Visual Research Methods : An Introduction for Library and Information Studies 9781783304585, 9781783304578

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Praise for Visual Research Methods ‘Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb make a compelling case for the value of photographs, drawings and other visual materials in LIS research and assessment, providing theoretical grounding for applications explored in six chapters by a range of practitioners. An excellent introduction to current work and a useful reference for future studies, Visual Research Methods in LIS is a welcome and clarifying addition to an exciting and growing field.’ Dr Nancy Fried Foster, Design Anthropologist ‘The book forms a timely introduction to visual research methods for LIS practitioners and researchers who are looking to extend the ways in which they understand libraries, library patrons and other information-related activities. Providing a useful guide to the theoretical underpinnings of visual research, including vital methodological and ethical considerations, the book is also brimming with practical detail related to the mechanics of working with participatory, non-participatory and arts-based methodologies alike. A vital toolbox for novice and experienced LIS researchers!’ Dr Alison Hicks, Department of Information Studies, University College London, UK ‘Bedi and Webb offer an excellent primer on visual research methods and their potential contribution to LIS. They offer a short overview of visual research methods, and a valuable immersion into the challenges, opportunities and practical implications of using visual approaches in LIS research. The rest of the volume includes six different examples of applications of visual research methods in different contexts, which illustrate the breadth and variety of situations in which visual methods have been and can be used in LIS. The examples of visual research methods in LIS address the work of librarians, archivists and consultants working with community outreach, makerspaces, and archives, to name a few of the LIS contexts covered. Examples illustrate use of visual, object and photo-elicitation using low-tech techniques such as draw-and-write, as well as high-tech techniques such 3D laser scanning and visualization, in addition to the more traditional forms of participatory photography and photo-elicitation. This book offers compelling evidence of the power of visual research methods to gain deeper understanding of the experiences and meanings of LIS users (and of information professionals and other stakeholders too). By harnessing the power of visual methods, LIS research can provide opportunities for meaningful engagement and participation in the co-creation of knowledge in a rigorous and richly creative way.’ Dr Ricardo Gomez, Associate Professor, University of Washington Information School, USA ‘Visual research methods are demonstrating their potential to enliven research in Library and Information Sciences in richly diverse and productive new ways. Visual Research Methods offers a model of thoughtful engagement with the field, providing a critical reflection on the guiding assumptions behind visual research, as well as explaining how and why this methodology is helping us rethink research questions, data and complex information ecosystems. From the theoretical perspectives to exploring VRM in action, this book constitutes an essential primer in the shifting terrain of LIS and visual research.’ Dr Catherine Harding Associate Professor, Art History & Visual Studies, University of Victoria, Canada

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‘Visual Research Methods offers LIS practitioners a different way of seeing when it comes to conducting research. This is a must-have book for those looking to deeply engage with research participants and to discover far more than initially imagined. Appropriate for all information professionals and with a blend of theory and practice, Visual Research Methods provides flexibility, insight, and direction: an essential addition to an LIS professional’s research and assessment toolkit.’ Virginia Wilson, Former Director of the Centre for Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (C-EBLIP), University of Saskatchewan, Canada ‘Visual research methods are a crucial bridge toward understanding and connecting with people in a world overflowing with audiovisual expression. This book elucidates the use of visual methods in LIS including frameworks for understanding, benefits, limitations, and examples from the field. As a researcher trained in LIS who studies participatory events, I applaud this guide for LIS researchers to unlock the visual world’s affordances for pursuing questions old and new. Libraries have long been sites where assumptions about information format have been challenged, and the authors of Visual Research Methods meaningfully carry that tradition into the arena of library research. Drawings, photographs, videos, objects, even performance: all carry information within libraries, and now we begin to see how they also carry information about libraries and their constituents.’ Dr Diana Daly, Director of Undergraduate Studies at UArizona iSchool and Director of iVoices Media Lab ‘In a world dominated by the visual, it is imperative that those working in LIS fields conducting research or doing assessment add visual research methods to their repertoire. Luckily for practitioners, this volume provides both timely theoretical backing and practical case studies for necessary guidance. Readers will find tools to expand their methodological toolkit, understand the power of images to foster engagement, and be inspired to incorporate visual research methods into their own practice. Highly recommended.’ Dana Statton Thompson, MLIS , MFA, MA, Research and Instruction Librarian & Assistant Professor, Arthur J. Bauernfeind College of Business, Murray State University, USA ‘Information environments and landscapes are complex and multilayered requiring research methods that are creative, flexible and agile to capture information sources, interactions and practices that are produced in workplace, academic, community contexts. This primer illustrates the potential of visual methods to expand researchers’ ability to work in a wider range of information rich and diverse contexts. Visual methods should be part of every LIS researchers’ toolbox.’ Professor Annemaree Lloyd, Department of Information Studies, University College London, UK

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Visual Research Methods

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Every purchase of a Facet book helps to fund CILIP’s advocacy, awareness and accreditation programmes for information professionals.

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Visual Research Methods An Introduction for Library and Information Studies

Edited by

Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb

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© This compilation: Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb 2020 The chapters: the contributors 2020 Published by Facet Publishing, 7 Ridgmount Street, London WC1E 7AE www.facetpublishing.co.uk Facet Publishing is wholly owned by CILIP: the Library and Information Association. The editors and authors of the individual chapters assert their moral right to be identified as such in accordance with the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Except as otherwise permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, with the prior permission of the publisher, or, in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of a licence issued by The Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to Facet Publishing, 7 Ridgmount Street, London WC1E 7AE. Every effort has been made to contact the holders of copyright material reproduced in this text and thanks are due to them for permission to reproduce the material indicated. If there are any queries please contact the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-78330-456-1 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-78330-457-8 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-78330-458-5 (e-book) First published 2020 Text printed on FSC accredited material.

Typeset from editors’ files by Flagholme Publishing Services in 10/13 pt Palatino Linotype and Open Sans. Printed and made in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY.

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Contents

Figures and Tables

ix

Acknowledgments

xi

Contributors

xiii

Introduction: An Invitation to Visual Research Methods Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb

xvii

PART 1: A PRIMER ON VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS IN LIBRARY AND INFORMATION STUDIES

1

1

A Brief Introduction to Visual Research Methods in Library and Information Studies Jenaya Webb and Shailoo Bedi

3

2

Visual Research Methods: Discovery Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb

29

PART 2: VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS IN ACTION

51

3

Librarian, Illustrated: The Draw-and-Write Technique as a Visual Method for Libraries Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks

53

4

Rediscovering Community Heritage Through 3D Laser Scanning and Visualization Elizabeth Tait

83

5

Making as Storytelling: Using Draw-and-Write and Object Elicitation in the Design and Study of a Library Makerspace Jess Whyte and Chelsea Misquith

107

6

Windows into Library Experience: The Value of Visual UX Research Methods 127 Andy Priestner

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7

Digital Storytelling, Archival Research and ‘Layers of Practice’: A Critical Pedagogical Approach to Visual Literacy in University Archives and Special Collections Angela Fritz

153

8

Navigating the Thresholds of Information Spaces: Drawing and Performance in Action Rebecca Noone

169

Author index

189

Subject index

195

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Figures and Tables

Figures 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Student studying near windows Student looking out the window and thinking Child drawing on a whiteboard Drawing made for library staff Example script for the draw-and-write technique for a study of ‘librarian’ Example of written instructions for the draw-and-write technique The front (left) and reverse (middle) side of the iSquare; a student engaged in the iSquare drawing activity (right) Draw-and-write data sets presented in the form of exhibitions Citizens’ visions of ‘librarian’: sample themes LibSquare drawings of the ‘old maid librarian’ LibSquare drawings of the ‘young and adorable librarian’ LibSquare drawings of the ‘sexy librarian’ LibSquare drawings of the ‘male librarian’ LibSquare drawings of ‘librarian – abstracted’ LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as managing books’ LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as technological work’ LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as knowledge keeping’ LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as teaching’ LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as wide-ranging work’ LibSquare ice-breaker activity instructions LibSquare drawing of ‘librarian as heart–mind connector’ LibSquare drawing of ‘librarian as virtuoso’ LibSquare drawing of ‘librarian as someone who knits a community together’ LibSquare drawings of librarians as pictorial metaphors: squirrel (left), dandelion blossom (middle) and octopus (right) Dr. Jonathan Scott on site at Ladyhill, Elgin with laser scanner Point cloud visualization of Little Cross, Elgin shown in Cloud Compare Point cloud image of Bracos Banking House and 3D surface model Leica C10 scanner at Ladyhill, Elgin Visualization from scan data Interview participant interacting with image researcher Andy Grinnall (top); Professor Richard Laing demonstrating visualizations (bottom)

xviii xix xx xx 58 58 59 62 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 71 71 72 73 74 75 76 76 85 86 86 89 90 91

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4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Professor Richard Laing demonstrating the laser scanner Visualization from laser scan of Little Cross Visualization of Elgin High Street Plan view of Elgin High Street in Leica TruView Screenshot from fly-through of Elgin High Street Participants with artifacts they had brought to the participatory visualization event at Elgin Library Participants discussing artifacts they had brought to the participatory visualization event at Elgin Library Studio307, taken March 2017 Messy table during Arduino Club, Studio307, taken October 2016 Example of draw-and-write worksheet Example of draw-and-write worksheet Example of 3’ x 4’ collaborative worksheets Example of 3’ x 4’ collaborative worksheets A student’s cognitive map showing different libraries used for different purposes A cognitive map showing a lonely and isolating research life Charles Darwin University Library as a superhero helping support a PhD candidate with their studies Monash University's Library as a safe harbour in the storm of University life Students rushing to the Library in Maastricht to secure the best seats (not a dance party in a marquee!) Libraries offering stories and, thereafter, storytelling, gathered at Victoria University of Wellington A Cambridge University library user working in a medium intensity space with room to spread out A Cambridge University library user working in cramped conditions at a small desk A photograph from the Snapshot cultural probe depicting 'What I have with me when studying' The ‘monkey mountain’ at the Anna Lindh Library, Swedish Defence University, Stockholm Wolverhampton students in the UX research and design lab during my consultancy there in 2019 One of our prototype spaces that a Wolverhampton student described as ‘a room in a detention centre’ Route directions collected in Toronto, fall 2017 Route directions collected in London, spring 2018 Route directions collected in Amsterdam, spring 2018 Route directions collected in New York, fall 2017

94 95 96 96 97 98 98 108 108 113 113 114 114 131 131 133 134 135 136 138 139 141 143 146 147 171 176 178 182

Table 1.1

Participatory and non-participatory types of visual data collection and reporting

10

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Acknowledgments

We acknowledge, with deep respect, the Indigenous peoples on whose territories we live, work, learn and create. We are grateful to be visitors on the unceded territories of the Lekwungen and SENĆOŦEN peoples, where the University of Victoria now stands and on the traditional land of the Huron-Wendat, the Seneca and the Mississaugas of the Credit River, where the University of Toronto is now located. As we reflect on the histories that have brought each of us to live and work on these lands, we also reflect on our work as librarians and researchers and the roles that institutions such as libraries, archives, galleries and museums have played and continue to play in colonial violence in North America. We take seriously our responsibilities as settlers to work towards reconciliation. We extend our sincere gratitude to the contributors to this book, for their excellent chapters and for sharing their genuine enthusiasm for visual research methods. Our heartfelt appreciation to our wonderful colleagues Christine Walde, David Brown, Lara Wilson and Shahira Khair, who read and provided thoughtful input on various draft chapters. We are indebted to Angela Pollak for her insights and suggestions on several chapters and for her passion for visual research. We thank Amanda Bidnall for her careful reading of each chapter and for helping us pull all the voices together into a coherent whole. We would also like to thank Carmen Craig for her support with logistics and organization. Pete Baker, Michelle Lau, Sinéad Murphy and Fleurie Crozier at Facet Publishing have been wonderful to work with as we put together a book with so many pictures. Thank you also to Damian Mitchell for starting us on the path of writing this book and for giving us the opportunity to share our passion for visual research methods. We are grateful to the University of Victoria’s Book Grant for supporting this book project and to the University of Victoria and the University of Toronto Libraries for supporting us in this endeavor.

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We would be remiss not to recognize Virginia Wilson at the University of Saskatchewan Library, who introduced us and connected us for the 2016 Centre for Evidence Based Library & Information Practice’s fall symposium. This thoughtful introduction has led to a research and writing collaboration that has resulted in several articles, this book and a life-long friendship. Finally, we thank our wonderful families and friends who have been so patient and supportive through this project. Most importantly, our love and thanks to James and Trevor. We could not have done it without you. Shailoo Bedi, Victoria, BC, Canada Jenaya Webb, Toronto, ON, Canada

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Contributors

Shailoo Bedi works at the University of Victoria (UVic) as both Director, Academic Commons and Strategic Assessment with the Libraries as well as Director, Office of Student Academic Success with Learning, Teaching Support & Innovation. Shailoo holds a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in Education, Curriculum and Instruction and is an adjunct professor with UVic’s Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies department. Her research interests include the construction and issues of identity for racialized minority Canadian leaders, as well as student experience with learning spaces, student research creation and visual research methods. Shailoo is passionate about fostering intellectually engaging and inclusive learning environments for everyone. Angela Fritz serves as the Head of the University of Notre Dame Archives where she manages the official repository for university records and the related Catholic manuscript collection. She received a PhD in American History from Loyola-University-Chicago, a Master of Library Science (MLS) degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and a Digital Archives Certificate from the Society of American Archivists. Previously, Angela served as Interim Head of Special Collections and University Archives at the University of Arkansas Libraries in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Jenna Hartel is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Information, University of Toronto, where she teaches in the Library and Information Science area. Her research agenda explores the nature of information in the pleasures of life and she applies creative and visual methods. Deborah Hicks is an Assistant Professor at the School of Information at San José State University. She earned her PhD at the University of Alberta, her Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS) degree at Dalhousie

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University and her Master of Arts (MA) degree at York University. The core concept that informs her research agenda is identity. Studies examining identity ultimately focus on two questions: ‘who am I?’ and ‘how should I act?’ Through her research, she explores how these core questions are answered at the micro level of the individual to the mezzo level of organizations to the macro level of society. Chelsea Misquith is the Emerging Technologies Librarian at the Ruth Lilly Medical Library, Indiana University School of Medicine. She works with the library’s Technology Team to connect medical faculty, students, residents and staff with the 3D printing and virtual and augmented reality services offered through the library’s Nexus Collaborative Learning Lab. In her free time, she enjoys swimming, travelling and watching horror movies. Rebecca Noone is an artist, researcher, and educator engaged in critical studies of everyday information seeking. She was recently awarded a PhD from the University of Toronto's Faculty of Information (summer 2020). Her arts-based doctoral research focuses on street-level wayfinding within contemporary conditions of proprietary digital mapping, offering an emergent method to reflect on mediations of location awareness and spatial perception. Her goal is to apply possibilities of research creation to the field of information studies as a means to tease out the undergirding power structures at play in daily information experiences and provide accessible and inspiring frameworks for reflection and awareness. Andy Priestner Formerly a librarian at both Oxford and Cambridge University, Andy is now a full-time freelance consultant and trainer in user experience research and design. He has recently completed consultancies in Sweden, Germany, Australia and the UK. His books include: User Experience in Libraries and the annual UX in Libraries Yearbook. Andy created and chairs the international UX in Libraries conference, which is now in its sixth year. Elizabeth Tait is a lecturer in Information Management at Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Melbourne. Her work examines the sociocultural impact of digital technologies with a particular focus on civic participation and community engagement with marginalized communities. Her work is transdisciplinary and utilizes participatory methods to work in partnership with local stakeholders. Jenaya Webb is the Public Services and Research Librarian at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Library at the University of Toronto. She

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earned her MA in anthropology at the University of Alberta where she examined the power of images as research evidence to measure landscape change and to generate stories of place in Jasper National Park, AB. Since completing her MLIS at the University of Toronto, she has worked to bring visual methods and approaches to the library context to explore user experience, wayfinding and meaning-making in library spaces. Jess Whyte is the Digital Asset Librarian at the University of Toronto, where she also wrote her thesis on academic makerspaces. Jess’s work focuses on digital preservation, restoration and management. Before becoming a librarian, Jess co-authored Building OpenSocial Apps, one of the first books on developing applications for social networks and worked in community and public radio.

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Introduction: An Invitation to Visual Research Methods Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb

The idea behind this book is a simple one: to share our passion for visual research methods with our colleagues in libraries and information studies. We begin with a story, Shailoo’s reflection about her inaugural experience with visual research methods, a photo-narrative study at the University of Victoria Libraries. In 2016, I launched a visual research study at the University of Victoria Libraries. I had never conducted visual research before and I had only just discovered visual research methods in my doctoral studies in education. It was not until I had the opportunity to work with a consultant on library space planning that I thought about conducting a visual study, in this case, using the photo-narrative method. I wanted to know: How are students using the library space? How do they shape or reshape the spaces? What type of learning goes on in the library space? What is missing from the space and design that might impact their learning or general experience of the space? Promoting the study with a catchy advertisement slogan – ‘Let your pictures tell the story’ – I recruited ten participants. This may not sound like a lot, but it yielded 314 minutes of interview time and 237 photos (despite my request for only 10 to 12 images per student). What surprised me most was the number of international students who took part. Six out of the ten students were international students who spoke English as an additional language. This group included Li, from China, and Priyanka, from India. I share their stories here with their first names and photos printed with permission. Li, a graduate student, featured windows in every photo she took. She also featured herself in many of her photos, sitting at a carrel with large windows beside her or looking out a window from the comfort of an armchair (Figures 0.1 and 0.2 on the following pages). When

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we met for the interview, I asked her about the windows that were so prominent in her images. She commented, I did my undergraduate degree in China. My university was a large urban university. Many students attended that school. Our library was large with lots of books. But when I came here, I was surprised to see so many windows in student spaces. I did not have that in my former university. Student study spaces were without windows. I did not think much about that until I came here. The windows are great. I love the natural light. I try to get here early so I can get a seat by the window.

Figure 0.1 Student studying near windows

When I probed her about the photo in which she was looking out the window – what was happening for her there? – Li said, I like to look out the window when I am thinking. It is nice to see the trees and green grass when I am contemplating and reflecting. I didn’t realize how important that is for when I am studying. When I want to reflect more deeply, I look out on the greenery of campus.

From Li’s interview and accompanying photos, it was clear that the most important aspect of her study space in the library was the natural light and windows that looked out on the quad. Bringing nature into her study space inspired her and gave her a chance to reflect. And she discovered this about herself only after she began working at the University of Victoria Libraries. For Priyanka, a graduate student and mother, it was important that every

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INTRODUCTION  XIX

Figure 0.2 Student looking out the window and thinking

photo she submitted to the study included her young daughter. During the interview, I asked if her daughter was with her on only one occasion. She told me, No, I bring her almost every time I need to study. I have no childcare for her, so she comes to the library with me. Sometimes [she] is very busy with watching a YouTube cartoon or reading. Sometimes she falls asleep. [She] is very understanding that I need to work and she tries her best to keep busy.

I really enjoyed the photos that Priyanka shared. She showed a facet of library usage I was not aware of: a parent’s perspective. Figures 0.3 and 0.4 on the next page are particularly telling. As Priyanka explained to me, Figure 0.3 shows her daughter drawing on a whiteboard to keep busy. As time went on, her daughter became bored and fell asleep on the chair. Priyanka mentioned that her daughter became very popular with the staff at front desk. In Figure 0.4 Priyanka captured a drawing her daughter did for the staff and which the staff had put up in their workplace. She also shared how important the staff had become to her and her daughter. They were like extended family and friends, looking out for her and her daughter and taking an interest in them both. This photo-narrative study helped me understand the identities of some of my library’s users in a way that a survey or focus group could not. I think it

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Figure 0.3 Child drawing on a whiteboard

Figure 0.4 Drawing made for library staff

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allowed international students to engage with the research study in a way I had not seen before. There was a comfort in sharing their thoughts and expressions through images. Furthermore, in reviewing their images with them, I discovered aspects of the participants’ identities that they had either just discovered themselves or had never shared before. It was clear from the interviews and reflections that the library was embedded in these students’ daily lives and that the students brought to the library diverse identities, needs and study habits. We share these stories to illuminate the potential of visual research methods in library and information studies (LIS). Jenaya and I have reflected on our experiences using visual research methods elsewhere (Bedi and Webb, 2017) and we offer some further insights here. We believe an important strength of visual research methods is that they provide an alternate method for engaging a diverse group of research participants. The international students who took part in the study at the University of Victoria commented about how they liked being able to engage with photos instead of completing a survey, where questions can be hard to understand and written responses can be challenging. Several mentioned that focus groups were intimidating, while others had no idea what a focus group was or why they should participate in one. These are all very useful insights as we strive to engage with our students, learn about their needs and discover how the library can support them. The results of the University of Victoria study provided insights about the space that no other research tool had garnered. However, what really sold me on visual research methods was that they provided a forum for deep engagement with student research participants. What I learned through this study extended well beyond my research questions and my expectations. When conducting other library-related research projects, I had never before experienced participants’ joy in sharing their work and values. The opportunity to engage in a personal, narrative-based, reflexive process allowed me to develop a strong understanding of student needs with library space. Engaging with students over their images and hearing their stories about using library space highlighted the power of images to foster understanding and build relationships.

Why a Book on Visual Research Methods? The methodological decisions we make as researchers necessarily shape the types of knowledge we generate and the types of contributions we can make to research and practice in LIS. We believe that the complexity of the questions being asked in the profession requires adopting diverse and alternative

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methods. Hicks and Lloyd suggest that we need to explore research methods that are ‘flexible yet sufficiently robust enough to capture understandings about the variety of information sources and activities that are produced through an individual’s academic, workplace and community-based interactions’ (Hicks and Lloyd, 2018, 229). Embracing visual methods more fully will not only help expand the methodological toolkit of LIS, it will also advance our knowledge about the complex information ecosystems we study. In this book, we will use the term LIS to represent library and information disciplines broadly. We recognize the important nuances regarding professional identities within library, archival and information sciences and studies; however, we use the term LIS to refer inclusively to all related professions, including archives, galleries, museums, cultural heritage, libraries and information sciences. We direct readers to Hicks (2014), MacNeil (2011) and Procter (2017) for additional readings on professional identities in LIS. While the representation of various qualitative methods and approaches has increased in the LIS literature, visual methods are only beginning to gain momentum in the discipline. Researchers in LIS often lament the discipline’s limited repertoire of methods and point to the over-reliance on methods like surveys to study information users, practices and experiences (Halpern et al., 2015). Although several fairly recent reviews of the literature suggest there has been a growth in the sophistication and diversity of research methods in librarianship and LIS (Aytac and Slutsky, 2014; Chu, 2015; Khoo, Rozaklis and Hall, 2012; Ullah and Ameen, 2018), survey methods remain predominant (Ullah and Ameen, 2018). Ullah and Ameen state that while it is possible that popular methods such as surveys are just well suited to research in LIS, ‘it is also possible that researchers do not give enough thought to other possibilities or are not aware of them’ (2018, 58). These reviews offer slightly different conclusions about the state of LIS methodologies, but all the authors reiterate the importance of and need for methodological expansion in our field. We wholeheartedly agree. This book comes at a time when visual research methods have begun to make headway in LIS research. Visual research methods comprise a collection of methods that incorporate visuals elements such as maps, drawings, photographs, videos, as well as three-dimensional objects into the research process. Visual research methods such as photo elicitation, photovoice, drawand-write techniques and cognitive mapping are being leveraged to explore information experiences to explore some of the central questions in our field (Hartel, 2014), expand theoretical discussions in LIS (Hicks, 2018) and improve library services and spaces (e.g. Duke and Asher, 2012; Foster and Gibbons, 2007). The chapters in this book build on and expand this conversation. We showcase examples of visual research methods in

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information settings that are not typical ‘library’ settings, such as archives, public spaces and cultural heritage sites. The purpose of the book is to provide a strong methodological context for the adoption of visual research methods in LIS and to highlight practical examples of visual research in action. We hope the book will have broad appeal for researchers, practitioners and leaders across LIS. As researchers and practitioners ourselves, we want to ensure that the dual nature of LIS practice – we conduct both research and assessment – is reflected in this book. While the goals of research and assessment can be different, they play important roles in our work and visual research methods can be applied effectively in both contexts. We believe that professionals engaged in research and assessment activities will benefit from this book. We also hope it will be of use to students in all streams of LIS, whether they are continuing with research programs or embarking on careers where they will be challenged to understand user experiences, anticipate user needs, or measure value and impact for their organizations.

How to Use This Book This book is about methods, but is not a conventional handbook in that it does not provide step-by-step guidelines or instructions per se (although some chapters in Part 2 do so). Part 1 of the book provides an overview of visual research methods in LIS and examines the theoretical and epistemological underpinnings of visual approaches. Part 2 follows with examples of how researchers and practitioners have applied visual research methods ‘in action’ in their own studies and work. The authors featured in Part 2 of this book each bring a unique approach to visual research methods based on the research questions they are curious about, their theoretical lenses and their worldviews. As you will see, the application of visual research methods is highly contingent on what the researcher wants to know, the goals of the research or assessment project, the researcher or practitioner’s own interests, their epistemological positions, the context of the study, as well as time and budget. Each chapter discusses in detail one or more studies, describes the way the author(s) used visual research methods and reflects on strengths and limitations of the method for the study at hand. Our intention is that the overview chapters in Part 1 of the book, paired with the ‘in action’ chapters in Part 2, will provide readers with the background and inspiration to embark on visual research methods in their own research and practice. It is important to emphasize that we situate ourselves – and this book – within a qualitative paradigm. As qualitative researchers with backgrounds

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in anthropology and education, we gravitate to visual methods to address meaning-making and social and human phenomena: while there is a broad range of visual methods applied in qualitative and quantitative contexts, chapters 1 and 2, as well as the contributed chapters, focus on qualitative applications of visual research methods in the LIS context. This book is therefore not intended to be an exhaustive overview of all visual research in information science studies. Rather, it is an invitation into the realm of qualitative visual methods and the inspiring work being done by visual scholars to address information questions.

Overview of Chapters This book is arranged in two parts: Part 1: A Primer on Visual Research Methods for Library and Information Studies, and Part 2: Visual Research Methods in Action.

Part 1: A Primer on Visual Research Methods for Library and Information Studies In Part 1 of the book, we offer a ‘primer’ to set the stage for Part 2. Chapter 1, ‘A Brief Introduction to Visual Research Methods in LIS’, is rooted in the LIS literature. It begins with a brief discussion of terminology. We address some terms used for particular visual research methods and briefly discuss the terms ‘method’ and ‘methodology’ to ensure clarity in the language we use in this book. We then help guide researchers through the diversity of methodological frameworks developed by scholars in the field, organizing visual methods based on thinking about types of images, how images are created, who creates them and who interprets them. We then turn our attention to the emergence of visual research methods in LIS and highlight some current examples of how they are being applied in the field. We wrap up the chapter with a discussion of the strengths and limitations of visual research methods as they have been documented by researchers across LIS and social sciences disciplines. Chapter 2, ‘Visual Research Methods: Discovery’, discusses how visual research methods are framed within a qualitative inquiry. We discuss the importance of exploring epistemologies and theoretical frameworks to help establish strong foundations for visual research methods. We provide an overview of the unique challenges and opportunities of analysing visual data and the importance of research reflexivity in ensuring rigor and exposing researcher bias. This chapter offers practical information about conducting a visual research project, including the ethical considerations a researcher must

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make to ensure participant safety, lessen potential risks to identity, ownership and copyright implications with visual materials, as well as storage and access issues with visual data. Ultimately, this chapter points to some of what we believe are key considerations for conducting visual research.

Part 2: Visual Research Methods in Action The second part of the book, ‘Visual Research Methods in Action’, includes six chapters that highlight visual research methods in action. The chapters in this part of the book reflect a range of approaches to visual research methods and a diversity of participatory and non-participatory methods from drawand-write techniques, to photographic methods, to content analysis. The authors of these chapters are leading scholars, new researchers, librarians, archivists and consultants who are actively engaged in visual research methods work across various sectors. They reflect the international uptake in visual research methods from the UK, to North America and Australia. We open Part 2 with an inspiring chapter from Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks titled ‘Librarian, Illustrated: The Draw-and-Write Technique as a Visual Method for Libraries’. Chapter 3 by Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks presents the draw-and-write technique, a participatory method that asks research participants to draw a concept or answer a question by drawing. Following the drawing activity, research participants are prompted to write about their drawing. Here, Hartel and Hicks report on two related studies in which they asked participants to draw their idea of ‘librarian’. The research aims to unpack representations of librarians in popular culture and compare them to those held by library students. This chapter provides a detailed description of steps and considerations for implementing a draw-and-write study. The authors contribute their reflections on the method and conclude their chapter by offering some words of encouragement for LIS researchers and practitioners who are seeking to find fresh perspectives for research questions. Elizabeth Tait’s chapter, ‘Rediscovering Community Heritage through 3D Laser Scanning and Visualization’, shifts gears to focus on a high-tech visual approach. Tait describes how an interdisciplinary team of researchers used 3D visualizations to engage members of the public as part of a heritage regeneration project in the town of Elgin in the northeast of Scotland. Using laser scanning and photogrammetry, the team of researchers generated visual representations of landscapes and historical buildings in and around Elgin. Tait describes how the 3D images were used in an informal interview process as elicitation tools to engage community members in conversations about the rich historical significance of their town, what might be done to draw tourists back to the town, and efforts that might be undertaken to generate new

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understanding and civic pride, especially among young people in Elgin. Tait’s chapter provides valuable insights into how high-tech 3D images can engage members of the public in conversations about heritage regeneration. She also points to some of the challenges of using high-tech tools for community research. Chapters 5 and 6 focus on the application of visual research methods to understand user experiences in libraries and makerspaces. In Chapter 5, ‘Making as Storytelling: Using Draw-and-Write and Object Elicitation in the Design and Study of a Library Makerspace’, Jess Whyte and Chelsea Misquith describe the mixed methods they used in the design and study of a makerspace, Studio307, at the University of Toronto’s Faculty of Information. First, they used a draw-and-write method to solicit input from their community of graduate students on the design and development of the makerspace. After the makerspace was up and running, Whyte and Misquith used an object elicitation approach to engage students in describing their experiences using the makerspace. They describe the steps involved in each study and highlight some of the benefits and limitations of each method. Whyte and Misquith contribute insightful reflections about their positions as both researchers and students within the community they studied. Considerations about what it means to be an ‘insider researcher’ will be particularly valuable to readers undertaking research. In Chapter 6, ‘Windows into Library Experience: The Value of Visual UX Research Methods’, Andy Priestner discusses his experience of using visual research methods to better understand how users experience library services and spaces around the world. Instead of discussing one particular project, Priestner describes how he has applied cognitive mapping and photo elicitation in user experience (UX) projects at various institutions. As an academic librarian turned UX consultant, Priestner brings attention to the value of visual research methods in applied contexts. He argues that visual research methods can uncover a richer picture of user experiences in libraries, which in turn can offer compelling evidence when assessing improvements or proposing changes to library services and spaces. This chapter will be of interest to readers interested in the scope of potential applications of visual research methods for UX work in library settings. While most chapters in this book report on projects that employ participatory visual research methods, in Chapter 7, ‘Digital Storytelling, Archival Research and ‘Layers of Practice’: A Critical Pedagogical Approach to Visual Literacy in University Archives and Special Collections’, Angela Fritz focuses on the analysis of visual artifacts images in archival and special collections research. Rather than discussing an empirical study, Fritz puts forward a framework for analysing visual artifacts that draws together

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threads from critical visual literacy, digital storytelling and Penny Tinkler’s ‘layers of practice’. Fritz sets out questions that researchers should ask when conducting descriptive, content and contextual analysis of archival images. This chapter will appeal to researchers analysing visual data and to instructors who are teaching visual methods and literacies in their classrooms. The book closes with an exciting arts-based chapter from Rebecca Noone titled ‘Navigating the Thresholds of Information Spaces: Drawing and Performance in Action’. Noone brings together drawing and performancebased methods to understand people’s wayfinding strategies within cities. During her field research, Noone asked passers-by in Toronto, New York, London and Amsterdam to provide directions to well-known nearby sites and asked them to draw the directions using a pen and paper she provided. The resulting drawings and notes she made after each interaction help shed light on how wayfinding in cities is visualized, especially in the age of dominant wayfinding platforms such as Google Maps. Noone’s method is a creative reimagining of a performance-based art piece from the 1960s called ‘this way brouwn’ by conceptual artist Stanley Brouwn applied to the study of information. This chapter will inspire LIS practitioners and researchers seeking a novel example of arts-informed work applied in LIS.

An Invitation to Visual Research Methods In this book we invite information researchers and practitioners to consider visual research methods as an approach and to expand the methodological toolkit in the field. We urge readers to think of visual research not just as an addition tacked on for purely illustrative or documentary purposes; rather, it is a way for LIS researchers to learn more deeply about our users and to provide meaningful engagement with participants in the research process, constructing knowledge together. We hope the methodological and theoretical discussions in the book will inspire researchers, practitioners and students alike, and help provide a rigorous scholarly context for their work.

References Aytac, S. and Slutsky, B. (2014) Published Librarian Research, 2008 through 2012: Analyses and Perspectives, Collaborative Librarianship, 6 (4), 147–59. Bedi, S. and Webb, J. (2017) Participant-driven Photo-elicitation in Library Settings: A Methodological Discussion, Library and Information Research, 41 (125), 81–103. Chu, H. (2015) Research Methods in Library and Information Science: A Content Analysis, Library and Information Science Research, 37 (1), 36–41.

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Duke, L. M. and Asher, D. A. (eds) (2012) College Libraries and Student Culture: What We Now Know, Chicago: American Library Association. Foster, N. F. and Gibbons, S. (eds) (2007) Studying Students: the Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester, Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries. Halpern, R., Eaker, C., Jackson, J. and Bouquin, D. (2015) #DitchTheSurvey: Expanding Methodological Diversity in LIS Research, In the Library with the Lead Pipe, www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2015/ditchthesurveyexpanding-methodological-diversity-in-lis-research. Hartel, J. (2014) An Arts-Informed Study of Information Using the Draw-and-Write Technique, Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 65 (7), 1349. Hicks, A. (2018) Developing the Methodological Toolbox for Information Literacy Research: Grounded Theory and Visual Research Methods, Library & Information Science Research, 40 (3/4), 194. Hicks, A. and Lloyd, A. (2018) Seeing Information: Visual Methods as Entry Points to Information Practices, Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 50 (3), 229–38. Hicks, D. (2014) The Construction of Librarians’ Professional Identities: A Discourse Analysis / La construction de l’identité professionnelle du bibliothécaire: une analyse de discours, Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, 38 (4), 251–70. Khoo, M., Rozaklis, L. and Hall, C. (2012) A Survey of the Use of Ethnographic Methods in the Study of Libraries and Library Users, Library and Information Science Research, 34 (2), 82–91. MacNeil, H. (2011) Trust and Professional Identity: Narratives, Counter-Narratives and Lingering Ambiguities, Archival Science, 11 (3), 175–92. Procter, M. (2017) Protecting Rights, Asserting Professional Identity, Archives & Records, 38 (2), 296–309. Ullah, A. and Ameen, K. (2018) Account of Methodologies and Methods Applied in LIS Research: A Systematic Review, Library & Information Science Research, 40 (1), 53–70.

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A Brief Introduction to Visual Research Methods in Library and Information Studies Jenaya Webb and Shailoo Bedi

Introduction Described simply, visual research methods are research techniques that use visual elements such as photographs, maps, video and other artistic media – drawings, paintings and sculptures – in the process of answering research questions. Although this definition seems simple, scholars undertaking using visual methods may easily become lost or disoriented in the diversity of visual options that abound or the inconsistencies across the literature in the terms we use to describe visual research methods (Hartel and Thomson, 2011; Pollak, 2017). Perhaps it is because of the wide range of visual research methods or the inconsistencies in how they are described and discussed, that LIS researchers and those across other disciplines can face challenges in ‘discovering visual research options and deciding which ones best suit their goals’ (Pollak, 2017, 99). When we talk about visual research methods in this book, we are talking about methods in which the visual element (photo, film, drawing or otherwise) is part of the research process of gathering or generating research data. We are not talking about data visualization or the use of visuals (such as infographics) solely to present research results. Certainly, visual research methods might cross over with visualizations, even in the same study. For example, Elizabeth Tait’s chapter on 3D visualization (Chapter 4) covers data visualization, but as part of the participatory community research process itself. Though we recognize that visualizations are an important research dissemination tool in LIS and other fields, we do not address them here. Anchored in the LIS literature, this chapter addresses definitions and terminology and presents several existing frameworks to help clarify and facilitate the discussion about visual research methods. We begin by

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addressing the question of method versus methodology, then briefly discuss terminology and guiding structures. We will outline the emergence of visual research methods in LIS, highlight some recent examples, and discuss the benefits and limitations of visual research methods that have been documented by researchers in the field. It is worth repeating here that we situate ourselves and this book within the qualitative paradigm. The works discussed here focus on social sciences approaches to visual methods. We also recognize that LIS practitioners are taking up visual methods in applied contexts to make service improvements, change library spaces, or better understand user experience with greater frequency. We hope this chapter provides a foundation to support researchers and practitioners considering using visual research methods.

Method or Methodology? What is the difference between visual research as a method and visual research as a methodology? Researchers often conflate the terms ‘method’ and ‘methodology’, using the phrases ‘visual research’, ‘visual methods’, ‘visual approaches’, ‘visual methodologies’ and ‘visual techniques’ interchangeably. For clarity, the terms, their distinctions and their relationship to each other are worth discussing briefly here. Methodology is a broad term that encompasses the ‘assumptions, principles and procedures in a particular approach to inquiry (that, in turn, governs the use of particular methods)’ (Schwandt, 2007). According to Mills, ‘methodology is the lens a researcher looks through when deciding on the type of methods they will use to answer this research question and how they will use these methods for best effect’ (2014, 3). Methodological considerations can include such things as the researcher’s epistemological orientation, which theories or theorists inspire them and decisions about whether to use qualitative or quantitative methods or a mixed-methods approach. Method, on the other hand, describes a particular path through the research project from start to finish. It is the term for the particular protocol – steps and processes – used to gather, generate and interpret data that ultimately answers your research question(s). Decisions a researcher makes about which methods to use in a particular project include choosing which population to focus on and how to ask them questions. For a definition that conveys the distinction between method and methodology, we turn to deMarrais and Lapan: ‘Methods are the specific research tools we use in research projects to gain fuller understanding of phenomena. Examples of methods include surveys, interviews and participant observation’ (2004, 4). Many different methods can be applied in many different research contexts

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to address a variety of research questions. Similarly, the same method can be applied in different ways and settings to obtain different information. The possible combinations really have few limits. This applies also to visual research methods, where a photographic method could be used in a quantitative study, where the resulting photographs act as quantifiable documentation, such as an inventory of items in a field site. A photographic method in a qualitative study, however, might involve using photos as interview prompts to explore how a research participant understands a particular experience. The creativity with which a researcher chooses which combination of methodology and methods to use determines to a great extent the outcome of the study. Methods and methodology are woven tightly together in any research project. This book focuses primarily on the application of visual methods for social science contexts. However, in the next chapter, we discuss visual research methods as a methodology and offer a brief exploration of epistemologies and theories.

Terminology There are many visual research methods in use across the social sciences and these methods are often described inconsistently in publications and other research outputs. Here, we present a short list of methods to establish a common understanding for readers of this book. There are other visual research methods, which we encourage readers to investigate on their own.

Cognitive Mapping A cognitive map is ‘a graphical representation where nodes represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the perceived causal relationships between concepts’ (Thorpe and Holt, 2008). As with similar methods such as mind mapping or conceptual mapping, cognitive mapping involves asking research participants to draw a picture that reflects their thinking about a situation, issue, location, etc. The map can be discussed in an interview or focus group to elicit in-depth understandings of what aspects of the issue have significance for the user. See Chapter 6, in which Andy Priestner discusses cognitive mapping.

Content Analysis Content analysis is a method that can be applied in quantitative and qualitative studies with textual and visual materials. In a qualitative study of a collection of photographs, for example, content analysis can be used to

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interpret the cultural meaning of images (Rose, 2012). To understand patterns or interpret meanings in a collection of images, a researcher can develop a coding structure like the type of coding structure used to code interview text. These codes would then be applied to each image in the collection. See Chapter 7, in which Angela Fritz discusses content analysis in an archival context.

Draw-and-Write Technique The draw-and-write technique falls under the arts-informed visual research umbrella. Researchers using the draw-and-write technique ask participants to draw a concept or answer a question with a drawing (e.g. what is ‘information’?). The drawing activity is then followed by a prompt to write a brief explanation of the drawing. Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks’ chapter in this book (Chapter 3) provides an overview of this method. There are also many other types of drawing methods used in social science research. For examples see Doucette and Hoffmann (2019) or Chapter 8 in this book by Rebecca Noone.

Photo Elicitation Photo elicitation is ‘based on the simple idea of inserting a photograph into a research interview’ (Harper, 2002). In other words, photographs are used as prompts to guide interviews as researchers and research participants develop shared interpretations of what is being depicted in the photographs. With photo elicitation, the photos used in the interview are sometimes taken by researchers and sometimes by research participants themselves, depending on which protocol the researcher selects. Photo elicitation was initially developed by Collier (1957) and has since been used extensively across the social sciences. There are many related interview strategies that use images or objects as interview prompts. These include object elicitation (see for example Chapter 5 by Whyte and Misquith), photo diaries (see Gabridge, Gaskell and Stout, 2008) and cultural probes (Chapter 6 by Andy Priestner).

Photo-narrative Photo-narrative is ‘the use of photographic images to tell a story about an event or chronicle, or some aspect of a person’s life’ (Crane, 2012, 1195). We have noticed that the term photo-narrative is sometimes used interchangeably with terms like photovoice or photo essay. Böök and Mykkänen make one interesting distinction when they explain that they prefer to use the term

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photo-narrative because the term narrating implies ‘“storytelling” about things and experiences related to what has been photographed; it does not mean telling or describing only what can be seen in the picture – narrative has a plot’ (2014, 614). Bedi and Webb (2017a) describe a photo-narrative study at the University of Victoria.

Photovoice Photovoice is the term used to describe a sub-type of photo elicitation where the participants take the photos. It was developed by researchers doing community action research and aims to give voice to marginalized and vulnerable social groups in the research process. It allows participants a longer period to create their collections of photographs and provides them flexibility about what to photograph within the themes of the study. Photovoice was developed by Wang and Burris (1994, 1997) and has been used in LIS by Julien, Given and Opryshko (2013) to explore students’ perceptions of information literacy in their academic experiences.

Guiding Frameworks There is a long list of visual research methods that employ an equally long list of visual elements (drawing, photography, sculpture, video, maps) across qualitative and quantitative paradigms. In addition, as Pauwels points out, there is ‘little integration with respect to the findings and practices of visual methods, especially between the social sciences and the humanities and behavioral sciences’ (Pauwels, 2011, 4). Furthermore, Julien, Given and Opryshko (2013), Pauwels (2011) and Pollak (2017) have noted that authors often fail to document clearly their methods in their publications, presentations or other research outputs. Consequently, it can be difficult for researchers new to visual methods, or even those with experience using visual methods who want to try a different approach, to understand the range of options available and select the appropriate method for their project. Fortunately, many scholars have proposed methodological structures to help researchers organize ideas around visual-methods-based thinking with regard to the types of images being used, how images are created, who creates them and who interprets them. These frameworks can ‘offer better insight into current possibilities and approaches and . . . stimulate new and more refined approaches to visual research’ (Pauwels, 2011, 5). In her influential textbook, Visual Methodologies (2012), cultural geographer Gillian Rose presents a framework built around three approaches to visual materials – ‘sites’ – to generate meaning:

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the site of production, which is where the image is made, how it is made, by whom and when the site of the image itself, which is its visual content and composition the site of audiencing – how is the image interpreted, by whom and in what context (2012, 19).

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In the first chapter of the co-edited SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods (Margolis and Pauwels, 2011), visual sociologist Luc Pauwels presents a framework to address the ‘disparity of visual approaches and their ambiguous labeling, the lack of oversight and the methodological and conceptual vagueness’ (2011, 5). It presents three themes that bring together the ‘interrelated aspects of the input, processing and output phases of a visual’ (2011, 5). Pauwels’ three themes address: ■

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the origin and nature of the visuals – questions of who made the images, the content or subject of the images and the technique used to create the images the research focus and design – the analytical focus and theoretical and methodological approaches the format and purpose – the research output, end results and uses of the images.

Rose and Pauwels’ frameworks help scholars think through methodological considerations related to visual research methods with questions such as: Who will make the photos in my study? How will they be used and by whom? Who will interpret the results? How will the images be circulated and shared? There is an abundance of research handbooks and texts dedicated to visual research methods in the social sciences (Banks and Zeitlyn, 2015; Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; Margolis and Pauwels, 2011; Mitchell, 2011; Pink, 2007; Pink, 2012; Prosser and Loxley, 2008; Rose, 2012; Stanczak, 2007). Furthermore, a framework has been developed for LIS researchers. In 2017, Angela Pollak published an article in the journal Library and Information Science Research titled ‘Visual Research in LIS: Complementary and Alternative Methods ’ in which she presented a framework for understanding visual methods in the LIS community. To underpin it, Pollak began by conducting an extensive search of peer-reviewed articles in academic databases across LIS, the social sciences and the humanities. Her search confirmed what scholars in other disciplines have noted: that very little consensus exists about how methods should be used, how they are reported in the published literature and even the names of the methods themselves (Pollak, 2017). She writes, ‘the primary challenge of parsing visual research

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methods, then, appears to be a lack of overarching framework in which to situate individual methods’ (2017, 100). In her article, Pollak provides further details about her literature search strategy and offers a much broader description of visual methods for LIS than can be summarized here. She discusses the advantages and limitations of these methods for the field of LIS. To address this challenge, Pollak presents a framework for visual methods for LIS, which (like others) identifies two main categories of visual methods: participatory and non-participatory methods. As the names suggest, participatory methods include those in which the research participants themselves are the creators of the images used in the research. An example of a participatory method is the draw-and-write technique, which calls on the research participant to draw as part of the study. (Chapter 3 by Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks discusses this participatory technique.) Non-participatory methods use images that are not created by the research participants specifically for the study. In some cases, researchers create the images to document a phenomenon. In other cases, they might acquire the images, such as through historical or archival work, or from the pre-existing private collections of a participant (Pollak, 2017). Pollak’s framework is presented in Table 1.1 on the next page. In categorizing methods in this way, Pollak places the creator of the image front and center. As she writes, ‘authorial perspective becomes the primary dividing line between varieties of visual research leaving essentially two categories’ (2017, 100). This distinction, we feel, is well suited to disciplines like LIS that draw on participatory methods (like photo elicitation and photonarrative) from social science disciplines, as well as non-participatory methods (such as content analysis and discourse analysis) from the humanities. Pollak’s use of the word participatory in the context of visual research methods should not be conflated with other established research approaches such as community-based participatory research or participatory action research, which engage participants in the research process not just as objects of research, but also as contributors to research design, data collection and/or interpretation.

Visual Methods in the LIS Literature Substantive discussions of visual research methods have yet to appear in any of the key research methods textbooks in LIS. In Looking for Information, Case and Given briefly mention visual research methods but indicate that these types of research methods remain an ‘emerging area of research development’ (2016, 265). Nevertheless, the LIS literature indicates that a growing number of researchers and practitioners are taking up visual methods to address their research and user services questions. Indeed, a literature search of the three

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Table 1.1 Participatory and non-participatory types of visual data collection and reporting, showing who creates the data, who interprets it and how it is reported; reprinted from Pollak (2017) with permission from Elsevier

main databases for LIS shows a dramatic spike in the number of visual research methods articles published over the past ten years. We conducted a title, abstract and subject search in four main databases: Library Literature & Information Science Retrospective: 1905–1983 (H. W. Wilson), Library Literature & Information Science Full Text (H. W. Wilson), Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts and Library & Information Sciences Abstracts. We used terms such as visual*, photo*, image*, video*, film*, elicitation, graphic, art, drawing, diagramming, sculpture, ‘map-making’ and ‘draw-and-write’, within three words of method*. This literature search is not intended as a comprehensive review, but our examination of the results points to a growing

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trend in the use of visual research methods in the field of LIS especially over the past ten years (2010–19). In this section we trace the emergence of visual research methods in LIS and discuss the novel ways that these methods are currently being used in the field. This section is by no means an exhaustive review of the literature. Rather, it aims to highlight studies done by researchers and practitioners across LIS disciplines and to provide context and inspiration for further research opportunities.

