versions of Microsoft ® Word.

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Think of a context for using this map in an elementary classroom. How might the map be used to support an objective focused on the concept of elevation?

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How might you activate prior knowledge, encourage active engagement, and facilitate metacognition as students read this map?

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Reading in social studies includes using traditional text-based sources as well as sources such as maps, which rely on visual content instead of text.

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CONCEPT CHECK

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Using Textbooks in Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the role of textbooks in elementary social studies. Describe the limitations of social studies textbooks. Consider methods for using and supplementing social studies textbooks.

extbooks are ver y important in social studies. No other resource is as widely available and commonly used as the textbook. Novice teachers may even use textbooks to learn content themselves. It is important to carefully consider how to use textbooks in the classroom. In this section, we look at some general approaches to using textbooks as well as a procedure for determining the potential uses of textbooks.

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THREE APPROACHES TO USING TEXTBOOKS Although there are many ways to use textbooks in the social studies classroom, we will focus on three distinct approaches. Think about how each of these approaches can be adapted and how the ideas described relate to one another and might even overlap.

Background Reading Textbooks can provide children with a rich source of background on subject matter featured in a classroom activity. In fact, one of the most common homework assignments in social studies is to read from a textbook in preparation for the next day. While this might be a good strategy (particularly for upper elementary grades), the teacher must take several things into consideration. No textbook-reading homework assignment should be made without introducing the materials and conducting a pre-reading activity. Pre-reading activities may include any number of scaffolding designs to support student readings, such as: 268

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• Guiding questions—A set of questions designed to either heighten students’ awareness or target their reading. • Outline—A simple listing in outline form of the main and subtopics in a reading passage. • Main idea—A presentation of the main idea(s) presented in the textbook passage. Consider the book about Abraham Lincoln that the young man in Figure 10.8 is reading. What are some guiding questions that might serve as a pre-reading activity about Lincoln’s biography? How about an outline or main idea from the same text? Background textbook reading can also take place in class as preparation for an activity. There are numerous strategies for reading in class. One good thing about reading in class is the assurance that all students have a direct opportunity to engage the text. Also, the closeness in time between the reading and the followup activity may be helpful. Of course, classroom reading takes up time, and some teachers may think textbook reading outside the class is more efficient. The decision about when to read should follow a consideration of two factors. First, if reading the textbook material is essential to success on some follow-up activ-

Figure 10.8 Fourth grade student reads book about Abraham Lincoln. How can teachers use textbooks such as this one for background reading?

ity, then it makes sense to read in class. Second, if the teacher wants to work directly on reading skills, then it also makes sense to read in class.

Challenge Reading Sometimes the textbook is insufficient as a resource for student learning. In fact, textbook information can be out of date, misleading, or even inaccurate. In his bestselling book, Lies My History Teacher Told Me, James Lowen critiques several leading high school textbooks. His findings suggest that textbooks are well behind on leading scholarship, often reflect narrow mindedness, and can be culturally insensitive. The extent to which elementary textbooks suffer from the same problems has been equally well documented (see Bracey, 1993 for one such study). Given the limitations of textbooks, teachers may want to have students read certain passages in an effort to challenge and possibly revise ideas put forth by the authors. Of course, with young learners such activities require careful attention to the children’s desire to know and be confident with their answers. Challenge reading should not focus on questioning the truth. Instead it should be about specific facts or ideas that might be out of date, misleading, or even inaccurate. For example, consider the very common yet evolving and complicated story of the first appearance of humans in North America. The 1927 discovery in Folsom, New Mexico of fluted projectile points embedded in the rib cage of an extinct ancient bison cemented long standing claims that humans lived in North America before these animals went extinct. Megafauna (large animals) like the ancient bison became extinct during the last ice age at the end of the Pleistocene Era about 11,000 years ago. For decades, elementary textbooks have told the story of humans migrating across an ice bridge between modern Alaska and Russia about 12,000 years ago. Humans quickly migrated to the southern edge of the ice shield where they populated the Americas—or so the story goes. A mounting collection of evidence today suggests that humans may have been in North and even South America 20,000, 30,000, even 40,000 years ago. Teachers must stay abreast of these new discoveries and can explore these with their students using textbook passages as starting points to inquiries into the expanding story of human life in North America.

Figure 10.9 These artifacts were found at the Topper archaeological site near Allendale, South Carolina.

More recent research has been conducted by archaeologists who used carbon-dating of carbon found near human-made artifacts such as the ones shown in Figure 10.9. The carbon-dating suggests that humans existed in North American perhaps 50,000 years ago. Although this finding is controversial and not fully accepted in the archaeological community, the data present a strong challenge to the existing belief that the earliest human life in North America goes back only 12,000 years.

Reading for Skills: Vocabulary and PreReading Teachers can use textbooks as a source for developing reading skills. Although textbook material may not be suitable for learning about narrative elements such as plot and character, textbooks can be used to help children develop their vocabular y and learn how to decode. John Hoge (1986) has described two common problems with textbooks, including what he calls the “heavy technical concept load” of textbooks and the “thin” descriptions that may accompany content explanations. Difficult concepts are often identified by textbook writers and listed as vocabulary terms, but teachers must also scan textbook materials for terms and words that might be unfamiliar to their students. Thin descriptions are a product of the economics of textbook publishing and the desire to address as much curriculum-based content as possible. Pressure to include as much content as possible results in shallow Using Textbooks in Social Studies

269

and often underdeveloped content. Teachers must supplement textbook material with pre-reading activities and other scaffolds such as direct explanation.

TEXTBOOK STRUCTURE AND ANALYSIS No two textbooks are alike. Teachers must be adept at determining the unique value of their textbooks. Having said this, we can address some commonalities among textbooks, particularly revolving around methods for organizing material. Beginning in the earliest grades, students need to learn that a book consists of a spine, a front cover, a title and author page, a table of contents, and an index, as well as sections or chapters. Students need to learn to read material, both text and visual, from left to right and top to bottom. They need to understand how pages are numbered and where to find the page number on the page. Later, students need to learn how to scan a book and locate material within a book using an index, outline, or table of contents. Students can learn to recognize features in books and know how to use these features.

textbooks less interesting and less narrative. At the same time, it enables us to use textbooks in segments. Unlike a novel or a work of history by a single author, textbooks are easily broken into small standalone parts. With most textbooks, teachers can assign short passages to students, without having students read text prior to the selection. Another limitation of the textbook results from the market and social forces that drive publication. Textbooks are purchased by local school systems through a public system of vetting that includes input from all interested parties. Textbook publishers have to target large markets where they can sell a lot of books and make a profit. Most states require that local school systems buy books from a preapproved list. If a book doesn’t make the list in a state, it cannot be purchased. Consequentially, textbook publishers work hard to get on the list in large states such as Texas and California. The approval process involves interested groups (public and private) lobbying textbook makers to include “their story” or to be sensitive to issues that they find important. The process is very democratic, but often results in a distilled book designed more to not offend than to challenge.

LIMITATIONS OF THE TEXTBOOK CONCEPT CHECK

No single social studies resource is as important and as maligned as the textbook. The textbook is the only resource that all children are guaranteed to have at almost all times under almost all circumstances. In many ways, the textbook represents the official wisdom of the field. Its position as a learning resource is unmatched. Having said this, textbooks are often looked down upon as inadequate and unrepresentative of knowledge in the field that they represent. Why this inconsistency? There are several answers, which can help us understand how best to use textbooks in social studies instruction. Teams of authors often write social studies textbooks. Although there may be a single author on the cover, there are likely multiple contributing authors. Textbook publishers and lead authors want to make use of expertise in specialized areas, but the consequence is often unevenness. The authors’ voices have to be muted for the sake of consistency. This generally makes 270

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STOP

How are these students

What does this image

interacting with the textbook?

tell you about how textbooks might be used in elementary grades?

A fifth-grade class reads an article about post-war Iraq

Using Authentic Texts in Social Studies LEARNING OBJECTIVES Recognize the importance of authentic texts in social studies. Recognize the characteristics of authentic intellectual work. Identify various authentic learning materials.

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eachers must strive to make social studies as authentic as possible. The floating classroom depicted in Figure 10.10 is an example of an authentic classroom

context. In the early part of the 20th centur y when social studies was in its infancy, John Dewey described authentic learning experiences as the real-life activities that when undertaken provide learners with powerful learning opportunities. Dewey found fault with psychologists’ efforts to remove human action from its context. This belief led him to argue for learning to take place in the context of knowledge use such as the learning taking place in the floating classroom in Figure 10.10. For Dewey, learning in social studies required that learners engage the places where social knowledge is constructed—places like a kitchen, a factory, or an office. Learning in these environments requires some of the following conditions. • Students are interested in the subject matter. • Student learning is directly connected to the real world outside the classroom. • Students are actively inquiring, using higher-level skills, about a question or problem. • Learning is not tied to one discipline, but is instead interdisciplinary. • Students share or act on what they have learned.

AUTHENTIC INTELLECTUAL WORK Fred Newmann has written extensively about authentic teaching and learning in social studies. His work on au-

thentic pedagogy and school restructuring (Newmann and Associates, 1996) led Newmann to develop a concept he calls authentic intellectual work (Scheurman & Newmann, 1998). Authentic intellectual work involves three criteria.

Authentic intellectual work Learning activities that enable students to develop knowledge in realworld contexts.

1. Construction of knowledge: learning through analysis, evaluation, and other active high-level tasks. 2. Disciplined inquir y: in-depth learning on focused topics. 3. Value beyond school: the production of usable knowledge that has “personal, aesthetic, or social” significance outside of school. Authentic intellectual work requires that students make use of a range of literacy skills as they interpret, analyze, evaluate, and otherwise work with materials and information. To illustrate the relationship between literacy and authentic intellectual work, let’s look at a thirdgrade lesson on customs around the world, “In the Classroom: Authentic learning about customs,” on page 272.

Figure 10.10 This floating classroom was part of Geography in Action/Rivers in 2001 and took place aboard an Earth Conservation Corps boat on the Anacostia River, which runs through Washington, D.C. and Maryland.

In the Classroom

AUTHENTIC LEARNING ABOUT CUSTOMS

Children learn about various customs and traditions at various times in social studies. In Pearl Jacob’s fourth-grade class, students were learning about social customs related to eating. Ms. Jacob had read about how food choices and eating habits can be influenced by various factors including individual preference, cultural traditions, religious doctrine, environmental influences, and political structures. She wanted students to learn about some of these factors through an authentic inquiry. Ms. Jacob started with a book by Arlette N. Braman entitled Kids Around the World Cook!: The Best Foods and Recipes from Many Lands. The book includes information about and recipes for various types of food from 22 different places. The book is written for young people. Ms. Jacob then introduced a lesson focusing on five families. Each family lived in a different cultural tradition and enjoyed unique customs related to food. Each of these cultural traditions was also represented in a larger community where a school was located. Ms. Jacob wanted students to develop knowledge about the customs of these families, then predict how these customs might influence the family’s food choices and eating habits. Students were expected to:

•

Describe the customs as depicted in images and written accounts of the families’ lives.

•

Synthesize those descriptions into explanations of the customs practiced by each family.

•

Predict the reasons for the families’ food choices and eating habits.

Ms. Jacobs provided students with this photo of a seminomadic Kurdish people (many of them Yezidis) who wait out the winter in villages before packing their tents and herding their sheep and goats up to the lush mountain plains to graze. Originally from the border regions between Iraq and Turkey, these people constitute Armenia’s largest ethnic minority, about 2 percent of the population. Ms. Jacobs asked students these questions: How are the food choices and eating habits of the Yezidi people influenced by the customs and by the local geography and economy? Why is the woman in this picture baking unleavened bread? This activity required that students construct knowledge through synthesis and prediction. The students worked with a variety of sources to inquire on the questions about food customs. The students’ knowledge of these customs would help them to make sense of the world around them as they study people from various cultural traditions.

A Yezidi woman in Armenia bakes unleavened bread on an iron skillet

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AUTHENTIC LEARNING MATERIALS Authentic learning requires authentic resources. These may include sources that depict information from authentic contexts, such as the images and written descriptions of eating customs from Ms. Jacob’s class. Authentic materials are typically organized around disciplines. Materials in history have a distinctive character, as do resources in geography and political science. However, it is very important not to assume that the resources are authentic just because they are disciplinary. Teachers must consider how the material is used, not just what is used. For example, if a third-grade social studies teacher wants to use a historical document, she must go beyond a simple analysis of the documents with her students. The analysis must lead to something relevant to the students’ lives. Following are various types of authentic resources for social studies, along with examples of how specific resources might be used in elementary social studies classrooms.

Trade Books Black Stars of Civil War Times (Figure 10.11) is a trade book that could be used during a unit on the Civil War. Trade books such as this are essential in social studies. These resources are different from textbooks and mass-marketed books. The word trade refers to the notion that these books are “traded” or sold in bookstores or through book clubs as opposed to more general outlets such as supermarkets and chain retailers. Trade books are typically in limited circulation and have very specific audiences. Trade books for children are often targeted to single grades or reading levels. Knowledge about the target audience for trade books can be very useful for teachers. Numerous organizations distribute information about what they consider high-quality trade books. The National Council for the Social Studies publishes an annual list of recommended trade books for social studies. This list can be very useful for elementary school teachers. The National Council for the Social Studies, Notable Trade Books for Young People can be found online at http://www.socialstudies.org/resources/ notable. Historical Documents The use of historical documents in elementary grades has increased dramatically

Figure 10.11 Jim Haskins’ book Black Stars of Civil War Times

in the last two decades. Extensive research on children’s ability to learn from historical documents has contributed to this expanded use. State and local standards and curriculums also have begun to incorporate historical documents. Linda Levstik and Keith Barton have written extensively on how elementary school students can engage in historical thinking using historical documents. Their book Doing History (2000) is an excellent resource for specific examples of how to read historical documents in the classroom.

Artifacts Artifacts are auArtifact Authentic thentic resources that are creresource created ated through human work. through human work. Common artifacts might include tools, weapons, or ornaments, and they may be of interest to sociologists, archaeologists, or historians. Students can learn from engaging artifacts in the same ways they learn with text. Using Authentic Texts in Social Studies

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Students can look for central ideas, plots, potential uses, and the characters that might have used the artifact. They can consider what the artifact tells us about the person or people who created it. All of these “reading” activities can be completed by looking at or investigating the artifact. Like a reading activity, artifact reading may require support and scaffolds in the form of pre-reading, questions, or reading guides. The artifact in Figure 10.12 “says” a great deal. For one, its steel construction is evidence of the dramatic advantage the Spanish had over the Incas. Although outnumbered 40,000 to 300, how were the Spanish able to conquer the Incas? How is this sword evidence of a possible answer to this question?

Newspapers and Magazines Social studies teachers can make active use of newspapers and magazines. These reading resources provide valuable subject matter for learning as well as opportunities for students to learn how to engage resources that enable them to better function in society.

Web Sites and Web Logs A wide range of new resources is available on the World Wide Web. Because of the low barriers to publication, the quality of these resources is sometimes questionable. Having students engage Web sites and Web logs (blogs) enables teach-

CONCEPT CHECK

Figure 10.12 A sword bearing the initials “FP” is exhibited in the Gold Museum of Lima, Peru. It belonged to the conqueror of the Incas, Francisco Pizarro.

ers to present and teach critical media skills that will enable students to make effective use of these resources. Of course, very careful attention must be given to the use of the Web in elementary settings. All activities must be ver y closely monitored and limited. Resources must be carefully vetted, and students must not be allowed to venture outside confined parameters established by the teacher and administrators in the school.

STOP

These bones, found at

How might you use this

the ancient Acropolis of Copan, Honduras, date to the Mayan Classical Period, about A.D. 400. They show a broken and partially healed right arm, probably from a war injury. How do archaeologists use authentic resources such as this to help us understand the past?

authentic artifact in a lesson about the Mayan Indians?

An archaeologist examines bones from the royal remains excavated from the tomb thought to be that of Yax Kuk Mo, the founder of the Mayan Copan Dynasty.

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Writing in Social Studies Consider the importance of writing in social studies. Identify ways students can learn social studies through writing exercises. Compare approaches to writing for learning in social studies.

riting plays a central role in social studies. It is the most common form of expression for students when they are conveying their knowledge. Virtually all social studies activities should include some ele-

W

ment of writing. Student writing might simply consist of taking notes or answering questions. Outside of formal language arts, social studies is probably the most important class for the development of students’ writing skills.

WRITING FOR SOCIAL STUDIES In this section, we examine how to integrate writing into social studies—using the writing process, and with attention to national standards. Writing in social studies should include three basic processes: pre-writing, drafting, and revising as shown in the “Process Diagram: The Writing Process”. National standards for reading and

The writing process Figure 10.13

Pre-writing Students decide on a topic, and gather and organize their ideas.

Drafting Students write and refine their ideas in a composition. Drafting involves: • Finding the right words and ideas. • Sequencing ideas. • Focusing on the big ideas of the project. Note that sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling are not stressed during this phase.

Revising Students take a second look at their initial draft. Revising involves: • Teachers or peers providing formative feedback. • Refining the content, the organization, word choice, and sentence structure. • Focusing on correcting spelling and grammar.

Process Diagram

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

writing can guide your planning for incorporating reading and writing in social studies contexts. The National Council for Teachers of English (NCTE) and the International Reading Association (IRA) jointly developed Read Write Think (www.ReadWriteThink.org), a powerful compendium of resources and information about literacy. Although primarily aimed at language arts, this resource can provide valuable guidance in planning for writing activities in social studies. A collection of standards for reading and writing form the core of the collaborative work of NCTE and IRA. Two of these standards directly address writing. Standard 5 Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. Standard 6 Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genres to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts. The application of these standards in social studies activities should be a priority. Social studies is a subject that can provide students with valuable opportunities to further develop knowledge and skills learned in language arts. The social studies lesson, “Lesson: Using Writing Skills to Argue Alternative Energy Power,” on pages 278–279, incorporates these standards. Like many consumers in the United States, fifth-grade teacher Vincente Diaz’s daily budget is affected by the price of oil. Mr. Diaz’s interest in oil prices motivated him to develop a social studies lesson for his class on alternative fuel sources.

tary social studies, teachers should encourage all forms of writing. Writing helps children form opinions and beliefs. Writing can help children think and develop knowledge, but most important, it enables children to develop an understanding of subject matter. Peter Elbow (1981, 2002) calls this process “writing for learning.” It differs from writing that is meant to be a demonstration of what a student has learned. When students write for learning they are collecting thoughts and organizing ideas. Writing for learning is a process that students use as they develop their knowledge. Elbow’s work focuses in part on how teachers can most effectively use writing to help students learn. There are a number of approaches teachers can use to encourage writing for learning. Following are some practical classroom approaches for writing to learn.

Writing Aloud When we think aloud, we verbalize ideas in our head that reflect our emerging knowledge or ideas about something. Writing aloud is similar to this process; only students write down thoughts that are emerging as or just after some subject matter is presented. Writing aloud exercises should be short and focused and conducted as subject matter is presented.

Concept Writing When students are learning about a new concept they can track the development of their understanding through writing. In concept writing activities, students begin by writing what they know. Then students write a second version of their understanding of the concept. After the second writing, the teacher asks students to share their ideas about the concept. The teacher guides students toward some common understanding of the concept. After the discussion, students write a third explanation of the concept.

WRITING FOR LEARNING

Writing It Out In this activity, the teacher gives the

Writing serves multiple purposes. Some people write as a way to express an emotion or feeling. Others write in order to communicate to an audience. Still others write just to reflect or think through problems. In elemen-

students three to five solutions to a problem. The students then begin to write about the prospects of each solution. The goal is to have students write about each solution and through their writing realize a best solution.

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CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

What are some specific “writing for learning” topics that might relate to the American Revolution? Think about the entire period, not just the winter at Valley Forge.

How might an elementary teacher engage students in each of the three writing strategies in an activity about the American Revolution?

This image of the American Revolution depicts some of the suffering during the winter of 1777 at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania by soldiers in the American Continental army under the command of George Washington.

Writing in Social Studies

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LESSON Using Writing Skills to Argue Alternative Energy Power

INTRODUCTION The fifth-grade curriculum in Mr. Diaz’s Texas school district includes numerous opportunities to study about petroleum and oil industries. The fifth-grade standards in Texas for social studies (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills) also include a standard on future scientific discoveries and technological innovations that could affect life in the United States. Mr. Diaz decided to combine these two standards to construct a lesson on alternative energy sources.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The goal of this lesson is for students to consider how we might use alternative fuels today. In this lesson, students will write about the potential uses and the costs of alternative fuels.

PROCEDURES This lesson might begin with background reading, lecture, and discussion. The work should focus on:

• Write a letter to the newspaper promoting or discouraging alternative energy such as wind turbines.

• The sources of petroleum in the world

• Compose a poem describing the impact of using or not using alternative energy.

• The processes of refining petroleum into energyrelated products such as heating oil and gasoline

• Write a magazine-style essay focusing on one alternative energy source.

• The current uses of petroleum resources

• Put together a policy briefing for state politicians on the benefits and drawbacks of alternative energy.

The background material should include information about alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, and non-petroleum-based fuels such as ethanol. For example, wind power is generated in places such as the Middelgrunden Wind Park in Copenhagen, Denmark by giant turbines that generate electrical energy when turned by the wind. Wind turbines generate about 20 percent of Denmark’s electricity, and the nation is a leader in turbine technology. Other European countries, including Spain and Germany, are also enthusiastic about wind power, making it one of the fastest

278

growing energy sectors. By contrast, wind produces less than 1 percent of U.S. energy, though the American landscape holds vast wind potential. A second activity could focus on a listing of the problems and benefits of petroleum-based energy sources and the benefits and limitations of nonpetroleum alternative energy sources. Students can complete this work by creating a graphic organizer that lists various energy sources (petroleum and alternative). Students can create a chart with energy sources in separate rows and two columns that indicate the limitations and benefits of each energy source. After completing the graphic organizer, students can select one of five writing formats with which to demonstrate their knowledge of the potential and the limitations of alternative sources of energy power. Students could:

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• Write a short story about the future, given some imagined use or nonuse of alternative energy.

ASSESSMENT Each of these approaches require students to apply knowledge of language using a potentially wide range of writing structures for expressing their knowledge in an authentic context. Given the writing approach, the

Middelgrunden Wind Park off Copenhagen, Denmark

teacher should apply specific criteria for assessment, which should be provided to students before they begin their writing. The criteria could be as follows: • Letters to the newspaper should address specific issues, include a summary of your position on the issue, and offer some proposed action on the issue. • Poems should have words that are clear and use words describing the senses (see, smell, taste, feel, hear), rhythm, and emotion, and should focus on an original topic.

• Magazine-style essays should include an overview of an alternative energy issue and a description of some example of how the issue affects people in the world. • A policy briefing should include an introductory summary and five points describing a particular position on alternative energy. • A short story should have a beginning, middle, and end, as well as a minimum of three characters and an important/dramatic event.

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Literacy and the Social Studies Curriculum LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify the ways that social studies curriculums address writing. Distinguish among approaches to writing in social studies as inferred from the curriculum.

ow does the social studies curriculum lend itself to the inclusion of literacy instruction? In elementar y grades, we might argue that social studies is, more than anything else, about literacy. Social studies teachers have important decisions to make about the manner in which they take content highlighted in the curriculum and turn that into something teachable. As we have seen in previous chapters, teachers must evolve social studies content in subject matter suitable for instruction. If teachers are required to emphasize literacy skills, then it makes sense for them to include these skills in social studies lessons.

H

uments and symbols in the United States such as the bald eagle depicted in Figure 10.14 . Douglas’s books include The Bald Eagle, The White House, The Statue of Liberty, The Liberty Bell, and The American Flag. All of these can be incorporated into a lesson or lessons about national monuments and symbols. Curriculums also set forth expectations that students use specific written skills to express their knowledge. This writing might focus on social studies subject matter or might be writing in social studies aimed at developing writing skills. Developing writing skills through writing in or about social studies serves multiple purposes and is now a common expectation in elementary schools. The Visualizing feature includes guidelines for revising and editing that can be used to improve students’ writing skills.

LITERACY IN THE CURRICULUM Local and state social studies curriculums present opportunities for students to engage in literacy activities. All curriculums either directly or indirectly require students to read textbooks as well as additional stories or books. Teachers must make decisions about how their students will learn about specific curriculum content, and this often includes reading. Think about how a first-grade teacher might plan instruction about national symbols and monuments. In the Henrico County, Virginia first-grade social studies curriculum, students are expected to “recognize the symbols and traditional practices that honor and foster patriotism in the United States by identifying the bald eagle, Washington Monument, and Statue of Liberty.” How can we put this standard into pedagogical action? One option is to have students read about national monuments. A series of books by Lloyd G. Douglas, written for emerging readers, tells about mon280

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Figure 10.14 Why is the bald eagle such an important symbol in the United States? How can we teach children the importance of this and other symbols? What should students read about the symbolism of the bald eagle?

Visualizing

Skills-Based Writing in Social Studies

Writing in social studies should focus on the development of writing skills. Such activities might include revising and editing. How might we situate a writing activity in a social studies class on the history of Walt Disney? The global reach of American culture, in this case Disney, is extensive. Look at the display in this Hong Kong taxicab dashboard. What do these figurines say about the reach of Disney? We might ask students to write about how these figurines illustrate Disney’s cultural influence. In the writing process, teachers can use the following guidelines to scaffold students in revising and editing. Students would use the checklists to check their own work. Sample Revision Checklist

Sample Editing/Proofreading Checklist

❏ Is the beginning interesting?

❏ I correctly spelled all words.

❏ Did I include enough supporting details?

❏ I wrote each sentence as a complete thought.

❏ Is my conclusion logical?

❏ I began each sentence with a capital letter.

❏ Can new ideas be added?

❏ I used capital letters correctly in other places.

❏ Should some ideas be rearranged?

❏ I indented each paragraph.

Taxi interior with McDonald promotional cartoon figures on a street in Hong Kong

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LITERACY, SOCIAL STUDIES, AND LANGUAGE ARTS Language arts occupies a very important place in elementary school. Compared to social studies (comparisons are unavoidable) language arts is by many estimations more important. This reality is reflected in testing, time allotted to instruction, teacher training and expertise, as well as resources allocated for classroom materials. Instead of bemoaning the fact that social studies plays a lesser role in the elementary classroom, we must consider how social studies can support the important and central work of literacy education in language arts. Teachers can accomplish this by using social studies materials in language arts lessons and by using language arts and literacy objectives in social studies lessons. Although the primary goals of the subjects might differ, the opportunities for overlap are great. The National Council for the Social Studies has emphasized the importance of the connections between social stud-

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Describe an activity

How might students

involving both social studies and language arts that focuses on the concept of family.

write about this family at Ellis Island in a language arts / social studies interdisciplinary activity?

A German immigrant family of one daughter and seven sons, at Ellis Island, New York, in about 1905.

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ies and language arts in the NCSS Position Statement, “A Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies: Building Social Understanding and Civic Efficacy” (1992): Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence.

The connections between social studies and language arts are numerous. Some of the more important connections include the following: • Focusing on the comprehension of various forms of printed material • Using text, visual, and graphical media for expression of knowledge • Developing communicative skills Social studies and language arts share ground in the humanities. Both subjects are sources of knowledge and human creativity.

What is happening in this picture

?

■ How might a child in the first or second grade read this image? ■ What would children need to know in order to have the most meaningful understanding of this image?

This cartoon drawing, done in commemoration of Alexander Graham Bell’s 100th birthday, shows that children of that period might have wanted to use the telephone to reach Santa Claus.

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

The Importance of Literacy

Literacy is at the heart of all instruction. It has been defined narrowly as reading and writing skills. More broadly, literacy skills include a host of things students do when they are locating and using learning materials. In social studies, literacy skills enable students to consider problems and issues and make decisions about how they should solve or address these problems.

Visual Summary

283

VISUAL SUMMARY

2

Reading in Social Studies

3

Given the importance of text in social studies, reading plays a central role in social studies instruction. When teachers make pedagogical decisions about reading materials they must consider the subject matter, the curriculum, the amount of time available, and if they use a reading source, they must then adapt that source for use in the classroom. There are a number of reading methods that can be used in the classroom including popup reading, reading buddies, a reading festival, and shadow reading. When selecting and adapting reading materials, teachers can use specific tools to determine reading levels, including the Flesch-Kincaid grade-level reading scale.

Using Textbooks in Social Studies

Textbooks play a central role in all classroom instruction. There are several ways to incorporate textbooks into elementary social studies instruction, including using the textbook for background reading as well as reading for analytical and skills-based purposes. Textbooks can be useful, but also have significant limitations. Textbooks typically have little narrative value, and they often lack the coherence of historical fiction and other single-author works.

(.39 ⫻ ASL) ⫹ (11.8 ⫻ ASW) ⫺ 15.59 ASL ⫽ average sentence length (the number of words divided by the number of sentences) ASW ⫽ average number of syllables per word (the number of syllables divided by the number of words)

4

Using Authentic Texts in Social Studies

Authentic texts include resources that were produced by people who participated in the subject of the texts; or the texts are about something that will resonate with learners given the learners’ life experiences. The use of authentic texts enables authentic learning related to students’ lives. Newmann calls such work authentic intellectual work and argues that this includes knowledge construction, disciplined inquiry, and some value beyond school. Authentic texts might include historical documents, newspapers, maps, or Web-based resources.

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5

Writing in Social Studies

In addition to reading, writing also plays a central role in social studies. The application of standards for writing instruction such as the Read Write Think program can be integrated into social studies instruction. Writing in social studies serves the purposes of communicating, emoting, expressing, thinking, and understanding. Social studies teachers might use specific writing strategies such as writing out loud and concept writing.

6

Pre-writing Students decide on a topic, and gather and organize their ideas.

Drafting Students write and refine their ideas in a composition. Drafting involves: • Finding the right words and ideas. • Sequencing ideas. • Focusing on the big ideas of the project. Note that sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling are not stressed during this phase.

Revising Students take a second look at their initial draft. Revising involves: • Teachers or peers providing formative feedback. • Refining the content, the organization, word choice, and sentence structure. • Focusing on correcting spelling and grammar.

Literacy and the Social Studies Curriculum

The elementary social studies curriculum offers plenty of opportunities to engage students in literacy-related activities. Given current national efforts to emphasize reading and writing skills, social studies should include student experiences in both of these areas. The connections between language arts and social studies provide interdisciplinary opportunities to explore a wide range of related activities.

KEY TERMS ■ literacy, p. 258

■ authentic intellectual work, p. 271

■ artifact, p. 273

Key Terms

285

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

Literacy in social studies involves critical thinking. When students think critically, they ask questions that help them better understand some poorly understood or misunderstood idea or thing.

•

Is there anything unusual about the photo below?

•

How does this photo further demonstrate the influence of American culture?

A cartoon of Donald Duck in a car with one of his nephews is painted on the side of a building in Amman, Jordan.

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SELF-TEST 1. What is literacy?

9. How are classrooms such as this one authentic?

2. Why is literacy important? 3. What are the literacy skills that the National Council for the Social Studies says are important in social studies? 4. Which of the following is not a strategy for enhancing students’ understanding of text as they read? a. the activation of prior or background knowledge b. active engagement in the content c. metacognition d. defining vocabulary words 5. What are the literacy skills related to the work of the archaeologists who make arguments about human history based on artifacts such as these?

10. How can social studies teachers work with language arts teachers to focus on the development of literacy skills? What sort of literacy is needed to “read” a map such as this one?

6. How can each of these pre-reading activities better position students for meaningful reading experiences? a. guiding questions c. main idea b. outline 7. What did John Dewey suggest were some of the conditions for authentic learning? 8. Label the three main steps in the writing process on the figure below.

Self-Test

287

Planning for Active Learning

11

P

atrick Lowry, a student teacher in Anna Joliet’s fourth-grade classroom, was concerned that the students weren’t involved enough. “Sometimes they just don’t seem to care,” Patrick told his cooperating teacher. Anna had heard this before, and knew that involving students in classwork is vital to success. Patrick was particularly concerned about a planned lesson focused on work. He was not sure how to get students interested in the topic. Ms. Joliet suggested, “Let’s put our students to work. We’ll create an office and have each student complete a job.” Patrick began to plan the lesson and decided to have a factory and an office. Students would experience both work settings. Ms. Joliet cautioned Patrick, “Remember, we only have a certain amount of time each day for social studies.” For Patrick, the subject matter was interesting; he researched, prepared materials, and read about factory and office workplace structure. The next day, Patrick gave Ms. Joliet a plan that involved the teacher talking for most of the time and students completing tasks the teacher created. Ms. Joliet liked the attention to subject matter, but reminded Patrick, “You were concerned that the students were not interested in the class. Do you think this will help?” Patrick admitted that his lesson might not interest students. He revised the lesson to give students more voice in how the factory and the office were set up—even letting the students decide what they would produce. Students had to learn how offices and factories operate and had creative opportunities to learn the material. Afterward, Patrick and Ms. Joliet agreed that the students enjoyed the lesson. Patrick learned how to think about teaching from the students’ point of view, and how to involve students by giving them something to do.

