Visual communication images with messages [[Nachdr.] ed.] 9780534195304: 053419530X

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VISUAL

COMMUNICATION

Images with Messages

79

f*t&$£ *«v

•

PAUL

•

•

•

ARTIN

LESTER

Digitized by the Internet Archive in

2014

https://archive.org/details/visualcommunicatOOIest

Visual

Communication IMAGES WITH MESSAGES

PAUL MARTIN LESTER CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, FUILERTON

Visual

Communication IMAGES WITH MESSAGES

COMMUNICATIONS EDITOR: Todd

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COPYRIGHT ©

1995 by Wadsworth Publishing

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No

part of this

any form or by any means

—

taping, or information storage

Srai

Lesk

(

;

'a ul

work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used

and

retrieval

systems

— without the written permission of

Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin.

Visual communication

:

images with messages

/

Paul Martin Lester,

cm.

p.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-534- 19530-X 1.

Visual communication.

P93.5.L47

1995

302.23— dc20

in

graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,

I.

Title.

94-19173

the publisher.

CONTENTS

The Retina

ix

Preface

23 23

Light path to the retina SECTION

HOW WE

1

SEE

1

Regions of the retina

23

Photoreceptors: Rods and cones

CHAPTER

TO

1

PERCEIVE.

SENSE.

TO

TO

SELECT.

3

The

optic nerve

The Brain

The Visual Process

4

The

Visual Communication's Circle Dance

CHAPTER

LIGHT

2

Where Does

What

Is

Light

AND COLOR

Come From?

the Speed of Light?

Particles or

Waves?

6

Color

8

29

cortex

30

The hippocampus

31

WHY WE

SECTION 2

SEE

33

9

WHAT THE BRAIN AND MOVEMENT 35

CHAPTER

10

4

SEES:

COLOR, FORM, DEPTH,

/ 1

Color

12

Sociological Uses of Color

16

36

Describing color

Form Dots

40

Lines

41

Historic Eyes

Shapes

18

to the Soul

20

Physiology of the Eye

21

Depth

The

37

40

CHAPTER 3 THE EYE, THE RETINA, AND THE BRAIN 18 Windows

27

7

Other Forms of Electromagnetic Energy

24

42

44 eight

depth cues

45

V

vi

CONTENTS

Movement Real

A new form

50

movement

50

Persuasion:

Apparent movement

of communication?

A

life

and death

98 99

issue

50

Graphic movement

50

Implied movement

51

CHAPTER

7 IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE

Brain Cells Notice the Difference

MEDIA

51

100

Stereotyping Generally

102

Reinforcing stereotypes with images

CHAPTER

THE SENSUAL AND

5

Media coverage and

PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL

COMMUNICATION

thinking

52

Specific

Communication

53

58

Female stereotypes

59

Gay and

Can We

Perceptual Theories of Visual

Communication Semiotics

Examples of Stereotyping

THE ETHICS OF

WHAT WE

73

SEE

THE MEDIA THROUGH WHICH

WE

75

76

Six Perspectives for Analyzing

The

role of persuasion

The

role

of propaganda

125

Technical Perspective

125 725

Ethical Perspective

CHAPTER

81

Commercial advertising

82

Growth of advertising

126 126

86 88

129

131

89 91

Corporate influence in newsrooms 92

138

Technical Perspective

149

Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective

138

138

Historical Perspective

Ethical Perspective

92

136

Typography and the Six Perspectives Personal Perspective

88

Journalism and public relations

98

129

Analysis of the Gutenberg Bible

Advertising and public relations

Objectivity and journalism

Bible

Gutenberg

Visual Persuasion in Public Relations

Visual Persuasion in Journalism

TYPOGRAPHY

The Curious History of Johannes 83

84

relations

8

The Gutenberg

83

Noncommercial advertising

David Kirby

Historical Perspective

81

Visual Persuasion in Advertising

and public

124

Critical Perspective

80

Any

123

Cultural Perspective

The Fine Line Between Persuasion and Propaganda

123

Personal Perspective

6

The Benetton Advertising Campaign

to

119

67

AND JOURNALISM

Back

116

61

VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS,

Politics

107

112

All Get Along?

Image

CHAPTER

106

lesbian stereotypes

SEE

SECTION 3

106

61

SECTION 4

Cognition

105

African-American stereotypes

Constructivism Ecological

104

Jewish-American stereotypes

53

Gestalt

prejudicial

Irish-American stereotypes

Sensual Theories of Visual

103

156

157 158

Future Directions for Typography

158

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

GRAPHIC DESIGN

9

Ethical Perspective Bass's Contributions to

243

162 Critical Perspective

Movies

241

Graphic Cultural Perspective

Design

238

Technical Perspective

161

244

162

Future Directions for Cartoons

Packaging and logos Analysis of The

Arm

Man

165

CHAPTER

Analysis of

"The Migrant Mother"

Personal Perspective

167

Graphic Design and the Six 167

Perspectives

Personal Perspective

168

253

Technical Perspective

260

Ethical Perspective

168

Cultural Perspective

Technical Perspective

171

Critical Perspective

Ethical Perspective

Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective

CHAPTER

185

188

185

Kane

280

282

Personal Perspective

190

790

USA Today

Analysis of Infographics in

Informational Graphics and the Six

Ethical Perspective

Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective

284

Technical Perspective

306

Ethical Perspective

Critical Perspective

194

Historical Perspective

Technical Perspective

191

1

314

317

Future Directions for Motion Pictures

CHAPTER

199

207

TELEVISION

14

VIDEO

319

Making and

210

The

trial

Television

212

"The Simpsons"

215

Cartoons and the Six Perspectives 217 219

its

aftermath

323

325

Rodney King Video

and Video and the Six

Perspectives

329

Personal Perspective

217

322

Incident

airing the video

and

Analysis of the

CARTOONS

AND

322

The Rodney King

210

210

Historical Perspective

311

94

Future Directions for Informational

Personal Perspective

282

Historical Perspective

Cultural Perspective

194

Personal Perspective

Analysis of

275

Analysis of Citizen

188

Impact of technology

11

274

Orson Welles and the Making of Citizen

Perspectives

Television weather segments

Graphics

272

Motion Pictures and the Six

Newspaper use

Perspectives

271

MOTION PICTURES

13

Kane

Weather Maps

268

177

INFORMATIONAL 187

252

265

Future Directions for Photography

176

Future Directions for Graphic Design

GRAPHICS

249

252

Historical Perspective

Historical Perspective

10

246

Photography and the Six Perspectives

Recent Trends in Motion Picture Visuals

PHOTOGRAPHY

12

with the Golden

166

CHAPTER

244

164

Television

CHAPTER

vii

329

Historical Perspective

331

Technical Perspective

344

Ethical Perspective

348

326

viii

CONTENTS

Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective

Networked

354

CHAPTER

359

402

Technical Perspective

406

Ethical Perspective

Computer-Generated Images

361

Cultural Perspective

407 409 412

Critical Perspective

362

Future Directions for Networked Interactive

Evolution of computer-generated

images

402

Historical Perspective

361

Morphing

402

Personal Perspective

COMPUTERS

15

Multimedia and the

Six Perspectives

358

Future Directions for Television and

Video

Interactive

Multimedia

363

413

Future of computer-generated

imaging

365

Analysis of motion picture computer graphics

366

Computers and the

Pictures

366

Historical Perspective

367

Technical Perspective

379

Ethical Perspective

Cultural Perspective Critical Perspective

16

419

and words communication

Pictures

Light— The Link

GLOSSARY

395

to a Friend

423

BIBLIOGRAPHY 397

INDEX

398

Analysis of Laser Disk Presentations

401

435

in

420

395

NETWORKED

— Like Talking

Living in a Picture-Filled World

Words

394

INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA

IM

— Learned Before Words

416

417

Helping Explain Unfamiliar Pictures with

389

Future Directions for Computers

CHAPTER

366

Six Perspectives

Personal Perspective

CHAPTER 17 THE MORE YOU KNOW, THE MORE YOU SEE 415

427

mass

420

PREFACE

^Nhere did

the idea

communicate were

first

thoughts,

come from

that

words

better than pictures? Since they

invented to communicate complex

words

and

pictures

been

have

locked in a struggle for dominance, with

words being the clear-cut

leader.

With the

widespread use of Gutenberg's printing

press,

words became more important than pictures convey complex thought.

to

Images were

mation

all

demand

that

we become more

visually literate.

Visual Communication: Images with Messages explores

several

What

questions.

are

your personal responses toward a particular visual presentation?

you

How

can you

relate

what

medium of What do you know about the

see with the history of the

presentation?

technology that makes possible the presenta-

relegated to an occasional medical diagram, a

tion of the information displayed? Are

"pretty" border decoration, or a sensational

aware of the ethical responsibility that pro-

eye-catching view. Reading and writing be-

ducers of visual messages have in creating

came curriculum requirements, but

visual

literacy wasn't considered a necessary

com-

ponent of an individual's education.

However, the invention of the

computer

— and

the

— dramatically

spread

changed the

How

do

cultural in-

and

played and diverse interpretations of them?

of

This book also explores the simple idea that

desktop publishing and interactive multi-

media

images that are compelling and yet do not stereotype individuals?

fluences determine the type of messages dis-

television

recent

role

of

visual messages that are greatest

power

remembered have the

to inform, educate,

visual messages in

communication. Nowhere

suade an individual and a culture

on Earth can

person avoid being con-

some images

fronted with

a

some

sort of visual message.

Knowledge about the nature of

you

light,

the

are

and per-

— and why

remembered but most

are

forgotten.

An

emphasis on visual messages does not

physiology of the brain, and the technological

mean

gadgets that people invent to present infor-

tant than images.

that

words are considered

less

impor-

The most powerful, meanix

PREFACE

x

and culturally important messages

ingful,

ly

and

first

step toward understanding visual

communication

many ways

the

and consumed

is

we

produced

see

cartoon,

still,

is

modern, media-rich

Typographic,

ety.

of media,

to educate yourself about

that information in a

a

in

live

Bombarded

intensive

visually

informational,

graphic,

moving,

soci-

television,

and com-

we

mediated

Some

words.

images

more than we read

experts warn that

cy and lawlessness.

More

order

new

In this

a direct result of the

is

new

cannot afford

age in communications initiated and promot-

know

ed by computer technology, which

someone

makes

production,

only

to

how

2.

and

interested

who produce

who

are

affected

the images, and those

by what they see in

numbers unequaled

in the history of

mass

communications.

Computers allow

motion

illustrative,

picture,

and

pictures, photo-

relations, television,

know how

to use

and analyze the words and pictures presented in all those ways.

(walls)

The

artificial

boundaries

between the various media imposed

by tradition and older technology are beginning to crumble. This book can help you

professional

and ama-

teur writers and designers to produce typographic,

to

advertising, graphic

in

or visual perception must

links the various types of visual materials,

those

will

new ways

know only how to write or to to make an image. Today,

communications, public easier;

advances

and

presentation,

viewing of visual messages

in

technological age, a person

design, journalism, 1.

illitera-

create innovative educational possibilities.

to complete this first step.

This book also

the trend

optimistic research-

merge words and pictures

critical perspectives in

if

continues, civilization will regress to

ers predict that technological

and

We

are only taught to understand words.

puter images are analyzed within a frame-

cal, cultural,

manner

all

seek to understand pictures, but

work of personal,

historical, technical, ethi-

society.

daily with a steady, unrelenting

stream of visual stimulation from

respectfully.

The

We

are

those that combine words and pictures equal-

photographic,

television

breach those walls and enter the brave (visual)

world on the other

new

side.

motion

images in graphic

Features of the book

designs with ease.

For hundreds of years technology has kept writers

and visual

artists separate

and un-

equal. Before Johannes Gutenberg's invention

of the commercially successful printing press, less

than 30 percent of the people could read.

Visual Communication: Images with Messages

contains the following features. •

An

informal writing style explains de-

tailed information in a thorough, yet easily

Seventy years after his invention, 80 percent

understandable way. Section

of the entire population of Europe could read.

the latest scientific and medical informa-

Seventy years after Louis Daguerre's intro-

tion available about light, the eye,

duction of the

first

practical photographic

pers.

And

after

Three addresses ethical issues related to persuasive images and stereotyping. Each

grammar was developed

for

Gutenberg. People are taught to

read words but pictures.

theoretical

educators never developed a

that a verbal

words

features

approaches to visual perception. Section

a

visual grammar for photographs in the same

way

Two

and the

newspa-

had

at pictures in their local yet,

Section

presents

Kodak camera

process, almost everyone

and looked

brain.

One

are

never taught to read

chapter in Section Four

is

introduced with

a detailed analysis of a significant

example

from the medium being discussed,

fol-

lowed by a general discussion of the medi-

um

from personal,

historical,

technical,

PREFACE

ethical, cultural,

•

and

critical perspectives.

graphic design, journalism, motion picture,

Each chapter ends with a brief predictions

photocommunication, public

section.

television

More than 350 black-and-white and graphics and photographs from

moving image sources addition

In

many examples way

Section

illustrations,

messages in the

exhibits the best that can be

achieved in graphic design

and pictures

when words

are treated with equal

impor-

tance and respect. •

A

A

the part of viewers in order to get the most

from visual messages. The chapters

and physiology of

and forms images

light enters the eye

the brain.

in this

Knowing about

these physical

in

and

mental processes will help the student understand

why some

memorable and

pictures are

others are not.

in

it

Chapter

terms

more than 100 key

glossary contains

To Sense. To Select. To Perceive

1:

This chapter features the philosophy of the

words that are introduced

A

on

sophisticated visual perception techniques

that are used in the text.

•

more

for

calls

cutline for each illustration identifies

the image and often describes

•

See

section explain the physics

of the reader.

The book

How We

1:

This section of the book

how •

media presentations.

the text's

are described in such a

as to evoke visual

mind

and

contemporary

the

to

and

relations,

color

still

life to

and

references

historical ideas.

give

xi

who wrote

writer Aldous Huxley,

"the more

you know, the more you see" and how that

in the text.

phrase relates to the study, appreciation, and detailed bibliography presents sources of

production of visual messages.

additional information. •

An

instructor's

manual includes

Chapter

in-class

discussion topics and out-of-class assign-

ments, pages that can be used as masters for

overhead projection sheets for each

lecture, test questions

with answers, pre-

dictions from students about the future of visual

communications,

story of

how

may change

virtual

the

way

fictionalized

a

reality

visual

technology

communica-

Light

and Color

This chapter explores the history, physics,

and sociological is

characteristics of light. Light

natural starting point

the

a

for

visual

communication textbook because images ceive ic

life

through

this

re-

form of electromagnet-

energy. Consequently, having an under-

standing of the nature of light

we

the objects

tion courses are taught, an 800- item time

attention

make con-

creation.

line that allows the reader to

2:

—

is

see

and how

vital

— how

it

it

shapes

can direct our

image analysis and

for

nections between the various historical

developments presented in the

text,

suggestions for teaching a visual

and

commu-

Chapter

The

nication course.

many

body

sections that discuss technical

and

cal issues relevant to advertising,

sociologi-

computers,

and

the

basic

and brain responsible

parts

is

The physiology of used as a model for

of the machines that help

world more are divided into four

Eye, the Retina,

are discussed.

these vital

The seventeen chapters

The

parts of the eye

for sight

Organization of the book

3:

Brain

visible.