Ground-breaking Studies Researchers in LIS are fortunate to be able to draw on the depth of visual methods experience in other disciplines, from the social sciences, to health sciences, to behavioral sciences. Additionally, there is a growing body of research within LIS using visual methods (particularly participatory methods) that began to crystallize just over a decade ago in conjunction with the growing popularity in LIS of ethnographic methods, identified by Khoo, Rozaklis and Hall (2012). There are three ground-breaking studies that we believe have made substantive contributions to the field and cemented the discussion of visual research methods in LIS. The first project to incorporate visual methods and gain significant reach in the discipline was Foster and Gibbons’ (2007) Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester. Led by Foster, then Director of Anthropological Research for the University of Rochester’s River Campus Libraries, the undergraduate research project was one of the first to engage ethnographic approaches to the study of students’ work habits and day-to-day experiences. The project’s goal was to get an in-depth answer to the question ‘What do students really do when they write their research papers?’ (Foster and Gibbons, 2007, v). Foster and Gibbons write that one of their greatest challenges was to ‘learn more about the students’ academic activities outside of the library and the nine-to-five workday’ (2007, vii). As it turned out, among the ethnographic methods used in the project, visual methods like photo surveys (Briden, 2007) and mapping diaries (Clark, 2007) generated productive insights into students’ academic lives outside the library. As Briden notes, ‘through photo surveys, our students shared details about their lives in a way that the conventional interviews alone could not achieve’ (2007, 47). The results of the studies guided the libraries’ efforts to make resources, spaces and services more user-centered (Foster and Gibbons, 2007). Studying Students also shares examples of research tools used throughout the study, including survey worksheets, interview questions and photo prompts.

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Following Foster and Gibbons’ work at the University of Rochester, a large team of anthropologists, LIS scholars and librarians launched a multiinstitution, two-year study at the University of Illinois. The Ethnographic Research in Illinois Academic Libraries (ERIAL) Project employed ethnographic methods to study university students’ research habits and discover ‘how relationships between students, teaching faculty and librarians shape that process’ (ERIAL, 2019). The project employed a range of ethnographic methods, such as semi-structured interviews, participant observation and visual techniques like photo elicitation, cognitive maps and mapping exercises. As with the Rochester project, the aim of the ERIAL Project was to develop more user-centered library services: Asher, Duke and Green write that the ethnographic approach provided ‘much needed’ insights into student research practices and ‘developed a more nuanced, robust view of our students and their relationship with the library’ (2010). Foster and Gibbons’ seminal work, followed by the robust work of the ERIAL Project, set the stage for the adoption of ethnographic approaches – visual methods among them – for user service studies in libraries. While the Rochester and ERIAL user-focused projects were making their mark in libraries, LIS scholars were investigating the uptake of visual methods in information behavior research. In 2012, Jenna Hartel, Anna Lundh and Diane Sonnenwald, researchers in library and information studies schools in Canada, Ireland and Sweden, and Nancy Fried Foster, then an anthropologist at the University of Rochester Libraries, gave a panel presentation at the 2012 conference of the American Society for Information Science and Technology titled ‘State of the Art/Science: Visual Methods and Information Behavior Research’. The panel reported on their visual studies to demonstrate the value of visual methods to the field of LIS and to act as a ‘platform to take new visual research designs forward’ (Hartel et al., 2013). This was perhaps the first time that conversations about the epistemological, theoretical and methodologist aspects of visual methods were brought together and presented in an intentional way, so this panel highlights early examples of visual methods programs in LIS and offers a ‘platform to take new visual research designs forward’ (Hartel et al., 2013).

How Visual Methods Are Being Used in LIS ‘One of the most striking developments across the social sciences in the past decade has been the growth of research methods using visual materials’ (Rose, 2014, 24). We believe the same can be said for the use of visual research methods in LIS over the past decade. This new work is being undertaken by researchers, practitioners and consultants, who are taking up visual methods

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to address both long-standing and novel research questions. They are uncovering rich insights and generating new knowledge. Here we focus on those that fall into the qualitative research paradigm and are focused on generating in-depth understandings and people’s perceptions of social phenomena. Rather than presenting a comprehensive review of visual research methods in LIS, the next section highlights innovative examples of visual research methods use in LIS and is guided by the following questions: ■ ■ ■

What types of questions are being investigated using visual research methods? What new knowledge is being created? How are the results being disseminated and used?

What Types of Questions Are Being Investigated Using Visual Research Methods? Researchers are using visual research methods to address a variety of questions in LIS. Some scholars suggest that visual methods are better suited than other forms of data collection to the exploration of intangible or abstract concepts (Cox and Benson, 2017; Lloyd and Wilkinson, 2016; Pollak, 2017). In her article ‘An Arts-Informed Study of Information Using the Draw-and-Write Technique’ (Hartel, 2014a), Hartel takes on one of the most elusive but foundational questions in LIS: ‘What is information?’. In her research, she engaged graduate students at the University of Toronto’s Faculty of Information to respond to the question ‘What is information?’ by drawing on a sheet of paper. Student participants were then asked to write about information by responding to the prompt ‘Information is. . .’ on the back side of the sheet. The study resulted in the collection and analysis of 137 drawings of ‘information’. Hartel and her research assistants employed compositional interpretations to analyse the images. Because students in the study described (through drawings and brief writings) the concept of ‘information’ in many ways, Hartel explains that the collection of drawings and writings didn’t lead to a ‘traditional conception of information made of words’ (2014a, 1364). Instead, she sees them as a compelling collection that has the potential to advance existing theoretical discussions about information in new ways (Hartel, 2014a). Furthermore, her approach allowed her participants to engage conceptually with the research question. Doucette and Hoffmann tackled a similarly abstract question in asking ‘What are academic librarians’ and archivists’ conceptions of research?’ (2019, 3). Like Hartel, they employ a draw-and-write technique to dig into the intangible idea of what research is. They asked 25 participants (23 librarians and 2 archivists) to draw ‘research’ and then describe their drawings in a

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follow-up interview. In their analysis, Doucette and Hoffmann identified six conceptions of research, many of which aligned with what they had read about faculty members’ conceptions of research. However, one theme (or conception) that emerged was that ‘research by librarians and archivists is not “real” research’ (2019, 9). This conception, the authors point out, speaks to the dual researcher–practitioner identity that librarians and archivists hold, contributing a unique librarian and archivist perspective to the body of studies on faculty conceptions of research. Scholars also use visual research methods to great effect in applied settings. For example, visual research methods provide productive answers to questions related to student experiences, wayfinding in library spaces and service design. Haberl and Wortman (2012) used photo elicitation interviews to gain insights into users’ experiences in five public library branches in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Their research questions included ‘What are customers doing in Edmonton Public Library spaces? What are current and future trends in library spaces and customer activities? How could Edmonton Public Library’s spaces best meet the needs of Edmonton Public Library’s customers?’ (2012, 2). In this study, researchers gave participants – public library users – a list of photo prompts, such as ‘Your favorite place in the library’ and ‘A place in the library in which you like or would like to spend time with others’ (2012, 19). Participants and researchers walked around the library space with a camera and took photos that addressed the prompts. Following the tour of the library, the participants’ photos were loaded into a computer, where participant and researcher could view and talk through the images together. This exchange was the focal point of the interview. Haberl and Wortman indicate that the method resulted in ‘literal and figurative pictures of the participant’s perceptions of their library and its spaces and how they used them’ (2012, 14). They used findings from the photo elicitation project, along with data collected via behavioral mapping, questionnaires and surveys, to make recommendations for building and renovation projects across the Edmonton Public Library system (2012).

What New Knowledge Is Being Created? We’ve provided some examples of the questions visual research methods researchers are asking, but what new types of knowledge can visual methods bring to LIS? What can they illuminate that other methods do not? As visual research methods gain ground in the field of LIS, an increasing number of innovative studies point to the potential for visual research methods to generate new and productive contributions to the field, including theory building, conceptualization and data collection.

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Hicks proposes that visual research approaches have new contributions to make to theory building in LIS. In her article, ‘Developing the Methodological Toolbox for Information Literacy Research’, Hicks argues that expanding the scope of constructivist grounded theory in LIS research would result in ‘richer and more complete understandings about the ways in which people engage with information’ (2018, 194). She argues, convincingly, that visual methods can be used to expand this reach in two significant ways. First, visual research methods diversify the types of research data (beyond textual data) and thus broaden ‘the ways in which a researcher can answer questions within an emerging analysis’ (2018, 197). Hicks also suggests that visual methods allow for the co-construction of meaning by research participants. This is important because constructivist grounded theory developed out of the ‘understanding that meaning is co-constructed between research participant and researcher rather than being discovered and brought into existence through the efforts of a neutral observer’ (2018, 197). The co-construction of meaning that would occur, for example, during a photo elicitation interview can work to reinforce ‘participants’ central role within information research’ (2018, 197) and thus strengthen constructivist grounded theory approaches. Hicks makes a strong argument that visual methods can contribute to new knowledge by expanding the scope and reach of grounded theory in LIS. In addition to expanding theoretical discussions in LIS, visual methods have been applied to compare conceptual ideas across sub-branches of the field. Joseph and Hartel (2017) set out to understand how the idea of ‘information’ is understood in the disciplines of records and archives management. As the first researchers to do this, Joseph and Hartel build on Hartel’s draw-and-write technique to study conceptions of ‘information’ among students and practitioners of records and archives management. They asked 255 participants to answer the question ‘What is information?’ by drawing and briefly explaining their drawing on the reverse side of the paper (2017, 238). Joseph hypothesized that participants envisioned information as a rapidly changing and fluctuating concept that would ‘blur the boundaries between subsets of information like records and archives’ (2017, 236). Analysis of the 255 drawings that were collected indicate, perhaps not surprisingly, that visual conceptions of information differ across ‘geographies, disciplines and population groups’ (2017, 252). The authors suggest expanding this research internationally and across LIS disciplines to explore whether ‘disciplinary cultures influence visual conceptions of information’ (2017, 252), thus opening a broad discussion about one of the central concepts in our field. Visual research methods may also offer new perspectives on important and ongoing questions in applied contexts. While studies that aim to influence service improvements, policy changes and decisions about design projects

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aren’t new, visual research methods can bring new insights. For example, in her 2016 article, Stefanie Buck explains how she used photographic methods to get a glimpse into the lives and scholarly work of distance students. Her work is a valuable illustration of how photographic methods can engage populations that aren’t easy to reach or whose day-to-day research practices are not easy to capture. Buck discovered, among other things, that her institution’s support for distance students overlooked some of their unique needs, such as their need to connect with local resources – like their public libraries – rather than relying wholly on services aimed at distance students (Buck, 2016).

How Are the Results Being Disseminated and Used? The results of studies that use visual research methods often include compelling visual artifacts that can convey detailed, in-depth knowledge when disseminated via traditional academic channels such as articles. Moreover, these artifacts can also be part of a toolkit that researchers and practitioners can use to make improvements in their institutions and engage communities in action. Photovoice is a well-established participatory visual research method that can generate actionable outcomes within communities. According to the method’s developers, Wang and Burris, an essential condition of a photovoice study is that the findings are leveraged for advocacy and social action (1997). In other words, they expect participants to be able to ‘(1) record and reflect their community’s strengths and concerns, (2) to promote critical dialogue and knowledge about important issues through large- and small-group discussion of photographs and (3) to reach policymakers’ (1997, 369). Julien, Given and Opryshko describe an early application of photovoice in LIS in Photovoice (2013). Their study employed photovoice as part of a mixedmethods approach (which included a quantitative survey and qualitative interviews) to understand the information skills and needs of students as they transition from high school to university, exploring ‘their perceptions of information literacy in their academic success’ (2013, 258). The research team gave 18 research participants easy-to-use cameras and asked them to photograph elements of their everyday lives related to information practices. The researchers found that photovoice facilitated insights into ‘elements of students’ experiences that would, otherwise, be very difficult to examine’ (2013, 262). The results were applied to the development and delivery of userfocused (or evidence-based) information literacy programs and to teacher and librarian training in a way that reflected the experiences of the students.

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Tewell has used photovoice in an applied context to learn how to improve reference services for marginalized students, and to explore how librarian research could use participatory methods to bring students’ ideas and experience to the center of the research process and its outcomes. Although the study did not result in immediate recommendations for reference services at his institution, he argues that participatory visual methods such as photovoice ‘hold the potential to widen how we as librarians think of information and its use – not just limited to the textual or verbal but also visual, social, embodied and often deeply personal’ (2019, 173). Researchers have used the results of visual research methods studies in novel pedagogical ways. In their paper titled ‘Student Conceptions of Group Work’, McKinney and Cook use a draw-and-write technique to address the question ‘What conceptions do students have about working in groups?’ (2018, 207). Building on Hartel’s iSquares draw-and-write technique (2014a), McKinney and Cook asked students in the Information School at the University of Sheffield to ‘draw group work’ on one side of a sheet of paper and then write something about their drawing on the reverse side. The researchers analysed 146 drawings, completing a content analysis and a thematic analysis of the images and text. The results of the study challenge previous research on the topic and present nuanced understandings of how students experience group work in a higher education setting. After the research was completed, the drawings were taken up in a classroom setting as points of discussion for students embarking on group work. The authors write that such images, used by instructors in a classroom context, ‘can have real benefits for LIS students engaging in group work. Issues can be brought to the surface and students can begin to negotiate effective ways of working’ (2018, 224). There are many other examples of the results of visual research methods studies being used in applied contexts to improve library services and spaces (see Bedi and Webb, 2017a; Buck, 2016; Duke and Asher, 2012; Foster and Gibbons, 2007; Lin and Chiu, 2012; Newcomer, Lindahl and Harriman, 2016). As we have noted in our own research, images generated in visual studies can make for compelling evidence when sharing results with stakeholders and decision makers in the context of a renovation project.

Strengths and Limitations of Visual Research Methods Visual researchers have attributed to visual research methods a wide range of benefits for social science research (e.g. Collier, 1957; Harper, 2002; Liebenberg, 2009; Meo, 2010; Mitchell, 2011; Pink, 2007). Conversations about perceived benefits of visual research methods appear in the LIS literature as

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well. As we have noted elsewhere, many studies in LIS that employ or discuss visual research methods dedicate some of their discussion to the benefits and limitations of these approaches (see Bedi and Webb, 2017b). In our own research, we proposed four key benefits of one type of visual research methods – photo elicitation – for LIS research: it can be a powerful tool for encouraging collaboration between researchers and participants; it allows for new and unexpected insights from participants as they reflected on and described the images they had taken; it supports discussion of abstract concepts in interviews; and it facilitates the photo interview process in the sense that the images help drive the discussion with few prompts from the interviewer. Below, we touch on several articles that focus on the benefits and limitations of visual research methods for LIS. It is important to note that these perceived benefits and limitations are highly dependent on the context, the particular method in question and the goals of the particular research project. Writing about participatory photographic methods, Hicks and Lloyd note two key contributions of visual research methods to LIS research. First, they argue that visual research methods can improve data collection in the field, helping ‘facilitate research with communities who may be hard to reach or who may not feel comfortable engaging with more traditional research methods’ (2018, 233). They mention groups whose first language isn’t the same as that of the researchers – in this case, refugee participants with varying language and literacy skills – and geographically distant groups, such as students living abroad. Further, they suggest that visual research methods can extend the reach of data collection into new spaces, beyond formal or institutional spaces and into participants’ everyday spaces such as their homes, schools and workplaces (2018, 233). Other LIS scholars have remarked too on the power of photographic methods to extend research in this way (e.g. Briden, 2007; Buck, 2016; Lloyd and Wilkinson, 2016). Hicks and Lloyd also identify a parallel limitation of visual research methods in data collection: ethical issues, such as confidentiality and anonymity, and practical issues related to the quality of the images collected (2018, 234). Second, Hicks and Lloyd argue that visual research methods can improve the quality of the data collected in a research project. They see the strength of visual research methods in the ‘ability to collect information that may not be easily captured when traditional qualitative methods such as interviewing are the sole means of data collection’ (2018, 234). Because the questions asked and concepts interrogated in LIS research are often complex, Hicks and Lloyd argue that images help participants communicate day-to-day activities that might be difficult to explain through interviews alone. In effect, the power of participatory visual research methods is that participants have images as a tool to ‘represent their own understandings of what information means to

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them’ (2018, 234). As before, however, Hicks and Lloyd suggest a parallel drawback. They recognize that images (especially as stand-alone artifacts) can just as easily misrepresent a participant’s experience, especially if the researcher views and interprets the image without additional methods like an interview or focus group to elicit the participant’s meaning and intention. In their 2017 article, ‘Visual Methods and Quality in Information Behaviour Research’, Cox and Benson propose that visual research methods can improve qualitative research in LIS. They structure their argument around Tracy’s 2010 paper, which laid out eight criteria of research quality: a worthy topic, rich rigor, sincerity, credibility, resonance, significant contributions, ethical issues and meaningful coherence. Cox and Benson state that visual research methods enable particularly valuable research in LIS in two ways: by enhancing credibility and by enhancing resonance. Tracy found that research that demonstrates credibility is marked in part by ‘thick description, concrete detail, explication of tacit (non-textual) knowledge and showing rather than telling’ (2010, 840). Cox and Benson argue that visual research methods, and photographic methods in particular, meet this criterion by allowing researchers to gather rich data and by facilitating research into the ‘less easy to articulate side of information activities such as affective aspects of embodied knowing’ (2017). Second, according to Tracy, research that demonstrates resonance is research that ‘influences, affects, or moves particular readers or a variety of audiences through: aesthetic, evocative representation; naturalistic generalizations; and transferable findings’ (2010, 840). Cox and Benson argue that visual research methods fit this criteria in that their visual elements have the ‘capacity to promote empathy in ways that text does not’ (2017). Pollak (2017) presents a comprehensive and robust list of ten advantages and six limitations of visual research methods for LIS. These cut across methods and disciplines and are useful for readers considering applying visual research methods beyond the participatory approaches that are the focus of this book. Some of the advantages and limitations Pollak identifies overlap with those presented above. However, she makes several additional observations that bear discussion here. First, she suggests that participatory visual research methods – where the images are created by research participants – can facilitate true participatory research by allowing for the incorporation of an emic or insider’s perspective in the research process. In contrast to other data collection methods, which may only incorporate the perspective of the researcher, participatory visual research methods can ‘shift the research perspective toward the emic, or the view belonging to or originating from the participants themselves’ (2017, 103). Another benefit Pollak identifies is that visual research methods allows for alternate modes of expression within the research process, beyond the more

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common textual and verbal modes. Incorporating alternate modes of expression is ‘particularly well suited to research with groups of differing ages and abilities’, including young children and participants with varying literacy or language skills (2017, 103). Pollak’s observation reflects our own experiences using visual research methods with international participants whose first language was not English. As we describe in the introduction to this book, the international students who took part in the study at the University of Victoria indicated that engaging with photos was more appealing than completing a survey (where questions can be hard to understand), answering written questions (where it could be challenging to convey their thoughts) or participating in intimidating focus groups. Other scholars have recognized that visual research methods have the potential to supplement or even offer a viable alternative to more typical research techniques like interviews, focus groups and surveys. Warr et al. (2016, 5) note: Visual methods are increasingly being used in combination with other novel methodologies, such as mobile methods, to generate ‘multi-sensory and multimodal’ data in the form of images, sounds and movement. This expanded expressive potential has led to visual methods being considered useful for researching experiences that participants may not be able to readily formulate and communicate in words and for research involving participants, such as children and people with cognitive and physical disabilities, who may not always be able to articulate their thoughts and experience in words.

In her conclusion to her 2017 article, Pollak notes that a strength of all visual research methods, participatory and non-participatory, is their potential to mobilize knowledge (2017, 105). The outputs generated by visual research methods (photographs, drawings, 3D objects) may indeed prove accessible to a broader audience than other types of research data. Rather than being restricted to viewing by the researcher and academic community, visual data can be repurposed in various contexts, including presentations to participating communities and exhibition displays, extending the impact of the research beyond traditional academic contexts. While much of the conversation related to the value of visual research methods is positive across social sciences, scholars inside and outside LIS have also noted the limitations of visual research methods in various contexts. Researchers have documented practical drawbacks to implementing visual research methods. For example, some researchers point to the additional time required to train participants on a particular data collection method and associated technology. For instance, if you’re asking participants to take

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photos on their own, you may need to instruct participants in the ways to capture, store and retrieve visual information (Julien, Given and Opryshko, 2013). On the other hand, when the technologies involved in the research are simple, such as pencils, the tools provided can sometimes limit the images that research participants are able to create (see Chapter 3 by Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks). While the cost of cameras may no longer be prohibitive, the cost of tools such as 3D printers, specialized software or other technologies can still be a barrier to implementing the desired method. Visual projects can also be costly in the resources required to manage visual data sets, whether video footage, 3D visualizations, digital photographs or hand-drawn maps. While it can be easy to capture a lot of visual data, it can be very time consuming to digitize images, manage the data files and analyse and present the data. Practical considerations related to research ethics, data management and data analysis are discussed further at the end of the next chapter. Scholars have also critiqued the widely cited notion that participatory visual research methods, especially photovoice, can empower research participants. Empowerment is often described as one of the central aims of the photovoice method (Julien, Given and Opryshko, 2013; Lloyd and Wilkinson, 2016; Tewell, 2019; Wang and Burris, 1994). As Lloyd and Wilkinson write, ‘the photovoice method aims to empower participants to take control of the research process and in doing so gives them power to develop narratives about what counts and to represent that through visual means using photographs as a visual information tool’ (2016, 303). We are not disputing the power of participatory visual research methods such as photovoice to advance the participant’s voice in the research process. However, we agree with Pollak when she cautions against viewing visual research methods with an uncritical eye. She explains that ‘although participatory visual methods are seen as a way of neutralizing to some extent the power differential between researcher and participant . . . it is generally understood that the researcher cannot be removed from the facilitation process entirely’ (2017, 102). Indeed, even in choosing the equipment to be used, the delivery of the consent form and the setting of the research interaction itself, the researcher exerts power over the process. Undoubtedly, these small actions shape the experiences of research participants, determining whether they are able to participate and how they engage in the research process. Although researchers must always keep their own privileged position top of mind, visual research methods have the potential to include the voices – and thus, the lived experiences – of those who have typically been marginalized from the research process. This brief discussion about the strengths and limitations of visual research

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methods is by no means exhaustive. In sum, visual research methods aren’t simply about adding pretty pictures to a research project. Rather, they present a rich but complex perspective within a research methodology. The chapters that follow in Part 2 of this book provide discussions of visual research methods in practice and sophisticated reflections on the strengths and weaknesses of these methods in particular contexts. We hope they will guide and inspire your own research.

Conclusion It is exciting to see the growth of visual research methods in LIS. Researchers and practitioners are applying visual methods in a range of exciting and novel ways, producing applied and actionable results and generating new conversations. Accompanying this growth are critical reflections about the strengths and limitations of visual research methods in the discipline. While it is impossible to predict the future of visual research methods in LIS, we expect that advances in technology will continue to play a key role in shaping its applications. For instance, existing technologies like wearable video cameras (such as GoPro) and visual data collection apps for mobile phones (such as dscout) have the potential to extend the realm of traditional research, increase data collection capacities and allow new insights into participants’ day-to-day information practices. Similarly, there is an increasing amount of visual data being produced as part of day-to-day life, captured and circulated through social media apps such as Twitter and Instagram. We would expect that visual researchers will continue to mine these pre-existing visual artifacts to explore information practices in everyday life settings. As Warr et al. point out, digital technologies ‘offer capacities for research participants to produce images and videos, sometimes independent of researchers, while geospatial mapping techniques and “wearable” cameras create new forms of visual data enabling researchers to systematically collect volumes of visual data’ (2016, 5). These perceived opportunities will need to be accompanied by careful ethical considerations of authorship and ownership of images, participants’ consent to data sharing, and privacy and confidentiality (Warr et al., 2016). Ethical considerations for visual research are discussed in the following chapter. We are inspired by the growth in creative, arts-informed inquiries in LIS. Jenna Hartel continues to lead the field with her iSquares draw-and-write technique. In this book, she and Deborah Hicks contribute an exploration of the conception of ‘librarian’ (Chapter 3). Rebecca Noone also uses an artsbased approach in Chapter 8, employing drawing and performance to interrogate how ubiquitous technologies like Google Maps shape the ways

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we see information. Additionally, researchers are using creative objects to elicit information. In Chapter 5, Jess Whyte and Chelsea Misquith show how 3D printer artifacts can be used effectively as prompts in interviews. Another untapped area of growth for visual research methods is in the creative dissemination and re-use of research images to expand opportunities to gain fresh insights. Current technologies allow researchers and practitioners to expand their reach by sharing the visual outputs of our work via non-traditional channels and in non-traditional formats. For instance, opportunities exist for researchers to design digital exhibitions to display, share, annotate and distribute their visual data sets. Rose’s ‘Site of Audiencing’ is useful here. As she notes, ‘visual images are always practised in particular ways and different practices are often associated with different kinds of images in different kinds of spaces’ (2012, 31). In other words, an image circulated in an academic publication, in an online exhibition, at a gallery or as a postcard will engage viewers in completely different ways. Researchers in LIS have already experimented in repurposing visual research outputs as valuable pedagogical tools. For example, Hartel (2014b), Hartel et al. (2018) and McKinney and Cook (2018) have employed visual research artifacts as teaching tools in classroom contexts. Further, Rose points out, the particular social identities of the viewing audiences will change the interpretation of the images (2012). Presenting research images in new contexts to new viewers fosters the expression of new meanings, new interpretations and new opinions and voices. The next chapter, ‘Visual Research Methods: Discovery’, builds on what we have presented here. It offers an overview of the unique challenges and opportunities of theorizing and analysing visual data and presents practical information about conducting a visual research project.

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(KALiEds): Mapping the Information Landscape of Refugee Youth Learning in Everyday Spaces, Journal of Information Science, 42 (3), 300–312, https://doi:10.1177/0165551515621845. Margolis, E. and Pauwels, L. (eds) (2011) The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods, London: SAGE Publications, https://doi:10.4135/9781446268278. McKinney, P. and Cook, C. (2018) Student Conceptions of Group Work: Visual Research into LIS Student Group Work Using the Draw-and-Write Technique, Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 59 (4), 206–27. Meo, A. I. (2010) Picturing Students’ Habitus: The Advantages and Limitations of Photo-Elicitation Interviewing in a Qualitative Study in the City of Buenos Aires, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 9 (2), 149–71. Mills, J. (2014) Methodology and Methods. In J. Mills and M. Birks (eds), Qualitative Methodology, London: SAGE Publications, https://doi:10.4135/9781473920163. Mitchell, C. (2011) Doing Visual Research, London: SAGE Publications. Newcomer, N. L., Lindahl, D. and Harriman, S. A. (2016) Picture the Music: Performing Arts Library Planning with Photo Elicitation, Music Reference Services Quarterly, 19 (1), 18–62, https://doi:10.1080/10588167.2015.1130575. Pauwels, L. (2011) An Integrated Conceptual Framework for Visual Social Research. In E. Margolis and L. Pauwels (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods, London: SAGE Publications, https://doi:10.4135/9781446268278. Pink, S. (2007) Doing Visual Ethnography: Images, Media and Representation in Research, London: SAGE Publications. Pink, S. (ed.) (2012) Advances in Visual Methodology, London: SAGE Publications. Pollak, A. (2017) Visual Research in LIS: Complementary and Alternative Methods, Library & Information Science Research, 39 (2), 98–106, https://doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2017.04.002. Prosser, J. and Loxley, A. (2008) Introducing Visual Methods, discussion paper, http://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/420/. Rose, G. (2012) Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials, 3rd edn, London: Thousand Oaks; California: SAGE Publications. Rose, G. (2014) On the Relation between ‘Visual Research Methods’ and Contemporary Visual Culture, The Sociological Review, 62 (1), 24–46, http://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/420/. Schwandt, T. A. (2007) Methodology, The SAGE Dictionary of Qualitative Inquiry, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Stanczak, G. C. (ed.) (2007) Visual Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., https://doi:10.4135/9781412986502. Tewell, E. (2019) Reframing Reference for Marginalized Students: A Participatory Visual Study, Reference & User Services Quarterly, 58 (3), 162–176, https://doi.org/10.5860/rusq.58.3.7044. Thorpe, R. and Holt, R. (2008) The SAGE Dictionary of Qualitative Management

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Research, London: SAGE Publications Ltd, https://doi:10.4135/9780857020109. Tracy, S. J. (2010) Qualitative Quality: Eight ‘Big-Tent’ Criteria for Excellent Qualitative Research, Qualitative Inquiry, 16 (10), 837–51, https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800410383121. Wang, C. and Burris, M. A. (1994) Empowerment through Photo Novella: Portraits of Participation, Health Education Quarterly, 21 (2), 171–86, https://doi:10.1177/109019819402100204. Wang, C. and Burris, M. A. (1997) Photovoice: Concept, Methodology and Use for Participatory Needs Assessment, Health Education & Behavior, 24 (3), 369–87, https://doi:10.1177/109019819702400309. Warr, D., Cox, S., Guillemin, M. and Waycott, J. (2016) Ethics and Visual Research Methods: Theory, Methodology and Practice, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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2

Visual Research Methods: Discovery Shailoo Bedi and Jenaya Webb

Until recently, visual research methods have been an overlooked option within LIS, which have instead favored verbal and written approaches to research methods. However, according to Gombrich and Woodfield (1996) and Mirzoeff (1999), society is living through a social and cultural era dominated by the visual. Indeed, our lives seem to be permeated by the visual in all aspects, thanks, in part, to the ease and access of digital technologies. This so-called ‘visual turn’ is reflected not only in the ubiquity of visual images in the modern era, but also in the increasing willingness of scholars in humanities and social science disciplines to adopt visual approaches in their research (Prosser and Loxley, 2008). As discussed in the previous chapter, visual research methods are research techniques that use visual elements such as film, video, drawings, paintings, photographs, digital images and artistic media within a research context. These methods became more widely accepted in social science research practices in the 1960s, when scholars began to use images not only as tools with which to document factual occurrences, but also as symbolic representations of lived experiences and windows into wider cultural and social phenomena (Pink, 2001; Rose, 2012; Schwartz, 1989; Stanczak, 2007). It is this approach to visual research that interests us here. We see this growing interest in the qualitative examination of visuals as an innovative way to investigate and discover new things about our complex social and information worlds. This chapter will touch lightly on a broad range of considerations for visual research projects. It is intended as a starting point, or a point of discovery, for readers of this book. We begin by discussing how visual research methods can be used to understand images within a qualitative approach. We then touch on the impact of epistemologies and the importance of using theoretical

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approaches for understanding visual data and drawing informed conclusions to the questions we are investigating. We also point to key considerations for analysing visual data and think through practical considerations, such as ethical issues and research data management. This chapter is by no means an exhaustive discussion of these topics. Indeed, there are entire textbooks dedicated to each. Rather, we open these conversations here as a way to guide researchers as they to embark on a visual research project. We believe that conducting visual research requires researchers to consider critical frameworks, theories and our own world views so that we can better understand our data and move beyond our professional judgment, grounding and situating our research conclusions in a theoretical base.

Framing a Visual Research Project Soon after the invention of the camera in the early 1800s, photographs started to emerge in quantitative research, primarily in scientific studies, to portray objective realities. Stanczak (2007, 4) points out that the camera is associated with positivism: Both photographic technology and philosophical framework stem from the aligned notions that the truth can be discerned empirically from objective facts observed in the world and that systematic documentation of these facts can lead to the harnessing of certain social processes and outcomes.

In the early days of photography, researchers used images (especially photographs) to record events and provide viewers with another way to observe occurrences beyond reading about them. These images were often presented as objective documentation about things the researcher had observed. In later paradigm debates, this notion of the visual as objective truth would be challenged by the qualitative realm. Fyfe and Law (1988, 1) explain, A depiction is never just an illustration . . . it is the site for the construction and depiction of social difference. . . . To understand a visualization is thus to inquire into its provenance and the social work that it does. It is to note its principles of exclusion and inclusion, to detect the roles that it makes available, to understand the way in which they are distributed and to decode the hierarchies and differences that it naturalizes.

Qualitative visual researchers recognize that visual elements are meaningful research tools when closely and critically examined in context. This involves asking questions such as: Who made the image? Why did they make it? What

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did they decide to include? What did they leave out? How was it shared and circulated? As Pink (2003) explains, images have meaning because of how we interpret them rather than simply because they are observable. And scholars caution against the conclusion that ‘images speak for themselves’ (Meo, 2010; Pink, 2003). As Berger et al. (1972, 10) point out, Every image embodies a way of seeing. Even a photograph. For photographs are not, as is often assumed, a mechanical record. Every time we look at a photograph, we are aware, however slightly, of the photographer selecting that sight from an infinity of other possible sights. . . . Yet every image embodies a way of seeing: our perception or appreciation of an image depends also upon our own way of seeing.

In other words, images generated during the research process are not simply descriptive, documentary objects. Rather, images are complex artifacts that reflect the perspectives, preferences and decisions of their creators. Anthropologist Arjun Shankar urges researchers using visual research methods (specifically photovoice) to be mindful of the positivist orientation towards image authenticity and the inclination to reinforce stereotypical assumptions that images of marginalized peoples are ‘mere description’ (2016, 164). He cautions researchers against believing that participants are merely documenting their realities rather than making decisions based on ‘image aesthetics and questions of form’ of their own (2016, 164). Thus, we must keep in mind that we bring our own lens to the interpretation of images and that research participants bring their own as well. Our gender identity, race, ethnicity and socio-economic status, consciously and unconsciously, shape the way we see and exist in the world. We must also consider our positions and privilege as researchers in our work with images. Rose (2003) uses the phrase ‘disciplinary visualities’ to describe how research and academic disciplines look at the world, how they shape and alter what is seen, how it is seen and what is privileged to be visible. For her own field of geography, Rose mentions that maps may have been the most dominant form of visual data, but that there are many other potentials in the field to include visual research to inform the ways the discipline constructs and deconstructs societal and cultural information. Other disciplines in the social sciences to adopt visual research include education, psychology, nursing, sociology and anthropology, all of which have different ways of seeing based on their disciplinary lenses. Furthermore, research inquiry paradigms – quantitative and qualitative approaches – have different ways of seeing. Writing about photographs in particular, Winston explains that, ‘From its beginnings photography has

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made a claim on science which has allowed it to be considered evidence. Yet from the beginning this claim has been in some sense too strong, the opportunities to manipulate are too great to allow photographic images to stand . . . as evidence of the external world’ (1998, 60). This type of reading of images (whether photographs, drawings, maps, or other) in which they are treated as ‘static’ evidence of reality warrants skepticism (Hamilton, 2006). This point is even more profound today in a time where photos can easily be edited to add, remove and skew in a few clicks.

Situating Visual Research Within Qualitative Inquiry Although researchers working in quantitative and qualitative paradigms use visual elements in their work, their methodological approaches are quite different (Banks and Zeitlyn, 2015; Hartel and Thomson, 2011; Margolis and Pauwels, 2011; Spencer, 2011). First, we would like to touch on quantitative visual research. Today, many quantitative visual research approaches extend beyond the notion that images represent an objective reality. Social scientists employ quantitative visual methods less as a way to document research ‘objectively’ and more for other endeavors, like uncovering patterns in the large swathes of visual data available online. Bock, Isermann and Knieper (2011) explain that, typically, a quantitative approach with visual methods is used to show trends and implications through what is seen or captured in images. For example, Thelwall et al. used visual content analysis for a large-scale study about the types of images that circulate on Twitter. As the authors note, content analysis can be effective because ‘although it is not capable of dealing with the nuances of individual images, it is able to characterize properties of a large set of images in a systematic way’ (2015, 2578). Rose explains that methods such as content analysis focus more on the composition or content of an image rather than how it was produced, by whom and for what reason (2012). Others in LIS employ mixed quantitative and qualitative approaches. For example, for her dissertation on leisure gourmet cooking in America, LIS scholar Jenna Hartel used Collier and Collier’s (1986) photographic inventory technique alongside qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, to document and interpret her field sites (Hartel, 2007). We recognize the significant value that quantitative visual approaches offer, but we situate our own research and the focus of this book within the qualitative paradigm. We see visual research methods as tools that help us gain a deeper understanding of social phenomena, uncover the rich life experiences of research participants and even reflect on how we as researchers believe that knowledge and meaning are constructed. In particular, our work

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in exploring the experiences of university students in library spaces hinges on the understanding that images (in our case photographs taken by student participants) are sites where individuals produce meaning (Bedi and Webb, 2017). In the research context, especially, the viewer of an image must interpret and consider what is in the frame and what is not; they bring their personal experiences and context to their viewing and comprehension. Every image represents the creator’s choices and, hence, his or her interpretation of what is important to capture (Goldstein, 2007). This approach makes images a valuable tool for eliciting multiple perspectives and interpretations from viewers. Indeed, the discussion that takes place with a research participant about an image may be more important than the image itself (Harper, 2002; Pink, 2003; Schwartz, 1989). Frith and Harcourt describe images in the research process ‘as a reference point to be used in conversation rather than an objective representation of reality that has meaning independent of these conversations’ (2007, 1342). Mitchell (2011) reminds us that in the mere production of an image, the producer must make a multitude of decisions that are not objective. A qualitative approach to images considers how the creator frames the object – what is included or left out of the frame – is the essence of how images have meaning (Pink, 2001, 2003 and 2007; Rose, 2012; Schwartz, 1989).

Epistemological Considerations Stanczak observes that epistemology and methodology are ‘two sides of the spinning coin of social inquiry’ (2007, 3). Epistemological assumptions affect the types of methods that we choose, just as the methods that we use – including their strengths and limitations – influence the way we generate knowledge. Hathcoat and Nicholas write that epistemology is ‘concerned with studying the nature, limitations and justification of human knowledge’ (2014, 303). Broadly speaking, epistemological questions seek to understand what constitutes knowledge and how we can know about the world. As Hathcoat and Nicholas explain, such questions can include: ‘Is it possible to obtain objective knowledge about the world? Is human knowledge a social construction or even an illusion? Does a knower actively create knowledge, or is knowledge something discovered by a disinterested observer?’ (2014, 303). Such questions and considerations are closely tied to the types of questions we, as researchers, ask, how we decide to proceed with research and what methods we decide to use. Given this dynamic, it is worth considering how epistemological orientations align with visual research methods.

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As discussed above, qualitative approaches to visual research methods often align closely with the idea that visual data is created or constructed within a social and cultural context. Constructivism (or social constructivism) is an epistemological paradigm in which people are understood ‘as actively constructing knowledge, in their own subjective and intersubjective realities and in contextually specific ways’ (Hershberg, 2014, 182). In the constructivist approach, knowledge is subjective and has multiple meanings and interpretations based on the social and historical context in which it was created (Ponterotto, 2005). Thus, social knowledge does not exist ‘out there’, waiting to be objectively observed; rather, we ourselves construct it (Crotty, 1998). Applying a social constructivist frame to visual research allows researchers to examine how individuals view, relate to and experience life through visual representation. The visual element (whether photographs, maps, drawings, videos or other objects) is only a partial representation of reality as we perceive it. Researchers can use images as tools to further explore the ways that different people construct meaning in different ways, even with respect to the same phenomenon. In the context of photo-driven interviews, for example, the images can provide another window into the unique views and comprehensions of research participants about the subject or research question under investigation. For a social constructivist in this context, knowledge is created between the researcher and their research participant(s) through interactions and discussion. As Ponterotto (2005, 129) writes: a distinguishing characteristic of constructivism is the centrality of the interaction between the investigator and the object of investigation. Only through this interaction can deeper meaning be uncovered. The researcher and her or his participants jointly create (co-construct) findings from their interactive dialogue and interpretation.

This leads us to another epistemological orientation that is highly relevant to visual research methods: interpretivism, which is part of the constructivist stance and as a paradigm has been influenced by hermeneutics and phenomenology (Crotty, 1998; Willis, 2007). Interpretivism’s main tenet is that research can never be observed objectively from the outside, rather it must be observed from the inside through direct experience. It aims to understand the subjective experiences of those being studied, how they think and feel, how they act or react in their lives, and how they choose to depict or frame their lives or aspects of their lives visually. Unlike positivism, an approach that suggests objective knowledge about reality can be obtained, the interpretivist ‘holds that individuals do not have access to the real world, suggesting that their knowledge of the perceived world (or worlds) can be

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understood through careful use of interpretivist procedures’ (Levy, 2006, 374). When it comes to visual research, Spencer suggests that ‘we “read” the images in front of our eyes through the pictures we have in our heads’ (2011, 19). In other words, we bring our own biases to our ‘readings’ or interpretations of visual elements. At the core of interpretivism is an assumption that people generate meaning from the social world in which they operate through an inductive process. This epistemology is oriented towards a deeper understanding of the research problem within its unique context. The subjectivist position is closely tied to the interpretivist stance in its insistence that ‘the knower uses past experience . . . [and] other sources to attribute meaning to the known’ (Preissle and Grant, 2004, 175). Spencer comments that ‘no two people have the same repertoire of cultural experience; individual subjectivity is complex and unique – hence responses will vary depending on this association to a universe of discourse which shapes our interpretations’ (2011, 19). This is contrary to the practice of objectivist researchers, who ‘report little about themselves or their relationships to those in the setting. The research participants are foregrounded and self as researcher is backgrounded’ (Preissle and Grant, 2004, 172). As researchers working in the qualitative realm with visual research methods, we recognize that removing ourselves from the research process is not possible and that much will depend on the nature of the research inquiry and on our own personal, fundamental philosophical approaches. Regardless of whether a researcher subscribes to one of the epistemological approaches mentioned above (or another altogether), it is important to recognize that their approach will shape the types of research questions they pursue and the methodological approaches they choose.

Establishing a Theoretical Approach In addition to understanding one’s epistemological orientation, researchers should consider theoretical frameworks as vital components in the interpretation and analysis of data. There is no clear or consistent definition of the term ‘theoretical framework’ in the social sciences (Anfara, 2012). However, Mertz provides a simple and concise definition: ‘a theoretical framework is a lens through which [a researcher] is looking and approaching the research. So it frames what you see and what you may not see’ (2017). Indeed, having a theoretical framework can help ‘focus a study, reveal and conceal meaning and understanding, situate the research in a scholarly conversation and provide a vernacular and reveal its strengths and weaknesses’ (Anfara, 2012, 5). As Prosser and Schwartz point out, having a theoretical framework ‘aids management of large amounts of (visual) data by

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providing logic for sorting, organizing, indexing and categorization’ (1998, 111). In other words, making sense of your data depends on ‘what sort of social explanation of intellectual puzzle is to be resolved’ (1998, 111). Theory directs the researcher beyond intuition and professional judgment towards more informed conclusions about the questions we are investigating. But how to decide on a theoretical framework? Anfara (2012) notes that selecting a theoretical framework is not easy for new or even seasoned researchers. The search can often involve a lot of reading across disciplines, discussions with colleagues and ultimately ‘finding, reflecting upon and discarding several potential theoretical frameworks before one is finally chosen’ (2012, 5). Additionally, Lysaght writes that a researcher’s selection of a framework often ‘reflects important personal beliefs and understandings about the nature of knowledge’ (2011, 572). Establishing (and transparently describing) our theoretical frameworks as scholars and professionals in the library, information and archival sectors can help us reflect on our own positions and worldviews. Although scholars and professionals working in LIS sectors bring a multitude of outlooks and theoretical frames to their research, ensuring access and removing barriers to knowledge and information is core to our professions. With that in mind, critical education and pedagogy, and critical race, feminist and queer theories, may provide theoretical foundations for visual research methods in LIS. Additionally, grounded theory and practice theory have been used in information literacy work, and information-seeking and behavior theories are relevant across our discipline. Although there are many more relevant theoretical frameworks than the ones mentioned here, these provide a basic starting place for examining visual methods, especially during the data analysis phase. We encourage researchers to document their theoretical frameworks and epistemological positions and share them clearly in their research outputs. So often in research outputs, these nuances are left to the reader to assume or imagine rather than being available for critique.

Planning for Analysis The analysis phase of a visual research project often requires researchers to juggle assumptions, epistemologies and theoretical frames. For objectivists, the images capture something ‘real’ and for subjectivists, images are constructions – but, as Stanczak indicates, image research ‘often asks us to hold both positions simultaneously to greater or lesser degrees’ (2007, 7). Visual data continues to suggest an ‘obviousness’ given the tangible nature of photos, maps, drawings, film or objects, but also requires us to construct knowledge, understanding and meaning through our own lens.

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Researcher Reflexivity Researchers across social science disciplines are increasingly recognizing how their own identities and beliefs impact their research. Many scholars have embraced the idea that using a reflexive approach can help uncover biases in all aspects of research design, from the formulation of research questions to methodology and analysis. Broadly speaking, reflexivity can be described as ‘qualitative researchers’ engagement of continuous examination and explanation of how they have influenced a research project’ (Dowling, 2012, 747). The notion of researcher reflexivity allows researchers to consider the many different ways they are situated within their own research. Writing about visual ethnography, Pink explains that researchers should pay attention to how ‘different elements of their identities become significant during research. For example, gender, age, ethnicity, class and race are important in the way researchers are situated and situate themselves in ethnographic contexts’ (2001, 20). This is not to say that researcher reflexivity corrects for researcher bias. Rather, by explaining one’s own background, biases and theoretical lens, a researcher can be more transparent about who they are, grounding their interpretations and making it clear that the research question, analysis and findings are not neutral. As Guest points out, ‘Reflexive research practices illuminate the ways in which the researcher’s positioning shapes the research process at every stage’ (2016, 78). Guest used photo elicitation with narrative interviewing to explore women’s narratives on becoming feminists. She explains that the use of personal photographs in the research process demanded that she consider reflexivity because ‘photographs can have multiple layers of meaning for both the researcher and participants’ (2016, 75). She further explains that in order to understand the layers of meaning within images, ‘we must reflect on our own response to the images and consider the factors that shape our interpretation of them’ (2016, 75). As visual researchers, our interpretations of visual data must consider the meaning of the image from the participant’s perspective. Furthermore, we must also be aware that how a participant makes meaning may be shaped by the research context, including the research question, analysis and dissemination process. Thus, interpretation and meaning-making are not neutral and this is where reflexive research practice can support analysis. In Chapter 5, Jess Whyte and Chelsea Misquith demonstrate reflexivity in the rigor of their visual research methods work. By providing researcher stance and position, they alert readers to the biases they carry into their work. In their study of a library makerspace, Whyte and Misquith provide a detailed discussion about being ‘insiders’: research librarians who work in the library and have a power-based relationship with student research participants.

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Furthermore, they clearly identify their intimate involvement in the construction of the makerspace, which poses advantages and disadvantages, along with ethical considerations, to their research. Their positional discussion, in clearly identifying their assumptions and biases, frames their work and brings credibility to their analysis. Hertz reminds us that the reflexive researcher does not merely report the facts from the research process but also actively constructs interpretations by critically asking ‘What do I know?’ and, more importantly, ‘How do I know what I know?’ (1997, viii). These are good questions for researchers and practitioners in LIS to consider. What draws us to examine the research questions we do? How do the results affect us? Given that many of the research questions in LIS relate to LIS organizations, collections and spaces, they project inherent bias and assumptions (Bedi and Webb, 2017). Thus, it only makes sense to reflect on our professional and personal identities and how they have shaped the way we perceive and produce knowledge. What brings us to a research project and how we define ourselves as researchers and practitioners are critical considerations as we move forward in any research process.