288

What are the people in this picture doing? How do these jobs illustrate certain kinds of work? How does this work compare to other forms of work in the United States? What might elementary school students need to learn about working in the 21st century?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Active Learning in Social Studies

p. 290

■ Initial Considerations for

Instructional Planning p. 296

■ Planning Instruction for Active

Learning p. 302

■ Lesson Plans and Reflection

p. 307

atrick Lowr y learned that planning instruction is a continuous process that must include attention to the needs of students. Planning to teach social studies should involve the use of many forms of knowledge, including:

P

• A teacher’s knowledge of subject matter • The curriculum • The community • The purposes of social studies However, if teachers do not take into consideration the needs of their students, all the planning in the world will not make the lesson effective.

In this chapter, we present planning for instruction as an effort to encourage active student involvement in the learning process. We will look at learning theories and specific ways to plan for active learning in elementary social studies. When preparing for active instruction, teachers must plan for student-centered activities that require teachers to pay close attention to how students learn and to the progress of individual learning. The chapter begins with an overview of active learning in social studies. Then, we examine specifically how to plan for active learning: initial considerations for planning active learning, actual planning of the instruction, and teaching and reflection involved in active learning.

Active Learning in Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define active learning. Explain how active learning emerges from authentic daily social studies instruction. Analyze the connections between active learning and social studies subject matter.

magine planning to teach a class. What are you thinking about—yourself teaching or the students learning? If you are like most teachers, you think first about the act of teaching. There is nothing wrong with planning for instruction by considering the actions of the teacher, but active learning requires student involvement and thus requires careful planning for student activities (Figure 11.1).

I

Considerations about how to Active learning actively involve students in the A learning process learning process are critical to that involves students doing somesuccess in teaching. Later, we will thing in order to look at strategies, but first let’s learn. examine some of the theory about why active involvement in learning is so important. Active learning requires students to engage in the learning process rather than passively receive information. Active learning involves doing something other than listening—such as reading, writing, talking or discussing, making decisions, solving problems, working together, planning, organizing, comparing, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating. Let’s consider what it means to be active in the classroom and begin with our own actions as teachers.

Figure 11.1 What does it mean for students to be active? How might you describe the activity of these students?

GOALS FOR ACTIVE INSTRUCTION Teaching elementary school grades is a very active enterprise. Think about all the actions teachers must take in the course of a typical day. Consider all the movement and talk teachers engage in when teaching. At the end of the day, teachers are often physically tired from all this activity. Students need to have these same opportunities for activity in the classroom, but it is not uncommon for teachers to tr y to limit their students’ activity. Consider two significant classroom management issues in elementary school—too much noise and too much movement. Of course, teachers need to have control over the classroom. They cannot allow off-task or disruptive student activity. At the same time, we know that active students are better able to learn, so how can teachers achieve a balance? There are four goals that teachers should strive to meet when planning for active instruction in elementary social studies. 1. Create interest and excitement about learning. By getting children interested in what they are about to study, they will be more likely to engage the activity. Generating interest requires that teachers be creative and adapt curriculum content given their students’ interest. 2. Have students produce something. Most young children love to create, and using this natural in-

stinct enables them to learn otherwise remote or abstract content. 3. Give students a role in setting up the procedures for completing their work. When students are empowered to make decisions about how they will complete an activity, they are more willing to actually engage in the activity. 4. Connect the learning experience to other life experience. The more children can see that their school work is connected to and even part of their whole life, the more meaningful that work becomes. As students make these connections, they actively assimilate new knowledge into existing schemas of knowledge. Let’s consider an example of involving students in active learning about work. Figure 11.2 shows the construction of the pyramids in Egypt. This was a monumental effort that required work unlike any another construction project in history. In this image, stone masons work in the outer enclosure of the pyramid of King Se’n-Wosret I (XII Dynasty, reign of Se’n-Wosret I, 1980–1939 B . C .) at El Lisht. Some scholars think the heavy limestone blocks that were used to build the pyramids were moved on wooden rails by teams of workers as is depicted in the image. How might you engage students in active learning about the construction of Egyptian pyramids?

Figure 11.2 Stone masons work in the outer enclosure of the pyramid of King Se’n-Wosret I (1980–1939 B.C.) at El Lisht, Egypt.

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ACTIVE LEARNING AND AUTHENTIC SOCIAL STUDIES Elementary school teachers must help students understand how actions students take when learning social studies are connected to the real world. These real-world actions Authentic might be thought of as authenSituated in the tic. By authentic, we mean that real world and connected to students are engaging in learnexperiences that are ing opportunities that connect a part of daily life. to their world and reflect the goal of preparing students for participation in democratic life. In Chapter 10, we read about Fred Newmann and Geoffrey Scheurman’s ideas on authentic intellectual work. The idea of authentic intellectual work emerges from the general concept of authenticity in pedagogy and learning. Scheurman and Newmann (1996) have suggested that authentic learning activities should be developed given five standards or considerations. Authentic learning activities should: 1. Encourage higher-order thinking. 2. Be an opportunity for students to develop deep knowledge of the subject matter they are studying. 3. Connect to the world beyond the classroom. 4. Include substantive conversation. 5. Allow teachers to provide social support for student achievement. Each of these standards for authentic learning requires careful planning. An example of how an elementary social studies lesson plan might incorporate these five standards of authentic learning is presented in “Lesson: Weather and the Earth’s Movements,” on pages 294–295.

ACTIVE LEARNING AND SUBJECT MATTER Different subject matter demands different forms of active learning. What makes learning about history an active process is different from what makes learning

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about geography an active process. The key differences are rooted in the disciplines themselves and the manner in which knowledge is created in the disciplines. For example, a historian might use a map differently than a geographer might use it. This is important because if we use resources for purposes that are uncertain or in conflict, our teaching might be uninspired, tedious, or even boring. The general goal of elementary social studies instruction is not to make little historians or little geographers out of students. Instead, the goal is to help them become aware of how experts use knowledge in their field, given the students’ needs to learn in authentic and active contexts. Consider how historians, geographers, political scientists, sociologists, anthropologists, economists, or any other social studies experts might consider a social issue such as world population distribution. Different experts might use the same resources to address similar problems in different ways (Figure 11.3). • A historian might consider trends in population migration across the Earth and study a map of the Earth for clues about why and how people move from place to place. • A geographer might consider the limitations and possibilities presented by physical geography for people living in certain places. • An economist might consider the availability of labor or capital in different places in the world and represent that information on a map. Ultimately, social studies draws on all of these experts to study specific subject matter in active and real-life contexts. The authentic Mesopotamian world map shown in “Concept Check” illustrates a different understanding of the world than we have today. The circular image at the bottom represents what the Mesopotamians knew of the Earth. Babylon was placed at the middle of the map. The lines represent rivers. The small circular areas were other cities. Extending out from the larger circle are triangular points representing islands (only one is shown here).

Figure 11.3 How would a historian use this map differently than a geographer to study world population? These differences should be evident when students use maps in social studies.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How might we engage students’ imagination with an object such as this?

What is authentic about this map and what might not be authentic?

A Mesopotamian world map and its accompanying text written in cuneiform on a clay tablet.

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LESSON Weather and the Earth’s Movements

INTRODUCTION In the lesson, students are to explain how the Earth’s movement around the Sun affects local weather conditions, climate, and seasons. This lesson might be appropriate for any elementary school grade, but the younger the students the more concrete the activity must be.

GOALS AND INTRODUCTION The goal in planning the lesson is to encourage students’ use of higher-order thinking skills directed at developing a deep understanding of the Earth’s movements through supported conversation about real-world events.

PROCEDURES The lesson might begin with a demonstration of how the sunlight shining on the Earth’s surface changes according to the position of the Earth. This demonstration requires that teachers meet two important conditions. 1. Students must be able to clearly see and understand that the Earth is tilted at a little over a 23degree angle. 2. Students need to understand how the length of the day and the angle of the Sun’s rays influence the Earth’s surface air temperature.

2. Along the path, students or the teacher make 12 equally spaced marks. Each mark represents a month, and 12–24 students are assigned individually or in pairs to each mark. 3. One student holds a replica of the Earth such as a globe or ball with an equator and continents drawn on it. It is important for this student to hold the globe at the 23-degree angle. 4. Another student, representing the Sun, holds a flashlight and directs it at the Earth. With the room lights off, the flashlight will simulate the Sun’s rays on the Earth’s surface. As the activity begins, the teacher should engage the students in conversation in which they analyze the characteristics of the Sun’s energy (i.e., radiant heat energy and visible light). As the activity proceeds, students simulate the movement of the Earth around the Sun with attention to the tilt of the Earth at the 23-degree angle. At 12 points (representing the 12 months) students record the position of the Earth and the parts of the Earth receiving the most sunlight. They should slowly turn the globe one time at each of the 12 monthly stops on the elliptical path, to illuminate all populated regions in the globe.

ASSESSMENT

As students participate in the activity, the teacher needs to guide and informally assess the substantive conversations about what actually happens on Earth during particular months at different places in the world. These conversations Climate Meteoroshould focus on how climate affects what logical conditions, inhumans are able to do and how they go cluding temperature,

After this opening activity, students will physically demonstrate the Earth’s movements around the Sun using flashlights to illuminate the surface of the Earth. 1. Lay out a path on the floor simulating the elliptical path of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.

precipitation, and wind, that characteristically prevail in a particular region.

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Earth from space, with the Sun illuminating a portion of the surface. How does Earth’s position as it faces the Sun affect temperature, climate, and seasons on Earth?

about their daily life. This type of substantive conversation over time can result in in-depth knowledge at high levels, where students apply abstract concepts such as the revolution of the Earth around the Sun and describe the consequences for life all over the globe. To more formally assess students’ learning, the teacher might ask them to develop a chart that de-

scribes typical weather in various places in the world at particular times and also describes the relative position of the Earth in terms of the Sun or the tilt of the Earth. As students complete this chart they should begin to see a pattern. The more a place on Earth tilts away from the Sun, the colder the weather tends to be.

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Initial Considerations for Instructional Planning LEARNING O BJECTIVES Explain how teachers reorganize their content knowledge for planning purposes. Describe some of the initial considerations teachers must make when transforming subject matter into pedagogical ideas, including curriculum and learner considerations.

nstructional planning involves a number of initial considerations that must be made by teachers before implementing a lesson plan. These considerations include reorganizing existing knowledge for the purpose of teaching, as well as other actions relating to curriculum, the selection of subject for a lesson, the development of instructional goals, making the material relevant for students, selecting materials, and connecting or weaving the ideas together.

I

Reflect on how teachers weave subject matter into explanative patterns when teaching about different but related topics over time.

TRANSFORMING SUBJECT MATTER INTO PEDAGOGICAL IDEAS After reviewing academic content and reorganizing it as subject matter, teachers can begin to consider the subject matter in more specific pedagogical contexts. Teachers undertake a number of actions as they transform their knowledge into practical and personal pedagogical knowledge including: • Considering state and local curriculum

REORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE: CONTENT TO SUBJECT MATTER Planning for instruction should begin with teachers reviewing their content knowledge. The goal is to reorganize knowledge as subject matter. To begin this process, teachers determine important concepts, ideas, themes, events, movements, and people emphasized in their content knowledge. As we saw in Chapter 10, teachers can distinguish content knowledge from subject matter in a very deliberate manner. Scholars in specific fields develop content knowledge. Subject matter is that content after it has been reorganized for K–12 settings. This reorganization is similar to the work that curriculum committees do when planning what will be taught in schools. The process of creating subject matter focuses on making decisions about what might be relevant for the student to know. The identification of subject matter should arise from a careful consideration of the relative importance of the subject matter given pedagogical criteria. An example of how teachers might select subject matter from academic knowledge about clothing appears in “Social and Cultural Explorations” on pages 298–299. 296

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• Narrowing subject matter content • Justifying the subject matter given the purposes of education • Personalizing the subject matter for the learners • Selecting appropriate subject-based resources • “Weaving” subject matter knowledge In this section, we examine each of these actions teachers engage in when preparing material for specific pedagogical tasks.

Considering the Curriculum Planning to teach requires that teachers think about local and state curriculum. All teachers must be experts on their curriculum, basically internalizing the scope and sequence of the curriculum and understanding the details. The task at this point in the planning process is not to learn about curriculum, but to apply that knowledge. A firm understanding of the curriculum needs to be in place for teachers to effectively use it in the planning process. Teachers must identify the large bodies of subject matter for which they are expected to plan instruction. Teachers need to develop a sense of comfort with the amount of time they have and the depth to which they can plan for instruction.

Consider content on the North American colonial experience. Most elementary curriculums will include some subject matter focus on American colonies. For example, the fifth-grade curriculum for the public schools in Lexington, Massachusetts, requires that students “describe each colony geographically, economically, culturally, and politically.” This simple statement includes large amounts of subject matter that the

teacher must carefully narrow prior to planning for instruction. Narrowing Subject Matter Planning for instruction requires that teachers narrow broad subject matter areas to manageable areas of instructional focus. In the following, “Visualizing: Connecting past to present” ( Figure 11.4 ), we consider how to narrow the broad topic of Greek history to a manageable lesson.

Visualizing

The Narrowing of Subject Matter: Connecting Past to Present Figure 11.4

Let’s begin by examining some commonly held beliefs about ancient Greeks. Which of these beliefs do these images conjure up? How can teachers narrow the focus from this common and broad vision of Greek history to something more focused and instructional? One possibility is to make connections between the past and the present. What are some obvious characteristics of Greek life that are both ancient and modern and result from the geography of Greece? Given knowledge of the geography of Greece, how might we even more clearly focus the subject for a lesson on ancient Greek history?

A Classic night view of the Parthenon and surrounding Acropolis in Athens, Greece.

C This modern view of one of the three ancient harbors of Piraeus captures some clues about ancient life in Greece.

B Statues of Socrates and Apollo in front of the Academy of Athens.

Social and Cultural Explorations

What to know about what to wear In elementary school grades, children learn about clothing. In many states, including Texas, Wisconsin, Kentucky, and Nebraska, children in early grades are expected to distinguish various human needs including clothing. In Kentucky, elementary school students are expected to “recognize language, music, art, dress, food, literature, and folktales as elements of culture.” There is plenty of content knowledge related to the idea of dress and clothing. Learning expectations such as these require teachers to plan for instruction that will enable students to understand a wide range of cultural characteristics, including dress. Scholars have studied clothing and dress patterns in history in terms of how clothes function, and the social and cultural phenomena of clothing. But in Kentucky, the explicit connection between clothing and culture should compel teachers to focus on the cultural aspects of clothing. In a lesson on the cultural characteristics of clothing, students might focus on dress in the United States at specific times as it reflects different cultural trends. Students might investigate forms of dress for adults and young people at specific times such as 1850, 1900, and 1950. These three images depict typical dress at three different periods of time. An elementary social studies lesson on the topic of dress over time in the United States should focus on subject matter culled from larger bodies of content in areas of interest for students. The following questions might interest elementary school students: •

What materials were clothes made out of at different periods in history, and why?

•

How long were clothes expected to last?

•

What function did different clothes serve?

•

How did clothing styles reflect culture and society?

Teachers would plan activities directed at helping students answer these questions. The result is the subject matter focus of the lesson. The subject matter focus might include the following ideas: •

Cloth was more expensive and hard to come by in the 19th century.

•

Clothing materials are made from a range of natural, treated, and artificial materials.

•

Clothing styles reflect cultural expectations for groups of people, available resources, and status.

Such subject matter focus reflects only a small part of the available content knowledge on this topic. For a teacher, however, it is a meaningful and productive pedagogical context for learning about changes in clothing over time.

A portrait of three members of a family taken around 1849. The tight bodices of the women’s dresses are typical of the style worn by women in the mid-1800s. The style reflected cultural expectations for women. What might some of these expectations have been?

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Immigrants from Bulgaria at Ellis Island around 1905. The clothes, all dresses, were most likely homemade from the same swath of cloth. What cultural message does the style of dress portrayed in this image send?

A family in the early 1950s. How had cultural standards shifted in the 1950s relative to the 19th century?

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Once a general curriculum focus has been determined, teachers should narrow subject matter content for emphasis in a lesson. This process, as simple as it sounds, is actually quite complex. It is an important outgrowth of a teacher’s knowledge of scholarly content and the reorganization of that content into subject matter. Not all subject matter knowledge on a topic is suitable for inclusion in a lesson. For example, a lesson on the 13 original British North American colonies might include subject matter on differences between the colonies with respect to political, economic, or geographic characteristics. Such a lesson might focus on the political, social, or economic development of the colonies over time. Or, the focus might be on the original purpose of the colonies, or the success of the colonies in achieving founding goals. Each of these foci is comparative, but a bit different. Teachers have to make specific decisions about their focus, consequentially narrowing the focus to meet the constraints (e.g., time, resources, etc.) of the lesson.

Setting Learning Goals Given Subject Matter Selections Establishing learning goals for an instructional activity is an important part of the planning process. Teachers may set learning goals given the curriculum or as a result of students’ interest. Teachers may also be driven to construct learning goals that match their own interests and knowledge. Transparent

Figure 11.5 Middleton Place, a mid-1700s plantation home on the Ashley River near Charleston, South Carolina

learning goals enable students to understand exactly what they are learning and why they are learning about it. Let’s return to the example of the 13 colonies. In this example, the teacher wants students to learn about the differences between two colonies, specifically Maryland and South Carolina. Comparisons are powerful heuristics for learning specific subject matter. At the same time, comparisons sometimes oversimplify or lead students to overemphasize differences or likenesses. For this activity, a learning goal might be for students to compare obvious differences and not-so-obvious similarities between the two colonies. The activity focuses on two people from the colonial era, Henr y Middleton and William Paca. Henr y Middleton was a member of the First Continental Congress. He came to own a large plantation in South Carolina through marriage (see Figure 11.5 ). The Middletons’ son was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. The Middleton plantation continues to be known for its elaborate 60-acre formal gardens. It also was a highly productive rice farm. William Paca was a signer of the Declaration of Independence and later governor of the state of Maryland. Using money he inherited, Paca built a large estate that is maintained to this day (see Figure 11.6 ). The grounds, known for their elaborate gardens, are situated on two acres in Annapolis, Maryland.

Figure 11.6 The Paca House and Gardens, built in 1763 by William Paca in Annapolis, Maryland

Consider the similarities between the men Middleton and Paca. Both were wealthy statesmen. Both owners inherited their wealth: Middleton from his wife and Paca from his father. Both were involved directly or indirectly with the Declaration of Independence. An activity on this subject matter might highlight these similarities while pointing out the important differences—namely, that the South Carolina gardens of Middleton were on a plantation, while Paca’s gardens were in a city surrounded by other houses. The political, social, and economic differences between South Carolina and Maryland were also significant. These might be summed up as the differences between the more agrarian and slave-holding South and more industrial North. At the same time, students need to recognize the similarities between the colonies as exemplified by South Carolina farmer Henry Middleton and Maryland politician William Paca. Both men were privileged by birth or marriage, and both were able to use their wealth to rise to the political stage as important actors in the early history of the United States.

plete work for a small gift, candy, time off, and so on, but the work completed for these rewards is often shallow and detached. The most effective way to encourage students to learn is by situating the subject matter they will learn about in such a way that it becomes personal. Personalizing subject matter requires that teachers consider why students need to know about the subject, given who they are, and given where they are (geographically and in the sense of time).

Personalizing Subject Matter for Students If we expect students to be motivated to learn, they must be able to relate to the subject matter. When we fail to connect subject matter to what students already know or what they like, we often have to resort to external motivators or what are called behavioral reinforcements. Unfortunately, the effects of these reinforcements are often temporary and spotty. Some students will respond to an external motivator such as a grade. Others may com-

Weaving Subject Matter into the Curriculum

CONCEPT CHECK

Selecting Appropriate Resources for Students Countless resources are available for teaching. Some of these resources are so well constructed that a teacher might be tempted to use the resources just for the sake of using them, and because the teacher thinks they’ll be easy to use. No matter how irresistible resources are, if they do not match instructional needs, then the resource distracts from the goals of the lesson. For this reason, teachers need to carefully identify appropriate and useful resources.

How does the subject matter fit into the larger curriculum? This consideration is essential in order to avoid detaching the subject matter from its context. As teachers plan and teach lessons, they should consistently return to a whole body of knowledge to consider how new knowledge fits in. These reconsiderations allow teachers and students to expand existing understanding and begin to build a robust network of subject matter ideas.

STOP

How might you plan instruction about Native American relations with settlers at the lost colony of Roanoke?

How is the subject matter implied in these goals part of the body of knowledge of U.S. history?

What subject matter might you select given curriculum and student interests?

This 1590 engraving depicts the landing of the English at Roanoke Island in 1585.

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Planning Instruction for Active Learning LEARNING O BJECTIVES

• Lecture

Describe approaches to developing procedures for lesson plans.

• Discussion

Explain how the selection and use of instructional resources relate to student learning. Identify approaches to assessment that support active learning.

• Simulation • Role-playing • Inquiry • Problem solving • Debate

DEVELOPING PROCEDURES FOR FACILITATING STUDENTS’ LEARNING he most obvious and important part of planning for instruction is the development of instructional procedures. The Process Diagram in Figure 11.7 describes an approach to developing procedures for active instruction. Such procedures enable students to engage subject matter through their work with specific resources and their interactions with other students and teachers. The teacher needs to adapt these resources and then tailor them to meet the needs of students. Teachers need to orchestrate or at least outline interactions prior to the class. The planning process for these activities involves adapting subject matter content resources and developing specific procedures for students to engage these resources and interact with each other and the teacher. Teachers must also plan or anticipate how they might tailor the resources for use by students with different needs. Procedures for a lesson will emerge from the details of the instructional technique selected for the lesson. To some degree, instructional techniques also emerge from subject matter content. In order to be successful in the process of developing lesson plans, teachers need to have a well-rounded understanding of instructional methods and, more important, teachers need practice adapting the generic instructional techniques given the particular subject matter content. Following are some generic instructional techniques that might be included in a lesson plan.

T

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These instructional techniques can be incorporated into a lesson using direct instruction, indirect instruction, collaborative, experiential, and independent methods. When planning to teach, several factors influence the instructional approaches selected: • The amount of time available • The resources available • The scope of what is being taught • The strategies that have proven productive in the past given the students in the class • The skills of the teacher • The experiences that the class has had to date Let’s consider how to plan a lesson on renewable and nonrenewable natural resources. A renewable resource is a natural resource that is depleted at a rate slower than the rate at which it regenerates (i.e., solar energy). Nonrenewable resources are resources for which there are no reasonable ways to replenish the supply (i.e., fossil fuels). The first step is to reorganize relevant content knowledge into relevant subject matter knowledge. Content knowledge about renewable and nonrenewable resources might focus on what scientists have learned about the biological and physical differences between natural resources. Experts also study the political and economic impact of using renewable and nonrenewable resources. As teachers reorganize their understanding of content knowledge, this takes the form of subject matter.

Process Diagram

Planning instruction for active learning Figure 11.7

Steps in the Planning Process for Facilitating Active Learning

1. Organize content knowledge into subject matter knowledge while considering... • Curriculum • Community • Social studies

2.Transform subject matter into pedagogical ideas by... • Considering curriculum • Narrowing subject matter • Personalizing the subject matter • Getting students interested • Having students produce something • Helping students connect to life experience

3. Develop relevant procedures such as... • Role playing • Problem solving • Debate

4. Select resource materials that... • Support learning goals • Are appropriate for student grade level • Can be adapted to student needs

5. Assess student learning by having students produce... • A letter • A report • A research paper

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With petroleum production estimated to peak in coming decades, some experts say we must develop alternative power sources, including renewable sources of energy like wind, solar power, and biofuels (Figure 11.8a). Given what you know about the subject matter, what general instructional approach might you use to teach about solar power? A common subject matter approach to this topic is to focus on the differences between ever yday renewable and nonrenewable resources. Other initial considerations might result in a focus on resources that can be found in the house, such as water. A teacher might want students to determine how we use household resources and whether ever yday products are made from renewable or nonrenewable resources (Figure 11.8b). Another approach might be for students to evaluate the consequences of their consumption of different resources. Have students brainstorm about resources that they use on a daily basis. You or a student can make a list of these resources on the board, which will enable

the students to benefit from each other’s ideas about everyday resources. Next, consider a teacher-directed introduction of the concepts of renewable and nonrenewable resources. This subject matter will probably be new for students, so the approach used by the teacher is very important. You may want to start by using metaphors or some other figure of speech to introduce the topic. Consider approaching the topic by asking students to think of renewable and nonrenewable resources as common things. Renewable resources might be thought of as being like our hair. When we cut it off, it always grows back. Nonrenewable resources are like the days of the week. Once a day in our life passes, it is gone forever. This part of the activity might only take a few minutes, but it is extremely important. Next, consider having students work independently to determine whether the resources listed on the board are renewable or nonrenewable (Figure 11.8c). Prior to this activity, students will have to separate human-made from natural products. Students will need

Lesson Planning: Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources Figure 11.8 A Sheep graze near solar energy panels—is solar energy a renewable or nonrenewable resource?

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to think about the resources that are used to make the products they have listed. The goal is to get them focused on natural products. A final activity could involve students working in pairs to think about the consequences of using each product on their list. These consequences should be determined given guidelines the students create. This might be a separate whole class activity situated between the independent work and the work in pairs.

SELECTING AND USING RESOURCES Selecting resources for use in a lesson is a very important part of the planning process. Resource selection should be guided by three considerations. 1. Does the resource support the learning goals for the lesson? 2. Is the resource appropriate for students given their prior knowledge, reading ability, and maturity?

3. Can the resources be adapted and tailored to meet the specific needs of students? Answers to these questions will help determine whether the resource will work with the lesson. Then teachers must still adapt the resource for use in the lesson and actually plan for its use. Adapting the resource means limiting the amount of the resource being used, changing the layout or order of the material in the resource, or even adding some supporting material to the resource. For example, teachers often use film in social studies. Tailoring a resource occurs when the teacher makes adjustments during instruction to meet individual needs given emerging contexts in the classroom. Films convey powerful emotions and often depictions of content that are easy for children to understand. However, most often films are not intended to be educational. They must be highly adapted and eventually tailored to meet individual students’ needs. Unless the circumstances are unusual, only a portion of a film should be shown in class. A film clip of five or ten

C Are books made with renewable or nonrenewable resources? What other household or school materials and finished products are made with either type of resource?

B Is water a renewable resource? How would content experts determine whether water is renewable? What content knowledge about water as a resource is important for elementary social studies?

print resources, whether they are primary source documents, original maps, literature, or pictures, will need to be in the form of an excerpt. In fact, the process of excerpting text from primary sources and literature will be necessary for almost every resource.

CHOOSING MEANINGFUL ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES Figure 11.9 Children need to be provided with support and scaffolding when interacting with media resources.

minutes is usually enough. Also, films must be contextualized and scaffolded. Students need to understand why they are watching the film and take some action during or after viewing the film clip. Robert Kubey (2004) claims that social studies teachers have a special responsibility to prepare students to be critical consumers of media resources such as newspaper and film. When interacting with these resources, students use specific skills that need to be supported and scaffolded. Consider the interaction the boy in Figure 11.9 is having with the newspaper. How is this child using media literacy skills as he reads the newspaper? What types of support do you think he might need as he reads? Most of the media resources that teachers use in elementary social studies are printed or viewed on computer and whiteboard screens. These resources typically also require significant adaptation and tailoring. Most CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Consider a lesson with the goal of understanding how money supply is determined.

What procedures might a teacher plan?

What effect does the printing of money have on the value of money?

What procedures might students follow in order to learn specific subject matter?

Money is inspected after being printed at the United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing.

The assessment of students’ acquisition of subject matter content knowledge is one of the most important tasks in teaching. For each instructional technique or procedure developed, teachers need to develop a corresponding assessment that documents students’ learning. Planning for assessment requires clearly described learning goals or objectives. It also means providing instruction that is designed to position students to be successful at achieving the learning objectives. When teachers plan instruction, they try to develop activities that will result in concrete evidence of students’ progress. This typically means having students complete some task(s) while engaging subject matter resources and/or interaction with other students. Assessment can also involve informal observation of students’ work, but for most activities students should be producing something (a short paper, a letter, a report, etc.). Integration within a lesson plan and creativity are important components of all assessment strategies, and Chapter 13 deals with these ideas in depth. The criteria for determining the quality of students’ work and the means by which to provide feedback are equally important and should be described in lesson plans.

Lesson Plans and Reflection LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe two basic approaches to writing lesson plans. Explain the reasons why a teacher would develop a formal lesson plan. Identify what goes into a lesson narrative. Compare lesson plans to lesson narratives.

ighteenth-century Scottish poet Robert Burns wrote in his poem “To a Mouse” that “The best laid schemes o’ mice an’ men/Gang aft a-gley.” From this old Scottish line, comes the familiar saying, “even the best laid plans go wrong.” Maybe Burns tapped into our concern about being able to control what will happen in the future. As in all ventures, even the best laid teaching plans sometimes go wrong. Of course, that does not mean we should abandon efforts to plan for instruction. No matter the potential problems, instructional plans are essential to quality learning experiences. Imagine teaching without a plan. What would happen? Most likely, the teacher would fall back on what he knows and maybe tell a story or recite some easy-to-remember subject matter for students. He might use a prepackaged activity or worksheet that seemed to be on the same topic as the curriculum suggests. We know that such teaching techniques do not result in productive learning for students. Productive learning results from active student engagement, and this requires careful planning.

E

WRITING LESSON PLANS There are at least two methods for developing lesson plans. Typically, teachers spend most of their time specifying and writing procedures for students to follow. These procedures are often coupled with behavioral objectives, lists of resources, and descriptions of assessment activities. These lesson plan elements take form as an outline lesson plan. Outlines are good because they convey the essentials of a plan for instruction in a wellunderstood format.

Look at Figure 11.10. How might we use this element of mystery to plan for a lesson on ancient Native Americans, using an outline lesson plan? The amazing drawings on a 50-foot-tall flat rock comprise one of the largest known collections of petroglyphs. The petroglyphs are believed to have been carved by natives, possibly the Anasazi, between the first and fifth century A.D., but dating the rock car vings is difficult. Mystery surrounds the meaning and the purposes for the carvings. Sometimes, we need to probe our pedagogical understanding more deeply than an outline will permit. For these occasions, we can use another method, instructional narratives, which go into more depth in exploring some theme or idea being conveyed in the teaching and learning experience. Often, instructional narratives focus on subject content knowledge and how the teacher selected and developed certain pedagogical strategies to enable students to learn specific subject matter content. The focus of lesson narratives is describing, rather than simply conveying a list of procedures. A person who reads an instructional narrative may still need an accompanying lesson plan in order to implement the lesson,

Figure 11.10 Ancient petroglyphs at Newspaper Rock, Utah

but she will know much more about the thinking that went into the plan after reading the narrative. One maxim that seems to hold true is that the more intricate the learning experiences, the more detailed the plans must be and, consequently, the more important planning actually becomes. Lessons that involve indepth planning include: • Students using resources or completing a sequence of activities

sional communication that is vital for professional growth. Writing is also a form of learning and thinking, and the writing process may very well result in higherquality lessons. Students learning about technology might be interested in learning about how societies react to the introduction of new technologies. How might a teacher plan for a lesson in which students investigate the issue of how new technologies are adapted by people in different cultural settings (Figure 11.11)?

• Differentiated instruction (different learning goals and activities for different students)

Lesson Plans Outline lesson plans typically contain

• Self-paced learning activities

five or six sections.

• Group work

1. Introduction

• Research projects

2. Objectives

• Simulations

3. Related standards and curriculum goals

• Other student-centered learning activities

4. Materials being used

Often, teachers construct mental teaching plans, but novice teachers especially need to spend time writing plans. Written lesson plans enable a form of profes-

5. Procedures (sometimes including a separate lesson opening and closing) 6. Assessment strategies

Figure 11.11 Residents of the Australian aborigine settlement of Balgo in the Great Sandy Desert, spending the evening watching television. The government provides them with houses, but many still prefer to live in the open air and, except during winter, use their houses for storage.