An

make

the

understanding of the

components of the eye and brain can

lead to

insights

regarding the images that

cameras and computers produce.

PR K FACE

xii

Why We

Section 2:

See

texts

be exaggerated

to

of reality

visions

because their visual claims are intended to Seeing

is

enough

light in a

not simply a function of having

persuade and provoke. However, images used

how

room. This section explores for editorial

the brain processes the individual graph-

conform

purposes also are designed to

to preconceived perceptions.

elements that make up a pictorial scene.

ic

The many

theories of

how

the

mind

puts the

Chapter

individual parts of an image together into

thought are explained and

logical patterns of

discussed.

Chapter

What

and

a current analysis

still,

moving,

Understanding the

effect

has on

a

society

real,

down

into

how

underre-

that stereotyping

whole

is

important.

communicate

to

a

its

society's desire to segregate various groups

simple graphic components. Because of the

based on race, gender, age, physical condi-

functions, these graphic eletion,

make quick

as

may be used

Pictures

or imagined, can be broken

to

of

the Brain Sees: Color,

Every image, whether

ments combine

Media

presented groups are portrayed in the media.

Form, Depth, and Movement

way the brain

Images That Injure: Pictorial

This chapter contains a historical perspective

4:

7:

Stereotypes in the

and many other

Being

characteristics.

sense of what able to identify pictorial stereotyping

the eyes see. Being able to identify and use

step toward securing equality and

first

the

is

justice.

those basic graphic elements helps in the analysis

and production of images.

The Media Through

Section 4: Chapter

5:

Which We See

The Sensual and Perceptual

Theories of Visual Communication Psychologists have theories based

on

come up with

several

either sensual data received

information pro-

in the eye or perceptual

cessed in the brain.

The two types of ap-

proaches are discussed with an emphasis on

how someone can make memorable

use this information to

This

includes

section

medium

of presentation.

chapter

on each

Each chapter

is

introduced with a description of a significant

image or object presented by that medium. Subsequent analysis involves the personal, historical,

technical,

ethical,

cultural,

and

described at the start of

critical perspectives

images.

a

the section. These six perspectives

promote a

thorough understanding of the medium, the

Section 3:

The

Ethics of

What We

See

works produced by

it,

and

its

effects

on the

culture.

Before a discussion of each

medium's

role in

Chapter

8:

Typography

the production and distribution of images, an

understanding of the ethical problems associated with images are used,

lead

and

The chapter introduces the student life

is

necessary. Pictures often

knowingly or unknowingly,

to

mis-

to the

and work of Johannes Gutenberg, who

invented the

first

commercially successful

printing press, on which the Gutenberg Bible distort.

was printed. Chapter tising,

6:

Visual Persuasion in Adver-

Public Relations,

Probably the most is

for advertising

es.

and Journalism

common

and public

use of images

relations purpos-

People expect pictures used in these con-

Chapter

9:

Graphic Design

The graphic larly the

movie

designs of Saul Bass, particutitle

sequence for The

with the Golden Arm, are featured.

Man

PREFACE

Chapter

George

of

design

map

Today full-page weather

USA

the

is

many

influenced

This chapter describes an interactive, mul-

a striking

example of an informational graphic that directly

Chapter 16: Networked Interactive Multimedia

10: Informational Graphics

Rorick's

other newspaper

CD-ROM

timedia

program, From Alice

to

Ocean: Alone Across the Outback, as an example of the best that the

publishers.

xiii

medium

has to offer.

But present-day interactive multimedia pres-

Chapter

11:

entations are nothing

Cartoons

"The Simpsons"

originator of

both comic

in

strip

to the pro-

of the future that will instantly net-

grams

The work of Matt Groening,

compared

work with thousands of databases around the

and world.

animated television productions, begins the Chapter 17: The More You Know, the More You See

discussion in this chapter.

Chapter

A

12:

The book's conclusion

Photography

discussion of Dorothea Lange's famous

portrait of a

mother and her children, "The

ough knowledge of

mediated images, but also will aid

analysis of

describes the major technological and stylis-

in the observation

innovations in

still

photography. Ethical

and interpretation of

di-

among

all

rect visual experiences.

The

issues involved in photojournalism also are

the information contained

part of the discussion.

chapters

Chapter

The

13:

close-up shot of Orson Welles saying

picture Citizen

is

link

in the preceding

discussed.

Glossary

Motion Pictures

the word "Rosebud"

communication

visual

not only will help in the production and

Migrant Mother," begins the chapter that

tic

stresses that a thor-

in his innovative

motion

Kane begins the discussion of

the movie industry.

More than 100 terms to

the

reader

are

that

may

defined

be unfamiliar

briefly

Each word in the glossary

section.

emphasized

in the text

in

this

is

first

by boldface type and

explained there.

Chapter

14: Television

The videotape

and Video

shot by amateur George

Bibliography

Holliday that showed the beating and forceful arrest of

spark

Rodney King, which

the officers involved, introduces the

power of

allows

15:

Most of the resource materials on which

this

book

can

is

obtain

based are

listed so that the reader

additional

information

about each

subject presented in the text.

televised images.

Chapter

The

helped

unrest in Los Angeles and convict

civil

some of

later

Computers

Acknowledgments

technological innovation of morphing

of unusual computer-

the creation

generated forms that can friendly sea creature in terrifying

Day. The

monster full

range from the

The Abyss

in Terminator 2:

to

the

judgment

impact of computer technology

on communication

is

discussed.

Writing a book

marathon what

it

is

is

like

running a 26.2-mile

in the sense that like until

are ever foolish

you do

enough

you never know it

yourself. If

you

to try (either one),

be

sure to get plenty of help. To one degree or

another,

the

following people contributed

PREFACE

xiv

greatly to this effort, helping

me

train, sup-

me with water, running heside me, cheering me along, and congratulating me at plying

Pegie Stark,

Bob

and Mary Sum-

Steele, Paul

Don Sunoo, Winton Sweum, Jennifer Tibbetts, Ed Trotter, Mike Tyler, Kim Walshmitt,

the finish line. In alphabetical order they are:

Childers, Larry Ward, Lorraine Waters, David

and Lucy Adams, Todd Arm-

Weaver, Marsha Woodbury, Fred Zandpour,

Charlie

strong, Cecelia Baldwin, Ralph Barney, Saul

Nancy Benjamin,

Bass,

Paul Bibbo, Jay Black,

Tom and Evie Brislin, Jim and Becky Brown, Tom Burr, Carl and Adjoa Burrowes, Fenton

and

Neil

tians,

Chapman, Ray Chavez,

Colson, Paul Conrad, Carolyn

B.

J.

Cliff Chris-

the waitresses at Jon's Coffee

Huntington Beach who

Thank you of the

text:

Kevin Barnhurst, Syracuse Uni-

Texas;

Crow, Everette Dennis, Craig Denton,

ta;

Ed

Fink, Lin Ford, Dick Foushee, Theresa

Frare,

Cody, Jim, and Nancy Greenwood,

Joanne Gula, Ruth Guzley, Chris Harris, Beth

Rob

Hart,

Heller,

Mclnnes

Peggy

Mark and

Scott Heustis,

Houston,

Terry

Rhonda Jamgotchian, son,

King,

Josh

Hynes,

Jay Jimenez, Jeff John-

Jeff

Kowalchuk,

Debby

Beckman,

Richard

versity;

North Carolina;

Fellow,

J.

B.

Alan John, Wright State University;

Steve

Jones,

Kenney,

Watkins, University of Arkansas. I

consider myself one of the luckiest per-

sons on the face of this planet because

all

Jerrold

Jay

Moore, Anne Moses, Carlene

Nelson, Julie Newton, Coral Ohl, Nora Paul,

Richard

Bob

Pearce-Moses,

Picard,

Nancy

Pullen, Liz Regan,

son,

Pierce,

Michelle

Perlman,

Bill

my

know

fondest wishes

is

I

am

each one of you. that

spend a week together

someday we in

an

old,

weather-beaten, sturdy (and extremely large)

house somewhere along the coast of

England so that

all

of you can get to

New know

each other.

David Pincus, Rick

Tony Rimmer,

Joel

Robin-

Susan Ross, David Shedden, Michael

Shulman,

Carolina;

iann Newton, University of Texas; and Patsy

can

ling,

Keith

Tulsa;

South

of

Charles Lewis, Mankato State University; Jul-

of

Mech-

of

University

University

One

and

University;

State

Jeffrey

Wally MacPhee, Sirish Mani, George ManChris Maron, George and Nancy Mas-

Colson, University of

Tom Hubbard, Ohio

fortunate enough to

ross,

of

University

Lucy Ganje, University of North Dako-

Kramer, Ed Lambeth, Travis Linn, Elaine and

troianni, Irene Matz, Elizabeth

at a table

also to the following reviewers

Counts, Deni and James Cramer, Wendell

Durham, Bob and Ginger Emry, Tony

sit

in

edit this text.

Coogan, Marvin and Maria Cortner, Will

Patti

me

let

Shop

with an endless supply of coffee to write and

Calhoun, Michael Carlebach, Cynthia Carvajal,

all

Smith, Ken Smith, Ted Smythe,

Paul Martin Lester Fullerton, California

How We

Visual communication

that function

all

and

See

relies

both on eyes

a brain that

makes sense of

the sensory information received.

tive,

curious

mind remembers and

An

ac-

uses visual

light,

how

the

eyes

retinas collect light,

esses,

sorts,

and

focus

light,

how

the

and how the brain proc-

stores

light

is

important

because camera and computer construction

messages in thoughtful and innovative ways.

is

based on some of the same principles.

Knowing about

A

knowledge of the physics and physiol-

it

if

the world and the images that

conveys will help you analyze pictures.

you can examine pictures

And

critically,

you

ogy of

light

will

enhance your use of the

technologies of the future and the ability

have a good chance of producing high-quality

to

decipher innovative visual messages.

images that others will remember.

is

light

General

knowledge

of

the

physics

of

life.

that

gives

visual

messages

It

their

CHAPTER

1

To Sense. To Select. To Perceive.

The

greatest thing a

human this

soul ever does in

world

something.

clearly

is

prophecy,

to see

is

.

.

.

To see

poetry,

and

religion, all

in one.

Think

of

all

part of your

the visual messages that are a

life:

a cracked bat given to

you bv

a professional baseball player; your fingers

the handlebars during your

first

on

bicycle ride;

who

doctor

treated your cut leg;

all

the colors

of the plants as you walked along the pictures

on the wall of your

lover's

Actually, the proportion of

trail;

the

bedroom.

remembered

Why

to

the smile from your favorite teacher during

forgotten images

your high school graduation; red blood drip-

chosen few easily recalled while a vast array of

ping from a cut on your

ambiguous memories

small stream

leg;

the sight of a

country; a passionate look from a lover. These visual messages are toire of

all

a part of your reper-

memories. These personal moments

are forever stored in the gray recesses of your brain.

Pictures weave themselves into your

memory for years.

The

during a quiet walk in the

system, sometimes lying

dormant

You remember and communicate

sorts

that ry.

all

is

quite small.

are a

are lost?

brain deliberately and unconsciously the possible images and selects those

become

a part of your long-term

memo-

That selection process depends largely on

how much you want be remembered,

it

to

know. For an image

must make such

impression that you want to recall

and

again.

Through

repetitive

to

a strong it

again

mental viewing

these mental images because they are highly

over time, the image becomes permanent and

meaningful visual messages.

your brain stores the visual memory. These

Think of

all

the personal visual messages

pictures

become

When you

a part of your visual

you have experienced but may have forgotten:

bank.

the billboard advertisements on the outfield

new

wall during the baseball game; where

viously stored mental pictures.

ended up on your

first

you

bicycle ride; the faces

of your fellow graduates sitting next to you as

you waited

for

your diploma; the face of the

the

associations

new and

back and forth

see

new

images, you

make

and comparisons with pre-

The content of

old images constantly in

image

bounce

your mind so that you learn

from them. Otherwise, you

will forget

them,

3

John Ruskin,

PAINTER

4

TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO PERCEIVE.

as

you do most words and

Hauer

actor Rutger

Runner, "All those

time

pictures.

movie Blade

said in the

moments

As the

be

will

lost in

remembering images: you were you were

activity;

from

for not

distracted by

you were

tired;

keratitis

punctata from the age of

from only 10

letters

glasses.

you did not assign significance

clearly

on

your mind not playing back every possible picture focused by the lenses in your eyes. well in society

if

Huxley

brain stored and recalled everything you saw.

Blind in one eye and nearly

Like a party where the hosts

blind in the other, Huxley

newly purchased video camera, you would be

was forced

to

wear glasses

is

summed up

Nevertheless, the low

camera

+

The of

The

behind the

glasses.

and the nervous system do the

eyes

mind does

through 16 have

memory. is

something more

Any improvement tends

ceiving

improvement

— they

to

power of per-

in the

be accompanied by an

power of sensing and of

in the

that product of sensing

and perceiving which

connections. These images are is

They have helped shape Western

how large numbers of people feel

culture

seeing.

about them-

and medium,

linked by the inescapable elements to all visual messages: get their life

from

only from the

light

They

light.

all

are

common

are objects that

That

life

comes not

of day, but also from the

of revelation, the light of understanding,

and the

light

The

and

Although separate and individual in

their intent, content,

light

the product of accurate

compelling, and easily understood.

strong,

selves.

related to the

is

sensing and correct perceiving.

who have seen them have memorized them. And when they see them make new

the perceiving.

faculty of perceiving

lions of people

again, people learn

seeing."

not the same as perceiving.

Clear seeing visual messages that are so strong that mil-

reveal a strong personality

is

er words, to

his eye

contact with the viewer

+

often reproduced imag-

es that begin Chapters 8

and

for achieving

individual's accumulated experience, in oth-

perspective, dramatic lighting effect

=

perceiving

to live well in the present.

Many famous and

method

his

clearly.

For Huxley:

sensing, the all

that seeing

is

mostly the result of thinking

selecting

your past experiences. You would not be able

with thick lenses.

handicap without the aid of

his

off their

forced instantly to view over and over

away. In his book he

feet

However, his main idea

Sensing

show

and

clear vision with the formula: "sensing

your

Figure 1.1

light perception,

described the physical exercises he used to

overcome

Actually, your well-being depends in part

known as 16. One eye

the other could view an eye chart's 200-foot

you were experiencing some personal tragedy; to the images.

Huxley suffered

a degenerative eye condition

hungry; you were confused by what you saw;

You couldn't function

1.1).

was merely capable of

like tears in the rain."

Think about some of the reasons another

Art of Seeing (Figure

first

stage of clear vision

means

sense, or look, simply light

is

to sense.

letting

To

enough

you can see

enter your eyes so that

objects immediately around you. Sensing also

depends on how well the many parts of the eye work. Obviously, a ly

functioning

eye

damaged or improperwill

Think of the human camera without

film;

hamper

visual

that

sensing.

process as a

is,

little

mental

processing of the image occurs during the

of education.

looking phase of visual perception. For example, a friend calls

The

visual process

"Look over

out to you:

there,"

and you move your head

in the general direction indicated

You

Aldous Huxley, author of the novel Brave

friend.