Approaches to Analysis It can be easy to feel lost in the analysis process of a visual research project. As with other types of qualitative research data, there is no one right way to conduct analysis. Rather, visual data can be analysed in many different ways depending on the aims of the research. Several types of analysis that are often used to approach visual data include content analysis, thematic analysis and critical discourse analysis. These particular analytical approaches and others can be further explored in visual research texts such as Rose’s Visual Methodologies (2012), Van Leeuwen and Jewitt’s Handbook of Visual Analysis (2001) or Margolis and Pauwels’ SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods (2011). Rather than trying to cover specific types of analysis here, we will focus on big picture questions. With visual data analysis, as with other forms of qualitative research analysis, it is important to go from the descriptive phase to the analytical by taking the descriptive into the interpretative realm. This means at some point as researchers when describing our data, we have to move from description to interpretation using theories to help us understand what the data is telling us. Collier provides some helpful ways to draw out an interpretive analysis when working with visual data. He outlined a four-step process he calls ‘a basic model for analysis’ (2004, 39). Much like the analysis of written data in a qualitative study, Collier’s basic model of analysis began with careful

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observation of the entire data set. Collier emphasizes that our first reaction to visual images holds potential insights for further interpretation, so he recommends that researchers make note of questions as they observe and review their visual data. This step is important to do before organizing the data or creating inventory logs. Otherwise, a researcher risks categorizing the data too quickly and identifying individual elements instead seeing the whole story – not seeing the forest for the trees. If we focus too much on the data within an image, we may miss interpreting the image’s social and cultural aspects (Rose, 2012). Rose (2012) suggests that after analysing the composition of visual data, the researcher ought to examine the cultural and social context of the image’s creation in order to get at its meaning and story. Rose’s rationale is to avoid seeing visual images as ‘static’. To assist with this step, Collier (2004) suggests reviewing your research questions and descriptions, establishing connections to the visual data and drawing conclusions about that data. Overall, the intention here is not to create a prescriptive way of analysing images but rather to offer considerations that will hopefully make the process of analysis less daunting and still afford room for intuition and creativity. In analysing images, scholars like Goldstein (2007), Mitchell (2011) and Banks (1998) recommend researchers ask themselves questions such as: ■ ■ ■ ■

Why did the creator of the image make the choices they did? Did the creator make their choices consciously or unconsciously? What did the creator hope we would notice and why? What do we see in the image that may not have been intended for capture or representation?

Goldstein (2007, 79) offers the following advice related to interpretation of content and context: Despite the fact that our interpretation of content will always rest on the shifting sands of context, I would argue that it is always a useful exercise to question the intent of the photographer in creating content. At a minimum, it makes us question our own background and biases and thus broadens our point of view. Furthermore, it may help add some precision to terms such as honesty, integrity and deception. Most important, it makes us think about what we’re looking at and this is the greatest compliment we can pay.

Saldaña recommends a holistic approach to analysis, one that uses ‘an interpretive lens guided by intuitive inquiry and strategic questions’ (2013, 52). Rather than applying one word or short phrase codes, using reflections

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from participants or researchers will help develop language-based data, which will in turn provide context for the visual data. In her book Situational Analysis, Clarke discusses mapping visual discourses and recommends asking several questions related to contextual and critical readings of visual data, among them, ‘What work is the image doing in the world? What is it telling us?’ (2005, 227). Any close reading will use visual literacy and literary studies approaches. To these, Saldaña (2013, 57) has added our own innate interpretive ability: As a theatre practitioner I was trained to design for the stage, so visual literacy is a ‘given’. . . . Today’s mediated and visual cultures seem to indoctrinate and endow all of us by default with visual literacy – heightened awareness of images and their presentation and representation. From my readings of various systematic methods for analyzing visual data, I have yet to find a single satisfactory approach that rivals the tacit and visceral capabilities of human reflection and interpretation. Trust your intuitive, holistic impressions when analyzing and writing about visual materials.

Schwartz mentions that viewing imagery is a ‘patterned social activity shaped by social context, cultural conventions and group norms’ (1989, 120). On their own, images may not be meaningful, but as an entry point to storytelling or creating a narrative, they are rich and complex. In the end, data analysis is ‘fundamentally about choosing a way through, actually doing it, modifying/revising or trying again until you find a process that works for you and then documenting your successes (and failures too) so others can learn from them’ (Pollak, 2020).

Practical Considerations In this section, we point to several of the more practical considerations involved in visual research projects relating to ethical concerns and managing visual research data.

Ethical Considerations Like all forms of research that involve human participants, there are ethical issues that must be addressed. Researchers must take on the responsibility of protecting research participants from potential harm and misrepresentation in the present and in the future. They must assess risk for participants, establish a process that minimizes risk and ensure that participants are able to give consent in a clear and informed fashion. They must also assure

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participants of their anonymity and the confidentiality of their responses – or in cases where anonymity may be limited explain what the implications might be. Social science research involving human subjects is grounded in the key principles of promoting respect and fairness for participants while creating research that can benefit both participants and a broader community. All the usual ethical issues hold true for researchers working with visual research methods involving human participants, in addition to others like informed consent, the authorship and ownership of images and the presentation, publication, management and storage of visual data. Cox et al. (2014) invited visual research scholars and members of research ethics boards from various universities to take part in an international conference to discuss ethical issues with visual research methods. They identified six categories for ethical consideration: consent, confidentiality, minimizing harm, fuzzy boundaries, authorship and ownership, and representation and reception. We will briefly touch on some of the above categories and pose questions that researchers can ask to ensure they are taking ethical issues into consideration. For a detailed discussion of all six categories of ethical considerations in visual research methods, see Guidelines for Ethical Visual Research Methods (Cox et al., 2014). An additional resource is Warr et al.’s Ethics and Visual Research Methods (2016). For any social science research employing human subjects, the researcher’s first step is to seek ethics approval from their institutional research ethics board. Most research ethics boards are concerned with how consent is sought and maintained throughout the research process, in addition to: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

what measures the researcher will put in place in the event of unexpected outcomes or adverse effects how participants will be recruited potential risks to participant and researcher how confidentiality and anonymity will be maintained how data will be disseminated.

With a participatory visual research method, all of these considerations are critical to an ethical approach, but with added concerns regarding authorship and ownership (Cox et al., 2014). The origins of visual data – such as preexisting photo albums, research-created images or participant-generated images (photos, films or drawings) – may raise ethical concerns about representation, authorship and ownership that must be addressed. Some researchers may shy away from conducting visual research because of the lack of control when sending research participants out to gather visual data. This risk – the potential challenges of participants taking images of

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others, for example – must be carefully considered during the research design phase. However, in their work Photovoice Ethics, Wang and Redwood-Jones (2001) suggest that researchers provide participants with a script and photo release forms so they can gather consent from individuals who may end up in their images. In the case of their photovoice research project on the health and safety of community in Flint, Michigan, Wang and Redwood-Jones created brochures that outlined the purpose of the study and provided informed consent information and release forms for participants to distribute to potential photographic subjects (2001). One significant lesson they learned addressed the time required to train participants on the procedures and ethics of data gathering, power, responsibility and accountability as opposed to the time spent training participants on using data-gathering tools like cameras and camcorders. After collecting the images for a study, there are ethical issues regarding data management and storage. The longevity of images will be a concern for ethics review boards, especially regarding the re-use, sharing and future dissemination of images. Key to these issues are ensuring anonymity of individuals, especially if the image locations can be disclosed or easily identifiable. Wang and Redwood-Jones highlighted the following lessons regarding the ethical considerations of a visual research study: ■ ■

■ ■

Offer training to research participants to ensure their safety when taking images that could have a negative impact on a person or community. Ensure the research participant is informed and gives written consent to the research regarding use of their images and in what context (e.g. publication, exhibit). Inform participants of their ownership and copyright over their images. Ensure that participants are aware that they must gain photo release and consent from potential research subjects.

As part of this, Wang and Redwood-Jones (2001) recommend a three-stage process for gaining consent, providing: ■ ■ ■

an initial consent form that outlines the aims, risks, benefits and rights of the research participants a consent form for individuals who may be photographed by the research participants an additional consent form for the research participants on the release of creative materials, which allows participants to decide if they want their images to be used in only the research interview process or also for publication.

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This multi-step process for gaining and ensuring consent helps address the ethical issues of using a visual research method. It also points to the complexity of visual research and what must be considered to do it well. Wang and Redwood-Jones wrote their work on ethical issues in 2001 and since then we have seen a proliferation of digital images that can be easily downloaded and repurposed. This makes consent for the use of participantproduced images even more complicated. In this digital era, multiple social media sites host and distribute images. They also tag, geospatially locate, track and create alerts for specific images, people and places, and visual data collection apps for mobile phones (such as dscout) have the potential to extend the realm of traditional research, increase data collection capacities and allow new insights into participants’ day-to-day information practices. As a result, gaining consent for the use of participant-produced images is one of the biggest challenges for research. Researchers must be very clear with participants on the speed with which images can be disseminated and the associated risks. Throughout the process, maintaining an ethic of care is critical to protecting the dignity of research participants. As discussed in the analysis section of this chapter, using a reflexive approach can help. As Guest points out, although ‘when images are shared with wider audiences, participants might have little control over the context in which they are displayed or how they are interpreted’ (2016, 83), following a reflexive research practice draws our attention to our research choices, the interpretations we might make, the areas of experience and stories we might focus on and our personal positions and biases in approaching and interpreting data (Guest, 2016). To aid reflexive practice and support ethical and rigorous considerations, researchers can also remember that one of the primary reasons to conduct research is to construct knowledge. Jung (2016) and Cox et al. (2014, 3) pointed out that research generated from visual methods can include the production and co-production of new knowledge and artifacts in a shared process that can lead to ‘fuzzy boundaries’. Jung (2016) observed, Fuzzy boundaries are arguably more likely to be evident in research using visual methods because researchers and participants can have multiple and overlapping roles and the research serves multiple purposes, such as generating knowledge, producing creative outcomes and engaging public audiences in social issues.

This can lead to blurred lines between the role of researcher and participant. It can also be challenging to draw a line between what is artistic expression and what is research output. Thus, it is critical that a researcher be clear about the roles and expectations of participating in a visual research project. This

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will help ensure that participants are aware and ethically informed at the beginning and throughout the research inquiry.

Research Data Management for Visual Materials New technologies are making the collection of digital visual data and the digitization of non-digital visual data faster and less expensive than ever. This makes it easy for researchers (and in some cases research participants) to amass large amounts of visual data. As we have discussed elsewhere, research participants in our studies at the University of Toronto and the University of Victoria collected more photographs than we requested in the photo instructions we provided, resulting in hundreds of images in the case of the University of Toronto study (Bedi and Webb, 2017). Additionally, visual data, whether photographs, drawings, video footage, or other visual elements, can be highly compelling and persuasive components of the research output. Despite this, new and experienced researchers often neglect to set out a plan detailing how they will store, manage, share and make their data accessible during the course of their research project and afterward. This process of managing data collected throughout the research process is commonly referred to as research data management. An important component of practicing good research data management is the development of a research data management plan and there are many templates and guides that exist to help researchers think through this process. For example, The Qualitative Data Repository at Syracuse (https://qdr.syr.edu/), the UK Data Service (https://ukdataservice.ac.uk/) and the Digital Curation Centre (www.dcc.ac.uk/) offer guides and general information for managing research data throughout the research process. Working through such guides early in the research process can assist researchers in thinking through things like the number and type of files that will make up the data set and the type of data storage required to accommodate the data securely. In our own research projects, the data sets included participant-generated photographs and the associated interview transcripts and recordings. For us it was important to ensure that the data were managed in a way that linked back to their contextual data, such as the participant who created them and the associated interview transcripts. Although this may seem straight forward, it is easy to mismanage data especially when the data set is large or there is a team of researchers involved. Researchers need to consider where their data will be stored. Those employed at government organizations or research institutions will likely have access to research data management supports and secure data repositories. For the most part, data repositories provide secure, long-term

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storage for research data with the aim of making the data more accessible. In deciding on how to store and share data, researchers should consider the requirements of funding organizations, publishers and requests from partner communities or research collaborators to make research data accessible. These considerations are vital for researchers working with visual data especially if the research includes identifiable and contextual data such as participantgenerated photographs and associated interviews. Additionally, in cases where participants are creators of the visual elements, questions of restrictions and ownership arise, which can influence decisions regarding access and storage. There are clear benefits to creating a data management plan and using a data repository. However, there are also challenges. For researchers embarking on qualitative visual research projects, implementing these practices may not be as easy as following templates or guidelines. Antonio et al. (2019) note that the development and management of data repositories and research data management supports and services for scholars have traditionally been focused on scientific data. Furthermore, they suggest that ‘current designs of data repositories may not support the messy, unknown and emergent aspect of qualitative [research]’ (2019, 17). Thoegersen notes that studies examining the data management practices of scholars have ‘largely focused on researchers in the sciences and, to a lesser extent, social sciences’ (Thoegersen, 2018, 493). Although conversations about research data management may have (to this point) focused on quantitative data, research data management is increasingly important in all disciplines including the humanities and social sciences. Researchers and practitioners beginning visual research projects will likely encounter challenges in managing visual data in this context. However, as discussions regarding qualitative research data management continue in higher education contexts, scholars collecting visual data have an opportunity to partner with their institutions in advancing the conversation around data management services and infrastructures that better support and promote visual research data.

Conclusion The goal of this chapter was to introduce some key considerations for researchers embarking on qualitative visual research projects. We have only begun to touch on the complexity of conducting visual research but hope that we have opened the door to further discovery. The authors and works cited throughout this chapter provide a wealth of knowledge for researchers looking for next steps.

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We have cautioned against taking images for granted or simply integrating images into a research study as an ‘add-on’. Employing a visual research method involves substantial consideration of the purpose of a study. We must engage deeply with our research question, purpose and intent. As Spencer (2011) points out, visual research methods are no more honest, objective or authoritative than traditional language-based approaches like interviews, focus groups and surveys. Indeed, visual research methods still, to a degree, depend on language to explain and give context to images. However, with a balanced approach, visual research methods allow researchers to look more critically and creatively at phenomena, offering insights a more logocentric approach might miss.

References Anfara, V. A. (2012) Theoretical Frameworks. In L. M. Given (ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Antonio, M. G., Schick-Makaroff, K., Doiron, J. M., Sheilds, L., White, L. and Molzahn, A. (2019) Qualitative Data Management and Analysis within a Data Repository, Western Journal of Nursing Research, https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945919881706. Banks, M. (1998) Visual Anthropology: Image, Object and Interpretation. In J. Prosser (ed.), Image-Based Research: A Source Book for Qualitative Researchers, London: Falmer Press. Banks, M. and Zeitlyn, D. (2015) Visual Methods in Social Research, 2nd edn, London: SAGE Publications. Bedi, S. and Webb, J. (2017) Through the Students’ Lens: Photographic Methods for Research in Library Spaces, Evidence Based Library Information Practice, 12 (2), 15–35. Berger, J., Fox, C., Dibb, M. and Hollis, R. (1972) Ways of Seeing, London: Penguin Books. Bock, A., Isermann, H. and Knieper, T. (2011) Quantitative Content Analysis of the Visual. In E. Margolis and L. Pauwels (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods, London: SAGE Publications, https://doi:10.4135/9781446268278.n14. Clarke, A. (2005) Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Collier, J. and Collier, M. (1986) Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Collier, M. (2004) Approaches to Analysis in Visual Anthropology. In T. van Leeuwen and C. Jewitt (eds), Handbook for Visual Analysis, London: SAGE Publications. Cox, S., Drew, S., Guillemin, M., Howell, C., Warr, D. and Waycott, J. (2014) Guidelines for Ethical Visual Research Methods, Melbourne: The University of Melbourne.

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Crotty, M. (1998) The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Dowling, M. (2012) Reflexivity. In L. M. Given (ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Frith, H. and Harcourt, D. (2007) Using Photographs to Capture Women’s Experiences of Chemotherapy: Reflecting on the Method, Qualitative Health Research, 17 (10), 1340–50. Fyfe, G. and Law, J. (1988) On the Invisibility of the Visual. In G. Fyfe and J. Law (eds), Picturing Power: Visual Depiction and Social Relations, London: Routledge. Goldstein, B. (2007) All Photos Lie: Images as Data. In G. Stanczak (ed.), Visual Research Methods: Image, Society and Representation, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Gombrich, E. and Woodfield, R. (1996) Gombrich on Art and Psychology, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Guest, C. (2016) Cultivating Reflexive Research Practices When Using Participants’ Photographs as Research Data. In D. Warr, M. Guillemin, S. Cox and J. Waycott (eds), Ethics and Visual Research Methods: Theory, Methods and Practices, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Hamilton, P. (2006) Visual Research Methods, London: SAGE Publications. Harper, D. (2002) Talking about Pictures: A Case for Elicitation, Visual Studies, 17 (1), 13–26. Hartel, J. K. (2007) Information Activities, Resources and Spaces in the Hobby of Gourmet Cooking, available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, 304876976. Hartel, J. and Thomson, L. (2011) Visual Approaches and Photography for the Study of Immediate Information Space, Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 62 (11), 2214–24. Hathcoat, J. D. and Nicholas, M. C. (2014) Epistemology. In D. Coghlan and M. Brydon-Miller (eds), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Action Research, London: SAGE Publications, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446294406. Hershberg, R. M. (2014) Constructivism. In D. Coghlan and M. Brydon-Miller (eds), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Action Research, London: SAGE Publications. Hertz, R. (ed.) (1997) Reflexivity & Voice, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Jung, H. (2016) Fuzzy Boundaries when Using ‘Mental Mapping’ Methods to Trace the Experience of Immigrant Women in South Korea. In D. Warr, M. Guillemin, S. Cox and J. Waycott (eds), Ethics and Visual Research Methods, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Levy, D. (2006) Qualitative Methodology and Grounded Theory in Property Research, Pacific Rim Property Research Journal, 12 (4), 369–88. Lysaght, Z. (2011) Epistemological and Paradigmatic Ecumenism in ‘Pasteur’s Quadrant’: Tales from Doctoral Research, Official Conference Proceedings of the Third Asian Conference on Education, 567–79, Osaka: The International Academic Forum.

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Margolis, E. and Pauwels, L. (eds) (2011) The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods, London: SAGE Publications. Meo, A. I. (2010) Picturing Students’ Habitus: The Advantages and Limitations of Photo-Elicitation Interviewing in a Qualitative Study in the City of Buenos Aires, The International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 9 (2), 149–71. Mertz, N. (2017) Norma Mertz Defines Theoretical Framework, streaming video, SAGE Research Methods. Mirzoeff, N. (1999) An Introduction to Visual Culture, New York: Routledge. Mitchell, C. (2011) Doing Visual Research, London: SAGE Publications. Pink, S. (2001) Doing Visual Research Ethnography: Images, Media and Representation in Research, London: SAGE Publications. Pink, S. (2003) Interdisciplinary Agendas in Visual Research: Re-Situating Visual Anthropology, Visual Studies, 18 (2), 179–92. Pink, S. (2007) Doing Visual Ethnography: Images, Media and Representation in Research, 2nd edn, London: SAGE Publications. Pollak, A. (2020) Personal communication, 20 January. Ponterotto, J. G. (2005) Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology: A Primer on Research Paradigms and Philosophy of Science, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52 (2), 126–36. Preissle, J. and Grant, L. (2004) Fieldwork Traditions: Ethnography and Participant Observation. In K. deMarrais and S. Lapan (eds), Foundations for Research: Methods of Inquiry in Education and the Social Sciences, London: Erlbaum Associates. Prosser, J. and Loxley, A. (2008) Introducing Visual Methods, discussion paper, http://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/420/. Prosser, J. and Schwartz, D. (1998) Photographs within the Sociological Research Process. In J. Prosser (ed.), Image-Based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, London: Falmer Press. Rose, G. (2003) On the Need to Ask How, Exactly, is Geography ‘Visual’?, Antipode, 35 (2), 212–21. Rose, G. (2012) Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials, 3rd edn, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Saldaña, J. (2013) The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, 2nd edn, Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. Schwartz, D. (1989) Visual Ethnography: Using Photography in Qualitative Research, Qualitative Sociology, 12 (2), 119–54. Shankar, A. (2016) Auteurship and Image-Making: A (Gentle) Critique of the Photovoice Method, Visual Anthropology Review, 32 (2), 157–66. Spencer, S. (2011) Visual Research Methods in the Social Sciences: Awakening Visions, London: Routledge. Stanczak, G. (ed.) (2007) Visual Research Methods: Image, Society and Representation, London: SAGE Publications.

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Thelwall, M., Goriunova, O., Vis, F., Faulkner, S., Burns, A., Aulich, J., Mas-Bleda, A., Stuart, E. and D’Orazio, F. (2015) Chatting Through Pictures? A Classification of Images Tweeted in One Week in the UK and USA, Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 67 (11), 2575–86, https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23620. Thoegersen, J. L. (2018) ‘Yeah, I Guess That’s Data’: Data Practices and Conceptions among Humanities Faculty, Libraries and the Academy, 18 (3), 491–504, https://doi:10.1353/pla.2018.0030. Van Leeuwen, T. and Jewitt, C. (eds) (2001) Handbook of Visual Analysis, London: SAGE Publications. Wang, C. C. and Redwood-Jones, Y. A. (2001) Photovoice Ethics: Perspectives from Flint Photovoice, Health Education & Behavior, 28 (5), 560–72, https://doi.org/10.1177/109019810102800504. Warr, D., Guillemin, M., Cox, S. and Waycott, J. (eds) (2016) Ethics and Visual Research Methods: Theory, Methodology and Practice, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Willis, J. (2007) Foundations of Qualitative Research: Interpretive and Critical Approaches, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Winston, B. (1998) ‘The Camera Never Lies’: The Partiality of Photographic Evidence. In J. Prosser (ed.), Image-Based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, London: Routledge.

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Librarian, Illustrated: The Draw-and-Write Technique as a Visual Method for Libraries Jenna Hartel and Deborah Hicks

Arts-Informed Research Hooray! At long last, a kaleidoscopic sea change is under way in the world of research. In the past, research involved answering formal questions through a systematic process of variables, hypothesis, units of analysis, sampling, validity and reliability, among other daunting concepts. Data sets, almost exclusively composed of words and numbers, were then analysed and assembled into a report to be read by a handful of decision makers – precluding those who contributed to the research and community members, too. Within the realm of research paradigms, this most welcome breath of fresh air is called arts-informed research (Knowles and Cole, 2008). It combines the systematic and rigorous qualities of conventional qualitative methodologies with the artistic and imaginative features of the arts. The central purpose of arts-informed research is to enhance understanding of the human condition through alternative processes and representational forms of inquiry and to reach multiple audiences by making scholarship more accessible (Knowles and Cole, 2008). Emerging from the field of education in the 1990s, these creative approaches have spread across the social sciences and into several professional domains. Perhaps a founder of this movement was Pablo Picasso, who said that he never made a painting as a work of art; rather, the process was always research. Undoubtedly, hasn’t everyone felt moments of keen insight when gazing on a painting, reading a poem, attending a play – or when creating such expressions? Arts-informed methods may be grouped into three main types (Mannay, 2016; Pauwels, 2010). Studies of found materials involve researchers as collectors and observers of artworks. In researcher-initiated productions, researchers become the creators of art, whether by holding a paintbrush,

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camera, pen or other instrument. For participatory productions, the researcher-informant relationship is relaxed and a spirit of collaboration imbues a hands-on, dialogic discovery process. While any of these types hold promise for libraries, the last of these three, the participatory mode, is described in the chapter ahead. Research projects in the arts-informed spirit may entail poetry and creative writing, musical production and performance, sculpture with myriad materials, and dance and movement, too. The most prevalent modality has thus far been the family of two-dimensional visual arts – painting, drawing, collage and photography. Such visual research (Pauwels, 2011; Pink, 2006; Prosser and Loxley, 2008) employs images to learn about the social world and provides an alternative or complement to inquiry based on words or numbers. Excellent primers on arts-informed research are Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research (Knowles and Cole, 2008), Creative Research Methods in the Social Sciences (Kara, 2015) and Visual, Narrative and Creative Research Methods (Mannay, 2016). Having introduced arts-informed research, this chapter now turns attention to one arts-informed manifestation in particular which places drawing at the center of the research process (Theron et al., 2011), namely, the draw-andwrite technique (Hartel, 2020; Pridmore and Bendelow, 1995). We share our firsthand experience using this method to study the concept of ‘information’ (Hartel, 2014a) and then survey the potential applications in libraries. Stepby-step instructions for the draw-and-write research process follow, with enough detail for newcomers to give it a try. Then, we report on two projects that employ the method to generate new insights into the idea of ‘librarian’. Finally, methodological reflections and words of encouragement conclude the chapter.

Introducing the Draw-and-Write Technique The draw-and-write technique is an empirical visual research method. Informants are asked to draw a concept or to answer a question by making an illustration; further, they are prompted to write or speak about their drawing through a caption, survey, story, interview or focus group (Hartel, 2020). The method generates a dual corpus of visual and textual data that can be analysed and presented in myriad ways. This method is not to be confused with psychological tests, such as the draw-a-person test (Goodenough, 1926) that was once used as a measure of schizophrenia or intelligence; rather it aims to make otherwise intangible phenomena visible. The process and its outcomes typically deepen, extend or challenge conventional knowledge generated by research that is based on words alone. The draw-and-write

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technique is relatively easy for researchers to learn, inexpensive and low-tech. It has the added benefits of making us pay attention to things in new ways, communicate holistically, enhance empathetic understanding, generate results that are more likely to be memorable, and be more accessible than most forms of academic discourse (Weber, 2008, 44–7). Challenges or limitations with the draw-and-write technique will be addressed later, in the section ‘Methodological Reflections’.

The iSquare Research Program Since 2011, the authors of this chapter have used the draw-and-write technique in the iSquare Research Program (www.iSquares.info), an ongoing, arts-informed, visual study of information. The project asks: ■ ■ ■

How do people visualize the concept of information? How do visual conceptions of information differ among various populations? How do these images relate to conceptions of information made of words?

To generate answers, contributors to the study are given a 4” × 4” piece of paper and asked to express their understanding of information in the form of a drawing. On the reverse of the paper they are prompted: ‘Say a few words about your drawing’ (Hartel et al., 2018). The process generates a compact piece of visual and textual data coined an ‘information square’ or iSquare, for short. Thus far more than 3,000+ iSquares have been gathered from students of information studies programs around the world, undergraduates from all disciplines at the University of Toronto and citizens in greater Toronto. The results have provided an alternative and complement to existing text-based conceptions and theories of information (Hartel, 2014a), illuminated information’s affective and aesthetic dimensions, and revealed its metaphorical associations with nature (Hartel and Savolainen, 2016). Not only a tool for research, pedagogical benefits of drawing information in the classroom have been realized (Hartel, 2014b).

Precedents and Potentials of the Draw-and-Write Technique In its earliest applications (during the 1980s), the draw-and-write technique was limited to research involving children (Backett-Milburn and McKie, 1999), but it has become a research vehicle for populations at any life stage and for innumerable topics. The possibilities of the draw-and-write technique are endless and there are exemplar studies of scientist (Chambers, 1983), earth

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(Vosniadou and Brewer, 1992), teacher (Weber and Mitchell, 1995), women’s health (Guillemin, 2004), celebrity (Gauntlett, 2007), energy (Bowden et al., 2015) and children’s health (Angell, Alexander and Hunt, 2015), among others. In the library context, long-standing and emergent concepts are in flux and merit exploration through arts-informed visual methods. We can envision studies that call for drawings of library, book, data, information, knowledge, wisdom, technology, digital divide, equal access to information, information literacy and other touchstones of librarianship. We wish to further stimulate the reader’s imagination with the following scenarios: ■

■

■

Guided by a librarian facilitator, the teen-aged participants in a public library’s summer reading program together interrogate the concept of reading in this information age by collecting original drawings of ‘book’ from their families and friends. The drawings fuel a lively and wideranging discussion among the youth and are mounted as an exhibition in the library lobby. The reference team at an academic library wishes to better understand and facilitate the student experience of research associated with course assignments. Aware of ‘library anxiety’ (Mellon, 1986) and other affective stresses (Kuhlthau, 1988, 1991), they invite students to express their experience of library research in the form of a drawing. Semi-structured interviews are conducted with the students and the drawings are used as graphical elicitation devices (Crilly, Blackwell and Clarkson, 2006) that invoke additional commentary. Later, the drawings and interview transcripts are analysed inductively for recurring themes. In addition to the insights captured in the formal findings, the creative work together enhances communication and compassion among the reference librarians and undergraduates. An architectural firm has formed a team, including their librarian, to bid for a lucrative contract to design a new venue for musical performance in the city. As a part of the research process, the librarian asks community members to draw their experience of live ‘music’. The intriguing images serve as one source of inspiration for the architects to brainstorm designs that are sensitive to the citizen’s perspective. The images also enliven the team’s proposal and PowerPoint presentation and help the firm to break through the competition.

The next section outlines the main elements of the draw-and-write research process: ethics; the participants (sampling); setting, timing and instructions; materials; the ‘and-write’ component; data management; data analysis of results; and dissemination.

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The Draw-and-Write Research Process Ethics Using the draw-and-write technique qualifies as research with human subjects and requires an ethical protocol. Libraries located within academic institutions whose staff wish to implement a project should apply to their institutional review board. In the proposal and ensuing research process, measures must be taken to obtain informed consent, enlist participants in an unbiased manner, protect their privacy, enable withdrawal without penalty, and sanction the use of the image afterwards. For more information on the ethics of visual research see Warr et al. (2016) and Wiles et al. (2008).

The Participants (Sampling) Conventional social scientific research applies strict controls to define and access the population being studied, through probability and non-probability sampling; and these can carry over to the draw-and-write technique if so desired. However, fitting the unfettered, egalitarian and participatory nature of arts-informed research, it is more often that a general profile is created and brought into the research project without being objectified as a sample or subject. For instance, this target may be, ‘all stakeholders in the library’, ‘enrollees in an information literacy program’ or ‘tweens in the community’. If the research team wishes to explore narrower niches (e.g. age or gender), the participant composition can be broad at the start and variables of interest can be recorded on each drawing, for consideration later during analysis.

Setting, Timing and Instructions The data-gathering stage of the draw-and-write technique occurs best in a quiet setting with comfortable work tables and chairs. Usually, spontaneous drawings are desired and there is no background preparation from the contributors. The process may take from five minutes to more than an hour. As an example, after obtaining permission from the instructor, staff running the iSquare Research Program collected drawings of information from undergraduates in their classrooms at the University of Toronto, which ranged in size from 12 to almost 100 students. At least two research coordinators were needed to oversee the drawing activity in groups larger than 25 students. We allotted two minutes for instructions, five minutes for drawing and then one minute to collect materials. Alternatively, drawings can be gathered in an unsupervised setting from people passing by, who may invest as much time as they wish. In such cases, instructions are placed within view or on the drawing paper itself; ideally, a research co-ordinator is nearby

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to answer questions, maintain the materials and collect the finished drawings. The spoken instructions that launch the drawing exercise should be carefully designed to resonate with and unambiguously direct the target audience, for it has been determined that the wording and tone influence outcomes (Lima and de Lemos, 2014; Varga-Atkins and O’Brien, 2009). When pitching the activity, a friendly and upbeat demeanor is warranted. The main elements of the script include introductions from the research team, background on the study, ethical matters, the invitation to draw and a moment to answer questions. A sample script from the case study of librarian, discussed shortly, appears in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 shows a written version that can be posted at unsupervised locations. Hello! Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research project. I/we are [researcher(s) introduce themselves]. During the next few minutes we will gather data for a research project. We are trying to better understand people’s conceptions of librarian* through a simple drawing exercise. Essentially, we want you to draw a librarian and also say a few words about your drawing on the reverse side of the same piece of paper. Our intent is to analyse the drawings and sentences to determine common understandings of ‘librarian’ today and to report these discoveries in academic and popular channels. To begin, we need your consent. Please note your participation is not mandatory. Also, no personally identifiable information will be collected that links you to this study. Put another way, you will remain an anonymous contributor to the research. You might find that the activity stimulates your imagination and is fun. I/We are distributing the paper and pens right now and we ask that you use our materials only, please. To restate, on the blank side of the paper please draw a librarian; then, on the reverse side provide a caption that helps us understand your drawing. You will have five minutes to complete the activity, until [state time]. Are there any questions? *Almost any concept can be inserted here, depending on the topic of the research. Figure 3.1 Example script for the draw-and-write technique for a study of ‘librarian’ Invitation to Participate in a Research Project • Hi! Welcome to our research project about librarians*. • If you wish to participate, please draw a ‘librarian.’ • Use only the paper and pens on the table. • Take as much time as needed. • Also, respond to the prompts on the reverse side of the paper. • When finished, place your drawing in the box. • Thanks for your contribution! Note: Please do not include your name on the paper, for participants will be kept anonymous in the study. Results of the study will be disseminated in scholarly and public channels. *Almost any concept can be inserted here, depending on the topic of the research. Figure 3.2 Example of written instructions for the draw-and-write technique

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Materials: Paper and Drawing Instruments Unlike many research designs, the draw-and-write technique is easy and inexpensive to implement. In keeping, we suggest that materials be simple and low-tech. White cardstock is an ideal paper; its matte finish will not wrinkle, bleed through or smudge. Concerning size, the iSquare Research Program kept the drawing surface small (a 4” × 4” square) so that informants were not daunted by a large blank page and could illustrate the concept of information, quickly. Figure 3.3 shows the front and reverse side of the drawing instrument. However, larger paper may be appropriate for studies involving youth, who can be exuberant drawers. As for the shape of the paper, the iSquare Research Program favored the symmetry of a perfect square, which eliminated the problem of horizontal or landscape orientations. There is an opportunity for whimsy and creativity in the choice of surfaces: one draw-and-write study of children’s digital culture asked youth to draw ‘their internet’ on mock-paper laptops (Jankevièiûtë, 2011).

Figure 3.3 The front (left) and reverse (middle) side of the iSquare; a student engaged in the iSquare drawing activity (right)

Drawing instruments merit careful consideration, too (Hartel et al., in press). It is best to avoid chalk, pastel, tempera paint and watercolour, which can smudge or make a mess of the drawers and work space. Also, it may be difficult for people to translate their ideas in these more expert mediums. Given our limited budget, the iSquare Research Program supplied participants with a black gel pen, purchased from a dollar store. We felt the essence of information could be conveyed by shape and line and was not meaningfully linked to color. Differently, some draw-and-write studies supply colored markers, crayons and/or colored pencils. Drawing energy (Bowden et al., 2015) is an example that generated splashy results, with many radiant images drawn in red, orange and yellow. Care should be taken in studies that include drawings of people, for it may be difficult or impossible to illustrate the diversity of human appearances adequately with sets of

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primary colors. Practically speaking, researchers should recognize that more elaborate instrumentation requires more effort and time from participants and researchers alike.

The ‘and-Write’ Component Remember, the draw-and-write technique contains a component with words. It can be formulated in many ways and can occur before, during or after the graphical element. Most simply, written prompts may appear on the back of the paper to capture demographic information. The participant may be invited to caption the drawing or ‘say a few words about your drawing’ (see Figure 3.3 as an example). The written portion could be a short survey that gathers background or contextual information about the concept in question. Another variation is to conduct a graphical elicitation interview (Crilly, Blackwell and Clarkson, 2006), in which the drawing serves as a springboard for commentary and questions; the same directed conversation can occur in a focus group.

Data Management Draw-and-write studies can vary in scale; they may produce relatively small or much larger data sets upwards of 1,000 images, in addition to their verbal commentary. Once collected, each drawing should be given an acquisition number. Researchers may use this code to identify subsets of drawings from different stages or locations of the study. It is a good idea to photocopy and/or scan each image so that originals can be kept in a pristine state while replicas are used for analysis or exhibition. If the textual responses are to be analysed alongside the images, then they can be entered into a spreadsheet or table. When working with remote collaborators, the visual and textual data can be uploaded and easily accessed in a password-protected, cloud-based repository.

Data Analysis of Results In any arts-informed research project, including draw-and-write studies, data analysis can manifest across a spectrum from social scientific to arts-based approaches. Within the social science tradition, Visual Methodologies (Rose, 2016) is a foundational guide for analysing all kinds of images. The inductive analytical approach of grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) has been adapted to the visual realm by Konecki (2011) as visual grounded theory. Specifically, for draw-and-write studies, the article ‘Adventures in Visual Analysis’ (Hartel, 2017) describes four different analytical lenses used in the

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iSquare Research Program: thematic analysis, content analysis, visual metaphor analysis and conceptual analysis. Still in the social scientific paradigm, but more playfully, the article ‘iSquare Dancing’ (Hartel and Nguyen, 2018) leads a group of researchers through a fun and interactive visual analysis process that resembles the instructional calls made during square dancing. The forthcoming case study of librarian will demonstrate inductive thematic analysis (Guest, 2012) and may serve as a model. On the arts end of the spectrum, compositional interpretation (Rose, 2016) refers to a critical explication of the formal properties of images – their shape, form, tone, texture, pattern, color and composition; many guides to the process are available online from museums and university art departments. Another creative lens is data storytelling (Baich, 2016), which simply means using the drawings as a basis for stories or story boards. For instance, in the iSquare Research Program, drawings were used to illustrate the evolution of information from chaos to the most complex information society (Hartel, 2014a). For sure, there is no one right way to analyse draw-and-write studies and enthusiasts are encouraged to abandon preconceptions and follow their interests and instincts.

Dissemination Draw-and-write research can be disseminated across conventional and innovative channels, through deliverables that capture the imagination of scholars and the public alike. In the traditional manner, findings can be published in the academic or professional literature or presented at conferences. The outputs of the technique lend themselves well to being shown as a poster, a genre for which images are not restricted. Only a handful of draw-and-write projects have generated monographs, for example, studies of celebrity (Gauntlett, 2007), teachers (Weber and Mitchell, 1995) or energy (Bowden et al., 2015). It is now common for draw-and-write studies to have websites that feature information about the research team, participants, method and outcomes. Given unlimited online space, the entire corpus can be displayed and even indexed so that a viewer can manipulate the visual data by search, tags or themes. The Privacy Illustrated study (n.d.) has all these features and includes an invitation for visitors to upload their own drawing of privacy. Some draw-and-write projects may conclude with a public exhibition of the images (Lapum et al., 2012). Seen in person, up close and in an unhurried manner, drawings can cast a powerful spell. The iSquare data set has been mounted as exhibitions at academic conferences, libraries and university spaces, as shown in Figure 3.4. In a spirit of audience participation, drawings

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can be attached with magnets or hooks that can be removed to examine at closer range and then reorganized into new, organic themes. We feel that the dissemination of draw-and-write research should not be constrained by conventions. With the consent of their producers, why not use the drawings on T-shirts, coffee mugs, bookmarks, stickers, annual reports, calendars – or even the body (as temporary tattoos!). Thereby, draw-and-write research can inform and delight an organization, community or humankind.

Figure 3.4 Draw-and-write data sets presented in the form of exhibitions

Drawing ‘Librarian’ Images of Librarian in Popular Culture and Scholarly Literature ‘Librarian’ is tempting to study using the draw-and-write technique. Representations of librarians are ubiquitous in popular culture and have been examined by scholars through literary approaches. Yet there is a general understanding among librarians that these representations are negative and inaccurate. Seale (2008) identified five broad categories of the librarian stereotype: the old maid librarian (the most common popular image of the profession), the policeman librarian, the librarian as parody, the inept librarian and the hero/ine librarian. These images and categories, particularly the old maid librarian, highlight the gendered nature of the stereotype and the profession. In fact, when traced historically, the image has shifted in response to the profession’s demographic changes. Pre-1870, when the profession was primarily dominated by men, librarians were depicted as grumpy and

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unapproachable, or timid and weak men (Dickinson, 2003), but when women came to dominate the profession, the stereotype switched to a more effeminate and female-dominated image. With this shift came images not covered by Seale’s (2008) categorizations: the sexy librarian, the know-it-all and the hipster librarian. A common concern voiced by librarians is that these images do not accurately reflect their work. In the past, library work has usually been represented as consisting of shelving books, retrieving books and checking out books (Walker and Lawson, 1993), while core professional skills, such as how to find, collect and organize information or work with people (Posner, 2002), have often been lacking. Often librarians have been urged to counteract negative portrayals of the profession ‘with positive behaviour’ (Luthmann, 2007, 778), such as not acting like ‘know-it-alls’ (Posner, 2002, 123) and proactively helping clients. What underscored these calls to action was the assumption that there is a common librarian identity or even behavior that could be accurately represented by popular culture and enacted by librarians. Against this backdrop, we adopted the draw-and-write technique to explore visual conceptions of librarian, a novel research strategy. These were our guiding research questions: ■ ■ ■

How do citizens and library students in the US and Canada envision librarians? What qualities and practices are associated with this professional role? How do the drawn images of librarians compare to understandings of image and identity that exist in popular media as well as LIS literature?

To bring the potentials and problems of the draw-and-write technique into view for this chapter, two studies of the concept of librarian conducted in Canada and the US are presented for comparison. Each employs a version of the draw-and-write technique, though the contributing population, drawing environment and analytical strategies differ markedly and will be discussed in the section ‘Methodological Reflections’.

Citizens’ Visions The first study was conducted within the context of the graduate course Foundations of Library and Information Science, taught by the lead author of this chapter, at the University of Toronto, Faculty of Information, during fall 2015 and 2016. Within a unit on the changing nature of librarianship, students of the course were trained to implement the draw-and-write technique and then collect six drawings of ‘librarian’ from their family and

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friends in greater Toronto, Canada. Hence, the perspective captured here is that of citizens. The students provided the contributors with a 4” by 4” square of white cardstock and a black gel pen and enacted the solicitation script shown in Figure 3.1. Following the iSquare protocol (Hartel et al., 2018), the images were coined ‘librarian squares’ or ‘LibSquares’ for short. We gathered, numbered, scanned and uploaded 474 LibSquares to a shared online folder in Google Drive. It should be noted that sampling was not scientific nor rigorously controlled and those drawing, who were associated with the LIS graduate students, may not have neutral or conventional visions of librarians. Textual responses from the reverse side of the squares were compiled in an Excel spreadsheet but did not function significantly in the analysis process (a matter which will be revisited in the section ‘Methodological Reflections’). We performed inductive thematic analysis (Guest, 2012) on the visual corpus and unfolded stepwise. First, we surveyed all the drawings and allowed impressions to surface. The insights were written down as terms or phrases, called codes. Some of the codes inspired by the corpus were: female, male, gender neutral, young, old, happy, friendly, angry, mean, sexy, glasses, bun, short hair, long hair, stylish/hip, conservative clothing, skirt, dress, book, books, bookshelves, desk, computer, patron, youth, knowledge, helping, teaching, organizing and multi-tasking, among others. Of note, there are no set rules for the coding process; in the arts-informed spirit it resembles playful and unfettered brainstorming. Along the way, the choice of terms for codes evolves. For example, we began by coding for ‘smile’ but eventually switched to a broader term of ‘happy’. A second step was to survey all the codes and cluster them together into broader themes, which appear in Figure 3.5 and will be presented shortly. We did not quantify either codes or themes; however, some researchers may wish to do so on a spreadsheet or with analytical software such as NVivo. There are many ways to write up draw-and-write findings. For this chapter, we opted to illustrate each theme with an array of examples, comment on their formal qualities as drawings and then link the theme to existing ideas in the literature and our own creative reflections. Old Maid Librarian Young and Adorable Librarian Sexy Librarian Male Librarian Librarian – Abstracted Librarianship as Managing Books Librarianship as Technological Work Librarianship as Teaching Librarianship as Knowledge Keeping Librarianship as Wide-Ranging Work Figure 3.5 Citizens’ visions of ‘librarian’: sample themes

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Given that respondents were prompted to ‘draw a librarian’ the vast majority of the LibSquares qualify as portraits – a painting, drawing, photograph or engraving of a person, especially one depicting only the face or head and shoulders. By design, the instructions propel such graphical formulations and outcomes would have been different if the invitation had been to ‘draw librarianship’. Overwhelmingly, a librarian is depicted as female in 84% of the portraits. This reflects the actual state of affairs in our field, according to a demographic study by the American Library Association (Rosa and Henke, 2017). Many respondents drew the ‘old maid librarian’ (Figure 3.6). She sports the celebrated hairstyle of a bun and round or cat-eyed glasses, with a serious, pert, condescending or dour expression. The clothing of this lady is distinctive and womanly but prim and somewhat Victorian. In one instance she reflects the archetypical cat lady, a hint that she is single and undesirable. Radford and Radford (1997) offer a glimpse into why the image of the old maid is perhaps the one most commonly associated with librarians in popular culture. They argue that libraries serve as sites for both the preservation and control of information and knowledge. The librarian, with her seemingly omniscience, becomes a god-like figure who protects the order and knowledge contained within the library’s walls. This power and control invoke fear in library users. As a result, the librarian is depicted as weak, old and out of touch to defuse her power. An alternative feminine image appearing in the corpus is the ‘young and adorable librarian’ (Figure 3.7 on the next page). These renderings show

Figure 3.6 LibSquare drawings of the ‘old maid librarian’

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Figure 3.7  LibSquare drawings of the ‘young and adorable librarian’

women with a more youthful and even childlike demeanor, having wide-open eyes and an appealing smile. Often the hair is long, natural and side-swept, while clothing is more comfortable and current. Such charming images are more in line with librarians’ own self-conceptions. Most librarians view themselves as welcoming and service-oriented and, perhaps most importantly, as people who enjoy their profession (Church, 2002; Cravey, 1991; Hicks, 2014). Several drawings suggest a ‘sexy librarian’ (Figure 3.8 opposite). Not hidden behind any desk, her hourglass figure is center stage and accentuated by fitted clothing, a cinched waist and a short skirt. Emphasis was often placed on voluptuous breasts and pouty lips – a clear counterpoint to the ‘old maid librarian’. These plainly carnal features were offset by books in her hand, though in one instance the book dangles on a strap like a designer purse. Scholars have asserted that the image of the sexy librarian is positive and even freeing (Adams, 2000). Parker Posey’s character Mary in the film Party Girl is an enticing example of how fun a bit of sex appeal can be. Although initially reluctant to become a librarian because of its repressive stereotype, Mary eventually discovers that librarianship is a calling that doesn’t require her to give up party girl ways. The LibSquares captured a handful of images of the ‘male librarian’, too (Figure 3.9, top row, on the next page). In the portraits he was set off by a short coif, facial hair and in some cases a suit and tie. Similar to many female librarians, the male librarian is stationed at a desk, surrounded by books. Interestingly, a few respondents placed the male librarian alongside his

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Figure 3.8 LibSquare drawings of the ‘sexy librarian’

Figure 3.9 LibSquare drawings of the ‘male librarian’

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female counterpart (Figure 3.9, bottom row), making an unambiguous point about gender equality in this profession. Recently, in popular culture, highprofile librarians have been depicted as male, such as Rupert Giles from the television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Mirza and Seale (2011) argue that modern representations of male librarians, such as Giles, offer a positive representation of the librarian as a powerful and heroic gatekeeper whose masterful access to knowledge helps to protect those who are less capable. Some especially creative and provocative depictions, which we called the ‘librarian – abstracted’, stand out among the many conventional and literal portraits (Figure 3.10). For example, the librarian may serve as a light bulb that illuminates the dark, a map that provides a path through a confusing landscape or an exuberant flower that blossoms from a book. Such images transcend stereotypes and present the work of librarians in a positive and fantastical light. Some librarians are attracted to popular images of librarians’ work in which the librarian is absent. Cullen, for instance, praised the representation of librarianship in the film Se7en. No librarian is present in the movie but, for Cullen, ‘the fruits of their labors remain’ (2000, 42).