Behavioral objective A learn-

The sequence of these lesson plan elements is quite logical. Afing goal specifying ter an introduction that summaobservable actions rizes the content of a lesson, students must teachers must consider what they demonstrate to indiwant students to learn. These cate that learning take form as behavioral objechas occurred. tives. Well-crafted behavioral objectives typically include four parts. 1. The skill/knowledge to be gained 2. The action students undertake when demonstrating their skill or knowledge 3. The conditions under which the students will exhibit their skill or knowledge 4. The criteria used to determine the quality of students’ skill or knowledge Objectives need to encompass relevant subject matter that has been selected for the lesson and should be within the expectations of standards and curriculum. The process of planning activities for successful learning includes selecting pertinent materials and a set of procedures to facilitate student learning. These are typically recorded in a lesson plan as a list of items needed for the lesson and a sequence of teacher and student actions. Most lesson plans include a separate section detailing assessment strategies and the criteria for evaluating students’ work.

Lesson Narratives Lesson narratives are much more impressionistic than lesson plans. A good lesson narrative tells the story of a lesson idea. Narratives have a beginning, middle, and end, as does the process for planning and implementing a lesson. Using narrative structure, teachers can describe the processes they undertook as they developed subject matter knowledge and transformed that knowledge into pedagogical subject matter knowledge. The transformations can be written about as an idea for how and what is taught. Although a narrative lesson plan may lack the sequential detail of an outline lesson plan, a well-written lesson narrative can be very enlightening. Teachers can reveal their thinking, ambitions, and expectations in lesson narratives. A fully formed lesson narrative should include:

• An introduction that addresses the emergence of the teacher knowledge about the subject matter of the lesson • An exploration of the teacher’s ideas about what students in the class should learn and why • An explanation of how the featured subject matter fits with standards and curriculum The narrative provides a structure to describe the manner in which the lesson addresses standardized subject matter. Lesson narratives should flow from section to section, with the writer describing procedures as imagined events that are interwoven and purposeful. Within the description of these imagined class events, rich descriptions of assessment and plans for evaluation and reflection should be described. Lesson narratives might also be written after a teaching episode. Such work might be considered reflective and can be an important part of the teaching process.

REFLECTION Planning to teach does not stop when teachers implement a lesson. Constant reflection is a critical component of planning. Reflection enables teachers to determine whether their plan for instruction is working. More often than not, lesson plans need to be adjusted. Sometimes these adjustments must take place in the middle of instruction. At other times, adjustments can be made between activities, during breaks, or even over a period of days. There are at least three questions teachers should consider when reflecting on a lesson plan. 1. Are all students receiving the opportunities the teacher envisioned when planning for instruction? The answer(s) to this question emerge from assessment. Typically, informal assessment can be used to make quick judgments about whether students are benefiting from the instruction that was planned. If students are not “getting it,” then the teacher must make adjustments in the lesson. 2. Is the time allotted for instruction appropriate given the realities of the actual implementation? Teachers sometimes overplan for a class. There is nothing Lesson Plans and Reflection

309

inherently wrong with this as long as the teacher realizes the problem and then adjusts the activities to maximize students’ work. Sometimes, the opposite occurs and a teacher underplans. In such situations, there are a number of options. The teacher can begin the next planned activity or lesson, even if it was planned for the next day. The teacher might also extend the completed lesson and provide students additional opportunities to learn about the subject matter. This might even involve planning to teach “on the fly.” Sometimes teachers use filler activities that address important or valued skills and/or knowledge. Teachers should not assign “busy work” that is unconnected to either curriculum or realistic learning goals.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

The statue of Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C. How does the Lincoln Memorial recognize the importance of Lincoln? Why do you think Lincoln has been memorialized with this statue?

Describe how you might teach a lesson with this objective: Write a poem, letter, song, or story to demonstrate your understanding of President Abraham Lincoln’s moral and political greatness.

Write a sequence of steps and a short narrative about your lesson ideas. How do the two lesson plans serve different purposes?

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Planning for Active Learning

3. Are the materials and resources that were adapted and prepared for the lesson being used the way the teacher planned? One of the most important teacher actions that occurs during class is the explaining and tailoring of materials. Sometimes students do not understand material that is being presented or the resources they are working with. This confusion should not be unexpected. Children are learning about subject matter they may be partially or completely unfamiliar with. A teacher’s ability to tailor the instruction and the materials that support their instruction is essential. Much of the tailoring process is a product of the teacher’s informal assessment, again highlighting the importance of continual assessment.

What is happening in this picture

?

■ When new technology

meets traditional culture interesting contrasts come to mind. What are some of the contrasts evident in this image? ■ How might an investiga-

tion of early music technology be fashioned into an active learning experience?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

Active Learning in Social Studies

Active learning requires that students be active in the pursuit of knowledge. Active learning occurs when teachers create interest and excitement about learning. When students produce something, have a role in setting up the activity, and see the connections to their life, the experiences are even more active. The more authentic the learning experience, the more active the learning experience will be. In social studies, teachers draw on a number of authentic social studies disciplinary areas and resources to enable their students to actively learn.

Visual Summary

311

2

Initial Considerations for Instructional Planning

When teachers begin the instructional planning process they should make a number of initial considerations. The first of these considerations involves the transformation of content knowledge into subject matter knowledge. Content knowledge is what we know as it is culled from academic sources. Subject matter knowledge is that content knowledge reorganized for use in K–12 settings. In addition to reorganizing knowledge, teachers must carefully consider curriculum and select specific subject matter for a lesson. After selecting this material, teachers need to develop instructional goals, make the instruction relevant to students’ lives, select specific materials, and think about assessment techniques. At the same time, teachers should try to connect or weave together their instructional ideas about subject matter.

4

Lesson Plans and Reflection

Planning to teach involves a deliberate effort on the part of teachers to set forth, often in writing, ideas about how a specific lesson will unfold. Such written pedagogical representations might take form as lesson plan outlines or lesson narratives. Lesson plans typically include statements about objectives, standards and curriculum, materials, procedures, and assessments. Lesson narratives are more communicative and focus on telling the story of a teacher’s thinking about a lesson. Planning does not stop when teachers start teaching. Through assessment and reflection, teachers adjust and tailor their strategies and the resources and materials being used. This happens while they are teaching the lesson and in pauses between activities.

KEY TERMS ■ active learning, p. 290

■ climate, p. 294

■ authentic, p. 292

■ behavioral objective, p. 309

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Planning for Active Learning

3

Planning Instruction for Active Learning

Planning instruction involves the deliberate and purposeful selection of procedures and events that will occur in the classroom. Each of these events might conform to some general instructional strategy, such as lecture or discussion, but they all take shape according to the subject matter and the students in the classroom. Planning for active instruction requires that teachers carefully select resources for use in the class and then adapt and tailor these resources, given specific instructional needs. A plan for assessment must also be a part of the process. Assessment plans should be incorporated within the lesson plan in a seamless and meaningful manner.

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

Owls are mysterious and beloved animals. Cultures across the globe and throughout history have stories about owls. This bird is most typically personified as a wise creature, full of advice for misled and confused characters. Why is the owl considered to be wise? Some say it comes from the eyes of the owl. Also, the owl’s head is larger than the head of most other birds and proportionally larger than the head of most animals. Others see a connection to the ancient Greeks, who used the owl to represent Athena, the goddess of wisdom.

•

What does the owl represent for children?

•

How can elementary school teachers use the owl to plan a social studies lesson on the concept of wisdom throughout history?

Close-up of an African eagle owl

SELF-TEST 1. How might you engage students in active learning about the construction of Egyptian pyramids? Consider each of the four goals of active instruction. 2. Describe an activity that has an authentic focus related to the topic of work.

7. What are three considerations that teachers should make when selecting resources for use in an activity? 8. What function does lesson planning serve in the teaching and learning process? 9. Construct a four-part behavioral objective for an activity focused on the importance of Abraham Lincoln.

3. How would an activity that was focused on active learning differ in these disciplinary focal areas? a. History b. Geography c. Economics 4. What are some initial considerations when reorganizing content into subject matter? 5. Which of the following would you consider the most important determination when selecting resources for use in a lesson? a. Does the resource support the learning goals for the lesson? b. Is the resource appropriate for students given their prior knowledge, reading ability, and maturity? c. Can the resource be adapted and tailored to meet the specific needs of students? 6. Label the 5 steps in the planning process for active learning on the figure on the right.

10. What are three questions teachers should ask when reflecting during the instructional planning process?

Self-Test

313

Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

12

W

hat does it mean for a society to be diverse? We can start by looking at our schools, where we see a broad range of culture, languages, learning styles, and socioeconomic status. Some schools are diverse because they have students from many places in the world (Russia, Guatemala, Mexico, China) who speak many different languages. Some schools are diverse because they have a balance of racial and ethnic identities in them (Hispanic, African American, Asian). Other schools have fewer national, racial, and/or ethnic differences but are diverse in less obvious ways. Alex Gonzalez teaches fourth grade in such a school. In his school, most of the students are African American, but the similarities end there. His students have different learning styles and needs, come from a range of socioeconomic backgrounds, and have different interests and abilities. How does Mr. Gonzalez meet all their needs as he teaches social studies? Mr. Gonzalez plans instruction that takes into account the different needs of his students. One example is how he teaches a lesson on the regions of his state, South Carolina. Each year, Mr. Gonzalez begins with an activity called “Where Have I Been.” Students record the places they have been with their family and friends, and the places where relatives and friends live. Every year, Mr. Gonzalez is amazed at the diversity of his students’ geographic experiences and the range of places their friends and family live. When planning the lesson on South Carolina regions, Mr. Gonzalez uses his knowledge of students’ experiences with places to enliven his instruction about state and national regions. Instead of a distant and impersonal activity, students start with the places they know and expand to places other students know about. The lesson highlights the diversity within the class, which enriches and enlivens the lesson.

314

How do the diverse backgrounds and needs of children such as these affect education?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Teaching Children in Diverse

Environments p. 316

■ Cultural Diversity and Social

Studies p. 322

■ Individual Diversity and Social

Studies p. 326

■ Teaching in Schools with

Homogeneous Social and Cultural Characteristics p. 330

ll teachers must be prepared to teach in diverse environments. Like Mr. Gonzalez, we have to expect diversity to take many different forms. Social studies is particularly well suited for discovering diversity and for

A

helping children understand and value diversity. In this chapter we present various characterizations of diversity and suggest techniques for how to use social studies content when teaching about and within a diverse social context.

Teaching Children in Diverse Environments LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define diversity. Describe the forms of diversity that exist in elementary schools.

ties to succeed than other students for whom we do not have such high expectations. Such teacher expectations must be shaped by knowledge of individuals, and our knowledge must develop in the context of life and school in a diverse society.

Explain how diversity in society is reflected in the schools.

FORMS OF DIVERSITY xpectations shape much of our actions. Think about the children depicted in Figure 12.1 . How do you think these children’s school experiences are affected by their culture? If this question is hard to answer, what do you need to know about the children or their culture in order to answer it? If we expect students to perform at a certain high level given their culture, we may subconsciously provide them more opportuni-

E

Figure 12.1 Do you have any expectations based on what you can tell about the culture of these children from this photo?

Diversity Natural and social differences that emerge from meaningful and unique human characteristics.

Diversity can take form in a number of ways. Some forms of diversity have a direct bearing on educational aims and methods. Other forms are less influential, but at minimum worthy of recognition. Following are several forms of diversity and recommendations for how to incorporate these diversities into planning and teaching elementary social studies.

Natural Diversity Natural forms of diversity include gender age, size, and any other traits that are a product of some natural or biological development. Social studies teachers like to include subject matter that is specifically focused on these natural forms. For example, having students study about children their own age can be an effective strategy. The same might be true for gender studies, particularly the study of women. Given the relative lack of information about women in elementary social studies curriculums and textbooks, girls and boys might find women’s studies interesting.

Socially Constructed Diversity All societies construct institutions and classifications that result in a wide diversity of human experiences. Institutions such as religion and nationality as well as classifications such as race and ethnicity are all socially constructed. Much like natural forms of diversity, socially constructed

forms of diversity can be found Race A group of in the social studies curriculum. people united or For example, students learn classified together based on common about social groups of people history, geographic such as the black African distribution, and simCatholics pictured in Figure ilar physical traits. 12.2. Children are usually interested in learning about peoEthnicity A group ple who are in groups like their of people who share own. For example, immigrant a common and children from China might be distinctive racial, interested in studying Chinese national, religious, American experiences in hislinguistic, or cultural tory. Elementary social studies heritage. teachers can use those interests to encourage learning, but should also try to balance the curriculum so that multiple groups are represented and so that children have opportunities to learn about a wide range of social groups.

Figure 12.2 At an African Catholic mission, this Zairian Mbuti tribal leader and village neighbors parade to church on Palm Sunday. How do the social constructs of religion and race depicted in this image confound expectations about religion and race?

Learning Diversity Another form of diversity, learning diversity, refers to each child’s unique learning traits and habits. Learning traits and habits include specific learning styles and intelligences (one child may be particularly good with language, another has high math skills) as well as learning preferences or abilities. Some differences in learning styles include an aptitude for visual learning, or motor skills. Elementary school teachers should try to meet the needs of children with unique learning traits and habits.

Personality-Related Diversity The personality of each student is unique, but certain patterns of behavior enable teachers to describe and sometimes predict personality. Learning personalities are unique and individual and reflect natural as well as socially constructed differences related to learning habits and traits. Teachers should take into account only those personal traits that relate to learning, such as a student’s willingness to work individually or in groups.

DIVERSITY IN SCHOOL Diversity is a term used to suggest difference and uniqueness. As we have seen, diversity might be mea-

sured using natural and socially constructed characteristics such as age, ethnicity, gender, nationality, race, and religion, as well as educational aptitude. With regard to schooling, diversity might be classified as either cultural or individual. Cultural diversity is mostly a social construction, and it is what people often think of when they think of diversity. The descriptive characteristics of cultural diversity have historical and political dimensions. Schools have been in the foreground of historical and political action that recognizes cultural diversity and, when needed, schools have addressed inequalities resulting from cultural diversity. For example, the desegregation of public facilities in the United States was in part initiated in the public schools. Race is the most continuous and problematic of the socially constructed forms of cultural diversity in the United States. The image of Elizabeth Eckford in Figure 12.3 is from an important period in U.S. history when schools were at the forefront of the fight for racial equality. The image illustrates the tension surrounding the forced integration of the Little Rock, Arkansas, school district in 1956. Eckford was one of the nine black children who integrated Little Rock High School. Individual diversity reflects natural as well as learning or personality-related traits that are sometimes

Figure 12.3 How does the subject matter captured in the image illustrate race as a social construct? What does this incident tell us about the role of schools in redressing inequalities?

hard to compare and categorize. At its simplest, it says that each person is unique. For teachers, this means that each child deserves individual attention and has unique needs. These needs may be educational, emotional, or behavioral. Teachers must know their students as learners. They must be aware of their students’ background knowledge and their abilities as learners, but they must also be aware of their students’ other needs. These include the emotional and behavioral needs that teachers can meet with specialized instruction and attention or through support personnel in the school and community.

DIVERSITY IN SOCIETY Diversity is complicated and often controversial. The United States and other nations such as France, Australia, and India are becoming increasingly diverse. Although countries like the United States are made up of many cultural and personal experiences, the idea of being an “American” at least suggests assimilation and likeness. Political groups disagree about the extent to which Multiculturalism diversity should be emphasized Many cultures existin the schools, and much of this ing together in a disagreement has taken form locality, without any around the idea of multiculturone culture dominatalism. Let us consider diversity as ing, and with mutual it impacts culture and society. acceptance of differAs illustrated in Figure ences aimed at overcoming racism, 12.4 , Australia is becoming sexism, and other more culturally diverse. The forms of same thing is happening in the discrimination. United States. Some on the political right want to deemphasize cultural diversity or multiculturalism in favor of a more assimilated cultural American identity. This view might be best represented by Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., in his book The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (1998). In the book, Schlesinger argued that a “cult of ethnicity” was strangling the liberal vision of America and fracturing the common bonds of the American liberal democracy. Schlesinger was building on the early 20th-century notion of America as a melting pot and generally lamenting the disappearance of

this vision of American culture. As illustrated in Figure 12.4, the trend toward cultural diversity is not unique to the United States. Those on the political left generally believe that diversity in society is a productive outgrowth of a uniquely American form of pluralism. Nathan Glazer presented this view in his book, We Are All Multiculturalists Now (1998). Glazer argued that cultural diversity—or what we sometimes term multiculturalism—is a product of the Euro-centric notion of America as a melting pot. His theory suggests that European immigrants who assimilated into an American culture never intended for nonEuropeans, particularly black Africans, to be part of the American culture they were creating. The result was the emergence of distinct and separate cultural identities that came to exist alongside a European white cultural tradition.

Figure 12.4 Buddhist Vietnamese children stand in front of Phuoc Hue Temple in a suburban area of Sydney, Australia called Wetherill Park. In one generation, Sydney has been transformed from a parochial city to a model of cultural diversity. How do such transformations challenge notions of what it means to be Australian?

Teaching Children in Diverse Environments

319

DIVERSITY IN LEARNING: INTELLIGENCES AND LEARNING STYLES How should elementary school teachers respond to issues related to diversity? First, it is critical to view diversity in its broadest sense. As presented earlier in this chapter, diversity is much more than multiculturalism. It includes cultural and personal dimensions as well. Teachers must identify and plan for diversity in their classroom, and this requires careful attention to the needs of individual students as well as groups of students in the class. There are a number of sources for information about students. Teachers should have access to previous grades as well as to standardized test scores. These should be used to get a general sense of the academic achievement levels of students. We must always keep in mind that each of these assessment records is simply a record of achievement at a given time under certain circumstances. Overreliance on previous grades and test scores can have a stifling effect on students’ potential for intellectual growth. Inventories and surveys are another way to determine the unique abilities and skills of students. A number of instruments have been developed that can be used to determine students’ learning styles or types of intelligence, such as Howard Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligences. (See Figure 12.5, “Visualizing: Multiple Intelligences”.) Gardner proposed that there are seven human intelligences, later adding an eighth. These eight intelligences are:

8. Naturalist intelligence: abilities to recognize and classify plants, minerals, and animals Other theories about learning can help us understand and account for differences among learners. Following is a list of some of the major learning-style theories and their implications with regard to diversity. David Kolb’s (1976) learning styles model described models of learning based on four learning styles. 1. Diverging learners think deeply about experiences and then diverge from the experience to multiple ways of thinking about it. 2. Converging learners think about problems, then try out their ideas or solutions. 3. Accommodating learners explore new knowledge with actions, rarely pausing to think or theorize prior to acting. 4. Assimilating learners think through the entire process preferring to think instead of to act. Brain-based learning models represent a collection of learning theories and theories about how the brain works when we are learning. These theories suggest that there are multiple approaches to learning. Herrmann (1980) has suggested a four-part model for explaining brain-based learning that focuses on the idea that the left and right parts of the brain function differently.

1. Linguistic intelligence: understanding words, their meanings, and the order of text-based language

1. Left brain, cerebral: logical, analytical, quantitative, and factual learning

2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: skill in mathematics and other complex logical systems

2. Left brain, limbic: sequential, organized, planned, and detailed learning

3. Musical intelligence: abilities to understand and create music

3. Right brain, cerebral: visual, holistic, and creative learning

4. Spatial intelligence: abilities to visualize the world and create representations of the world on paper

4. Right brain, limbic: emotional, interpersonal, sensory, and kinesthetic learning

5. Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: being able to use the body for some expressed and purposeful task 6. Interpersonal intelligence: abilities to perceive and understand other people 320

7. Intrapersonal intelligence: a heightened ability to understand and use emotions

CHAPTER 12

Another source of information comes from the assessment of students’ knowledge and skills. These can take form as pre-tests, initial unit activities, or even informal questioning sessions. The knowledge that teachers develop about their students’ abilities and their

Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

Visualizing

Multiple Intelligences Figure 12.5

Given Howard Gardner’s idea that people learn differently according to various types of intelligence, consider how student learning might differ with the drawing and text below. •

How might elementary school–aged children with a proclivity for linguistic intelligence learn from this image?

•

What about a visual learner or a spatial learner?

•

Would learners with other strengths be able to learn something about the winter of 1886 or the artwork of Charles M. Russell?

A watercolor of a starving steer in a blizzard on the OH Ranch in 1886 by Charles M. Russell, famed western artist. The painting is attached to a letter of the period by a friend of Russell’s trying to report to a rancher on the condition of the cattle. On the left side of the card it says: “This is the real thing painted the winter of 1886 at the OH ranch. CM Russell.” On the right it says: “This picture is Charles Russell’s reply to my inquiry as to the condition of my cattle in 1886. LE Kaufmann.”

Teaching Children in Diverse Environments

321

prior knowledge of specific content can help in general planning as well as adapting for individual students. Larger and more group-based measures of diversity might help in the planning process as well. If groups of students are from particular parts of the countr y or

CONCEPT CHECK

other nations, teachers can adapt the curriculum to take advantage of their students’ cultural experiences. If a number of students have particular learning traits or dispositions, the teacher can take advantage of these characteristics as well when teaching.

STOP

How would students with How would students different learning styles describe the actions depicted in this scene?

with different intelligences approach this activity?

A view of an ancient Egyptian mourning scene on papyrus.

Cultural Diversity and Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify how the social studies curriculum reflects cultural diversity. Evaluate the extent to which cultural diversity should influence instruction in elementary social studies. Identify the purposes and approaches of culturally responsive teaching. Examine the role of teachers in implementing culturally responsive teaching strategies.

ultural diversity is an idea that values multiple cultural experiences. We can expand that idea to suggest that various cultural experiences coexist in modern American culture. Cultural experiences influence how children learn and must therefore be understood and nurtured.

C

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HOW DOES THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM REFLECT CULTURAL DIVERSITY? Curriculum is many things to many people. To those concerned about issues related to cultural diversity, the curriculum provides an opportunity to broaden children’s exposure to and experiences with various cultures and their associated values. The social studies curriculum offers teachers ample opportunities to explore topics that can reflect the diversity within the United States and within specific classrooms. Of course, no single curriculum can fit everyone’s needs. When national curriculums such as the National History Standards were developed, groups with vested interests in particular cultural perspectives worked to have their stories included. This pattern plays out on the state level in places like California, whose legislature has passed or considered several resolutions requiring

Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

that the state standards and curriculums include the perspectives of specific groups and interests. On another level, local school systems will often strive to represent the diversity within their communities. State and local curriculums and standards typically reflect local diversity-related needs. For example, in New Mexico students in kindergarten learn about “the customs, celebrations, and holidays of various cultures in New Mexico.” In the second grade, students are expected to “describe the cultural diversity of individuals and groups and their contributions to United States history (e.g., George Washington, Ben Franklin, César Chávez, Rosa Parks, the National Association for Advancement of Colored People [NAACP], tribal leaders, American Indian Movement [AIM]).” The inclusion of individuals on this list reflects the diversity of New Mexico, which includes large Hispanic and Native Indian populations. At the classroom level, teachers must implement the curriculum, which provides teachers another opportunity to reflect the diversity in their school and

classroom. For example, an elementary grade teacher in Cibola County, New Mexico may choose to emphasize Native American contributions to U.S. histor y, given that almost half of the population of the county is Native American. Teachers in Cibola might develop a lesson about the legend of the Seven Cities of Cibola. The legend grew out of the travels of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, a 16th-century Spanish explorer who shipwrecked in 1528 off the modern-day Texas coast. Cabeza de Vaca and his crew lived among the native Indians in the area for a number of years. In 1532, he and his companions left the coast in search of the Spanish in Mexico. Four years later after traveling through modern-day Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico they found a small Spanish party on a slavetrading run. Cabeza de Vaca described how they had seen bison and repeated rumors about rich Indian pueblos. The rumors became the legend of the Seven Golden Cities of a land called Cibola. This legend spurred further exploration by the Europeans such as Francisco Coronado (Figure 12.6).

Figure 12.6 This painting depicts Francisco Coronado, Spanish explorer, with his party in 1540 exploring the American Southwest in search of the Seven Cities of Cibola, which were thought to be rich in gold and jewels. How does this subject matter have a special cultural relevance in the American Southwest?

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND INSTRUCTION IN SOCIAL STUDIES

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

When teaching social studies, elementary school teachers can provide instruction that addresses various cultural needs. Curriculum sets the stage for such instruction, but teachers must plan individual lessons and then implement them. There are several things we can do when teaching in classrooms that are culturally diverse. Following are a few of these ideas.

One systematic approach to teaching children in culturally diverse contexts is an approach called culturally responsive teaching and learning. Geneva Gay (2000) describes culturally responsive teaching and learning as being reflective of cultural knowledge, students’ prior experiences, and the performance styles of diverse students. The general idea is to teach to the strengths of students given the cultural contexts that have shaped their learning experiences and styles. Culturally responsive teaching addresses the needs of students by motivating them through learning experiences that value the students’ identity. Such approaches to teaching require that teachers first explore their own cultural identity and the values they associate with different cultural identities. Culturally responsive teaching values cultural differences, and a teacher who teaches in such a way must develop not just a respect for other cultures but an understanding of those cultures and how they influence learning. Culturally responsive teaching should never be divisive or separatist. The idea is to consider the cultural uniqueness of children for the express purpose of improving teaching and learning. Cultural differences that are harmful or destructive are not likely to be educative. For example, traditions of distrust or intolerance on the part of various religious groups cannot be used as a context for learning. Instead, teachers have to find positive elements within cultural traditions to support learning in the classroom. Children learn about the days of the week and months of the year in their earliest learning experiences. Most children come to elementary school with this knowledge firmly developed. But do we ever consider why we have a calendar system, how it was developed, or other ways of organizing the passage of time? Look at, “In the Classroom: Teaching about calendars” for how to teach on this topic. A lesson on these questions provides social studies teachers in early elementar y grades an opportunity to explore culture.

1. Try to get involved in or at least attend community-based cultural events. At minimum, develop an understanding of the cultural characteristics of the neighborhoods in which your students live. 2. Get to know the students and their parents, perhaps through parent nights or other extracurricular activities. Invite parents and family to the school, and always keep parents informed about what is happening in your classroom. 3. Carefully encourage students to share their own experiences with the class. Make sure that students are comfortable doing this, and never single children out based on their cultural identity. This sharing should always be positive and should reflect some relevant subject matter. Avoid asking students to explain their culture or their traditions. Focus instead on sharing. Also, be willing to model such cultural sharing. 4. Mix students when they work in groups. Heterogeneous (mixed) grouping is important on a number of levels. With regard to culture, it gives children experience working with children who may have cultural backgrounds different from their own. 5. Review all materials used in class for representativeness and accuracy. The goal is to include a range of materials and to avoid resources that are overly representative of a single cultural tradition. 6. Avoid expectations based on race or ethnic group. Reading and learning about groups often results in generalizations about these groups. Despite what we might expect from a group member, remember that each individual is unique and might be very different from the norm. Get to know your students to avoid stereotyping them.

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Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

In the Classroom

TEACHING ABOUT CALENDARS

The calendar we use in North America and most of the world is called the Gregorian calendar. It was named for Pope Gregory XIII, who in 1582 issued an order that all Christian Catholic countries should use a newly configured calendar, correcting the Roman Julian calendar, which was several days out of sync with the seasons. The Gregorian calendar, like other calendars such as the Aztec calendar, is based on the time it takes the Earth to revolve around the Sun. Protestant countries (including England and the American colonies) did not adopt it until 1752. When the American colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, 11 days were eliminated in order to catch up, resulting in September 2, 1752, being followed by September 14, 1752. In this activity, students would compare three calendars and consider the lost days of 1752. Calendar Activity 1: Why do different people use different calendars? In China the official state calendar is different from the Islamic Calendar widely used in the Middle East, which is different from the Jewish calendar used in Israel, which is of course different from the Gregorian calendar used in most Western countries.

Why do these different people use different calendars? The answer to this question lies in history. Students can explore the origins of the four calendars mentioned here and learn about each culture. •

Arrange students in groups of four and have each student in the group be responsible for finding the current year in their calendar as well as the event that marks the first year in the calendar.

Calendar Activity 2: The lost 11 days of 1752 What days would you skip if we had to eliminate 11 days from the calendar? This is the question that faced British and colonial American leaders in 1752. They selected September 3 through 12, some say because no religious holidays fall on those days. •

Have students pick 11 consecutive days that they would eliminate one time from the year, then provide reasons for their decisions. The reasons might very well reflect the cultural interests and background of the students.

Teachers can use students’ reasoning as a way to learn more about them and potentially as a way to extend the activity to focus on cultural views and distinctions.

A closeup of the center of the 20-ton Aztec Sun Stone, which depicts the sun god and the four epochs of the creation and destruction of the universe in Aztec mythology. Other symbols represent the 20 days of the Aztec month, the source of the popular name Calendar Stone. Why do you think different cultures have different calendar systems?

Cultural Diversity and Social Studies

325

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How does the tradition of Nyepi illustrate the cultural uniqueness of Indonesia?

How might knowledge of this tradition alter or expand children’s conceptions of the culture of New Year celebrations?

Young girls in Bali, Indonesia prepare for Nyepi, the New Year holiday in Bali. The Balinese people celebrate the New Year with absolute stillness and quiet, just the opposite of the traditions of revelry in the West and in China.

Individual Diversity and Social Studies LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe the diversity inherent in individual learning personalities.

Describe how individual diversity can influence teaching and learning in elementary social studies.

o two children are the same, and no two children learn the same. This simple idea has enormous consequences for teaching and learning. When we plan for elementary social studies instruction and implement those plans, we should take into account the idea of individual diversity. Individual diversity is the idea that students differ as individual learners, and we must respect and account for these differences when teaching.

N

DIVERSITY AND INDIVIDUAL LEARNING PERSONALITIES Imagine a class of 20 third-grade students. Each student is completing a map exercise by labeling, coloring, and illustrating land and water forms in the state. One student starts by coloring the entire map red. Another stu326

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Explain some limitations of individual diversity.

dent carefully labels each land form in green and each water form in blue. A third student is slow to start, preferring to study the map and look at resources the teacher has provided to help students. The other 17 students proceed in their own unique way. Individuals, such as the students in this class, differ in countless ways. In the classroom, each child has a learning personality. These individual learning personalities are shaped by environment and experience that may be the same, but each learning personality is ultimately unique. In order to best meet the individual needs of students, teachers must address individual learning personalities. These personalities are marked by four distinct dimensions. The Process Diagram ( Figure 12.7), “The elements of individual learning personalities,” shows how teachers can address each of these dimensions in their planning.

Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

The prior knowledge of each student deeply influences his or her ability to construct new knowledge. Prior knowledge serves as schema within which learners create new knowledge.

Learning Temperament

Prior Knowledge Level

Planning for Instruction

Schema

A pattern describing some reality or experience that helps order and explain or mediate the development of knowledge.

Process Diagram

The elements of individual learning personalities Figure 12.7

Impediments to Learning

Impediments might include learning disabilities or other limitations that affect learning.

The degree to which a student is intrinsically motivated to learn can be thought of as his or her learning temperament.

Support Outside the Classroom

The extent to which a child has support at home and within the community is a major influence on that child’s ability to learn.

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Consider an activity focused on the physical geography of Florida. The map in Figure 12.8 illustrates land and water features of Florida. How might children read this map differently? Consider the prior knowledge that is needed to read the map. Consider different learning temperaments and possible impediments to learning. Also consider the various support children might have at home related to reading maps.

ACCOUNTING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIVERSITY WHEN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES How do elementary social studies teachers plan for teaching, when each student has such unique needs? First, they must get to know their students. As we learned

in the previous section, there are specific characteristics we can know about each child. Developing both formal and informal understanding of the conditions and dispositions affecting student learning is essential. Formal understanding of students’ unique abilities and needs might be aided by testing or professional evaluation. Students who receive special instruction often have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) or Individual Learning Plan (ILP). These plans may be required by law, particularly if the money being used to provide services for the children is from the U.S. government. IEPs and ILPs provide teachers and parents/guardians with detailed guidance on how best to meet the child’s learning needs. IEPs (a term used by the federal government) include information about the student’s current learning level, short- and long-term learning goals, the means for measuring learning progress, the specific services

B A H A S M A

Figure 12.8 Think about how children’s experience with maps might influence their work.