New

You look

World and other works of futuristic

at

try to take in the

by your

whole scene.

everything, but you see nothing.

vision, detailed his efforts to teach himself

You have no idea why you have been

how

structed to look.

to see

more

clearly in his

1942 work The

in-

THE VISUAL PROCESS

Huxley's next stage

is

the

to select a particular

of vision. To select

mix

5

of genders and races. You see their

and

You

to

clothing.

You

isolate a specific part of a scene within the

see their

body

enormous frame of

conscious mental activity, you see what you

element from a

offers.

field

is

possibilities that sensing

That isolation

is

a result of the

assume

combi-

see their ages gestures.

And

heights.

because of that

the reason for your friend's insis-

is

command. A person

down on

nation of the light gathering and focusing

tent

properties of the eye with the higher level

the sidewalk in the middle of this group of

functions of the brain. Selecting

When

scious, intellectual act.

a con-

is

you

The

Huxley's visual theory

last stage in

engage more fully the objects in the scene to perceive; that

than when you merely look. Selecting starts the process of classification

lying

people.

you

select

is

you must

is,

sense of what you select.

try to

is

make

your mind has any

If

of objects as

chance of storing visual information

for long-

known, unfamiliar, meaningful, or confusing.

To

area

select

and

term

retrieval

base,

you must

to increase

your knowledge

an object within the

to isolate

is

where the sharpest vision takes place in

of what you

meaning

actively consider the

Mystery programs often

see.

the eye: the foveal focus point in the back of

needed

visually reveal all the clues

your

By

eyes.

individual objects

selecting

murder.

Many

to solve a

people miss these visual clues

within a scene, you are doing what the eye's

made

physiology was

mental

activities

do

to

—

because they have been taught to value verbal to focus

your

on

a single, small object that

all

others.

information more than visual. Once the clues are perceived

is

isolated

from

is

About

Huxley wrote

seeing,

more you know; the more you

that

see."

A

and

collated, the solution often

obvious. However, a subsequent viewing

"the never recaptures the feeling of discovery ex-

former perienced during the

baseball player watches

and

game much

from someone who

attends a

differently

game

for the first time.

comer probably

manager, scoreboard ball's flight as

it

details, the

A

details

might notice

details in a city, but

she might get lost in a forest. lives in

curve of the

observed by the

city dweller

and cultural

architectural

amount of curiosity and wonder

Her

friend

who

the country might be able to identify

A man

stimulate your mind, through past experi-

ence

or

chances

knowledge,

you

that

the

will

greater

see

are

the

What

see

— you

start

to

isolate

subjects in the scene.

You

and you

change so that

street.

None

of the

man are

Many

is

He

is

in the center of the

of the people will need to walk in

order to cross the

street.

the mystery here? a higher

of cognition than simply sensing and

means

that

you must concentrate on

the subjects within a intent of finding

field

of view with the

meaning and not simply

as

the

an act of observation, which demands much

crowd of

sharper mental activity. Ask yourself: Does

mentally see a

start to

light to

To process an image mentally on level

direction your friend asks

corner.

concerned for the

all

that be?

around him

selecting

the

street

aware that he's lying on the pavement. But

world: in

busy

a

on the ground. Maybe none of them

more of your

You narrow your gaze and look

down on

passersby look at

group.

busy highway. The more you

is

they can walk across the

might not be able to find his way to the a

for the first time:

simply waiting for the

how can

from

you give

People stand around. They appear to be

every tree and flower along a rural path but

airport

something

that

miss signals from a

speeds from pitcher to batter,

and many other former player.

The new-

standing what you select requires the same

to selecting will

viewing. Under-

first

sees a baseball

all

people standing on a street corner. You see

the image have any significance for your

life?

TO SENSE. TO SELECT. TO PERCEIVE.

6

The answer

question

that

to

determines

ing.

Your mind's eye

whether you rememher or

forget a picture.

image

Although you can certainly

isolate a particu-

head.

element with

lar visual

ing

when

it is

a

new

meaning

or surprising occurrence,

for the picture. If the

becomes meaningful,

part of your long-term

Now You

you

is

it

see that he

is

likely to

man who

a

a result:

down.

is

paralyzed and dragging

himself with his gloved hands along the sidewalk. You see his tattered clothing. see his

Visual communication's circle

wooden box

reads,

now

more you

select,

more you

more you

perceive, the

the

sense.

The

select.

The

perceive.

The

more you remember.

The more you remember,

the

The more you

more you know.

The

learn, the

more you

learn.

greatest aid to clear seeing isn't eyes

on the box

that

by looking

craters of the selecting,

moon. The process of

and perceiving takes

sensing,

curious,

a

questioning, and knowledgeable mind. goal of a visual

communicator

isn't

The

simply to

in place.

Your mind can

have an image published or broadcast. The

find meaning. Because

you have taken

goal of a visual

becomes

a powerful visual

good chance of staying You

years to come.

desperate person

and

more you

more you

telescope that brings into sharp focus the

the time to understand the scene fully,

a

the

sense, the

that he carefully

All the clues obtained

and seeing are now

more you

that function with or without glasses or a

hair.

"VIETNAM VETERAN. PLEASE

HELP."

The more you know,

You

drags start-step fashion along with him. You see the hand-lettered sign

DANCE

You

brown, long, and disheveled

see the small

created the picture inside your

image

become

memory. As

really see the

actual sensual

mental process-

little

analyzing a visual message ensures that you will find

— has

— not an

yet

no one

is

in

it

message that has your

memory for man is a

realize that the

who

needs some assistance

willing to

come

to his aid.

messages

can

become

memories through

long-time

mental

direct, cognitive process-

is

to

produce

powerful pictures so that the viewer will

remember if

their content.

the viewer's

mind

Images have no use

doesn't use them. As

future image consumers and producers, you will

want

images that you remember

to see

and make images

The This simple exercise proves that visual

communicator

book

goal of this

method less

that others is

remember. to give

you

of the

medium

of presentation. Without

systematically analyzing an image, you see

a

a

for analyzing visual messages regard-

televised

may

image and not notice the

individual elements within the frame. You

ceive

Figure 1.2

might not consider

•

Aldous Huxley's method for clear seeing

arranged

in

the story and to your

a

The words

circle

and

will

Chapter

relates to

Without consider-

simply be another in a long line of

forgotten images. Analyzing an image

you take a long, careful look

out because of the familiar ( see

life.

it

standing or personal insights. The picture

o

separated with dots stand

shapes

content as

ing the image, you will not gain any under-

makes a strong

visual message.

its

you see 4).

—

at

makes

the pictures

a highly satisfying intellectual act.

Those images become a part of your general

X

knowledge of the world. You discover how

images are linked in ways that you never

1

thought of before. You become a more interesting, curious person (Figure 1.2).

CHAPTER

2

and Color

Light

One of my is

basic feelings

and

that the mind,

the heart alike

.

.

.

must

be dedicated to the glory, the magic,

and

the mystery of light. It's

Sunday morning. You barely open

early

your

You

eyelids.

see that

it

is still

dark and

quickly shut them again.

Moments

pass.

As you

in the

your

lie

somewhere

closed

eyelids

awake and

morning's darkness with

you

between

dark hallway. Not wanting to open your eyes fully just yet,

you use your hands

to feel the

wall along the hall.

When

bathroom, you

yourself for

you reach the the

first

shock of morning. You switch on the

light

steel

and instantly are

helpless:

You

are blinded

your

blinded by the light that

is

surroundings without aid from your visual

morning glow of natural

sunlight, but the

sense

asleep,

— the

feel

start to notice

of recently laundered cotton

sheets, the smell of freshly

brewed coffee from

the kitchen downstairs, the robin's song from a tree outside your

sweet taste in your of

last night's

Moments

window, and the

mouth from

the remnants

chocolate brownie dessert.

This time morning's colored glow on

prism

A

in the

making

its

first light

briefly.

casts a peach-

the white walls in your

gentle spring breeze causes the

open window

to

rainbow-colored

sway

slightly,

lights

dance

along the walls and ceiling.

Enough

rest.

awkwardly

to the

hope

that

doing so

about the time

takes to brush your teeth,

you are able

it

your reflection

stare at

mirror

in the

(Figure 2.1). Literary references

and colloquial expres-

and vision abound because

sions about light

of the importance of seeing. learn the truth, subject." If

we

we

story,

me

state

fact

on

its

say,

When we want

"Throw

on the

we

are not

we complain

in the dark."

Missouri

with, is

and proudly proclaims

car license plates.

to

light

are concerned that

"Show Me"

long,

diurnal creature. In

to face comfortably the 100-watt

"Don't keep

bathroom down the

your transition

to a

getting the full is

will hasten

from a nocturnal

now. You

to rise

You

blink your eyelids several times in the vain

bed and make your way

The time

reluctantly leave your

not the gentle

harsh, incandescent glare of artificiality.

bulb and

pass.

Again you try to open your eyelids

bedroom.

bitter-

Clarence John Laughlin,

the that

Presumably,

7

PHOTOGRAPHER

LIGHT AND COLOR

8

that occurs in

our brains. Without the stimu-

from

lus created

photon on photoreceptors

a

would not be

in the

back of the eye,

visible.

Consequently, having an understand-

ing of the nature of light objects

we

attention

vital

is

— how

and how

see

—

light

can direct our

it

image analysis and

for

Knowing both

creation.

the

and

physical

mental processes involved with

light creations

you understand why some images

will help

memorable and some

are

shapes the

it

knowledge

are

not.

make you

will help to

Such

a successful

producer of visual messages (Figure

2.2).

Where does light come from?

The use of lighting

in this

computer-generated image helps create a sense of depth in this

many

Missourians, as do

Figure 2.1

view of a chapel. The

residents of other

need to see something before they can

states,

believe

"Seeing

it.

is

believing"

is

a

common

phrase that equates truth with visual awareness.

And when

wonderful

is

it

he wants to explain

to see his

how

former lover stand-

The study of

the nature of light excited the

minds of some of the have

ever lived.

One

greatest scientists

of the

who

questions that

first

Where does light The Greek philosopher Empe-

scientists addressed was:

originate?

docles in about 500

and the Greek mathe-

B.C.

lighting effect also

communicates

ing in his Casablanca bar, Rick exclaims,

matician Euclid, 150 years

"Here's looking

light

thought that

later,

religious

meaning.

you, kid."

at

Throughout human

history, people have

been fascinated by

light. Civilizations

Figure 2.2

and celebrated the

start

See color section following

and invented gods

page 210.

gious leaders equate light with the Bible with

of each

new

prayed sunrise

that ruled the sun. Reli-

creation.

its

discovered, most were

life

and begin

When

fire

was

awed by the flames and

To know the physics and physiology of

how

light enters the eye

the brain

we

see

want tion

is

to

is

and forms images

in

much of how of how much we know and

important because

a matter

observe about the world. The connec-

between

brain has as

a

lit

subject, the eyes,

much

nature of the link as

to it

do with the

is

from

Empedocles said that the eyes were lantern" that gave light to

"like a

that could be

seen.

He

tried

unsuccessfully to prove the point by

jumping

also believed that he

Empedocles's day be-

scientists of

lieved that

all

the material in the universe

comprised four basic elements: or earth.

was a god and

into the volcanic crater of Mt. Etna.

He was

the

first

to

fire,

water, air,

assume

that the

four elements combined in various proportions to

make everything

does with our psycho-

was one of the

in the world.

receive

simply a chemical reaction

first scientists

The Greek philosopher most famous

is

all

He how

bones, blood, and flesh formed living things.

form of electromagnetic energy.

light

description,

poetic

a

physical

a natural starting point for a visual

this

But visible

In

world.

also

communication book because images life

the

in

and the

logical response.

Light

traveled outward, illuminating all the objects

Most

the ability to control them.

began in each person's eyes and

rays

thinkers in

Plato,

Western

to ask

one of the civilization,

reasoned that, as vision cannot occur in the dark, sight

between the

must be light

from inside the

a

result

of a mixing

from outside and the eyes.

When

light

the mixed-up

WHAT

were

particles

an

object

the

all

same

size,

IS

THE SPEED OF LIGHT?

9

he reasoned,

was transparent. Different-sized

particles resulted in color vision.

Abu

Mohammed

Ali

alHasan

ibn

Ign

al-Haytham, or simply Alhazen to his English wrote seven books on optics some-

friends,

time around A.D. 1000.

understand that

scientists to

in the

He was one

sun or from

from human

eyes.

fire

of the

first

light originates

and does not emit

Alhazen

largely based his

argument on commonsense observations. He simply thought

impossible for light to emit

it

from the eyes and instantly illuminate objects at great distances.

The German

Christopher Scheiner

Jesuit

proved in 1625 that carries images with

and

light enters the eye it.

He simply

slaughtered

an animal and looked from behind the beast's

He saw

eyeball.

a tiny,

upside-down version

of the scene from behind the eye.

opposite wall. Alhazen cut a small pinhole in

one wall of

his tent

and

from inside the

eclipse

safely

tent.

viewed an

He used

this

principle to study the sun and to prove that light travels in straight lines. Aristotle also

knew and wrote about

What is the speed

of light?

Later,

this

Figure 2.3 This wide-angle, low-perspective computer

image of a room contains three kinds of light

phenomenon. light

from

—

the

the incandescent

Renaissance artists used the camera bulb, light

from

the outside,

obscura to make paintings that were true to

and

Another intriguing question by

scientists curious

was

speed.

its

travel rapidly,

was

difficult.

ing in a

to be

answered

about the nature of light

They knew

must

that light

but pinpointing the exact speed

The

actual speed of light travel-

vacuum measured by modern,

phisticated

equipment

is

so-

186,282.3959 miles

per second or about 670,615,200 miles per hour. In glass, light slows a

little

to a speed of

Alhazen knew that the speed of light infinite but that

it

must be

in

water.

An

is

He when

great.

discovered that the speed slows

moves through

not also

light

important person

the history of optics and photography,

Alhazen was one of the

first scientists to

use a

camera obscura, Latin for "dark chamber," for the

A small hole room— when the

study of solar eclipses.

cut into a wall of a dark optical angles are right

down view

of the

—

projects an upside-

outside

scene and by photographic inventors

who

placed light-sensitive emulsions inside their

homemade

pinhole cameras (Figure 2.3).

Alhazen was an interesting character, to say the

least.

was born

in

An

Arabian mathematician, he

an area near present-day Basra,

Iraq. Later in his career,

he boasted that he

could construct a machine to prevent the

powerful Nile river from flooding and vastly

446,400,000 miles per hour.

scene

on the

light

from a computer

the natural linear perspective of a real-world

aid agriculture in the region.

Word about

Alhazen's boast eventually reached Egypt and the caliph

Hakim, who summoned him

build the device. Alhazen did not to build

to

know how

such a machine. Fearing the caliph's

anger, he pretended to be insane until

Hakim

died in 1021. Alhazen died in Cairo in 1038.

One

invention and one astronomical dis-

covery were needed to permit accurate mea-

surement of the speed of

light.

In 1608

Hans

Lippershey, a Dutch eyeglass maker, invented

monitor that gives birth the image.

to

LIGHT AND COLOR

10

the telescope.

He simply

put lenses inside a

hollow metal tube and noticed that faraway objects appeared to be larger with this device. to the

He immediately

government

ment. Galileo, an

same year

offered his invention

by

for use

its

born

Italian

and made

within 2.5 miles per second of the actual velocity.