Figure 3.10 LibSquare drawings of ‘librarian – abstracted’

The LibSquares place librarians in actions and contexts that suggest the nature of their work. Altogether, these drawings can be seen as a visual job description from the vantage point of citizens. Many portraits are centered

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on a desk, which implies that librarianship is seen as knowledge work of a sedentary nature; desks also carry personal and institutional authority. Some of the other recurring props associated with the job are books, book carts, book shelves, computers and only a single card catalogue. Library patrons appear in vignettes, too, reflecting the social dimension of the profession. Surprisingly, just a few drawings from the entire corpus illustrate children, though the youth area of public libraries continues to flourish. The themes reported below envision some of the long-standing practices of librarianship and also reflect how it is changing. One of the most commonly featured practices is ‘librarianship as managing books’ (Figure 3.11). On these squares, the librarian stands in front of floor-toceiling bookshelves. A typical action is that of reaching for a single item to fetch or return it, often from the perch of a stool or ladder. The distinguishing personal qualities of the librarian, seen vividly in the prior section, fall away and he or she is a nondescript or even shadowy mediator to an imposing and highly structured documentary universe. There is no doubt that books are the library’s brand (OCLC, 2010), but this brand is out of touch with the reality of librarians’ work. Reports from the Center for the Future of Libraries (2019) highlight the important role libraries can play in addressing social trends like urbanization and shifting understandings of privacy, technology trends like drones, and economic trends like income inequality and the sharing economy. Such competencies are a far cry from the shadowy book-handlers in these images.

Figure 3.11 LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as managing books’

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Across the corpus there are visions of ‘librarianship as technological work’ (Figure 3.12). Many LibSquares positioned a librarian at a desk with a laptop or desktop computer within reach. Interestingly, some respondents opted to draw only a computer, suggesting the librarian is an artificial intelligence or perhaps a casualty of technological innovation. Some drawings that feature a computer likewise juxtaposed a print book, implying that the librarian is the balance point of new and older technologies. Similar to the young and adorable images, representations of ‘librarianship as technological work’ challenge more traditional images of librarianship. When the images only depict a computer, for instance, the representations imply the invisible labor of librarians, which is now digital in nature and disconnected from the place of the library.

Figure 3.12 LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as technological work’

According to the LibSquares, citizens envision ‘librarianship as knowledge keeping’ (Figure 3.13 opposite). Though only a few images reflected this theme, the idea was drawn in differing creative ways. In one case, an angelic librarian holds a key that opens a rainbow-covered doorway to knowledge. In another, the librarian’s mind is captioned as ‘Gatherer of information, GPS of knowledge, Preserver of records’ while light bulbs and books radiate nearby. These images come closest to Seale’s (2008) hero/ine librarian category in which librarians are unlocking and sharing knowledge for and with people.

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Figure 3.13 LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as knowledge keeping’

Within the LibSquare corpus are images of ‘librarianship as teaching’ (Figure 3.14). These drawings place the librarian in front of an audience, delivering information literacy instruction. One librarian points to a poster that introduces an essay writing workshop; a big smile is on his face, which is returned by an interested student in the front row. These are the only illustrations that reflect the substantial pedagogical component of librarianship, as anchored in the American Library Association’s Core Competences of Librarianship (ALA, 2009).

Figure 3.14 LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as teaching’

Finally, drawings which we called ‘librarianship as wide-ranging work’ capture the diverse job responsibilities of our profession (Figure 3.15 on the next page). These detailed compositions display the librarian’s involvement

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Figure 3.15 LibSquare drawings of ‘librarianship as wide-ranging work’

in information provision, research, reference services, public outreach and technology management, among other things. Arrows and lines on the paper direct multiple workflows which extend outward into the community and also circulate within the library setting. These may be the images that best capture the nature of librarianship today as a profession with great range and reach across society. After all, the American Library Association’s Core Values of Librarianship (ALA, 2004) and Library Bill of Rights (ALA, 2019) position the librarian in a pivotal role within knowledge production and dissemination across our information society.

Library Students’ Visions The second study occurred within the course Information Professions, taught by the second author of this chapter, at San José State University during spring 2019. This American Library Association accredited program is taken entirely in an online, mostly asynchronous format. Students come from a wide variety of backgrounds and geographical locations, including international students. Over 50% of students are between the ages of 26 and 40 and nearly 35% report an ethnicity other than white. As part of their introduction to the topic, students were asked to draw their own LibSquare using the prompt ‘What is a librarian?’ (or ‘What is an information professional?’) and following the instructions shown in Figure 3.16 opposite.

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Draw a LibSquare What is a LibSquare, you ask? It’s a fun and creative way to think about a core concept in this course: librarians (or information professionals). There’s no need for any kind of prior knowledge or searching before you start. All you’ll need is 10 to 15 minutes of undistracted and undisturbed time. First, gather three things:

• A piece of white cardstock or paper that is 4” by 4”. You can cut it out or draw a square that size on a larger sheet of paper. This doesn’t have to be exact! If you don’t have a ruler, just eyeball it. • A pen with black ink. It can be a rollerball or gel pen. Avoid colored pencils or pens. (This will make it easier for us to see your drawing after you’ve scanned it and uploaded it.) • A timer of some description (a watch, your phone, etc.). Second, find a comfortable place to sit with your gathered materials that has few distractions. Set your timer for ten minutes and answer the question: What is a librarian? (Or, if you prefer, what is an information professional?) Here’s the ‘twist.’ Answer this question in the form of a drawing! You’re not writing or explaining. You’re drawing! You don’t have to draw for the entire ten minutes. (Heck, you don’t even have to be good at drawing!) Spend part of the time thinking about the question and then let your imagination go wild and have fun! Some advice: Resist the urge to Google. And try not to overthink it or obsess over it. Use the time limit to your advantage! And, most importantly, remember there is NO right or wrong answer. Go with your gut! No one will be assessing your skill at drawing! This is just an alternative way to approach the question and get your creativity flowing. Lastly, when your ten minutes are up, take a picture or scan your ‘LibSquare’ and then upload it to your introductory discussion post. Have fun! Figure 3.16 LibSquare ice-breaker activity instructions

The participants were encouraged to limit their drawing and thinking time to ten minutes; 60 drawings were completed and then uploaded to a shared platform (Weebly.com). In contrast to the LibSquares collected from citizens of greater Toronto, these drawings came from individuals committed to careers in librarianship. Hence, their visions emerge from a wellspring of personal commitment and identity as well as considerable reflection and education related to the profession. In their self-reflections, students also identified the influence of popular culture and stereotypes on their illustrations. Some lamented that these influences ‘limited’ their images, because they largely focused on depicting librarians working with books or behind a desk. Notably, these so-called limitations often reflected many of the themes observed in the citizens’ visions. However, as will be explored further below, students were much more likely to be creative and

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provocative in their illustrations, which expands on the ‘librarian – abstracted’ theme identified in the citizens’ LibSquares. In the spirit of the arts-informed paradigm, the analytical strategy applied to this smaller corpus was further relaxed. Together, the authors selected drawings that were visually intriguing and contained novel, compelling or simply charming visions of librarianship. The chosen exemplars were titled and then imaginatively elaborated. Here, we wish to stress our belief that a systematic coding process is not necessary to reach illuminating conclusions from draw-and-write data sets. Instead, a visual analysis strategy called ‘compositional interpretation’ (Rose, 2016) resembles the process of strolling through a museum and emerging with an informed point of view concerning one’s favorites. We hope this example of compositional interpretation dissolves the paralyzing analytical barrier that sometimes follows the datagathering process and places researchers into more playful states of mind as they analyse and write up their draw-and-write studies. One student envisioned a librarian as a mind–heart connector (Figure 3.17). This intriguing drawing shows equal halves of a heart and brain joined by arrows, suggesting a balanced flow and integration between these otherwise separated human dimensions. Such a deep and powerful image returns to the earliest expressions of librarianship within medieval monasteries and the public library movement of the late 19th century, in which librarianship was a spiritual enterprise (Maxwell, 2006). Today, the same holistic vision has returned in the form of an emergent movement to bring contemplative practices such as mindfulness meditation into libraries (Moniz et al., 2016) and education for librarianship (Hartel, Nguyen and Guzik, 2017).

Figure 3.17 LibSquare drawing of ‘librarian as a heart–mind connector’

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Another student cast the librarian as virtuoso (Figure 3.18). We appreciate that this participant treated the representational problems of gender, evidenced earlier in the LibSquares by citizens, through a transcendent and genderless body. The spare composition, bold line and relatively large figure suggest that the librarian is an eminent guide and translator to the documentary universe, which is cast as an electrified book. This librarian has one hand on the information resource and the other extends an open invitation to everyone, gracefully epitomizing the long-standing conception of librarianship as mediation work.

Figure 3.18 LibSquare drawing of ‘librarian as virtuoso’

A librarian can also be a person who knits a community together, as shown in Figure 3.19 on the next page. We felt this to be one of the most ingenious and well-executed drawings across both studies. Here, a metaphor of knitting is used to show the positive entities that are synthesized through the institution of the library. Knowledge, resources and support are just three of the strands. This image reminds us of Bates’ eloquent saying about information professionals, ‘We are always looking for the red thread of information in the social texture of people’s lives’ (1999, 1048). There is a trend within libraries to embrace the material domain in programs related to craft (Prigoda and McKenzie, 2007), maker spaces (Willingham and de Boer, 2015)

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Figure 3.19 LibSquare drawing of ‘librarian as someone who knits a community together’

and the internet of things (Massis, 2016), which resonates with this similarly hands-on vision. Compared to the drawings by citizens, the students of librarianship expressed themselves often in the form of pictorial metaphors (Forceville, 2008; Hartel and Savolainen, 2016), as seen in Figure 3.20. Metaphor is a conceptual strategy in which a familiar concept (a ‘source domain’) is used to elaborate a more elusive concept (the ‘target domain’) (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). Interestingly, nature was the favored source domain for some striking pictorial metaphors of librarians. In one case, a squirrel is seen in the process of burying an acorn for safe-keeping, just as a librarian cultivates nuggets of information for the future. In another LibSquare, a dandelion blossom represents the human mind which releases seeds – presumably of knowledge – into the wind. A third and very playful pictorial metaphor casts a librarian as an octopus (with glasses!) and each arm contains a different technological or social tool – which echoes the notion of ‘librarianship as wide-ranging work’.

Figure 3.20 LibSquare drawings of librarians as pictorial metaphors: squirrel (left), dandelion blossom (middle) and octopus (right)

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Methodological Reflections Back-to-back reporting of two draw-and-write studies of one concept – librarian – shows how aspects of research design impact outcomes. In particular, the differing sample populations generated distinct kinds of images of librarianship. The first study, taken from citizens, contained many conventional stereotypes while those by students of the field are markedly more progressive, personal and creative. Future overseers of draw-and-write studies should remember that the drawings will reflect the vistas of the contributors. It is important to recognize that different calibrations of the data-gathering process will flavor the corpus and the results. The first study with citizens entailed a more controlled design: in a supervised setting, a research team member supplied specific drawing tools and timed the activity. In the second study, the drawers (aspiring librarians) were geographically and virtually distributed and managed their own materials and pacing. Unsurprisingly, then, the first corpus has a high degree of aesthetic consistency, while the second corpus contains images of various dimensions and qualities, including inks and papers of different colors. Yet it may be that the latter way set the stage for greater creativity, including the use of metaphor. We suggest that future overseers of draw-and-write research pilot test different formulations of the data-gathering protocol before rolling out a substantial project. In both studies, our team focused analytical attention on the drawings – not the accompanying captions which constituted the ‘-and-Write’ portion of the technique. To be clear, during analysis we read the captions if any questions arose about the content of the drawings but did not subject that text to an analytical process itself. To explain, as champions of visual research we favor the images generated through the draw-and-write technique and believe that they capture and carry intriguing, surprising, ingenious, complex, charming, memorable, poignant messages. As spontaneous personal expressions from people who are not usually deemed experts, they have an uncommon simplicity and integrity amid a world of pretense, airbrushing and false facts. In larger data sets, one discovers a kaleidoscopic range of visions of the world and yet also patterns that are shared and therefore heartwarming. Yet a critic of arts-informed approaches may ask: but are there really any new conceptions of librarian in the drawings? We wish to emphasize that artsinformed approaches such as the draw-and-write technique should not be reduced to their findings. Much discovery lies in the research process itself. For in addition to the illuminating themes outlined above, both studies energized the student and citizen populations that they touched, fueled lively discussions about librarianship, and generated documentary artifacts that

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may entertain and educate future audiences. The merits of the draw-andwrite technique include its application as an ice-breaker, discussion aid, team-building device, disruptor of the status quo and whimsical intervention. Nevertheless, a limitation of the technique, apparent within both projects, concerns the diversity of librarians. No portraits suggest librarians of color and this distortion can be traced to the materials. Respondents were given white paper and a black pen, which primes them to make a white-skinned figure marked by a black line, unless more sophisticated graphical strategies are employed. Supplying colored instruments does not necessarily solve the problem of representing skin tone on paper, since even a box of several colors does not expand the options in a way that recognizes all people. In short, the draw-and-write technique may be a tool for envisioning non-human concepts.

Conclusion As arts-informed research approaches sweep across academia and extend into professional domains, information institutions such as libraries face an unprecedented opportunity for creativity and discovery. Thankfully, research is now evolving from an exclusive, highly conceptual and structured stronghold to a more participatory, accessible and expressive modality. This chapter has introduced a visual method of the draw-and-write technique as one potential manifestation of these developments. We believe this technique can have myriad applications to enrich and expand library operations and programs, with the involvement of all stakeholders. Further, librarians can embrace this technique as a leadership tool and strategy. Contested and cherished concepts at the heart of the information age can be pictured to stimulate ideas, discussion and change. We encourage all readers of this chapter to try a modest pilot study of the draw-and-write technique. At a staff or board meeting, or just among colleagues during a coffee break, invite everyone to ‘please draw [x]’ and then witness the fresh perspectives that appear.

Acknowledgments We wish to thank the LIS students at the Faculty of Information, University of Toronto, and the School of Information at San José State University for gathering the visual data (LibSquares) used in this research. Additional details about the University of Toronto study are available at www.isquares.info/ informationinternetlibrarian.html. We also recognize Dr. Amy VanScoy of the Department of Library and Information Studies at the University of Buffalo for adapting the iSquare protocol to an online environment and Sara Stonehouse for her excellent work in editing this manuscript.

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References Adams, K. C. (2000) Loveless Frump as Hip and Sexy Party Girl: A Reevaluation of the Old-Maid Stereotype, The Library Quarterly, 70, 287–301. ALA (2004) Core Values of Librarianship, American Library Association, www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/corevalues. ALA (2009) Core Competences of Librarianship, American Library Association, www.ala.org/educationcareers/sites/ala.org.educationcareers/files/content/ careers/corecomp/corecompetences/finalcorecompstat09.pdf. ALA (2019) Library Bill of Rights, American Library Association, www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill. Angell, C., Alexander, J. and Hunt, J. A. (2015) Draw, Write and Tell: A Literature Review and Methodological Development on the ‘Draw and Write’ Research Method, Journal of Early Childhood Research, 13 (1), 17–28. Backett-Milburn, K. and McKie, L. (1999) A Critical Appraisal of the Draw and Write Technique, Health Education Research, 14 (3), 387. Baich, B. (2016) The Top 3 Questions People Ask About Data Storytelling. Social Media Today, https://www.socialmediatoday.com/marketing/top-3-questionspeople-ask-about-data-storytelling. Bates, M. J. (1999) The Invisible Substrate of Information Science, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50 (12), 1043–50. Bowden, F., Lockton, D., Gheerawo, R. and Brass, C. (eds) (2015) Drawing Energy: Exploring Perceptions of the Invisible, London: Royal College of Art. Center for the Future of Libraries (2019) Trends, www.ala.org/tools/future/trends. Chambers, D. W. (1983) Stereotypic Images of the Scientist: The Draw-A-Scientist Test, Science Education, 67 (2), 255–65. Church, G. M. (2002) In the Eye of the Beholder: How Librarians Have Been Viewed Over Time, Reference Librarian, 78, 5–24. Cravey, P. J. (1991) Occupational Role Identity of Women Academic Librarians, College & Research Libraries, 52, 150–64. Crilly, N., Blackwell, A. F. and Clarkson, P. J. (2006) Graphic Elicitation: Using Research Diagrams as Interview Stimuli, Qualitative Research, 6 (3), 341–66. Cullen, J. (2000) Rupert Giles, the Professional-Image Slayer, American Libraries, 31 (5), 42. Dickinson, T. E. (2003) Looking at the Male Librarian Stereotype, The Reference Librarian, 78, 97–110. Forceville, C. (2008) Metaphor in Pictures and Multimodal Representations. In R. W. Gibbs (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Gauntlett, D. (2007) Creative Explorations: New Approaches to Identities and Audiences, Abingdon: Routledge.

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Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Goodenough, F. (1926) Measurement of Intelligence by Drawings, New York: World Book Co. Guest, G. (2012) Applied Thematic Analysis, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Guillemin, M. (2004) Understanding Illness: Using Drawings as a Research Method, Qualitative Health Research, 14, 272–89. Hartel, J. (2014a) An Arts-Informed Study of Information Using the Draw-and-Write Technique, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 65 (7), 1349–67. Hartel, J. (2014b) Drawing Information in the Classroom, Journal of Education for Library and Information Science Education, 55 (1), 83–5. Hartel, J. (2017) Adventures in Visual Analysis, The Visual Methodologies Journal (Special Issue: Fourth International Visual Methods Conference), 5 (1), 80–91. Hartel, J. (2020) Draw-and-Write Techniques. In Atkinson, P., Delamont, S., Cernat, A., Sakshaug, J. W. and Williams R. A. (eds), SAGE Research Methods Foundations, doi: 10.4135/9781526421036853510. Hartel, J. and Nguyen, A. T. (2018) iSquare Dancing: Visual Analysis in the Classroom and Beyond, Education for Information, 34 (1), 21–37. Hartel, J. and Savolainen, R. (2016) Pictorial Metaphors for Information, Journal of Documentation, 72 (5), 794–812. Hartel, J., Nguyen, A. T. and Guzik, E. (2017) Mindfulness Meditation in the Classroom, Journal of Education for Library & Information Science, 58 (2), 112–15. Hartel, J., Noone, R., Oh, C., Danzanov, P. and Kelly, B. (2018) The iSquare Protocol: Combining Research, Art and Pedagogy Through the Draw-and-Write Technique, Qualitative Research, 18 (4), 433–50. Hartel, J., Phutane, M., Posa, S., Shi, Z., Xu, A. and Bradshaw, S. (in press) Somewhere Over the Rainbow: The Use of Color in the Draw and Write Technique. Visual Methodologies. Hicks, D. (2014) The Construction of Librarians’ Professional Identities: A Discourse Analysis, Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, 38, 251–70. Jankevièiûtë, L. (2011) Using Visual Methods in Research About Young People’s Digital Worlds, International Visual Research Association Conference, Milton Keynes. Kara, H. (2015) Creative Research Methods in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide, Bristol: Policy Press. Knowles, J. G. and Cole, A. L. (2008) Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research: Perspectives, Methodologies, Examples and Issues, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Konecki, K. (2011) Visual Grounded Theory: A Methodological Outline and Examples from Empirical Work, Revija za Socioloìiju, 41 (2), 131–60.

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Kuhlthau, C. C. (1988) Developing a Model of the Library Search Process: Cognitive and Affective Aspects, RQ, 28 (2), 232–42. Kuhlthau, C. C. (1991) Inside the Search Process: Information Seeking from the User’s Perspective, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42 (5), 361–71. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980) Metaphors We Live By, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lapum, J., Ruttonsha, P., Church, K., Yau, T. and David, A. M. (2012) Employing the Arts in Research as an Analytical Tool and Dissemination Method: Interpreting Experience Through the Aesthetic, Qualitative Inquiry, 18 (1), 100–15. Lima, L. and de Lemos, M. S. (2014) The Importance of the Instructions in the Use of Draw-and-Write Techniques for Understanding Children’s Health and Illness Concepts, Psychology, Community & Health, 3 (3), 146–57. Luthmann, A. (2007) Librarians, Professionalism and Image: Stereotype and Reality, Library Review, 56, 773–80. Mannay, D. (2016) Visual, Narrative and Creative Research Methods: Application, Reflection and Ethics, London: Routledge. Massis, B. (2016) The Internet of Things and Its Impact on the Library, New Library World, 117 (3/4), 289–92. Maxwell, N. K. (2006) Sacred Stacks: The Higher Purpose of Libraries and Librarianship, American Library Association. Mellon, C. (1986) Library Anxiety: A Grounded Theory and Its Development, College & Research Libraries, 47 (2), 160–65. Mirza, R. and Seale, M. (2011) Watchers, Punks and Dashing Heroes: Representations of Male Librarians in Generation X Mass Culture. In M. K. Wallace, R. Tolley-Stokes and E. S. Estep (eds), The Generation X Librarian: Essays on Leadership, Technology, Pop Culture, Social Responsibility and Professional Identity, Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company. Moniz, R., Eshleman, J., Henry, J., Slutzky, H. and Moniz, L. (2016) The Mindful Librarian: Connecting the Practice of Mindfulness to Librarianship, Cambridge: Chandos Publishing. OCLC (2010) The Library Brand, Online Computer Library Center, https://www.oclc.org/content/dam/oclc/reports/2010perceptions/ thelibrarybrand.pdf. Pauwels, L. (2010) Visual Sociology Reframed: An Analytical Synthesis and Discussion of Visual Methods in Social and Cultural Research, Sociological Methods and Research, 38 (4), 545–81. Pauwels, L. (2011) An Integrated Conceptual Framework for Visual Social Research. In E. Margolis and L. Pauwels (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Pink, S. (2006) Visual Methods. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. Gubrium and D. Silverman (eds), Qualitative Research Practice, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

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Posner, B. (2002) Know-It-All Librarians, The Reference Librarian, 78, 111–29. Pridmore, P. and Bendelow, G. (1995) Health Images: Exploring Children’s Beliefs Using the Draw-and-Write Technique, Health Education Journal, 54 (4), 473–88. Prigoda, E. and McKenzie, P. J. (2007) Purls of Wisdom: A Collectivist Study of Human Information Behaviour in a Public Library Knitting Group, Journal of Documentation, 63 (1), 90–114. Privacy Illustrated (n.d.) Explore our Images, http://cups.cs.cmu.edu/privacyillustrated/. Prosser, J. and Loxley, A. (2008) Introducing Visual Methods, National Centre for Research Methods Review Papers. Radford, M. L. and Radford, G. P. (1997) Power, Knowledge, & Fear: Feminism, Foucault and the Stereotype of the Female Librarian, The Library Quarterly, 67, 250–66. Rosa, K. and Henke, K. (2017) American Library Association Demographic Study, www.ala.org/tools/sites/ala.org.tools/files/content/ Draft%20of%20Member%20Demographics%20Survey%2001-11-2017.pdf. Rose, G. (2016) Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Interpreting Visual Materials, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Seale, M. (2008) Old Maids, Policeman and Social Rejects: Mass Media Representations and Public Perceptions of Librarians, Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship, 9 (1). Theron, L., Mitchell, C., Smith, A. and Stuart, J. (eds) (2011) Picturing Research: Drawing as Visual Methodology, Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Varga-Atkins, T. and O’Brien, M. (2009) From Drawings to Diagrams: Maintaining Researcher Control During Graphic Elicitation in Qualitative Interviews, International Journal of Research and Methods in Education, 32, 53–67. Vosniadou, S. and Brewer, W. F. (1992) Mental Models of the Earth: A Study of Conceptual Change in Childhood, Cognitive Psychology, 24 (4), 535–85. Walker, S. and Lawson, L. V. (1993) The Librarian Stereotype and the Movies, The Journal of Academic Media Librarianship, 1, 16–28. Warr, D., Cox, S., Guillemin, M. and Waycott, J. (2016) Ethics and Visual Research Methods: Theory, Methodology and Practice, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Weber, S. (2008) Using Visual Images in Research. In J. G. Knowles and A. L. Cole (eds), Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research: Perspectives, Methodologies, Examples and Issues, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Weber, S. and Mitchell, C. A. (1995) That’s Funny You Don’t Look Like a Teacher!: Interrogating Images, Identity and Popular Culture, Philadelphia: Routledge. Wiles, R., Prosser, J., Bagnoli, A., Clark, A., Davies, K., Holland, S. and Renold, E. (2008) Visual Ethics: Ethical Issues in Visual Research, National Centre for Research Methods Review Papers. Willingham, T. and de Boer, J. (2015) Makerspaces in Libraries, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

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4

Rediscovering Community Heritage Through 3D Laser Scanning and Visualization Elizabeth Tait

Introduction This chapter discusses 3D capture and visualization technologies, such as laser scanning and photogrammetry,1 as mechanisms for conducting participatory research in cultural heritage. The work emerged from a programme of transdisciplinary research that combined expertise from the fields of architecture and the built environment, computing science and library and information science (LIS). The larger research project investigated how methods like photo elicitation, linked data and offline community participation can enable heritage participation. The participatory scanning and visualization work described in this chapter presents a novel use of visual methods that has been refined over the course of several projects. Scanning and visualization technologies are routinely used to document fragile heritage sites for the purposes of conservation and monitoring (Yastikli, 2007). Capturing an accurate record of these sites can be challenging and the complex (and often very large) digital artifacts that are produced can themselves be difficult to curate and preserve in the longer term (Richards, Jeffrey and Niven 2013). As technologies decrease in price and workflows and processes become standardized (Bennett, 2015), new applications for scanning and visualization technologies are emerging. Chandler et al. (2017), for example, developed visualizations of ancient temples in Cambodia for participatory public engagement events. Bloice, Baxter and Gray (2018), in their work on using visual methods to examine the social and cultural value of small airports, combined 3D methods with still and moving images and visualizations. The empirical context for the research discussed in this chapter evolved over a number of projects but culminated in a project called Castle to

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Cathedral to Cashmere, a multi-partner, community-driven project that ran from 2015 to 2017. Its aim was to facilitate heritage-led regeneration of the city center of Elgin, a small, historically significant town in northeast Scotland. The project’s particular goal was to increase tourist visitors to the area (Reid and Tait, 2017). Elgin has a rich heritage dating back over one thousand years, but ancient monuments and sites of historical significance do not necessarily lead to increased visitor numbers. This is especially the case in Scotland, where the tourism market is well-established in regions such as the Scottish Highlands, Royal Deeside and the Neolithic sites of Skara Brae and the Ring of Brodgar in Orkney. All of these compete for visitor numbers and there are well-established ‘tourist trails’ on the west coast and leading up to the Scottish Highlands that tend to bypass Elgin en route to more well-known areas such as Loch Ness. There were several drivers of the research. The area lacked a cohesive heritage narrative, which was perceived to set Elgin at a disadvantage to other, more well-established destinations (Tait et al., 2016). The local community felt that the value of this rich heritage was not widely understood or celebrated and that there was great untapped potential for a heritage-led renaissance in local tourism (Laing et al., 2016). Furthermore, there was a sense that civic pride and cultural engagement were low, especially among young people (Reid and Tait, 2017). This chapter will first consider participatory scanning and visualization within the wider context of visual methods. Next, the chapter will discuss the deployment of these methods in three research vignettes: ■ ■ ■

3D scanning and visualization as dynamic texts for research engagement and outreach participatory, community laser scanning and visualization visualizations as narrative inquiry tools.

These discussions focus on the methodological aspects of the project, with less discussion of the technical aspects and findings. However, the nature of this type of technical work means that these aspects are intertwined and it is not possible or desirable to separate them as part of the reflexive evaluation and discussion. Finally, the chapter ends with some reflections on the method and a discussion of limitations, challenges and future directions for this research.

Laser Scanning, 3D Visualization Technologies and Their Artifacts The Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere research involved the novel application of established surveying technologies used most often by surveyors, including

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3D, high-definition laser scanning; photogrammetry; and the development of 3D models for user engagement activities. Laser scanning in particular has become a valuable tool for cultural heritage research, with particular applications in heritage preservation and site monitoring and conservation (Alkheder, Al-shawabkeh and Haala, 2009; Hakonen, Kuusela and Okkonen, 2015; Lambers et al., 2007). This is important because heritage sites are often vulnerable to environmental factors such as coastal erosion and large numbers of tourist visitors. Laser scanning was especially useful for the research presented in this chapter because it facilitates data capture to a high degree of accuracy and can cover a large urban area with a range up to 300 meters (Laing, Scott and Hogg, 2014). These technologies enable the rapid capture of a record of the built environment, in relation not only to buildings but also to monuments and landmarks (Figure 4.1). The end results of laser scanning are dense, precise and highly accurate point clouds (Figures 4.2 and 4.3 on the next page) that represent geometric detail from the physical environments. The visualizations generated from laser scanning activities can be imported into computer-aided-design engineering software (Figures 4.2 and 4.3), where they are viewed and processed for use as a surface mesh, which can subsequently be modelled and rendered for further design applications (Laing and Scott, 2011).

Figure 4.1 Dr. Jonathan Scott on site at Ladyhill, Elgin with laser scanner

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Figure 4.2 Point cloud visualization of Little Cross, Elgin shown in Cloud Compare

Figure 4.3 Point cloud image of Bracos Banking House and 3D surface model

Advances in the fields of photogrammetry, online data and 3D mapping make it possible to translate data into formats which are more accessible and engaging for the wider public. Raw data and point clouds can by transformed, combined or mashed up with other sources of data and presented using visualization techniques for 3D modelling and data exploration. Furthermore, the research also captured smaller elements, including statues, crosses and carved coats of arms (Laing et al., 2016), which provided interesting points of discussion with participants and helped express the unique built heritage of the town.

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3D Capture and Visualization for Participatory Visual Methods Research For this work, the research team employed digital scanning technologies as part of a participatory research design. Our research contributes to a growing corpus of work that examines the use of visual methods to engage community stakeholders in social and cultural research (Bloice, Baxter and Gray, 2018; Hood and Reid, 2018). Visual methods are highly engaging and can be participatory, which aligns well with funders’ demands for active engagement with communities during research (Cox and Benson, 2017). Visual methods are particularly effective in information science studies that attempt to uncover the embodied, multi-modal and artifactual nature of complex information practices (Hicks and Lloyd, 2018). Visual methods are said to enhance data collection by building rapport, facilitating communication, expressing tacit knowledge, widening participation in hard-to-reach communities and promoting reflection (Pain, 2012). These creative methods have also been effective in engaging marginalized or disadvantaged communities (Cox and Benson, 2017). For example, Peroff et al. (2019) used a mixed-methods approach of interviews, photo elicitation and place attachment and identity among Indigenous farmers in rural Guatemala. Key to our research was thinking beyond the digital technologies we used for the Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere project and exploring the ‘processes that shape visual conversations’ (Alexander, Eppler and Bresciani, 2019, 33). It is important to remember that technologies are not passive and we therefore considered digital tools, such as the laser scanner and those used for creating the visualizations, as active agents in the research. Digital cultural heritage research involves understanding the relationships between people, technology and place and the aesthetics and usability of visual technologies are as important as the content (Given et al., 2012). Heritage is not a fixed or static concept. Rather, it is constructed and reconstructed by and between different groups according to time and place to define a community – with its associated customs, artifacts, language, monuments and so on (Crooke, 2010). These knowledge practices are established gradually and ‘are assembled to generate new valuable affective environments and objects relationally, in the interplay between the global hierarchies of value and the local contexts’ (Gonzalez, 2014, 383). Heritage initiatives involving community groups are sometimes portrayed as indulging nostalgic views of the past. However, ‘performing local history and heritage can be seen as a relational and productive process, connecting individuals to wider social memories and practices and serving as a means of sustaining place identities through times of change’ (Wheeler, 2017, 482). Furthermore, researchers must be careful to deploy these technologies so that they do not dominate the project at the expense of rigorous

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methodological research practices including adherence to ethics (Pauwels, 2010). This work is underpinned by a theoretical base of sociomateriality to understand how these relationships are enacted across different spatial and temporal contexts (Bhatt and de Roock, 2013). As will be demonstrated in this chapter, our work used a range of qualitative mixed methods and was participant-centered (Alexander, Eppler and Bresciani, 2019). The methods themselves were exploratory and the aim was to determine how and to what extent visual digital technologies can enable the co-creation of heritage artifacts and narratives. Participatory methods attempt to generate personalized, subjective data and overcome power differentials between researchers and participants (Packard, 2008; Pollak, 2017). A particular challenge of digital technologies such as laser scanners is that they are likely to be unfamiliar to communities. The participatory, multi-sensory methods used in our research enabled the heritage of an area to be experienced from different but interconnected perspectives and they were useful ‘prisms’ through which to invoke participants’ experiences (Pink, 2011) within the heritage spaces. Scanning, visualization and the inclusion of participants in the selection of areas of focus also aligns with established arts-based modes of inquiry in LIS and other disciplines (Given et al., 2014) . These are considered to be especially effective for engaging marginalized communities (Chatkaewnapanon and Kelly, 2019). Arts-based methods are useful for research data capture and dissemination, but there is a lack of clarity about how to use them in community-based research practice (Coemans and Hannes, 2017). This is especially the case for 3D models, which have only recently been used in the visual methods space. For example, researchers have a great amount of control over the content and aesthetic of visualizations, including the viewpoint, presentation method and level of realism as well as any supplemental information. All this can have an impact on the experience of participants. Writing about the use of physical 3D models for visual research in an international development context, Hinthorne and Reeves (2015) argue that the process encouraged participant and researcher reflexivity, an essential component of visual methods research.

Three Vignettes Vignette 1: 3D Scanning and Visualizations as Dynamic Texts for Research Engagement and Outreach The program of research began in 2014 with the award of a small seed grant from the Research Councils UK Digital Economy Communities and Culture network. This project was exploratory, with the aim to investigate the impact of 3D visualizations of local heritage sites on community engagement with

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heritage. We specifically sought to assess the ‘added value’ of digital participation and to investigate how innovative mechanisms for interacting with data enable the co-production of heritage assets. This was not the first heritage scanning project that the team had conducted, but recent developments in scanning technologies – making them more portable, faster and more reliable – allowed for new opportunities. The research team was given the opportunity to trial a scanner that was new to the market, the Leica C10 scanner (shown in Figure 4.4) and we selected the area of Ladyhill Castle, Elgin, as the test site. This is an important local landmark: the ruins of the castle date back to the 12th century and stand at one end of the Royal Burgh High Street. Laser scanners work by scanning thousands of points per second and overlaying these scans with photographs to produce high-quality images. The scanners also take photographs of the sites, for overlay on the point cloud data. We found that the Leica C10 scanner was able to capture scans much more quickly and in higher definition than previous scanners the project team had used, and the battery life of the scanner was much longer. A further advantage of the new generation of scanners is greater tolerance of wind and rain disturbance than earlier models.

Figure 4.4 Leica C10 scanner at Ladyhill, Elgin

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We compiled and rendered the scan and made it available for viewing through MeshLab, an open-source software available on laptop and iPad (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5 Visualization from scan data

The researchers were allocated a space in Elgin Library in April 2014 to conduct user engagement sessions and informal, loosely structured interviews with members of the public. These interviews included questions about participants’ current interest and involvement with local history in the area, the most important heritage areas in Elgin, and views on the cultural heritage visualizations that the team had produced (including the usability of visualizations and ideas for what else could be done with them). The library has a strong local history collection, is a space for community heritage groups to meet, and houses the main Elgin tourism information point. We had determined that there was good footfall in the library and that it was a useful site for engaging local people and external visitors with the heritage of the area. We were aware that the library, like many other public libraries in the UK, faced challenges such as a lack of equipment, resources and finances. The interviews were not pre-arranged and the researchers had no preconceived ideas about how engagement activities would be received by library patrons. We conducted 16 visual interviews with library users from a mix of genders, and range of ages and occupations. In these interviews, researchers and participants interacted with the visualizations while discussing the technologies, Elgin’s heritage and their personal experiences of living and working in the area (Figure 4.6 opposite). The willingness and enthusiasm of members of the public to engage with the research team and visualizations in the user engagement sessions exceeded researchers’ expectations. The researchers kept their interactions with participants informal and

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conversational to reduce research participant power dynamics and barriers to technological literacy. The setting of the library activity room encouraged participants to come in, view the scans and chat with researchers, as it was a quiet and relaxed space, visible and easily accessible from the main library space. Even with relatively limited interactivity with the scan data due to the technical limitations of MeshLab, interacting with the scans enabled

Figure 4.6 Interview participant interacting with image researcher Andy Grinnall (top); Professor Richard Laing demonstrating visualizations (bottom)

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storytelling and reflections on the heritage of the area as participants navigated or pointed to areas of interest, recollected buildings that were no longer there, and explained how the town had changed over their lives. In this respect, the scans became dynamic textual artifacts that prompted reflections and promoted dialogue and narrative reflection. While none of the participants had direct experience of laser scanning, many commented that they were familiar with the use of technologies in a heritage context from the media, including popular TV shows such as Time Team. This familiarity mitigated potential barriers to the use of unfamiliar technology and made the area’s heritage itself seem more valuable, since it had been deemed worthy of capturing in this way. Through the course of the interactions, respondents reflected on their understanding of the heritage of the area – most were either from the area or had lived there for some time – and reflected that they ‘took for granted’ many of the impressive local landmarks because they saw them every day. As they were viewing the scans, many respondents commented about areas that had changed over the years and asked whether it would be possible to remove newer buildings from the scans so that people could see how the area used to be. Interacting with the technologies disrupted previous perceptions of the area and encouraged new perspectives on its history and heritage. For example, some respondents commented that the scan visualization allowed them to ‘see it in a new way’ by displaying Ladyhill from different perspectives. Many respondents commented that they had either never been to the top of Ladyhill or had not done so in years, so viewing the site from these angles was a different experience for them. The aesthetics of the visualizations were also a point of discussion. Several respondents remarked that the area looked better or ‘more romantic’ on the scans than it did in real life. Participants suggested that integrating into the scans further contextual information and artifacts, such as texts, photographs, sounds and comments from users, would add value to the scans and broaden the applications. Some participants had more ambitious but very creative ideas for augmented reality applications, which again were based on their engagement with technologies at other sites and museums. Many users suggested that the scans could be used to develop ‘heritage trails’ for tourists to use on smartphones or tablets. These could alert tourists to areas of historical significance and would allow for crowdsourcing of experiences. Some participants suggested that this could facilitate linkages with other local initiatives. For example, one respondent mentioned a collection of old photographs of the area, some of which had been digitized and could therefore be included. A further suggestion was to work with a group conducting citizen archaeology in the area. Finally, participants discussed the venue of the library space and suggested that more

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digital and non-digital heritage initiatives could be held there, including events where members of the public could see the scanner working on site. The research team had not previously considered this idea and the level of interest in the technical details was something of a pleasant surprise. As the team had a keen interest in public engagement, we decided that this was an idea worth trialing and included it in our next project. The team secured funding to continue the research from the IT as a Utility Network+.2 The new project was called Bring Your Own Heritage and it built on ideas and findings from this first project to develop a series of interactive participatory events in collaboration with Elgin Library (a project partner) and the lead partner of the Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere project, Moray Council. The results of this project are reported in vignettes 2 and 3 below. The partnership approach was key to the success of the project because the cocreated activities combined the academic novelty of laser scanning and visualization with community knowledge and support of the local institutions.

Vignette 2: Community Participatory Laser Scanning and Visualization The research team developed the public scanning demonstration in response to suggestions from members of the public who wanted to find out more about laser scanning heritage sites. The site selected for the event, the Little Cross at the east end of Elgin High Street, is an open space and an area of rich heritage. Attendees were recruited through a variety of channels, including invitations in local heritage social media groups, posters in the library and an announcement in a local newspaper. All attendees were local residents, a mixture of people who had an interest in local history, those who were interested in laser scanning technologies and some who worked for the local council and were involved with the Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere project. The community laser scanning event incorporated and embedded local expertise throughout the day. It began with an introductory workshop in the library. In order to fully integrate local expertise, the event involved a local historian and author who gave a presentation about the scan area at Little Cross that included stories and historic photographs and drawings of the area. The presenter drew attention to areas of architectural and historical significance that participants could look out for during the scanning demo. Following the presentation at the library, around 20 people came to Little Cross to view the demonstration (Figure 4.7 on the next page). Professor Richard Laing described and demonstrated the operation of the scanner and responded to the questions raised by the participants. A highdefinition scan was selected along with photographic images of the same area.

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On returning to the library immediately after the outdoor demonstration, the scan data was unloaded from the scanner and processed using the Leica Cyclone software.

Figure 4.7 Professor Richard Laing demonstrating the laser scanner

When viewing the visualizations, we discovered that the point cloud data had produced suitable visualizations for demonstration purposes (an example is shown Figure 4.8 opposite) but that the photographs had to be discarded because the community participants were standing very close to the scanner and so got captured in the images and laser scans, as shown by the dark shadows in Figure 4.8. The visualizations were incorporated into a quick, informal presentation, which was followed by a discussion session. The researchers demonstrated navigating through the scans and zooming in on particular details, such as the intricate stonework on some of the buildings that was not visible from ground level. The question and answer session was in an open format and members of the audience asked a mix of questions related to local heritage and the technical aspects of the scanning. For example, one participant asked for an explanation of the difference between photogrammetry and laser scanning; Professor Laing explained the difference and added that we used a

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Figure 4.8 Visualization from laser scan of Little Cross

combination of both in our work. Another participant asked why the roofs of the buildings had not been fully captured and Laing explained that the scanner worked by ‘line of sight’, making it impossible to capture the roofs of buildings from the ground. Another participant had a keen interest in architectural heritage and asked about some of the historically significant stonework features on a building. The community laser scanning workshop demonstrated that libraries are not simply sites where heritage collections can be stored but also spaces for creation and sharing. The partnership approach – bringing together academics, local experts, community participants and librarians – was key in enabling the innovative engagement activity. The novel approach of using the laser scanner as a participative mechanism proved successful and provided a mechanism for in-depth discussions of heritage and a technical ‘hook’, which was a key point of interest for participants.

Vignette 3: Visualizations as Narrative Inquiry Tools In the next phase of the project, the research team conducted a further series of laser scans to capture the length of Elgin High Street and created a single, continuous point cloud image of the whole street. This file was very large – an image in excess of 100 million points – and required a gaming laptop or another powerful computer to easily access and interact with the visualizations. Figure 4.9 over the page shows how the scanning captured modern phenomena such as street signs, garbage bins and new buildings. These provided interesting talking points and some participants asked if they could be edited out of the scans. In this phase of the project, the team arranged one additional participatory activity in Elgin Library: a series of one-on-one interactions in which

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Figure 4.9 Visualization of Elgin High Street

participants and researchers had a chance to discuss the images together. Participants examined two main views of Elgin High Street: a plan view and the fly-through itself . The plan view (Figure 4.10) is a top-down visualization, with the locations of scans marked by yellow triangles. Double-clicking on the triangles takes the viewer into the 3D visualization at that location (Figure 4.11 opposite). This offers a game-like user experience in which participants can navigate the scan, identify areas of interest to them and share their experiences and beliefs about the area.

Figure 4.10 Plan view of Elgin High Street in Leica TruView

Each participant was given a brief demonstration of how to control the flythrough and then they were free to navigate the scan and identify features of interest. The degree of comfort with using the mouse to interact with the visualization varied from person to person, with some quickly becoming

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Figure 4.11 Screenshot from fly-through of Elgin High Street

adept – particularly one user who was already familiar with electronic gaming – and others remaining tentative throughout the process; some preferred to direct the researchers where to ‘travel’ in the scans while they made observations. These preferences suggest usability challenges, but rather than trying to train the participant in the ‘correct’ use of the tool, which may have impeded the natural flow of dialogue, researchers adapted the session to fit the preferences of the participant and facilitate a rich exposition. These sessions were designed around a methodology of visual narrative inquiry where participants each spent about 45 minutes navigating the scans while narrating and reflecting on their experiences of the history and heritage of the areas. The session was purposely unstructured and informal; participants were encouraged to bring and share area artifacts and stories (Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13 on the next page). We aimed to enable a co-created experience and to balance the uneven power relations that resulted from employing technologies unfamiliar to the participants. We asked participants to show us areas of interest to them and locations where they lived and/or worked, how they felt navigating the scan and whether they had learned anything new about the heritage of the area. Participants asked the researchers various questions, for example, about how to operate the controls and interact with the environment, how the scan points were selected and how the visualizations were created. One participant discussed how the scans allowed for non-linear storytelling: ‘That’s the real power in it from my point of view . . . it’s the prospect of being able to take people back through time, not just through a space’ (Participant 1).

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Figure 4.12 Participants with artifacts they had brought to the participatory visualization event at Elgin Library

Figure 4.13 Participants discussing artifacts they had brought to the participatory visualization event at Elgin Library

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In keeping with findings from the seed grant project and other visual methods literature, the research team found that participants’ interactions differed profoundly as they navigated the scans and shared their observations. These highly personal and unique interactions are characteristic of participatory visual methods research. For example, one participant navigated the scan and zoomed in to a small area of a building to draw our attention to historic dates stones. Another had a particular interest in a milestone marking the center of Elgin. Having identified the stone on the scan, he discussed why it was locally significant and requested that it be annotated in future visualizations. Participants also discussed contemporary features, such as Christmas lights. One participant was a local businessman who showed us the location of his shop on the model. While participants were mostly positive about the quality of the visualization, one drew attention to the preponderance of signs indicating business properties for sale or let, which she described as ‘depressing’ and felt gave a poor impression of the town. Others commented that the signs seemed more prominent in the visualization than in reality and asked if they could be removed. Finally, many participants suggested that techniques such as gamification and augmented reality would provide a more engaging experience for users and enhance their understanding of the history and heritage of the area. By request, participants brought along historical artifacts from the local area to discuss while viewing the visualizations. These could be digitized and incorporated into the visualization to provide additional contextual information. One participant brought an album of historic postcards, which included several views of buildings in Elgin that no longer exist (for example an image of the town hall that was demolished in 1939). Another brought a display of characters from the town’s past and a series of prints showing the 1500-year history of the Laich of Moray, once a sea loch to the north of Elgin. The loch was a thriving medieval harbor, which silted up and was later drained to provide agricultural land. Sessions were recorded using Camtasia software and the two researchers who facilitated the sessions supplemented recordings with notes and observations. The team subsequently analysed all of these using qualitative inductive coding. This involved viewing the recorded MP4 videos, noting emergent themes and refining themes into a set of codes that were used to analyse the videos manually. There were category codes, for instance, for when participants discussed heritage aspects of the area, when they drew on their past experiences or telling stories, when they noted difficulty navigating the scans and when they discussed potential applications and further developments for the visualizations.

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Methodological Reflections The Value of Visual Methods for Participatory Research The visual approaches presented in this chapter are intended to demonstrate potential applications of 3D visualization technologies in LIS research. The work has evolved over time, starting when the researchers became aware that members of the public had an interest in scanning technologies and local cultural heritage, which provoked interesting and spontaneous conversations on site. The methods outlined in the vignettes built on this interest with a novel combination of advanced technologies and established, rigorous social science methodologies. The methods were particularly effective for historical cultural research because they allowed us to showcase the unique built heritage of Elgin in novel ways, provoking discussion and engagement with that heritage. These research approaches could be transferred to other areas and contexts, although the participatory nature of the work requires tailoring approaches and outcomes to differing research and community needs. Added value in this research stems from its interdisciplinary nature. The projects described here were led by LIS academics but included coinvestigators from the disciplines of architecture and the built environment and computing science. This allowed for methodological innovation – capturing Elgin’s built heritage with laser scanning – and for the creation of interactive landscapes akin to the ‘prisms’ discussed by Pink (2011) for use in the workshops. It should be noted that 3D capture and visualization technologies are developing rapidly and that modified versions of these workshops can now be run by individual researchers using free or low-cost scanning applications. A great strength of 3D capture and visualization technologies is their promotion of dialogue between researchers and participants and their appeal to a wide range of participants, in keeping with findings from Cox and Benson (2017). The technologies allowed participants to view heritage sites in new ways, which interestingly made several comment that they had not appreciated the significance of the sites before, even though they had grown up near them. As Hicks and Lloyd (2018) explain, visual methods lend themselves particularly well to information science research by accessing the complex and interrelated processes of information behavior. In a heritage context, visual methods, especially participatory methods involving artifacts, are a highly effective means of uncovering embodied experiences of place identity. The research team used an unstructured or semi-structured technique to engage with research participants, which gathered rich data and encouraged participant and researcher reflexivity (Hinthorne and Reeves, 2015).