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In the Classroom

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION IN A LESSON ABOUT PIONEER LIFE IN AMERICA

There are four specific differences that teachers might plan for in a lesson about pioneer life in America:

•

A second reading is from the letters of Louise Clappe, who wrote a series of 22 letters from San Francisco to her sister in Boston in 1851 and 1852. The letters describe life in mining camps and in San Francisco in the years of the gold rush of California. The reading level is higher than that of Aunt Clara Brown, and students who read the Louise Clappe letters may need some prior knowledge of California history.

•

The third reading is from Laura Ingalls Wilder’s Little House in the Big Woods. This is the first in the Little House book series and tells the story of young Laura Ingalls and her family’s pioneer life in Pepin, Wisconsin in the late 1870s. Wilder’s book is written for children at about the fifth grade and is very engaging.

1. Reading levels 2. Prior knowledge 3. Motivation to learn 4. Learning styles Given the need to differentiate instruction, a lesson plan on pioneer life should make use of a range of resources. This lesson for fourth or fifth grade focuses on reading groups of three students. •

Provide each student with one of three reading assignments targeted for different levels of readers in the groups.

•

Focus the reading on the harshness of pioneer life. These conditions are illustrated in the photo of a pioneer family posing in front of the shelter of their “soddy.”

•

The readings for this activity are biographical accounts of pioneer life. One reading is from the book Aunt Clara Brown: Official Pioneer by Linda Lowery, the story of Clara Brown, a slave who moved west in 1856 on gaining her freedom. The book is at a third-grade reading level, and the story is well constructed and very interesting. This passage might be good for children who are reading below grade level or for those who need some extra motivation to read.

Each book is set in a different part of the American frontier and represents very different groups of people. •

Clara Brown was a freed slave who went west in the 1850s to make a new life.

•

Louise Clappe was a well-educated woman from the Northeast with plenty of money and social standing.

•

Laura Ingalls and her family were what we might call middle class today.

As students read their passages and share what they learned in their groups, they will develop an understanding of the diversity of experiences on the U. S. frontier in the nineteenth century.

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that will be provided, the extent the child will work outside of the regular classroom, modifications for formal assessments, the dates of special services, the process for informing parents/guardians of the child’s progress, and plans for the reduction of services at age 16. ILPs tend to be more informal and idiosyncratic. Although they are similar to IEPs, an Individual Learn-

CONCEPT CHECK

ing Plan assumes that all of the student’s learning needs can be met in the classroom with existing resources. The general idea is to have a plan for how to specialize instruction for a child given his or her learning personality. The plan can be quickly written using a format that includes the four dimensions of learning personalities reviewed in the previous section.

STOP

If teaching about the cultural institution of marriage, how can we represent the various traditions of marriage across the globe in a way that meets the individual needs of students in the class?

Are there any limits as to how concepts such as marriage might be considered in different cultural contexts?

This marriage of Selma and Khaled Sadek strengthened the ties between their families as the two are cousins. Most Saudi marriages are alliances between families, although Islamic law gives a woman final approval over her family’s choice. A Saudi man is allowed as many as four wives, if he can treat them all equally.

Teaching in Schools with Homogeneous Social and Cultural Characteristics LEARNING O BJECTIVES Recognize the learning distinctions present in schools with homogeneous social and cultural characteristics. Describe best teaching practices given limited social and cultural diversity. Consider the consequences of certain approaches to teaching in schools with limited social and cultural diversity.

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espite the diversity present in many schools, some are strikingly homogeneous in terms of social and cultural characteristics. While numbers are hard to come by, ever y state has large pockets of homogeneous populations. Given that school populations are typically drawn from surrounding neighborhoods, schools in neighborhoods that are culturally similar are likely to also be culturally similar. There are exceptions

D

Teaching Social Studies in a Diverse Society

that result from school system efforts to diversify student populations, but these efforts are typically limited to areas that have a history of racial discrimination.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR TEACHING IN HOMOGENEOUS SETTINGS How do teachers meet the needs of children when the social and cultural characteristics of the student body are relatively homogeneous? There are several things to keep in mind before you plan for any teaching experience in such schools. 1. Remember that all children are unique and have unique needs. 2. Never assign to an individual the characteristics of a group. 3. If you are not familiar with the cultural traditions of the community in which you work, take

time to get to know what happens in the community. 4. Incorporate opportunities for children to use their cultural traditions as a context for learning new subject matter. 5. Carefully consider the cultural traditions that have shaped your students’ learning personalities. Think how those learning personalities can be expanded and enriched. 6. Try to include information about other cultural traditions as subject matter in the lessons. What might different groups of students in different schools know about life in a big city like New York (Figure 12.9)? Consider students in a school in rural parts of Alabama or North Dakota. How might you approach teaching children who have limited experiences with urban areas about life in a city?

Figure 12.9 This aerial view shows New York with Brooklyn in the foreground and the skyscrapers of Manhattan in the background. Can you expect that children growing up here might have unique learning personalities that are reflective of their life in a large urban area?

Social and Cultural Explorations

Teaching about Timbuktu The very name “Timbuktu” conjures up an image of distance and mystery. Most people know the name and understand it to be someplace far away. Children might have heard adults say something like, “Where is your friend’s house?” “Oh, it’s way out of town. It’s in Timbuktu.” How did these ideas about Timbuktu arise? This lesson is about the origin of the legend and the reality of the place called Timbuktu. Timbuktu is a city in Mali, Africa, on the southern rim of the Sahara desert. Over one thousand years ago, the city was a flourishing settlement on the trade route between the sub-Sahara and North Africa. It was a city of wealth and a seat of Islamic learning. Its aura came from the inability of Europeans to visit this place. An overland route was impassable because of the desert, and until the late 15th century sea travel was impossible. Despite their lack of physical contact, the word and legend of Timbuktu grew. Eventually, in the 15th century and later, Europeans encountered Timbuktu, but by then it was quickly receding in power and glory. After Europeans made contact with Timbuktu, a young Alfred Lord Tennyson wrote a poem in 1829 called “Timbuktoo” essentially mythologizing the place. As children learn about the real Timbuktu or any other place that is distant or remote, they may also be influenced by stereotypes and distanced by the lack of familiarity with people from the place being studied. Teachers must work to overcome these perceptions and help children appreciate and recognize the values of people from places that are, at first, strange and distant.

A view of the modern Timbuktu in the Saharan region of Mali. Timbuktu was once the hub of Africa where camel caravans met Niger River canoes. What do you know about Timbuktu? How does your prior knowledge influence your interest in learning about this place?

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CURRICULUM AND HOMOGENEOUS CULTURAL SETTINGS As we learned earlier, most social studies curriculum planners want to include a wide range of cultural subject matter in their curriculum. The actual development of curriculum can sometimes be continuous, but at minimum even a limited curriculum can be supplemented to include a rich set of cultural experiences for elementary school students. This should happen in all school settings, no matter how homogeneous the school population might be. However, special attention should be placed on implementing curriculum when in homogeneous cultural educational settings.

CONCEPT CHECK

Teachers should try to balance a need to reflect the community’s values and ideals through the curriculum with a goal of diversifying children’s experiences through educational experiences. Many communities will already value cultural diversity no matter how little diversity there is in the community. But even when the community does not seem to value such diversity, teachers need to try to incorporate multiple cultural experiences into the curriculum. The goal is to honor the wishes of the community by attending to its cultural traditions while expanding the scope of what students experience by deliberately including information on other cultures in lessons.

STOP

What should social studies teachers take into consideration when teaching in homogeneous schools?

How should a teacher who is teaching about Islam in a mostly Jewish neighborhood school situate the study?

More than two million Muslims prostrate themselves at the Grand Mosque in Mecca each year during the hajj. Tens of thousands pray on their knees in this photo.

What special considerations must a teacher make for the lack of diversity in such settings?

What is happening in this picture

?

■ What does this image

tell us about the processes for finding and refining oil? ■ How might students

with different learning styles reflect on this process? ■ How might divergent,

convergent, accommodating, and assimilating learners form their understanding differently?

An oil drilling platform in Lower Cook Inlet of the Gulf of Alaska

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

Teaching Children in Diverse Environments

Diversity includes both cultural and personal dimensions. The concept of diversity might be classified as either cultural or individual. Given these types, there are at least four forms of diversity: natural, socially constructed, learning-related, and personality-driven. Diversity in society is a sometimes continuous concept with divisions often taking form around the extent to which one believes that American culture is singular or pluralistic. Diversity in schools includes a variety of ideas about how children learn, including the concepts of learning styles and multiple intelligences.

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2

Cultural Diversity and Social Studies

Cultural diversity is a multifaceted concept that includes the ideas of many cultures coexisting, and the ways that cultural experiences influence learning. Curriculum reflects ideas about cultural diversity. In elementary social studies, this means the inclusion of world cultures and multiple cultural experiences in the United States. There are several cultural diversity strategies that teachers should consider, including getting to know various cultures, considering students’ needs given their cultural tradition, encouraging students to share their cultural experiences, mixing students when grouping, carefully reviewing materials for cultural diversity, and avoiding stereotypical expectations based on a student’s cultural background. Responsive teaching enables teachers to take into account the learning needs of their students given their cultural tradition.

3

Individual Diversity and Social Studies

Individual diversity is the idea that students differ as individual learners and that we must respect and account for these differences when teaching. Each student has a unique learning personality. These personalities include several dimensions such as temperaments for learning, prior Learning Temperament knowledge levels, support for learning outside the classroom, and impediments to learning. When planning to teach, we must consider the learning needs of students. The consideration of individual learning personalities is sometimes formalized with Individual Education Plans (IEP) or Individual Learning Plans (ILP).

Prior Knowledge Level

Planning for Instruction

Impediments to Learning

Support outside the classroom

Teaching in Schools with Homogeneous Social and Cultural Characteristics

4

Children live in communities and attend schools that reflect cultural realities. Sometimes, these realities include cultural separation and homogeneous cultural experiences for students. Teachers must be careful not to assume that all children in such environments learn the same. Each child has a unique learning personality no matter how homogeneous the school population may be. When teaching in such an environment, elementary school teachers should try to meet the needs of students by both highlighting the dominant culture in the school and providing children an opportunity to learn about other cultures.

KEY TERMS ■ diversity, p. 316

■ ethnicity, p. 317

■ race, p. 317

■ multiculturalism, p. 319

■ schema, p. 327

Key Terms

335

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

•

What might elementary students think about the sensibleness of living so close to an active volcano?

•

How might American children relate to such a danger?

•

How might their cultural geographic experience influence their understanding?

Outrigger canoes on Luzon Island in the Philippines rest on shore with the volcanic Mount Mayon rumbling in the background. Since 1616, Mayon has erupted 47 times, killing thousands of people. The most recent eruption in 1993 killed 93 people and led to the evacuation of more than 60,000.

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SELF-TEST 1. What are the four forms of diversity? Which form of diversity is displayed in this image?

5. Label the elements of individual learning personalities on the figure below.

Planning for Instruction

6. List Howard Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences. 7. Which of the following describes the degree to which a student is intrinsically motivated to learn? a. b. c. d.

learning temperament prior knowledge level support outside the classroom for learning impediments to learning

2. How have schools played a role in the expansion of opportunities to diverse groups of people in the United States?

8. Describe three ways teachers can meet the needs of children when the social and cultural characteristics of the student body are relatively homogeneous.

3. Which is not a unique need for diverse learners? a. educational c. behavioral b. emotional d. biological

9. What is the difference between an Individual Education Plan (IEP) and an Individual Learning Plan (ILP)?

4. What is multiculturalism?

10. How should teachers approach the challenge of teaching in a diverse manner in homogeneous cultural settings?

Self-Test

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Assessing Learning

13

T

he United Nations–sponsored International Day of Peace provides an opportunity for elementary school students to explore the ways that nations around the world cooperate to solve problems and prevent conflicts. This day of recognition is celebrated in September on the first meeting day of the United Nations’ General Assembly. It was started by the UN General Assembly in 1983 to “devote a specific time to concentrate the efforts of the United Nations and its Member States, as well as all people, to promoting the ideals of peace and to giving positive evidence of their commitment to peace in all viable ways.” Schools all over the world participate in International Peace Day. In Bridgeville, Delaware, students at Cedars Academy celebrated a recent International Day of Peace by making pinwheels for peace. The Malezi School in Langata, Kenya, just outside Nairobi was one of hundreds of schools in fifty countries that planted trees as a symbol for environmental protection and international cooperation. Like other holidays and celebrations, International Peace Day in an elementary school classroom can include fun and memorable activities that children look forward to. How can teachers structure activities on such days so that the planned learning activities are meaningful and students’ learning can be assessed? Whenever teachers plan to teach, they must consider how they will determine whether their students have learned what was expected. The activity in which students make peace pinwheels might have students display specific things on their pinwheels. A teacher could ask students to include a definition of peace that they learned from another class activity, or an example of how people worked out a peaceful solution in a world event or in their personal lives. The teacher can set criteria for these requirements, and then check students’ work to ensure that their definitions match that learned in class and that their examples are reasonable and clearly presented.

338

Children celebrating the International Day of Peace outside the United Nations headquarters in New York. How might you assess a definition of peace?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Types of Assessment p. 340

■ Assessment as a Part of

Instruction p. 346

■ Using Assessments to Improve

Teaching and Learning p. 351

■ Designing and Using Rubrics

p. 358

he assessment of learners’ knowledge of subject matter is one of the most important things a teacher considers when planning and implementing instruction. In this chapter, we present student learning as a process that includes the teacher’s effective and consistent use of assessment data. The chapter focuses on methods for collecting concrete evidence of learners’ progress toward short- and long-term educational goals. Various forms of assessment and specific techniques are also presented. As we consider assessment, note that assessment means different things to different people. Often, teachers view assessment data as a static body of infor-

T

Types of Assessment LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define assessment. Describe the various types of assessment that might be used in elementary social studies. Explain how assessment is a part of the teaching cycle.

hat did you learn today at school?” How many times do children hear this question from parents and others interested in their learning? The question gets at the heart of the school experience. Children attend school to learn, and everyone with a stake in the process is interested in that outcome. Consider the children in Figure 13.1 . They are in school to learn and their teacher is informally assessing their learning by asking questions. By understanding the purpose and structure of assessment, teachers can begin the process of ensuring that their students have the best opportunity possible for learning and can answer questions about what they learned with confidence.

“W

Figure 13.1 A fourth-grade teacher works with students on an English/language arts lesson about essay writing

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mation that simply serves to inform students of their progress. Viewing assessment this way only helps students know about their relative success on a task. In this chapter, assessment data are presented as a twoway process, which informs both teachers and students about what is happening in the classroom. This approach requires reflection on instruction and student learning given their progress as determined through assessment. In this chapter, case studies of specific assessment experiences highlight some of the ways that teachers can use assessment data to improve teaching and learning. Specific assessment techniques are also presented with special attention to subject matter and cognitive level.

WHAT IS ASSESSMENT? Assessment is an ongoing process that involves the collection and analysis of information about student learning. Assessment is part of instruction and can occur at any Assessment time during a lesson. The inforA continual instrucmation collected in the assesstional process for collecting and anament process is rich and lyzing information purposeful. Teachers use this inabout student formation as data to make inlearning. structional decisions about the relative success of instruction, as well to make decisions about the direction the instruction will take going for ward. When teachers assess learning they are taking the pulse of the class, so to speak. They are determining the progress of students in attaining some knowledge given the circumstances at the time and adjusting existing plans or making new plans about future instruction. Educational assessment in some ways is like what a sailor does when he checks the weather. If the sailor determines there are high winds, he will probably choose a smaller sail than if the winds are light. The sailor is acting on his assessment of conditions and, in much the same way, teachers must act on their assessment of students’ learning. Do not confuse assessment with evaluation. When educators evaluate students, they are typically trying to measure a specific student achievement so that it can be reported. Evaluation is often conducted to help policymakers and educational stakeholders make determinations about the relative success of instructional programs. Evaluation is much less a part of ever yday teaching and learning than assessment. Unlike evaluation, assessment is continuous and routine. The general purpose of assessment is to improve student learning. Assessment is part of a holistic instructional process. It fits within the teaching and learning cycle, which views teaching and learning as an ongoing process. Assessment helps teachers and learners understand where to go next. Often, assessment prompts further interest on the part of a learner. When done effectively, assessment can encourage learners to seek out knowledge and to fill holes in their existing knowledge schema. Assessment helps teachers understand what their students

know and do not know given specific learning objectives and should compel them to create new pedagogical opportunities given their students’ assessed knowledge. The reflective teaching cycle, which was introduced in Chapter 2, includes opportunities for assessment and conditions that require assessment data to be considered and acted upon. Teachers plan for assessment and implement those plans during instruction. Any activity has assessment potential, and the depth of any assessment is dependent on factors such as the amount of time available and the importance of the subject matter being learned in the activity. After conducting the assessment, teachers can use what they have learned about their students to rethink and reflect on the lesson. These considerations should lead teachers to develop new knowledge of the subject matter and new ideas about what to teach. The instruction that follows an assessment should be influenced by what the teacher learns in the process of assessing previous learning. This may result in reteaching or remediation for some or all students. Later in this chapter, we will look more closely at reteaching and remediation, and assessment as a part of instruction.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ASSESSMENT There are two main types of asFormal sessment: formal and informal. assessment Formal assessment includes Consistent assessassessment activities that a ment approaches teacher has designed for all used for all students the students in the class. These in a class to evaluate assessments are a kind of onespecific learning stages. size-fits-all activity that often involves having students create something that can be turned in and graded. The procedures for grading students’ work in formal assessments are guided by criteria that are provided to students in advance of their work and are held constant for all students completing the assignment. In early grades, children learn the value, purpose, and obligations of friendship. In social studies, the study of friendship can help children understand how Types of Assessment

341

Figure 13.2 Alaskan Yupik Eskimos meeting with Russian Eskimos in the early 1980s

people organize social life. The picture in Figure 13.2 shows Alaskan Yupik Eskimos meeting with Russian Eskimos in the early 1980s before the fall of the Soviet Union. The two Eskimo groups shared deep cultural Informal bonds, but were separated by the assessment political differences between the Low-key and unintruUnited States and the Soviet sive teacher actions focused on deterUnion. The meeting was billed mining whether stuas a meeting of friends designed dents are learning to promote peace between the during an activity. United States and the U.S.S.R. What can we learn from this story about friendship, and how might a teacher formally assess her students’ learning on such a topic? Informal assessment is typically an in-progress effort by teachers to determine how well students are

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learning during a given activity. Teachers often conduct informal assessments through a simple question-andanswer procedure. Informal assessment is sometimes so continuous as to occur on a minute-by-minute basis. Teachers need to make informal assessments a seamless part of their instruction. There are a number of formal and informal approaches to assessment. Below are examples of formal and informal assessment techniques with descriptions of how each might be implemented in an instructional setting.

Formal Assessment Techniques Written assessments Teachers can use a wide variety of writing exercises to assess students’ understanding of subject matter. Writing is an important form of expression in social studies. Teachers can use writing

Figure 13.3 Keys to the Bastille prison in Paris, France.

exercises as opportunities for their students to convey their understanding in a short period of time. There is virtually no limit to the kinds of writing assessments teachers might create. Students can write letters, journal entries, essays, structured paragraphs, articles, reports, reflections, stories, poetry, and any number of other forms. Teachers can also use a variety of contexts for writing assignments. The more authentic or real-life the context, the more likely students will be to engage the activity and succeed in their work.

Quizzes A short or focused quiz is a staple of most teachers’ assessment systems. Quizzes consist of questions in some regular format that students can complete in a short period of time. Quizzes can provide teachers with quick and easy-to-grade opportunities to get feedback on their students’ progress toward understanding low-level information. Quizzes normally focus on recall and identification, as well as classification and comparison. Unlike writing assignments, quizzes cannot easily be made authentic, but a quiz can help teachers motivate students to learn essential information that might be needed in more authentic assignments. Quizzes should not be confused with tests, which are typically more lengthy and standardized.

Expressive assessments Students need opportunities to express their knowledge in nontraditional formats. Both writing and quizzes are limited with regard to the extent to which they can get at what students might know about a topic. An expressive assessment is a technique that provides students an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge in a variety of forms. Using various expressive formats, students can demonstrate their knowledge through oral presentations, graphical displays, illustrated portrayals, poetic renderings, stories, songs, or even staged events.

Consider Figure 13.3 , which shows a view of the keys to the Bastille prison that fell to Parisians and militiamen on July 14, 1789. This day, much like July 4, 1776 in the United States, is celebrated in France as the symbolic beginning to the French Revolution. • How might students express their knowledge of the famous storming of the Bastille, when French revolutionaries freed fellow patriots in the last years of the reign of King Louis IV? Think of specific expressions that students might create such as drawings, poems, or plays. What kinds of knowledge can teachers assess from such expressive student work? As is the case with written assessments and quizzes, teachers must have fixed expectations for student performance when using expressive formats. These expectations can take form as assessment rubrics. We discuss the topic of rubrics later in this chapter.

Informal Assessment Techniques Questioning Engaging students with questions is an important method for informally determining their progress toward some learning goal. Questioning can be conducted in a verbal or written format. When asking questions, teachers should tr y to follow a few simple guidelines. First, they should tr y to construct

Types of Assessment

343

questions in such a way as to elicit meaningful responses. Assessment-oriented questions should be open-ended and inviting. Second, teachers need to wait an appropriate amount of time before responding with an answer or a follow-up. Teacher responses to unanswered questions should always be in the form of a clarification or re-statement. Even when answering their own question, teachers should try to elicit students’ cooperation in formulating the answer. Third, teachers should call on a mix of volunteers and nonvolunteers.

Polling When teachers want a quick check of how many students understand a topic or of any disagreement that might exist regarding uncertain content, they can use polling techniques. A student poll is simply a public showing of agreement or understanding of a teacher-directed question or idea. Polling can be a useful way to determine how many students agree with certain opinions or a quick way to see whether they understand simple concepts and ideas.

Seat check Sometimes teachers need to use less intrusive ways to check students’ progress toward a learning goal. Questioning and polling require all students to pay attention to the teacher. If the work is student centered, then teachers can use assessment techniques that will not disrupt the flow of students’ work. A seat check is such a method. The seat check involves the teacher moving around the room and checking students’ work in progress as they continue to work. The seat check assessment requires that teachers have a particular set of criteria or items that they are looking for when they visit a student’s desk or work area. If students are not making progress, teachers should take the opportunity to redirect, correct, or otherwise help them.

FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Assessment can serve two general purposes. It can provide learners with formative feedback on their progress toward some learning goal or it can be a summative end product designed to inform students and other educational stakeholders of students’ achievement level at a given time. The Visualizing feature describes an activity with both formative and summative assessment proce344

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dures. Consider how these methods can complement one another in daily instruction. In the Visualizing example about climates ( Figure 13.4 ), Ms. Jones needed to decide how she wanted to assess her students. In the minute-to-minute instruction in the classroom, Ms. Jones used questioning as a way to find out what her students were learning. She adapted her instruction for the whole class and tailored it for individual students based on how they were progressing. Most classroom assessments are formative. Formative assessment includes any type of assessment that is directed at helping children advance their knowledge. Both formal and informal assessments can be formative. The key is for teachers to use the assessment process to help children understand both what they do not know and how they can come to know what they do not know. Summative assessment serves a very different purpose. Instead of focusing on process, summative assessments are product oriented. Tests—both high-stakes and low-stakes—are summative, but other more creative assessments such as the one Ms. Jones gave her students can also be summative. Since summative assessment occurs toward or at the end of a learning period, teachers might not return to the subject matter for some time. Of course, if an evaluation of students’ work on the summative assessment turns up significant problems, the teacher may want to include additional opportunities for students to learn the material. Teachers often share the results of summative assessments with parents and the larger community of educational stakeholders. High-stakes tests that might determine a child’s ability to move on to the next grade are summative in nature. These assessments attempt to capture a student’s grasp of a large body of knowledge in a fair and even-handed fashion. Consider how teachers might plan for formative and summative assessment in a lesson on money. What happens to your money when it is deposited in a bank? Children commonly ask that question in elementary school. Some children might imagine their money going in a large safe such the one in the Concept Check image, but in reality most banks have a small fraction of the money their clients have deposited in actual cash. United States law requires that banks keep some of the money deposited on reser ve. The rules for these

Visualizing

Teaching and Assessing about Climate Types Figure 13.4

In Celeste Jones’s third-grade class, students learn about climate types using maps and pictures. Ms. Jones starts the lesson by introducing the five major climate types:

She shows students pictures and asks them to identify the climate type depicted in each photo. Ms. Jones then follows this with two more activities, one focused on similarities and differences in the five climates and the other on what it is like to live in each climate. The climates present striking differences in temperature and plant and animal life, but interesting similarities such as topography.

Ms. Jones conducts numerous assessments while teaching this topic. Some of these assessments are quick and help students apply their knowledge of climate types. For example, when a student was struggling to understand why humans would live in a polar environment, Ms. Jones used this as an opportunity to reinforce why most people live in temperate climates. Ms. Jones knew her student was unsure because she asked questions designed to assess her students’ developing knowledge. As students answered the questions, Ms. Jones adapted (changed for the whole class) and tailored (changed for a student) her instruction. At the end of the activity, students completed a summative assessment activity. Students wrote a short description of a day in the life of a person living in one of the five climates. Students described at least three characteristics of the climate. Through formative assessment such as questions and summative assessment at the end of class activity, Ms. Jones’s students learned about the five climate types.

A A polar bear rests on an icy patch in arctic Canada.

B A man hoes a tropical field near Parc des Volcans in Rwanda.

1. Tropical 2. Dry 3. Temperate 4. Continental 5. Polar

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reserves are set forth in the Federal Reserve Act and are governed by the Federal Reser ve Board, sometimes known as “the Fed.” The amount of money banks are re-

CONCEPT CHECK

quired to keep “on reserve” or in cash ranges from 0 to 10% depending on the amount of the deposit. The larger the deposit is, the larger the reserve requirement.

STOP

What are some formal

How might a teacher

approaches to planning assessment of a lesson focused on U.S. banking reserve rules?

plan a summative assessment activity on these rules?

The entrance to a large vault at the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, the world’s largest bank.

Assessment as a Part of Instruction LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify how assessment fits into the teaching cycle.

cle and by considering planning and actual teaching examples of assessment as instruction.

Evaluate various approaches to planning for assessment. Identify effective means for implementing assessments.

ood instruction includes continuous and meaningful assessment. As an ongoing part of instruction, assessment provides teachers with opportunities to enhance student learning. When conducted with deliberate attention to the needs of individual students, assessment is a meaningful part of instruction. When planning for instruction and implementing these plans, teachers sometimes think of assessment as detached from instruction or as something that occurs after it. In this section, we consider assessment as a part of instruction by looking at how assessment fits in a teaching cy-

G

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ASSESSMENT IN THE TEACHING CYCLE The reflective teaching cycle reviewed in Chapter 2 includes a four-part sequence of events. After developing subject matter knowledge, the teaching cycle includes three events that are directly related to assessment: instructional planning, instructional practice, and rethinking the lesson. When planning to teach, teachers must consider how they will determine whether their students are meeting the instructional objectives and goals for the lesson. (See Figure 13.5, Process Diagram: Assessment in the reflective teaching cycle.) In Chapter 5, we looked at the myth and reality of the First Thanksgiving by considering how students might use a historical document to understand more

1 4 ing subject matter dge

Process Diagram

Assessment in the reflective teaching cycle Figure 13.5

2 3

Instructional Planning: Planning to teach

Instructional Practice: The act of teaching

Assessment is a continuous process occurring during all parts of the planning, teaching, and rethinking of a lesson. Planning for assessment requires that teachers incorporate a number of informal and formal assessments, much like the variety of assessments discussed in the first section of this chapter. Teachers then implement assessment activities and opportunities during all parts of the lesson and use the results of their assessment to reflect on and rethink the lesson.

about the event. The stor y of the First Thanksgiving might be one of the most important and common social studies topics in early childhood grades. From 1630 to 1640, more than 20,000 Puritans settled in the emerging American colonies of New England. This wave of immigration came just 10 years after the establishment of the first Puritan colony in North America at Plymouth (actually settled by a small group of Puritans known as the “Pilgrims”). Plymouth was the first successful New England colony and ushered in the first sustained period of European immigration in North

American histor y. Today, children learn about the Pilgrims and other Puritans in early grades through the Thanksgiving story, but in later elementary grades they might explore in more depth the reasons why Puritans came to North America. How might we teach about the Pilgrims and Puritans, and how might assessment be a part of such a lesson? Let’s look at how one teacher incorporated assessment in a lesson on the Pilgrims and Puritans (“In the Classroom: Assessment as instruction,” on page 348).

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A reenactment of a family meal consisting of bread and cheese at Plymouth Plantation, a historic pilgrim village in Plymouth, Massachusetts.

In the Classroom

ASSESSMENT AS INSTRUCTION

Bill Bradford teaches fifth grade, and in his lesson on the Puritans he started by asking students to write a short description and/or draw a picture of the First Thanksgiving. He used students’ work on this brief activity to determine what his students already knew about the Pilgrims. Some of Mr. Bradford’s students recognized the name of the Pilgrims and knew they were some of the first Europeans in the New World. A few knew they were originally from England. In this lesson, students learned three reasons for the Pilgrims’ and other Puritans’ migration from England to North America. First, the Pilgrims and other Puritans were escaping religious persecution in England. Second, hard times in England drove many to seek a better life in North America. Third, some Puritans held out hope for a utopian life in North America. In order for a lesson on these three reasons to be successful, Mr. Bradford thought his students would need to know a few basic things including the following. •

Puritans were a loosely organized Christian religious group who believed that people should worship directly with God and not through an organization such as the Church of England.

•

Puritans tended to be highly religious in their everyday actions.

•

There were different kinds of Puritans, including the Pilgrims of the Plymouth colony as well as organized groups of Puritans such as Baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists.

•

Most Puritans in North America lived in New England, which includes the modern states of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

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After students completed their initial writing activity on the First Thanksgiving, Mr. Bradford had students read their responses and asked questions of volunteers and nonvolunteers to find out how much students already knew about the Pilgrims and Puritans. He adapted his lesson given what the students knew and briefly reviewed the background described earlier. Mr. Bradford’s review was a direct pedagogical use of assessment information. The bulk of the activity focused on students creating a profile of the prototypical Puritan family in North America. Students selected from a number of activities, including writing a short Puritan family history, drawing pictures of a Puritan family, describing a day in the life of a Puritan family, or telling a story about a Puritan family that might have been passed down over generations. This student work focused on the learning goal outlined earlier—namely, the three reasons for Puritans moving to North America. Mr. Bradford used activities that enabled students to learn about all three reasons. As the students proceeded, Mr. Bradford informally assessed their work and provided them with guidance and direct assistance in completing their work. At the end of the lesson, Mr. Bradford collected his students’ work and graded it. The grades were another in a series of assessments that provided students with feedback on their learning. The students’ work was handed back to them the next day. Mr. Bradford carefully reviewed it with them, sharing with the whole class some general conclusions, and provided individual students with specific feedback either in personal communication or in written form. This feedback continued the teaching and learning process.

PLANNING FOR ASSESSMENT

IMPLEMENTING ASSESSMENT

Planning for assessment means that teachers must deliberately think about meaningful opportunities to determine how students are doing in their progress toward some learning goal. These assessment opportunities can fit within the following contexts.

Assessment in practice is often vastly different from the plans for assessment. Informal assessment is particularly subject to this phenomenon. Look at the photo of the Washington Monument in Figure 13.6. What might you expect different groups of students to know about the Washington Monument? For example:

1. Assessment is effective when teachers can act on what they learn about their students as a result of the assessment. For example, an assessment at the beginning of an activity on students’ prior knowledge can provide teachers with an opportunity to adapt their instructional plan to best meet students’ needs. The K-W-L teaching method incorporates just such an approach. This method includes an opening activity directed at determining what students (K)now. Given their existing knowledge, the teacher asks students what they W(ant) to know. The lesson then proceeds given students’ prior knowledge and learning interests and results in students (L)earning something new. K-W-L approaches to activity planning focus on assessment early in the activity. This activity structure requires a great deal of flexibility in planning for what happens after the K-W parts of the lesson and might be best suited for activities with broad or flexible learning goals. 2. Assessment should be consistent and fair. To ensure consistency and fairness, teachers must make every effort to establish criteria for assessing students’ work that are similar for each student. The criteria or plans for how grading will be conducted should be shared with students. This means that when planning for instruction, teachers should develop rubrics or criteria for how they will grade formal assignments. These rubrics may be simple in design, but are very important. They ser ve as the framework for how teachers communicate with their students about the students’ relative success toward some learning goal. 3. Some assessments should be planned for connecting lessons over a sequence of days. When teachers conduct assessment and collect data about their students’ learning, they should use that information as they plan for future instruction.