1564 (the

in

Particles or waves?

telescope

description. Galileo declined to

its

A

third mystery of light

view advancing armies through the optical

composed of individual

device. Instead, he turned his attention to the

ly

stars in the night sky

and became famous. In

1609 he discovered the planet Jupiter and

moons. Because of

bunked the

his

discoveries,

and

idea that the sun

revolved around the Earth idea originally proposed

by the equally famous Polish laus Copernicus.

Galileo

heretic

a

its

its

years earlier

Nico-

him

for

his

Without knowing

it,

Using Galileo's discovery of

famous work on first

scientific

would not behave

in

1675.

moons

Jupiter,

Roemer noticed

the planet.

some of

that

of Jupiter were visible at varying

times, depending

on how

close Earth

Roemer assumed

was

to

that the twenty-

two-minute time difference between when one of Jupiter's moons was

visible

and when

was hidden was the time required

In

with the speed of

—

less

light as

light

those in water.

must

it

waves

and

his

between

the

Earth

Jupiter.

proposing such an incredible velocity.

can to win

a

Nobel Prize

first

Ameri-

for science, devel-

He set up rapidly rotating mirrors at a known distance from each other and reflected a beam of light from one to the other. Using a much more

oped an accurate measuring

tool.

having no hole. The

a simple

must be

He then

a series

through

a

directed that

second hole in anothit

on

a third

light traveling

board

through

the two small holes caused interference pat-

effect

the exact

a

board and projected

same

and

In 1926 Albert Michelson, the

through

for light

132,000 miles per

know

shaft of light

light

light to travel

small hole in a board.

er

discovered that

Young conducted

He allowed

between the

Nevertheless, most people of his day ridiculed for

that,

must be composed of waves similar to

terns

than the actual measurement

because Roemer did not

him

line,

particles;

Thomas Young

1803

it

He came up

Jupiter to reach the Earth.

distance

He reasoned

called the light particles corpuscles

of waves.

second

light

such a manner. Newton

puted a close approximation of the speed of

from

work on

be composed of individual

experiment to show that

the

gravity, he pro-

because light travels in a straight

Olaus Roemer, a Danish astronomer, com-

light in

Newton was an

water. Sir Isaac

Opticks, published in 1704.

Galileo contributed

more accurate estimate of the speed of

light.

actual-

is

idea the corpuscular theory.

troubles.

to a

is

it

proponent of the particle theory. Be-

duced the

scientist

jailed

early

planets

Religious leaders branded

and

on

ripples

sides his

an

was whether

particles or

a series of waves similar to the effect of

he de-

— supporting

some 50

light to

war depart-

own

his

he measured the speed of

scientists,

as Shakespeare), heard of Lipper-

shey's invention

based on

new

exact timing device than available to previous

light waves.

see this

by standing in shallow water on a

sunny day. Looking down will see

You can

waves of

at

your

light colliding

feet

you

with each

other, creating similar interference patterns

on the bottom. Many

scientists

Young's explanation because observation.

fit

In fact,

Young was

cized so intensely for questioning that his medical

quently, he

scientific

Newton's view

However,

mained dominant.

it

supported

re-

criti-

Newton

practice declined. Conse-

abandoned

his studies of light to

avoid economic disaster. Finally in 1900

Max

Planck theorized that

both the particle and the wave theories de-

OTHER FORMS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

German

scribe light energy. Planck, a

known

cist

work

his

for

physi-

the study of

in

thermodynamics, discovered that energy actually

a discrete package he called quanta.

is

These individual packets photons.

When

photons behaved indepen-

Newton's

dently, they acted like cles.

light parti-

But when they combined to form pack-

ets of energy,

Other

how

this proc-

Prize

showing

for

that

when he moved

the thermometer

beyond the

visible spec-

trum, he found a different temperature.

concluded correctly that

He

must have com-

light

ponents that humans cannot

Conse-

see.

quently, other researchers started to experi-

ment with

and made

his finding

own

their

startling discoveries.

One

worked. In 1905 Albert Einstein

Nobel

the

that

past the red color,

they became energy waves.

scientists explained

ess actually

won

were called

later

was

II

of the greatest scientific discoveries

pertaining to light

came from

Scottish scien-

James Clerk Maxwell. He also

tist

figure

history of photography

the

in

key

a

is

— he

color film process in 1861

Planck's idea of energy was correct. In 1913

invented the

Danish physicist Neils Bohr explained why

(described in Chapter 12). In that

Planck's theory about the nature of light,

he made his most important finding. Until

both as particles and waves, was correct. Bohr

Maxwell's time, scientists had assumed that

showed how photons

the energy forces of magnetism and electrici-

interact with the elec-

make up atoms.

trons that

more than

their

If

they become excited. After this increase,

energy

atoms absorb

normal amount of energy, initial

energy

they drop back to their original

level.

This process of increasing and

first

came from

ty

How

are quite different. pull of

come from

of light energy

excites photons. electric

bulb

than 4,500°

is

F.

(photons).

Heat also

The tungsten metal

coil in

an

heated by electricity to more

Because photons from the

could the curious

magnets on a metal object and

merous atoms eventually produces dles

easy to under-

is

stand because, on the face of it, the two forces

ning during an intense

bun-

year,

separate sources. Widespread

acceptance of such a view

decreasing the atomic energy levels for nutiny

same

electrical

same energy

the

light-

storm ever

Maxwell

force?

proposed that the forces of magnetism and electricity actually

the into

a

were one and the same, for

time unifying two separate forces

first

single

He

theory.

called

new

this

entire range of visible light are excited, the

combination of energy forces electromagne-

filament gives off white

tism.

light.

Through experimentation with mag-

nets and electricity, Maxwell

magnetic

Other forms of

the

electromagnetic energy

tion,

field in a

same speed

vacuum

as light.

he concluded that

showed

that a

travels at

about

From

light

is

this observa-

simply another

form of an electromagnetic wave. There were more mysteries to solve about light.

In

1800 William Herschel discovered

with a thermometer that the

contained

spectrum

light

more than could be

seen.

He

discovered infrared radiation by projecting

conclusion

were

true,

it

If

would

such a explain

Herschel's discovery of energy waves past the visible light

spectrum and might lead

to other

such electromagnetic energy discoveries. Sure enough, in 1888

German

physicist

the colors of the visual spectrum through a

Heinrich Hertz discovered another form of

prism onto a sheet of white paper. Curious to

electromagnetic energy that could travel over

find out

whether each color had

temperature, he

one color

moved

to the next.

its

own

a thermometer from

Each color did possess a

separate temperature, but

more

intriguing

long distances. waves, they

Originally

now are known

called

Hertzian

as radio waves.

By

1895 Guglielmo Marconi was using the newly discovered waves to send radio transmissions

LIGHT AND COLOR

12

The Electromagnetic Spectrum From H

left

Color

to right the wavelength increases

V

O

Cosmic Rays

«

X Rays

V

E

E

t i

O .

cians throughout recorded history have at-

h-

z

O

E

G

Various philosophers, scientists, and physi-

tempted

1

f

was born

totle

Visible

Micro-

AM

Light

waves

Waves

to explain the nature

The

B.C.

in

Macedonia

Ultraviolet

Rays

TV/FM Waves

Infrared

Waves

the

in the year

— he was the Great — thought

that light

names

same

official tutor

different

for the

384

and teacher of

great philosopher

kings

Gamma

of color. Aris-

of Alexander

and color were

visual

phenome-

non. Technically, he would have been correct

had he stopped of

slows

to right the frequency

lieved that

the colors were sim-

all

and white. He

ply mixtures of black

left

man

he continued writing, recording

letters,

that he thought that

From

But being a

at that point.

also be-

something transparent between an

and the eyes caused the sensation of

object color.

Figure 2.4

over a mile. In 1901 he sent a radio broadcast

Electromagnetic spectrum

across

charts in most textbooks are

know

crowded with numerical

full

information that forgotten.

Only

is

quickly

the essential

that

many

now

Ocean. Scientists

the Atlantic

different

waves comprise the

Much

later,

electromagnetic spectrum. In 1895 Wil-

nature of color. Based on his observations of

helm Roentgen discovered electromagnetic

the natural world, he thought that six pri-

energy outside the range of light that humans

mary

colors

green,

and

could

—

rays. the

placement of the

various forms of energy

and

the connection between

see.

These

fields

were

later called

X

For example, red noticeable color.

is

It

the most

makes an

Using the rays to discover hidden views

of the

human body

discovered

gy

levels.

— white, blue —

in length.

and

the

slowest frequency of all other colors.

The

on

tolor stays

photoreceptor

Gamma

AM

riders because

longest wavelength

radio waves can be several miles

waves, but he died before he had a chance to realize the

importance of his finding. Then in

1905 Albert Einstein explained the photocaused by ultraviolet radiation,

red,

He came

existed.

yellow, to this

colors were wholly independent

Da

and unique.

Vinci believed that, by mixing these six

colors in varying degrees,

all

the other colors

capable of being seen by a normal

human

eye

could be created. His interest and theories on the mixing of

came

colors

directly

from

his experience as

one of the great masters of painting. Although be

all

the colors desired by painters can

made by mixing

those six color pigments

together in varying degrees, this property of paints doesn't explain

how

colored lights are

the

for retina longer than

rays are 10 million times

Hertz also discovered ultraviolet

electric effect cells in

different electromag-

black,

conclusion simply by reasoning that the six

smaller than the visible light wavelengths,

whereas

has the

many

netic sources having extremely different ener-

excellent choice for bicycle it

proved to be a major

medical breakthrough. Subsequently, scientists

wavelength and frequency.

more accurate theory of the

proposed a

elements are presented here

Leonardo da Vinci, with no

laboratory experimentation to back his claim,

any

which he won the Nobel

Prize. Fluores-

mixed. Colored pigments and colored

lights

other.

cent lamps use ultraviolet energy to produce their lighting effect.

The lamps

mercury vapor and argon electrical charge, the

are filled with

gas.

Under

a

mercury vapor gives

low off

nonvisible ultraviolet energy that causes an inside coating of

phosphor

radiation strikes

(Figure 2.4).

it

to

glow when

mix

to

form color

in vastly different ways.

Colored pigments absorb some

light

wave-

lengths and reflect others; the eye sees the reflected or rejected color of

an object.

When

colored lights are mixed, their wavelengths

combine tion

is

to create a

new

color. This distinc-

the basis for the terms sidbtractive color

COLOR

and additive

for paints

color for light (dis-

1666

Newton proved where

Sir Isaac

He used one

colored light originates.

rooms of

his

of the

own

Newton

light.

camera obscura when

live-in

he covered the windows of the room except for a small hole that allowed a

He

light to enter.

its

narrow

shaft of

directed this ray of light

onto a glass prism that the sun into

dominant color theory

three-component

the white light of

split

colorful components. That

to explain

how

the eye

physically sees color.

Young and Helmholtz maintained

mother's house for his famous

experiment on the nature of created his

as the

theory or the trichromatic theory, became the

cussed in Chapter 4). In

known

theory, also

13

that

there are three different kinds of photoreceptors

in the eye with each

one

sensitive to a particular color. tion, they reasoned,

is

specifically

Color percep-

a result of

mixing

and blue once the photoreceptors

green,

stimulated.

The mixing of

basis for color

the colors

photography and color

is

red,

are

the

televi-

Young- Helmholtz theory does

prisms could achieve this effect was well

sion, but the

known, but Newton

not explain every aspect of color perception.

tried

He

never been attempted. light

something that had let

a sliver of yellow

pass through a second prism, which

emitted only yellow

light. Later,

he

let all

colors pass through the second prism,

Newton had proved

re-created white light. that colors

from the

came from

the

which

the light

and not

itself

glass object (Figure 2.5).

Newton

energy

level

now know

that the length

see colored light.

wave

is

and

of the electromagnetic wave-

length determine whether the

measured

The wavelength of is

amount of experi-

inspired a large

Scientists

human

eye can

The length of an energy in parts per millimeters.

the visible light spectrum

only about 0.0003 millimeters, or 300

nanometers, wide. The entire electromagnetic

mentation on the mixing of various colors to

spectrum

produce other

the eyes therefore

is

nanometers on the

visible light portion of the

colors. Scientists

ered that three colors

— could be mixed

colors. Nevertheless,

sisted that colors

—

and blue

red, green,

produce

to

soon discov

some

were a

all

the other

scientists

still

result of the

in-

German

poet lohann Wolfgang

von Goethe strongly advocated lian view.

this Aristote-

But without accurate experimental

procedures, Goethe could not support his theories

and they were eventually discounted.

Thomas Young was the first to link color and the human eye. In 1801 he suggested that the eye

must be composed of three

light-sensitive materials so that

perceive color.

German

different

humans could

Hermann von Helmholtz,

physiologist

and

physicist,

a

further

refined Young's ideas.

Helmholtz was the

first scientist

to

mea-

sure the speed of the nerve impulses within the nervous system.

ophthalmoscope to

examine the

—

He

also

a device

eye.

only from 400 to 700

electromagnetic spectrum. Blue shows up on the visible

spectrum

at

about 430 nano-

mixing

of light and dark shades and not from mixing colored lights.

sensitive to the photoreceptors in

invented the

used by doctors

The Young- Helmholtz

Figure 2.5

"Newton Analyzing

the

Ray

of Light." Within a

darkened room of

his

mother's house, Sir Isaac

Newton color

discovered that

comes from sunlight

and not from environment.

objects in

an

— LIGHT AND COLOR

14

more yellow

Figure 2.6

to turn

For those who long for the

yellow the cornea, the

numbers missing from the

green colors will be seen.

chart,

some

are provided

here. Again, this graphic

grasp

at first,

Color

is

there

light,

no

is

color.

an object, Every

color.

atoms that respond

contains

object

difficult to

do not contain

a result of light striking

and without

shows that red has a longer

objects

blue and

less likely

Although the concept may be

electromagnetic spectrum

The more

as they age.

to

a

wavelength than the other

wavelength of

certain colors.

The

thicknesses of the

horizontal columns have no

meaning other than attract attention.

to

Dye pigments

light.

achieve their color by absorbing, or subtractmeters, green has a wavelength that starts at

ing, certain parts of the

spectrum and

reflect-

about 530 nanometers, and red has a wave-

ing, or transmitting, the parts that

length beginning at 560 nanometers (Figure

The

2.6).

of light, however, colors are created by add-

A

highly energetic color

wavelength

how

frequency

— does

not

a high

indicate

quickly the eye will notice the color.

Violet, with

its

high frequency,

is

considered

be the most active color, whereas red, with

to

a

— one with

low frequency,

for the

human

ble color,

and red

Because of

the least active color. Yet,

is

eye, violet

is

the most noticeable color.

is

long wavelength and quick

its

recognition by the eye, red lights, stop signs,

likely to

who

St.

are

Many

atten-

people assume

more

be caught by the police for speeding is

more

recent study by a

noticeable.

Howev-

newspaper reporter

in

Petersburg, Florida, revealed that red cars

no more

susceptible to speed traps than

any other automobile. Nevertheless, bicycle riders

and runners should wear bright red

clothing,

which

is

much more

than, for example, blue outfits. that the eye notices red

more

noticeable

The reason easily

is

not

because there are more red-sensitive cones in the retina.