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Limitations of Visual Methods for Community Co-Production The methods outlined in the paper demonstrate that laser scanning and visualization can be employed effectively for participatory visual methods research, but there were challenges and limitations of scalability and transferability. In participatory research, it is important to outline the position of the researchers. The research team was strongly committed to the ethos of user-driven participatory research and working in partnership with research communities. Two of its members grew up in the area of Moray and had strong local connections that predated this work. Thus the research team should be considered a partner and co-creator in this research. The relationships take a long time to establish and co-created projects involve lengthy periods of negotiation in order to establish mutually agreeable project scopes, timescales and programmes of activity. This is especially the case in large, multi-partner projects such as Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere. A further limitation is access to the technology and expertise to conduct scanning and visualization. The cost of scanning technologies has decreased and they are now more usable and portable, but they still remain out of reach for most local libraries and community groups. This was evident at the Bring Your Own Heritage practitioner workshop, held in Perth’s A. K. Bell Library, where library professionals expressed great enthusiasm and interest in technologies for heritage participation but felt ‘overwhelmed by choice’ and hampered by limited resources and time. Partnerships between researchers and community groups to employ scanning and visualization for participatory heritage is an option, but some lower-cost alternatives could also be considered. For example, 3D photogrammetry tools, available on any smartphone or tablet, can be engaging mechanisms for cultural heritage participation. Returning to a point raised in the Introduction, the team felt it was important to consider how these research outputs could be managed and created to meet the requirements of funders and other stakeholders. Laser scanning and photogrammetry can result in huge files, proprietary nonstandard formats are common and there can be licencing issues with the software that act as potential barriers to effective data curation. It is also necessary to preserve the functionality and the artifacts and to retain adequate metadata and documentation of workflows to aid preservation and future use and re-use. Researchers must further place the methodology and theory of scanning and visualization within the wider literature on visual methods research. It is important to design studies with academic rigor rather than technical novelty alone. The research team used participatory visual methods in combination with other social research methods and embedded them within

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a wider programme of work that had been carefully designed with the project partners. Aligned with this, researchers must also take into account the digital exclusion of participants who are unfamiliar or not comfortable with technologies. We integrated our research (along with a programme of other laser scanning public engagement activities in schools, colleges and museums) with other activities in the Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere project including large public events and public art competitions. It is important to acknowledge challenges and limitations with research designs, especially when conducting empirical research, but these should not put off others interested in using similar methods. Our methods were highly engaging, worthwhile and very well received by participants. They are also gaining momentum and the research team has been invited to present and demonstrate this work at numerous academic and practitioner conferences and workshops.

Conclusion This chapter has presented a brief overview and reflection on the development and implementation of a research method involving 3D laser scanning and visualization technologies for information science research, placing the method within the wider field of information science visual methods. While there are links between this research other visual methods such as photovoice and video capture, the interdisciplinary nature of the work and its use of technologies largely unfamiliar to participants, makes it distinctive. Further, the chapter shows how researchers can partner with communities to use these technologies in participatory research initiatives. In addition to the vignettes described above, the scanning workshops have also been conducted with young people – a traditionally hard-to-reach group for local heritage research – at a local high school and a further education college. For the latter, researchers provided students with copies of the scan data to integrate into videos they were making for an assignment on local tourism. The team’s researchers have delivered public talks and demonstrations in other public spaces, such as museums and universities. Finally, this chapter discusses the design of different approaches, in which groups of participants were involved in the scanning (Vignette 2) or researchers and participants reviewed scan outputs one-on-one (Vignette 3). As could be expected, the individual sessions resulted in more in-depth responses and richer data but involved smaller numbers of participants. When considering this approach, we recommend considering research questions, the nature of the data being sought and the resources available.

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The constant evolution of digital scholarship has opened up new possibilities and exciting potential future applications of these methods. In particular, developments in gaming technologies and virtual reality have great potential for further study of participatory visual methods in LIS research.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank the project co-investigators: Professor Richard Laing, Dr. Marianthi Leon, Professor Peter Reid, Professor Simon Burnett, Andy Grinnall and Dr. John Isaacs. I would also like to thank our project research partners and participants, especially Moray Council and Elgin Library. Finally, I would like to thank the research funders: the Research Councils UK Communities and Culture Network+, RCUK IT as a Utility Network+ and Heritage Lottery Fund.

Notes 1 Photogrammetry is ‘the detection of similar co-ordinates in a photograph and thus overlapping several photographs to create a digital 3D image.’ (Laing, Scott and Hogg, 2014, 247). 2 A research network funded under the Research Council UK’s Digital Economy research programme.

References Alexander, E., Eppler, M. J. and Bresciani, S. (2019) Visual Replay Methodology: A Mixed-Methods Approach for Group Discussion Analysis, Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 13 (1), 33–51. Al-kheder, S., Al-shawabkeh, Y. and Haala, N. (2009) Developing a Documentation System for Desert Palaces in Jordan using 3D Laser Scanning and Digital Photogrammetry, Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (2), 537–46, https://doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.10.009. Bennett, M. J. (2015) Evaluating the Creation and Preservation Challenges of Photogrammetry-based 3D Models, Archiving Conference, 1, 78–82. Bhatt, I. and de Roock, R. (2013) Capturing the Sociomateriality of Digital Literacy Events, Research in Learning Technology, 21 (4). Bloice, L., Baxter, G. and Gray, D. (2018) Visual Methods for Social and Cultural Airport Research, report for SPARA 2020 Project: WP7, Robert Gordon University, https://rgu-repository.worktribe.com/output/228530/visual-methodsfor-social-and-cultural-airport-research.

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Chandler, T., McKee, B., Wilson, E., Yeates, M. and Polkinghorne, M. (2017) A New Model of Angkor Wat: Simulated Reconstruction as a Methodology for Analysis and Public Engagement, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Art, 17 (2), 182–94. Chatkaewnapanon, Y. and Kelly, J. M. (2019) Community Arts as an Inclusive Methodology for Sustainable Tourism Development, Journal of Place Management and Development, 12 (3), 365–90, https://doi-org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.1108/JPMD-09-2017-0094. Coemans, S. and Hannes, K. (2017) Researchers Under the Spell of the Arts: Two Decades of Using Arts-based Methods in Community-based Inquiry with Vulnerable Populations, Educational Research Review, 22, 34–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.08.003. Cox, A. and Benson, M. (2017) Visual Methods and Quality in Information Behaviour Research: The Cases of Photovoice and Mental Mapping, Information Research: An International Electronic Journal, 22 (2). Crooke, E. (2010) The Politics of Community Heritage: Motivations, Authority and Control, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 16 (1–2), 16–29. Given, L. M., Opryshko, A., Julien, H. and Smith, J. (2012) Photovoice: A Participatory Method for Information Science, Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 48 (1), 1–3. Given, L. M., O’Brien, H., Absar, R. and Greyson, D. (2014) Exploring the Complexities of Information Practices Through Arts-based Research, Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 50 (1–4), doi:10.1002/meet.14505001003. Gonzalez, P. A. (2014) From a Given to a Construct: Heritage as a Commons, Cultural Studies, 28 (3), 359–90. Hakonen, A., Kuusela, J. and Okkonen, J. (2015) Assessing the Application of Laser Scanning and 3D Inspection in the Study of Prehistoric Cairn Sites: The Case Study of Tahkokangas, Northern Finland, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2, 227–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.02.001. Hicks, A. and Lloyd, A. (2018) Seeing Information: Visual Methods as Entry Points to Information Practices, Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 50 (3), 229–38. Hinthorne, L. L. and Reeves, L. S. (2015) Using Purpose-made Objects for Visual Research: An Exploratory Case Study, Visual Communication, 14 (2), 155–78. Hood, C. and Reid, P. (2018) Social Media as a Vehicle for User Engagement with Local History: A Case Study in the North East of Scotland, Journal of Documentation, 74 (4), 741–62. Laing, R. and Scott, J. (2011) 3D High-definition Scanning: Data Recording and Virtual Modelling of the Built Heritage, Journal of Building Appraisal, 6 (3–4), 201–11. Laing, R., Scott, J. and Hogg, G. (2014) The Application of Cloud Based Photogrammetry in the Study of the Built Heritage. In T. Kouider (ed.),

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Architectural Technology, Towards Innovative Professional Practice: Conference Proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Architectural Technology, Aberdeen: Robert Gordon University. Laing, R., Tait, E., Isaacs, J., Leon, M. and Reid, P. H. (2016) The Application of 3D Visualisation and HD Surveying to Help Stimulate Economic Growth in Historic Urban Areas, Proceedings of the RICS Conference, Toronto Canada, https://openair.rgu.ac.uk/handle/10059/2012. Lambers, K., Eisenbeiss, H., Sauerbier, M., Kupferschmidt, D., Gaisecker, T., Sotoodeh, S. and Hanusch, T. (2007) Combining Photogrammetry and Laser Scanning for the Recording and Modelling of the Late Intermediate Period Site of Pinchango Alto, Palpa, Peru, Journal of Archaeological Science, 34 (10), 1702–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.12.008. Packard, J. (2008) ‘I’m Gonna Show You What It’s Really Like Out Here’: The Power and Limitation of Participatory Visual Methods, Visual Studies, 23 (1), 63–77. Pain, H. (2012) A Literature Review to Evaluate the Choice and Use of Visual Methods, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 11 (4), 303–19. Pauwels, L. (2010) Visual Sociology Reframed: An Analytical Synthesis and Discussion of Visual Methods in Social and Cultural Research, Sociological Methods & Research, 38 (4), 545–81. Peroff, D. M., Morais, D. B., Seekamp, E., Sills, E. and Wallace, T. (2019) Assessing Residents’ Place Attachment to the Guatemalan Maya Landscape Through Mixed Methods Photo Elicitation, Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 14 (3), 379–402. Pink, S. (2011) A Multi-sensory Approach to Visual Methods. In L. Pauwels and E. Margolis (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Visual Research Methods, Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. Pollak, A. (2017) Visual Research in LIS: Complementary and Alternative Methods, Library & Information Science Research, 39 (2), 98–106. Reid, P. H. and Tait, E. (2017) Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere: An Evaluation, Aberdeen: Robert Gordon University, https://rgu-repository.worktribe.com/ output/247111/castle-to-cathedral-to-cashmere-an-evaluation. Richards, J. D., Jeffrey, S. and Niven, K. (2013) Preserving our Digital Heritage: Information Systems for Data Management and Preservation. In E. Ch’ng, V. Gaffney and H. Chapman (eds), Visual Heritage in the Digital Age, Springer Verlag. Tait, E., Laing, R., Grinnall, A., Burnett, S. and Isaacs, J. (2016) (Re) Presenting Heritage: Laser Scanning and 3D Visualisations for Cultural Resilience and Community Engagement, Journal of Information Science, 42 (3), 420–33. Wheeler, R. (2017) Local History as Productive Nostalgia? Change, Continuity and Sense of Place in Rural England, Social & Cultural Geography, 18 (4), 466–86. Yastikli, N. (2007) Documentation of Cultural Heritage Using Digital Photogrammetry and Laser Scanning, Journal of Cultural Heritage, 8 (4), 423–27.

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5

Making as Storytelling: Using Draw-and-Write and Object Elicitation in the Design and Study of a Library Makerspace Jess Whyte and Chelsea Misquith

In 2016, we set out to build and then study an academic makerspace. To do that, we relied on two visual research methods. The first method, draw-andwrite, served as the core of our community consultation. Because we were building a makerspace, we wanted a consultation method that was fittingly creative and visual and one that would inspire participation. Draw-and-write gave us rich output and that makerspace fit. Once the makerspace was built and running, our second method, object elicitation, helped focus interviews with research participants. Many of the participants made objects and used the process of making to tell stories, and we wanted a method that allowed those stories to be told. Object elicitation was an opportunity to let participants tell the stories of their creations and base the narrative of their experiences around the experience of making. This chapter describes how we used these two visual research methods and our reflections on doing so.

Background We conducted our research at the Semaphore Studio307 Makerspace at the Faculty of Information, University of Toronto, from 2016 to 2017. For simplicity, we may refer to our field site as ‘the space’ or ‘Studio307’, as it was so often referred to by us and the participants.

Field Site Studio307 is an approximately 300-square-foot, student-run makerspace located in a library school (figures 5.1 and 5.2 on the next page). The space is

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Figure 5.1 Studio307, taken March 2017

Figure 5.2 Messy table during Arduino Club, Studio307, taken October 2016

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available during open hours for special event programming and by key access. Semaphore Research Cluster, TechFund (a student fund) and the Inforum (the library within the faculty) provided funding and equipment; the faculty itself provided the physical space and institutional support. The space’s intended audience are graduate students from the Faculty of Information. It was pitched to the faculty as a place to pursue course work for classes like physical computing and mount making, to learn makerspace skills (particularly as makerspaces are becoming more common in libraries and museums) and to explore new information technologies in a hands-on manner that may not be possible in the classroom. The focus of Studio307 is small-scale fabrication, critical making, exhibition construction and skills development for current and future librarians and museum and information professionals. In this way, it differs from other academic makerspaces in, for example, engineering or applied design departments. The programming and available materials are targeted towards a niche group of information studies students rather than a general audience.

Timeline Our research began in spring 2016 with research ethics board approvals and the solicitation of faculty support. By summer 2016, we had begun our fourmonth community consultation and design phase. From September 2016 to February 2017, we launched and settled into quiet observation. This was followed by a month of interviews with recruited participants and then, finally, analysis.

Position We are two insider researchers who were intimately involved with the Semaphore Studio307 project. We were students at the time of our research and we designed, built and worked in the space we were studying. Our work involved organizing the community consultations, setting up programming and instruction, purchasing, budgeting, securing additional funding throughout the year, promoting the space to the Faculty of Information community and staffing the space. Insider research can present ethical issues and is subject to internal and external criticism that the researcher is too close to their subjects (Taylor, 2011). We agree that there are challenges associated with insider research, but there is also value in the regular, face-to-face contact with research participants that this approach enables (Chavez, 2008; Merriam et al., 2001; Taylor, 2011). By working with our peer group, there were few power disparities or wide

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cultural gaps between us. There was also less of a learning curve and no long introduction into the researched community. We were already there. In their work Gaining Access, Feldman, Bell and Berger argue that the quality of access, enriched over time, will affect what information is available to a researcher (2003). Being an insider brings advantages, like access and awareness, and employment within the research site provided those things. For example, we didn’t depend on research participants to learn when an event was happening or the history of the space and its community and our recruitment for interviews had a wide pool because we knew so many people. This doesn’t mean it was all roses. Like Feldman, Bell and Berger, we encountered challenges and we lost things like what they call ‘the right to ignorance’ (2003, 149) – our ability to feign ignorance in order to get a participant to explain something in their own words. Many of our interviews devolved into shorthand at some point. Another strain was the stress of navigating two roles. In her reflexive work on using pre-existing or new friendships within her research, Jodie Taylor, author of Playing it Queer (2012) and The Intimate Insider (2011), explores the stressfulness of researching one’s peers and friends. Her suggestions for overcoming this, which we implemented, include always using full disclosure, intuitively leaving some remarks ‘off the record’ or explicitly asking to do so, and seeking validations of interview interpretations or observations. Taylor concedes that omission or consultation with participants can impede rich description, but it also serves to build trust, honor the dignity of the participant and reduce stress for the conflicted insider researcher. Finally, we faced the criticism that supposed objectivity is threatened if the researcher is too close to their subjects. Here, we took inspiration from feminist research methodology scholars Stanley and Wise (1993) and their encouragement to embrace insider experience and emotional responses as valid research tools. Stanley and Wise, while addressing concerns about the methodological and ethical difficulties of familiarity with a subject, refuse to attempt detachment in these scenarios. They argue that a detachment mindset clings to outdated notions of objectivity and rigid adherence to methodology – at great cost (1993). Instead, they suggest the researcher approach themselves and their subjects as related people and not siloed repositories of data. By acknowledging that familiarity, the researcher examines and reflects on it, along with their own position. Empathy becomes a powerful tool, not a hindrance. We agree. We were immersed in Studio307: we helped design, build and work in it and this affected our experiences in the space, our relationships with participants and our analysis. In some ways, our insider position made it too familiar or pulled us in directions we weren’t intending to go. In other

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ways, we knew the space and people in it very well and had seemingly unlimited access. While we will primarily discuss the visual research methods used in this study and evaluate their effectiveness, we recognize that our personal and emotional responses and motivations affect these evaluations.

Visual Research Method 1: Draw-and-Write for Collaborative Design Before Studio307 existed, we were given an unused empty room, a small amount of funding and four months to design and build it. We started with a community consultation inspired by the work of Foster and Gibbons when they undertook a massive renovation of the library at the University of Rochester (2007). Foster and Gibbons’ research spanned two years and a range of methods – from day-mapping to photo surveys – with a goal of learning more about undergraduate students’ habits, how they wrote papers and performed research and how that knowledge might improve the library’s facilities, outreach and services. Foster and Gibbons had a two-year schedule and support staff. We had four months. So we borrowed and adapted a method that we felt was fitting for our project and feasible to complete: a draw-and-write design session. These were the steps for this draw-and-write for collaborative design method: ■

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We invited students, staff and faculty to fill out a blank blueprint worksheet with ideas for their ideal makerspace. We also provided space for text and research-use consent. We then invited students, staff and faculty to participate in a three-hour group analysis of those same worksheets. The group analysis session included individual analysis of the individual worksheets, small-group analysis on larger, shared worksheets and fullgroup discussion.

In their work Studying Students, Foster and Gibbons (2007) invited students to map or draw their ideal library space as part of their research and the library design process. They invited students to design charrettes, gave them poster board and craft supplies and asked them to design their dream library. For a follow-up, they invited students into the physical space and gave them blank floor plans to fill with furniture cut-outs. We were inspired by this idea and felt it meshed well with the creative nature of a makerspace.

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Our worksheets included a blank floor plan and space to write (examples in figures 5.3 and 5.4 opposite). The sheet instructed participants to take a few minutes to think about what they could do in a space like this and then to draw and write their ideas. Instructions included the prompt, ‘You can include tools, people, equipment, communities, concepts, a cup of tea’. We distributed our blank worksheets and let people fill them out individually and return them either in a drop-off mailbox or by e-mail. We recruited for the worksheets by posting clipboards with blank worksheets and submission instructions around the faculty building, placing notices in faculty newsletter e-mails, distributing worksheets in classes and soliciting participants face-to-face. Because we distributed blank worksheets and let people return them anonymously in a mailbox, we don’t know if every respondent was a student, but we targeted recruitment e-mails and posters at anyone who was a part of the faculty – students, faculty and staff. We directly recruited students in the Museum Studies program, which we felt was not well represented, by personally writing to members of the student association and asking them to fill out a worksheet. Admittedly, response felt low, with only 20 worksheets being returned. If we did this process again and with unlimited resources, we would not recruit during the summer semester and would give ourselves and participants more time. In an attempt to meet our funding and proposal deadlines, the recruitment window was a short two weeks. Foster and Gibbons’ (2007) design workshops did not include participants in the analysis process, which happened afterwards and separately. Our approach differed. Rather than leaving the interpretation and analysis of these worksheets to one or two individuals, we invited everyone from the faculty to attend a three-hour design session to identify and draw out common themes or elements collaboratively. Recruitment tactics for this session included posters; notifications on e-mail newsletters, faculty websites and calendars; and personal, face-to-face communication. The event happened during the summer, when attendance and engagement is low, so we offered participants refreshments – banh mi sandwiches and sodas – as incentives. We and 11 people participated. The afternoon began with individual analysis. We taped the previously submitted worksheets to one blank wall and also distributed them as photocopied packets. We gave participants 15 minutes and asked them to explain what they saw as common themes or elements. Sticky notes were available for notes and most participants used these to record their identified themes (e.g. ‘Arduino’, ‘work table’ or words like ‘comfortable’). This was followed by small-group analysis. In groups of three or four, participants shared and compared their individual interpretations. We gave

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Figure 5.3 Example of draw-and-write worksheet

Figure 5.4 Example of draw-and-write worksheet

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these small breakout groups blank, large-scale printouts of the worksheets (3 × 4 feet) and asked each group to place sticky notes on or around the worksheet as they discussed common themes or any other elements they noticed. For instance, sticky notes might read ‘collab space/table’ or ‘display space idea board’ based on common themes they found across the original, smaller worksheets (examples in figures 5.5 and 5.6). Once they completed this process, we asked groups to tape their large-scale printouts of the worksheets on the wall and explain their decisions to the larger group.

Figure 5.5 Example of 3’ x 4’ collaborative worksheets

Figure 5.6 Example of 3’ x 4’ collaborative worksheets

Finally, we held a longer and full-group discussion. There was no formal facilitation plan in place, but we hoped to guide the group towards a composite based on the small-group findings. The resulting composite did not end up being a completed, singular worksheet but rather four major goals for the space: ■

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This should be a noisy space. This spoke to the central work table or ‘commons’ area that kept appearing on the worksheets. Many of the worksheets called for collegial or collaborative space. This should be a welcoming space. Almost half of the worksheets included things like support staff, exhibit space, open hours and display boards. The workshop group felt these elements were about extending the space and welcoming people into it.

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This should be a creating space. Almost every returned worksheet included tools for building, designing and creating. Students drew things like sewing machines, white boards, 3D printers, scanners and Raspberry Pi computers. This should be a dynamic space. There were common themes in the worksheets, but also a lot of diversity. For example, many of the students drew ‘stations’, but the purpose of these stations tended to differ (e.g. a sewing station or a soldering station). This manifested in the creation of mobile or multi-purpose stations.

We started the session thinking we could come out of it with a floor plan, a sort of unified worksheet, rather than a list of goals. But this is where the discussion and group dynamic took us. Participants were more concerned with the overarching feel of the space than the specifics of, for example, where the soldering station should go. We felt the flexibility of this output related to the last goal: that this should be a dynamic space. The gathered group hoped these goals would reinforce what would be an iterative design process for its first year of operation.

Reflections on Draw-and-Write for Collaborative Design Here, we discuss the joys and quality of results that come from including research participants in the analysis of visual research, particularly when using that research to design or improve a space for those participants (Stanley and Wise, 1993). Like Hartel (2014), we found that this collaborative take countered criticisms that visual research analysis might be too time consuming (Umoquit et al., 2011) or prone to misinterpretation (Mair and Kierans, 2007). We found that this method: ■ ■ ■

engaged participants throughout the design process and contributed to their continued participation and involvement in the space produced rich visual output, which led to early buy-in and institutional support for its findings was difficult to recruit for.

Participant Engagement We found that the early involvement of students in the community consultation process led to increased involvement and deeper investment in the space as it progressed through its pilot year (Whyte and Misquith, 2017).

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While we made sure to promote Studio307, participants who were involved in the early design and creation of the space seemed to be its greatest champions. For example, here is a conversation between Jake, a student who participated in the community consultation session (name not changed by participant’s choice), and Jess Whyte (author): Jess: Did you tell me why you first came to Studio307? You just wanted to get more involved? Jake: Well, you told me about it. I guess I’m not the best person to ask because I knew about 307 before it was 307 and stuff. Jess: Yeah. It was just floating around then. Jake: And I drew like what I thought the space should look like and did those forms and stuff [community consultation process]. So, I’ve always been pretty keen on it. And, so actually, when I did a tour for incoming students, I brought them in here and raved about it, I was trying to build excitement.

Jake’s affinity and participation might be due to subject interest, but we think it was cultivated by his early involvement. According to Bethan Davies, invitations and early inclusions matter because ‘individuals do not have open access to communities based solely on their desire to be part of that community and to take part in its practices’ (2005, 557). In Jake’s case, we can see that this rings true – by participating in early decisions, he was included in what matters and that had a lasting effect on his participation and interest in the space.

Early Buy-In and Institutional Support The output pulled from this draw-and-write collaborative design method did not just enrich our research findings – it also helped us sell the space to the people with decision-making power. Potential funders and institutional champions had eye-catching images they could look at and a visual illustration of how students’ needs fed into the space’s design and proposed uses. Acknowledging visual output’s appeal as a marketing tool may seem exploitative, but we think it recognizes the reality of navigating an institution. The launch plan for Studio307 depended on securing funding for staff and equipment and finding an external champion who held sufficient power within the institution. The space may have been student-designed and run, but it still depended on faculty support and space. Most ‘student-run’ spaces

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don’t simply appear because a few students moved some boxes into an empty room and set up camp. Their initiation and ongoing existence often depends on institutional support – not in a broad, generic sense, but specific support from one or two individuals who hold power within the institution. Powerful visual output can help secure that.

Recruitment Woes It was summer semester and we felt the response rate was low for the worksheets and the design session as a result. Visual research methods are qualitative – they’re not intended to be a statistical representation – but we worried that only 20 responses in a department of 600 would not be seen by others, like our institutional funders, as representative enough. We also didn’t ask if students even wanted a makerspace and worried our low turnout would be perceived as disinterest. These recruitment worries are an example of the stresses that come from performing multiple roles in insider research. As a researcher, your responses are rich and plenty. As an employee of an institution using the analysis of these images as the basis for budget requests, you feel an internal pressure to do more and to represent more. A second recruitment drawback of this method is that it involves visualizing and drawing. This could have the effect of selecting participants who are more artistically inclined, thus leading to bias in perspectives and limitations in participant engagement, which are some of the criticisms of the draw-and-write method reviewed by Hartel et al. (2018, 435–36).

Visual Research Method 2: Object Elicitation The next research phase, post-launch, relied on six months of participant observation followed by a series of semi-structured interviews built around object elicitation. Jess Whyte conducted this portion of the research, as it was technically part of her graduate thesis work (2017). However, we continued to work together in the space throughout this period and have since written together on our shared interpretations of that research data during this period (Whyte and Misquith, 2017). It can be confusing to flit between researchers and authors and past works, so we will continue to use ‘we’ here.

Background For context, we’ll provide some background on that thesis research project. The post-launch study phase was an exploratory ethnography. By exploratory, we mean the field site, an academic makerspace, was relatively

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new as a concept (Spradley, 1979, 1980; Stebbins, 2001) and to the researcher. The driving question at the start of this research was, ‘What is happening here?’. By asking this first, the goal was to develop, with minimal presuppositions, an understanding of students’ experiences in an academic makerspace. Other research questions were ‘Why do students come to Studio307?’ ‘What are their expectations and views?’ ‘How do they characterize their experience of the space?’ and ‘How can these understandings inform the development of this space and others like it?’ The intent was to contribute to the broader discussion about the pedagogical impacts of these spaces and to undertake research not just about participants, but for them (Stanley and Wise, 1993). Our goal was to inform the design and administration of academic makerspaces with the voices and perspectives of people who use them. Once Studio307 was up and running in September, this research began. The primary data-gathering method was participant observation (Spradley, 1980) and the notes and jottings from that method informed the questions and format of semi-structured interviews, which used object elicitation as their backbone (Atkinson et al., 2007; De Leon and Cohen, 2005).

Method We followed these steps: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Recruit students who actively participated in Studio307 for a two-hour interview. Ask respondents to bring an object they made in Studio307 or a photograph of something they worked on in the space. Obtain informed consent from interview participants. Structure the discussions around the objects students brought to the interview. Photograph the object or keep a copy of photos for use in later analysis.

We chose object elicitation as an interview method because it seemed to fit the makerspace environment well. People tell stories through making and made objects. Object elicitation was an opportunity to let those creations tell their stories and base the narrative of student experiences around their experience of making. The semi-structured interviews were based on grand tour questions (Spradley, 1980) (examples are below) and object elicitation, a variation of photo elicitation (Collier and Collier, 1986; Harper, 2002), where an object is used to elicit responses and help steer the flow of the interview by providing

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a reference point (De Leon and Cohen, 2005). De Leon and Cohen, anthropologists at Pennsylvania State University when they worked together, wrote about using ‘material probes’ – places and objects – to motivate and inspire participants during interviews. During life history interviews, De Leon used songs written by and then performed by a participant to construct timelines and approach topics that might not otherwise have come up. He found the interviewee was more at ease with their guitar and more likely to talk about difficult memories in the context of songs about those memories. Cohen, while conducting research in Mexico that sometimes touched on sensitive or stressful topics, similarly found that it was easier for participants to talk about the object rather than themselves (De Leon and Cohen, 2005). De Leon and Cohen encourage the use of object and walking probes because they help motivate interviewees, facilitate a natural flow and elicit new information. However, for De Leon and Cohen, the goal is not to learn about the object itself, but rather to learn about the interviewee through the object. For them, it is a probe to trigger a memory or serve as a facilitator when discussing sensitive or emotional topics. We agree that all of this is possible, but we want to add that these objects may have been made to tell stories themselves; they are not just prompts for verbal responses. Take, for example, the student who made an internet-connected light that would turn on and buzz whenever someone mentioned her in a tweet. She made that object to tell a story about trigger responses to social media and the physical manifestations of related emotional effects. We think that story is also relevant to understanding her experience in and use of the space. For a study of an academic makerspace, the accompanying stories of how these objects were made, why they were made and how they came to be were also critical for understanding students’ motivations, expectations and experiences within the space. For De Leon and Cohen (2005), the probe can often be any relevant object. However, in this research, the goal was to understand the motivations for and the experience of making, so we asked participants to bring an object made in the space. Recruitment for the interviews included promotional signs in the space, postings to the e-mail listserv and direct recruitment of known, regular users of the space. Participation was limited to students who had visited Studio307 at least once, either on their own or as part of a class. Interview participants received CAN$30 for their time. Informed consent included upfront disclosure of the research project, its questions and how the interview recordings and transcripts would be used. Interview participants were able to withdraw at any time during the interview and for two weeks afterwards. Participants were invited to review their transcripts and a one- or two-paragraph summary.

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Most interviewees brought an object and some chose to bring a photograph or digital representation. For example, Pauline, a student who worked on creating 3D scans of artifacts, brought a digital file and photographs of the scanning process. The interviews were then conducted in Studio307 to allow students and the researcher to walk through the room together and point at, touch and use various objects in the room, such as specific tools, materials, areas and other made objects. These are examples of the questions we asked in these semi-structured object elicitation interviews: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

‘I asked you to come today with an example of something you made here. May I see it?’ ‘What are we looking at? Tell me about it . . .’ [object probe for narrative] ‘How did you make it? Will you walk me through that process?’ [probe to explore challenges, successes, process] ‘May I ask why? Was it for class, or . . . ?’ [probe to explore motivation] ‘What equipment or tools did you use? Will you show me how?’ [‘walking’ tour] ‘Was this your first time using . . . ? And how did that go?’ [probe to explore experience and impact] ‘And what about . . . ? Have you ever used this?’ [object probe to explore interest and barriers] (Whyte, 2017).

Perhaps the most interesting finding that resulted from this method was that students wanted context and guidance in order to imagine what was possible in the space, while they also wanted independence and privacy to make mistakes in their making process. Throughout the interviews, as they discussed their objects and their creative process, many of the students said they used a tool because it had been featured in a workshop, or ignored another because it had been left out. Below, Sonya (a student) explains how inspiration fueled her made object: Something that I had difficulty with was I wasn’t sure how to make use of certain things, or what everything was, necessarily. . . . I just don’t know. . . . I don’t have enough context to imagine what I could do with it, I guess. At least with the 3D printers, I’d heard of Thingiverse before. And to just be able to browse through things that people have done before, I found gave me enough [inspiration] to be, like, ‘Oh yeah, that would actually be a really cool thing to have. I never would’ve imagined that’s something that you would do.’ And then once I had that I was like, ‘Okay, well I can build off of this’ and it helps you imagine other things, other ways of approaching the same thing.

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Looking through our staff logs, the above sentiment matched findings where attendance would spike on days with programming and then future, independent usage of featured tools or materials would also spike. For example, the Raspberry Pi microcomputers were unused until a workshop featured them and sparked some inspiration. The other story told through these objects, however, one that at first seemed to be in tension with the story of inspiration and structure, was about the desire to explore, try things and make mistakes outside of a structured workshop. Student participants wanted guidance, but they also wanted privacy. Here, two students talk about how a lack of supervision contributed to their creative process: Tom: Okay, so I repaired these [headphones] while I was waiting for a print job to finish and I had to go hunting for the solder and wire stuff, but it was cool, it was the first time I ever did that. . . . Would I have done that if I didn’t have a fob [key]? I don’t know. It feels different if the door is open and people are watching or whatever. Swapnil: I was with my team for our critical making course and we’re building so many things, we’re doing crafting, we don’t want to make a mess in the Inforum space [the library]. Because again, clearing that mess and it’s like there are always people just watching what you’re doing and you’re walking in and out all the whole time and everyone is looking. Over here, you have all the equipment that you want . . . and you can just do it.

Having the objects in the interview and being able to walk through the making process with the participants was very fruitful. Focusing on an object let us dig into motivations without having to ask directly or guess at what those motivations might be. We would never have thought to ask, ‘Would you have done this if you were alone?’, but getting at the story of how that object came to be revealed what was, in fact, a critical finding. The insights gathered from object elicitation helped to expose tensions and opened up a discussion far deeper than expected. It grounded abstract discussions about the space to that core question, ‘What happens here?’

Reflections on the Object Elicitation Method Like De Leon and Cohen, we found the objects very helpful for triggering memories (2005). We also found that this method:

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focused the interviews facilitated discussions involving emotional responses or, perhaps, sensitive topics limited the interviewee pool to active, producing participants.

Focusing the Interviews Having the made objects (photographs or digital representations of the objects) in the interviews helped immensely to direct the discussions and to keep them focused. As conversations veered off into casual chats about school or other topics, you’re able to pull participants back using a prop – something to point at, something to hold, something to reference. Interviewees seemed to feel the same, they too used the objects as visual reminders, a place to circle back to. This also matched up with De Leon and Cohen’s finding that the types of objects used or available in a space during an interview influence both researchers’ questions and interviewees’ responses (2005). For some researchers, this may be limiting, but limits can be helpful.

Facilitating Sensitive Topics In their work on object and walking probes, De Leon and Cohen (2005) claim that objects can be particularly helpful when interviews are stressful or touch on sensitive topics, because we can ask interviewees to talk about the objects rather than directly about themselves. At first, that didn’t seem applicable to this particular field site and topic. It was an academic makerspace – how sensitive could it get? But as students revealed anxieties about their technical capacities, their ability to find employment in a changing profession and institutional pressures to become not just librarians and archivists but also tech-savvy programmers and data analysts, we realized the emotional depth of potential responses. The objects not only helped trigger those discussions but also grounded and supported interviewees throughout them.

Limitations to Participation Structuring the interviews around object elicitation and requiring that the object be made in Studio307 limited the interviews to students who felt they had ‘successfully’ participated in the space. In other words, we only interviewed students who had walked through the door, oriented themselves and then stuck around long enough to make something. This method left out students who never walked through the door, who never returned, or who

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never made something. It left out all the reasons why they chose not to participate or make something and all those potentially rich insights. Understanding why and how some people used the space is valuable, of course, but we regret missing out on why others did not. For example, a common theme throughout the interviews was technical excitement. Students were eager to try a new tool or skill but also often nervous or intimidated by it. In the interview extract below, Jude comments on why he thinks his friends did not join him in the space: Jude: I think they’ll be a bit more hesitant to come, ’cause I think it has to do with this idea that it’s technological and therefore it’s intimidating. . . . I think they would say, ‘I don’t know any of that stuff.’

Here, we get a glimpse of why someone might feel excluded, but we get little more than that. The pool was limited and we didn’t know why students either didn’t come or never returned. To fill this gap, we leaned on scholars like Noel, Murphy and Jariwala (2016), who identified barriers to entry for their makerspace at Georgia Tech. We stated above that limits can be helpful. They focus an interview and even a research object. But those limits come with costs.

Conclusion Using visual research methods can yield meaningful output, particularly when that output is informing future designs and creations. For our research, the draw-and-write design sessions, inspired by Foster and Gibbons’ (2007) study, allowed us to engage participants throughout the design process of an academic makerspace. This early engagement contributed to a deeper participation in the space by participants and a sense of inclusion in and ownership over the space. The rich visual output of this technique also helped garner early institutional support and funding. The second technique, object elicitation (De Leon and Cohen, 2005), helped us gain a deeper insight into users’ perceptions of the makerspace. Using objects to trigger participants’ memories allowed them to open up about their experiences in Studio307 and to speak about their anxieties around engaging with the space. While De Leon and Cohen’s goal was to learn about an interviewee through an object, we found that when the object is made by the interviewee, there is an opportunity to hear the object’s story, which is what the interviewee was trying to convey in the making of the object. One limitation of this approach was that it restricted the research pool to participants who had engaged in the space and created something. This

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technique may not necessarily work or may need to be modified for researchers who are trying to seek insight into the perceptions of ‘potential users’ – those who may be in the target audience for a space or community but may not have actually used it. We hope that this chapter provides a blueprint for other researchers to use or modify, whether they are designing, studying or improving similar spaces in their libraries.

References Atkinson, P., Coffey, A., Delamont, S., Lofland, J. and Lofland, L. (eds) (2007) Handbook of Ethnography, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Chavez, C. (2008) Conceptualizing from the Inside: Advantages, Complications and Demands on Insider Positionality, Qualitative Report, 13 (3), 474–94. Collier, J. J. and Collier, M. (1986) Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method, rev edn, University of New Mexico Press. Davies, B. (2005) Communities of Practice: Legitimacy not Choice, Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9 (4), 557–81. De Leon, J. and Cohen, J. (2005) Object and Walking Probes in Ethnographic Interviewing, Field Methods, 17 (2), 200–4. Feldman, M., Bell, J. and Berger, M. (2003) Gaining Access: A Practical and Theoretical Guide for Qualitative Researchers, California: AltaMira Press. Foster, N. F. and Gibbons, S. (2007) Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester, Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries, www.ala.org/acrl/sites/ala.org.acrl/files/content/publications/ booksanddigitalresources/digital/Foster-Gibbons_cmpd.pdf. Harper, D. (2002) Talking About Pictures: A Case for Photo Elicitation, Visual Studies, 17 (1), 13–26. Hartel, J. (2014) An Arts-Informed Study of Information Using the Draw-and-Write Technique, Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 65 (7), 1349–67. Hartel, J., Noone, R., Oh, C., Power, S., Danzanov, P. and Kelly, B. (2018) The iSquare Protocol: Combining Research, Art and Pedagogy Through the Drawand-write Technique, Qualitative Research, 18 (4), 435–36. Mair, M. and Kierans, C. (2007) Descriptions as Data: Developing Techniques to Elicit Descriptive Materials in Social Research, Visual Studies, 22 (2), 120–36, https://doi:10.1080/14725860701507057. Merriam, S. B., Johnson-Bailey, J., Lee, M. Y., Kee, Y., Ntseane, G. and Muhamad, M. (2001) Power and Positionality: Negotiating Insider/outsider Status Within and Across Cultures, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20 (5), 405–16, https://doi:10.1080/02601370120490.

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Noel, A., Murphy, L. and Jariwala, A. S. (2016) Sustaining a Diverse and Inclusive Culture in a Student Run Makerspace, International Symposium on Academic Makerspaces (ISAM) 2016 Proceedings, Cambridge, Mass., https://project-manus.mit.edu/home/conference. Spradley, J. (1979) Interviewing an Informant, The Ethnographic Interview, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Spradley, J. (1980) Participant Observation, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Stanley, L. and Wise, S. (1993) Breaking Out Again: Feminist Ontology and Epistemology, 2nd edn, London: Routledge. Stebbins, R. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Taylor, J. (2011) The intimate insider: Negotiating the Ethics of Friendship When Doing Insider Research, Qualitative Research, 11 (1), 3–22. Taylor, J. (2012) Playing it Queer: Popular Music, Identity and Queer World-making, Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang Press. Umoquit, M. J., Tso, P., Burchett, H. and Dobrow, M. (2011) A Multidisciplinary Systematic Review of the Use of Diagrams as a Means of Collecting Data from Research Subjects: Application, Benefits and Recommendations, BMC Research Methodology, 11 (11). Whyte, J. (2017) Molding Makers: An Ethnography of an Academic Makerspace, MI thesis, University of Toronto, http://hdl.handle.net/1807/79257. Whyte, J. and Misquith, C. (2017) By Invitation Only: The Role of Personal Relationships in Creating an Inclusive Makerspace Environment, International Symposium on Academic Makerspaces (ISAM) 2017 Proceedings, No. 102, http://hdl.handle.net/1807/87424.

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6

Windows into Library Experience: The Value of Visual UX Research Methods Andy Priestner

In 2015, through a series of talks and presentations, Lorcan Dempsey popularized the views of Douglas Zweizig who had urged library staff to think about the library in a new way: think of the library in the life of the user, not the user in the life of the library (Zweizig, 1973). For this to happen we require a different mindset from the one that has typically delivered library services based on library staff agendas, assumptions and perceptions rather than user behavior and needs. Moreover, to inform this new mindset we need research approaches that offer richer information about our users and nonusers. This richness is abundant in visual user experience (UX) research methods. Over the past four years, as I have researched how users experience library services around the world, visual methods – specifically, the taking of photographs and drawing of sketches – have proved to be an integral part of my research armory and I cannot imagine being, or choosing to do, without them. It is difficult to pinpoint at what moment I became so convinced of their value. I don’t know whether it was while I was sitting at a library entrance drawing the flow of users on a hastily drafted floorplan, or when I received my first set of photographs from a student intended to represent their research life, but I do keenly remember that creeping realization that taking this alternative approach offered unparalleled opportunities for deeper understanding. I first became passionate, if not evangelical, about the process of UX research and design while working as head librarian at Cambridge University’s business school. The service I led at Cambridge was superficially very successful. Indeed, annual surveys indicated that both the service and its staffing were uniformly excellent. While on paper this was a good thing, I

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harbored a nagging suspicion that this was much less than the whole story. For one thing, only around 40% of students filled in these surveys. For another, I knew that some students never used the Library and that the business databases, on which we spent half a million pounds per year, were not being used nearly enough to justify such expenditure. I was aware that I needed to improve my understanding of those people using (and not using) my service, but had no idea how to achieve this until I came across a range of intriguingly different methods that promised deeper insights into not only what my users said they wanted, but also what they actually needed. The UX approach focuses on user behavior and needs – what users are doing as much as what they are saying – because what people do and what people say they do are often entirely different things. Since learning about these approaches, I have made it my mission to popularize and advocate for the application of UX in the library sphere. I now employ a set of UX research methods to expose library staff, particularly senior management, to the rich information they can deliver with a view to improving services by making them more user-centered. Visual tools are a key component of these research methods. In this chapter I consider two research methods that explore user experience visually: cognitive mapping and photo elicitation. Both have been used for anthropological and design research for some time; the former, as I will detail, has risen to prominence in libraries over the past ten years, while the latter remains much less explored. I will examine the efficacy and application of both techniques in the context of several UX training and consultancy projects I have led, explaining why I believe they should be adopted to uncover a richer picture of our users’ library experiences.

The Emergence of UX in Libraries: A Brief Literature Review UX as a tool for exploring and improving library spaces and services arguably first came to prominence in libraries through Aaron Schmidt’s regular UX column in Library Journal (Schmidt, 2012–16) and his publication with Amanda Etches titled Useful, Usable, Desirable: Applying User Experience Design to Your Library (Schmidt and Etches, 2014). The pair had previously authored a title which only focused on website UX (Schmidt and Etches, 2012). Schmidt’s columns and this second book, which explored library space design through a UX lens, built on a burgeoning interest in ethnographic research that had really begun when anthropologist Nancy Fried Foster conducted a large study into undergraduate study habits at the University of Rochester. Ethnography is a branch of anthropology, which essentially involves the writing down of any culture you observe; it comes from the Greek ethno

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(culture) and graphy (writing). Foster and Gibbons’ pioneering Studying Students (2007) in turn inspired the project Ethnographic Research in Illinois Academic Libraries (ERIAL, 2019) led by another anthropologist employed by an academic library, Andrew Asher. One of the outcomes of ERIAL was the book College Libraries and Student Culture (Duke and Asher, 2012). Crucially, neither Foster nor Asher framed their work as UX – indeed, Foster told me she is averse to the term. This is partly because, as an anthropologist, her preferred term is ethnography, but also because UX as a term originated in the digital space and many people continue to associate it primarily with website design and usability, as in the case of Schmidt and Etches’ first published work. However, in keeping with Schmidt and Etches in Useful, Usable, Desirable (2014), I advocate for a definition of UX that relates to user experience in all services and spaces rather than just websites and digital environments. As I have argued elsewhere, the term UX is more accessible and relevant to library workers than ethnography, because libraries should be primarily focused on their users and their users’ experience of library services (Priestner, 2017a). My personal, passionate advocacy for service- and space-oriented UX is perhaps best evidenced by my creation in 2015 of the international UX in Libraries conference, as reviewed in CILIP Update (Priestner, 2015) and my monograph User Experience in Libraries, co-edited with Matt Borg (Priestner and Borg, 2016). I continue to promote the adoption of UX in libraries through my chairing of an annual conference of the same name (User Experience in Libraries) and my editing of conference yearbooks, the first volume of which was published in 2017 (Priestner, 2017b, 2018). The peer-reviewed open access journal WeaveUX also incorporates articles on the UX of library spaces and services but tends to focus more heavily on digital aspects. Appleton (2016) and Massis (2018) offer two useful explorations on the emergence of UX in libraries. Since 2018 I have explored and promoted the UX landscape, techniques and projects through a regular column in CILIP’s Information Professional (Priestner, 2018–19). Examples of cognitive map-based projects abound in much of the literature mentioned above. Discussions of photo elicitation are much rarer.

Cognitive Mapping: User Experience Via the Universal Language of Drawing Back in 2014, as I started to feel my way and explore the potential of UX approaches, I dipped my toes in the water by trying out two new techniques: behavioral mapping and cognitive mapping. Behavioral mapping involves drawing the routes that people take around a space in order to identify desire

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lines and other patterns; cognitive mapping asks users of a service to draw a picture or sketch in response to a research question. Also known as mental models, cognitive maps were first conceived by American psychologist Edward Tolman when he sought to explain the behavior of rats in mazes (1948). His concept was subsequently embraced and popularized by cognitive psychologists and decision theorists. The first time that cognitive maps were used extensively by libraries was during the ERIAL Project, which ran from 2008 to 2010 (ERIAL, 2019), led by anthropologists Andrew Asher and Susan Miller. They used cognitive mapping quantitatively in order to understand how users recalled physical library spaces, counting every time a user drew the issue desk, chairs, plants, journals, staff and other features of the libraries they were researching. The ERIAL Project was also keen to discover and record what users did not draw, omission being as significant on a cognitive map as inclusion. The goal of the first cognitive mapping project I ran at Cambridge University’s business school was to uncover a broader picture of the city-wide study habits of Cambridge students – to better understand how and where they researched, wherever that might be. Although I knew that our students used a variety of libraries – Cambridge offers a large university library and many college and departmental libraries – I had rather arrogantly imagined that the drawings we would receive would reflect the central importance of ‘my’ library in their study experience. However, the user drawings presented a very different picture, which was far more nuanced and complex than I could have imagined. Although my library was indeed represented, it was portrayed in the maps as just one of a range of several study options (Figure 6.1 opposite). Owing to the plethora of libraries in Cambridge, students were using different libraries for different purposes: some for their location, others for their collections and still others for the atmosphere and the range of study furniture available there. Naturally, they were using non-library spaces too. Realizing that my library was not the center of their information universe was an important and challenging discovery, which prompted me to question my ‘one-stop shop’ model of service strategy. Another memorable map from this study revealed how lonely and isolating research life could be and how some environments were more conducive to study than others (Figure 6.2). I was overwhelmed by just how much information these drawings contained. Since going freelance in 2017, I have taken an ever more open, qualitative and metaphorical approach to cognitive mapping in order to better uncover what really has meaning and significance for the user – because it is exactly this search for truth and access to honesty that is at the heart of UX research. Now, instead of asking for maps of universities or specific library

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Figure 6.1 A student’s cognitive map showing different libraries used for different purposes

Figure 6.2 A cognitive map showing a lonely and isolating research life

spaces, I like to ask questions such as: ‘What is the Library?’ and ‘How does the Library fit into your routine?’ This is partly so as not to lead my subject in any way and partly because I am more interested in interactions with the Library from the user’s point of view and the role it plays (or doesn’t play) in their lives than the Library’s importance in and of itself. I firmly believe that

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we can only truly improve our libraries if we acknowledge that we are only part of the user journey rather than an inevitable destination. The more we see things from users’ perspectives, the more likely we are to offer realistic, relevant and user-centric services.