• When and why was it built? • What is the reason for the monument’s shape? Where is it located? • How would those different levels of knowledge about the Washington Monument affect how a lesson on this topic would be implemented? The answers to these questions will affect how a lesson proceeds.

Figure 13.6 The Washington Monument in Washington, D.C.

When teachers plan for informal assessment, they typically plan time for questions and checking students’ work. The implementation of these plans is highly dependent on local conditions related to how students are progressing. Informal assessment should also have an immediate effect on the progress of a lesson. If students are progressing successfully toward a learning goal, then the teacher will not need to inter vene as much. If students are not having much success, then the teacher may need to adjust the instruction and even dramatically alter the plan for the lesson.

CONCEPT CHECK

More formal assessment techniques are typically implemented according to fixed plans that normally do not have to deviate far from the existing plan. Such assessments are in fact a part of instruction. Viewing assessment as instruction enables a more transparent and meaningful type of assessment. Instead of directing assessment at simply providing students and their parents or guardians with information on students’ progress, assessment as instruction enables teachers to use assessment activities as learning activities.

STOP

For assessment to be successful and meaningful, teachers must plan for it as an integral part of instruction. Consider a lesson on state flags.

How might a teacher assess students at the beginning, during, and at the conclusion of a lesson on symbolism in their state flag?

How might consideration of informal assessment affect how the lesson proceeds?

The state flag of Kentucky, like most of the 50 state flags, has symbolic importance. What are the symbols in the Kentucky flag? Who are the two people on the flag or who might they represent? Why is Kentucky called a Commonwealth? What is the meaning of “United we stand, Divided we fall”?

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Using Assessments to Improve Teaching and Learning LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe how teachers use assessments to help them understand how to teach more effectively. Describe the value of assessment case studies. Explain how reteaching and remediation evolve out of the assessment process.

eachers frequently use assessments to improve teaching and learning. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, adapting a lesson or some form of interaction with students is the pedagogical purpose of assessment. Assessment serves a very different purpose from the public reporting nature of evaluations. Although teachers need to share the results of their assessments with parents just as schools do when they publicize evaluation data from high-stakes tests, the primar y use of assessment information is to immediately improve teaching and learning. This section includes a review of strategies for using assessment information to improve teaching and learning.

T

ASSESSMENT RESULTS AND EFFECTIVE TEACHING Effective teaching requires that teachers know their students and how they are responding to specific instructional strategies. Some assessment strategies enable immediate feedback for teachers. For example, when questioning students, teachers can know immediately whether students are progressing in their understanding. Other forms of assessment require more time for the teacher to process. When possible, teachers should tr y to quickly assess students’ work so they can make any adjustments that are necessary. Sometimes, the adjustments require just a simple restatement of an idea

or concept, while other times more complex pedagogical actions must be taken. Students in early childhood are often asked to study the past. Unless these studies encourage active learning and/or are collaborative, students might find their work dull. One approach to studying history might involve students thinking about the past as a series of unsolved mysteries. Such an approach can be particularly useful when the subject matter might otherwise be uninteresting. As teachers collect assessment data, they can begin to develop an understanding of the topics in history that students consistently find hard to engage. Planning mystery-based explorations on subject matter that has proven difficult for students to engage is a good use of such assessment data. For example, an elementary school teacher may find that students have a hard time engaging subject matter related to ancient civilizations. Although students might find certain stories from ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia interesting, the details can often prove to be hard for them to relate to. When studying about ancient civilizations, active and collaborative mystery-oriented activities may encourage students to engage the subject matter in more depth. The Lesson on pages 352–353, “The Death of Tutankhamen,” uses the theme of a mystery to explore ancient Egypt. Pedagogical responses to assessment might be thought of as existing on a continuum from low-level adjustments to high-level adjustments. Low-level adjustments are quick and almost instinctual. They might involve teachers using an example to help students understand a concept, or comparing some misunderstood information to something the teacher believes students already understand. Higher-level adjustments involve reorganizing materials, instructional approaches, or instructional sequence to provide students a better opportunity to learn something. “In the Classroom: A new metaphor,” on page 354, gives examples of various pedagogical adjustments teachers might make during instruction as a result of assessment.

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LESSON The Death of Tutankhamen

Grade Level: Fifth

BACKGROUND The circumstances of Tutankhamen’s death are a mystery. We do know that he died at 19, and his death marked the beginning of the end of the XVIII dynasty. He was succeeded (after a period of turmoil) by two of his aides, first Aye (1327–1323) and then Horemheb (1323–1295). The end of Horemheb’s reign marked the end of the XVIII dynasty and the beginning of one of the most famous periods in Egyptian history, the XIV and XX dynasties (dominated by Ramses I through XI).

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES In this activity, students identify people who were influential during Tutankhamen’s rule and recognize the time period of his rule (1336 B.C.–1327 B.C.). Students also investigate the role of religion in Egyptian life and evaluate the circumstances surrounding the death of Tutankhamen.

• Just after Tutankhamen died, his widow Queen Ankhesenamen wrote to the King of the Hittites, begging him to send one of his sons to be her husband. • One of the Hittite King’s sons, Prince Zannanza, set out for Egypt to marry Ankhesenamen, but was killed along the way. The murderer escaped. • Soon after the death of Zannanza, Aye was seen with Queen Ankhesenamen. It was now rumored that Aye and Ankhesenamen were to be married. • Some military officials accused Tutu, a high-ranking official in the Egyptian government, of wanting to see King Tut dead. • Some said that Tutankhamen may have been about to make big changes in Egypt, which would

PROCEDURE In this activity, students investigate the death of Tutankhamen. They take on the role of a police detective and review evidence of Tutankhamen’s death from several sources.

FACTS IN THE CASE • Tutankhamen was 19 when he died in 1327 B.C. • Tutankhamen became pharaoh at the age of 4 after the death of his father Akhenaten. After several years of supervision by his two closest aides, Aye and Horemheb, Tutankhamen was, at the time of his death, beginning to rule on his own.

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King Tut’s mummy being prepared for a CT scan. Examinations of King’s Tut’s remains have been instrumental in the process of gathering information about his death.

have made some people in the government very upset. • Tutankhamen died unexpectedly and without anyone to take his place.

This lesson focuses on the causes of Tutankhamen’s death. Students can investigate numerous resources in the process, but this investigation should begin with a review of the facts in the case. As the lesson continues, teachers can formatively assess students’ emerging knowledge.

PEOPLE WITH INFORMATION ASSESSMENT

• Aye, Tutankhamen’s teacher • Horemheb, another of Tutankhamen’s teachers • Queen Ankhesenamen, Tutankhamen’s wife • An intruder • Tutu, a government official • The servants

Formative assessment techniques might include a brief quiz focused on specific questions about the facts in the case. The teacher might ask students to construct a timeline to illustrate their understanding of the sequence of events. Teachers can also have students write preliminary findings focused on the facts and their initial predictions about the cause of Tutankhamen’s death. This assessment activity might even be completed in oral fashion.

Archaeologists and guides alongside King Tutankhamen’s mummy in his burial chamber. The mural in the chamber depicts Tutankhamen meeting the sky goddess Nut, who is welcoming him to the realm of the gods. Osiris, god of the afterlife, is shown embracing Tutankhamen along with his ka, or spiritual double. The importance of religion is obvious in the murals that surround Tutankhamen’s sarcophagus.

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In the Classroom

A NEW METAPHOR: CHANGING METHODS FOR EXPLANATION DURING A LESSON

They just were not getting it. That’s what Mrs. Cavanaugh thought to herself. She was trying to explain how and why the United States is able to print money. Mrs. Cavanaugh tried to explain to her fourth-grade students that the government could not just print money whenever it wanted to print it. There had to be a demand for money. Many of the students in her class figured that everyone wanted money, so why didn’t the government just print it when people asked for it? Some students understood that people had to earn the money, but Mrs. Cavanaugh tried to explain that the government, specifically the U.S. Bureau of Printing and Engraving, prints money under different circumstances. Paper money is printed as a representation of money for credit or loans that are sold by the Federal

Reserve to private banks. The actual paper money is sent to banks to be provided to their customers when they request paper money. Mrs. Cavanaugh thought she might be able to better explain this phenomenon if she used a metaphor: printing money was in some ways like playing a video game. She told her students that when we play video sports games, we are not really moving real people around the screen. Instead, the “players” on the screen are representations of real people— just like paper money is a representation of real money. Of course the similarities end there, but Mrs. Cavanaugh was able to use this simple metaphor to make her point that money is real (like a video game) but is also not real and only a representation of real things.

Stacks of freshly printed money are being checked in a government printing office. When is money like a football player on a video game? Find out in this description of a teacher’s adaptation of an explanation of how money is printed.

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Ultimately, students are the best source of information on why they had a problem with a particular assignment or body of subject matter. If assessment indicates that a student or group of students is struggling, the teacher should go to the source and ask students what they think the problems are. Students may have a hard time articulating subject matter misunderstandings, but this sort of confusion is easy to detect through assessment. Quer ying students about the problems they are having should focus on big ideas and methods. This type of engagement is actually a form of assessment, but it is not directly focused on what students know.

RETEACHING AND REMEDIATION Often, after assessment teachers realize they need to return to a specific subject with a student or a group of students. We might call informally returning to a subject reteaching. If an assessment uncovers gaps or holes in students’ understanding, it is the teacher’s obligation to determine whether students need new opportunities to learn the subject matter. Decisions about whether to reteach are complicated by the amount of time a teacher has available for such activities. A costbenefit analysis must be made to determine whether reteaching is appropriate. There are a couple of considerations that will help in making this determination. First, think about whether students need to know what they currently do not understand in order to understand material that will be taught at some later date. Second, consider whether the material is likely to be “high-stakes,” meaning there is a good chance students will be tested on the material at some later date. If the answer to either of these considerations is yes, then it makes sense to adjust the teaching schedule and include additional opportunities for students to learn the material. Remediation The instructional act Often, reteaching is not or process of corenough, and more formal or susrecting a fault or tained approaches are required. deficiency. We generally refer to these formal and sustained reteaching experiences as remediation. Remedial instruction is

generally focused on helping students advance to a level of understanding so that they can participate in on-grade-level activities. In education, we sometimes think of remediation as a holistic activity. In other words, students who are remedial in one area are remedial in all areas. The reality is that many students have some remedial needs, and most of these needs are narrow in scope. Remedial needs in social studies can be categorized in five general areas: reading, writing, spatial reasoning, oral communication, and creative expression. Students may also have specific subject matter deficiencies that require remediation. Teachers who have students with remedial needs in social studies can address the needs through a variety of activities. One such activity is reading recovery. Reading recovery is a specific intervention with young readers (typically first grade) designed to bring students up to grade level. The technique was developed by Marie Clay in Australia (1979) and involves one-on-one work with children over a sustained period of time. The goal is to reach children before their reading deficiencies prevent them from progressing academically. The key is to identify children when they are very young and to work with them in an intensive manner. Reading recovery is a formal program that requires a significant investment in time and might not be practical for individual elementary teachers to implement on their own. Instead, teachers might use the theory of reading recovery to fashion learning opportunities for struggling readers. Reading recover y is designed around supportive conversations between the teacher and student. The activities include seven parts: 1. Students read and reread familiar books or stories in different genres at different levels. 2. The teacher observes and notes students’ behaviors while reading. 3. Students identify letters and words in the book. 4. Students create a story about the reading with the teacher emphasizing letter and word sounds that are in the reading passage. 5. Teachers create sentences from the book on separate pieces of paper, and the students arrange them as they are arranged in the book.

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6. Teachers introduce new books that provide for specific learning opportunities. 7. Students read the new book, selected by the teacher, using the strategies as listed above.

ASSESSMENT CASE STUDIES Assessment case studies are in-depth examinations of the progress of a group of students toward learning goals. The assessment case study focuses deliberately on what large groups of students know and what the

CONCEPT CHECK

teacher can do to help them progress toward learning goals. The structure of an assessment case study is straightforward. When conducting an assessment case study, teachers should develop a good understanding of what they want students to learn, how they planned for students to learn, how the plan was implemented, what students actually learned, and how future instruction should be planned or modified given students’ existing knowledge. In the feature, “In the Classroom: An assessment case study,” a teacher explains what she learned through assessment about a lesson she taught on the inventions of the pencil with eraser, typewriter, and computer.

STOP

Students in the second or third grade in Georgia learn about Asia, including Japan. When studying Japan, students might learn about origami. This paper-folding art form dates to the beginning of papermaking in China over 2,000 years ago and was transported to Japan in the sixth century A.D.

How might

What assessments

assessment help teachers determine how to best make connections between Japan and origami?

might you conduct to determine whether students would benefit from learning about Japan through the study of origami?

Young children in Kyoto, Japan, learn the ancient art of origami. Do you know the origin of origami?

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In the Classroom

AN ASSESSMENT CASE STUDY

From Helen, a fourth-grade teacher: I developed this lesson to help my students learn about inventions related to writing. I began the class with some discussion about the inventing process and then broke students into groups of three and give them pictures of three inventions: the pencil with an eraser (1850s), the typewriter (1870s), and the computer (1940s). Each student was supposed to describe the purpose of the item in their picture and how they think it might have changed the writing process. Individuals then shared their work with the others in their group. The group was then supposed to decide which invention had the biggest impact or was most important and write a short explanation for why. In the explanation they were supposed to include the date of each invention, the way people wrote at the time, and how they thought the invention changed people’s writing habits. I then evaluated the organization, accuracy, and content of the papers. As I looked at the papers, I was checking for identification of the conditions that existed at the time of the invention. I was also looking for the recognition of how specific writing activities were changed by the invention. I explained both of these requirements prior to students’ working the assignment and reviewed the information in the opening discussion. Unfortunately, the students thought the task could be completed without considering the conditions at the time of the invention. The students’ grades on the assignment were OK, but not great. Their content was mostly accurate, and their formatting was also pretty good. Although students did well on these parts of the assignment, their arguments were not so good. There was not really a “right” answer, but I did expect that students would understand how each invention impacted writing given what we talked about in class. I explained to students that the pencil with an eraser might have been the most important invention. When the pencil with an eraser was invented, people could now remove what they had written. The need to get it right the first time was suddenly reduced. If you made a mistake, you could just erase it. The typewriter influenced the development of the clerical industry, but not so much the everyday actions of individuals. The same might be said of the computer. Both devices were very expensive when they were invented. Despite the explanation, students focused on how each device is used today, which was good, but went beyond how the devices are used for writing. Almost to a group, they argued that the computer was the most influential writing-related invention. Through this assessment, I realized that I could have been clearer in my discussion about how big a deal it was

that people could erase their pencil marks and that this was a radical change from the entire history of writing. I also realized that I could have used examples of writing and learning to write from what is around us in the classroom and in students’ lives. I should have pointed out that there are no typewriters in the room and only three computers, but everyone has a pencil. In fact, everyone is required to have a pencil. All children are taught how to write with a pencil before they are taught to type or use a computer. These realities are evidence of the importance of the pencil with eraser. I resolved to spend a few minutes in class the next day explaining this to students and hopefully helping them better understand the relative impacts of the pencil, typewriter, and computer on writing.

How important an invention was the pencil with an eraser? Was it more important than the invention of the typewriter or computer?

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Designing and Using Rubrics LEARNING OBJECTIVES

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT RUBRICS

Recognize the purpose of assessment rubrics.

When Joyce sat down to grade her students’ work, she realized something was terribly wrong. She did not really Consider various uses of assessment rubrics. know what to look for in students’ work. Joyce, a student teacher in a third-grade class, had spent significant time planning her lesson on the Great Lakes and places such ssessment rubrics are devices that enas Lake Michigan as shown in Figure 13.7. able teachers to determine the quality Joyce’s students were interested in the stories about of their students’ work. A rubric can be lakes being car ved from huge sheets of ice. They anver y simple or can be quite complex. swered the questions she posed, and ultimately did a Rubrics are important because they bring good job working on the 3D diorama protogether two important elements of jects she assigned. Rubric Twoassessment—criteria and achievement. This Joyce had the students’ completed prodimensional matrix section contains information about the purjects, but she wasn’t sure what to do with of criteria that a pose, design, and uses of assessment rubrics them. She wanted to give her students feedteacher can use to in elementary social studies. back and a grade. She also wanted to be make judgments Describe the components of an assessment rubric.

A

about achievement levels for student work.

Figure 13.7 An evening view of a small lighthouse on Lake Michigan, one of the Great Lakes. Given this picture, how would you describe the Great Lakes?

fair, but she was unsure how to weight the directions she had given students. Joyce had told her students to create a representation of all five lakes. What if they were missing one lake? She had also told them to not worr y as much about the shape being correct as the lakes being in the correct place relative to one another. Some unexpected issues arose as she looked at the projects. She saw that some of the lakes were misplaced. Also, some students had misspelled the names of lakes. If Joyce had developed an assessment rubric prior to students’ work, she might not have had as many problems, if any. Assessment rubrics allow teachers to determine students’ grades and serve as a context for teachers to provide students with feedback on their work.

COMPONENTS OF ASSESSMENT RUBRICS Assessment rubrics detail the criteria for an assignment and the performance level for each criterion. Table 13.1 is a graphic of the structure of an assessment rubric. Note that the performance levels are listed as Level A, Level B, and Level C. These performance levels could be a number, letter, or other indication of performance. The performance levels could even include descriptions such as “excels” or “exceeds.” Along the left of the table in the rows are individual criteria. These are the expectations for student work.

Rubrics: Performance Levels Table 13.1 Level A

Level B

Level C

Criterion #1 Criterion #2 Criterion #3 Criterion #4

Assessment rubrics help teachers organize their assessment data and report them back to students, but in order for rubrics to function properly teachers need to develop quality criteria. Here’s an example of how a teacher might develop criteria for an assessment on student learning about political traditions and holidays in the United States. In Illinois, children in early grades are expected to understand the development of political ideas and traditions in the United States. One specific descriptor requires that students “describe how a holiday such as Veterans Day represents the idea of sacrifice to preser ve freedom.” The photo in Figure 13.8 from the first Veterans Day parade in New York City makes clear the sacrifice that some made during World War I. What are some criteria for a discussion about the origins of Veterans Day and the idea of “sacrifice to preserve freedom”? Think about specific questions you might ask students and how you might expect students to respond to the questions (e.g., in writing, orally, volunteers, nonvolunteers).

Figure 13.8 A limping soldier and friends parade in New York City on November 11, 1918, the first Armistice Day (now celebrated as Veterans Day). How does this image illustrate sacrifice?

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USES OF ASSESSMENT RUBRICS Assessment rubrics can be used in virtually all instructional settings. Not all activities require the kind of systematic feedback that assessment rubrics enable, but assessment rubrics are useful in formal assessment. The level of detail needed in an assessment rubric can vary widely. Some rubrics are designed for activities that require detailed formal assessment feedback. Other assessment rubrics lean toward informal feedback. Not all assessment rubrics have to actually be written down. Teachers may simply conceptualize a rubric and manage its application as a mental process. The longer teachers work with rubrics, the better able they are to imagine and internalize them. Children in early elementar y grades learn about basic landforms such as mountains, hills, canyons, valleys, plains, and plateaus. The differences between landforms such as mountains and hills can be subtle and difficult for students to determine. Some people have suggested that the difference between a mountain and a hill is the elevations from the base of the feature to its peak. A hill under this definition is a feature that rises less than 600 meters. A mountain rises more than 600 meters. Others have suggested that a mountain has a discernable peak or summit, and a hill has a more rounded or flat top. Ultimately, all we can say for sure is that there is no single definition. The only consistent guidance for determin-

ing whether something is a hill or a mountain comes from how people commonly refer to the feature. Given such ambiguity, what type of assessment would be appropriate when tr ying to determine whether students understand the differences between mountains and hills? Assessment rubrics can be used in virtually all instructional settings. A rubric is simply a means by which to determine whether students have learned some specific material, so their use is dictated by expectations the teacher has for learning. The more formalized the learning expectations, the more likely a rubric will be needed to guide the evaluation of students’ work. Teachers must also consider the kind of work students are completing. When students are producing simple or discrete evidence of their knowledge, teachers may not need a rubric. Student work that might not require a rubric could include short-answer and multiple-choice questions; lists of people, places, or events; place identifications on a map; recognitions of names or events in some order or pattern; or economic calculations about the worth of some product.

A boy stands for duty as a crossing guard CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

Imagine that you are teaching early childhood grades about the importance of community helpers. In the lesson, you emphasize that children, like the boy in this picture, can also be community helpers.

What are some criteria you might have for an activity in which students draw pictures of four ways they can help in their community?

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How can you design a rubric to assess student activities as helpers in their community?

Assessing Learning

What is happening in this picture

?

■ If you were to ask early childhood

students to point out mountains and hills in this photograph, how would you assess their answers? ■ This picture shows autumn in the

Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia. How many of the “mountains” in this picture are actually mountains? What makes a mountain a mountain? Could some of these features be hills?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

Types of Assessment

Assessment is an ongoing process that involves the collection and analysis of information about student learning. It can be formal or informal, meaning that assessment can be a one-size-fits-all determination of students’ progress (formal) or an adaptable activity that addresses immediate learning conditions and circumstances (informal). Assessment can also be formative or summative. Formative assessment, the most common type of assessment, is aimed at helping students develop their knowledge in progress. Summative assessment occurs at the conclusion of an activity or series of activities and typically exists to provide students and other interested parties information about a student’s learning progress to date.

Visual Summary

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2

Assessment as a Part of Instruction

3

Assessment is an integral part of the teaching cycle. Once a teacher has developed sufficient subject matter knowledge (the first phase in the teaching cycle) assessment becomes a major part of planning to teach, actually teaching, and reflecting on teaching. When planning to teach, teachers must consider when and how they want to assess their students’ knowledge. These assessments should occur throughout instruction. Implementing a teaching plan with continuous assessment requires flexibility and adaptability. During and after a lesson, teachers should use assessment data to reflect on the lesson and future lessons.

4

Using Assessments to Improve Teaching and Learning

1 4 Developing subject matter knowledge

2 3

Instructional Planning: Planning to teach

Assessment as part of the teaching cycle

Rethinking the lesson

Instructional Practice: The act of teaching

Designing and Using Rubrics

Rubrics are assessment devices that enable teachers to determine the level to which students meet teacher-determined performance criteria. Rubrics are constructed in a matrix with individual criteria intersecting performance levels. The level of detail needed in a rubric is a reflection of the complexity of the work being assessed. Student work that is solely focused on low-level cognition such as recall and identification does not require a rubric. Teachers can use rubrics to provide their students with formative feedback directed at helping students learn more and address weaknesses in their subject matter knowledge.

Assessment data enable teachers to improve their teaching and further their students’ learning. By analyzing assessment data, teachers can determine the extent to which their students learned the material and can begin to make determinations about how to proceed, including using new teaching methods and providing students repeated opportunities to learn new subject matter. Assessment case studies describe teaching and learning episodes with special attention to what students have learned and the effectiveness of the teaching methods used in the lesson. Teachers can use assessment narratives to analyze and communicate the progress of their teaching and their students’ learning. Reteaching and remediation provide students opportunities to engage subject matter that they have not learned. Reteaching and remediation emerge as a result of assessment and should provide students with new and unique learning opportunities.

Rubrics: Performance Levels Table 13.1 Level A

Level B

Level C

Criterion #1 Criterion #2 Criterion #3 Criterion #4

KEY TERMS ■ assessment, p. 341

■ informal assessment, p. 342

■ formal assessment, p. 341

■ remediation, p. 355

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Assessing Learning

■ rubric, p. 358

CRITICAL

AND

CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS

Communication is an important concept in social studies. As early as kindergarten, children learn about different forms of communication and how communication helps groups of people in society share ideas and information. Think about how new technologies have changed the way we communicate. In this image, a woman is communicating with someone at a time and place where she would have been unable to communicate ten years ago.

•

How might we help children in elementary grades understand how communication is affected by technology and how these changes affect society?

•

What important ideas from such a topic would need to be assessed in an activity on that topic?

•

How might you organize a simple activity on technology and assessment given specific assessment needs?

A bicyclist rests near a stream while talking on her cell phone

SELF-TEST 1. What is the purpose of assessment? 2. How can we use various forms of assessment to determine student learning focused on climate zones? 3. What are the differences between formal and informal assessment? 4. Which of the following assessment approaches does a teacher typically conduct at the end of a lesson or unit of study? a. informal c. formative b. formal d. summative 5. Describe three approaches to informal assessment. 6. What are three contexts for assessment? 7. Where does assessment fit in the teaching cycle?

8. Label the four main parts of the teaching and learning cycle connected to assessment in the figure below.

1 4

2 3

9. What are the purposes for remediation, and how can we use assessment data to make decisions about remediation? 10. What are the purposes of criteria and achievement levels in rubrics?

Self-Test

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Promoting Student Learning with Technology

M

14

s. Berners is so comfortable with technology she sometimes has to remind herself not to get carried away with it. Her constant rule is to make sure that whatever technology she is using in the class does not get in the way of the learning objectives for the day. Over her 20-year career, Ms. Berners has used computer-based games, presentational software, organizational tools, as well as non–computer-based technologies such as handheld calculators and digital cameras. More than any other technology, Ms. Berners has relied on the World Wide Web. For her, the Web has changed the way she teaches and the way her students learn. A computer is always within an arm’s reach in Ms. Berners’s class. Questions never go unanswered and answers never go unchallenged, with the students and teacher constantly searching for information online. During a recent class, students were studying about the seasons and were learning about how ancient Mesoamerican cultures celebrated the spring equinox. Students were also learning about the rotation of the Earth around the Sun and how the tilt of the Earth results in climatic seasons for much of the world. It was the first day of spring, March 21, which is the vernal equinox. One of Ms. Berners’s students wanted to know exactly what time the Sun would pass directly over the equator (the Much like in pre-Columbian days, a ball court at Xochicalco in actual event known as the Mexico comes alive on the spring equinox as teams from equinox). Ms. Berners did not Sinaloa play a game once common throughout Mesoamerica. know, but within a minute she searched for the information on her computer and had the answer. The equinox was at 18:26 Greenwich Mean Time or 2:26 P.M. on the East Coast of the United States, where they were. Her students were able to actually observe the equinox because of their new information.

364

CHAPTER OUTLINE

■ Using Technology in Social

Studies p. 366

■ Technological Applications p. 371

■ Instruction and Technology

p. 376

sing technology in education should improve learning and instruction. This is a simple statement, but it is often neglected. In this chapter, we discuss technology with consideration for how it enables social studies teachers and students to teach and learn in ways

U

that were not possible or not effective without the technology. As Ms. Berners’s use of the Web demonstrates, a teacher should use technology in the context of the subject matter children are learning about in class. The technological applications we discuss in this chapter will be considered in subject matter contexts.

Using Technology in Social Studies

Technology The application

LEARNING O BJECTIVES Define technology. Describe appropriate uses of technology in elementary social studies. Consider the role of technology in teaching and learning social studies.

WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY? s Ms. Berners demonstrates with her students, technology should enhance instruction and learning. Technology use in elementar y social studies should be seamless and connected to subject matter–based learning objectives. It can involve a wide range of activities that should always be in support of the curriculum and learning objectives.

A

Technology can be defined of science to the ver y broadly. Listening to preimprovement of sent-day discussions about techthe human nology might lead one to think condition. that technological development is a modern phenomenon. Far too often, technology is used as a synonym for computers or the Internet, but it is much more. As illustrated in Figure 14.1, educational technologies can include such common tools as chalk and a blackboard. Technology is actually as old as humanity. Even the word technology is rooted in the ancient past (from the Greek word techne meaning craft). Technological innovations have accompanied and sometimes driven human progress for thousands of years. Major technological developments in the course of human history (invention of the steam engine, the telephone, and television) have changed the way we live in such dramatic ways that understanding these

Figure 14.1 Think about the educational technology on display in this image. How does the technology of the blackboard enable student learning?

Figure 14.2 In this painting German inventor Johannes Gutenberg inspects a page taken from his new invention, the printing press. Consider how technologies such as the printing press change education and how they evolve from high-tech to low-tech over time.

technological developments is itself akin to understanding human progress. It is helpful to distinguish between different types of technology in order to better understand how technology benefits us. One useful distinction can be made between “low-tech” and “high-tech.” The basic difference between the two is the complexity of the technology. One example of low- and high-tech differences can be found in reading. Older technologies such as the book are low-tech, while computer-based technologies provide high-tech options for reading. What was once high-tech may today be considered low-tech. Consider the technology of the book. The printing press technology illustrated in Figure 14.2 was one of the most advanced high-tech devices in the world in the late 15th century, as was the product of the printing press—the book. Today, we don’t think of printed materials as necessarily being high-tech. Of course, these distinctions are time-bound and culturally situated. Given local conditions, schools may or may not feel that they need to integrate certain high- and low-tech materials into the curriculum.

THE WHY AND WHEN OF TECHNOLOGY USE Technology in elementary social studies should be used as a tool or an instructional aid. Using technology is not an end unto itself, but instead is a means to achieve some curriculum-based educational goal. As such, integrating technology into social studies instruction might be considered a process that is driven by some instructional or learning contexts. Using technology requires that teachers carefully consider the role that it can play in supporting social studies instruction given fundamental questions about why we should use technology in elementary social studies. Good uses of technology enable teaching and learning that might not other wise be possible without the technology. But not all uses of technology improve learning opportunities. Using technology in elementary social studies requires careful consideration of costs and benefits. When we are deciding whether a particular technology should be used in social studies, at least one of the following three conditions should exist.

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367

1. The technology should improve students’ opportunities to learn. 2. The technology should create new learning opportunities that would not otherwise be available. 3. The technology should enhance the learning experience by motivating or encouraging students to learn. Unlike other subjects, social studies has a subject matter–based relationship with technology. In social studies, technology is a concept that children learn about as a part of the curriculum. For example, children in elementary grades learn about the economic concept of work and how work has changed over time. When teaching about work, teachers need to explain how various technologies have changed the way people can do work. Consider the 19th century technologies illustrated in Figures 14.3 and 14.4. The steam engine revolutionized manufacturing. The cotton gin radically altered the economy of the American South. The stories

Figure 14.3 Cotton loaded on railroad flat cars for transportation north from Atlanta, Georgia, 1880

of these technologies and others are central to United States history and are an important part of most upper elementary social studies curriculums. Work is not the only example in which technology becomes subject matter in social studies. When students study about any concept related to human culture, they study about technology.

GUIDELINES FOR USING TECHNOLOGY The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) has developed guidelines for using technology in social studies. The guidelines, drawn from the National Educational Technology Standards (NETS), are organized in five categories (Table 14.1). Understanding the standards is an important step in determining how we can effectively integrate technology into social studies instruction. Figure 14.5 depicts a child using a potentially meaningful handheld computer. Consider what the NCSS guidelines might recommend about related uses of handheld computers.

Figure 14.4 A photograph taken by Timothy O’Sullivan in 1862 shows the living quarters for slaves on J. J. Smith’s plantation in Beaufort, South Carolina. On the ground between their wooden house and a dead tree, one male slave supervises other slaves as they prepare cotton for the gin.

Effective Use of Instructional Technology: Guidelines for K–16 Social Studies Educators Table 14.1 Technology Operations and Concepts • Demonstrate a sound understanding of technology operations and concepts as they relate to social studies education. • Demonstrate introductory knowledge, skills, and understanding of concepts related to technology. • Demonstrate continual growth in technology knowledge and skills to stay abreast of current and emerging technologies.

Planning and Designing Learning Environments and Experiences • Plan and design effective social studies learning environments and experiences supported by technology. • Design developmentally appropriate learning opportunities that apply technology-enhanced instructional strategies to support the diverse needs of learners. • Apply current research on teaching and learning with technology when planning learning environments and experiences. • Identify and locate technology resources and evaluate them for accuracy and suitability. • Plan for the management of technology resources within the context of learning activities. • Plan strategies to manage student learning in a technology-enhanced environment.