The reason

is

that the cornea

is

colored yellow to protect the eye from harmful ultraviolet rays.

Yellow absorbs the shorter

wavelengths of blue and green and

lets

the

longer wavelength of red pass through to the retina.

ing, in

Older adults often have trouble seeing

blue and green objects because corneas tend

varying degrees, different amounts of

A

green, and blue light.

red,

remain.

the one seen. In the case

is

red dress

is

perceived as being red because the atoms

within the dye subtract

the other wave-

all

made

lengths and reflect only red. But a dress

up of red-colored

were such a

light (if there

fashion creation) appears to be red because

the red

wavelength interacts directly

light

with the red-sensitive cones in the eye.

When

used for signal

drive red sports cars are

because that color er, a

is

and other warning or

tion-getting purposes. that those

the least noticea-

reflected color

you look

recently polished apple, that the apple

apple

and it

is

all

coating of a

at the red

you naturally think

must be

In reality, the

red.

An

every color except red. other objects

can and

— absorbs

reflects the colors

The photoreceptors rejected color.

wavelengths

amounts, the

cannot absorb.

an object

colors

human

the colors

in the eye pick

When

of

it

all

apple

reflects all

nearly

in

up the

equal

eye perceives that object

as white. If an object absorbs

all

the wave-

lengths in equal proportions, reflecting none, it

is

perceived as black.

The daytime sky

appears blue because the volatile short wavelengths of the color blue are easily scattered

by the few dust and gas molecules

morning or

early afternoon sky. But because

of the relatively clean slower

red

air,

the longer and

wavelengths are not scattered.

Later in the day

when

the sun

is

low on the

horizon, sunlight must travel through

more dust

in the

particles in the air.

many

The longer

COLOR

wavelengths become scattered as the molecules hit is

more pollutants

in the air.

months

effect

many photog-

the golden sunset favored by

raphers. For

The

after the volcanic erup-

Mt. Pinatubo in the Philip-

tion in 1991 of

pines, those living

along the West Coast of

the United States were treated to spectacular

sunsets because of

all

the ash particles in the

air that scattered the long, red

wavelengths.

Color has three characteristics:

and brightness (discussed

value, 4).

Chroma,

color. Scientifically speaking,

Value, or saturation,

the

is

of the

the differ-

amount of

and weak dilutions

of a color have a low value. Brightness

amount ject.

in

and brightness can

value,

of colors.

lions

is

the

of light emitted from a colored ob-

Subtle changes

a

chroma,

color's

yield literally mil-

human

However, the

between

150 and 200 of the millions of

However,

artists,

decorators

name

with colors every day

may know hundreds of names resident of Ireland may have words

150 colors.

house painters, and interior

who work

for colors.

A

more

several

to describe the country's "forty shades

of green" than a resident of Saudi Arabia

where there

names

is

less vegetation.

As

Look

sophisticated

teal blue,

They

and orange.

demand

a marketing ploy, these colors

more

at the

for colors in a child's crayon box.

are not simply blue, red, green,

naming schemes, such

as

wild strawberry, jungle green, and

vivid tangerine.

Naming

colors

is

a

way of

seeing slight differences in the lightness or

brightness of a color. But in

knowing

some

cultures,

the differences in color hues isn't

important.

When

our

lan-

contained words for white and

first

As humans learned

that color differ-

ences could warn of poisonous

they

fruits,

added words that described the colors red and

common

most

yellow, the

plant colors. But

other colors not considered vital for survival Jale in

Guinea have no word that describes the

Nyakundu

color green.

in Swahili

word

means

that

recently

refer to

the color blue, aoi, only

was included

ously, the

can

The Japanese

the colors brown, yellow, or red.

word had

in that language. Previ-

referred to a

wide range

of colors from green to violet. Blue was one of the

last

named because

colors to be

there are

few poisonous blue flowers. Furthermore, people did not see the blue-colored sky as a threat, so

it

did not need to be named.

You might argue

because cultures

that,

color doesn't exist for them. In a way, that's true: is

A

color that

became

aware of differences in colors, they started to

A

not noticed.

color that

is

not

named

color that

is

is

a color that

overlooked

is

a

not considered by the higher

is

functions of the brain, so the color might as well not exist.

When

there

is

a need to

specific color, as in the case of

name ties

will

an

know

a

artist, a

be supplied. The physical proper-

of the eyes allow a

human

to see

hundreds

of possible colors. Unless the brain processes the color through a

naming system,

a person

does not consciously discriminate the color (although a part of the visual

more known

unnamed

field)

from the

colors. In Huxley's terms, the

color

sensed, but

is

selected or perceived. Luckily,

it

is

never

humans do not

consider every possible color because brain protects

itself

Pity the poor soul

color seen earliest ancestors first

Thus primitive

have no word to describe a specific color, the

most people can distinguish

possible colors but can't

black.

eye

cannot detect the minute differences. Physically,

guages

of day and

New

color concentration. Strong concentrations of a color have a high value,

the darkness of night.

light

Chapter

ence in wavelengths between individual colors.

was between the

split

were not named. The tribespeople of

in

is

it

obvious

The most

chroma,

name

or hue, refers to the

associate words with tint variations.

15

and had

the

from over-stimulation.

who

little

could

room

any other thought. Color,

name

every

in the brain for

therefore,

is

not a

property of the thing being seen. Color

is

a

LIGHT AND COLOR

16

make-up contained

combination oflight being received by the eye

as

and processed

ly killed their

in the brain.

The

wearers.

color purple often

Many

dignity or sadness.

Sociological uses of color

toxic metals that slow-

is

associated with

artistic

people say

that they prefer purple to the other colors.

Egyptians wore a purple necklace to thwart

The most obvious

quality oflight

Most anthropologists agree

is its

color.

that the first pur-

adversity.

Confucius reportedly hated the

pose of color vision in early humans was to

between

distinguish

foods are bright in

purpose of color has become

color. But the

much more. Color

is

complex property of

a

adds immensely to the satisfaction

light that

humans

and harmful

helpful

Many poisonous

plants.

receive

when looking

the world.

at

Color attracts attention to a particular detail like

go

no other

movie, note the

to a

credits

Good

most of the

movie

title

list

Next time you

of tightly packed

the end of previews of

at

attractions.

color

visual attribute.

coming

graphic designers usually text in white

technique makes the

name

Baby boys are dressed color

Such

a

of the film, an

lived.

evil spirits.

Some

same reason

—

ents

to

ward

medical cures, and personality revelations. is

sign of an enthusiastic person.

ence to color personality.

loved

An

indiffer-

a trait of an introspective

is

ancient

In

color that

topped with the

A

considered to be a

Egypt,

women

so

they used green powder

glitter

obtained by crushing

beetles for eye shadow, black paint as lipstick,

red

rouge for their cheeks, blue paint to

outline the veins of their breasts, gold paint to coat their nipples, and a reddish called

henna

to stain their fingers

But Egyptian

women

brown dye and

feet.

did not use color

merely to brighten their complexions. Color

had

social

that the

meaning. Red fingernails signaled

woman

considered herself to be a

member of the highest social class. Unfortunately, many of the paints and powders used

them from

off the evil eye. Par-

once draped blue and

violet

stones

around children's necks because they associated the colors with virtue

hoped

parents

that the

and

their children

and

The

faith.

gods would protect

at the

same time make

them obedient. Green

is

who are An emer-

a favorite color of those

outgoing and have large appetites.

and ingenuity,

ald green connotes versatility

behavior. Green stones

general love for color

color suppos-

adults wear blue for the

off the screen at you.

ors have been associated with magical spells,

The

edly gives boys power and protects

whereas a grayish green

col-

because the

in blue

important marketing feature, appear to jump

Throughout recorded history various

color.

with the color of the

associated

is

sky — where the gods

and make the

a strikingly different color.

However, the Chinese philosopher

worn around

were thought to promote is

signifies

fertility.

deceitful

the neck

Green

also

Many

believed to have a calming effect.

backstage waiting rooms in theaters are called

"greenrooms" because of the color of

their

painted walls. Jaundice has long been considered a condition that can be cured through exposure to sunlight.

For

many

mistakenly thought color

years,

that

however, people the

sun's

yellow

was the curative agent. Consequently, to

combat jaundice yellow

turnips

in

Germany,

patients ate

and wore gold coins and

saffron clothing. Russian physicians

wealthy patients wear necklaces

had

made

their

of gold

beads. In England, victims of the disease were forced to eat yellow spiders rolled in butter.

Red colored objects supposedly

many medical

ailments. In Ireland

relieved

and Russia

red flannel clothing was believed to be a

remedy

for

the scarlet

fever.

Red woolen

SOCIOLOGICAL USES OF COLOR

Cultural heritage, training, and personal

blankets were applied to a sprained ankle in

and

Scotland, to a sore throat in Ireland,

prevent

fever

in

Macedonia.

To

to

prevent

smallpox, the physician to

Edward

II

manded

that the king's entire

room be

paint-

ed

To prevent the

red.

disease, red light

scars caused

was used

in

de-

by the

Denmark. Red

17

experiences give colors special meanings not

An average person red. An anthropologist

shared by everyone.

sees

the color red as

sees

red as a

A

tion.

power symbol

for

an ancient

civiliza-

psychologist sees red as a clue to a

An

patient's personality.

artist sees red as

one

stones were often used to treat any disease.

of a hundred different red-hued solutions to a

Some

painting's composition. Again, the

people

still

believe that an injury such

as a black eye should

be covered immediately

know

with a blood-red, raw steak. The Japanese

color

thought that the color red overcame night-

its

mares.

The Chinese

child's hair to

baby

girls in

claimed that flowers. is

tied a red ribbon to a

promote long

life.

Parents dress

pink because a European legend girls

were born inside

Many people believe

that a

little

pink

room

that

painted pink will calm children, whether

girls

or boys.

the

—

all

more you colors

see.

— but

meaning (Figure

more you

The eye

sees the

the brain interprets Figure 2.7

2.7).

Color as a basic perceptual cue that the brain responds to (along with form, depth,

and movement) and the way color

is

used in

the media are discussed in Chapter 4.

See color section following

page 210.

CHAPTER

A

fool sees not the

tree that a

wise

same

man

3

the Retina, and the Brain The

Eye,

sees.

William Blake,

POET

Historic eyes

tribe taught the

younger ones to watch out

weak or broken

Study your

see?

You

generation after generation of tree-dwelling

see ancient, prehistoric

animals were born and adapted to that envi-

eyes. In fact, the configuration of

two eyes

in the front of the head, protected by a layer of

branches. Eventually,

moment.

eyes in a mirror for a

What do you

tree

for

set

ronment.

heavy

surrounding bone, and sending their

For any species to evolve genetically into a slightly different species takes

about a million

dual images to a brain that fuses the double

years. For

view into a

least

equivalent to 40,000 generations. Within 20

During the Paleocene epoch, about 65

brave creatures decided to climb out of their

single,

coherent picture

is at

50 million years old.

humans,

million years after those

million years ago, our early ancestors grew

earth-bound

tired of being easy prey for faster predators.

es

Some

Why

of them

came up with a great idea:

not climb up into high trees where the

swift, but

earth-bound beasts could not reach

them? As some took followed

to

the trees, others

3.1). Many climbed too and fell to their deaths. Many

(Figure

high, slipped,

a million years

tried the treetops but decided to take their

chances back on the forest floor and were

first

is

creative

habitat, startling genetic

had taken place

roughly

chang-

in their bodies.

Living in trees required that vision play an essential

role in

physical survival. Because

seeing what was to the front was

important than what was to the enlarged and

The

skull

moved

much more

sides, the eyes

to the front of the head.

around the eyes also enlarged

Climbing from branch

to

branch required

sophisticated spatial judging abilities.

newfound

life-style

two

their leafy

kingdom. Older members of

18

to survive in

their

to

protect the sensitive, newly vital organs.

soon eaten. But many others stuck with their

and learned

and

eyes,

slightly

With

apart, yet their separate

images made whole by an increasingly

intelli-

HISTORIC EYES

human

gent brain, this binocular vision gave these

the contemporary

mammals depth

adapted to the requirements of

perception.

After 800,000 generations of living in the

sun-soaked tree limbs, fearing, nocturnal

these

early

night-

mammals changed

to day-

age.

19

nevertheless has its

modern

Such complex and unanticipated evolu-

tionary skills as driving a car or piloting an

way

airplane are possible only because of the

loving, diurnal creatures that were able to

the eye and brain function together to control

distinguish between slight variations in light

the rest of the body.

However,

wavelength frequencies. In other words, they

the

adaptation

greatest

over

could see colors. Although they had no for-

countless millennia, isn't binocular or color

mal way of communicating

vision but the concept of sensual

their color prefer-

many of the

ences, they taught each other that

most poisonous plants were brightly colored, color

that

could

plants were ripe

determine

enough

to

when eat,

edible

and

that

That

cy.

humans can

is,

redundan-

learn about the world

through a variety of senses, so each individual sense does not have to be extremely sensitive.

Because the senses of hearing, smell, touch,

predators and dinner possibilities often were

taste,

brightly colored.

does not have to occupy a huge amount of

Over countless generations, modern hu-

mans

eventually emerged from these tree-

dwelling animals. the

same brain

Our

size,

Ice

Age ancestors had

shape, and functions as

and

sight all

work

The can

tell

skin of a snake

miles away.

evolutionary

time changes, the 50,000-year-old

life

span of

so sensitive that

a degree in heat temperature.

an animal as small as

to

is

it

the difference of three thousandths of

minuscule

comparison

one

brain capacity as in other animals.

the reader of this line of text. Although in

together, each

If

a

Hawks can

mouse from

our senses were that

we would have

little

room

in

see

three

sensitive,

our brain

for

Figure 3.1

Moving from trees

had

where the

it

the

ground

was a

added

to

bit safer

benefit of

improving eyesight after thousands of generations.

THE

20

EYE,

THE RETINA, AND THE BRAIN

We

anything but sensory information. be like the snake and hawk

—

would

able to feel

and

see extraordinarily well but not able to proc-

and

ess

much

store

see well

to

modern

to survive in a complicated,

make

sense of

all.

it

lesson of human physiology

much

is

An

important

that seeing

a function of the brain as

is

it

your eye

If

is

as

is

a func-

tion of the eye.

lamp

the

is

good, your body

eyes are described

down men

like a

searchlight."

Despite the analogies provided by poets, the eye

is

simply an instrument that collects

and focuses

light

the

eye has been compared to for focusing

drawings" on

film.

prising because

of the

to the rear surface

it

eyeball. Since the invention of the

mechanism

Windows to the soul

eye

of light." In a scene from The

full

"eyes that run up and

as,

world and give our brains enough mental activity to

be

will

"The

in the Bible writes,

Women, Joan Crawford's

other information.

Redundant senses allow us

enough

thew

of the body.

camera, simple

its

and capturing

This analogy

"light

sur-

isn't

knowledge of the physical

workings of the eye helped in the camera's

An

understanding of the basic components of

the eye, the retina, and the brain

because these

models

many

for

Figure 3.2

make

See color section following

Cameras

page 210.

compared

still

or motion picture photographic process are

parts are used as

housed within a protective box or carrying

visible

(Figure 3.2).

and video images often

are

Computers

can

to the eyes.

that

case; the eye

the skull.