Advantages of the Cognitive Mapping Approach The Cambridge cognitive maps offered many insights and – using different colored pens in a specific order – conveyed enlightening student priorities. However, what really resonated with me was the drawings’ usefulness as a tool to prompt reflection and evaluation. Cognitive maps offered a unique window into users’ experience. This is partly because drawing uses a different part of our brain, encouraging spontaneous and creative thinking and giving us access to ideas and emotions that are not so easily revealed through verbal or written communication. In addition, many users have more freedom over their expression when forging connections between concepts and experiences in sketch form. This I found to be especially true when we asked students to draw something open and wide-ranging, giving them permission to share their study experiences through the map in whatever way they deemed useful. Although the visual representation of experience in the form of a drawing is obviously the core worth of the cognitive mapping approach, it is important to note several other elements of the process. Chief among these is the value of having the drawing as the focus of attention as the subject is being interviewed. Because the subject does not have to maintain eye contact, they may feel more comfortable in the research environment. As a trained LEGO Serious Play facilitator, I regularly use LEGO as a tool to explore user experiences of libraries. Maintaining focus on a visual creation is core within that process. Participants are tasked to build models and explain their experiences while looking at their models rather than at other people in the room. And, as with cognitive mapping, questions are asked of the participants’ creations (‘What does this part mean?’ ‘Why did you put this brick here?’) rather than directly to their faces; the result is that they open up more readily and freely. Also significant is the fact that the drawings help to communicate to the subject that their world is completely interesting and relevant to the researcher. The person who draws the map should be reassured that they cannot ‘get it wrong’ and that everything they include is valid and fascinating. Crucially, cognitive mapping is all about how they choose to present their experience, how they present their routine, their activities and their values. UX research is all about understanding the world of those people you are researching.

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Four Cognitive Maps I would like to share four further examples of cognitive maps that, for me, best express the variety and depth of meaning and experience offered by the method. Each had a direct impact on the library staff who received them and they prompted deeper consideration of how libraries and library staff were perceived. The first map, collected from a PhD student at Charles Darwin University in Darwin, Australia, was dramatically revealed by the illustrator in stages so that, at first, the library staff present could only see a sketch of a figure bent double due to the burden of exams, assignments and study. The student then revealed the bottom half of the sketch, which showed the library as a superhero effortlessly holding him and his burden up (Figure 6.3). The drawing was received with rapturous applause and I remember thinking that the student had played up to his audience of library staff. However, his explanation following his big reveal demonstrated that his gratitude to the library was heartfelt, genuine and related not only to their information and directional support, but also to the duty of care that he felt staff had extended to ensure his emotional and mental well-being. This cognitive map had helped this student to express and access something that I felt certain would not have been related so directly or powerfully by any other method.

Figure 6.3 Charles Darwin University Library as a superhero helping support a PhD candidate with their studies

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Elsewhere in Australia, a master’s student at Monash University in Melbourne drew a map that showed the library as a safe harbor in the storm of university life (Figure 6.4). The student in question felt that the library was a safe and neutral stepping-off point, a bubble, which was always available regardless of whatever was happening with her course, friends or social life. Again, the map depicted the vitally important pastoral support role that library staff often fulfil despite the fact that it is a role that they are neither credited with, nor technically required to provide.

Figure 6.4 Monash University’s Library as a safe harbour in the storm of University life

A third, arguably more frivolous, map was gathered from an undergraduate studying at the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands. She had elected to draw the university library as a destination to which its students flock daily. I instruct library staff never to interpret or guess the meaning of maps and to instead wait until the artist explains their creation. On this occasion, a first glance led me to believe that the student had drawn some kind of student dance party to which people were excitedly headed, with two DJs happily spinning records to the delight of everyone present (Figure 6.5 opposite). However, the student was actually seeking to convey the early-morning rush to secure the best study spaces in the library. Those already present in the library (the ‘DJs’) are smiling and happy because they have already secured the best desks. Further discussion of the drawing revealed that she felt the library was a welcoming environment and a place she wanted to be. I

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Figure 6.5 Students rushing to the Library in Maastricht to secure the best seats (not a dance party in a marquee!)

remember her enthusiasm for this line of questioning and I unfortunately had to curtail further discussion of her cognitive map in order to resume the UX training course I was in the middle of delivering. It was a great reminder not to underestimate how much the technique can help library users open up about their experiences of and perspectives on library services. The fourth and final map I want to share was drawn by a student at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand, who clearly possessed significant artistic skill. This is never a requirement of the process, but when you do come across someone with such talent, the results can be staggeringly evocative. Asked simply to draw a picture of ‘what the library means to me’, the student’s drawing captured how, through books, libraries offered mindexpanding, inspiring stories that could be shared with others through in-person storytelling (Figure 6.6 on the next page). The student enjoyed this drawing experience immensely and enthusiastically expressed why she had drawn the picture, advocating for the importance of libraries not only to her as a student but to the world in general.

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Figure 6.6 Libraries offering stories and, thereafter, storytelling, gathered at Victoria University of Wellington

Reflections on Cognitive Mapping When introduced to cognitive mapping as a research tool, library staff are often reluctant to try out the method themselves and to accept that their users will be willing to give it a go. Reassuring subjects that the method is not about artistic ability is important, but just as key is being encouraging and supportive as you explain the approach: stressing that they cannot get it wrong, that it will not take long (typically six minutes) and that it might feel odd at first but to just go with it. Most people whom I approach to create a map – I never ask participants for a ‘cognitive map’ but for a ‘drawing’ or ‘sketch’ instead – are a bit bemused by my request simply because it’s not a standard research approach. This does not prevent me from pursuing it as an option. Academics and researchers in particular can be direct in stating how strange they think my request is, but more often than not they end up enthusiastically creating and sharing their research lives in this novel way. The unknown is always uncomfortable until it is experienced. However, drawing is not a method that works for everyone. Certainly, neuro-diverse users might struggle with its lack of constraints, finding the freedom of the approach unsettling, as detailed by Penny Andrews (2019) in her UXLibs plenary session. In my direct experience, most people are happy to give it a go and some end up enjoying the opportunity to sketch rather than verbalize

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their experience. In public libraries which serve diverse language groups, or university libraries where some students may have limited English language skills, the cognitive map approach can help people to express themselves without the need for sophisticated written or verbal skills. The language of drawing and pictures is, after all, without barriers and universal.

Photo Studies: Image-based Insights into User Experience In this age of the smartphone, huge swathes of the world’s population, particularly a younger demographic, have for some time been obsessed with recording their lives in photographic form on Instagram and other social media platforms. Before I tried photo research methods, I wondered if a research opportunity was being missed by ignoring this societal obsession. There are several ways to incorporate photograph taking into a research project, most obviously in the form of photo diaries and photo elicitation. With photo diaries, users are asked to photographically record their library, study and research experiences over time and then interviewed about their choices. Photo elicitation involves showing users a range of photographs and recording their reactions in an interview scenario. I often take a hybrid approach, incorporating both, but the method always involves understanding users’ perceptions of library or study environments through the medium of photographs. Both methods have been used in libraries, although much less than cognitive mapping. Perhaps the most significant example of photo diary research was part of Foster’s work at Rochester (Foster and Gibbons, 2007). Foster and her team gave students disposable cameras and tasked them with taking a set of photos in response to a prepared list of subjects (‘something interesting’, ‘a place I like to study’, etc.). Their goal was to gain insights into the study habits of undergraduate students. A project at the Edmonton Public Library (Haberl and Wortman, 2012) used photo elicitation extensively in order to better understand how users wanted to use library space at that time and in the future. The library staff gathered data from photo elicitation interviews and other space research projects to make recommendations for renovations to existing buildings. I employ photo elicitation because the reactions, meanings and emotions derived from showing people (chiefly library users, but sometimes library staff) pictures supplements but more often differs from those obtained through verbal or written inquiry. Douglas Harper, a proponent of the approach, argues that one of the main reasons why it is so effective is that the regions of the human brain that process verbal information are developmentally younger and less evolved than those regions that process

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visual information (Harper, 2002). Meanwhile, Linz proposes that photo elicitation is a particularly appropriate method for visual learners (Linz, 2015). My interest in using photographs for research began while I was running the Futurelib Innovation Programme at Cambridge University, specifically during a library space prototyping UX research project entitled Protolib (Priestner, Marshall and Modern Human, 2016). During the project, we photographed students working in what we came to identify as low-, medium- and highintensity spaces (spaces where students were engaged in relaxed, moderate or high-stress study activities) and became fascinated by how much space users took up when engaged in different study activities. One finding, derived from observation and occasionally interviews, was that when students were working to a specific deadline (e.g. exam revision or finishing an essay) they used less desk space. In fact, the feeling of being hemmed in close to other working students seemed part of the attraction of such environments because sharing space with equally driven people helped them keep on working intensively too. We also learned to allocate more space for less intensive work (researching for an essay, catching up on reading) because, in these instances, users tended to want more privacy and room to spread out (Figure 6.7). Repeatedly during the project, we took photographs of users who were obviously working in cramped, unsuitable spaces (Figure 6.8) and who told us via interview that such study spaces were not meeting their needs. We ultimately concluded that there were too many high-intensity spaces across Cambridge’s 100-plus libraries

Figure 6.7 A Cambridge University library user working in a medium intensity space with room to spread out

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and that when new libraries were planned or old ones modified, the number and intensity of spaces should be considered. The photographs we had taken proved very persuasive in this regard.

Figure 6.8 A Cambridge University library user working in cramped conditions at a small desk

Advantages of the Student-curated Photo Approach While there is huge value in the researcher taking photographs of user behavior inside and outside library spaces, photo diary and photo elicitation yield different and often rich responses. Photographs of specific library spaces often prompt specific and detailed information from people not only about the space, but also about related experiences. The human mind often forges links between experiences and memories that on the surface appear totally unrelated. This is itself another advantage of this approach. Research and study lives are much less disciplined and ordered than we might think and photo elicitation can often highlight and underline the chaotic reality.

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For research requiring users to take their own photographs – the photo diary approach – it is essential to think critically about the choices they make and to be mindful of the biases that are inevitably at play. In any research interaction, the participant may be predisposed to say what they think the researcher wants them to say – in an effort to be useful, to fulfil their part of the research bargain, to present a persona that will make them accepted, or to feel like they are ‘getting it right’. The tantalizing allure of model library citizenship (the perfect high-functioning user who innately understands all aspects of library services) should not be underestimated. It leads some people to project a false picture of themselves, which has little or nothing to do with what they actually think about or do in libraries. Another driver for this behavior is a fear that participants are ‘getting it wrong’. Dr. Donna Lanclos (a well-known anthropologist who has conducted ethnographic techniques in libraries for many years) related to me on Twitter in July 2019 her observation that participants might be worried that they will be judged for their actual library practices, especially as they may not entirely know or trust the researcher. Although it is healthy to retain a critical mind at all times, thankfully if you are following a UX design process it is not vital always immediately to access the reality of the situation you are researching. You are always testing and prototyping the services you derive from your user research data so over time you can weed out those things that people don’t actually want or need anyway through iteration and collaborative design. A fascinating example of students projecting an idealized version of library usage was recorded as part of a UX research project conducted by Becky Blunk while working as a librarian at Churchill College, Cambridge. She asked her students to tweet photos of their study desks in order to record what materials and equipment they had with them and to understand what constituted a conducive study environment. The results were a fascinating exploration of projection. Never before had so many people spent so long preparing their study desks with felt-tip pens, pencil cases, calculators, rulers, notepads, appropriate textbooks and even mascots! Immediately realizing the creative efforts that students were putting into their ‘tweet your study desk’ photos, Blunk decided to change the purpose of the research. Rather than seeking an accurate representation of her users’ study needs, she instead sought to explore and measure ideas of what it was to be a perfect library user in a highly curated and exaggerated social media space.

Photo Diaries with PhD Students at Cambridge University My first experience of engaging users with photographs was during a cultural probe study with PhD students entitled Snapshot (Priestner and Marshall,

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2016). A cultural probe is a deep dive into the research lives of a group of people. Research is usually conducted remotely and over a period of several weeks. Participants are typically required to complete a series of research tasks which are intended to explore and illuminate their experiences, behaviors and motivations and to help them to evaluate and reflect on their day-to-day choices and actions. The term ‘cultural probe’ was first used by researchers working on the Presence Project (Gaver, Dunne and Pacenti, 1999), an EU research initiative which sought to increase, through novel interaction techniques, the visibility and quality of life of three communities of elderly people in different European countries. For Snapshot, I explored the research lives of PhD students at Cambridge University in order to ascertain how they felt about the information support and resources available to them. I mounted the project with a view to delivering other, potentially more valuable, services. The visual tasks they were asked to complete included a cognitive map of their library experience and a photo diary in response to a list of photographic subjects, such as: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

what I have with me when studying what university life means to me what helps me through the day my perfect study space my most important research tool something difficult about my PhD.

An example response to the first prompt can be seen in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 A photograph from the Snapshot cultural probe depicting ‘What I have with me when studying’

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I had rather naively expected participants to follow my instructions to the letter and actually take photos while they were out and about around the university, but many instead sent us screengrabs of database or catalogue pages while conducting their research or photographs from Google Images, which represented how they felt. It was still interesting to see what images the PhDs chose to represent their experience, but it was difficult not to be more enthusiastic about the participants who elected to take their own photos. Ultimately, however, all of the images were fruitful touchstones during the debriefing interviews participants engaged in at the close of the project. These were, in part, photo elicitation interviews, with each photo or image prompting a response or comment from the participant. Although the photos offered us some insights into the ways these PhD candidates worked, they were far more important as talking points during these interviews. As with the cognitive mapping method, photos in elicitation interviews seem to introduce and maintain a safe distance between the researcher and the participant, enabling them to focus on the photo rather than each other. Those researching with photos for the first time might be forgiven for putting too much focus on the photographs themselves and forgetting that they are foremost a tool to help us understand the user’s world and to help them open up about that world. The photographs, like the cognitive maps, serve as a ‘way in’ to user experience. For this project, the data gathered from the photo elicitation and cognitive mapping prompted us to consider a range of potential new services in response to those areas where knowledge, support or information appeared to be lacking.

The Power of a Single Image at the Swedish Defence University While conducting some UX work at the Swedish Defence University in Stockholm in 2019, I was reminded how even a single photograph taken by a user can be a persuasive research artifact. This fairly small university library serving military personnel was apparently well operated and well regarded by its users. A period of observation and behavioral mapping revealed a reluctance on the part of users to visit certain areas of the library, but it wasn’t until the staff started one-to-one photo elicitation interviews with users around the library that they were truly persuaded of some highly specific space problems. Users took photographs of irritations such as group rooms that did not have doors and therefore were not private enough; other groupwork spaces accessible only with a (highly unnecessary) swipe card; a door that routinely slammed; and, most memorably, a large furniture ‘study island’, which took up a huge area in the library. Observation had already revealed that users actively skirted this ‘island’, which they called the

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‘monkey mountain’ because of its split levels and the presence of a living tree at its summit (Figure 6.10).

Figure 6.10 The ‘monkey mountain’ at the Anna Lindh Library, Swedish Defence University, Stockholm

Incidentally, the library’s website featured a photograph of ‘monkey mountain’ front and center and portrayed it – completely artificially, it turned out – as a high use area. However, once presented with a user’s photograph of the (deserted) island, in response to a request for a picture of ‘somewhere I never go’, the problem had a more significant resonance and impact. Staff at the library knew the area was under-used, but the research participant’s photo highlighted the problem and made it a focus of the ideation and prototyping sessions that followed. I have found the same phenomenon to occur after just one usability test of a website or one instance of an observed behavior: evidence that research participants’ photos can be seen as compelling evidence. While UX research and design never seeks statistical

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significance, being more interested instead in actionable insights with a few users, responding to just one complaint or one incident can sometimes be misleading. Ideally a handful of complaints or comments about a particular issue should lead to its identification as a priority to explore further. However, I should add that in the instance of the ‘monkey mountain’ the one photo taken was supplemented by the regular observation that there was a consistent lack of users at the island.

Photographic Methods at the University of Wolverhampton During a three-month consultancy at the University of Wolverhampton, visual research methods were part of the toolkit I used with the staff team. This time around, three different photo elicitation approaches were employed: ad hoc photo diaries, one-to-one photo elicitation using a booklet of photos, and silent group photo elicitation. The different methods achieved varying degrees of success and value.

Ad hoc Photo Diaries The first iteration of photo research at Wolverhampton involved approaching users and asking them to take five photos of different spaces and elements of the library – for example, what they liked, what they didn’t like, what they didn’t understand, what distracted them – after which a library staff member sat down with them and listened to an explanation of their photographic choices. My preferred approach of ad hoc or direct participant recruitment proved problematic as library staff felt awkward and uncomfortable approaching users directly. Although I had demonstrated that recruiting users in advance – via traditional methods such as printed or online sign-up forms – rarely drew participants, the staff were very reluctant to try to recruit ad hoc. It is perhaps only human to distance oneself from one’s users by recruiting via printed or online sign-up forms, but my experience is that the result of such approaches is rarely effective. The ad hoc process was further affected by a reluctance on the part of participants to leave their seats to fulfil the task and perhaps an equal reluctance on the part of the library staff researcher to encourage them. Indeed, staff tended to fall back on a guerrilla interview format: a quick one-to-one interview with a user to establish their opinion about something. While all data is valuable, we had already gathered a lot of information via the guerrilla method inside and outside the library, and I was keen to see how visual methods might offer new and different insights into needs and behavior.

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Another factor I had not anticipated was participants’ reluctance to use their own phones. Instead they asked to take photos with the library staff member’s phone or iPad. It is unclear whether the issue here was privacy related to the photos stored on their own phones, or simply an unwillingness to use their own equipment for a library-based task. Either way, users were far more willing to take part when a ‘library kit’ was proffered to complete the task. Given that all of the photos were taken within the library space, the content of the images was not particularly informative. However, participants’ reasons for taking them were extremely interesting. The reasons related not only to space and furniture preferences but also to perceptions about other users, specifically the sort of users – occasionally described as ‘tribes’ – that were said to inhabit different areas of the library.

One-to-one Photo Elicitation Responses from and engagement with users markedly improved during the second approach: one-to-one photo elicitation using a booklet of photos. We asked users to work their way through a printed booklet of color photos of different areas of the library including some prototypes of spaces being planned for the library. Once again, I think their engagement was largely due to the safe distance provided by a tangible and highly visual artifact, which drew their attention and made them feel less ‘on the spot’ as the focus of the exchange. I suggested to my novice library staff researchers that they should not necessarily seek responses about all 22 photos in the booklet, but to my surprise they later reported that participants had been keen to do this. With this method’s focus on actual images of specific library spaces, users were able to describe in considerable detail, and often with passion and emotion, a wide range of issues that could be grouped under a range of key headings: noise, comfort, cleanliness, layout, staffing, lighting, group vs. individual study, decoration and atmosphere.

Silent Group Photo Elicitation In our final photo elicitation approach we invited 10 to 12 users into our UX design lab – by this time almost fully wallpapered with affinity-mapped sticky notes from a wide variety of UX methods – to watch an 11-minute slideshow of the same 22 photos we had used in the booklet exercise (Figure 6.11 on the next page). We showed each photograph for 30 seconds and asked participants to write a brief description on a sticky note in that time explaining how they felt about the photograph in question. We reassured them that any response was a valuable response and that they couldn’t ‘get this wrong’. It

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Figure 6.11 Wolverhampton students in the UX research and design lab during my consultancy there in 2019

was obvious that many of the participants were surprised not to be required to take an active part in a group discussion and instead to remain silent throughout. I have found individual ideation to be a much more productive tool than group brainstorming for this type of work. As a result, I build it into my research approaches with almost missionary zeal. As well as giving participants time to think, it allows them the freedom to express their opinions regardless of the other people in the room – their idea is not shared with the group and therefore remains unjudged. This encourages every participant to contribute to the research regardless of their confidence or willingness to speak in front of others. Apart from one participant who only offered limited responses – sticky notes saying little more than ‘alright’, ‘not too bad’, ‘bad’, ‘good’ or ‘OK’ – everyone offered detailed responses and at the very least wrote why they thought a space was good, bad or indifferent. It was not all that surprising that some of the prototypes we were offering were misunderstood when presented as just one photograph (for example a prototype space which incorporated a repositioned shelving bay beside glass-screened group rooms to increase privacy and muffle noise). Nor was it surprising that some of the prototypes were deemed irrelevant to those taking part – each prototype was

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developed to meet different needs, not to be a space that worked for everyone. However, some comments helped us to reflect on the look and feel of the prototype spaces we had created, especially in the case of a silent working room that one person memorably and accurately described as looking like a room in a detention center (Figure 6.12). Many respondents focused on personal comfort as their primary criteria of space value and the fact that ‘effective’ library spaces whose layout, furniture and atmosphere successfully supported an extended stay. The staff present learned about problems with certain spaces that had never been reported before: the regular absence of chairs; desks being too small; study pods that felt too exposed. I wryly noted that some students were just as likely as staff to criticize inexpensive prototypes, which were intended to test function and value rather than look completely finished. Some participants focused on the color palettes of different spaces, responding with advice on interior design and the sort of colors that were conducive to different types of study. Several sticky notes offered surprising insights into how the library and its spaces are experienced and perceived. One respondent judged spaces on whether they might help her to make friends in the library. Another shared the many different types of working environments he required within one week, including spaces for talking and eating, group work and silent individual study; spaces in which he was alone, but not alone; and spaces that felt like home. Yet another participant judged spaces according to how open, inclusive and accessible

Figure 6.12 One of our prototype spaces that a Wolverhampton student described as ‘a room in a detention centre’

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they were. Altogether, the approach underlined just how unique each user was: apart from a core agreement on the importance of comfort, their requirements and perceptions were wide ranging. As enlightening as the session was, it felt as though it had skimmed over the surface of the problems and issues of different spaces and that a more indepth look was needed. This was immediately possible as one respondent agreed to stay behind to go through the photographs with a few of us in more detail. She actively sought this opportunity, clearly feeling that there was more for her to say than what had been possible within the group session. What followed was perhaps the most free-flowing 45 minutes of opinion, advice and ideas that I have ever witnessed from a student. I am convinced that the visual cues enabled her to share in such an open and detailed manner. It was also obvious that the process was cathartic for the student, helping her express issues and ideas that she had clearly been thinking about for some time.

Reflections on Photographic Methods for UX The encounter with the student described above was a useful reminder that successful research is all about tailoring the approach and the environment for each person you interact with. It also re-emphasized the value of an intimate, one-to-one approach in which the participant’s voice is elevated and actively listened to and they are encouraged to share as much as they can about their experience. This is the ideal default for photo elicitation and cognitive mapping. However, I also recognize that had the student above been given the floor in a group setting, we would not have gathered anything like the information we secured on the sticky notes in the group exercise. It is sometimes tempting for library staff researchers to want to structure the interview process by assigning an arbitrary interview duration time for all participants. However, their guesstimate is usually 10–20 minutes, which is often insufficient. I tell trainees that 45 minutes to an hour is an ideal time frame for research, but in fact the best time frame is ‘as long as they feel comfortable’ and this can be even longer than an hour. Obviously, it is not always possible to continue for an hour or more, but it is always my goal regardless. Using visual artifacts in research interviews can certainly extend the duration of the conversation. The rest is down to the researcher’s social and interpersonal skills more than anything else. Sometimes a focus on the mechanics of a research method prompts us to forget that how we carry ourselves has just as much, if not more, to do with the success of our encounters: the value of smiles and nods, the cultivation of a comfortable rapport, and the importance of seeking empathy and understanding with your subject.

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Harnessing Mobile Apps for Photographic Research Various smartphone apps have been developed for user research that attempt to key in to the ‘insta-culture’ of the times. A good example is dscout (https://dscout.com), which collects diary entries from research participants over time in order to gather contextual insights into user experiences. We used dscout on several occasions as part of the Futurelib Programme at Cambridge University, perhaps most effectively in a project titled Protolib II (Marshall, 2017), which sought to answer the question: How might we best design a suitable user-centered network of library spaces across the University? In that project, dscout was employed as part of a digital diary component with around 40 students. Every day for three weeks, participants logged on to dscout and recorded the kind of study activity they were engaged in, where they were conducting it, what they were trying to achieve and how they felt at the time. They were also asked to upload photos or videos to further clarify their diary entries. Although not all participants opted to share photos, those who did offered rich behavioral insight into their study preferences. They helped us understand daily and weekly routines; how distance between library and social environments contributed to the structure of their studies; and how some actively looked for inspiration and motivation in order to remain interested in their work. Their photographs also helped us recognize that, where possible, students base their choice of working environment on their intended activity, the intended length of their stay and their current level of well-being. Although dscout integrated successfully with student routines, we found it was still difficult to incentivize and encourage participants to take photographs for the purpose of library research. When students use Instagram, they are usually projecting a curated version of reality – one in which they are ‘living their best life’, to use a phrase in common parlance. But this is effectively the opposite of what we hope to derive from photo studies: honest insights and explorations of library and study experience. In order to supplement our research projects with student-created photo content, therefore, we cannot and should not hope to tap into the motivation people have to take photos for their social media channels. This is not to say we should not seek photos at all, but rather that we should be realistic that, as with any research method, recruitment and motivational challenges apply.

Conclusion In this chapter I highlighted some of the opportunities that visual research methods offer to researchers seeking to uncover user experience. They can help us understand emotions, explore worldviews and conceptions, discover

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what has meaning for service users (and non-users), forge connections between different ideas, and uncover an honesty that is not always accessible through other research routes. Visual methods also offer an opportunity for creativity, expression and fun, making user engagement in such activities more rewarding and recruitment more likely. They key into different parts of the brains of our research participants, accessing different information and perspectives than those gained through default verbal or written research methods. Finally, they produce compelling artifacts that may prove hugely valuable when arguing for changes to service delivery. While I would not argue that a visual research method is worth a thousand non-visual approaches, I would strongly encourage user researchers to explore the many opportunities and unique insights they can deliver.

References Andrews, P. (2019) What is Neuro-diversity? Plenary at the UX in Libraries Conference, Royal Holloway, University of London, http://uxlib.org/conference-reviews/. Appleton, L. (2016) User Experience (UX) in Libraries: Let’s Get Physical (and Digital), Insights, 29 (3), 224–27, http://doi.org/10.1629/uksg.317. Duke, L. and Asher, A. (eds) (2012) College Libraries and Student Culture: What We Now Know, Chicago: American Library Association. The ERIAL Project (2019) www.erialproject.org. Foster, N. F. and Gibbons, S. (2007) Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at University of Rochester, Chicago: American Library Association. Gaver, B., Dunne, T. and Pacenti, E. (1999) Cultural Probes, Interactions, 6 (1), 21–29. Haberl, V. and Wortman, B. (2012) Getting the Picture: Interviews and Photo Elicitation at Edmonton Public Library, LIBRES, 22 (2). Harper, D. (2002) Talking About Pictures: A Case for Photo Elicitation, Visual Studies, 17 (1), 13–26. Linz, S. (2015) Photo Elicitation: Enhancing Learning in the Affective Domain, Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 42 (9), 393–94. Marshall, D. (2017) Protolib II, Futurelib Innovation Programme, Cambridge University Library. Massis, B. (2018) The User Experience (UX) in Libraries, Information and Learning Sciences, 119 (3/4), 241–44. Priestner, A. (2015) UXLibs: A New Breed of Conference, CILIP Update, https://www.academia.edu/14203628/UXLibs_a_new_breed_of_conference. Priestner, A. (2017a) What’s in a Name? Does it Really Matter Whether We Call it UX, Ethnography, or Service Design?, Weave UX, 1 (6), http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/weave.12535642.0001.603.

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Priestner, A. (ed.) (2017b) The User Experience in Libraries Yearbook 2017, UX in Libraries. Priestner, A. (ed.) (2018) The User Experience in Libraries Yearbook 2018, UX in Libraries. Priestner, A. (2018–2019) Information Professional, various articles, CILIP, accessible by permission from CILIP at https://andypriestnertraining.com/uxarticles. Priestner, A. and Borg, M. (eds) (2016) User Experience in Libraries: Applying Ethnography and Human-Centred Design, London: Routledge. Priestner, A. and Marshall, D. (2016) Snapshot: A Cultural Probe Study Exploring the Research and Information Behaviour of Postdocs and PhD Students at the University of Cambridge, Futurelib Innovation Programme, Cambridge University Library. Priestner, A., Marshall, D. and Modern Human (2016) The Protolib Project: Researching and Reimagining Library Environments at the University of Cambridge, Futurelib Innovation Programme, Cambridge University Library, https://futurelib.files.wordpress.com/2016/07/the-protolib-project-finalreport.pdf. Schmidt, A. (2012–2016) Library Journal, various articles. Schmidt, A. and Etches, A. (2012) User Experience (UX) Design for Libraries, Chicago: American Library Association TechSource. Schmidt, A. and Etches, A. (2014) Useful, Usable, Desirable: Applying User Experience Design to Your Library, Chicago: American Library Association Editions. Tolman, E. (1948) Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men, The Psychological Review, 55 (4), 189–208. Zweizig, D. (1973) Predicting Amount of Library Use: An Empirical Study of the Role of the Public Library in the Life of the Adult Public, PhD thesis, Syracuse University.

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7

Digital Storytelling, Archival Research and ‘Layers of Practice’: A Critical Pedagogical Approach to Visual Literacy in University Archives and Special Collections Angela Fritz

Introduction With digital storytelling, special collections and university archives are turning their reading rooms into spaces that provide students with unique opportunities for exploration, with a special focus on understanding complex perspectives and re-contextualizing archival source material into new narratives. As special collection librarians and archivists integrate archival instruction into the university’s core curriculum, digital storytelling and visual literacy have become important tools to interpret visual materials and their ‘situated meanings’. Visual learning and the analysis of distinctive collections offer students the opportunity to hone their critical thinking skills by analysing embedded symbols of class, gender, race and political viewpoints which, in turn, can be used to evoke powerful stories and counternarratives. More specifically, archivists and librarians have found that incorporating visual archives into digital humanities course projects can be a powerful way to democratize the record and engage communities whose voices and perspectives might be otherwise silenced in the closed stacks of special collections and university archives. With this as context, this chapter will draw on theoretical foundations and approaches relating to visual content analysis in the context of archival research. It will outline how concepts of visual literacy can be applied to the study of graphic imagery within archival collections and visual data collected from primary research. Finally, this chapter will propose a visual research framework that incorporates elements of critical visual literacy, Penny Tinkler’s ‘layers of practice’ and digital storytelling.

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Visual Literacy: Working Definitions Today’s students create, consume and engage with visual images and media on an unprecedented basis. Because students live in a visual world and use graphic materials as a fundamental means to communicate, the definition of visual literacy has continually evolved. In order to support students’ need for visual analysis research, archival research methodologies have gained a greater significance in libraries’ information literacy programs (Garland, 2014, 314–15). Visual learning encompasses a broad net of associated skills, including image-related research skills, the ability to create visual presentations and the art of using visual evidence to craft persuasive arguments. In this context, academic libraries are fostering opportunities for students to develop visual literacy as a core set of competencies, as they engage in the study of graphic materials for their form, structure, symbols, cultural representation and political, social and cultural meanings. Within the rapidly expanding global information landscape, visual literacy refers to an individual’s ability to analyse, create and consume visual materials both in the classroom and through individual research. In this context, approaches to visual literacy are consistently evolving as librarians and archivists partner in supporting emerging literacies through course and research projects that focus on visual representations, critical evaluation, image creation, design aesthetics and media production skills. With the proliferation of born-digital visual materials, visual literacy is closely associated with rights and citation management and the ability to evaluate the reliability, authenticity and credibility of digital information. Furthermore, in recent years, participatory archiving, data visualization and crowdsourcing have offered new platforms for the creation, remixing, sharing and re-use of visual materials in collaborative environments. The Association of College & Research Libraries’ (ACRL’s) Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education defines visual literacy as ‘a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret, evaluate, use and create images and visual media’ (ALA, 2011). The standards state that visual literacy skills should equip a learner ‘to understand and analyze the contextual, cultural, ethical, aesthetic, intellectual and technical components involved in the production and use of visual materials’. In the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, a visually literate individual ‘is both a critical consumer of visual media and a competent contributor to a body of shared knowledge and culture’ (ALA, 2015). Hence, visual literacy may be taught in parallel to special collections and archival instruction in order to support the new digital skills required to negotiate the global information landscape. Digital visual literacy has become a powerful means to support student-centered, active learning within special

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collections and university archives. It encompasses a sharpened understanding of course themes, new interpretations of primary source materials, enhanced critical thinking and interpretive skills for research and learning, and a greater understanding and appreciation of primary source materials. Borrowing from tenets of communication theory, ‘visual rhetoric’ encompasses visual literacy and the ability to analyse and interpret images for their form and meaning. Visual rhetoric is a means of communication that uses images to create meaning, make an argument or persuade (Purdue Online Writing Lab, 2019). It is important to remember that archives and special collections house many types of visual materials including advertisements, illustrations, cartoons, drawings, social media, art, photographs, postcards, near-print and protest literature, websites and an array of graphic materials within text. Finally, the ‘visual rhetorical situation’ has close associations with visual literacy and it provides a useful conceptual model to analyse graphic and moving image materials. It refers to the idea that visual materials are produced by people in particular situations for particular goals or purposes and visual archives should therefore be analysed and interpreted with these needs and contexts in mind (Purdue Online Writing Lab, 2019).

Standards and Pedagogical Models for Visual Literacy and Research The ACRL created its visual literacy competency standards in 2011 to address society’s increased access, production and use of images. The standards provide a framework for competencies, skill development and learning outcomes to critically engage students in an academic environment and they may be read in parallel with the Association’s Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education (Garland, 2014, 314). Additionally, the visual literacy standards describe interdisciplinary performance indicators and learning outcomes associated with digital scholarship in both a classroom setting and individual research projects. The ACRL defines a visually literate individual as one who is able to: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

determine the nature and extent of the visual materials needed find and access needed images and visual media effectively and efficiently interpret and analyse the meanings of images and visual media evaluate images and their sources use images and visual media effectively

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design and create meaningful images and visual media understand many of the ethical, legal, social and economic issues surrounding the creation and use of images and visual media, and access and use visual materials ethically (ALA, 2011).

These standards are fundamental for developing the necessary literacy skills for analysing visual research. Finding or creating images, evaluating sources and using images ethically are all skills aligned with traditional information literacy goals. They also serve a critical need to evaluate and interpret visual source material in the expansive digital information landscape (Hattwig et al., 2013, 62). With changes in digital media, information technologies and social media engagement, the ACRL’s standards encompass an evolving interdisciplinary skill set that sharpens students’ research methods and approaches to visual interpretation, including the ability to ascertain authentic images, analyse the quality of images, interpret and contextualize images, create associated descriptive metadata and navigate rights management and reproduction permissions (Hattwig et al., 2013, 68).

Literature Review Although the ACRL’s visual literacy standards were formalized in 2011, the historical roots of visual literacy emanated from an educational movement in the 1960s as changes in media technologies created a need for students to understand the use and power of images. By the 1970s, as experts from a variety of disciplines recognized that American culture was increasingly likely to be ‘reflected in, captured by, or represented by visual media’, the idea of visual literacy became a core component of academic curricula (Kaplan and Mifflin, 1996, 110). In the past decade, definitions of visual literacy have undergone shifts, reflecting changes in technology, increasing interdisciplinary image use and the growing importance of visual media in contemporary culture, particularly as a political communication tool. Despite the evolving nature of the definition, the visual culture movement has consistently focused on visual messages, cues or codes and a distinct representative visual language that is powerful, pervasive and persuasive (Hattwig et al., 2013, 63). By the later 20th century, visual literacy began to be seen as an important documentary source for emerging areas of study like women’s history, gender and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBTQ) studies and African American studies. Special collections and university archives began to dedicate distinct collecting areas for visual documentary heritage with the

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goal of capturing, preserving and providing access to visual and graphic documentation of experiences, subjects and events that were often underrepresented or non-existent in the written record. As visual materials became more prevalent in academic libraries’ distinctive collections, ‘critical visual literacy’ expanded beyond communication studies and became a significant component of the core academic curriculum. Critical visual literacy draws on critical theory and critical pedagogy to highlight the deconstruction of images as a means of empowerment, liberation and social justice, especially among under-represented and marginalized communities (Yang, 2014). Responding to the technological, political and economic dynamics that transform communication infrastructures, the practice of critical literacy encourages students to examine multiple perspectives and ask questions relating to representation, marginalization and point of view. In this sense, critical visual literacy ‘is the ability to investigate the social, cultural and economic contexts of visual texts in order to unearth the power relationships in society’ (Yang, 2014). This theory empowers students to appreciate the aesthetic qualities of visual texts and also analyse them as sites of ideological struggle. As Lai-Fen Yang writes, ‘critical visual literacy positions students as “active agents” in examining different forms of visual culture in the process of deconstructing texts and using their creative voices to promote an equal, democratic society’. Critical visual readers are those ‘who observe texts carefully and analytically; decoding ideas, intentions, points of view and biases, placing them in sociopolitical contexts; and ultimately creating their own texts’ in the form of counter-narratives (Yang, 2014). In the context of special collections and archives instruction, critical visual literacy is a concept that requires students to draw on real-world knowledge and lived experiences to examine socially constructed visual texts, critically reflecting on their methods of media consumption and analysis. This approach challenges students to deconstruct and make sense of historical and contemporary images within their own information landscape (Yang, 2014). A fundamental aspect of emerging literacies includes the analysis of how digital visual culture ‘is shaped, created and embedded with specific values and points of view’ (Hattwig et al., 2013, 63). Special collections librarians and archivists have long been proponents of integrating critical visual literacy into their field of research. In 1996, Kaplan and Mifflin presented a pedagogical model based on ‘levels of visual awareness’ that set forward a theoretical approach for ‘reading’ visual archives. Kaplan and Mifflin made the case that visual literacy is essential to contextualizing and using historical images and understanding ‘the complex ways in which visual and “traditional” documents are interrelated’. From the perspective of archival educators, ‘levels of visual awareness’ includes the

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ability to recognize and interpret symbols, organization, ambiguity, space, sequence, movement, point of view and historical context in archival collections (Kaplan and Mifflin, 1996, 119). In 2011, Conway and Punzalan offered an archival perspective on the user experience of finding meaning in digitized visual archives. In ‘Fields of Vision’, they offer a multifaceted theory of visual meaning that encompasses ‘discovery’, ‘storytelling’ and ‘landscaping’ as modes of analysis. The framework for ‘fields of vision’ illustrates how students ‘extract visual meaning’ and interpret digitized archival photos through ‘context-dependent’ and ‘context-sensitive evaluation techniques’ (Conway and Punzalan, 2011, 65). The authors focus on ‘digital materiality’, examining how users interact with archival images and how archival mediation and digital remediation affect the understanding and use of archival images. The authors offer the caveat that visual awareness of digitized images for research purposes should include a heightened sensitivity to any visual manipulation that might distort the authenticity and integrity of the original analog artifact. Overall, the authors found that ‘digital surrogacy’ expands students’ ‘fields of vision’ by enabling them to find, create and articulate new levels of visual meaning in the ‘informational and evidential properties of the visual record’ (Conway and Punzalan, 2011, 67–69, 96).

Archival Research, Digital Scholarship and Visual Literacy Where once special collections and university archives were marginalized from undergraduate education, today they are seen as an extension of the classroom. To accommodate this new vision, special collections and university archives are shifting away from a traditional service orientation – based on transactional encounters and librarian- or archivist-led instruction sessions – and instead embracing instructional programs and learning partnerships defined by collaborations, curriculum development and individual research projects. In this context, emerging literacies and participatory approaches to instructional services are critical to ensuring successful outcomes for a new generation of researchers. With the rise of digital archives, digital scholarship and new instructional models, special collections librarians and archivists have the capacity to transform research experiences by integrating visual literacies methodologies in impactful ways. The new generation of students, Generation Z or the iGeneration, has had access to more technology than any previous generation. They are nearconstant users of technology and often measure their expectations and research processes in number of clicks instead of quality of information. This generation of students is so transformational that library administrators are

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rethinking and reconfiguring the structure of library services and spaces to accommodate interactive and immersive approaches to teaching and learning. This generation of learners is: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

responsive to experiential learning open to active, participatory and collaborative learning compelled by visual learning responsive to reflective writing and evaluation open to peer or near-peer models of mentorship responsive to teaching opportunities that incorporate innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship (Wineburg, 2018, 26).

Librarians and archivists are therefore adopting new strategies to ‘meet students where they are at’ by developing fluency in digital, data, visual and cultural literacies. By aligning with digital humanities labs, learning commons and technology hubs, which are often located in academic libraries, staff in special collections and university archives are poised to reconceptualize research programs, collaborating more fully with faculty to incorporate distinctive collections, digital scholarship and digital projects into course instruction as well as specialized research projects. In this way, research in special collections becomes an ongoing conversation between faculty, students, archivists, special collections librarians and subject librarians. Part of university archives and special collections’ role includes supporting and providing different platforms where those conversations can take place.

Digital Storytelling and ‘Layers of Practice’ As a pedagogical tool, digital storytelling can draw on and generate new forms of research and expand our understanding of emerging literacies. In The New Digital Storytelling, Bryan Alexander defines digital storytelling as ‘a sequence of content, anchored on a problem, which engages that audience with emotion and meaning’. Alexander writes that ‘being able to determine a sequence or significant extension in time’ distinguishes ‘a story from a data point or anecdote’ (2017, 27). Although a timeline of a story need not be linear or map directly onto the timeline of what it describes, Alexander puts forth a helpful framework for defining digital stories, which encompasses the following parts: ■ ■ ■

compelling narration a meaningful context for understanding the story being told images to capture and/or expand on emotions found in the narrative

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multiple media to reinforce ideas thoughtful reflection from the audience (2017, 27).

In the context of visual literacy as a pedagogical method, digital storytelling is the process of incorporating analytical scholarly investigation with creative storytelling via the use of multimedia tools. Digital storytelling empowers students to be central in knowledge production while supporting librarians and archivists as they expand teaching and research opportunities for the next generation of students. Digital storytelling signals the transformation of archivists and special collection librarians – from gatekeepers of non-circulating collections to facilitators of active learning – by offering avenues for exploration and discovery through collaborative digital scholarship and research. To some degree, all digital storytelling involves remixing. In the case of visual archives, analog visual collections are digitized, remixed, remediated into new knowledge and curated in new ways to present, understand and contextualize archival materials. Central to remixing archival materials is the ability to contextualize the original use or provenance of a visual artifact with a new interpretation. In Using Photographs in Social and Historical Research, Penny Tinkler writes that an important aspect of working with visual materials is thinking about the collection’s provenance. This archival principle refers to the origins, ownership and/or custody of any item or collection housed in an archive. This information can shed light on an artifact’s significance and value as documentary evidence. This related information, often found outside of the literal depiction, may have the most important implications for interpretation. This framework, which is based on content and contextual analysis, builds on what Tinkler refers to as ‘layers of practice’ (2013, 101). Additionally, visits to special collections and archives offer opportunities to review the research approaches that build these layers and to deconstruct ‘visual semantics’ or the way the ‘images relate more broadly to the issues in the world to gain meaning’. Tinkler writes that ‘there is a tendency to assume the value of photos lies in what they depict, but much can be learned from photographic practices, that is how and why photos are made, presented, used, circulated, stored and reused in particular social and historical contexts and what these practices mean to the people and institutions involved’ (2013, 108). Tinkler’s ‘layers of practice’ relate to ‘reading’ images and visual media, which includes pictorial, graphic, technical and design comments on visual works. Tinkler reminds her readers that, in many ways, what has been omitted from an image can be just as important as what has been included and choices made during image production to construct meaning or influence interpretation should also be explored. Additionally, students should

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consider how meaning may have changed over time, how new contexts create new meaning for images and how distinct point of views or other persuasive elements may embed bias messages in all graphic materials (2013, 47). Central to understanding Tinkler’s ‘layers of practice’ is understanding the mission, scope and practices of an archive or special collection. Understanding collection management approaches is equally important because the context, original use, interrelatedness and meaning of graphic collections are often lost when transferred to an archive. Archives can impose new interpretations, descriptions, contextualization and reorganization, all of which may change how photographs are interpreted and understood. Moreover, understanding photographic production processes is helpful in piecing together negatives, outtakes and unedited graphic material that, in turn, may offer a different perspective of a visual product than if it had been viewed in isolation. Camera originals, still photos and B-roll allow researchers to see the processes by which editorial choices are made, allowing a far richer understanding of the perspectives and uses of the visual record (Tinkler, 2013, 106). In many ways, Tinkler’s framework provides a useful pedagogical model that can be used in visual research and digital storytelling. For archives and special collections, digital storytelling has provided expanded opportunities for ‘building layers of practice’ in a digital context that offers compelling ways to transform and revitalize analog archival research. Digital storytelling uses content and format knowledge, research and critical visual analysis, and technical expertise to compose and produce a layered storyline. Effective visual research begins with a clear strategy for working with graphic collections in archives and special collections and Tinkler’s ‘layers of practice’ offers a useful framework when thinking about visual analysis as a research methodology.

Layers of Practice of Visual Analysis The goal of visual analysis is to demonstrate an understanding of how a visual artifact communicates its message(s) and meaning(s). Understanding the different layers of practice can offer insights into the visual components and narrative strategies of a visual artifact. In addition to highlighting historical context and enhancing observation and interpretive skills, visual analysis helps define strategies to read the varied, complex meanings of any visual artifact. One way to approach this research process is to break visual analysis down into parts. Visual research begins with an analysis of the actual artifact, drawing on visual content and textual context available inside and outside of the artifact. Closely associated with visual analysis is an understanding of core principles of information literacy, including an analysis of information resources and

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search strategies to expand and contextualize content analysis and interpretation. To build out digital storylines, researchers can use ‘layers of practice’ to read images and define cultural perspectives of visual analysis. Additionally, archivists and librarians can easily integrate visual analysis into curriculum design and learning objectives aligned with the ACRL’s Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. Layers of practice of visual analysis should be closely tied to the following learning outcomes: ■ ■ ■ ■

understanding the basic rhetorical use of visual media interpreting and analysing the meanings of images and visual media evaluating images and their sources understanding the ethical, legal, social and political issues surrounding the creation and use of images and visual media.

With these learning outcomes in mind, layers of practice are linked to distinct components or levels of analysis. The basic layers include descriptive analysis, content analysis, context analysis and interpretation. Keeping in mind Tinkler’s framework, outside research should be conducted throughout the process of visual analysis in order to move from a literal description towards content and contextual analysis of the visual artifact.

Descriptive Analysis The first layer of practice is descriptive analysis and comprises a literal examination based solely on information within the visual artifact. Descriptive analysis requires noting distinctive features and seeing without value judgment. Content representation, associated descriptive metadata and readily apparent content, subjects or themes are the three main subcomponents of descriptive analysis. These sub-components offer a foundation for deeper analysis and future storytelling. For this layer, it is important to describe the image without interpreting it, instead focusing on the prominent visual elements and messages that serve as a springboard for further analysis.

Descriptive Layer 1: What Do You See? A visual scan of the artifact provides a good starting point for initial analysis. Descriptive analysis begins with an inventory of those visual elements that are obvious or easily perceived by focusing on content and subject matter. An initial inventory can expand into a list of keywords associated with a topic, including related terms, spelling variations and broad and narrow terms for the topics and visual elements that will aid later contextual analysis.