Teaching, Learning, and the Curriculum • Teachers implement curriculum plans that include methods and strategies for applying technology to maximize student learning in social studies. • Facilitate technology-enhanced experiences that address content standards and student technology standards. • Use technology to support learner-centered strategies that address the diverse needs of students. • Apply technology to develop students’ higher-order skills and creativity. • Manage student-learning activities in a technology-enhanced environment.

Assessment and Evaluation • Apply technology through a variety of strategies to assess and evaluate student learning in social studies. • Apply technology in assessing student learning of subject matter using a variety of assessment techniques. • Use technology resources to collect and analyze data, interpret results, and communicate findings to improve instructional practice and maximize student learning. • Apply multiple methods of evaluation to determine students’ appropriate use of technology resources.

Social, Ethical, Legal, and Human Issues • Model and teach legal and ethical practice related to technology use. • Apply technology resources to enable and empower learners with diverse backgrounds, characteristics, and abilities. • Identify and use technology resources that affirm diversity. • Promote safe and healthy use of technology resources. • Facilitate equitable access to technology resources for all students.

Figure 14.5 A young girl engrossed in a handheld computer activity. What are some of the possible benefits and drawbacks of using handheld technologies? Consider the interaction that students have with other students as well as material cost.

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DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY Each of the guidelines presented in Table 14.1 focuses on a different aspect of technology integration including teacher knowledge, planning and teaching, assessing, and ethics. When planning for using technology, the NCSS Technology Guidelines suggest that elementary teachers should “design developmentally appropriate learning opportunities that apply technology-enhanced instructional strategies to support the diverse needs of learners.” Perhaps more than any other area, developmental issues must be considered when integrating technology into social studies. Most importantly, teachers must ensure that their students are protected when using Web- and Internetbased resources. The Internet connects computers around the world via the TCP/IP protocol. Most schools will provide reasonable if not overly cautious safeguards Internet An interin the classroom. However, opconnected system of portunities still exist for children networks that conto be taken advantage of or to innects computers around the world via teract with resources that are inthe TCP/IP protocol. appropriate. Teachers must work to ensure that their students understand the risks of the Internet, as well as the advantages. One simple approach is to help students develop

CONCEPT CHECK

their own set of rules that reminds them to be careful when they are on the Internet. As you develop rules for using Internet resources, the following criteria might be helpful. 1. When considering whether a Web resource is appropriate for students, determine who owns or is responsible for the content on the Web site. Web sites or other Internet resources for children should have transparent purposes and operations. 2. Ensure that your students’ rights and privacy are protected. If the Web site or other resource requires personal information as a prerequisite for participation, carefully consider how that information will be used. Do not give any personal information about a student. 3. Make sure all information and resources are open and easily accessible. Educational resources for elementary school students should be clearly focused, given specific developmental issues. 4. Often, Web sites and other Internet resources have advertising and links to other sites and services. The teacher should limit these links and check them out ahead of time.

STOP

How can a teacher use Internet technology in a third-grade classroom to teach about weather?

What safeguards would you put in place in your classroom when students use the Internet?

Refugees cross a flooded field during monsoon season

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Technological Applications LEARNING O BJECTIVES Identify how to best use Web-based resources in social studies. Describe methods for locating information on the Web.

FINDING AND USING WEB-BASED RESOURCES AND INFORMATION he vastness of the Web can be overwhelming. Both teachers and students must exercise care when trying to find meaningful resources. Locating resources for use in social studies can be effectively managed by using a three-part strategy. Depending on the age of the student, teachers may need to conduct Web World Wide searches and locate resources Web (WWW) Elecfor students in advance. Stutronic resources— dents in upper elementar y text, visual, grades may be able to find audio—residing on some resources themselves usall Internet servers ing appropriate Web sites, but that use the HTTP the following recommendaprotocol, accessible tions can be used to scaffold to users via a simple point-and-click comthose experiences.

T

puter system.

Figure 14.6 Maya dancers dressed as hunters and a jaguar perform the Deer Dance.

Recognize the connections between technology, democracy, and human experiences.

1. Develop a curriculum or subject matter context for the identification of resources. These contexts are built from curricular and secondar y source–derived subject matter knowledge. Contexts can be questions that when answered might help students know whether the information they are looking at is worthwhile. 2. Narrow the search for information or resources given the characteristics of the resource. This should involve developing some guidelines related to subject of the information, the media (text, pictures, video, etc.), and the length. 3. Summarize the information, or represent it in some manner different from how it exists on the Web. Think about how teachers or students might use this process to locate information on a curriculum-related topic such as celebrations in Mayan civilization as depicted in Figure 14.6.

The Process Diagram (Figure 14.7) provides more detail on the three strategies for finding Webbased information. Another more detailed exploration of this process of a Web search in social studies is described in the “Visualizing” feature (Figure 14.8).

TECHNOLOGY, DEMOCRACY, AND THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE Technology can play an important role in addressing the commonly agreed upon goal of citizenship preparation for social studies. Technology, particularly Internet-

Multimedia

based, can enhance existing The combined use civic dialogue and encourage of media, such as talk that would not have othermovies, music, wise been possible. Teachers can lighting, CD-ROMs, and the Internet, connect their students with for education or elected representatives using entertainment. the Internet. They can use multimedia to demonstrate places and cultural contexts that make up the multicultural experience in the United States. Using technological resources and communication networks appropriately can minimize boundaries between people and help us see how we are dependent on one another.

Process Diagram

Finding Web-based information Figure 14.7

372

IDENTIFY Web sites that have information about your topics.

• Is this information from a known source such as a news agency, an educational organization, an encyclopedia, or a library? • Is this information from a source that is known to provide credible information? • Is the information on this Web site addressing the subject and topic, or do you need to look elsewhere for better information?

Look for Web sites on Mayan celebrations, culture, dress, and dance. Which sites look most credible and most like the information you need?

NARROW the search for information or resources. Choose 2–3 Web sites that have the best information.

• Do these Web sites have the information you need on the topic? • Are there helpful pictures or videos? Is there enough good information or not enough?

Is there a Web site on the Deer Dance? On Mayan costume?

SUMMARIZE the information or represent it in some manner that is different from how it exists on the Web.

• Using the 2–3 Web sites you choose, sum up the important information on the topic.

List the Web sites you choose as the best. Take notes on the information.

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Promoting Student Learning with Technology

Visualizing

A Web Search in Social Studies Figure 14.8

Finding resources on the Web can be like looking for the proverbial needle in a haystack. A good Web search requires a clear purpose and a critical eye. Teachers can help their students find resources online by providing them with supportive scaffolds and models of productive searches. Consider a search for information about humans’ uses of horses. •

What types of curriculum context might help students when searching for information about humans’ uses of horses? Contexts might include uses that are recreational, work-related, or cultural.

•

As students search for information about horses given specific curriculum contexts, what sorts of information or resources might be appropriate for students to use? Students might use general search resources such as Google or reference materials such as Wikipedia or might access specific resources such as www.theultimatehorsesite.com.

•

How might students summarize information they find on the Web? Students must be helped to make use of information that is available on the Web in ways that might not have been intended by the author. For example, if students are learning about horses from a Web site focused on caring for horses, the teacher should help students understand what information might be useful and what is not as useful.

The horse was first acquired by the Nez Perce sometime in the early 18th century, probably through trade with, or theft from, their southern neighbors. A symbol of wealth and pride, horses were an integral part of Nez Perce society and were used for a number of purposes such as hunting, raiding, or traveling from camp to camp.

Close-action shot of horses racing in the Kentucky Derby

Terra cotta horses excavated from the third-century B.C.E. Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi’s tomb

Imagine using technology to visit the world and to learn about diverse human Digital Expressed Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, as seen in Figexperiences in different countries. The in numerical form, Model United Nations Headquarters at ure 14.9a, or the canals of Venice as deespecially for use by a computer, and the United Nations Cyberschoolbus Web picted in Figure 14.9b . Using digital displayed as an site (http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/) images, video, and audio, students can have electronic represenepitomizes this type of student interaction experiences with places that they might not tation of some other on a wide range of issues. Through this reotherwise have. physical form. source, children of all ages can investigate Of course, these experiences are not other cultures, study about how people are nearly as powerful as being there, and virworking together to solve global problems, and express tual visits should never take the place of an actual visit, themselves while learning from other young people. but an experience with a place using technology can Numerous media and technological resources can begin the process of opening young people’s minds to facilitate the exploration of democratic themes. For exthe richness and variety of the human experience. ample, the C-SPAN television network provides virtually Other technologies provide students with opportuevery minute of every congressional debate, thousands nities to interact with children from places around the

Virtual explorations Figure 14.9 A Side domes and added minarets gather about the great vault of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. This church has been the focus of Christianity for nine centuries and of Islam for five more. The original structure was designed by Isodorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles under the direction and funding of Emperor Justinian I. The historic areas of Istanbul are a World Heritage site.

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B A gondolier and two tourists on a canal in Venice, Italy

of congressional committee hearings, and countless programs related to political and civic issues and public policy. Social studies teachers can use other resources such as those made available by National Geographic (Figure 14.10) to help students learn about a wide range of topics and issues in social studies. Teachers can have their students engage these programs as active participants in the debate. This may mean simulating the debate in the classroom, participating in role-playing activities, or attempting to solve the problems being addressed. Advocates of issues-based education such as NCSS encourage the use of resources similar to those listed here to conduct issues-based inquiries. This type of inquir y allows students to solve real-life problems using procedures based on the scientific model of obser vation, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, and theory.

Figure 14.10 Screen shot of National Geographic Web site

Technological Applications

375

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP Exterior view of the Masjid-I-Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran

How can elementary school teachers use technology to teach about the technological changes that influence the development of place?

How does the Masjid-IShah Mosque function as a place?

How does technology affect this place?

Instruction and Technology LEARNING O BJECTIVES Describe four issues to consider when planning to use technology in elementary school social studies.

PLANNING FOR TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY ocial studies educators can use technology to promote specific instructional objectives by creating authentic experiences that encourage critical and active student learning in elementary social studies. The Lesson titled “Technology Timeline” describes an activity in which students learn about technology while using technology in authentic ways. Technology offers special opportunities, but also creates unique challenges. There are four issues to keep in mind when planning to teach with technology.

S

1. If using a computer or some other digital device, determine the number of devices that will be needed. Also consider the consequence of working with a limited number of devices. 2. Think about how long it will take to complete the activity using the technology selected for the activity. Often, technology requires setup and extended directions for students. If the setup 376

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Explain how to use computer-based games in elementary school social studies.

work and/or directions take extended time, reconsider whether the activity could be completed without using technology. 3. Consider the extent to which students will be engaged with social studies subject matter as opposed to focusing on a technology or technology device. For example, Microsoft PowerPoint® presentational software can sometimes lead students to focus more on the technology than the subject matter. The general rule should be that the technology improves students’ opportunities to learn subject matter without distracting from the subject matter. 4. Think about students’ technology skills. If students are at different levels with regard to their skills, consider how you will bring students up to the skill level they will need in order to complete the activity. Sometimes this can be achieved by pairing technologically savvy students with students who have less developed skills.

Promoting Student Learning with Technology

LESSON Technology Timeline

This activity involves students using the Web to find out the dates of these inventions. Students then construct an illustrated timeline of the inventions. They can base their illustrations on information they find on the Web. The timeline could be a graphic illustration of the occurrence of these events, with notations that accompany the timeline. Depending on the time for this activity and the students’ age, notations can be simple or detailed enough to stand alone as narrative descriptions. These mini-narratives could focus on the impact the innovation had on human history and culture and can include both the positive and negative consequences of the particular innovation. Suggested resources for this research include standard world history textbooks and the Web resources listed here.

INTRODUCTION For this lesson, students construct an annotated timeline that traces selected technological innovations from the last 2,000 years of human history.

INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Students identify some of the most significant technological advancements in human history and represent these technological advancements in chronological order using a multimedia presentation tool.

PROCEDURE In 1998, author John Brockman proposed an interesting question to an organization of more than 100 scholars. His question was simply, “What is the most important invention in the past two thousand years?” Responses to this question varied from the somewhat obscure public key inscription system (a security system for computers) to more expected candidates such as the steam engine or the computer. Eleven of the inventions nominated by the scholars are listed here. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

The printing press The scientific method The computer Numbers Reading glasses The atomic bomb Democracy The steam engine Clocks Plumbing Hay

Hay (8000 B.C.)

8000 B.C.

• World History: Attitudes and Events, from Early Humanity to Yesterday, by Frank Smitha, at http://www.fsmitha.com • Historical inventions at About.com at http://inventors.about.com

ASSESSMENT As an assessment, students can rank the technological innovations listed. They should base their rankings on criteria developed by the students. They should explain the criteria in a short paragraph. Reading glasses (1300 A.D.) Democracy (2000 B.C.) Numbers (3000 B.C.)

6000 B.C.

Resources related to inventions:

4000 B.C.

Plumbing (1500 B.C.)

2000 B.C.

The printing press (1440 A.D.)

0

500 A.D.

1000 A.D.

1500 A.D.

The computer (1936 A.D.)

2000 A.D.

The atomic bomb Pendulum clock (1945 A.D.) (1656 A.D.) The steam engine The scientific method (1698 A.D.) (1620 A.D.)

USING COMPUTER-BASED GAMES When we think of games, we might not think of education, but games do have an important role in elementar y social studies. Some of the most powerful and mainstream social studies methods, such as simulations, role-plays, and even discussions, have game-like structures. Games are often characterized as a form of entertainment or amusement, but games also involve rules, strategies, and competition, all of which can be useful in educational activities. Each of these characteristics can be emphasized in social studies activities to enhance learning. Social studies teachers can use many forms of games, including those that are computer-based. Early computer-based strategy games such as Oregon Trail and Where in the World Is Carmen Santiago? intro-

duced thousands of children to computer technology in the 1980s and 1990s. Today, thousands of games in and out of school compete for children’s attention. Games such as Sim City, which requires students to plan and build a city, include fundamental social studies– related concepts. Consider how a game like Sim City might be used to help students understand construction in a city such as Beijing as depicted in Figure 14.11. The “In the Classroom” feature describes how one teacher learns about new games from his students and then plans to use these games in his classroom. How can we use these games in elementary social studies, and what are the characteristics of good elementary-level social studies games? Let’s look first at some of the characteristics of educative games. 1. Good social studies computer-based games should have a curricular-based subject matter focus.

Figure 14.11 A Beijing, China, street scene showing a shopping mall construction project called Pinyan Road in the background

In the Classroom

GAMES AS INSTRUCTION

What is your favorite computer game? Mr. Alexander asks his third-grade students this question when he starts his unit on games. The question is designed to help students make connections between their lives and the subject being studied in class, but it also gives Mr. Alexander an opportunity to find out about new computer-based games. The students tell Mr. Alexander about games that span a range of interests, and while listening he is constantly thinking about how he might use each game in his class. As he imagines how he can use the games, Mr. Alexander tries to keep three things in mind. 1. Will the game focus students’ attention on subject matter that is in the curriculum? 2. How much time will it take to play the game? 3. Can students learn by playing the game? As the activity continues, Mr. Alexander stores away what he has learned about his students’ gaming interests and revisits some of the games in the context of other activities. One particular game that Mr. Alexander decides to use is called Civilization, a computerbased simulation involving building, exploration, discovery, and conquest in both historical and imaginary contexts. The game includes competitive elements and can be very complicated. Mr. Alexander uses the demonstrations from the game to engage his students in themes from ancient civilizations such as Rome that are explored in the game.

A view of Ancient Rome. How might a computer-based simulation game help students learn about exploration and discovery of Ancient Rome?

Instruction and Technology

379

Consider the multitudes of geography-based game systems available for elementary school–age learners. These games typically focus on central geographic topics such as place names and absolute locations. They can ser ve as good review tools for students and offer opportunities to engage students in individual or smallgroup work in the classroom while other students are completing different activities.

CONCEPT CHECK

STOP

How can technology be

What are the four issues

used to teach about the U.S. National Anthem?

380

2. Good social studies computer-based games should motivate students to engage subject matter. Computer-based games, by their nature, tend to shift the focus from the teacher to the actual game. Often, computer-based games are ver y visual and include multiple media. But if these games are going to hold students’ attention, they must have a mix of rigor and flash.

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presented in this section that we should take into consideration when planning to teach using technology?

Class A, Midwest League minor league baseball team during the National Anthem in Beloit, Wisconsin

Promoting Student Learning with Technology

What is happening in this picture ■ Technology is not just a tool for

?

Large nuclear power plant next to a flower market in central China.

enhancing learning in social studies; it is also subject matter and part of the curriculum. One constant theme in social studies concerns the advantages and limitations of technology in society. Nuclear technology is perhaps the best example of the advantages and disadvantages of technology. ■ Consider the contrast in this

image. ■ How is nuclear technology an

example of the advantages and disadvantages of technology?

VISUAL SUMMARY

1

Using Technology in Social Studies

Technology is a broadly defined word that involves scientific advancements that improve human life. In education, technology can enable students to engage in active learning activities. Before using technology in elementary social studies, teachers should ensure that the technology improves students’ opportunities to learn, creates new learning opportunities that would not otherwise be available, and/or enhances the learning experience by motivating or encouraging students to learn. Guidelines for integrating technology from the National Council for the Social Studies include specific recommendations related to teacher knowledge, planning and teaching, assessing, and ethics. Teachers should make sure that whatever technology they use is developmentally appropriate.

Visual Summary

381

2

Technological Applications

3

The Web and the Internet provide access to an enormous amount of information. When teachers or students are trying to find information online they must consider curriculum, narrow the search for information, and summarize the information found for specific learning purposes. Technology can facilitate democratic activities and can enhance opportunities to learn about diverse life experiences across the Earth.

IDENTIFY Web sites that have information about your topics.

• Is this information from a known source such as a news agency, an educational organization, an encyclopedia, or a library? • Is this information from a source that is known to provide credible information? • Is the information on this Web site addressing the subject and topic or do you need to look elsewhere for better information?

Look for Web sites on Mayan celebrations, culture, dress, and dance. Which sites look most credible and most like the information you need?

NARROW the search for information or resources. Choose 2–3 Web sites that have the best information.

• Do these Web sites have the information you need on the topic? • Are there helpful pictures or videos? Is there enough good information or not enough?

Is there a Web site on the Deer Dance? On Mayan costume?

SUMMARIZE the information or represent it in some manner that is different from how it exists on the Web.

• Using the 2–3 Web sites you choose, sum up the important information on the topic.

List the Web sites you choose as the best. Take notes on the information.

Instruction and Technology

When planning to use technology, teachers should keep four things in mind: how many computers or other technological devices will be needed for the activity, how much time is required to use the specific technology, whether students will be able to focus on social studies subject matter when using the technology, and to what extent specific technological skills will be required for the activity. Computer-based games can enhance learning opportunities for social studies students. Good social studies computer-based games should be subject matter–based and should motivate students to learn.

KEY TERMS ■ technology, p. 366

■ Web, p. 371

■ Internet, p. 370

■ multimedia, p. 372

■ digital, p. 374

CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING QUESTIONS When it comes to identification, the VeriChip goes a step beyond an inked fingerprint. Technicians can input such data as name, birthday, and blood type, then implant the chip into the skin. Medics can scan it to identify an unconscious or disoriented person. Technology such as the VeriChip creates potential ethical questions. How might elementary social studies students investigate and inquire about this VeriChip technology?

A VeriChip personal identification device.

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SELF-TEST 1. What is technology? 2. How does educational technology differ from other forms of technology? 3. How did the technology of the printing press change life? Why is the printing press a low-tech tool?

6. How can technology facilitate a better understanding of the human experience? 7. Which of the following areas in the NCSS guidelines for using technology deals with research on technology in social studies? a. teacher knowledge c. assessing b. planning and teaching d. ethics 8. Label the three main steps to help children find information online on the figure below.

• Is this information from a known source such as a news agency, an educational organization, an encyclopedia, or a library? • Is this information from a source that is known to provide credible information? • Is the information on this Web site addressing the subject and topic or do you need to look elsewhere for better information?

Look for Web sites on Mayan celebrations, culture, dress, and dance. Which sites look most credible and most like the information you need?

• Do these Web sites have the information you need on the topic? • Are there helpful pictures or videos? Is there enough good information or not enough?

Is there a Web site on the Deer Dance? On Mayan costume?

• Using the 2-3 Web sites you chose, sum up the important information on the topic.

List the Web sites you choose as the best. Take notes on the information.

4. Teachers should use _______________ appropriate technology in elementary school social studies. 5. Which of the following is not a good primary reason to use technology in social studies? a. to improve something already being done b. to provide new learning opportunities c. to teach technology skills d. to motivate students to learn social studies

9. What are the three steps teachers can use when planning to use Web resources in an activity? 10. What are two good reasons for using computer-based games in elementary social studies?

Self-Test

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APPENDIX A

FOUNDING DOCUMENTS

Constitution of the United States WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article I Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may

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be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills.

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Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow money on the credit of the United States; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; To establish post offices and post roads; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; To provide and maintain a navy; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;—And

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To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not Top Article II Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows: Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than

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Founding Documents

one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each state having one vote; A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty five years, and been fourteen Years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:—”I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.” Section 2. The President shall be commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

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Article III Section 1. The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;—to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;—to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;—to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;—to controversies between two or more states;—between a state and citizens of another state;— between citizens of different states;—between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. Article IV Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new states shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence.

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Founding Documents

Article V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. Article VI All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. Article VII The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty seven and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, G. Washington-Presidt. and deputy from Virginia New Hampshire: John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman Massachusetts: Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King Connecticut: Wm: Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman New York: Alexander Hamilton New Jersey: Wil: Livingston, David Brearly, Wm. Paterson, Jona: Dayton Pennsylvania: B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt. Morris, Geo. Clymer, Thos. FitzSimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouv Morris Delaware: Geo: Read, Gunning Bedford jun, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco: Broom Maryland: James McHenry, Dan of St Thos. Jenifer, Danl Carroll Virginia: John Blair—, James Madison Jr. North Carolina: Wm. Blount, Richd. Dobbs Spaight, Hu Williamson South Carolina: J. Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler Georgia: William Few, Abr Baldwin

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The Bill of Rights The Conventions of a number of the States having, at the time of adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added, and as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution; Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, twothirds of both Houses concurring, that the following articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States; all or any of which articles, when ratified by three-fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the said Constitution, namely: Amendment I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Amendment II A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Amendment III No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Amendment IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Amendment V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Amendment VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

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Amendment VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Amendment VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Amendment IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Amendment X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

Other Amendments of the Constitution Amendment XI (1798) The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Amendment XII (1804) The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;—The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;—the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds

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of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Amendment XIII (1865) Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Amendment XIII (1864) Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.” Amendment XIV (1868) Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Amendment XV (1870) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

394

APPENDIX A

Founding Documents

Amendment XVI (1913) The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census of enumeration. Amendment XVII (1913) The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. Amendment XVIII (1919) Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Section 2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several states, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress. Amendment XIX (1920) The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Amendment XX (1933) Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin. Section 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

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Section 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them. Section 5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article. Section 6. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission. Amendment XXI (1933) Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed. Section 2. The transportation or importation into any state, territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited. Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several states, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress. Amendment XXII (1951) Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term. Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress. Amendment XXIII (1961) Section 1. The District constituting the seat of government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct: A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a state, but in no event more than the least populous state; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the states, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a state; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Amendment XXIV (1964) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

396

APPENDIX A

Founding Documents

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Amendment XXV (1967) Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress. Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President. Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President. Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office. Amendment XXVI (1971) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of age. Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Amendment XXVII (1992) No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives shall take effect until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

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The Declaration of Independence IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776. The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, —That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.—Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

398

APPENDIX A

Founding Documents

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these

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Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

The 56 signatures on the Declaration appear in the positions indicated: Column 1 Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton Column 2 North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn

South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton Column 3 Massachusetts: John Hancock

Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton Column 4 Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross

Delaware: Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean Column 5 New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris

New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark Column 6 New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple

Massachusetts: Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery Connecticut Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott New Hampshire: Matthew Thornton

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APPENDIX A

Founding Documents

APPENDIX B

ANSWERS TO SELF-TESTS

Chapter 1: 1. A patriotic notion of social studies might be inferred from the image, one focused more on the transmission of cultural ideas and knowledge than on critical thinking. One person’s view of social might influence whether he/she views social studies as focused on the individual or on groups of people.; 2. b; 3. a; 4. b and d; 5. Most broadly, pedagogy is the act or art of teaching. Pedagogy is also the substance of the knowledge of how to teach.; 6. Stor ytelling is a direct method of teaching, investigating is student-centered and focused on unresolved problems, and deliberating is focused on students clarifying and supporting their beliefs and opinions.; 7. Interdisciplinar y teaching makes use of materials and strategies from various disciplines, while disciplinary approaches utilize one disciplinary approach. An interdisciplinary investigation of the Jamestown settlement might include resources and methods from histor y, archeology, political science, physical sciences, and even cultural sciences.; 8. interdisciplinary or multifaceted knowledge; 9. Each of these disciplines has its own approach to the development and confirmation of new knowledge, but thy all deal with similar content that is situated in the actions of humans in social settings.; 10. Criteria or goals by which one can judge the quality of educational achievement. Chapter 2: 1. Reflection is important because it provides teachers with a means to refine their knowledge, adapt to changing educative conditions, and account for new ideas and unforeseen circumstances.; 2. d; 3. #1 is developing subject matter knowledge, #2 is planning to teach, #3 is the act of teaching, and #4 is rethinking the lesson; 4. a; 5. d; 6. Reflection during instruction is most often focused on the minute-to-minute teaching actions that might require a lesson to be adapted to or tailored to a given learner needs and reflection on teaching tends to be more holistic in focus.; 7. c; 8. b; 9. Reflective inquiry in a democracy enables students to learn given ever-changing conditions related to that knowledge.; 10. Case studies entail elements of successful teaching in local situations, and also enable us to explore how the teaching episode can be extended or even improved. Chapter 3: 1. Inquiry is a method of teaching and learning that makes use of authentic resources in the investigation of meaningful topics and problems. An inquiry about the petroglygh might begin with the emergence of an interest in the subject, a clarification about what we know about the topic, an examination of resources, and a proposed solution; 2. authentic or real-world; 3. b; 4. b; 5. (1) emergence, (2) clarification, (3) examination, (4) proposed solution; 6. Scaffolds are specific forms of support for new learning that allow students to grow as independent learners. These supports are gradually removed as students develop autonomous knowledge.; 7. c; 8. Questions serve as a starting point for an inquiry and when properly formed capitalize on the interests young children have in distinguishing between what is real and make-believe. An inquiry question about the Great Depression should invite student interest and enable a number of possible answers.; 9. c; 10. b Chapter 4: 1. b; 2. c; 3. Standards are generalized and public representations of expectations for teaching and learning, while curriculums detail the scope and sequence of subject matter that is to be taught. Standards are typically more general than curriculum, which tends to be specific in comparison; 4. a; 5. Academic and skills-based standards developed at the national level are often used to guide the development of state standards, which are used in turn to develop local curriculums.; 6. Scope is the depth of content cov-

ered in a curriculum, and sequence is the order that content is expected to be taught and learned.; 7. b; 8. Standards should be developed before tests and should inform the construction of tests.; 9. High-stakes are usually standardized tests and are used to help determine a final grade or whether students can progress to the next grade level, while low-stakes tests are usually teacher designed to assess students’ knowledge in specific content areas on a regular basis.; 10. Teachers can develop a deep and personal understanding of standards, curriculum, and testing programs and invest in the successful implementation of standards, curriculum, and testing programs. Chapter 5: 1. By studying history children can be inspired to act more responsibly, study harder, and even care more about their fellow humans.; 2. b; 3. b; 4. timeline; 5. Students can understand how immigration has influenced the development of culture in the United States. This type of understanding is called active learning.; 6. 1) summarize, 2) contextualize, 3) infer, 4) corroborate, and 5) monitor; 7. introduce characters, beginning events, middle events, and ending events; 8. b; 9. Transmission activities provide the background knowledge needed for active learning activities, which should make use of authentic resources.; 10. Authentic resources are from the time being studied and have a meaningful and real-world quality that is easy for children to understand and relate to. The image of the Emancipation Proclamation is authentic because it has a real meaning today and, as an image of the original, has a real look to it. Chapter 6: 1. Geography includes studying human systems, past and present, their governments, economies, and systems of thought; 2. b; 3. This map illustrates human-built environments in North America.; 4. Native Americans carve totem poles to honor their ancestors, publicize their clan’s standing and accomplishments, and record memorable ceremonies and experiences.; 5. b; 6. Regions; 7. 1) select a map type, 2) determine information to go on the map, and 3) determine how the information will be highlighted on the map; 8. b; 9. d; 10. The study of histor y includes the study of places where people lived. The photo suggests that human activity has occurred in this place for thousands of years. Chapter 7: 1. Civic competence is understanding of important social issues, participating in dialogues and conversations about public social life, volunteering and serving in public roles, and taking action when problems demand involvement.; 2. c; 3. Conscience; 4. d; 5. b; 6. b; 7. Central to the idea of democratic reasoning is a vision of the United States as a pluralistic society with a vast number of ethnic, religious, and racial groups all vying for attention and acceptance. Children who are thinking about problems in a democracy need to appreciate and understand the importance of equality.; 8. c; 9. Ideology frames the way people consider and learn new information and how teachers plan and implement those plans for instruction.; 10. Democratic reasoning is the thinking and analytical skills that are engaged when addressing social problems in democratic contexts. Students might consider how they or their community could address the problem of water pollution either through direct action or through their representatives in local government. Chapter 8: 1. Direct instruction is a closely developed series of exercises that provide learners continual interaction with limited, fundamental subject matter. A teacher could ask students to interpret the actions in the photo through direct questioning; 2. 1) learning

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objectives, 2) anticipatory set, 3) teaching sequence, 4) guided practice, 5) lesson closure, 6) independent practice; 3. b; 4. scripted; 5. c; 6. Answers will vary.; 7. c; 8. b; 9. During the lesson the teacher can facilitate short activities which students individually complete followed by group review or assessment of the work.; 10. Activities have meaning for students, require them to take action, and reflect their interests. Chapter 9: 1. a; 2. Step 1: subject matter interest, Step 2: initial focus on the individual, Step 3: group activity, Step 4: individual assessment; 3. b; 4. a; 5. d; 6. 1) question or situation, 2) possible decision, 3) consequences, 4) decisions; 7. d; 8. Homogeneous grouping results in students with like characteristics being grouped together, while heterogeneous grouping results in different characteristics among the students in a group.; 9. Group titles or identities might be subject-matter based. Groups might have subject matter related tasks. Students might be group by periods of immigration to student the history of immigration in the United States.; 10. Interactive learning requires students to be responsible for the development of their own knowledge, while cooperative learning values a groups’ knowledge development. Chapter 10: 1. Literacy is knowledge in a particular field or subject and the ability to read and write.; 2. Literate citizens form the basis of social order and stability. Citizens need literacy skills in order to participate in economic, political, and social life.; 3. 1) Reading, 2) Studying, 3) Thinking, 4) Decision making, 5) Metacognition, 6) Reference and information search skills, 7) Technical skills in using electronic devices, 8) The ability to organize and use information; 4. d; 5. Answers will vary but should include: decision making, technical skills; 6. a. Guiding questions frame reading around specific information that readers are seeking, b. Outlines help create a sense of order and expectation for readers, and c. Main ideas help focus readers on the big picture of a reading passage; 7. Students are interested in the subject matter. Student learning is directly connected to the real world outside the classroom. Students are actively inquiring, using higher-level skills, about a question or problem. Learning is not tied to one discipline, but is instead interdisciplinary. Students share or act on what they have learned.; 8. 1) pre-writing, 2) drafting, 3) revisions; 9. Answers will vary.; 10. Answers will vary. Chapter 11: 1. Answers will vary but should include; 1) create interest and excitement about learning, 2) have students produce something, 3) give students a role in setting up the procedures for completing their work, 4) connect the learning experience to other life experiences; 2. Answers will vary.; 3. Answers will vary.; 4. Teachers can determine important concepts, ideas, themes, events, movements, and people emphasized in their content knowledge as they reorganize this content as subject matter.; 5. a; 6. (1) organize content knowledge into subject matter knowledge, (2) transform subject matter knowledge into pedagogical knowledge, (3) develop relevant procedures, (4) select resource materials, (5) assess student learning; 7. 1) Does the resource support the learning goals for the lesson? 2) Is the resource appropriate for students given their prior knowledge, reading ability, and maturity? 3) Can the resources be adapted and tailored to meet the specific needs of students?; 8. Lesson planning ser ves as a guide for action.; 9. Answers will var y.; 10. 1) Are all students receiving the opportunities the teacher envisioned when planning for instruction? 2) Is the time allotted for instruction appropriate given the realities of the actual implementation? 3) Are the materials and resources that were adapted and prepared for the lesson being used the way the teacher planned?