A

is

protected by an outgrowth of

solution to clean the glass elements of the lens

from dust and smudges; the eye has lens-cleaning system with

an eye often are used to explain the inner

shutter regulates the

human mind.

More than 70 receptors in the

percent of

human body

all

exposed to the sensory

are in the eyes.

Hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching take a backseat, percent.

combining

When lovers engage

for the other

light;

that vision

is

opening that

lets light

pupil performs the In

an

is

same function

in the eye.

and motion picture photography,

as

with the eye, the lens focuses the outside

shut out distracting visual messages the eyes

chamber. In photography,

to concentrate their

is

enter the camera; the

image

They want

The

film

The aperture

ate kisses, they often close their eyelids to

give them.

salty tears.

amount of time

possible.

30

still

its

a built-in

the eyelids open and shut so

all

in long, passion-

drop of

visual artist often uses a

process thousands of commands in a blink of

workings of the

still

important

is

of the machines used to

more

the world for

body

vital

development. The essential parts of the

back of the dark

to a point at the

light-sensitive

a sheet of thin,

emulsion records the picture,

photoreceptors in the back of the eye

sensory receptors on the lover's soft sighs, the

as

aroma of hair and

process the light rays. Photographers process

mouth, and the

feel

the taste of the

skin,

of caresses. As Leonardo

da Vinci once wrote, "The sense which

is

and print

mans

their images in a

nearest to the organ of perception functions

cortex region of the brain.

most quickly, and

ence between the

the leader of

The artists

all

this

is

the eye, the chief,

that of

other senses."

eyes are a source of

wonder

and

are

writers.

They

a

for

both

source of

insight about the owner's personality

and

a

source of inspiration for poetic descriptions.

Even though no literature

is filled

light shines

from the

eyes,

with such references. Mat-

when

darkroom; hu-

process their images within the visual

still,

film,

human and

The major

differ-

visual system

televised images

the eyes are open, the picture

is

is

and that

contin-

uous. Moving, mediated images actually are a series of still pictures strung together to give

the illusion of motion.

Humans

with a normal

field

of vision can

comfortably see about 90 degrees to the

left

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE

and 90 degrees

and about 80

to the right

up and 80 degrees down. The eye-

degrees

21

Parts of the

brows and nose obstruct part of the vertical view.

The

field

of vision

divided into three

is

sections: the foveal, the macular, and the

peripheral fields. ble for the

The

most acutely focused

Under normal

eye.

foveal field

responsi-

is

detail in the

conditions,

lighting

it

brings objects into the sharpest focus possible

and analyze

so that the brain can concentrate

the visual image.

The

foveal field, however,

optic nerve

represents only a 2 degree angle of coverage.

Consequently, the object under scrutiny by the foveal field

"e" on

is

about the size of the

letter

Under lower

light-

this printed page.

macular

ing conditions, the eye uses the

approximately actual size

... field, situated

on both

move your

low

in

You must con-

eyes directly off an object

light in order to see

it

when

rooted in nerve

is

is

will cause the eyelids to close immediately.

there

By turning your head

slightly,

you move the image onto the macular

The

eign matter. Each eyelash

for-

however, the next-door macular

does.

field

because the

and other

catchers. Eyelashes filter dust

cells so sensitive that the tiniest piece of dust

foveal field doesn't function little light;

outside edge of the eye

is

field.

the peripheral

The

eyelids also will close reflexively to pro-

tect

the nerve system from a threatening

movement, an object

that

comes too

Figure 3.3

The

gestalt

An

tects the it

is

evolutionary holdover that pro-

body from

possibly harmful actions,

the least developed

field.

does not see colors

field

much

objects with to slight jects.

clarity,

The

well,

but

peripheral

cannot see is

sensitive

movements by other people or ob-

Patients with degenerative peripheral

vision slowly lose the capacity to see in

dim

loud noise.

When

this infographic (see 5).

The gray boxes

top

and bottom

is

a

Each eye

sits

in

an orbit surrounded by seven

of the skull's bones as a plate of armor to further protect

it.

tains fatty tissue

The

orbit or socket

ing

the

eyes

exposes the central

behind the eye that helps to

cushion the eye when

produce

nervous

Humans

human

body can such

Conse-

quently,

many

protective measures are built

into the eye system.

Hairy eyebrows act as sunshades and

—

perhaps our

animals that

The

tears to clear

and moisten

are the only animals

first

live in

the air

their eyes.

who

cry.

layer of the eyeball itself

tough, protective

membrane

About 80 percent of the

is

a

called the sclera.

eyeball

is

composed

of this tissue (Figure 3.3). grit

and

center.

link the

shift the

The cornea

is

As with

a tough, transparent layer

the shape of

the eye, the viewer

is

purposefully led around a circle pattern.

Note the

slight indentation

foveal area.

hit.

blink about once every

Blinking washes the eyes with

toric earth. All

Open-

system directly. Nowhere else in the a condition be created.

con-

when we were amphibious animals swimming in the salty seas of prehis-

parts acting in unison to achieve sight.

at the

viewer's attention to the

of the

The dent means

that this spot, where vision is

most acute, contains no

cells in

link to the time

complex system of various body

Chapter

the eyelids are shut, the soft

soothing, slightly salty tears

The eye

at work in

close to

part of the eyes are waterproof and air tight.

five seconds.

Physiology of the eye

is

the eyes, a blinding flash of light, or a sudden

Humans normally

light.

law of

continuation

headlines field.

i

sides of the foveal field,

to see less detailed objects.

sciously

3^

2

1

be viewed as being more closely

twenty

related than a third person standing

yards from the couple. Similarly, the fact that

®

the two circles seen on the Martian artifact are near each other

the four laws of gestalt

sion that they

would lead

to the conclu-

form some meaningful associa-

tion (Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.1

elements or forms into various groups. Dis-

This infographic

crete elements within a scene are

is

itself

a

demonstration of the four gestalt laws

—

the symbols at

the left are separated by the

words at the right because of

combined

and understood by the brain through of four laws of grouping: ty,

a series

The law of similari-

the law of proximity, the law of continua-

tion,

and the law of

common

fate

(Figure

The law of continuation principle, again gists, that

the brain does not prefer sudden or

unusual changes

movement

in the

In other words, the brain seeks as possible

a

of a line.

much

smooth continuation of a

(Figure 5.4).

5.1).

on the

rests

assumed by Gestalt psycholo-

The

line

can be a line

as

line

in the

their similar nature, their

The law of

similarity states that, given a

traditional sense of the word, as in a drawing,

proximity, their linkages,

choice

and

their directions.

by the brain, you

simplest and

most

stable

will

form

select

the

to concentrate

or several objects placed together that form a line.

Objects viewed as belonging to a contin-

be mentally separated from

on. This law stresses the importance of basic

uous

shapes in the form of squares, circles, and

other objects that are not a part of that line.

triangles.

The law of continuation

Imagine yourself as an astronaut exploring

line will

that are partially blocked

the surface of Mars. Suddenly you are con-

object. For example,

fronted by an artifact half-buried in the red

circle

dust.

Assume

bicycle,

that this object

is

a ten-speed

5.5).

Without identifying

A

it

is

a bicycle.

the parts of the object as handle bars, seat,

by

a

foreground

your mind will close the

shape of the Martian

artifact

even

if

a

boulder partially blocks your view (Figure

although for this exercise you have no

idea that

also refers to objects

fourth law of Gestalt psychology

law of

common

fate.

A

viewer

is

the

mentally

SENSUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

/V7ac/f is

Accent

back

—

55

Figure 5.2 (left) sort

of.

Sports/B1.

The law of similarity.

Gazette

Ink spots

Self-rule nears

play an

as

Israel

this

recognizes

PLO

encore

In

newspaper feature page

layout, the top

and middle

illustrations are linked

their

by

wedge shapes.

Testimony ends

^

in Hinckley Twp policeman's tria

r

m

HI

Figure 5.3 (right)

The law of proximity. The story

and photographs from

President Bill Clinton's

appearance are linked on this

front page because of

their proximity.

X

First-time director

3* Veterans' efforts to aid Amish grow out of concern for others

Gibson

i

feels like an expectant father

groups

arrows or

five

i^J

ing to the sky because they

same

An

direction.

hands point-

five raised

point in the

all

arrow or a hand pointed

The law of continuation. reader

is

graphically prodded

in the opposite direction will create tension,

from one apple

because the viewer will not see

next by the implied

the upwardly directed whole. the law of lated to

common

fate are

it

as part of

The elements of more

closely re-

movement of

recipe to the

the curved line

of fruit on the right-hand

time than any of the elements of the side of this feature page.

other laws. Holiday lights that run along the length of a house travel from

left

to right over

a period of time. This light illusion sets

colored bulbs apart from a strand of non-

blinking lights covering a nearby bush (Figure 5.6).

One to

of the

explain

figure

first

the

uses of the gestalt laws was

phenomenon

and ground

spatial patterns (in paint-

ing and photography, called positive space). For figure

is

negative and

and ground

terns the crucial question was:

know what

of reversible

How

in the foreground

pat-

do we

and what

belongs in the background of an image? This

A

56

THE SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

question

is

related directly to the important

need of the brain to far in order to


Figure 5.5

One of the most known

well

optical illusions

is

Two

lines

of equal

length appear to be different

and

ground patterns by drawing an object

that

lengths because of the

and the

— you

effect.

The

Orientation:

(Figure 5.8).

object's shape influences it

a vertical or horizontal shape

We

objects

most

Rubin also outlined the principle of cam-

tion

see

shape,

will

often be a figure.

ouflage in which there

Symmetry:

as a part of the figure

More than any other

or the ground.

background (ground or negative space)

because the outward arrows

continue the horizontal

An

our perception of

in the foreground (figure or positive space) or in the

we view those mean-

of the image.

identify objects within a visual field as being

length of the second line

to famil-

must make a

based on the gestalt laws, that help

brain naturally extends the

pay more attention

than to those we cannot dis-

ingful objects as being in the foreground

vase in the drawing. Rubin identified five

may

We

cern. Consequently,

and factors,

help explain the

Meaning:

conscious decision whether to see a face or a

inward arrows. The gestalt

law of continuation

once

to the total visual field as fig-

iar objects

the retina. However, the brain cannot see at

see shapes that are small in area

ures.

vase images are stimulating photoreceptors in

images

We

compared

could be interpreted as either a face or vase

both addition of outward

Area:

psychologist, experimented with figure

view objects that exhibit

often than to those with inward forms.

1915, Edgar Rubin, a Danish Gestalt

(Figure 5.7). Sensually, both the face

called the Muller-Lyer illusion.

judge their relative importance

or danger. In

We

Convexity:

shapes that curve outward as figures more

label objects as near or

is little

or no separa-

between the foreground and the back-

have a

that

ground.

Understanding and manipulating

balanced or symmetrical orientation as this trait of visual perception led directly to

direction.

foreground objects. military applications of merging the colors of

uniforms and equipment with those of sur-

Figure 5.6

The law of common

fate.

Accent

rounding backgrounds in order

linked graphically by their

upward

direction.

them.

This principle also influenced the work of

Besides their similar shapes, the two cola bottles are

to hide

a C ear |

artists

M.

whom

were influenced by the writings and

C. Escher and Paul Klee, both of

findings of several Gestalt psychologists.

Winner

The

strength of the gestalt theory of visual

perception

is

its

attention to the individual

forms that make up a picture's content. analysis of

trating in

an image should

on those forms

an

all

color, form, depth,

are basic characteristics of

image that the brain

teaches a visual

by concen-

start

that naturally appear

any picture. Recall that

and movement

Any

Gestalt

notices.

communicator

to

combine

With Crystal

Pepsi and Tab

elements

those

basic

whole.

The approach

into

a

meaningful

Cleat as the main participants, the

new

round ol cola wars promises a whole

to

have

different

artist to

also teaches the graphic

focus attention on certain elements

flavor

by playing against the ple, a

gestalt laws.

For exam-

company's logo (or trademark)

will

be

Reinventing the mill wheel

noticed in an advertisement ilar

if it

has a dissim-

shape, size, or location in relation to the

other elements in the layout.

SENSUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

The main that

it

is

sidewalk communicates sadness, not through

account for cultural influences.

an inner storehouse of familiarity with that

criticism of the gestalt theory

fails to

German philosophy believing

of

properties

physiological

has a long tradition of

and

metaphysical

the

in

human data

psychology.

innate

Without

support their work,

to

gestalt theorists nonetheless

concluded that

recognizing good shapes and arrangements

within a composition of the brain.

And

nizes basic forms

is

an evolutionary

although the

and

personal insights and

mind

trait

recog-

patterns, such a func-

tion cannot explain the

way

individuals gain

meaning from mediat-

ed visual messages.

philosophy leads to

meaning

—

gestalt's

most serious

a

visual work.

influences have

little

no

According to

to use

its

who

psychologist Jean

Piaget emphasized the importance of learned

behavior in a child's growth. after the

development of the

Coming

gestalt

long

approach,

his findings suggested that visual perception

must be that

a

combination of the visual elements

make up

a

scene and the symbolic

meaning of those elements. The is

excellent at describing

gestalt the-

the patterns

concerned with visual perception, but

offers

it

no explanations other than innate properties of the brain in describing ties

become meaningful.

how

those proper-

Nevertheless, the

theories that help explain the inner workings

memory of past

stored

images in interpreting an image. For him, a depressed person

The work of educational

bearing on finding the

that visual perception takes place too quickly

mind

movements.

Gestalt psychologists inspired several related

meaning of an image. Wertheimer believed for the

herent in the walk: slumped back and slow

and cultur-

gestalt theorists, past experiences al

German

that a person's culture conveys

for

emotion, but with the graphic elements in-

ory

Ironically, the cultural heritage of

criticism

57

walks along a crowded

of the

human mind

as

The work of gestalt that

the

brain

is

a

it

see

As you concentrate on

the

white area of a variation of the popular Peter

Goblet

and Paul

illusion, the

cup

becomes the foreground figure. Stare at the black

and

shapes

the faces will

appear.

studies an image.

theorists clearly

powerful

classifies visual material

What we

Figure 5.7

shows

organ

that

in discrete groups.

when looking

at a picture is

Figure 5.8

Edgar Rubin used the laws

to

about

gestalt

draw conclusions

how foregrounds and

backgrounds are identified

—

leading to camouflage clothing. In this photograph,

the symmetrical shape, the

curved form, the familiar sidbject,

and

the vertical

orientation help identify the

model and not the shadow as the foreground (or positive) shape.

1

THE SENSUAL AND PERCEPTUAL THEORIES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION

58

ly give

meaning

several

Gestalt

to

an image. Consequently, attempted

psychologists

to

develop theories that helped explain the im-

own

portance of the viewer's

mental

state

during active viewing. 1970, Julian Hochberg, a professor of

In

psychology the

that

quick the

they scan an image. These

as

fixations

focal

combine within

all

memory

short-term

viewer's

build a mental picture of a scene.

constructs fixations

whole

found

University,

of observers are constantly

eyes

motion

in

Columbia

at

the scene with the

that

help

to

The viewer

short-lived

mind combines

eye

into

a

picture.