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Descriptive Layer 2: What Do You Know? The second descriptive sub-component entails collecting facts and information that is either associated or embedded within the visual artifact. Metadata and descriptive information like captions provide an added layer of meaning to any visual artifact. At this stage, descriptive analysis focuses on basic information relating to the ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’ and ‘where’. Descriptive metadata and related captions may include the title of the work; descriptive fields; the creation date of the artifact; related subjects; the format genre; the creator, author or image producer; the geographic location or setting; and critical identification and descriptions of people, objects and events represented in the visual artifact. During this phase it is important to consider how descriptive information influences the meaning of the visual artifact, how information revealed at this layer makes one view the image differently and how the associated metadata adds layered meaning or significance to the image. This informational scan provides an additional opportunity to build out notes with associated facts, which will guide content and contextual analysis.

Descriptive Layer 3: What Do You Observe? The final sub-component of descriptive analysis asks the researcher to combine the initial visual scan and descriptive information with an observational perspective. Observation requires the researcher to focus on the visual qualities of the piece and expand on the literal subject matter by observing iconographic, historical, allegoric or mythological elements or symbols. In engaging in the ‘aboutness’ of the artifact, observation is intentional in addressing the purpose of the visual artifact and the message, tone and emotion that may be evoked or conveyed. Building on the descriptive analysis of the visual artifact, it is also important for researchers to note the center of interest and any abstract elements within the artifact. After analysing the visual item based on what is known about the artifact and any apparent details, it becomes easier to identify concepts, subjects, topics and/or themes that build on notes to provide a descriptive overview.

Content Analysis The second layer of the visual analysis framework is content analysis, a more focused examination of the artifact in order to understand how visual meaning is conveyed. At this stage, the framework turns to perspective, function, impressions and production and design elements – all of which may not be readily discernable but on closer analysis convey meaning. Content analysis involves a close reading of the artifact to discover layers of content

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below what is readily identifiable. Most often, content analysis requires analysing content identified at the descriptive stage together with background research outside of the visual artifact. It allows researchers to further explore format genre, design and production features, audience, perspective or point of view and any special features of the artifact. In most instances, content analysis begins with additional research on important people, dates, groups, organizations and events collected during the descriptive analysis phase. Content analysis expands the descriptive analysis inventory by filling in the ‘how’ and ‘why’.

Content Analysis Layer 4: What Is the Purpose? This layer begins by exploring why the artifact was created and deconstructing its intended purpose and its subsequent use. Identifying the format genre, the image creator and if it was published for a mass or select group can all illuminate the purpose and audience for the visual artifact. More than what appears in the image, questions of purpose, intended use and audience relate to what an image creator or producer wants viewers or consumers of the visual artifact to see, which provides a deeper layer to the story.

Content Analysis Layer 5: What Is the Overall Tone? What Are the Identifiable Elements That Contribute to the Tone? What Feelings, Moods or Thoughts Does This Work Evoke? How Are These Thoughts or Emotions Conveyed? This sub-component of content analysis requires researchers to examine people, places and events with a special focus on: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

facial expressions body language relationships activity and movement objects location, backdrop and/or setting.

The primary focus of content analysis encompasses an investigation of latent content that may be conveyed through body positioning or language; interactions and space between people; a sense of static, subtle or energetic movement; attire and physical appearance; and the surroundings, background and the presence of objects and symbols that convey the state of mind, emotions, tone and differences and commonalities among the subjects of the visual artifact.

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Content Analysis Layer 6: What Is Revealed by Analysing the Design Elements of This Work? Image producers make certain decisions on how images are composed, designed and produced which is why it is important to note: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

camera angles lighting and color editing: whether the subject content is posed or improvisational symbols whether text is used in the visual artifact and if so how it is used whether the visual artifact is a response, part of a sequence, or stands on its own.

Production design reflects intentional decisions on the basis of a series of points throughout the design or production process which can be linked to emotional effects, symbolic or metaphoric representation or other expressive elements. Production, editing, lighting and angle shots can affect the style of the piece; influence meaning; evoke emotion; and/or convey ideas, scale or significance.

Content Analysis Layer 7: Based on Content Analysis, What Is the Perspective or Point of View Conveyed? The last sub-component of content analysis requires researchers to put together purpose, use, audience, producer or creator, tone, and design and production elements to assess the point of view of the piece. Point of view embodies how one views or experiences an event or moment in history. It is important to note that visual source material can document different perspectives and tell different versions of the same event.

Contextual Analysis In general, contextual analysis requires a careful and sequential approach to the development of analytical thinking and observational skills. In most cases, it relies on a close reading of the visual artifact based on information outside the visual artifact. Contextual analysis is reliant on both secondary and primary sources that allow researchers to interpret visual artifacts within their original historical and cultural setting. Visual artifacts provide documentary evidence and help solidify cultural and personal memory; however, researchers almost always construct and interpret their meaning by looking beyond them. Newspapers, correspondence, diaries and autobiographies can

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illuminate the context and offer a window to the underlying narrative of the artifact.

Contextual Analysis Layer 8: What Major Events Were Happening in the World When This Visual Artifact Was Created? By asking oneself how an image reflects a moment in time, contextual analysis can set the stage for a broader conceptualization of the meaning and relevance of the visual artifact. Background research illuminates the evidence that the visual artifact reveals.

Contextual Analysis Layer 9: How Does the Visual Source Reflect Broader Aspects of Political, Economic, Social, Cultural or Intellectual Development in the Era in Which It Was Created? Are Values Being Expressed? Does the Image Reveal Perspectives on Racial, Cultural, Gender, Social, Economic and/or National or Geographical Identity? What Was Left Out of the Artifact? Researchers should be able to situate an image in a social, cultural or historical context by identifying information relevant to its meaning and considering the social, political, racial and/or gendered context of the image. Visual analysis should encourage close attention not only to an image’s production and circulation but also to the response of the contemporary audience. Contextual analysis encompasses broad consideration of the social and political beliefs and cultural practices that give rise to the creation and dissemination of the visual artifact as well as the influence of the image creator and/or producer. In addition, it is just as important to consider what is left out of a visual artifact. For image producers, there is always a conscious decision to focus on some things and leave other things out. Understanding what is left out affects the representation, perspective and meaning of the visual artifact.

Contextual Analysis Layer 10: Based on Contextual Analysis, What Are the Biases? Different from perspective or point of view, bias is an intentional use of visual production to present a one-sided description or representation of an event or person. Researchers can identify bias by analysing outside sources or background research on the event and subject the source creator or image producer. Contextual analysis can reveal inaccuracies in the documentation of an event, distortions of history, one-sided perspectives or a sweeping stereotype.

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Interpretation Interpretative Analysis: Based on Descriptive, Content and Contextual Analysis, Does the Artifact Have a Narrative and Tell a Story? If So, What Is It? And What Evidence Inside or Outside the Artifact Supports This Interpretation? The answers to these questions should bring together a synthesis of the descriptive, content and contextual analysis. Interpretive work goes beyond materiality of the visual artifact to consider all the layers of practice that relate to research analysis in order to formulate a narrative of the visual meaning and significance.

Conclusion Along the way, visual literacy asks researchers to explore the layered meanings of any visual artifact, which may include historical, aesthetic, cultural, editorial and political contexts as well as production elements such as focal point, background, perspective and intended audience. As a framework, ‘layers of practice’ of visual literacy has significant research value because students practice transferable skills and diversify their skill set, expanding their roles as researchers and storytellers as they engage in an ongoing conversation that encompasses interdisciplinary collaboration, digital storytelling and research innovation through the lens of visual materials housed in special collections and university archives.

References ALA (2011) Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, Association of College & Research Librarians, American Library Association, www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy. ALA (2015) Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, Association of College & Research Librarians, American Library Association, www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework. Alexander, B. (2017) The New Digital Storytelling: Creating Narratives with New Media, Santa Barbara: Praeger. Conway, P. and Punzalan, R. (2011) Fields of Vision: Toward a New Theory of Visual Literacy for Digitized Archival Photographs, Archivaria, 71, 63–97. Garland, J. (2014) Locating Traces of Hidden Visual Culture in Rare Books and Special Collections: A Case Study in Visual Literacy, Art Documentation of the Art Libraries Society of North America, 33 (2), 313–26. Hattwig, D., Bussert, K., Medaille, A. and Burgess, J. (2013) Visual Literacy Standards in Higher Education: New Opportunities for Libraries and Student Learning, Libraries and the Academy, 3 (1), 61–89.

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Kaplan, E. and Mifflin, J. (1996) Mind and Sight: Visual Literacy and the Archivist, Archival Issues, 21 (2), 107–27. Purdue Online Writing Lab (2019) Visual Rhetoric: Overview, Purdue University, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/visual_rhetoric/visual_rhetoric/ index.html. Tinkler, P. (2013) Using Photographs in Social and Historical Research, Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. Wineburg, S. (2018) Why Learn History (When It’s Already on Your Phone), Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Yang, L. (2014) The Contemporary Visual Spectacle-Critical Visual Literacy, International Journal of Education and Pedagogical Sciences, 8 (6), 1971–5.

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8

Navigating the Thresholds of Information Spaces: Drawing and Performance in Action Rebecca Noone

Introduction The sense of being truly lost in a city is becoming unfamiliar with the advent of locative media. The comedic character tropes of hopeless navigation – the lost tourist wrestling with an oversized fold-out map in the middle of a busy city or the lost motorist who has made a wrong turn but insists they know where they are going – seem to have less purchase in the contemporary imaginary of space, or at least wayfinding. Now, carrying their phone, the self-sufficient navigator can always find the way, accessing information and becoming aware of their location pre-emptively or on the spot. But this spatial information is itself situated within a complicated environment of information access, with the mobile digital map, specifically Google Maps, becoming almost synonymous with contemporary wayfinding practices. Over 1 billion people per month use Google Maps (Edwards, 2016) and Google estimates that one in three mobile searches in Google’s search engine are location related, with that number expected to grow (Kalmanowicz, 2017). Therefore, the question of wayfinding in a world of digital maps is an important topic in information studies: the relations between space and information become entangled with questions of mobility and location, as well as the politics of information ownership and control. My research explores how wayfinding through the spaces of cities is visualized in an age of pervasive and proprietary digital mapping platforms. There are many social, political and personal factors that affect the visualization of space and these factors challenge the very idea that space can be conceived as a simple surface (Massey, 1994, 2005) – or that it can be visually or verbally rendered in a way that accounts for the complexity of

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how space is constructed and experienced (Harvey, 2001; Harvey, Kwan and Pavlovskaya, 2005). This chapter presents an overview of an arts-based research project that brings together drawing and performance-based methods as a means to capture visual forms of wayfinding specifically related to getting around cities. While walking through Toronto (Canada), New York (US), London (UK) and Amsterdam (the Netherlands), I approached passers-by, asking for directions to nearby sites. I requested the helpful passer-by to draw these directions with a piece of paper and a pen I had in tow. I based my selection of these four cities on their population density and street design, and my personal histories with these spaces. I started with Toronto, the city I grew up in and in which I research. Amsterdam was a necessary selection in order to maintain a line of connection to Stanley Brouwn, whose work conceptually frames the data collection process. Between Toronto and Amsterdam, I had one orthogonal city and one non-orthogonal city. From there, I selected two cities that also existed on these poles of street layout, and which had similar population densities to one another: New York, specifically Manhattan, and London, specifically Central London. In Toronto, New York and London, I spoke the primary language of the area: English. I also spoke English to informants in Amsterdam, where the primary language is not English but Dutch. I decided to speak in English because 90% of the population of the Netherlands is conversant in English (European Commission, 2012). The encounters took place in predetermined sites with set destinations, many on the thresholds of traditional public information spaces such as a library and museum, as well as everyday information spaces such as a public square, a train station and pathways of a public park. The spontaneous, on-the-ground drawing event generates a rich visual and textual dataset that captures everyday strategies of navigation, orientation and spatial representation in an age of digital mapping. The figures throughout this chapter show examples of the data I collected in Toronto (Figure 8.1 opposite), London (Figure 8.2), Amsterdam (Figure 8.3) and New York (Figure 8.4). For the purpose of this chapter, given the limitations of space, I selected drawings that I found particularly striking or for which the related encounter stood out in my memory. So far there has been little research, particularly in the literature of information behavior or information practice, into how proprietary platforms of spatial information work in the world. My work situates the digital map as a concern of information studies because of its mediation of urban space through proprietary platforms of search. My objective with this study is not to make a general claim about how space is visualized. Instead, my work questions our expectations of digital platforms

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Figure 8.1 Route directions collected in Toronto, fall 2017; from left to right: directions from the Toronto Reference Library to City Hall; from Kensington Market to Trinity Bellwoods Park; from Queen’s Park to Kensington Market; from City Hall to the Toronto Reference Library; from the Distillery District to St. Lawrence Market; from Toronto Reference Library to City Hall

in way making through a city and investigates the expression of these expectations in the process of giving directions and drawing route maps. I consider the mutual production of spatial perceptions and spatial representations that happen in the moment of wayfinding and way making in a context of pervasive computing and mobile communication. A brief road map of the journey ahead: I start with a conceptual art project and my translation of this work to an arts-based research project in information studies. From there, I review the research precedents and theoretical considerations frame my research design and commitments. I then move to the city street, with a description of the wayfinding encounter, including a description of how I collected data and the important ethical considerations I consider. Finally, I look at my process of analysis of the visual and textual data collected during the encounter. I reflect on some of the research findings and the residual questions they raise.

Background and Field Guide I entered library and information studies as an artist whose practice is largely conceptual and this continues to inform my research. As such, the ‘artness’ of my current performance- and drawing-based research project can be

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difficult to place within a traditional reading of art because it is not a traditional painting, theatrical performance or photograph. Instead, my arts-based research takes the form of an intervention based on a reimagining and repurposing of the artwork ‘this way brouwn’ (1960s) by conceptual artist Stanley Brouwn. In this work, Brouwn walked the streets of Amsterdam, carrying with him blank pieces of paper and a pen. Along his way, he approached other pedestrians and asked them for directions to nearby sites such as Dam Square or City Hall, offering them a piece of paper and a pen with which to draw their spatial instructions. Brouwn performed this action over and over, quietly collecting simple line drawings that denoted routes through Amsterdam. Brouwn stamped each drawing he collected with the eponymous mark ‘this way brouwn’. He included those pieces of paper left blank because people refused to draw or, in some cases, did not know the way. On the drawings, one can see entangled series of lines, nodes, arrows, boxes, incomprehensible scratches and ‘x’s to mark the spot that notated the prescribed routes. Brouwn compiled many subjective renderings of space in 1960s Amsterdam, as imagined through a series of spontaneous exchanges (Brouwn, 1961). Art writer and curator Claire Lehmann concludes that Brouwn’s work comprises a set of ‘quiet actions that are not necessarily legible as art to an onlooker’ (2017, 55) but that point to a mediated experience of the city, ‘thereby creating work that is at once about displacement but also about the human-centred experience of our surround’ (2017, 60). Following Lehmann’s interpretation of Brouwn’s work, I argue that the interruptive actions of ‘this way brouwn’ imaginatively highlight the processes of locating oneself in space, navigating the city’s many routes, recalling that navigation and communicating that navigation to a stranger. The encounters reveal behaviors of wayfinding, as well as the visual information people use, present and represent when describing how to get from A to B in an information-rich urban environment.

Translations and Frameworks Brouwn’s work shows the potential of performance-based, street level interventions to tease out sensory – especially visual – interpretations of wayfinding in urban environments brimming with information and intelligences. Brouwn used ad hoc visualization and street level intervention to capture representations of space in that moment of helpful exchange. But what would Brouwn’s encounter look like amid the pervasive affordances of digital mapping technologies? I reperformed a variation of ‘this way brouwn’, adapted to contemporary conditions of wayfinding, first as an art project and as part of my doctoral research.

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Initially I walked the streets of a neighborhood in east Toronto as part of the Art of the Danforth Festival in spring 2014, collecting 70 drawings of directions. I performed the task again in St. Louis, Missouri, collecting 50 maps in the winter of 2015 as part of a residency at the Luminary Gallery. Then, in September 2015, as part of an alternative session at the Fourth International Visual Methods Conference in Brighton, UK, I collected another 60 drawings. These instances of spontaneous drawing disclose a set of intelligences of a city: the secret shortcuts, reoriented perspectives, disregarded scales and traced memories that constitute urban space. I compiled these drawings and turned them into books and maps that I gave away for free and left in galleries (Noone, 2014, 2015a, 2015b). My early restaging of Brouwn’s work served as a pilot project that frames and informs the perceptual and aesthetic possibilities of art to elicit visualizations of everyday information – specifically, the perception and representation of space. In fall 2017, I began a reperformance of the project that carried into early summer 2019, this time as an arts-based method of research in information studies. The project became a means to investigate how digital maps ‘work in the world’ (Vertesi, 2012). In the streets of Toronto, New York, London and Amsterdam, I asked passers-by for directions to nearby sites and prompted informants to draw their directions. The spontaneously produced drawings and accompanying ad hoc verbal instructions became a means to study how wayfinding information is enacted and represented at street level. My method of street level intervention to gather spontaneously produced drawings of directions, initially inspired by Brouwn, was further informed by empirical precedents in balancing intervention and visualization set by Kevin Lynch (1960) in urban studies, Janet Vertesi (2012) in science and technologies studies, and Lee and Tversky (2005) in cognitive psychology. On-the-ground strategies used to navigate the urban environment provided a lens for observing forms of location awareness and spatial perceptions in conditions of proprietary digital mapping platforms. Kevin Lynch’s The Image of the City, published in 1960, was the culmination of a five-year study in which Lynch and his research assistants approached whom they call ‘citizens’ and asked them to draw maps of where they lived. The research took place in Boston, New Jersey and Los Angeles. Lynch and his research team approached ‘citizens’ with the questions: ‘How do I get to ____?’ ‘How will I know when I am there?’ ‘How long will it take me to walk there?’ Lynch supplemented these initial findings with a series of on-the-street interviews and the drawing of mental maps in the controlled space of a university lab. In the lab-based drawings, Lynch and his research team conducted extended interviews in which participants spoke about the map

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they drew, the choices they made in drawing the map, their interpretation of space and how it could be imagined. Lynch was interested in studying what he called the ‘imageability’ of the city. For Lynch, the imageability was ‘the visual quality’ or the ‘legibility’ of a city as held in ‘the mental image’ of the people who lived there (1960, 2). It is the formal qualities that allow a city to be read or constitute its imageability: the paths, the edges, the districts, the nodes and the landmarks as found in the mental maps he and his research team collected. Vertesi (2012) uses Lynch’s model of asking for directions in her research on mapping and representations. Vertesi starts from the premise that visual systems like the iconic London Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, became interpreted as the real rather than the represented. In London, Vertesi investigated how the dominance of the image of the London Underground map, depicting the network of below-the-surface pathways, informs how Londoners visualize the city above ground. Vertesi observed how these stable representations guide people’s interactions with their environment and inform how they represent the city. To gather data, Vertesi asked people she encountered in London for directions and asked them to draw these directions. She found that the London Tube map often informed how people visualized movement through space and above ground, even if they were not taking the Tube. Vertesi’s study explores how dominant spatial inscriptions work in everyday contexts among citizens of London, such as shop owners, pedestrians and transportation workers. Vertesi’s method of inquiry used the practical application of drawing directions, supplemented by interviews. The drawings became a means by which people spoke about the directions they provided and their inclusion and exclusion of objects and representations. Their drawings also speak to the act of representation itself as a highly personal and subjective experience with meaning that is not necessarily apparent to the researcher or inherent to the drawing itself, but rather contingent on a multiplicity of factors outside the drawing. In cognitive psychology, Tversky (1993, 2003a, 2003b) and Lee and Tversky (2005) have studied the relationship among the spatial, the visual and the pictorial. Lee and Tversky observed how people record spatial perception when asked to draw their immediate environment spontaneously. They approached students on the Stanford University campus and asked for directions to a local takeout restaurant. Students drew directions, which were analysed for their pictorial and graphical content. Then Lee and Tversky constructed a series of lab-based tests with students to interpret the routes and compare language-based and drawing-based directions. Using these drawings, Tversky (2011) set a typology of spractions – spatial-abstractionaction-interconnections – that capture the visual language. Tversky claims

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that unlike written language, spractions use properties of the page – such as proximity, placement and marks or graphics like dots, lines, arrows, boxes – to schematize spatial perception. The work of Lynch, Vertesi and Tversky provide empirical framing for what is ultimately an arts-based research project, making art legible within the social sciences and the study of information. I have noted how the handdrawn or route map has been used as a tool to capture visual spatial projections. It has precedents in methodological and analytical frameworks in the domains of art (Brouwn, 1961), cognitive science (Lee and Tversky, 2005), science and technology studies (Vertesi, 2012) and urban planning (Lynch, 1960). These studies have collected route maps as a participatory drawing practice, studied the salience of characteristics found in route direction, compared the usability of different mapping styles and studied individual perceptions of urban space, the mediation of spatial perception and information behaviors and practices of wayfinding. These projects applied the ideas of wayfinding and visual research in urban studies, sociology and cognitive science. Wayfinding and drawing-based research have also been a recent concern in information studies. Wayfinding studies in library and information science (LIS) (Li and Klippel, 2012; Mandel, 2012, 2013, 2018) have largely focused on practices of getting around a library and accessing information and services within a library setting. Hartel and Snyder used the ad hoc drawing (Hartel, 2014a, 2014b; Hartel et al., 2018; Snyder, 2012, 2014). Hartel asked graduate students to draw the concept of ‘information’ in order to see how contemporary graduate students in LIS respond to the ontological question ‘What is information?’, recording a wide variety of responses to that prompt, eliciting new forms of answering a perennial question in information studies. Snyder has studied how spontaneously produced drawings are used to facilitate communication, coordinate understanding and summarize information that may be hard to put into words (2012, 2014). Snyder found that over the course of a conversational problem-solving exercise the participants made ad hoc drawings, or what Snyder called ‘information artefacts’ that served to enhance communication through processes of what Snyder calls ‘verification’ and ‘show’. Both show how drawing is used to convey what can be difficult to put into words. In addition to precedents in wayfinding and drawing in information studies, my study of mapping in contemporary digital environments is indebted to the critical information scholarship on search platforms. These include Nissenbaum and Introna’s (2004) questions on the politics of computational logics of search; Vaidhyanathan’s (2011) look at the pervasiveness of Google and the conditions and expectations that have enabled this growth; Noble’s (2012, 2013, 2018) work on the undergirding

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inequities of search algorisms that reinforce structural racism; and Noble and Roberts’ (2016) look at the spatial entitlements of the Google Glass user. In addition, Drucker’s (2013, 2014) review of visual information – the interface, the map, the page layout – show how dominant graphical forms generate and normalize visual knowledges. Together these help one understand how the politics of computational and algorithmic logics frame what is presented, how it is presented and who it is for. Therefore, my questions about the visualization of spatial information and the broader social context of these constructions brings together a spectrum of interests in information studies regarding wayfinding, representation and critical information theory.

Figure 8.2 Route directions collected in London, spring 2018; from left to right: directions from the British Museum to Oxford Street; from London Bridge Station to Tate Modern; from Oxford Street to Trafalgar Square; from Covent Garden to the British Museum; from St. Paul's Cathedral to the British Museum; from St. Paul's Cathedral to Monument Station

The Encounter I followed these conceptual guides into my own encounters. By asking for directions and requesting a hand-drawn map, I engineered a recurring encounter between me, the artist-researcher and a helpful passer-by. I would begin at one of the preselected locations – not a specific standing point but an area in the general vicinity of such places as the New York Public Library, the Rijksmuseum, Borough Market and Union Station. I selected different destination points to ensure the drawings captured different parts of each city and a range of distances. The five destination points fall into five

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distinct categories: an information site, such as a public library or a museum; a civic site, such as a town hall or public square; a commercial site, such as a market; a transportation site, such as a train station; and a nature site, such as a public park. I selected these categories of spaces because of their entangled yet distinct functions in a city: places to eat, learn, move, sit and talk. Of course, all of these places serve multiple functions and service a wide variety of needs from the most banal to the most urgent. I selected each local site for its prominence as a landmark or its popularity as gathering place while acknowledging that these vernaculars of space are not uniformly held by all inhabitants of a city. However, I chose to avoid sites that required specific knowledge or could be interpreted as too obscure. From there I went through a process of recruitment. I selected participants using a process of non-probability convenience sampling (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Non-probability sampling, unlike probability sampling, does not use techniques like random sampling and therefore is not meant to research a population that can produce generalizable claims. I asked people who happened to be nearby when and where I was asking for directions and I exercised a certain degree of judgment in the convenience sampling. I also based recruitment on the passer-by’s demonstrated familiarity with the surroundings and their demonstrated approachability – for example, if they showed signs of being in a rush. I approached people who appeared to be my age – mid-30s – owing to this population’s likely exposure to both digital maps and those wayfinding conditions that preceded the advent of smartphone technology in 2007. As with any judgment sampling, the weakness lies in my own bias and the reliability of my judgment; but although there is the possibility of error, the risk and impact on my research is low. Finally, I wanted to ensure (at least initially) that I recruited people who lived in the city in question. Therefore, my first question to potential informants was ‘do you live in this city?’ If they replied yes, I proceeded with the script. If they replied no, I withdrew and initiated another selection process. The encounter hinges on the act of approaching people and momentarily interrupting their daily flow. To initiate street level interactions with passersby, I approached informants with the same scripted opening line and the same scripted drawing prompt to ensure reliability and consistency among my interactions. The memorization of the simple skeleton script ensured flow in the interaction. Within the script, there was room for improvisation to facilitate a natural exchange, following precedents in scripted prompts established by Hartel’s iSquare research protocol (Hartel et al., 2018). Following the protocol of Umoquit et al. (2008, 2011), I limited additional verbal prompts or interjections that might have assisted or affected the participant’s map drawing.

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Some of the people I stopped spent quite a bit of time on the drawings, making sure I fully understood where I was going or pulling me to the side in order to set up an impromptu wayfinding tutorial. Others made quick, cursory strokes as if to note the inconvenience of the process, or perhaps they were absorbing the hurried pace around them, the hum of the moving cars and the steps of the moving people. In some cases, the speed of completion reflected the simplicity of the directions rather than the informant’s irritation. Once the informant completed the drawing activity, I thanked them for their directions and then followed the directions they had provided. In some cases, I ended up getting lost along the way. In these cases, I included the map in the dataset and noted the circumstances as ‘ineffective’. This paradata – the data about the drawing data – generated a count of the number of instances that successfully conveyed wayfinding versus those that did not. As someone familiar with all four cities, I was usually able to find my way to the destination and continue the cycle of data collection. However, there were some recorded cases in which I did get turned around. In these cases, I initiated a new encounter.

Figure 8.3 Route directions collected in Amsterdam, spring 2018; from left to right: directions from near the Rijksmuseum to Albert Cuyp Market; from Rijksmuseum to Dam Square; from the Flower Market to Waterloosplein; from Dam Square to Vondelpark; from the Hermitage to the Flower Market; from Waterlooplein to Dam Square

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Observing the Interaction The encounters produced a set of direction drawings as well as a set of observational field notes. While the informant drew the route map, I observed some of the behaviors and made headnotes (Emerson, Fretz and Shaw, 2011; Lindlof and Taylor, 2011). Headnotes are an ethnographic observation strategy used as an alternative to on-site note taking when it is not possible to take sketch notes (Lindlof and Taylor, 2011) or jottings (Emerson, Fretz and Shaw, 2011). During the interaction, conspicuous note taking can be disruptive. Headnotes are a short-term solution to the possible interferences of noticeable writing. The drawing activity is, by nature of its spontaneity, short in length; therefore, headnotes are a viable interim strategy. I recorded jottings based on my observational headnotes in a notebook at a break point en route to the destination (Lindlof and Taylor, 2011). As participant and observer in the encounter, I facilitated the exchange while observing two stages of sketching: the orientation stage, the initial act of responding to a stranger for directions, and the drawing stage, the act of drawing the directions. I identified these two stages from what I’d learned from the artistic pilot project. During the orientation stage, I observed whether the participant first looked up to the sky, out to the street, or down at the drawing; and whether the participant looked at a handheld device to access a locational program such as Google Maps. I also noted which mapping application they used. During the drawing stage, I made observations based on the following questions: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Did the participant start from the bottom, the top, or the center of the page? Did the participant pause during drawing, indicating reflection? Did the participant use a high level of detail? Did the participant include textual inscriptions of their spoken instructions? Did the participant become disoriented in the process of producing the drawing?

I did not record gestures made during the process, which is another mode of paralinguistic communication (Goffman, 1974; Jaffe, 2009; Royce and Bowcher, 2007) with potential for future studies. I recorded my field notes in a notebook marked by corresponding numbers to the drawings. I temporarily stored the drawings in a supported envelope which I carried in my bag until the end of the day.

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Considering the Interaction Following the precedents in collecting spontaneous route directions (Brouwn, 1961; Lee and Tversky, 2005; Lynch, 1960; Vertesi, 2012), the process of data collection used covert methods and deception to collect drawings and record observations. The drawings and notes did not contain any identifiable markers such as names and addresses. For example, I did not design my research to examine gender or race – these are important political positions when considering space and place, but that is another project. In short, the types of data I collected did not render individuals reasonably identifiable and therefore posed low risk. Regarding the potential for risk, some participants may have felt embarrassed or uncomfortable with their skills in drawing. The possibility of embarrassment has been well documented in the literature on drawing-based visual methods (Guillemin, 2004; Hartel et al., 2018; Mitchell et al., 2011). If participants were reluctant to assist me because they were not proficient in drawing, I assured them that the quality of the drawing was not an issue and thanked them for their efforts once their route drawing was complete. At times, participants still refused to draw, or asked me to draw instead. I included these cases in the dataset.

Analysing the Interaction The process of data collection follows Konecki’s (2011) model of visual grounded theory, which is an adaptation of Charmaz’s (2006) grounded theory tailored to focus on visual research. It uses ‘multi-slice imagining’ as a means to build theories. The ‘slices’ of a multi-slice imagining result in data extracted from: ■

■ ■

the act of creating images and the participation in demonstrating or communicating visual images, collected through headnotes and jottings (Emerson, Fretz and Shaw, 2011) the image as a visual product, considering its content and stylistic structure, collected through drawings (Mitchell et al., 2011) the reception of the image and visual aspects of presenting or representing something, collected through semi-structured interviews with selected informants (Spradley, 1979).

Notably, Konecki’s three slices of visual grounded theory parallel Rose’s (2012) three ‘sites’ of visual research: the site of creation, the site of the image and the sites of audiencing. Konecki’s model of visual grounded theory generates theory by looking across and through all three slices of data

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collection. Therefore, the drawing event yields three types of data relevant for visual research, related not only to the collected images but also to the contexts of creation and reception. As a result, I organized the data into the following categories: ■ ■ ■

spontaneously drawn route maps from on-the-street interventions: 220 route maps collected in total descriptive field notes through observation: 220 descriptive field notes collected in total recorded interviews with selected participants: 20 recorded interviews collected in total, representing 10% of the respondent population.

I went through the data over multiple phases to discover emergent themes and concepts. The general outline, which I applied to the observational field notes and drawings, followed the analytic process of visual grounded theory (Konecki, 2011; Rose, 2012). First I went through the drawings and the field notes through a sequence of opening coding, making jottings about behaviors that stood out. Did they use Google Maps? Did they draw or make me draw? I followed this with detailed notes of each drawing and each encounter. Reviewing this initial iteration of analysis, I then engaged in selective coding, where I went through materials, looking for similar patterns. From there I was able to start a process of theoretical memo writing based on these patterns, returning to the literature to think about questions of ‘attention’, ‘ambient intelligence’, ‘orientation’ and ‘calibration’, to name some of the patterns that stood out. I established a thematic analytic schema based on reiterative processes of going through all of the drawings. From this, I began to notice patterns and vacuums regarding information behaviors and practices of wayfinding. Therefore, in grounded visual methods, the meanings come inductively from the drawings and the field notes, but also from that surrounding context. Context is key here because assumptions cannot be made specifically from the drawings. Therefore, my analytical attention focused on the act of creation, the visual product and its content and the reception of visual objects during the encounter. The act of creation and the reception of the visual object were largely captured by the observational field notes. I analysed the field notes and asked questions to explore ‘how’ the directions are drawn: Did the informant refer to assisting technologies? Where did their gaze go in the space? What was said? How did respondents interact with their drawing? How did they think of mapping in relation to Google Maps? Does their map

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capture what they wanted to represent? The visual product and its content were guided largely by the directional drawings. I analysed these for their formal features: What visual pieces of information are present? What is included and what is excluded? I analysed the drawings and field notes as one unit of the encounter, noting the context of its site and how it presents across these sites. In my research process it was important to look not only at the drawing, because what was most interesting were the broader issues beyond the drawing: what was said, how directions were given, the times when the informant took forever to give directions, when the informant went back and forth between their memory and their phone, or when people argued over what was said. I was not interested in coding for the shapes or lines that were drawn, or even if the directions were correct. The performance of being lost initiated the exchange and the act of asking for a map unearthed other behaviors of visualizing space. Because of my research design and use of deception, it was essential that this research not attempt to make general claims about how one draws directions specifically. Instead, the encounter offers a site of provocation from which more questions can be asked and a theoretical framework can be developed.

Figure 8.4 Route directions collected in New York, fall 2017; from left to right: directions from Washington Square to Chelsea Market; from the Flatiron Building to Chelsea Market; from the New York Public Library Main Branch to Penn Station; from Penn Station to Chelsea Market; from Tompkin Square Park to Washington Square; from the Flat Iron Building to Chelsea Market

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Initial Findings and Contributions Going through the rich collection of drawings and notes, I saw how Google Maps was featured in acts of wayfinding in my journeys between library and public square, local market and museum, and city hall and central train station. I found that over the course of the wayfinding events, informants use Google Maps repeatedly to mediate location awareness, orientation and visualization. The mobile device factored into over one-third of the encounters across all four cities: 81 (37%) of the 220 encounters. Google Maps was the dominant mapping platform in the dataset, accounting for 89% of encounters in which informants used mobile phones. I remembered these situations happening on the ground: participants who opened Google Maps to ‘show’ me when I asked them to draw, participants who searched for directions in the application to ‘make sure’ when I pulled out the piece of paper and pen, or participants who sat down and drew from the Google Maps representation. What emerged from the analysis was a recurring set of expectations that shaped the use of Google Maps. I categorized these values as trust in the information provided by way of Google Maps; seamless integration of Google Maps into everyday experiences; and claims to and on space facilitated by the use of Google Maps. Informants displayed trust in Google through behaviors of verification, such as checking Google Maps to make sure their initial verbal directions were correct. Often the informant deferred to Google Maps even if Google Maps provided directions different from those they had initially provided. I did not record any instances of informants outwardly disagreeing with the Google Maps route or interface. Sometimes informants initially offered a short, verbal response that mentioned the streets and points where I was to turn. Once I asked the informant to draw it for me, they applied the information provided by Google Maps. In other cases they responded to my visual prompt with an offer to ‘show’ me through the Google Maps interface. Sometimes, the informant showed me the map because they were unsure which direction to take. They zoomed in on the map and showed me, tracking along the walk I was to take based on the Google Maps directions. In other instances, informants used Google Maps because they did not want to ‘get it wrong’. During a follow-up interview, one informant noted that Google Maps gave a complete, correct picture of the space instead of one based on a personal interpretation. In some encounters, informants used Google Maps to verify time and distance from our current location. In other encounters, they verified their directions with Google Maps not to find the ‘correct’ route but to find what they described as ‘the best way’, for example the fastest way by foot, the best bus route, or the quickest roads to drive on. In addition to viewing Google Maps as trustworthy, informants expressed an expectation of ease. In analysing my data, I noted how the promise of

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seamless integration between Google Maps and ground was woven into the encounters. The expectation of seamlessness seemed to operate in a number of ways: ■ ■ ■

ease of search for directions from current location to desired end translation of the digital spatial representation to an on-the-ground perception of territory unencumbered scrolling to move across space via the map interface.

Seamless integration is contingent on a general trust in Google Maps and Google’s search algorithms. However, within the encounters, the expectation of seamlessness and the experience of seamlessness were not always in sync. The promise of seamlessness was interrupted in instances when the information provided on the screen became difficult to reconcile with the informant’s sense of place on the ground. In these moments, it was evident that it was difficult to translate our current standing location to the location awareness of Google Maps. An informant behavior repeated throughout the data is the action of physically reorienting the mobile phone in order to make sense of its locationaware position. Rather than moving their bodies to calibrate themselves to the map, these informants moved the map to calibrate to Google. Therefore, the expectation of seamlessness was most apparent in the seams of ruptured ease. Several instances occurred in which the informants told me they did not know where my destination was, not revealing whether or not they were familiar with the area, but would look it up for me. They then proceeded to check with Google Maps. Even though they told me they were not familiar with the area, the informants asserted themselves as directors or wayfinders through the translation of Google Maps. Even people I approached who fell into the category of tourist or visitor to the city offered to provide me with directions. I had originally decided not to include these directions, but I kept them as part of the dataset because they offer an interesting logic of orientation and calibration in the context of spatial claims. In this there is a type of assumed subject who uses the map: the optimized human who moves through space effortlessly, without the headache of traffic or the fear of becoming lost, who can visit anywhere and navigate any terrain. In this, there is an implicit claim to space in which one can simply explore with the assistance of Google Maps. By having access to this technology, there emerges the distinctive behavior of the ‘knower of everywhere’ – the borderless guide. When do orientations towards Google Maps produce claims to space? How does being oriented towards the map produce a sense of entitlement to move freely through space? The question remains: if reliability, ease of use and access to space are the expectations that orient one towards using Google

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Maps, then what is the broader context that shapes and informs these expectations? In order to begin to address this question, a discourse analysis of Google’s limited public-facing record is required, as is a broader look into how Google Maps fits into a Euro-American zeitgeist. For now, the project reflects these spontaneous, street level encounters and reveals possible lenses of investigation and theory building as we examine some of the ways information works in the world.

Conclusion The reactivation of Brouwn’s artistic provocations provides alternative forms of theory building in information studies, specifically regarding the information of wayfinding and visual perceptions of navigation. The project becomes a novel means to think through the idea of information spaces. Its findings reveal Google Maps as a tool for generating a visual understanding of situatedness based on its real-time mediation of space. The hand-drawn directions provide a glimpse into how dominant representations operate in the world, but they also highlight behaviors of wayfinding that inform how urban space is visualized at street level, in the context of everyday interactions. The drawings and field notes indicate that Google Maps is more than simply a platform that provides directions but a directive of legibility in itself. These orientations to Google give rise to important questions previously posted by Noble and Roberts (2016) and Sarah Sharma (2012, 2014) about whose and what types of mobilities and spatial perceptions are prioritized. At a time when ubiquitous computing and the centralization of digital mapping are integrated into the growth of smart cities and innovations, there is a need to think through the navigational sense of place produced through and by digital mapping platforms. This chapter shows how artful visual methods can be applied to information studies to bring into focus the seemingly banal uses of digital mapping platforms and question the power structures that shape the relations and mediations between a person and information in these moments. In this project, the performative and the visual come together to bring critical attention to everyday interactions with information, systems and technologies, allowing us to examine how visual representations of information mediate everyday sense-making and how these are oriented by a set of values.

Acknowledgments Thank you to all the people who helped me find my way.

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References Brouwn, S. (1961) This Way Brouwn, collection of drawings from public performances in Amsterdam, MOMA, New York, NY. Charmaz, K. (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Drucker, J. (2013) Diagrammatic Writing, New Formations, 78 (19), 83–101. Drucker, J. (2014) Graphesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Edwards, J. (2016) Google Made a Huge Change in the Way Google Maps Look, Business Insider, www.businessinsider.my/google-change-to-the-way-googlemaps-look-2016-5/#TPlQgUPdx6x9PK3F.97. Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I. and Shaw, L. L. (2011) Writing Ethnographic Field notes, 2nd edn, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. European Commission (2012) Europeans and their Languages, http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm. Goffman, E. (1974) Frame Analysis, Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press. Guillemin, M. (2004) Understanding Illness: Using Drawing as a Research Method, Qualitative Health Research, 14 (2), 272–89. Hartel, J. (2014a) An Arts-Informed Study of Information Using the Draw-and-Write Technique, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 65 (7), 1349–67. Hartel, J. (2014b) Drawing Information in the Classroom, Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 55 (1), 83–85. Hartel, J., Noone, R., Power, S., Danzanov, P., Oh, C. and Kelly, B. (2018) The iSquare Protocol: Combining Research, Art, Pedagogy through the Draw-andWrite Technique, Qualitative Research, 18 (4), 433–50. Harvey, D. (2001) Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography, New York, NY: Routledge. Harvey, F., Kwan, M. P. and Pavlovskaya, M. (2005) Introduction: Critical GIS, Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization, 40 (4), 1–4. Jaffe, A. (2009) Stance: Sociolinguistic Perspectives, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kalmanowicz, J. (2017) Making the World Your Own with Google Maps APIs, Google I/O ’17, video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLRutvtJwLg. Konecki, K. T. (2011) Visual Grounded Theory: A Methodological Outline and Examples from Empirical Work, Revija Za Socilologiju, 41 (2), 131–60. Lee, P. U. and Tversky, B. (2005) Interplay between Visual and Spatial: The Effects of Landmark Descriptions and Comprehension of Route/Survey Descriptions, Spatial Cognition and Computation, 5 (1), 163–85. Lehmann, C. (2017) Stanley Brouwn. In A. Roth, P. E. Aarons, C. Lehmann (eds), Artists Who Make Books, London: Phaidon Publishing.