402

APPENDIX B

Answers to Self-Tests

Chapter 12: 1. natural, socially-constructed, learning, and personality-related. The form of diversity on display in the image is sociallyconstructed; 2. Schools have often taken the lead as the place where inequalities and issues of diversity are addressed.; 3. b; 4. Multiculturalism is many cultures existing together in a locality, without any one culture dominating and with mutual acceptance of differences aimed at overcoming racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination.; 5. learning temperament, prior knowledge level, impediments to learning, and support outside the classroom; 6. linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and naturalist intelligence; 7. a; 8. Any of the following are correct: 1) Remember that all children are unique and have unique needs. 2) Never assign to an individual the characteristics of a group. 3) If you are not familiar with the cultural traditions of the community in which you work, take time to get to know what happens in the community. 4) Incorporate opportunities for children to use their cultural traditions as a context for learning new subject matter. 5) Carefully consider the cultural traditions that have shaped your students’ learning personalities. Think how those learning personalities can be expanded and enriched. 6) Try to include information about other cultural traditions as subject matter in the lessons.; 9. ILPs tend to be more informal and idiosyncratic. Although they are similar to IEPs, an ILP assumes that all of the student’s learning needs can be met in the classroom with existing resources.; 10. Teachers should try to balance a need to reflect the community’s values and ideals through the curriculum with a goal of diversifying children’s experiences through educational experiences. Chapter 13: 1. The purpose of assessment is to collect and analyze information in an ongoing manner about student learning.; 2, Answers should address informal and formal, as well as formative and summative approaches.; 3. Formal assessment is a consistent approach used for all students in a class to evaluate specific learning stages, and informal assessments are low-key and unintrusive teacher actions focused on determining whether students are learning during an activity.; 4. b and d; 5. questioning, seat check, and polling; 6. teachers can act on what they learn about their students as a result of the assessment, assessments are fair and consistent, and some assessments should be planned for connecting lessons over a sequence of days; 7. Assessment occurs during and after the implementation of a plan to teaching.; 8. 1) Subject matter knowledge development, 2) Instructional planning, 3) Teaching and learning the lesson, 4) Rethinking the lesson; 9. Remediation results from some assessment and serves to help students when they are having trouble learning.; 10. Criteria describe what students are to learn and achievement levels differentiate levels of learning. Chapter 14: 1. Technology is the application of science to the improvement of the human condition.; 2. Educational technology is designed with some learning goal in mind.; 3. The printing press made text and books available to greater numbers of people.; 4. age; 5. c; 6. Through technological innovation humans can improve their condition.; 7. b; 8. Identify web sites that have information about your topics, Narrow the search for information or resources, Summarize the information or represent it in some manner that is different from how it exists on the Web.; 9. develop a curriculum or subject matter context, narrow the search, and summarize the information; 10. They have a curricular-based subject matter focus and they motivate students to learn.

GLOSSARY

Learning that involves students creating their own knowledge in dynamic and focused ways. Artifact Authentic resource created through human work. Assessment A continual instructional process for collecting and analyzing information about student learning. Assessment rubric A method of evaluating learning that includes multiple criteria and performance levels for each criterion. Active Learning

A member of a sovereign state who incurs certain rights and responsibilities associated with her or his status. Civic Related to being a citizen. Civic competence The knowledge and skills needed to actively and productively participate in democratic life. Civic competence Understanding important social issues, participating in dialogues and conversations about public social life, volunteering and serving in public roles, and taking action when problems demand involvement. Civic virtue The necessary moral nature of participation in a democracy. Citizen

A reasonable or actual representation of some real-world phenomenon. Situated in the real world and connected to experiences that are a part of daily life. Authentic materials Materials drawn from real-world contexts that can be used to support learning and instruction. Authentic intellectual work Learning activities that enable students to develop knowledge in real-world contexts. Authentic teaching Teaching to accurately represent the real world; how standards become real in the classroom. Behavioral objective A learning goal specifying observable actions that students must demonstrate to indicate that learning has occurred. Case studies Descriptions of professional action, such as teaching, that have some explanatory qualities. Curriculum An organized body of subject matter developed from standards and arranged with consideration for appropriate scope and sequence. Authentic

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Meteorological conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and wind, that characteristically prevail in a particular region. Common good The general welfare of all individuals and groups within a community. An agreed-upon vision of what best suits the multiple interests of people in pluralistic societies. Conscience The willingness and ability to recognize and respect the beliefs or practices of others. Cooperative learning An approach to learning in which students share learning goals and work as a team toward achieving these goals. Climate

Natural and social differences that emerge from meaningful and unique human characteristics. Dyad A two-person instructional grouping. Epistemological A philosophical issue that deals with the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge. Ethnicity A group of people who share a common and distinctive racial, national, religious, linguistic, or cultural heritage. Experimentation A form of learning that results from the implementation of a designed set of actions aimed at verifying relationships between phenomena. Formal assessment Consistent assessment approaches used for all students in a class to evaluate specific learning stages. Geography The discipline that teaches knowledge about places and environment. Diversity

A group consciousness that explains how or why people move or settle in places and how they conduct economic and social life. Curriculum Courses of study in an academic discipline or the scope and sequence of specific subject matter within a single academic course. Democracy Most typically thought of as government by the people, either in direct or representative form, but also meant to refer more broadly to principles of social cooperation and individual rights. Democratic reasoning Thinking and analytical skills that are engaged when addressing social problems in a democratic context. Didactic Another word for a teacher-centered approach to teaching; also can mean a form of moral instruction. Digital Expressed in numerical form, especially for use by a computer, and displayed as an electronic representation of some other physical form. Direct instruction Closely developed series of exercises that provide learners continual interaction with limited, fundamental subject matter. Disciplinary Relating to the specific field of academic study in which unique rules for acquiring knowledge have been established and are practical. Discrete knowledge Ideas and concepts that share no obvious characteristics and are understood separately. Cultural systems

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Glossary

A grouping strategy that involves students being organized for group work according to different characteristics.

Heterogeneous grouping

Standardized assessments of student learning that are used to make decisions about, among other things, students’ progress to the next grade level or another course, a school’s standing at a local or state level, and/or the need for special services or instructional opportunities for students in a school. Historical inquiry A specific form of asking and answering questions that makes use of historical resources and particular methodologies in order to construct an interpretation of the past. Historical thinking Cognitive activities that help students develop historical understanding. Historical understanding Knowledge of the past that develops out of intrinsic interest and active interpretation. High-stakes tests

A world view or set of beliefs that explains human action and behavior. Incidental geography The geographic knowledge we have developed from everyday life and experiences. Informal assessment Low-key and unintrusive teacher actions focused on determining whether students are learning during an activity. Inquiry A method of teaching and learning that makes use of authentic resources in the investigation of meaningful topics and problems. Ideology

1 Emergence: A question or topic emerges from students’

2 Clarification: What we know about the answer or topic and what

interests and the curriculum

we do not know about the answer or topic

Emergence Clarification

Proposed solution

solution: 4 Proposed A proposed answer to the question or response to the topic

A grouping strategy that involves students being organized for group work according to like characteristics. Human culture Social patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought that contribute to a common way of life for a group of people. Human geography A branch of geography that deals with people, their environment, and their interactions.

Examination

3 Examination: A systematic effort directed at answering the question or addressing the topic

Homogeneous grouping

Instructional scope The breadth of instructional activities. Intentional geography The geographic knowledge that we

purposely learn. A teaching approach that uses a combination of group and individual work; it enables students to benefit from each other in dynamic environments.

Interactive instruction

Glossary

405

Relating to two or more academic disciplines and the relations and connections between these disciplines. Internet An interconnected system of networks that connects computers around the world via the TCP/IP protocol. Jigsaw grouping A grouping approach that involves students working in multiple groups on parts of a whole activity. Interdisciplinary

Initial Group A: John, Kato, Melissa, Maria

acceptance of differences aimed at overcoming racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination. Multimedia The combined use of media, such as movies, music, lighting, CD ROMS, and the Internet, for education or entertainment. Opportunity cost The value of things not selected in an economic situation. Patriotism Generally thought of as love of and devotion to one’s country; it may be displayed in countless ways.

New Group with students from:

A (Melissa)

Initial Group B: Eben, Liz, Carla, Jose

B (Jose)

C (Theo)

Initial Group C: Ryan, Mia, Theo, Juan

A self-perpetuating learning system in which new learning opportunities result from existing learning experiences. Literacy Knowledge in a particular field or subject; ability to read and write. Learning cycle

Tests that assess students’ knowledge in specific content areas on a regular basis so that students learn the state standards throughout the school year, not just in preparation for a one-time annual high-stakes test. Multiculturalism Many cultures existing together in a locality, without any one culture dominating, and with mutual Low-stakes tests

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Glossary

Unique forms of knowledge about how to take into account a teacher’s knowledge of subject matter, curriculum, learners, and communities, as well as contexts and ends for education. Pedagogy Most broadly, the act or act of teaching; also the substance of the knowledge of how to teach. Physical systems Nonhuman structures such as weather and landforms. Race A group of people united or classified together based on common history, geographic distribution, and similar physical traits. Reflection To reflect or think about something carefully; formal reflection may include the use of particular repeatable procedures for careful thinking. Reflective inquiry A process of developing new knowledge, which is contingent upon a procedure that assumes knowledge is ever changing and evolving. Region A specified district, territory, or other often-continuous place on Earth’s surface. Remediation The instructional act or process of correcting a fault or deficiency. Rubric Two-dimensional matrix of criteria that a teacher can use to make judgments about achievement levels for student work. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

Understanding about content in a specific academic area, such as history. Synthesis The process of combining ideas or objects to form a new whole thing. Teacher-directed instruction Teaching approach focused on clearly defined and organized teaching tasks and measurable incremental learning. Teacher knowledge A formal body of information that comprises our understanding of how to teach. Teaching cycle A specific four-part sequence of events that encompasses various acts involved in teaching. Subject matter knowledge

Specific forms of support for new learning that allow students to grow as independent learners. These supports are gradually removed as students develop autonomous knowledge. Schema An understanding or pattern that represents a complex set of ideas or experiences. Social change An action or actions directed at changing society in some positive way. Social inquiry Inquiry that focuses on the investigation of common problems whose solution will improve the human condition. Social reconstructionists Activists who aimed to redirect social studies practice toward collective action and social change. Social science inquiry Inquiry that involves disciplinary investigations focused on observations, hypothesis generation, data collection, and the proposal of a solution. Social studies The integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Spatial reasoning The ability to mentally organize information about people, places, and environments. Spatial understanding The ability to perceive oneself and other natural and human-made things in space. Standards Criteria or goals by which one can judge the quality of educational achievement. The most generalized and public representations of expectations for teaching and learning. Scaffolds

Academic Standards in • History • Government • Geography, and • Economics

State Standards are mostly mandatory and are a significant driving force in the development of curriculum

..... Local Curriculum including goals for instructional planning, assessment, and testing.

Teaching Cycle — a specific four part sequence of events which encompasses various acts involved in the teaching. Reflections should occur during all phases of the teaching cycle.

Developing Subject Matter Knowledge.

Instructional Planning: Planning to Teach.

1

2

The initial action a teacher takes in the teaching cycle. The desire to develop new subject matter knowledge is often initiated by some previous teaching and reflection.

Involves the development of teaching goals, objectives, activities, and assessment strategies.

Reflection

Rethinking the Lesson.

4

Involves systematic reflection on action. .

Instructional Practice: The Act of Teaching.

3

Involves the implementation of this plan.

The application of science to the improvement of the human condition.

Technology

Skills-Based Standards from organizations such as the National Council for the Social Studies

The capacity to recognize and respect the beliefs or practices of others. Transmission The delivery by a teacher to students of predetermined knowledge intent to be learned as a whole by the student. Web World Wide Web (WWW) Electronic resources––text, visual, audio––residing on all Internet servers that use the HTTP protocol, accessible to users via a simple point-andclick computer system. Tolerance

Glossary

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REFERENCES Chapter 1

Chapter 5

Bruner, J. (1999). Folk pedagogies. In J. Leach and B. Moon (Eds.), Learners and Pedagogy. London: The Open University. Levstik, L., and K. Barton. (2001). Doing History: Investigating with Children in Elementary and Middle Schools, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Saxe, D. W. (1991). Social Studies in Schools: A History of the Early Years. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Barton, K. C., and L. S. Levstik. (2004). Teaching History for the Common Good. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stearns, P. N. (1998). Why Study History? Available online from the American Historical Association at http://www.historians.org/pubs/Free/WhyStudyHistory.htm

Chapter 2 Dewey, J. (1910). How We Think. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath. Davis, O. L., and E. Yeager (Eds.). (2005). Wise Practice in the Social Studies Classroom. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Press. Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Temple Smith. Thornton, S. (2004). Teaching Social Studies That Matters: Curriculum for Active Learning. New York: Teachers College Press.

Chapter 3 Bruce, B. C., and J. Davidson. (1996). An inquiry model for literacy across the curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies 28, 281–300. Dewey, J. (1991). How We Think. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. (Originally published in 1910). Kolb, D. A., and R. Fry. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. L. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of Group Processes. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Chapter 4 Center for Civic Education. (2007). National Standards for Civics and Government. http://www.civiced.org/stds.html Center for Media Literacy. http://www.medialit.org/ Joint Committee on Geographic Education of the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and the Association of American Geographers (AAG). (1984). Guidelines for Geographic Education, Elementary and Secondary Schools. Klingel, C. F., and R. B. Noyed. (2002). Dolley Madison: First Lady (Spirit of American Our People series). Mankato: MN: The Child’s World. National Center for History in the Schools. (1996). National History Standards. http://nchs.ucla.edu/standards/ National Council on Economic Education. (1997). Voluntary National Standards in Economics. http://www.ncee.net/ea/ standards/ National Council for Geographic Education. (1994). Geography for Life: National Geographic Standards. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/standards/ National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (1991). Curriculum Standards for Social Studies. http://www.ncss.org/ standards/ Von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning. London and Washington, DC: The Falmer Press.

Chapter 6 Golledge, R. (March 20, 2001). Geography and ever yday life (again!). Directions Magazine. Piaget, J. (2001). The Psychology of the Children. New York: Basic Books. UNESCO. (2002). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity.

Chapter 7 Parker, W. C. (2003). Teaching Democracy: Unity and Diversity in Public Life. New York: Teachers College Press. Yankelovich, D. (2001). The Magic of Dialogue: Transforming Conflict into Cooperation (paperback). New York: Touchstone Press.

Chapter 8 Engelmann, S., and D. Carnine. (1991). Theor y of Instruction: Principles and Applications. Eugene, OR: ADI Press. Hunter, M. (1982). Master y Teaching. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications.

Chapter 9 Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., Austin, G. (1956). A study of thinking. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. National Council for the Social Studies. (1992). A Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies: Building Social Understanding and Civic Efficacy. http://www.socialstudies.org/ positions/powerful Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. (1975). Learning Together and Alone. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Taba, H. (1942) Teacher’s Handbook for Elementar y Social Studies. Boston: Addison-Wesley. Vygotsky, L. S. (2006/1930). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Chapter 10 Bracey, G. W. (1993). Elementary curriculum materials––still a long way to go. Phi Delta Kappan 74(8), 654–656. Deane, P. (2004). Literacy, redefined. Librar y Journal 129(14), 49–50. Elbow, P. (1999). Everyone Can Write: Essays Toward a Hopeful Theory of Writing and Teaching WritingNew York: Oxford University Press, USA. Elbow, P. (1981). Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Process. New York: Oxford University Press, USA. Fry, E. (1977). Elementary Reading Instruction. New York: McGraw Hill. Hoge, J. D. (1986). Improving the Use of Elementary Social Studies Textbooks. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social

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Studies/Social Science Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED274582). Jones, R. C., and S. S. Lapham. (2004). Teaching reading skills in the elementary social studies classroom. Social Studies and the Young Learner 17(2), 1–8. Lowen, J. (1996). Lies My Histor y Teacher Told Me. New York: Touchstone. National Council for the Social Studies. Notable Trade Books for Young People (published annually). http://www.socialstudies. org/resources/notable National Council for the Social Studies. (1992). A Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies: Building Social Understanding and Civic Efficacy (position statement). Prepared by the Task Force on Standards for Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies. NCSS Board of Directors. Retrieved March 9, 2006. http://www.socialstudies.org/ positions/powerful Newmann, F. M., and associates. (1996). Authentic Achievement: Restructuring Schools for Intellectual Quality. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Scheurman, G., and F. M. Newmann. (1998). Authentic intellectual work in social studies: putting performance before pedagogy. Social Education 62(1), 23–25. Thornton, S. J. (2001). Educating the educators: rethinking subject matter and methods. Theory into Practice 40(1), 72–78.

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References

Chapter 11 Kubey, R. (2004). Media literacy and the teaching of civics and social studies at the dawn of the 21st century. American Behaviorial Scientist 46(10), 1–9. Scheurman, G., and F. M. Newmann. (1998). Authentic intellectual work in social studies: putting performance before pedagogy. Social Education 62(1), 23–25.

Chapter 12 Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theor y, Research, and Practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Glaser, N. (1998). We Are All Multiculturalists Now. Boston: Harvard University Press. Schlesinger, Jr., A. (1998). The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society. New York: Norton and Co.

Chapter 13 Clay, M. M. (1979). The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties. Auckland, NZ: Heinemann.

PHOTO CREDITS Chapter 1 Pages 2–3: Robyn Beck/AFP/Getty Images/NewsCom; page 4: Elyse Lewin/Getty Images; page 5: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 7: (top) Mar y Kate Denny/PhotoEdit; page 7: (bottom) ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 8: Library of Congress/NG Image Collection; page 9: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 10: (left) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 10: (center) Priit Vesilind/NG Image Collection; page 10: (right) Steve McCurry/NG Image Collection; page 11: Augustus F. Sherman/NG Image Collection; page 12: Arthur Shilstone/NG Image Collection; page 13: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division; page 14: Chris Johns/NG Image Collection; page 15: (top) Victor R. Boswell, Jr. /NG Image Collection; page 15: (bottom) Winfield Parks/NG Image Collection; page 16: Antonio Mari/NewsCom; page 18: Steve Winter/NG Image Collection; page 20: Ira Block/NG Image Collection; page 21: ©M.SAT LTD/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 23: (top) Steve Winter/NG Image Collection; page 23: (bottom) William Albert Allard/NG Image Collection; page 24: VICTOR R. BOSWELL, JR/NG Image Collection; page 25: Alexandra Boulat/NG Image Collection; page 26: (top) Peter Newark American Pictures/The Bridgeman Art Library International; page 28: (bottom) Ira Block/NG Image Collection

Chapter 2 Pages 30–31: Imagno/Austrian Archives/Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 33: Robert Warren/Getty Images; page 35: Stephen St. John/NG Image Collection; page 37: NG Maps; page 39: NG Image Collection; page 40: (left) Raymond Gehman/NG Image Collection; page 41: (left) Raymond Gehman/NG Image Collection; page 41: (right) Michael S. Yamashita/NG Image Collection; page 42: (left) NG Image Collection; page 42: (right) Peter Magubane/NG Image Collection; page 43: Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 44: (center) NG Image Collection; page 44: (top right) George F. Mobley/NG Image Collection; page 44: (bottom) Michael Lewis/NG Image Collection; page 45: (top) Roy Gumpel/NG Image Collection; page 45: (bottom) Bell Family/NG Image Collection; page 47: Adm. Robert E. Peary/NG Image Collection; page 48: Jim Richardson/NG Image Collection; page 49: REUTERS/Atef Hassan/Landov LLC; page 50: (left) Stephen St. John/NG Image Collection; page 50: (right) Gerd Ludwig/NG Image Collection; page 51: (top) Marc Riboud/Magnum Photos, Inc.; page 51: (bottom) Steve McCurry/NG Image Collection; page 53: Edward Curtis/NG Image Collection

Chapter 3 Pages 54–55: Digital Vision/Getty Images, Inc.; page 54: (inset) ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 56: Debi Treloar/Getty Images; page 58: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 59: (top) AVEENDRAN/AFP/Getty Images/NewsCom; page 59: (bottom) NG Image Collection; page 61: (top) Adam Crowley/Getty Images; page 61: (bottom) Charles Thatcher/Getty Images; page 62: Steve McCraken/NG Image Collection; page 63: (left) Stephen St. John/NG Image Collection; page 63: (right) PhotoDisc/Getty Images/Getty Images; page 64: REUTERS/Mian Khursheed/Landov LLC; page 65: (left) Steve McCurry/NG Image Collection; page 65: (right) James. L. Stanfield/NG Image Collection; page 67: (left) Joel Sartore/NG Image Collection; page 67: (right) Courtesy Tennessee Valley Authority; page 68: MARIANA BAZO/Reuters /Landov LLC; page 69: Purestock; page 71: Hulton Archive/Getty Images, Inc; page 72: Carl E. Akeley/NG Image Collection; page 73: (center left) Otis Imboden/NG Image Collection; page 73: (center right)

Michael Lewis/NG Image Collection; page 73: (bottom) Raymond Gehman/NG Image Collection; page 74: Joy Tessman/NG Image Collection; page 75: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 77: David Alan Harvey/NG Image Collection; page 78: (top) David Alan Harvey/NG Image Collection; page 80: Ricahrd Nowitz/NG Image Collection

Chapter 4 Pages 82–83: John Kelly/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; page 85: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 86: PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images; page 87: (left) Library of Congress/NG Image Collection; page 87: (right) Thomas Nebbia/NG Image Collection; page 88: Norbert Rossing/NG Image Collection; page 89: Hulton Archive/Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 92: (center left) Paul Damien/NG Image Collection; page 92: (center right) Stephen St. John/NG Image Collection; page 92: (bottom) Richard Nowitz/NG Image Collection; page 93: Stephanie Maze/Getty Images; page 94: Ira Block/NG Image Collection; page 95: Mary Kate Denny/PhotoEdit; pages 96–97: NG Image Collection; page 98: (left) George F. Mobley/NG Image Collection; page 98: (right) Cary Wolinsky/NG Image Collection; page 100: Catherine Karnow/NG Image Collection; page 101: William Albert Allard/NG Image Collection; page 102: (top left) Peter Essick/NG Image Collection; page 102: (top right) Justin Guariglia/NG Image Collection; page 102: (bottom) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 103: NG Image Collection; page 105: (top) ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 105: (center) Justin Guariglia/NG Image Collection; page 105: (bottom) Sarah Leen/NG Image Collection; page 106: (top) Nicole Duplaix/NG Image Collection; page 108: Dick Durrance II/NG Image Collection

Chapter 5 Pages 110–111: Photofest; page 113: James L. Amos/NG Image Collection; page 114: MPI/Hulton Archive/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 115: (far left and right) Bill Curtsinger/NG Image Collection; page 115: (left) The Granger Collection; page 118: Stock Montage/Hulton Archive/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 119: (top) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 119: (bottom) Melissa Farlow/NG Image Collection; page 120: James L. Stanfield/NG Image Collection; page 121: (left) Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 121: (center) O. Loius Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 121: (right) Medford Taylor/NG Image Collection; page 124: (left) Anne Keiser/NG Image Collection; page 124: (right) Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 125: (top left) Todd Gipstein/NG Image Collection; page 125: (top right) Library of Congress/NG Image Collection; page 125: (bottom) Mezzotint by Henry S. Sadd, c1845./The Granger Collection; page 127: (top) Sally Greenhill/Alamy Images; page 127: (bottom) Museum of the City of New York/Byron Collection/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 128: The Granger Collection; page 130: Karen Kasmauski/NG Image Collection; page 131: Picture History/NewsCom; page 132: Maria Stenzel/NG Image Collection; page 133: Joseph F. Rock/NG Image Collection; page 134: (top) ©Collection of the New–York Historical Society, USA/The Bridgeman Art Library International; page 136: Willard Culver/NG Image Collection; page 137: Todd Gipstein/NG Image Collection

Chapter 6 Pages 138–139: David Sutherland/Getty Images, Inc; page 138: (bottom) NG Maps; page 139: (top inset) Gabe Palmer/zefa/Corbis; page 141: Gabe Palmer/zefa/Corbis; page 142: NG Maps; page 143:

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(top) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 143: (bottom) Franz Pritz/Alamy Images; page 144: (left) Joy Tessman/NG Image Collection; page 144: (right) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 145: James L. Stanfield/NG Image Collection; page 146: (left) Raymond Gehman/NG Image Collection; page 146: (right) NG Maps; page 147: (left) NG Maps; page 147: (right) The Bridgeman Art Librar y International; page 148: Alamy Images; page 149: George F. Mobley/NG Image Collection; page 150: (top left) Gordon Gahan/NG Image Collection; page 150: (top right) Frans Lanting/NG Image Collection; page 150: (bottom) NG Maps; page 151: (top) Making the world a better place by Emily Carroll, Age 8, United States, Burleigh Elementary School, Brookfield, WI, 2003. From: The Barbara Petchenik Children s World Map Competition, sponsored by the International Cartographic Association, http://www.icaci.org/.Entries for this competition can be viewed at http://children.library.carleton.ca; page 151: (bottom) O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 152: (top) O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 152: (bottom) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 153: (top left) Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 153: (top right) O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 154: Annie Griffiths Belt/NG Image Collection; page 154: (inset) NG Maps; page 155: (top) Amy Toensing/NG Image Collection; page 155: (bottom) Fred Ramage/Keystone Features/Hulton Archive/Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 156: NG Image Collection; page 157: NG Image Collection; page 158: (top) NG Image Collection; page 158: (bottom) NG Image Collection; page 159: Terranova/Photo Researchers, Inc.; pages 162–163: NG Image Collection; page 164: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 164: (inset) NG Maps; page 165: (top) Steve Raymer/NG Image Collection; page 165: (bottom) Dean Conger/NG Image Collection; page 166: Courtesy Penn Mutual Life Insurance Co; page 170: (top) NOAA/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 170: (bottom) Gabe Palmer/zefa/Corbis

Chapter 7 Pages 174–175: The Granger Collection; page 177: Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; page 178: Medford Taylor/NG Image Collection; page 179: (top) David C. Turnley/NG Image Collection; page 179: (center) Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 179: (bottom) Cary Wolinsky/NG Image Collection; page 182: Karen Kasmauski/NG Image Collection; page 184: Walter Astrada/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 183: Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; page 185: (bottom) Justin Guariglia/NG Image Collection; page 185: (top) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 186: (top) Tim Platt/Getty Images; page 186: (bottom) Keystone/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 187: Zephyr Picture/ Index Stock Imagery; page 189: (left) David Alan Har vey/NG Image Collection; page 189: (bottom) Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 192: Danny Lehman/NG Image Collection; page 194: Robyn Beck/AFP/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 195: Chris Steele–Perkins/Magnum Photos, Inc.; page 196: AP/Wide World Photos; page 197: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 198: (top) Joel Sartore/NG Image Collection; page 200: (top) Corbis Digital Stock; page 200: (center left) PhotoDisc, Inc.; page 200: (center right) PhotoDisc, Inc.

Chapter 8 Pages 202–203: Private Collection/Archives Charmet//Bridgeman Art Library/NY; page 204: (left) Stephen Saks/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images; page 204: (right) Louise Coleman/NG Image Collection; page 206: SUPERSTOCK; page 208: (left) William Albert Allard/NG Image Collection; page 208: (right) Joel Sartore/NG Im-

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Text Credits

age Collection; page 209: Sisse Brimberg/NG Image Collection; page 211: (top) The Granger Collection; page 211: (bottom left) Clifton Adams/NG Image Collection; page 211: (bottom right) Winfield Parks/NG Image Collection; page 212: AP/Wide World Photos; page 213: (left) The Granger Collection; page 213: (right) Breton Littlehales/NG Image Collection; page 214: (left) MPI/Hulton Archive/Getty Images; page 214: (right) AP/Wide World Photos; page 215: The Granger Collection; page 217: (top) Ira Block/NG Image Collection; page 217: (bottom left) Arthur H. Warner/NG Image Collection; page 217: (bottom right) AP/Wide World Photos; page 218: Karen Kasmauski/NG Image Collection; page 219: Peter Macdiarmid/Reportage/Getty Images; page 221: Courtesy USDA, Natural Resources Conser vation Ser vice; page 222: (top) Joseph Baylor Roberts/NG Image Collection; page 222: (bottom) Louise Coleman/NG Image Collection; page 224: The Granger Collection

Chapter 9 Pages 226–227: Tim Platt/Iconica/Getty Images; page 228: Ellen B. Senisi/The Image Works; page 229: Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 233: NG Maps; page 231: (top) Luis Marden/NG Image Collection; page 231: (bottom) Albert Moldvay/NG Image Collection; page 234: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 235: Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; page 236: (left) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 236: (right) Paul Chesley/NG Image Collection; page 237: (top) Time Life Pictures/White House/Time Life Pictures//Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 237: (bottom) NG Maps; page 239: (left) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 239: (right) Steve McCurry/Magnum Photos, Inc.; page 240: Norbert Rosing/NG Image Collection; page 241: Richard Nowitz/NG Image Collection; page 242: The Granger Collection; page 244: (top) O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 244: (bottom) O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 246: (left) The Granger Collection; page 246: (right) Penny de los Santos/NG Image Collection; page 247: (top) The Granger Collection; page 247: (bottom) Gordon Wiltsie/NG Image Collection; page 249: (top) Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; page 250: Louvre, Paris, France/ Lauros / Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library International; page 251: Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 249: (bottom) James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 252: Melinda Berge/NG Image Collection; page 254: (top right) MANDEL NGAN/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 254: (bottom) Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News and Sport Services

Chapter 10 Pages 256–257: MANDEL NGAN/AFP/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 258: David Boyer/NG Image Collection; page 259: Otis Imboden/NG Image Collection; page 260: The Granger Collection; page 261: (top) ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 261: (bottom) Raymond Gehman/NG Image Collection; page 263: Gail Mooney/NG Image Collection; page 264: (right) Phil Schermeister/NG Image Collection; page 264: (left) Steve McCurry/NG Image Collection; page 265: VITALY ARMAND/AFP/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 266: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 267: NG Maps; page 268: Ellen B. Sinisi/The Image Works; page 269: Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 270: Elen Sinisi/The Image Works; page 271: O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 272: Alexandra Avakian/NG Image Collection; page 273: Black Stars of Civil War Times by Jim Haskins, general editor. ©John Wiley & Sons; page 274: (top) NG Image Collection; page 274: (bottom) NG Image Collection; page 275: (left) Myrleen Ferguson Cate/PhotoEdit; page 275: (center) Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; page 275: (right) Elizabeth Crews/

The Image Works; page 277: The Granger Collection; page 279: Sara Leen/NG Image Collection; page 280: Paul Nicklen/NG Image Collection; page 281: Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 282: Frank A. Munsey/NG Image Collection; page 283: (top) NG Image Collection; page 286: Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection

Chapter 11 Pages 288–289: Jon Feingersh/Getty Images, Inc; page 290: Ellen B. Sinisi/The Image Works; page 291: The Bridgeman Art Library International; page 293: (top) NG Maps; page 293: (bottom) British Museum, London, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library International; page 295: Courtesy NASA; page 297: (top left) Richard Nowitz/NG Image Collection; page 297: (right) Richard Nowitz/NG Image Collection; page 297: (bottom left) Maynard Owen Williams/NG Image Collection; page 298: Dr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor/NG Image Collection; page 299: (top) NG Image Collection; page 299: (bottom) PhotoDisc/Getty Images, Inc; page 300: (left) Raymond Gehman/NG Image Collection; page 300: (right) Howard Castleberry/NG Image Collection; page 301: The Granger Collection; page 304: Sarah Leen/NG Image Collection; page 305: (left) Todd Gipstein/NG Image Collection; page 305: (right) Stacy Gold/NG Image Collection; page 306: (top) Justin Guariglia/NG Image Collection; page 306: (bottom) ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 307: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 308: Sam Abell/NG Image Collection; page 310: Richard Nowitz/NG Image Collection; page 311: (top) ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 311: (bottom) Ellen B. Sinisi/The Image Works; page 312: (top left) Dr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor/NG Image Collection; page 313: (top) Joel Sartore/NG Image Collection

Chapter 12 Pages 314–315: Dave Nagel/The Image Bank/Getty Images; page 316: MUSTAFA OZER/AFP/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 317: Jose Azel/Aurora Photos; page 318: Francis Miller/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 319: Ann Griffiths Belt/NG Image Collection; page 321: Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 322: O. Louis Mazzatenta/NG Image Collection; page 323: The Granger Collection; page 325: B. Anthony Stewart/NG Image Collection; page 326: Michael Nichold/NG Image Collection; page 328: NG Maps; page 329: MPI/Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 330: Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 331: Lynn Saville/Photonica/

Getty Images; page 332: James L. Stanfield/NG Image Collection; page 333: Reza/NG Image Collection; page 334: (top) Steve Raymer/NG Image Collection; page 336: Paul Zahl/NG Image Collection

Chapter 13 Pages 338–339: Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 340: Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works; page 342: Steve Raymer/NG Image Collection; page 343: James L. Stanfield/NG Image Collection; page 345: (left) Nobert Rosing/NG Image Collection; page 345: (right) Michael Nichols/NG Image Collection; page 346: Jodi Cobb/NG Image Collection; page 349: Klaus Nigge/NG Image Collection; page 350: Stockbyte /Getty Images; page 352: Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 353: Kenneth Garrett/NG Image Collection; page 354: Jim Young/Reuters/NewsCom; page 357: Michael S. Quinton/NG Image Collection; page 356: Sisse Brimberg/NG Image Collection; page 358: Will van Overbeek/NG Image Collection; page 359: Hulton Archive/Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 360: Scott Lewis/NG Image Collection; page 361: (top) Medford Taylor/NG Image Collection; page 364: (bottom inset) Bob Sacha/NG Image Collection

Chapter 14 Pages 364–365: Ariel Skelly/Getty Images; page 366: George Steinmetz/NG Image Collection; page 367: The Granger Collection; page 368: (left) MPI/Getty Images News and Sport Ser vices; page 368: (right) Librar y of Congress/NG Image Collection; page 369: Joel Sartore/NG Image Collection; page 370: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 371: Steve Winter/NG Image Collection; page 373: (center left) Melissa Farlow/NG Image Collection; page 373: (bottom left) Richard Nowitz/NG Image Collection; page 373: (right) Edward Curtis/NG Image Collection; page 374: (left) James L. Stanfield/NG Image Collection; page 374: (right) Taylor S. Kennedy/NG Image Collection; page 375: NG Image Collection; page 376: James P. Blair/NG Image Collection; page 377: (left) Jan van der Straet/Bridgeman Art Librar y/Getty Images; page 377: (right) Stockybyte/Getty Images; page 378: Justin Guariglia/NG Image Collection; page 379: Taylor S. Kennedy/NG Image Collection; page 380: William Albert Allard/NG Image Collection; page 381: (top) Justin Guariglia/NG Image Collection; page 382: (bottom) Sarah Leen/NG Image Collection

TEXT CREDITS Lessons on pgs. 96–97 and pgs. 156–163 are from National Geographic Map Essentials: A Comprehensive Map Skills Program, courtesy of National Geographic School Publishing.