Hochberg

had

use

subjects

his

eye-

tracking machines in his visual perception

experiments. These devices can chart the way Figure 5.9

The

approach

gestalt

maintains that the "whole different

from

the

modified by what we have seen in the past

a

and what we want

region of the eye

to see (Figure 5.9).

sum of its

(Chapter

Constructivism

an image. Because the foveal

The

gestalt

describing

approach had been criticized for perceptions

than

rather

a

is

tiny area,

in order to

the eye

maintain focus

Eye- tracking machines simply

3).

made obvious

parts." This advertising

montage

at

constantly moves

is

photograph, which uses a

viewer looks

the

eyes'

frenetic

journey

across a direct or mediated image.

Look magazine editors used eye-camera

giving

effect to create

explanations of how these perceptions actual-

studies to determine

how

readers looked at

excitement in the viewer's stories

mind about

the motorcycle,

EYE-TRAC Cables conflea

A

such study, 100

women

In

one

were connected to an

RESEARCH

demonstrates that philosophy.

and individual photographs.

image

single

camera

cs

eye-camera machine that registered where

TESTING

1

'

electron'

lo tr>e

and

Eye

for

how

long the eyes focused on a

V«v» Monitor

would be viewer

difficult

for a

to interpret,

contsol unil (not

»|

-

1

but

man's

is

More

clear.

at

the

face 31.65 percent of the time; the least

noticed feature was the man's

taken as a whole, the

meaning

man. The women looked

picture of a

Pupil monitor

;

recently, Dr.

left

hand.

Mario Garcia and Dr.

Pegie Stark of the Poynter Institute for Media

Studies in

Figure 5.10 In this

modern

Hochberg

* 1

Julian

setup, researchers

The leadei sat

urt\

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VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS,

94

Figure 6.10

complained

The epitome of sensational

in

journalism practices

famous

1920s

is

Daily

this

in the

secretly

Hearst replied with the

to draw,

line,

"You furnish the

pictures;

When

made

the

of sensational journalism to

practice

of excess.

levels

new

The New York Daily Graphic

and Daily News used

I'll

graphic photo-

large,

graphs and screaming headlines to interest

furnish the war."

News

front page. Photographer

Tom Howard

Cuba

was no war

to Hearst that there

AND JOURNALISM

American

battleship

Maine

customers standing before newsstands. Vio-

ex-

ploded in Havana harbor in 1897, the news-

lence, sex,

papers aroused public opinion against Spain,

game.

and crime confessions were

When

all fair

photographs could not be taken

three, slightly blurred

despite evidence that

members of

exposures during the

accidentally set off the explosion. execution of Ruth Snyder.

The heavily retouched image all the

is

its

more shocking by

large size

and

— an

\

'I

!l.

1 .357.556 1,193.297

reenactment of crimes or

N'.i.

17:1

*

for

information about the

.';

trials.

graph of Ruth Snyder on the

through propagandized newspaper ac-

This period

electric chair

"DEAD!" Tom How-

counts, turned against the Spanish govern-

with the large headline,

ment, making war in Cuba inevitable.

ard strapped a camera to his leg and secretly

made

NEW YORK'S

'

Y..H..

J^PiCrURE NEWSPAPER

Kn.l..

~

-

EDITION

the

picture

at

moment

the

of her

execution for the killing of her husband.

DAILYJ NEWS extra /•

office

culminated in the shocking full-page photo-

Tabloid newspapers in the 1920s raised the

-

personnel to stage manage the

monetary rewards

exclamation mark.

Sundjf.

composograph was used along with models

and

ion,

headline with a seldom used

Ojily.

The news-

papers used emotional headlines and large

incident to incite their readers. Public opin-

boldface

typographic symbol

of the actual subjects of a news story, the

the crew

The

newspaper sold 250,000 copies and then sold

an additional 750,000 copies from

j

I41

DEAD/

a subse-

quent press run (Figure 6.10).

Emergence of Objective Reporting

The New

York Times demonstrated a better

war

of Spanish-American

side

1896 by Adolph

reporting.

Ochs, a former

Bought

in

printer

from Tennessee, the paper was de-

S.

signed for well-educated readers tired of the tactics

used by the yellow journalists. Ochs

directed his reporters

and

illustrators to pro-

duce credible and balanced

stories

and

pic-

tures.

Embryonic objective reporting survived the onslaught of sensationalism. Investigative journalists such as Ida Steffens, the

and

Tarbell

and Lincoln

"muckrakers," used undercover

other investigative techniques to report

objectively business tion.

M.

and government corrup-

But not until the depression in the

1930s did objectivity in reporting become

common. By the 1930s and 1940s, E

UQ

ing,

with

its

objective report-

emphasis on the inverted pyra-

mid writing formula (who, what, why, where, when, and how), became important

in the

coverage of spot news and political, economic,

and foreign

affairs.

The

inverted pyramid

VISUAL PERSUASION IN IOURNALISM

style

95

of reporting, in which the important

photographic projects, particularly those of

the beginning of a story

the Farm Security Administration (FSA), high-

covered

facts are

actually

at

was invented shortly

after the tele-

lighted the use of

still

and moving images. the Great

graph came into widespread use. Reporters

They were used

who used

Depression was a dire economic time for

the "lightning lines" were afraid

that their transmissions

might suddenly be

disconnected, so they loaded the start of their stories

with

way of

Objective reporting was viewed as a

maintaining credibility by providing a buffer

between readers and the public relations

government and corporate

forts of

The

to be enacted. Life

effective use of

and Look magazines

replaced by television (see Chapter 12).

ef-

Television's Contribution

interests

and

techniques. Opinion pieces by editors

that controversial legis-

during the 1930s and 1940s would soon be

The new medium of

with their hidden motives and persuasive

columnists started to appear on

had

photojournalism in

the essential facts.

all

many Americans and lation

prove that

to

separate

first test

as a reliable

during the search

television failed

news source

for

in the 1950s

communists

pages away from news stories so that readers

ca.

was virtually unknown beyond

policy pronouncements and interpretations. Editorial

and

pictures.

On

broadcast on television and reported in news-

the one hand, editors and

His unsubstantiated reports about

papers.

was

increasing newspaper credibility and

overcoming negative reactions

to yellow jour-

the other hand, publishers saw

way of playing

it

safe

and not

officials

McCarthy showed

Murrow

one reporter remarked, "reporters with

as

their

disgust

in

first

—

brains knocked out." To help overcome that

objectivity

preexisting

degree in photojournalism in

might have

first

the country.

In

1945,

the National

Press

Photographers Association was formed to increase professionalism

among

its

and

ethical concerns

members.

it

man when new

he stated his His honest

era in reporting. For

time, the notion of complete reporter

stereotype, in 1942 the University of Missouri offered the

easily

CBS journalist Edward

broadcast report.

a

outburst marked a the

how

put an end to the wild ranting of

that mean-spirited

Most had been viewed,

the media

could be manipulated.

rated stories.

professional.

ties

of the American public of the "Red menace."

R.

Photographers also attempted to become

with communist

a fascinating story, illuminating the fear

upsetting advertisers with emotional, exagge-

more

fact that

wanting objective words

way of

objectivity as a

home

an unsuspecting public believed whatever was

government

On

his

he discovered the simple

state until

reporters advocated objective reporting as a

nalism.

Ameri-

dif-

and corporate personnel had

ferent reasons for

in

Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin

would not confuse

objective reporting with

its

a

frame of mind that ignored

beliefs

and

— was shown

biases to

a

all

journalist

be unrealistic and

dishonest.

Consequently, liberally educated and socially

conscious reporters became freer to

question government policies and actions.

Nevertheless, as a reaction to the photo-

During the Vietnam War and the Watergate

and

on

graphic sensationalism of yellow journalism,

scandal,

pictures began to have less significance in

CBS's "Sixty Minutes," reporters entered a

newspapers. Space reserved for images be-

new phase

came smaller and based on

Repro-

fenders of the public and not concerned with

duction of the images, rarely a top priority for

the economic consequences of their reports.

publishers, didn't improve. pression,

however,

set sizes.

During the de-

government-sponsored

in the investigative reports

in journalism:

Investigative reporting

They became

de-

teams sprang up in

newspapers and television around the coun-

1

96

Figure 6.

Two

try

1

different images

Left:

of war:

Eddie Adams's Pulitzer

Prize image

is

the type of

and corporate at

would rather the public not

on abuses by government

report

to

students

stories

were crowded

who wanted

and for

Media departments

officials.

universities

stein

picture military officials

see.

VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS, AND JOURNALISM

Bob the

to

emulate Carl Bern-

Woodward's Washington

Adams and Huynh Cong

Many media

critics

young

with

Watergate

reporters

do not come from

tradition.

There

its

products are simply

cogs in the wheel of advertising to help drive the economy.

Impact of Advertising

powerful

and

By 1900, newspapers had become enor-

have said

muckraking

on

"Sixty

Minutes"

(Figure

that the photograph helped

Vietnam War. Right:

mously successful business operations. Chain ownership further strengthened the financial

6.11). turn public opinion against the

growing sense that mass

a

communication and

images from Vietnam, and Mike Wallace's social historians

journalism

Eddie

Post,

Ut's

is

a

But

it

was a short-lived phase. The public

turned conservative and the country encoun-

powerful

of

base

publishers.

viewed newspapers as a powerful

Advertisers

medium

"Air force footage of first

tered economically uncertain times.

bombing of Iraqi

concerned that a media report might cause

for advertising in

the closing of a plant or layoffs has

$300 million. By 1909, they had jumped

headquarters.

''

air force

For the

first

time in the history of warfare, viewers at

could watch

home

live television

pictures of air strikes against

enemy forces during

sympathy

for a reporter's claim of

war against

little

freedom of

individual

sales

sales of advertising increased. Publishers

quo. Government and corporate public

beginning to

tions

rela-

personnel have largely succeeded in

newspapers should

realize that

serve advertisers

were

and not the

public.

the

management. Media

In

the

1920s,

advertisers

began to be

Iraq.

salaries

nose-mounted video cameras broadcast images of targeted

until the screens

and

to $1

partners in the continuation of the status

school enrollments have declined along with

home

Subscription

billion.

U.S. newspapers was

all

were slowly diminishing in importance as

"Smart bombs" with

buildings to

selling their products. In 1890, expenditures

the press. Today, the media are seen as useful

their attempts at press allied

A person

for

viewers

went blank

editors

and career opportunities. Managing

now

hire business school graduates as

reporters for their specialized

knowledge of

corporate and economic issues and part-time writers

and

illustrators to avoid

paying ex-

after the explosion of the

pensive health and retirement benefits. Ethi-

missile.

cal considerations often take a

back seat

if

concerned about the tabloid's excessive sensationalism.

the

They

lowest

generally believed that only

members of

much buying power stories.

— were

Consequently,

moving away from

— without

attracted by such

publishers

started

sensational reporting to

follow the lead of the

hoped

society

New

York Times.

that wealthier individuals

They

would read

VISUAL PERSUASION IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

the papers

and make the publications more

In the 1940s, advertising occupied about

55 percent of the space in newspapers. Today

and

represents 65 percent

creased advertising editorial space.

means

And

news story and

less

that remaining space

when

driven information

considered.

is

national newspaper

cerned with their

Television

is

public-relations

images and limit

clients'

them.

journalists' access to

growing. In-

is

even more precious

The

has exploded. Consequently, public relations

personnel for celebrities are particularly con-

attractive to advertisers.

it

97

program

directors are pressured

moments

to put dramatic

at

the end of an

segment so that the viewer

editorial

watching when

commercial

the

will be

appears.

Long, complicated stories don't work well on

USA Today was

because a viewer might change

television

introduced in 1982 to great fanfare. Part of

channels. Similarly, images should be dra-

the media's attention to the newspaper was

matic and emotional to rivet the viewer to the

map

colorful weather

its large,

whole page

(see

Chapter

10). Its color repro-

duction generally was ahead of

and

nically

time tech-

its

many newspapers

influenced

around the country

that filled a

to use color. But the color

photographs and graphic elements weren't intended

necessarily

be

to

a

how

beautiful their ads could look in

newspapers. Modular design techniques, col-

and

orful photographs,

were aimed

stories

at

the

short, easily readable

attracting readers

by

The

ads).

docudramas

station

local

cases)

with the promise of involved

people

real"

at

news

scenes, long police car chases video-

taped from a pursuing helicopter, "reality-

crime shows

based"

participate (and

some

members

actions by

which journalists

in

say glorify) intrusive

of the police, and crime

reenactments are becoming the

than the exception. Shows such as

used to create an upscale look so that adver-

Affair," "Inside Edition,"

see that the publication was,

according to media

good environment editorial

critic

Fred Ritchin, "a

advertising."

for

When

photographs become advertisements

for the publication in order to attract advertisers, stage

managing, reenactment, and sub-

and electronic touch-up manipulations

ject

become acceptable

(see

Chapter

Feature stories and special fashion, food, lifestyles,

sections

and other

topics

newspapers and televised reports. These

news stories are designed

who can tised.

afford to

Accompanying

this trend

es.

star

makes

is

is

soft

consumers

promoted

if

and "Hard Copy," titles,

regu-

the type of stories once the

province of supermarket tabloids. As eco-

nomic pressures become

become

ing dollars

nalism mentality

greater

and

scarcer, the tabloid jour-

— the

idea

that

can be aired as long as there a part of

advertis-

is

anything video

mainstream journalism

practice (see Chapter 14) (Figure 6.12).

In

a

1993 speech to broadcasters,

journalist for

their

Dan Rather tentative,

criticized all

CBS

networks

corporate-driven

news

philosophy:

the rise in

which every move a

documented with imag-

Entertainment and gossip news, particu-

larly

feature

larly

fill

buy the products adver-

celebrity journalism, in

famous

to attract

on

norm rather "A Current

with their double entendre sexual

becomes

12).

the

To keep ratings high, dramatic "live" shots

resemble television programs. Pictures were

would

in

tragedy during the local newscast.

showing them how much newspapers could

tisers

promote

will

that re-create sensational events

murder

(often

"seeing the

journalistic

achievement. Color was used to show advertisers

content of the program (to get ready to watch

a report includes details

about the personal problems of a celebrity,

Too often

we have answered

for too long

to

the worst, not the best, within ourselves and

within our audiences.

.

the ratings' sake, don't

—

certainly not

.

.

For heaven's and

make anybody mad

anybody

that you're cover-

Figure 6.12 Print

and

journalists often are

cial

criticized for traveling in

er.

"THE END.

reads,

After a

AIDS and

its

so-

stigma, David Kirby could fight no long-

As

his father, sister

and niece stood by

in

anguish, the 32-year-old founder and leader

packs when covering the

New

magazine

in Life

three-year struggle against

television

news. Here,

AND JOURNALISM

VISUAL PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING, PUBLIC RELATIONS,

98

of the Stafford, Ohio,

York City

his life slipping away.

AIDS foundation

felt

David whispered, 'I'm

television reporters follow a

took

ready,'

labored

a

then

breath,

suc-

witness after his appearance

cumbed." in the highly publicized

tax

The

evasion trial of hotel queen

cutline for the Benetton ad reads,

"United Colors of Benetton."

Leona Helmsley.

The words

in the

magazine are meant

Life

emotions,

and

especially not the mayor, the gover-

nor, the senator, the President or

anybody

a position of power.