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Li, R. and Klippel, A. (2012) Wayfinding in Libraries: Can Problems be Predicted?, Journal of Map and Geography Libraries, 8 (1), 21–38. Lindlof, T. R. and Taylor, B. C. (2011) Qualitative Communication Research Methods, 3rd edn, Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mandel, L. H. (2012) Lost in the Labyrinthine Library: A Multi-method Case Study Investigating Public Library User Wayfinding Behavior, doctoral dissertation. Mandel L. H. (2013) Finding their Way: How Public Library Users Wayfind, Library and Information Science Research, 35 (4), 264–71. Mandel, L. H. (2018) Understanding and Describing Users’ Wayfinding Behaviour in Public Library Facilities, Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 50 (1), 23–33. Massey, D. (1994) Space, Place and Gender, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Massey, D. (2005) For Space, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Mitchell, C., Theron, L., Stuart, J., Smith, A. and Campbell, Z. (2011) Drawing as Research Methods. In I. Theron, C. Mitchell, A. Smith and J. Studard (eds), Picturing Research: Drawing as Visual Methodology, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Nissenbaum, H. and Introna, L. D. (2004) Shaping the Web: Why the Politics of Search Engines Matters. In V. V. Gehring (ed.), The Internet in Public Life, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Noble, S. U. (2012) Geographical Information Systems: A Critical Look at the Commercialization of Public Information, Human Geography: a New Radical Journal, 4 (3), 88–105. Noble, S. U. (2013) Google Search: Hyper-visibility as a Means of Rendering Black Women and Girls Invisible, InVisible Culture: Issue 19. Noble, S. U. (2018) Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism, New York, NY: NYC Press. Noble, S. U. and Roberts, S. T. (2016) Through Google Coloured Glass(es): Emotion, Class and Wearables as Commodity and Control. In S. U. Noble and S. Tettegah (eds), Emotions, Technology and Design, Elsevier. Noone, R. (2014) From Here To, a wandering information book displaying drawings gathered by asking people for directions, Art of the Danforth Festival, Toronto. Noone, R. (2015a) From Here To, St. Louis, a performance and book project made from asking people for directions, presented at the Luminary Gallery, St. Louis. Noone, R. (2015b) From Here To, Brighton, a display of the hand-drawn directions collected in Brighton and a composite map for takeaway, International Visual Methods Conference, University of Brighton, Brighton. Rose, G. (2012) Visual Methodologies, 3rd edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

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Royce, T. D. and Bowcher, W. L. (eds) (2007) New Directions in the Analysis of Multimodal Discourse. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sharma, S. (2012) It Changes Space and Time! Introducing Power-Chronography. In J. Packer and S. B. Crofts Wiley (eds), Communication Matters: Materialist Approaches to Media, Mobility and Networks, New York: Routledge. Sharma, S. (2014) In the Meantime, Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Snyder, J. (2012) Image-enabled Discourse: Investigating the Creation of Visual Information as Communicative Practice, doctoral dissertation, Information Science and Technology, Syracuse University. Snyder, J. (2014) Visual Representation of Information as Communicative Practice, Journal of the Association of Information Science and Technology, 65 (11), 2233–47. Spradley, J. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview, Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Publishers. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Tversky, B. (1993) Cognitive Maps, Cognitive Collages and Spatial Mental Models. In U. Frank and I. Campari (eds), Spatial Information Theory: A Theoretical Basis for GIS, Berlin, GR: Springer Verlag. Tversky, B. (2003a) Navigating by Mind and by Body. In C. Freksa, W. Brauer, C. Habel and K. F. Wadner (eds), Spatial Cognition III: Routes and Navigation, Human Memory and Learning, Spatial Representation and Spatial Reasoning, Berlin, GR: Springer Verlag. Tversky, B. (2003b) Structures of Mental Spaces: How People Think About Space, Environment and Behavior, 33 (1), 66–80. Tversky, B. (2011) Visualizing Thought, Topics in Cognitive Science, 3, 499–535. Umoquit, M. J., Dobrow, M. J., Lemius-Charles, L., Ritvo, P. G., Urbach, D. R. and Walter, P. W. (2008) The Efficiency and Effectiveness of Utilizing Diagrams in Interviews: An Assessment of Participatory Diagramming and Graphic Elicitation, BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8 (53), https://doi:10.1186/1471-2288-8-53. Umoquit, M. J., Tso, P., Burchett, H. and Dobrow, M. (2011) A Multidisciplinary Systematic Review of the Use of Diagrams as a Means of Collecting Data from Research Subjects: Application, Benefits and Recommendations, BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11 (11), https://doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-11. Vaidhyanathan, S. (2011) The Googlization of Everything (And Why We Should Worry), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Vertesi, J. (2012) Mind the Gap: The London Underground Map and Users’ Representations of Urban Space. In J. Finn (ed.), Visual Communication and Culture: Images in Action, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Author index

Aarons, P. E. 186 Absar, R. 104 Adams, K. C. 66 Alexander, B. 159, 167 Alexander, E. 87, 88, 103 Alexander, J. 56, 79 Al-kheder, S. 103 Al-shawabkeh, Y. 85, 103 Ameen, K. xxii, xxviii Andrews, P. 136, 150 Anfara, V.A. 35–6, 46 Angell, C. 56, 79 Antonio, M. G. 45–6 Appleton, L. 129, 150 Asher, A. xxii, xxviii, 12, 17, 23–4, 129, 150 Atkinson, P. 118, 124 Aulich, J. 49 Aytac, S. xxii, xxvii Backett-Milburn, K. 55, 79 Bagnoli, A. 82 Baich, B. 61 Banks, M. 8, 23, 32, 39, 46 Bates, M. J. 75 Baxter, G. 83, 87, 103 Beck, H. 174 Bedi, S. xviii–49 Bell, J. 110, 124

Bendelow, G. 54, 82 Bennett, M. J. 83, 103 Benson, M. 13, 19, 24, 87, 100, 104 Berger, J. 31, 46 Berger, M. 110, 124 Bhatt, I. 88, 103 Birks, M. 26 Blackwell, A. F. 56, 60, 79 Bloice, L. 83, 87, 103 Blunk, B. 140 Bock, A. 32, 46 Böök, M. L. 6, 24 Borg, M. 129, 151 Bouquin, D. xxviii Bowcher, W. L. 179, 188 Bowden, F. 56, 59, 61, 79 Bradshaw, S. 80 Brass, C. 79 Brauer, C. 188 Bresciani, S. 87–8, 103 Brewer, W. F. 56, 82 Briden, J. 11, 18, 24 Brouwn, S. xxvii, 170, 172–3, 175, 180, 185, 186 Brydon-Miller, M. 47 Buck, S. 16–18, 24 Burchett, H. 125, 188 Burgess, J. 167 Burnett, S. 103, 105

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Burns, A. 49 Burris, M. A. 7, 16, 21, 27 Bussert, K. 167 Campari, I. 188 Campbell, Z. 187 Case, D. O. 9, 24 Chambers, D. W. 55, 79 Chandler, T. 83, 104 Chapman, H. 105 Charmaz, K. 180, 186 Chatkaewnapanon, Y. 88, 104 Chavez, C. 109, 124 Chiu, M. 17, 25 Ch’ng, E. 105 Chu, H. xxii, xxvii Church, G. M. 66, 79 Church, K. 81 Clark, A. 82 Clark, K. 11, 24 Clarke, A. 40, 46 Clarkson, P. J. 56, 60, 79 Coemans, S. 88, 104 Coffey, A. 124 Coghlan, D. 47 Cohen, J. 118–19, 121–4 Cole, A. L. 53–4, 80, 82 Collier, J. 6, 17, 24, 32, 46, 118, 124 Collier, M. 32, 46–7, 118, 124 Conway, P. 158, 167 Cook, C. 17, 23, 26 Corbin, J. 177, 188 Cox, A. 13, 19, 24, 87, 100, 104 Cox, S. 27, 41, 43, 46, 47, 49, 82 Crane, K. 6, 24 Cravey, P. J. 66, 79 Crilly, N. 56, 60, 79 Crofts Wiley, S. B. 188 Crooke, E. 87, 104 Crotty, M. 34, 47 Cullen, J. 68, 79 Danzanov, P. 25, 80, 124, 186 David, A. M. 81

Davies, B. 116, 124 Davies, K. 82 de Boer, J. 75, 82 Delamont, S. 80, 124 de Lemos, M. S. 58, 81 De Leon, J. 118–19, 121–4 deMarrais, K. 4, 24, 48 Dempsey, L. 127 de Roock, R. 88, 103 Dibb, M. 46 Dickinson, T. E. 63, 79 Dobrow, M. 125, 188 Doiron, J. M. 46 D’Orazio, F. 49 Doucette, L. 6, 13–14, 24 Dowling, M. 37, 47 Drew, S. 46 Drucker, J. 176, 186 Duke, L. M. xxii, xxviii, 12, 17, 23–4, 129, 150 Dunne, T. 141, 150 Eaker, C. xxviii Edwards, J. 169, 186 Eisenbeiss, H. 105 Emerson, R. M. 179–80, 186 Eppler, M. J. 87–8, 103 Eshleman, J. 81 Estep, E. S. 81 Faulkner, S. 49 Feldman, M. 110, 124 Finn, J. 188 Forceville, C. 76, 79 Foster, N. F. 11, 12, 17, 24, 25, 111–12, 123–4, 128, 129, 137, 150 Fox, C. 46 Frank, U. 188 Freksa, C. 188 Fretz, R. I. 179–80, 186 Frith, H. 33, 47 Fritz, A. xxvi–xxvii, 6, 153–68 Fyfe, G. 30, 47

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AUTHOR INDEX  191

Gabridge, T. 6, 24 Gaffney, V. 105 Gaisecker, T. 105 Garland, J. 154–5, 167 Gaskell, M. 6, 24 Gauntlett, D. 56, 61, 79 Gaver, B. 141, 150 Gehring, V. V. 187 Gheerawo, R. 79 Gibbons, S. xxii, xxviii, 11, 12, 17, 24, 111–12, 123–4, 129, 137, 150 Gibbs, R. W. 79 Given, L. M. 7, 9, 16, 21, 24, 25, 46, 47, 87, 88, 104 Glaser, B. G. 60, 80 Gobo, J. 81 Goffman, E. 179, 186 Goldstein, B. 33, 39, 47 Gombrich, E. 29, 47 Gonzalez, P. A. 87, 104 Goodenough, F. 54, 80 Goriunova, O. 49 Grant, L. 35, 48 Gray, D. 83, 87, 103 Green, D. 12, 23 Greyson, D. 104 Grinnall, A. 91, 103, 105 Gubrium, J. 81 Guest, C. 37, 43, 47 Guest, G. 61, 64, 80 Guillemin, M. 27, 46, 47, 49, 56, 80, 82, 180, 186 Guzik, E. 74, 80 Haala, N. 85, 103 Habel, C. 188 Haberl, V. 14, 24, 137, 150 Hakonen, A. 85, 104 Hall, C. xxii, xxviii, 11, 25 Halpern, R. xxii, xxviii Hamilton, P. 32, 47 Hannes, K. 88, 104 Hanusch, T. 105 Harcourt, D. 33, 47

Harper, D. 6, 17, 25, 33, 47, 118, 124, 137–8, 150 Harriman, S. A. 17, 26 Hartel, J. xxii, xxv, xxviii, 3, 6, 9, 12–13, 15, 21–3, 25, 32, 47, 53–67, 69–83, 115, 117, 124, 175, 177, 180, 186 Harvey, D. 170, 186 Harvey, F. 170, 186 Hathcoat, J. D. 33, 47 Hattwig, D. 156–7, 167 Henke, K. 65, 82 Henry, J. 81 Hershberg, R. M. 34, 47 Hertz, R. 38, 47 Hicks, A. xxii, xxviii, 15, 18, 25, 87, 100, 104 Hicks, D. xxii, xxv, xxviii, 6, 9, 21, 22, 53–82 Hinthorne, L. L. 88, 100, 104 Hoffmann, K. 6, 13–14, 24 Hogg, G. 85, 103–4 Holland, S. 82 Hollis, R. 46 Holt, R. 5, 26 Hood, C. 87, 104 Howell, C. 47 Hunt, J. A. 56, 79 Introna, L. D. 175, 187 Isaacs, J. 103, 105 Isermann, H. 32, 46 Jackson, J. xxviii Jaffe, A. 179, 186 Jankevièiûtë, L. 59, 80 Jariwala, A. S. 123, 125 Jeffrey, S. 83, 105 Jewitt, C. 38, 46, 49 Johnson, M. 76, 81 Johnson-Bailey, J. 124 Joseph, P. 15, 25 Julien, H. 7, 16, 21, 25, 104 Jung, H. 43, 47

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

Kalmanowicz, J. 169, 186 Kaplan, E. 156–8, 168 Kara, H. 54, 80 Kee, Y. 124 Kelly, B. 25, 80, 124, 186 Kelly, J. M. 88, 104 Khoo, M. xxii, xxviii, 11, 25 Kierans, C. 115, 124 Klippel, A. 175, 187 Knieper, T. 32, 46 Knowles, C. 8, 25 Knowles, J. G. 53–4, 80, 82 Konecki, K. 60, 80, 180–1, 186 Kouider, T. 104 Kuhlthau, C. C. 56, 81 Kupferschmidt, D. 105 Kuusela, J. 85, 104 Kwan, M. P. 170, 186 Laing, R. 84–6, 91, 93–5, 103–5 Lakoff, G. 76, 81 Lambers, K. 85, 105 Lanclos, D. 140 Lapan, S. D. 4, 24, 48 Lapum, J. 61, 81 Law, J. 30, 47 Lawson, L. V. 63, 82 Lee, M. Y. 124 Lee, P. U. 173–5, 180, 186 Lehmann, C. 172, 186 Lemius-Charles, L. 188 Leon, M. 103, 105 Levy, D. 35, 47 Li, R. 175, 187 Liebenberg, L. 17, 25 Lima, L. 58, 81 Lin, Y. 17, 25 Lindahl, D. 17, 26 Lindlof, T. R. 179, 187 Linz, S. 138, 150 Lloyd, A. xxii, xxviii, 13, 18, 19, 21, 25, 87, 100, 104 Lockton, D. 79 Lofland, J. 124

Lofland, L. 124 Loue, S. 24 Loxley, A. 8, 26, 29, 48, 54, 82 Lundh, A. 12, 25 Luthmann, A. 63, 81 Lynch, K. 173–5, 180, 187 Lysaght, Z. 36, 47 MacNeil, H. xxii, xxviii Mair, M. 115, 124 Mandel, L. H. 175, 187 Mannay, D. 53–4, 81 Margolis, E. 8, 26, 32, 38, 46, 48, 81, 105 Marshall, D. 138, 140, 149–51 Mas-Bleda, A. 49 Massey, D. 169, 187 Massis, B. 76, 81, 129, 150 Maxwell, N. K. 74, 81 McKee, B. 104 McKenzie, P. J. 75, 82 McKie, L. 55, 79 McKinney, P. 17, 23, 26 Medaille, A. 167 Mellon, C. 56, 81 Meo, A. I. 17, 26, 31, 48 Merriam, S. B. 109, 124 Mertz, N. 35, 48 Mifflin, J. 156–8, 168 Miller, S. 130 Mills, J. 4, 26 Mirza, R. 68, 81 Mirzoeff, N. 29, 48 Misquith, C. xxvi, 6, 23, 37, 107–25 Mitchell, C. 8, 17, 26, 33, 39, 48, 56, 61, 82, 180, 187 Molzahn, A. 46 Moniz, L. 81 Moniz, R. 74, 81 Morais, D. B. 105 Muhamad, M. 124 Murphy, L. 123, 125 Mykkänen, J. 6, 24

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AUTHOR INDEX  193

Newcomer, N. L. 17, 26 Nguyen, A. T. 61, 74, 80 Nicholas, M. C. 33, 47 Nissenbaum, H. 175, 187 Niven, K. 83, 105 Noble, S. U. 175–6, 185, 187 Noel, A. 123, 125 Noone, R. xxvii, 6, 22, 25, 80, 124, 169–89 Ntseane, G. 124 O’Brien, H. 104 O’Brien, M. 58, 82 Oh, C. 25, 80, 124, 186 Okkonen, J. 85, 104 Opryshko, A. 7, 16, 21, 25, 104 Pacenti, E. 141, 150 Packard, J. 88, 105 Packer, J. 188 Pain, H. 87, 105 Pauwels, L. 7–8, 26, 32, 38, 46, 48, 53–4, 81, 88, 105 Pavlovskaya, M. 170, 186 Peroff, D. M. 87, 105 Phutane, M. 80 Pink, S. 8, 17, 26, 29, 31, 33, 37, 48, 54, 81, 88, 100, 105 Polkinghorne, M. 104 Pollak, A. 3, 7–10, 13, 19–21, 26, 40, 48, 88, 105 Ponterotto, J. G. 34, 48 Posa, S. 80 Posner, B. 63, 82 Power, S. 25, 124, 186 Preissle, J. 35, 48 Pridmore, P. 54, 82 Priestner, A. xxvi, 5–6, 127–51 Prigoda, E. 75, 82 Procter, M. xxii, xxviii Prosser, J. 8, 26, 29, 35, 46, 48–9, 54, 82 Punzalan, R. 158, 167 Radford, G. P. 65, 82 Radford, M. L. 65, 82

Redwood-Jones, Y. A. 42–3, 49 Reeves, L. S. 88, 100, 104 Reid, P. 84, 87, 103–5 Renold, E. 82 Richards, J. D. 83, 105 Ritvo, P. G. 188 Roberts, S. T. 176, 185, 187 Rosa, K. 65, 82 Rose, G. 6–8, 12, 23, 26, 29, 31–3, 38–9, 48, 60–1, 74, 82, 180–1, 187 Roth, P. E. 186 Royce, T. D. 179, 188 Rozaklis, L. xxii, xxviii, 11, 25 Ruttonsha, P. 81 Sajatovic, M. 24 Saldaña, J. 39, 40, 48 Sauerbier, M. 105 Savolainen, R. 55, 76, 80 Schick-Makaroff, K. 46 Schmidt, A. 128–9, 151 Schwandt, T. A. 4, 26 Schwartz, D. 29, 33, 35, 40, 48 Scott, J. 85, 103–4 Seale, M. 62–63, 68, 70, 81–2 Seekamp, E. 105 Shankar, A. 31, 48 Sharma, S. 185, 188 Shaw, L. L. 179–80, 186 Sheilds, L. 46 Shi, Z. 80 Sills, E. 105 Silverman, D. 81 Slutsky, B. xxii, xxvii Smith, A. 82, 187 Smith, J. 104 Snyder, J. 175, 188 Sonnenwald, D. 12, 25 Sotoodeh, S. 105 Spencer, S. 32, 35, 46, 48 Spradley, J. 118, 125, 180, 188 Stanczak, G. 8, 26, 29–30, 33, 36, 47, 48 Stanley, L. 110, 115, 118, 125 Stebbins, R. 118, 125

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

Stout, A. 6, 24 Strauss, A. 60, 80, 177, 188 Stuart, E. 49 Stuart, J. 82, 187 Studard, J. 187 Sweetman, P. 8, 25 Tait, E. xxv–xxvi, 3, 83–106 Taylor, B. C. 179, 187 Taylor, J. 109–10, 125 Tettegah, S. 187 Tewell, E. 17, 21, 26 Thelwall, M. 32, 49 Theron, L. 54, 82, 187 Thoegersen, J. L. 45, 49 Thomson, L. 3, 25, 32, 47 Thorpe, R. 5, 26 Tinkler, P. xxvii, 153, 160–2, 168 Tolley-Stokes, R. 81 Tolman, E. 130, 151 Tracy, S. J. 19, 27 Tso, P. 125, 188 Tversky, B. 173–5, 180, 186, 188 Ullah, A. xxii, xxviii Umoquit, M. J. 115, 125, 177, 188 Urbach, D. R. 188 Vaidhyanathan, S. 175, 188 van Leeuwen, T. 38, 46, 49 Varga-Atkins, T. 58, 82 Vertesi, J. 173–5, 180, 188 Vis, F. 49 Vosniadou, S. 56, 82

Wadner, K. F. 188 Walker, S. 63, 82 Wallace, M. K. 81 Wallace, T. 105 Walter, P. W. 188 Wang, C. 7, 16, 21, 27, 42–3, 49 Warr, D. 20, 22, 27, 41, 46, 47, 49, 57, 82 Waycott, J. 27, 46, 47, 49, 82 Webb, J. xviii–49 Weber, S. 55–6, 61, 82 Wheeler, R. 87, 105 White, L. 46 Whyte, J. xxvi, 6, 23, 37, 107–25 Wiles, R. 57, 82 Wilkinson, J. 13, 18, 21, 25 Willingham, T. 75, 82 Willis, J. 34, 49 Wilson, E. 104 Wineburg, S. 159, 168 Winston, B. 31, 49 Wise, S. 110, 115, 118, 125 Woodfield, R. 29, 47 Wortman, B. 14, 24, 137, 150 Xu, A. 80 Yang, L. 157, 168 Yastikli, N. 83, 105 Yau, T. 81 Yeates, M. 104 Zeitlyn, D. 8, 23, 32, 46 Zweizig, D. 127, 151

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Subject index

3D capture and visualization technologies 83, 100 3D mapping 86 3D methods 83 3D modelling 86 limitations 88 3D photogrammetry 101 3D visualization technologies 100 accessibility 20, 44–5, 53, 55, 78, 86, 91, 129, 142, 147, 150 access to information 56 acquisition number 60 ACRL see Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) active learning 154, 160 ad hoc process 144, 172–3 advantages of 175 drawings 175 photo diaries 144 advantages 18 draw-and-write 55 advocacy 16 aesthetic elements 55 aesthetics 173 affective elements 55, 163 African American studies 156 A. K. Bell Library 101 ALA see American Library Association (ALA) Albert Cuyp Market 178

algorithms 184 ambient intelligence 181 ambiguity 158 American Library Association (ALA) 65, 71–2 American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIST) 12 Amsterdam xxvii, 170, 172–3, 178 analysis 17, 36, 38 approaches 38–9 bias 110 content 38, 163–5 contextual 165–6 critical 46 critical discourse 38 critical visual 157 data 53–4, 122 descriptive 162 draw-and-write 60 drawings 58, 174 Excel 64 excluding participants 112 field notes 182 flexibility 61 flexible 74 goals 161 group 111 including participants 115 inductive coding 99 interactions 180

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interpretive 167 outcomes 183 participant centred 37 process 61, 181 scholarly 160 sites of struggle 157 strategies 63, 77 symbols 153 thematic 38 timeline 109 transcripts 56 visual data xxiv, 30 visual rhetorical situation 154–5 wayfinding 180 anonymity 18, 41–2 anthropology 31, 119, 128, 130, 140 anxiety 122, 136, 140, 144 applications draw-and-write 56 approachability 177 archaeology 92 architecture 83 archives xxii, 153, 156, 158 archivists xxv, 122, 157, 162 art 155, 175 public 102 artifacts 31, 43, 83, 87–8, 99, 142, 158, 164 analysis 161 textual 92 artistic expression 44 artist-researcher 176 artists 171 Art of the Danforth Festival 173 arts-informed research xxvii, 54, 60, 88, 172–3 definition 53 interdisciplinary 100 limitations 88 types 53 Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) 154–6, 162 audiences 8, 23, 164–5 engagement 23, 43 identities 23 augmented reality 92, 99

authenticity 154, 156, 158 authors 22, 41, 163 authorship 163–5 autobiographies 165 barriers 101–2 behavioral mapping 129 bias xxiv, 33, 35, 37, 140, 166 participant 38 recruitment 117 researcher 35, 39, 177 retroactive 157, 161 structural 38, 176 bisexual see lesbian gay bisexual transgender and queer (LGBTQ) born-digital 154 boundaries 41–3 brainstorming 56, 64, 146 Brighton 173 British Museum 176 B-roll 161 built environment 100 calibration 181, 184 Cambridge University 127, 130, 132, 138, 141, 149 camera 14, 16, 54, 161, 165 data gathering tool 42 disposable 137 invention of 30 wearable video 22 Camtasia software 99 captions 54, 163 cartoons 155 Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere study 84, 93 category codes 99 center of interest 163 champions 77, 116 Charles Darwin University 133 charrettes 111 Chelsea Market 182 children 20 Churchill College 140

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SUBJECT INDEX  197

circulation 166 citation management 154 civic pride 84 close reading 163 Cloud Compare software 86 coats of arms 86 co-creation 88, 93, 101 experiences 97 heritage assets 89 of meaning 15, 34, 43 coding 6, 40, 64, 99, 156 cognitive mapping xxvi, 5, 40, 128–30, 136–7, 141–2, 148, 174 advantages 132 challenges 136 definition 130 examples 133 language barriers 137 cognitive science 175 collaborations 18, 158 collaborative design 111, 140 collaborative learning 159 collection management 161 collections local history 90 commons 114 communication 18–20, 154, 161 communities disadvantaged 87–8 community-based participatory research 9 community consultation 109 community research 107 competencies 154–5 complex perspectives 153 composition 8, 61 compositional interpretation 61 computational and algorithmic logics 176 computer-aided-design (CAD) engineering software 85 computing science 83, 100 conceptual 5 analysis 61 work 15 conceptualizations metaphor 76

conceptual map see cognitive mapping confidentiality 18, 22, 41 consent 21–2, 41–3, 57–8, 62, 111, 118–19 conservation 85 constructivism cultural heritage 87 definition 34 content 162, 180 content analysis xxv, 32, 61, 162–3 definition 5 context analysis 162 contexts 8, 34, 44, 157, 181 draw-and-write 56 contextual analysis 165 control 21, 42 convenience sampling 177 copyright 42 Core Competencies of Librarianship (ALA) 71, 154 Core Values of Librarianship (ALA) 72 correspondence 165 costs 21, 83, 100–1 draw-and-write 57 counter-narratives 153 Covent Garden 176 covert methods 180 creative process 120 creative writing 54 creativity 78, 120, 159 credibility 19, 154 critical analysis 46, 60 education theory 36 evaluation 154 information theory 176 interrogation 31 literacy 157 making 109 race theory 36 theory 31, 35, 128 thinking 153 visual literacy 153 crowdsourcing 154 cues 156

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cultural contexts 34, 157, 166 engagement 84 heritage 85 literacies 159 meaning 154 memory 165 probe 140–1 probes 6 representation 154 value 83 curation 101, 160, 172 curriculum 153, 158, 162 customs 87 Dam Square 178 dancing iSquares 61 data collection 18, 43, 57, 180 curation 101 fluency 159 language-based 20 metadata 43 output 44 quality 18 sharing 44 storage 44 textual 54 visualization 3, 154 data analysis 30, 36, 122 coding 40 compositional interpretation 61 draw-and-write 60 ethics 39 inductive thematic analysis 64 process 38, 40 social and cultural 39 theoretical framework 35 data management 44, 60 plan 44–5 storage 45 data repositories 45 day-mapping 111 deception 180

deference 183 definitions behavioral mapping 129 cognitive mapping 5, 130 content analysis 5 credibility in research 19 data repositories 45 draw-and-write 6, 54 epistemology 33 ethnography 128 guerrilla interviews 144 imageability 174 interpretivism 34–5 metaphor strategy 76 photo diaries 137 photo-elicitation 6 photogrammetry 103 photo-narrative 6 provenance 160 reflexivity 37 resonance 19 user design (UX) 129 visual methods xxii visual semantics 160 democratic society 157 demonstration 94, 96, 102 descriptive analysis 162 fields 163 layer 162–3 metadata 156, 163 design 164–5 aesthetics 154 elements 163 dialogue 34 diaries 149, 165 digital artifacts 83 cultural heritage 87 fluency 159 images 29 information landscape 156 mapping 169–70, 172, 177, 185 materiality 158

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SUBJECT INDEX  199

media 156 projects 159 remediation 158 storytelling 159–61 surrogacy 158 technologies 87–9 visual culture 157 digital humanities 153, 159 digital scholarship 155, 159 digital storytelling 159–62 digital technologies 29 digitization 44, 160 disciplinary visualities 31 discourse mapping 40 discovery 54, 78, 158, 160 discussion aids 78, 96 displacement 172 disruption 78, 92 dissemination draw-and-write 61 of results 16 distortions 158 diversity 78 documentary evidence 160 documentary heritage 156 documentation 31, 83, 101 draw-and-write xxv, 6, 9, 13, 15, 17, 22, 53, 107, 111 ad hoc 170 advantages 55, 78, 115 challenges 115 data management 60 definition 54 ethics of 57 history of 55 instruments 59 LibSquares 64 limitations 55, 77–8 materials 59, 112 outcomes 55 process 77, 111–12 script 58 setting 57 text 60

drawing prompts 177 drawings 3, 29, 34, 37, 44, 65, 155 ad hoc 175 instruments 59 drawing stage 179 drones 69 dscout software 22, 43, 149 duration 148 economic contexts 157 dynamics 157 issues 156 editing 165 Edmonton Public Library 14, 137 education 31 Elgin Scotland 84 Elgin High Street 96 Elgin Library 90, 93, 95–6, 103 elicitation 132 draw-and-write 60 objects 117 embodied experiences 100 images 31, 87 information 17 research methods 20 emergent themes 99, 181 emerging literacies 154, 157–9 empowerment 21, 157, 160 engagement 43, 84, 87 English language learners xvii, 20 engraving 65 entrepreneurship 159 epistemological approaches inductive analysis 35 interpretivism 35 methodology 33 objectivism 35 orientation 4 participant-centred 35 positivism 34 social constructivism 34

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

subjectvism 35 visual as objective 30 epistemology 33, 35 definition 33 knowledge creation 38 ERIAL project 129–30 ethics 30, 39–40, 111, 119, 122, 154, 156 approval 41 of care 43 review boards 41 risk 180 ethnicity 31 ethnographic observation strategies 179 Ethnographic Research in Illinois Academic Libraries (ERIAL) Project 12, 129 ethnography 128 ethos 101 evaluating sources 156 evaluation 84, 132 events 157, 163–4 everyday information 16 contexts 174 interactions 185 spaces 170 visualization of 173 wayfinding experiences 183 evidence 32, 143 exclusion 30 exhibitions 61, 109 experiences 132, 157 embodied 100 gamification 96 mediated 172 participant 88 experiential learning 159 exploration 121, 160 exploratory ethnography 117 expression 19 expressive elements 165 facilitation 18, 160 communication 175

data gathering 85, 97 frameworks 3 Google Maps 183 informal 114, 119 insights 16 librarian 56 linkages 92 participant observer 179 regeneration 84 researchers 99 sensitive topics 122 fairness 41 feminist theory 36 field notes 178–9 Fields of Vision Study 158 file size 101 film 29, 37 Flatiron Building 182 Flower Market 178 fly-through 96 focus groups 5, 20, 46, 54 draw-and-write 60 form 61, 154 format 163–4 Fourth International Visual Methods Conference 173 Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education 154 frameworks xxiv, xxvi, 3, 8, 35–6, 153, 155, 172, 182 community-based participatory research 9 digital storytelling 159 fields of vision 158 layers of practice 160 limitations 8 participatory action research 9 sites 7 themes 8 theoretical 35 visual analysis 163 full-group discussion 114 funding 45, 87 Heritage Lottery Fund 103

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SUBJECT INDEX  201

IT as a Utility Network+, 93 requirements 101 Studio307, 109 UK Digital Economy Communities and Culture 88 Futurelib Innovation Programme 138, 149 galleries xxii gamification 96–7, 99 gatekeepers 68, 160 gay see lesbian gay bisexual and transgender (LGBTQ) gender 31, 153, 156, 180 generalizability 177 Generation Z 158 genre 163–4 Georgia Tech Makerspace study 123 Google 175 Google Glass 176 Google Maps xxvii, 169, 179, 181–3, 185 grants 88, 99 graphical elicitation interview 60 graphic materials 154 grounded theory 15, 60 group analysis 111 guerrilla interviews 144 hand-drawn 21, 175–6, 185 harms see risks headnotes 179–80 heritage 83–103 local 100 see also cultural heritage Heritage Lottery Fund 103 heritage preservation 85 hermeneutics 34 high-definition laser scanning 85 High Street 97 historical context 158, 166 elements 163 images 9, 157 human subjects see participants

iconographic elements 163 identity 166 Indigenous farmers 87 library patrons xix library professional 14, 54, 58, 61, 63, 73 national 166 personal 31 place 100 researcher 37 risks xxv ideological struggle 157 iGeneration 158 illustrations 155 imageability definition 174 images 154 analysis 39 author 8 creation 154 deconstructing 30–1, 33 definition 40 drawings 9 historical 9 interrogating 31 objective realities 30 producer 163 properties of 61 as reference points 33 imagination 120 immersive approaches 159 impressions 163 impromptu wayfinding 178 improvisation 177 inclusion 30 Indigenous farmers 87 individual ideation 146 individual research projects 158 inductive 181 coding 99 research 35 thematic analysis 61, 64 informants see participants information control 169

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

as cultural heritage 87 intangible 54 ownership 169 spatial 169 information behavior 170, 175 wayfinding 172 information literacy 7, 15–16, 36, 56, 71, 56 principles 161 programs 57, 154 Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education 155 information practices 170, 175 complex 87 information science profession xxii information science research 102 information-seeking and behavior theories 36 information technologies 109, 156 information visualization wayfinding 169 informed consent see consent Inforum 109, 121 innovation 13–14, 29, 61, 89, 95, 100, 159, 167, 185 inquiry 35, 44 alternate forms of 53 arts-based 88 intuitive 40 methodology 4 narrative tools 84, 95, 97 qualitative xxiv, 32 social 33 verbal or written 137 insider research xxvi, 19, 38, 109, 117 Instagram 22, 137, 149 instructions xxiii, 44, 54, 56–7, 65, 72–3, 112, 142, 153, 172, 179 instruments 54, 59, 78 intangible information 54 integrity 39, 77, 158 intended use 164 interactive approaches 159

international students xvii, xxi, 20, 72 interpretation 31, 162, 165, 167 interpretive analysis 39, 167 interpretive skills 155 interpretivism 34–5 interruptive actions 172, 177, 184 interventions 78, 172 interviews xvii–xviii, 6, 18, 20, 46, 54, 87, 107, 142, 173 ad hoc 90, 173 coding 6 debriefing 142 duration 148 elicitation 14–15, 32, 34, 45, 137, 142, 148 focusing 122 follow-up 183 informal xxv, 90 interviewer 18 library xxi life history 119 narrative 37 participants 119–20, 122, 142 process 43, 120, 148 prompts 6, 23 qualitative 15–16 recruitment 119 semi-structured 117, 180 standalone 11 themes 123 timing of 109 transcripts 44 inventory 5, 162, 164 description 164 logs 39 photographic 32 iSquares 17, 22, 55, 177 jottings 180–1 judgment sampling 177 Kensington Market 171 knowledge mobilization 20 draw-and-write 61

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SUBJECT INDEX  203

knowledge practices cultural heritage 87 knowledge production 160 Ladyhill Castle, Elgin 85, 89 Laich of Moray 99 landmarks 85, 89 landscaping 158 language 20, 46, 87 arts-based 137, 174 barriers 18 body 164 dependancy 46 mother-tongue 170 universal 129 visual 156 see also literacy laser scanning 83, 93, 101 advantages 85 definition 89 limitations 88 output 94 process 93 and visualization 84 layered meaning 163 layers biases 166 content analysis 163 context 166 events 166 knowledge 163 observation 162–3 point of view 165 of practice 153 purpose 164 revelations 165 tone 164 learning commons 159 learning objectives 162 learning outcomes 155 Leica C10 scanner 89 Leica Cyclone 94 lesbian gay bisexual transgender and queer (LGBTQ) 36, 110, 156

librarian identity 58 professional identity 61, 63 librarians xxv, 95, 162 academic 13 identity 54 professional identity 63 research 38 special collections 157 stereotypes 62–3, 65–6 see also identity libraries xxii academic 157, 159 A. K. Bell 101 citizenship 140 Edmonton Public 14 Elgin 90, 93, 96, 98, 103 experiences 128 makerspaces xxvi military 142 navigating 175 New York Public 176, 182 patrons 90 public 16 research librarians 38 spaces xvii, xxii, 56, 138, 145 staff 127, 133–4, 136, 144, 148 storage vs creation 95 Toronto Reference 171 University of Rochester River Campus 11 University of Victoria xvii–xviii user experience (UX) 129, 132 Library Information Science & Technology Abstracts 10 Library & Information Sciences Abstracts 10 library and information science (LIS) xxi, 78, 83, 171 definition xxii humanities influences 9 practice xxiii professional identities xxii schools 12

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

social science influences 9 wayfinding 175 Library and Information Science Research 8 Library Bill of Rights 72 library kits 145 Library Literature & Information Science Full Text 10 Library Literature & Information Science Retrospective 10 library profession xxii see also identities library spaces xvii 14, 18, 33, 92, 137, 145, 147 intensity 138 makerspaces 114 library users see libraries patrons LibSquares 64, 73, 78 licencing 101 lighting 165 limitations 19–20, 101 in community-based research 88 complexity 21 cost 21 data management plan 45 time 21 linked data 83 literacy 40 information 7, 15–16, 56–7, 71, 154, 161 technological 91 visual 40, 153, 155–7, 160, 167 literal examination 162 Little Cross Elgin 86, 93 lived experiences 32, 157 local history 90 location awareness 183 locations 169 locative media 169 Loch Ness 84 London xxvii 170, 173, 176 London Bridge Station 176 Tube map 174 Underground map 174 Luminary Gallery 173

makerspaces xxvi, 38, 107, 110–24 management 41 data 44 Manhattan 170 manipulation 158 mapping 34, 37, 174 3D 86 affective elements 130 affinity 145 behavioral 14, 129 cognitive xxvi, 5, 128, 130–3, 136–7, 141–2, 174 definition 129 digital 169, 172, 177, 185 mappingdigital 170 mapping drawing 173 geospatial 22 Google Maps xxvii, 22 hand-drawn 21 ideal space 111 London Tube 174 mental 174 metaphorical 68 output 173 paper 169 routes 181 styles 175 visual data 31 visual discourse 40 visual information 176 marginalization 157 marketing 116 mass publication 164 material probes 119 materials draw-and-write 59 meaning-making 15, 33–4, 37 meanings 155, 161 media 54, 154 analysis 157 consumption 157 production skills 154 mediated culture 40 mediated experience 172

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SUBJECT INDEX  205

memory 92, 119 mental models see cognitive mapping mentorship 159 MeshLab 90–1 messages 161, 163 metadata 101, 156, 162–3 metaphor strategy definition 76 methodological innovation 100 methodology 4, 32, 54, 84, 101 draw-and-write 77 frameworks 7 inductive thematic analysis 64 lens 4 methods 4 3D 83 advantages of diverse xxi cognitive mapping 5, 142 content analysis 5, 9 creativity 5 cultural probes 6 definition 4 discourse analysis 9 draw-and-write (iSquares) 6, 17, 22, 55 ethnography 11 interviews xviii, 4, 6 literature search 10 mixed 16, 32, 88 multi-sensory 88 non-participatory xxv object elicitation 6 participant observation 4 participatory xxv, 18, 88 photo-narrative 6 protocol 4 qualitative xxii questionnaires 14 surveys 4 Michigan Flint 42 military library 142 mind map see cognitive map mission 161 mixed media 54 mobile communication 171 mobile device 183

mobile digital maps 169 mobility 169, 185 modalities 54 models 85 3D 85 modes of analysis 158 Monash University 134 monuments 85, 87 movement 54, 158 MP4, 99 multimedia tools 160 multi-modal methods 20, 87–8 multi-sensory methods 20, 88 multi-slice imagining 180 museums xxii musical productions 54 mythological elements 163 narrative inquiry 84, 95, 97 narrative interviewing 37 narratives 40, 84, 88, 153 nature 155 navigation 169–70, 172 negatives 161 Neolithic 84 Newspapers 165 New York Public Library 176, 182 non-digital artifacts 44 non-orthogonal city 170 non-participatory methods xxv definition 9 non-probability sampling 57, 177 nonstandard formats 101 nursing 31 object elicitation 6, 107, 117 barriers 123 benefits 121–2 interviews 120 objective learning 162 reality 30, 32, 46 objectivism 35–6 objectivity 30, 33–4

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

objects 37, 163 observation 30, 39, 99 observational field notes 178, 181 observational perspective 163 omissions 130, 160 one-to-one photo elicitation 145 online data 86 open coding 181 open-source software 90 organizations 158, 164 orientation 170, 179, 181, 183 Orkney UK 84 orthogonal city 170 outcomes 11, 43–4, 99 advocacy & social action 16 co-constructing meaning 15 conceptual work 15 draw-and-write 55 pedagogy 17 process of discovery 77 output digital exhibitions 23 quantitative visual data 32 outputs draw-and-write 61 laser scanning presentation 94 outreach 84 outtakes 161 ownership 22, 41–2, 45, 160, 169 Oxford Street 176 painting 3, 29, 53, 65, 172 paper 59 paradata 178 paradigm quantitative 7 social scientific 61 paradigms 31, 34 arts-informed 74 epistemological 34 qualitative xxiii, 4, 7, 13, 30, 34 participant and observer 179 participant-centred 96 participant observation 118

participants 41, 57, 178 access to xxi, 18, 110 anxiety 140, 145 bias 38 children 20 choosing a population 4 citizens 174 cognitive impairments 20 communities 42 creators 9, 45 dignity 43 disabilities 20 diversity xxi draw-and-write 57 empowerment 21 engagement 90, 102, 115 ethics 40 experiences 88 feminists 37 graduate students 109, 140 identities xix, 14 language abilities 20 motivation 119 as objects of research 9 passers-by 176 public library users 14, 90 records and archives 15 recruiting 93, 112, 119, 144 relationships xxi, 44, 54, 87, 100–1 as research designers 9 safety 41 sampling 57 students 11, 16–17, 33, 174–5 technophobic 102 training 42 undergraduates 11, 128, 137 youth 102 participatory 78 approaches 3, 9, 19, 158 archiving 154 drawing practices 175 events 93 learning 159 methods xxv, 16, 54, 88

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SUBJECT INDEX  207

photographic methods 18 research 16, 19, 21, 83, 87, 102 scanning 83–4 user-driven research 101 visual methods xxvi, 17, 21, 99, 101 partnerships 45, 93, 102, 158 patterns 61, 181 pedagogy 17, 160 visual literacy 157 Penn Station 182 Pennsylvania State University 119 performance-based research methods 170 performance indicators 155 performances 54 personal contexts 169 personal memory 165 perspective 163–5 Perth 101 pervasive computing 171 phases analysis 36 data management 44 ethics 40 researcher reflexivity 37 situating epistemology 33 situating the research 32 theoretical approach 35 phenomena, social and human xxiv phenomenology 34 photo diaries 141, 144 biases 140 definition 137 outcomes 139 photo elicitation xxvi, 6–7, 18, 37, 83, 87, 128, 142, 144, 148 advantages 142 definition 137 one-to-one 145 outcomes 139 process 145 silent group 144–5 photo essay see photo-narrative photogrammetry 83, 85–6, 94, 103

photographs 3, 29, 34, 37, 44, 65, 92, 137, 142, 155, 172 methods xxv participant generated 44 personal 37 production processes 161 photography history of research 30 photo-narrative xvii, 6–7 photos 37 photo surveys 111 photovoice 7, 16–17, 102 limitations 21 place attachment 87 platforms digital mapping 169, 185 search 175 point clouds 85–6 point of view 157–8, 164 political contexts 169, 176 dynamics 157 meaning 154 viewpoints 153 political communication tool 156 portability 101 portraits 65 positivist 31 postcards 155 power dynamics 21, 42, 117, 156 practices 157, 161 practitioners reflexivity 38 workshops 101 Presence Project 141 preservation 101 pre-service librarians 63, 72, 109 primary sources 155, 165 privacy 57, 61, 69, 120–1, 138, 145–6 probability sampling 57 probes xviii, 6, 119–20, 122, 140 process analysis 38 cognitive mapping 136

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

draw-and-write 57 laser scanning event 93 wayfinding 176 producer 165 production elements 163–5 programmers 122 prompts 60 proprietary formats 101 proprietary platforms 170 Protolib 138 Protolib II 149 provenance definition 160 psychology 31 publication 41, 164 public library 14, 16, 56, 69, 74, 90, 137, 176–7 publishers 45 purpose 163, 165 qualitative research xxii–xxiii, 13, 32, 45, 88, 117 quality 18–19, 156 quantitative research 7, 30, 32, 130 Queen’s Park 171 queer see lesbian gay bisexual transgender and queer (LGBTQ) queer theory 36 question and answer sessions 94 questionnaires 14 race 31, 153, 180 raw data 86 RCUK IT as a Utility Network+, 103 reception 41, 181 recordings 44 records 85 recruitment 112, 117, 119, 155, 177 reflection 87, 132 reflective evaluation 159 reflective writing 159 reflexivity 37–8, 40, 43, 84, 88 relationships 87–8, 101 release forms 42 reliability 53, 154, 177

repositories 60, 110 representations 41, 157, 163, 173–4, 176 reproduction permissions 156 research bias xxiv, 35, 37, 39, 87 collaborators 45 contexts 18 design xvii digital cultural heritage 87 stresses 117 Research Councils UK Communities and Culture Network+, 103 Research Councils UK Digital Economy Communities and Culture network 88 research designs iterative process 115 limitations 102 researcher–practitioner identity 14 researchers xxv anxiety 136, 144 bias 177 identities 37, 109 library staff 148 perspective 21 relationship with participants 44, 91 remote collaboration 60 roles 37, 117 research methods bias 38 embodied 20 growth in LIS xxii multi-modal 20 multi-sensory 20 performance 170 surveys 14 visual UX 127 research perspective 109 research process 182 object elicitation 118 research quality 19 research questions 3, 13, 54, 111, 118, 149 about librarians 63 digital cultural heritage 89

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SUBJECT INDEX  209

iSquares 55 service design 14 space design 14 wayfinding 14 resonance 19 respect 41 responsibility 42 rights management 154, 156 rigor 43, 101 Rijksmuseum 176, 178 Ring of Brodgar 84 risks 40–2, 180 route maps 171, 175 routines 149 Royal Burgh High Street 89 Royal Deeside 84 ruins 89 sampling 53, 56–7, 64, 177 San José State University 72, 78 scalability 101 scanning technologies 100 schematics 175 Scottish Highlands 84 scripts 58, 177 sculptures 3, 54 searching 10, 36, 61, 73 for directions 183 ease 184 Google 169 platforms 175 strategies 162 secondary sources 165 selective coding 181 Semaphore Research Cluster 109 Semaphore Studio307 Makerspace 107 semi-structured interviews 12, 56, 100, 118, 120 sensitive topics 122 sensory information 172 sharing economy 69 silent group photo-elicitation 145 site monitoring 85 sites 7–8

situated meanings 153, 185 skills development 109, 155 small-group analysis 112 smartphones 92, 101, 149 Snapshot 140 social constructivism definition 34 social contexts 34, 157, 166, 169 social information 17 social issues 156 social meaning 154 social media 22, 43, 93, 119, 137, 140, 149, 155 sociology 31, 175 sociomateriality 88 software analytical 64 CAD 85 Camtasia 99 Cloud Compare 86 dscout 22, 43 Leica Cyclone 94 licensing 101 MeshLab 90 open source 90 specialized 21 sounds 92 source material 153 sources 155 spaces 137, 158 characteristics 91 construction of 170 experience of 170 heritage 88 ideal 111 library xvii, xxi, 56, 90, 92, 138, 145 perceptions 175 urban 170, 173 spaces design 14 spatial information 169–70, 176 inscriptions 174 perception 175, 185 representation 170 special collections 153, 156, 158–9

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

spractions 174 spreadsheets 60 Stanford University 174 statues 86 stereotypes librarians 62–3, 65–6 sticky notes 145 still photos 161 Stockholm 142 storage 41–2, 45 storytelling 6–7, 39–40, 54, 61, 92, 99, 107, 135, 153, 158, 160 cultural heritage 88 definition 61 digital 160 street level interactions 177 structure 154 students 63 experiences 14 international xvii, 20 pre-professional librarians 73 undergraduate 11–12 studies Bring Your Own Heritage 93 Cambridge University 127, 130, 132, 138, 141, 149 Castle to Cathedral to Cashmere 84, 93, 102 Charles Darwin University 133 Churchill College 140 community health and safety in Michigan 42 Edmonton Public Library 137 Field of Vision 158 Georgia Tech Makerspace 123 of librarians 63 Monash University 134 Pennsylvania State University 119 Presence Project (EU) 141 Privacy Illustrated 61 San José State University (LibSquares) 72 Stanford University 174 Studying Students 111 Swedish Defence University 142

University of Illinois (ERIAL) 12 University of Maastricht 134 University of Rochester (Studying Students) 11–12, 111, 119, 128, 137 University of Sheffield 17 University of Toronto xxvi, 13, 44, 55, 57, 78, 107, 109–10 University of Toronto Citizens’ Visions 63–4 University of Toronto iSquares 55 University of Victoria xvii, xxi, 7, 20, 44 University of Wolverhampton 144 user service in libraries 12 Victoria University 135 wayfinding 176 subjectivism 35–6 subject matter 162 surface mesh 85 surveying technologies 84–5 surveys 20, 46, 54 Swedish Defence University 142 symbolic representation 165 symbols 153–4, 158, 163 tablets 92, 101 tacit knowledge 87 tags 61 target domain 76 Tate Modern 176 teaching and learning 17, 159 team-building 78 TechFund 109 technology 21, 44, 69, 85, 157 barriers 92 history of visual 30 hubs 159 limitations 101 texts 84, 92 draw-and-write 60 textual artifacts 92 texture 61 theatrical performance 172 thematic analysis 61

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SUBJECT INDEX  211

themes 61, 162 emergent 99 theoretical framework advantages 36 considerations 4 selecting 36 theoretical memo writing 181 theories 35, 101 building 180 critical education 36 critical race 36 feminist and queer 36 grounded 15 information seeking and behaviour 36 sociomateriality 88 visual meaning 158 this way brouwn 172 timing 101, 148 tone 61, 163, 165 Toronto xxvii, 170, 173 Toronto City Hall 171 Toronto Reference Library 171 tourism 85, 90, 92 Trafalgar Square 176 transferability 101 transgender see lesbian gay bisexual transgender and queer (LGBTQ) Trinity Bellwoods Park 171 trust 150, 183–4 Twitter 22 Union Station 176 University of Buffalo 78 University of Maastricht 134 University of Rochester 11–12, 111, 128 University of Sheffield 17 University of Toronto xxvi, 13, 44, 55, 57, 78, 107 University of Victoria xix 7, 20, 44 University of Victoria Libraries xvii–xviii University of Wolverhampton 144 unstructured exploration 121 unstructured techniques 100

urban planning 175 urban space 170, 173 urban studies 175 usability 101 user-driven participatory research 101 user engagement., 90 user experience (UX) xxvi, 127, 129, 158 validity 53 verification 175, 183 Victoria University 135 video 3, 29, 44 video capture 102 videos 34, 99 virtual reality 29 visual knowledges 176 language 156, 174 literacy 40, 153, 155, 157, 160, 167 visual analysis goals 161 parts of 161 visual approaches see visual research visual artifacts 16, 160 complexities 31 visual awareness 157 visual conversations 87 visual culture 156 visual data interpretation 32, 38 ownership and control 41 visual documentary heritage 156 visual elements 7 audiencing 8 format 8 image content 8 origin 8 production site 8 research focus 8 visual fluency 159 visual grounded theory 60, 180–81 visual information 172 visual intelligences 172 visual interpretation 156

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VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

visualizations 30, 83–5, 93, 101, 169, 182–3 movement 174 as narrative inquiry tool 95 visual job descriptions 68 visual learning 154, 159 visual literacy 154, 156 Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education 154–6, 162 visually literacy characteristics 155 visual metaphor analysis 61 visual methodologies 4 route maps 175 visual methods 4 3D 83 advantages xxii, 17–20, 44, 78, 100, 150 analysis 112 applied settings 14 challenges 8–9, 19–21, 43, 78, 101, 136, 149 cognitive maps 5, 12 consent 42 content analysis 5, 32, 38 context 8 credibility 19 critical discourse analysis 38 cultural probes 6 deception 180 deconstructing 30 definition xxii, 3 depth of discovery xxi description 3 digital images 29 diversity 3 documentation 7, 9, 29–31 draw-and-write 6, 9, 13, 15, 17, 22, 53–5, 58 drawings 29 elicitation 7 emerging 9 empowerment 21 engagement xxi film 29 group analysis 111

historical and cultural work 100 inconsistencies 3 interpretive analysis 167 interviews 6, 12 mapping diaries 11 methodological consideration 7 mixed 32 narrative interviewing 37 object elicitation 6, 118 outcomes 92, 99 paintings 29 participatory 7, 9, 18 photo elicitation xxii, 6, 12, 18, 132 photographs 16, 29 photo-narrative xvii, 6, 37 photovoice 17 qualitative 5, 38 quality of 19 quantitative 5 reflexivity 37, 88 resonance 19 scanning and visualization 101 as storytelling 6–7 technology 21 thematic analysis 38 user-centered 128 video 29 virtual reality 29 visual representation 154 visual research 4, 29, 117, 161, 175 advantages 18 analysis 114, 156 application 17 bias and neutrality 33, 37, 39, 117 biases 30 challenges 46 complexities 30 conceptual work 15 consent 43 costs 21, 100 dissemination 16 epistemology 12, 34 ethics 18, 41 frameworks 7–8

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SUBJECT INDEX  213

group analysis 115 growth 22 inductive process 35 interdisciplinary 102 interpretive analysis 39 knowledge mobilization 20 method vs methodology 4 new knowledge 14 objectivity 34 objects 23 outcomes 11, 13–17 participatory methods 101 perspective xix principals 148 privilege 21, 38 purpose xxiii reflexivity 88 research questions 13 re-using images 23

risks 42 search strategy 10 social constructivist approach 34 technology 22 theory 12, 35–6 viewpoint 35 visual rhetoric 155 visual semantics 160 visual techniques see visual methods visual UX research methods 127 Washington Square 182 Waterloosplein 178 wayfinding 169, 171, 176, 183 WeaveUX 129 women’s history 156 workflows 72, 101 workshops 95, 101, 121 worldviews 36

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