Table 14.1: Effective Use of Instructional Technology: Guidelines for K-16 Social Studies Educators, from National Council for the Social Studies.

Text Credits

413

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INDEX A Ability grouping, 246 Abrahamic religions lesson, 38–39 Abu Simbel temple, 244 Abzug, Bella, 174 Accommodating learners, 320 Active learning, 126, 210, 290–310 actual planning for, 302–306 and authentic social studies, 292, 294–295 and dynamic instruction, 236–237 goals for, 291 in history, 126–127, 130 initial planning considerations for, 296–301 during interactive instruction, 234–236 lesson plans for, 307–309 reflection on, 309–310 and subject matter, 292–293 and teacher-directed instruction, 210–211 Adams, Abigail, 174 Aesop’s fables, 192–193 AHA (American Historical Association), 6 Alamo, 63 Allen, Ethan, 118, 120 Alternative energy lesson, 278–279 Amazon River Basin, 14, 16–17 American Civil War, causes of, 35, 115 American colonies, 300–301 American Historical Association (AHA), 6 American Revolution, 210 Analytical activities, 216 Ancient Greek life, 297 Anthony, Susan B., 174 Anthropology, 23 Armstrong, Alan, 122 “Artful doing,” 42 Artifacts, 273 as authentic resources, 273–274 lesson on, 116–117 Assessment (in general): inquiry and, 74–77 of interactive instruction, 233 meanings of term, 340 Assessment (of learning), 340–360 choosing meaningful techniques for, 306 evaluation vs., 341 formal, 341–343 formative, 344–346 to improve teaching and learning, 351–357

informal, 342–344, 349–350 as part of instruction, 346–360 pedagogical responses to, 351 rubrics for, 358–360 as source of information about students, 320, 322 summative, 344–346 Assessment rubrics, 75, 358–360 Assimilating learners, 320 Authentic, defined, 100 Authentic intellectual work, 271, 292 Authentic learning, 100, 126 about customs, 272 and active learning, 291–292, 294–295 going beyond standards for, 98 in history, 130–133 standards for, 292 testing connected to, 93 Authentic materials/resources, 273–274 examination of, 63, 64 for history, 130–133 texts, literacy and use of, 271–274 Authentic teaching, 98 and authentic intellectual work concept, 271 beyond standards, 98 with standards, 100–105 Awareness: civic, 180–186 geographic, 148–153, 166–169 historical, 118 B Barton, Keith, 114, 273 Bastille, storming of, 343 Behavioral reinforcements, 301 Behavioral sciences, 23 Bethune, Mary McLeod, 13 Black Stars of Civil War Times (Jim Haskins), 273 Blanchard, Jean Pierre, 169 Blogs, as authentic materials, 274 Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, 320 Brain-based learning models, 320 Breadth of lessons, 98–100 Brown, Jeff, 82 Bruce, Bertram, 56 Bruner, Jerome, 11, 240 Bunting, Eve, 182 Burke, Edmund, 177 Burns, Robert, 307 Butter Battle Book (Dr. Seuss), 263, 265 Buzz activities, 241

C Calendars, 325 Cameras, 213 Cartagena, Spain, 15 Case studies: in assessment, 356–357 learning about teaching from, 49–51 Catrow, David, 193 Center for Civic Education (CCE), 6, 25, 187 Center on Education Policy, 47 Chan Chanin, 100 Chávez, César, 194 China, approach to social studies in, 10 Chronology, historical understanding as, 121 Cinque, Joseph, 40 Circumstances, adapting standards to, 103 Citizens, 176 literacy skills of, 259 rights of, 188 City planning lesson, 168 Civic, defined, 176 Civic awareness, 180–186 and communication in democracies, 186 knowledge of social issues, 184–185 patriotism, 182 respect for authority and others, 180–181 Civic competence, 6, 176–197 achieving, 178 elements of, 187–189, 192 and forms of civic awareness, 180–186 need for, 176–177 promoting, 192–197 social studies for, 6 Civic knowledge: developing, 193–195 forms of, 180 Civic leaders lesson, 235 Civic responsibilities (for children), 187 Civics, as content discipline, 22 Civic virtue, 6 Civil rights, 188 Civil War, see American Civil War CIVITAS International, 6 Clarification (in inquiry), 62–63 Classroom economy, 216 Class rules, setting, 183 Clay, Marie, 355 Climate types, 345 Clothing, social and cultural issues with, 298–299

415

Coaching, 64 Collaboration, interactive instruction and, 248 Columbus, Christopher, 12 Common good, 7, 114 Community involvement (for children), 189, 192, 195 Community needs, reflecting on, 46 Comprehension, historical, 118 Computer-based games, 378–380 Concept attainment/development models, 240 Concept-development teaching, direct, 216–217 Concept writing, 276 Connecticut state geography, 232–233 Conscience, 180 Constitution, teaching about, 50 Content disciplines, 20–23 behavioral sciences, 23 civics, 22 economics, 22 geography, 21–22 history, 20–21 Content knowledge, 296, 298–299 Converging learners, 320 Conversation, in democracies, 186 Cooperative learning, 248 Core Knowledge Foundation, 6 A Country Far Away (Nigel Grey), 151 Counts, George, 9 Court system, 190–191 Cultural diversity, 318, 322–325 Cultural geography, 148–150 Cultural homogeneity, 330–333 Culturally responsive teaching and learning, 324 Cultural systems, 143 Curricular subject matter, reflecting on, 36, 38–39 Curriculum, 46, 85 adapting, to teacher circumstances, 103 authentic connections between testing, standards, and, 100–105 creating detailed lessons from, 94–98 cultural diversity reflected in, 322–323 and homogeneous cultural settings, 333 ideological character of, 196 and in-depth teaching of subject matter, 94–98 inquiry implementation in, 74–77 as instructional planning issue, 296, 300 and literacy, 280–282 reading, 212 reflecting on, 46–47

416

Index

standards influencing, 84–89 and teacher-directed instruction, 212 weaving subject matter into, 301 Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (National Council for the Social Studies), 25, 86 Customs, learning about, 272 Cuyahoga River, life along, 119 D Daguerre, Louis, 212, 213 Daguerreotype, 213 Davidson, Judith, 56 Debate, in democracies, 186 Decision making, 216 interactive, 238, 239 as literacy skill, 259–260 on road building, 219 Declaration of Independence, 250–251 Deforestation, 14 Deliberating approach, 14, 16–18 Democracy(-ies), 6 communication in, 186 community involvement in, 189, 192 dispositions for, 178 prompting actions in, 179 technology resources exploring, 374, 375 U.S., rules governing, 250–251 Democratic reasoning, 188–189 Depth of lessons, 96–100 The Devastation of the Indies (Bartolomé de Las Casas), 202 Dewey, John: authentic experiences considered by, 101 on authentic learning, 271 on reflective inquiry, 48, 56 Dialogue, in democracies, 186 Didactic instruction, 204. See also Teacher-directed instruction Digital resources, 374 Direct explanation method, 214 Direct instruction, 205 to encourage historical understanding, 115, 118 Hunter method, 205, 206 storytelling for, 13 teacher-directed instruction vs., 204–209 Direct learning, 126, 128–129 Disciplinary contexts, 4 Disciplinary subject matter model, 89 Disciplines, 20. See also Content disciplines Discrete knowledge, 75 Discussion, in democracies, 186 Distance, understanding of, 140–141

The Disuniting of America (Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.), 319 Diverging learners, 320 Diversity, 316–333 cultural, 322–325 forms of, 316–318 individual, 326–330 in learning, 320–322 personality-related, 326–328 in school, 318–319 and schools with homogeneous characteristics, 330–333 in society, 319 Doing History (Linda Levstik and Keith Barton), 273 Dolley Madison (Cynthia Fitterer Klingel and Robert B. Noyed), 87 Don Quixote and the Windmills (Eric A. Kimmel), 266 Doolittle, Peter, 131 Douglas, Lloyd G., 280 Dyads, 245 Dynamic instruction: and active learning, 236–237 adaptation for, 249–251 E Earhart, Amelia, 241 Earth’s movements, weather and, 294–295 Eastman, George, 234, 236 Eckford, Elizabeth, 318 Economic rights, 188 Economics: as content discipline, 22 students interest in, 68 Economy, classroom, 216 Edison, Thomas, 234, 236 Egyptian pyramid construction, 291 Einstein, Albert, 69 Elbow, Peter, 276 Emancipation Proclamation, 125 Emerging interests (in inquiry), 61–62 Empathy, historical, 122, 124 Encomienda, 202 Endangered animals, curriculum unit on, 88 Engelmann, Siegfried E., 205 Epistemological issues, 210 Eskimo Indians, 47, 342 Ethnicity, 317, 319 European exploration, 202 Evaluation, assessment vs., 341 Examination (in inquiry), 63, 64 Example, teaching by, 205 Expanding horizons curriculum model, 89 Expectations, performance and, 316

Expectations of Excellence (NCSS), 259 Experimentation, 60 Explanation: changing methods for, 354 direct, 214 to encourage historical understanding, 115, 118 of life along Cuyahoga River, 119 Expressive assessments, 343 F Fairness, lesson on, 76–77 Federal Reserve Board, 346 Fiction, historical, 122 Films, 305, 306 Flat Stanley Project, 82 Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level formula, 267 Floating classrooms, 271 Flow resources lesson, 104–105 “For and against” activities, 242 Forbes, Esther, 122 Formal assessment, 341–343 Formative assessment, 344–346 Fountain of Youth, 211 Fry, Edward, 267 Fry, Roger, 57, 58 G Games, computer-based, 378–380 Gardner, Howard, 320, 321 Gatekeeping, 46 Gay, Geneva, 324 Geisel, Theodore (Dr. Seuss), 263, 265 Geographic awareness, 140, 148–153 incidental vs. intentional, 140–141 maps in teaching of, 166–169 need for, 140–147 Geographic understanding, 154–165 elements of, 154 human systems in, 155–163 physical systems in, 164–165 places and regions in, 155 spatial understanding in, 154–155 Geography, 141 active learning about, 292 computer-based games for, 380 as content discipline, 21–22 cultural, 148–150 human, 141–142 incidental, 140 intentional, 140 as starting point for social studies, 145 state, 232–233 Geography Education Standards Project, 25 Geography for Life: National Geographic Standards (National Council for Geographic Education), 25, 86

The Giver (Lois Lowry), 193 Glacier, Ilulissat, 209 Glazer, Nathan, 319 Golledge, Reginald, 140 Gonzales, Elian, 50 Government: books/stories about processes of, 193 levels of, 208 purposes of, 188, 208 role and processes of, 188 U.S., branches of, 190 U.S. federal court system, 190–191 Greek life, ancient, 297 Grey, Nigel, 151 Grouping: based on subject matter, 244 general forms of, 245 instructional, 247 for interactive instruction, 243–247 reasons for, 243 specialized methods of, 246 Group work, 205 with interactive instruction, 236 in reading, 265 H Hammurabi’s Code, 250 Harris, Joel Chandler, 193 Harry Potter series, 110 Haskins, Jim, 273 Henry, John, 62 Heterogeneous grouping, 245 Hicks, David, 131 Higher-order thinking skills, 216, 240 High-stakes tests, 90 Hindu gods, 236–237 Historical artifacts lesson, 116–117 Historical awareness, 118 Historical comprehension, 118 Historical documents, 273 Historical empathy, 122, 124 Historical fiction, 122 Historical inquiry, 71–72 Historical investigation, 118 Historical judgment, 120 Historical knowledge: constructing, 114–120 transmission of, 126 Historical thinking, 115–118, 120 Historical understanding, 114–115 as chronology, 121 forms of, 121 of relationship between past and present, 125 as story, 122 through direct instruction/explanation, 115, 118 of what is significant, 124–125

History, 112–133 active learning about, 292 approaches to teaching, 126–127, 130–133 and construction of historical knowledge, 114–120 as content discipline, 20–21 curriculum requirements for, 113 and forms of historical understanding, 121–125 need for, 112 of social studies, 8–9 what children need to know about, 112–113 Hoge, John, 269 Homogeneous grouping, 245 Homogeneous schools, 330–333 Horses, humans’ uses of, 373 How We Think (John Dewey), 48, 56 Humans in North America, 269 Human culture, 148 Human geography, 141–142 Human systems: in geographic understanding, 155–163 in Southern Africa, 144–145 Hunter, Madeline, 205 Hunter method of direct instruction, 205, 206 Hurricane Katrina, 2 I Ideology, 196–197 IEPs, see Individual Education Plans “I Have a Dream” (Martin Luther King, Jr.), 197 ILPs, see Individual Learning Plans Ilulissat glacier, 209 Immigration, 127, 130 Incidental geography, 140 Independent teacher-directed instruction, 218, 220–221 India: diversity of life in, 44 social action in, 185 Individual diversity, 318, 319, 326–330 Individual Education Plans (IEPs), 328, 330 Individual Learning Plans (ILPs), 328, 330 Informal assessment, 342–344, 349–350 Inquiry, 56–77 clarification step in, 62–63 in curricular contexts, 74–77 designing, 66–69 emerging interests step in, 61–62 examination step in, 63, 64 forms of, 70–73 historical, 71–72

Index

417

Inquiry (cont.) models of, 56 process of, 57–59 reflective, 48–51 social, 70–72 social science, 70, 72 in social studies vs. science, 60 suggested solution step in, 64–65 Inquiry groups, 247 Inside/outside planning process, 18, 19 Instructional narratives, 307, 309 Instructional planning, see Planning for instruction Instructional scope, 98 Intellectual work, authentic, 271, 292 Intelligences, multiple, 320, 321 Intentional geography, 140 Interactive instruction, 228–251 adapting, 248–251 assessment of, 233 characteristics of, 234–237 and collaboration, 248 grouping strategies for, 243–247 structure of, 229–230 and students’ level of prior knowledge, 231–233 types of, 238–242 Interdisciplinary teaching, 18–19 International Day of Peace, 338 International Reading Association (IRA), 276 Internet, 370 Interpersonal intelligence, 320 Intrapersonal intelligence, 320 Inventories, as sources of information on students, 320 Investigating approach, 14, 15 Investigation, historical, 118 IRA (International Reading Association), 276 J Jamestown Colony, 20–23 Japan, teaching about music in, 99 Jefferson, Thomas, 176 Jerusalem, 154 Jigsaw grouping, 245 Johnny Tremain (Esther Forbes), 122 Johnson, David, 248 Johnson, Roger, 248 Johnson, Samuel, 182 Jones, Ray, 265 Jones, Thomas Jesse, 8 Judgment, historical, 120 K Kerley, Barbara, 266 Kimmel, Eric A., 266

418

Index

Kinesthetic intelligence, 320 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 197 Klingel, Cynthia Fitterer, 87 Knowledge: civic, 180, 193–195 discrete, 75 forms of, 290 historical, 114–120, 126 pedagogical content, 40 prior, 44, 66, 68, 231–233 reorganizing, from content to subject matter, 296, 298–299 of social issues, 184–185 students’ construction of, 64–65 subject matter, 35–37, 40–41, 231, 296, 298–299 teacher, 45–48 Kolb, David, 57, 58, 320 Kozol, Jonathon, 46 Kubey, Robert, 306 L Language arts, 282 Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 202 Learner, reflecting on, 45–46 Learning: active, see Active learning assessment of, see Assessment (of learning) authentic, see Authentic learning cooperative, 248 culturally responsive, 324 direct, 126 inquiry as, 56–59 models of, 320 self-guided, 228 social influences on, 229 writing for, 276 Learning cycle, 57, 341 Learning diversity, 318, 320–322 Learning goals, setting, 300 Learning personalities, 326–328 Learning styles model, 320 Learning style grouping, 246 Lectures, 205, 208 Lesson narratives, 309 Lesson planning: for active learning, 307–309 common components in, 41 for cultural diversity, 324 methods for, 307 outline form for, 308–309 reflection during, 41 and translating curriculum into plans, 94–98 Letters from a Slave Girl (Mary E. Lyons), 263 Levstik, Linda, 114, 273

Lies My History Teacher Told Me (James Lowen), 269 Linguistic intelligence, 320 Literacy, 258–282 defining, 258–259 importance of, 258–261 reading, 262–267 Read Write Think resources/information on, 276 skills related to, 258–261 and social studies curriculum, 280–282 and use of authentic texts, 271–274 and use of textbooks, 268–270 writing, 275–279 Literature, geographic subject matter in, 151 Little Rock, Arkansas school integration, 318 Living space lesson, 220–221 Local curriculums, 322–323 Local standards, 322–323 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 320 Lowen, James, 269 Lowry, Lois, 193 Low-stakes tests, 90 Lyons, Mary E., 263 M Madison, Dolley, 87, 89, 215–216 Magazines, as authentic materials, 274 The Magic of Dialogue (Daniel Yankelovich), 186 Magna Carta, 250 Maori tribe, 150 Maps: activities with, 94–98 constructing, 167 investigating, 15 learning to use, 146–147 Mesopotamian, 292–293 in study of geography, 21 in teaching geographic awareness, 166–169 Map Essentials, 95 Marriage, cultural differences in, 330 Media resources, 306 Mesopotamian world map, 292–293 Middleton, Henry, 300–301 Mississippian Mound-Builders, 73 Models: of elementary social studies curriculum, 89 inquiry, 56 learning, 320 SCIM-C, 131–132 Model United Nations Headquarters, 374 Money, printing, 354

Montgomery County Maryland curriculum, 98 Multiculturalism, 319, 320 Multicultural understanding, 189, 193 Multidisciplinary, social studies as, 6 Multimedia, 372 Multiple intelligences, 320, 321 Multiple intelligence grouping, 246 Musical intelligence, 320 Mystery activities, 241 N Narratives: instructional, 307, 309 lesson, 309 Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen’s Captivity (Ethan Allen), 120 National Center for History in the Schools (NCHS), 24, 115 National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE), 6, 25 National Council for Teachers of English (NCTE), 276 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS): on civic competence, 176 common good defined by, 7 on connections social studies and language arts, 282 Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, 25, 86 on literacy, 259 map use standard from, 95 recommended trade book list from, 273 social studies defined by, 6 standards from, 25, 85 technology guidelines from, 368–370 National Council on Economic Education, 25 National Education Association, 9 National Forum on Information Literacy, 258 National Geographic Society: Human Population map, 220–221 Map Essentials activities from, 95 Web site of, 375 National Geography Standards (NGS): culture in, 149 flow resources in, 104 Geography for Life publication, 164 for human settlement, 100 for using maps, 95, 96 National History Standards (National Center for History in the Schools), 24, 25 cultural arts standard, 74

on historical understanding and thinking, 114 local community life standard, 46 state standards influenced by, 86 westward migration standard, 103 National park system, 247 National standards, 24–25. See also specific standards National Standards for Civics and Government (Center for Civic Education), 25 knowledge areas in, 195 on personal and civic responsibilities, 187 on purposes of government, 188 state standards influenced by, 86 Native Americans: Eskimos, 47, 342 map created by, 147 rock carvings of, 307 Seven Cities of Cibola legend, 323 synthesis-related activities, 240–241 totem poles of, 146 Natural diversity, 317 Naturalist intelligence, 320 Natural resources: renewable and nonrenewable, 302, 304–305 usage of, 238, 239 NCGE, see National Council for Geographic Education NCHS, see National Center for History in the Schools NCSS, see National Council for the Social Studies NCTE (National Council for Teachers of English), 276 New Jersey Social Studies Core Curriculum Content Standards, 74 Newmann, Fred, 271, 292 New Mexico state curriculum/standards, 323 New Social Studies movement, 8–9 Newspapers: as authentic materials, 274 teaching critical consumption of, 306 Newton, R. Heber, 8 New Zealand, geography of, 150 Nonrenewable resources, 302, 304–305 Noyed, Robert B., 87 O OAH (Organization of American Historians), 6 Oil: in Amazon River Basin, 14, 16–17 prices of, 54

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Producing Countries), 54 Opportunity cost, 216 Organization of American Historians (OAH), 6 Organization of Petroleum Producing Countries (OPEC), 54 Origami, 356 Outline lesson plans, 308–309 P Paca, William, 300–301 Patriotism, 182 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 40 Pedagogy, 11, 40–41 Performance, expectations and, 316 Personal conscience, 180 Personal interests, 36 Personality-related diversity, 318, 326–328 Personalizing subject matter, 301 Personal responsibilities (for children), 187 Personal rights, 188 Photographs, historic, 132, 133 Physical systems, 143, 164–165 Piaget, Jean, 151 Pioneer life in America, 329 Places: in geographic understanding, 155 how children relate to, 144 Planning for assessment, 349 Planning for instruction. See also Lesson planning with active learning, 296–306 forms of knowledge in, 290 initial considerations for, 296–301 with technology, 376–380 Pocahontas storyboard, 123 Political rights, 188 Polling, assessment by, 344 Ponce de Leon, Juan, 211 Population density lessons, 156–163, 220–221 Popup reading, 265 Port au Prince, Haiti, 184 Prereading activities, 268–270 Presentism, 125 Printing press technology, 367 Prior knowledge: accounting for, 44 and inquiry, 66, 68 interactive instruction and level of, 231–233 Problem-based learning groups, 247 Problem solving, interactive, 238 Professional development, see Teacher knowledge

Index

419

Psychology, 23 Purposes: of education, 47–48 of social studies, 49 Pyramid construction, 291 Q Questioning, assessment by, 343–344 Quizzes, 343 R Race, 317 Reading, 262–267 determining reading levels, 267 general approaches to, 262–263 instructional activities including, 263 specific approaches to, 265–266 standards for, 276 Reading buddies, 266 Reading festivals, 266 Reading levels, 267 Readingquest.org, 265 Reading recovery, 355–356 Read Write Think, 276 Reasoning: democratic, 188–189 spatial, 166 Redwood National Park, 164 Reflection, 32–51 in action, 32–33 on action, 32–34 on active learning, 309–310 after a lesson, 43, 45 to increase professional knowledge, 45–48 as inquiry, 48–51 prior to instruction, 35–42 Reflective Teaching Cycle Process Diagram, 34 on subject matter knowledge, 35–37, 40–41 during teaching, 42–43 to uncover misunderstandings, 36–37 Reflective inquiry, 48–51 Reflective teaching cycle: assessment in, 341 Process Diagram for, 34 Regions: defined, 144 in geographic understanding, 155 Regional climates, 37 Remediation, 355–356 Renewable resources, 302, 304–305 Resources (instructional). See also Natural resources adapting, 64, 305, 306 authentic, 63, 64, 130–133, 273–274 flow, 104–105

420

Index

matching instructional needs and, 301 preparing, 64 selection considerations for, 305 using, 305–306 Web-based, 371–375 Respect for authority and others, 180–181 Responsibilities: in interactive instruction, 229 learning about, 187 Reteaching, 355–356 Rights of citizens, 188 Rock carvings, 307 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 13 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 214 Roosevelt, Theodore, 214 Rowling, J. K., 110 Rubrics, see Assessment rubrics Rugg, Harold, 9 Rules, societal, 250–251 Rural life, urban life vs., 231 S Savage Inequalities (Jonathon Kozol), 46 Saxe, David Warren, 8 Scaffolds, defined, 68 Scaffolding, 68 Schemas, 62–63 Scheurman, Geoffrey, 292 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 319 Schön, Donald, 32, 34, 42 Schwab, Joseph, 20 Science, inquiry in, 60 Scientists in history lesson, 69 SCIM-C process, 131–132 Scope, instructional, 98 Seat check assessments, 344 Self-guided learning, 228 Seven Cities of Cibola legend, 323 Shadow reading, 266 Sharia law, 250 Significance, historical, 124–125 Singapore, 165 Sinornithosaurus, 59 Smith, Margaret Bayard, 89 Soccer, 152–153 Social action, 185 Social change, 5 Social cognition, theory of, 229 Social homogeneity, 330–333 Social inquiry, 70–72 Social issues, knowledge of, 184–185 Socially constructed diversity, 317 Social reconstructionists, 9 Social science inquiry, 70, 72 Social studies, 4–25 approaches to, 11–17 in China, 10

content disciplines in, 20–23 defining, 5–6 history of, 8–9 nature of, 6–7 purposes of, 9, 49 standards-based, 24–25 Social Welfare movement, 8 Societal rules, 250–251 Society, diversity in, 319 Sociology, 23 Southern Africa, human systems in, 144–145 Space, living, 220–221 Spatial intelligence, 320 Spatial reasoning, 166 Spatial understanding, 154–155 and geographic awareness, 140–142 of maps, 147 Standards, 24–25, 84 adapting, to teacher circumstances, 100, 102–103 authentic connections between testing, curriculum, and, 100–105 for authentic learning, 292 authentic teaching with, 100–105 curriculum influenced by, 84–89 inquiry-driven, 74 for reading and writing, 276 state, 85–89, 212 technology, 368, 369 and testing, 90–93 Standards-based social studies, 24–25 Standardized testing: high-stakes, 90 inquiry and, 74–75 as source of information on students, 320 State capitals, 207, 209 State curriculums, 322–323 State geography lesson, 232–233 State standards, 85–89, 212, 322–323 Stearns, Peter, 112 Storyboards, 122, 123 Storytelling, 13 to communicate civic values, 192–193 for historical understanding, 122, 123 as teacher-directed method, 215–216 Structure of the Disciplines (Joseph Schwab), 20 Student interest grouping, 246 Subject matter: challenging, interactive instruction with, 237 and choice of teaching method, 210 developing pedagogical ideas from, 296, 300–301 enlivening, 237 forms of active learning for, 292–293

managing, in inquiries, 66, 67 narrowing of, 297, 300 as part of curriculum, 301 personalizing, 301 and teacher-directed instruction, 210 Subject-matter based grouping, 246 Subject matter knowledge, 35 assessment of, see Assessment (of learning) in interactive instruction, 231 misunderstanding about, 36–37 reflection on, 35–37, 40–41 reorganizing from content knowledge to, 296, 298–299 Suggested solutions (in inquiry), 64–65 Summative assessment, 344–346 Surveys, as sources of information on students, 320 Synthesis, 240 Systems, 143 cultural, 143 physical, 143 T Taba, Hilda, 240 Task grouping, 247 TCP/IP protocol, 370 Teacher-directed instruction, 204–221 direct instruction vs., 204–209 factors influencing, 210–213 goal of, 210 independent, 218, 220–221 priorities for, 205 types of, 214–217 whole class, 218, 219 Teacher knowledge, 45–48 Teaching: approaches to, see specific approaches, e.g.: Direct instruction assessment for improvement of, 351–357 authentic, 98, 100–105, 271 case studies for learning about, 49–51 culturally responsive, 324 of history, 126–127, 130–133 impact of standards and curriculum on, 86–87 reflecting after, 43, 45 reflecting during, 42–43 Teaching cycle, 34, 341, 346–348 Technology, 366–380 developmentally appropriate, 370 guidelines for using, 368–369 teaching with, 376–380

types of, 367 uses of, 367–368 Web-based resources and information, 371–375 Tellico Dam project, 67 Ten Commandments, 250 Testing: authentic connections between curriculum, standards, and, 100–105 authentic learning connected to, 93 high-stakes and low-stakes, 90–92 standardized, 74–75, 90, 320 teacher-developed, 90 Textbooks, 268–270 approaches to using, 268–270 limitations of, 270 structure and analysis of, 270 Thanksgiving lessons, 128–129, 346–348 Thinking: higher-order, 216, 240 historical, 115–118, 120 synthesis in, 240 Thornton, Steven, 46 Thucydides, 112 Timbuktu, teaching about, 332 Time, teaching concept of, 30 Timelines, 121, 377 Time management: and depth/breadth of instruction, 98–100 in inquiry activities, 66 Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 191 Tolerance, 178 Tom Sawyer (Mark Twain), 262 Trade books, authentic, 273 Traffic around the world, 65 Transmission, 126 Transportation, 217 Transportation lessons, 264 Tremain, Johnny, 122 Tutankhamen, 352–353 Twain, Mark, 262 U Uncle Remus Tales (Joel Chandler Harris), 193 Underground Railroad, 260–261 Understanding: geographic, 154–165 historical, 114–115, 118, 121–125 multicultural, 189, 193 spatial, 140–142, 154–155 of world around one, 151

United Nations Cyberschoolbus Web site, 374 Urban life, at different times in history, 102 V Values, civic, 192–193 Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 91–92 Virginia Company, 21 Voluntary National Standards in Economics (National Council on Economic Education), 25, 86 Von Glasersfeld, Ernest, 101 Vygotsky, Lev, 101, 228–229 W The Wall (Eve Bunting), 182 Walt Whitman (Barbara Kerley), 266 Washington, George, 182 Washington Monument, 91–92, 349 Water, availability of, 238, 239 We Are All Multiculturalists Now (Nathan Glazer), 319 Weather, Earth’s movements and, 294–295 Web, defined, 371 Web-based resources/information, 371–375 Web logs, as authentic materials, 274 Web sites, as authentic materials, 274 We the People (David Catrow), 193 WHA (World History Association), 6 “What do you know about it?” activities, 241–242 “What’s the question?” activities, 242 Whittington (Alan Armstrong), 122 Whole class teacher-directed instruction, 218, 219 World History Association (WHA), 6 World Wide Web (WWW), 371 Writing, 275–279 alternative energy lesson, 278–279 for learning, 276 process of, 275 in social studies, 281 standards for, 276 Writing aloud approach, 276 Writing it out approach, 276 Written assessments, 342–343 WWW (World Wide Web), 371 Y Yankelovich, Daniel, 186

Index

421