Make

This has become the

new mantra.

in

nice, not news.

to stir the reader's

and love

about

reader

educate the

to

family's courage ing,

journalism context of

for

a

each other, and

perhaps to persuade the reader to do some-

AIDS

thing tangible about the

words are

in the advertising context for

meant

The

crisis.

Benetton

to sell sweaters.

David Brinkley once said that "objectivity is

impossible to a

human

being." Agreeing,

A new form

of communication?

John Merrill writes, "Reporters are not mindsoulless

less,

automatons

who roam

Photography

Vicki Goldberg

critic

made

the

about intriguing point that the Benetton campaign

without ences.

.

.

They have

.

and

opinions,

values,

prefer-

may

be the

example of

first

new informa-

a

their prejudices, their

tion source. Emotional, editorial images pubbiases, their values." Reporters learn in jour-

lished in the

mass media without any cutline

nalism school, from their peers, and by their information attract attention and curiosity by

own

experiences the ethics that guide their their ambiguousness.

reporting decisions. Objectivity

way

to

make

is

public that

is

read-

ing fewer newspapers and believing fewer sure that

news reports

are fair,

broadcasts," accurate,

"A

touted as a

and complete. Unfortunately,

porters seldom hear

how

she

writes

in

the

New

York

re-

Times, "might begin to swallow tiny doses of

corporate concerns

information between the ads for liquor and

contrive to manipulate the content of their lingerie."

words and

tures, a rate

To

get

any details about the pic-

pictures. Skepticism about corpo-

person must hear of them by word of

motives in an era of shrinking budgets

and

mouth, read about them layoffs

is

often

a

story

idea

that

sources, or simply

beginning journalist cannot afford to men-

make them

communication process tion to the city editor or

in

other media

a

is

up. Such a

one way of con-

news producer. structing

a

transcultural,

transglobal,

and

translanguage information source by which individuals are able to

BACK TO DAVID KIRBY

based on their

need

Look

at

the Benetton advertisement of David

Kirby on his deathbed surrounded by family

members one more

time.

The

original cutline

for

media

own

make

sense of pictures

experiences without the

interpretation. Benetton has

introduced the world to a visual, nonverbal

mode

of communication.

The

idea of presenting visual images by

BACK TO DAVID KIR BY

form of communication simply be-

themselves, without cutline information, has

effective

been a mainstay of television images since

cause they

its

99

are.

beginning. Although voice-over announcers give the viewer a

pictures

the

few general details about the

and graphics

name

of the person speaking, most of the

images are unexplained. Viewers

own assumptions

their

seeing.

Persuasion:

A

life

and death

issue

that usually identify

must make

about what they are

Hence misleading,

incorrect,

and

bi-

Before assigning nothing but positive motives

magazine, take a look

to the editors of Life

what

else

is

at

on the page with the Kirby family

(Figure 6.13). Therese Frare's black

on

and white

ased information can easily be passed to the

image

viewer without the viewer's knowledge. Add-

black border framed by a thin, white rule.

ing in-depth, newspaperlike cutlines in voice-

The

cutline

overs or as graphic elements

The

text

television's interest to

is

costly.

It is

in

keep the images ambig-

is

is

a double-page spread inside a

is

lower

at the

left

of the picture.

printed in white and set inside a

black box. But stuck between the two pages

uous because the industry has conditioned

attached between the image of Kirby and his

viewers to accept television as a passive medi-

father

um. A.dding words

on the

to the pictures simply

would be too much work

for

"couch pota-

it

tising

does nothing

else,

the Benetton adver-

campaign reminds us of the power of

television to influence all other media.

may come when newspaper

editors

television's practice of presenting little

left

verbal

accompaniment.

journalism, as

To prevent

it,

If

it

A time adopt

images with does, print

we know it, will cease to exist. we must always assert that

words and pictures used equally are the most

page and his

right page

—

is

sister

and niece

a cheery, white insert

printed with colorful holiday graphics and

photographs.

toes." If

on the

It

a

is

promotion

to get the

reader to subscribe to the magazine. "Give the gift that shows you care

..."

reads, "all year long. Give LIFE."

turn the

little

card over

it

the copy

When

you

reads, next to the

crying face of David Kirby's father, "With

LIFE your holiday shopping's cept, of course,

if

you are dead. Advertising

and journalism merge and

a snap." Ex-

insensitive way.

in a shockingly ironic

Figure 6.13 See color section following

page 210.

CHAPTER

Whether

wrong

.

.

is

.

right or

imagination

7

Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes

shaped by the

pictures seen ....

the Media

in

Consequently, they can lead to stereotypes that are hard to shake.

For many, Labor Day marks the end of the Walter Lippmann,

WRITER

summer

season.

It is

a holiday that recognizes

the transition between lazy days

and the

ation

of a

start

full

new

of relax-

season

of

Lest the viewer forget the reason for

are interspersed with filmed spots about

and people

productivity for students and workers alike.

We

As

chemicals in

that last picnic, last stroll along a

dive

last

into

a

pool begin

pleasant memories,

to

or

trail,

fade

many Americans

into settle

entertainment segments

this excitement, the

research

afflicted

money

to

mixing

doctors talking pas-

test tubes,

camera of the need

further

MD

with the disease.

see scientists in white lab coats

sionately into the

all

their

for

more

research,

and

their televi-

wheelchair-bound children being pushed to

and watch the Jerry Lewis Muscular

their next physical therapy session. Parents of

(MDA)

telethon, the

these children talk with tears in their eyes

annual fund-raising program that has be-

about the shock of learning of their child's

into a comfortable chair, turn

sion sets,

Dystrophy Association

come a The

staple of the

medium

telethon

throwback

vaudeville.

is

a

The show

high-kicking, ironic

on

(Figure 7.1).

performers,

an

number considering that many of those

benefiting from the telethon cannot walk.

Lewis, with his professional

backed black

hair,

charm and

slick-

introduces each subse-

quent performance, from comedians to singers,

with the same

the

many hours he

7.2).

100

level

Muscular dystrophy

to the age of

usually begins with

tap-dancing

illness.

of enthusiasm, despite

has been awake (Figure

inherited

diseases

a

is

that

affect

for the French neurologist

Guillaume

1868.

The

first

age 4

muscles

Duchenne,

Duchenne, who in

the

called

and serious form of

named

for several

The most common

attached to the skeleton.

MD

name

first

Duchenne

is

described the condition

MD

affects

only boys.

sign of the disease appears at about

when

a child begins to

have trouble

walking. By age 10, the child must use a wheelchair. As the disease progresses,

all

the

IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA

101

muscles eventually are affected, almost always

Figure 7.1

causing death by age 30. Without doubt,

Jerry Lewis

Duchenne

MD

is

but the disease

tragic,

results in only

rare.

It

male

births, affecting

is

right.

30 cases per 100,000

1993

some 30,000

families in

sible for

there

is

no

MDA

all

of

telethon, his

he

luxury Rolls

Royce automobile

causing the disease has been identi-

fied, as yet

doing

Before the start of his

steps out

the United States. Although the gene respon-

is

in front

of

a Las Vegas casino.

cure.

The Muscular Dystrophy Association has been

criticized

because most of the

money

raised by the telethon goes to support other

fund-raising events while

MDA

receive salaries as high as

$300,000 a year.

But to the organization's credit,

money

worldwide ple, in

Figure 7.2

has given

it

and

to further research

executives

The 1993

to sponsor

scientific conferences.

MDA

telethon

began with an ironic

For exam-

opening sequence. For a

1986 a $5 million research grant led to fund-raiser that purportedly

the discovery of the gene dystrophin that helps

many who must

use

produces a potentially life-saving muscle pro-

The organization

tein.

also provides

wheelchairs to get around,

some

curiously chose to start the

funds for equipment and services to patients.

program with an

The more than 40 other kinds of neuromuscular diseases do not receive

as

emotional publicity because they are less severe

than Duchenne

life-threatening forms of

MD.

These

and extremities,

MD

patients aided by

physical therapy can lead long, productive lives,

some with and some without

the use of

wheelchairs. Nevertheless, the public's stereotypical perception, is

that

chairs

MD

promoted by the

telethon,

victims always must use wheel-

and always die prematurely.

Filmed segments or cut-aways to a local station's activities usually

end with emotional

monologues from Lewis. These gies

Las Vegas-style routine.

less

males and females. Despite numbness in the face

high-kicking, ta p-dan cing

much much

MD can affect both

and

fashion to Lewis. Lewis hoots with joy

announces that the check has

the audience applauds, and the camera in

to

reveal

message (Figure

7.3). Lewis, with tears

flash,

zooms

numbers of the

electronic tote board high above the stage as

new total. The Jerry Lewis/MDA

it

registers a

for viewers to

disease,

introduction, the child nervously recites a

the dancing

and

number

a

"followed by lots of zeros." The lights

"Jerry's

brief

check in true public relations

delivers a

tearful eulo-

of the small stage by an adult. After an

MD,

video about the company's fight against

almost always are accompanied by a sick

child in a wheelchair being rolled to the front

be entertained, to

Kids"

who

and perhaps

are

is

a chance

feel

sorry for

telethon

afflicted

to contribute

with the

money

in

the hope of finding a cure.

But for other individuals, the Labor telecast

is

a source of dread

ment. For those

who

Day

and embarrass-

use wheelchairs, the

an annual reminder of

how main-

welling in his eyes, delivers an emotional

telecast

appeal for money. At the end of his perfor-

stream media sources communicate stereo-

mance, a spokesperson

for a large corporation

walks on stage, introduces a slickly produced

energetic,

typical

is

attitudes,

even for a good cause.

Wheelchair-bound individuals

aren't seen as

it

IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA

102

rest

of us. At times, you seem to understand.

You

talk

What

about our right to

means

that

equipment

jobs,

is

like

ple

—

with dignity.

and

access to schools

computers and vans,

attendants and respect. responsible for

live

all this.

The

MDA

can't be

But misleading peo-

potential employers, potential spouses,

and even newly disabled people who don't

know any

better

— only works

against these

goals.

Your pity campaign

no matter how many mil-

destructive, that lions

you

raise,

means.

Why

to fight

our

so dispiriting, so

is

the ends do not justify the

not wield your sizable influence

real

enemies?

What

caps us most are the obstacles

and

financial

al,

truly handi-

— —

architectur-

attitudinal

erected

by

others.

Stereotyping generally Figure 7.3

active,

As 1993 poster

child

Lance

Fallon looks offstage, Jerry

Lewis makes an emotional pitch for viewers to

contribute to the

MDA

while every five seconds a

new message

They

independent,

are

viewed as helpless and

— and can

fragile indi-

In

1990,

With

Congress passed the Americans

Disabilities Act recognizing that those

the

with disabilities face prejudice and discrimi-

viewer picks up the telephone and pledges a

nation that prevent them from equal partici-

donation.

pation

viduals to be pitied

In the late 1960s, child for the

Today he

is

New

exist

only

Ben Mattlin was York

MDA

if

a poster

organization.

married, a Harvard graduate, and

in

a free-lance writer.

He

objects to the words

The media portray

the disabled in one of

three ways: as heroes

who

have overcome

who

their cruel fates, victims of their bodies

should be pitied, or saints

who somehow cope

screen.

However, home viewers contribute only a small

percentage of the overall

Corporate sponsors

Lewis uses to characterize those

afflicted

with

the disease. Such terms as cripples, dealt a bad

hand, got

in the

wrong

offensive to Mattlin.

viewers will see those

line,

or half a person are

He is concerned that who use wheelchairs as

with their limiting physical conditions. In

media

reports, the disabled are

their efforts to

Lewis does, as victims trapped in their "steel

"Are they

most of the money during

imprisonment,"

Identity, Carol

the telethon in exchange for

part of the "dystrophic child's plight."

spots.

"confined,"

"bound,"

or

In an open letter to Jerry Lewis published in the Los Angeles Times, Mattlin wrote:

overcome or

admired

live

for

with their

physical handicap because the rest of society

doesn't expect

have already committed

promotional

employment.

including

society,

appears at the

bottom of the

total.

and normal persons.

much from them.

In her

book

selling her lips?" Advertising

es of people spite of their

and

Moog notes that "media imagwho do remarkable things in

handicaps make

it

harder for the

disabled to gain self-respect for themselves as

they are." Stereotypical coverage always reDespite your undoubtedly honorable intentions,

you are sadly misinformed about disa-

bilities.

Moreover, you are misleading the

able-bodied population while offending the

wards the exceptional and ignores the ordinary. Stereotypical characterizations are so pervasive in the print

and broadcast media and

STEREOTYPING GENERALLY

in the

movies that producers and consumers

of media messages often

much

less criticize

societal

humorous Chinese

servant,

the correct Filipino houseboy,

to recognize

— them. Media

stereotypes

the volatile Latin,

can lead

to personal

the

reinforce prejudices that

and

fail

the

103

extravagantly

romantic

Frenchman,

and

discrimination and even vio-

the hard-working, thrifty Scandinavian.

lence.

In a 1946 analysis of 198 fictional short stories in eight

popular magazines of the day.

many commonly

cultural groups were identified.

always were

Anglo

Anglo men

Whether an

individual

is

identified because

blond and handsome."

of gender, age, cultural heritage, economic

usually were characterized as

status, sexual orientation, or physical disabili-

"tall,

women

Reinforcing stereotypes with images

held stereotypes concerning

the visual message generally communicat-

"darling" southern belles. Individuals from

ty,

other ethnic groups were variously described

ed about that person often false (Figure 7.4).

as

is

misleading and

Because pictures

affect a

viewer emotionally more than words alone the amusingly ignorant Negro,

do, pictorial stereotypes often

the Italian gangster,

formed perceptions that have the weight of

the sly and shrewd Jew,

established facts. These pictures can remain

the emotional Irish,

in a person's

the primitive and backward Pole, the patronized native of a Pacific island,

When

become misin-

mind throughout

pictorial

a lifetime.

stereotypes are repeated

enough times, they become part of a

society's

Figure 7.4 Stereotypical images can be

seen in the strangest places.

Men's heads are neatly arranged but women's figures are haphazardly

placed in a mannequin supply warehouse.

104

IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA

One

culture. Recall that culture describes a set of

and mutually accepted

learned define

rules

forms of communication

all

that for

a

mind

decides which objects are important, insignif-

members and

their

own

culture,

friends, educational in-

and the media. Culture

stitutions,

what we should do

to get along within

a

the process by which the

helpful,

icant,

or harmful.

is

an acknowl-

edgment of the mental process of Unfortunately, this leads

instant

to

that the

Recall

basis for Cestalt psychology

us

tells

is

selectivity.

of the brain also

trait

categorization

of people.

particular society as well as what our actions

Noticing a person's gender, age, ethnic back-

mean to others (Figure Communication is

ground, and the

share the

same

cultural

7.5).

easier

when people

meanings (speak the

same language or use the same bolism). To be successful,

visual

sym-

re-

quires mutual understanding of the symbols used.

By

like

is

perfectly natural. But

preconceived attitudes or opinions that or

may

may

not be true about that person are

learned through enculturation.

communication

(from the Latin word for commonness)

posing for the

and quickly analyzed.

period. People form attitudes about others,

family

girl

information into basic

units that can be easily Selectivity

through direct experiences, interactions with

The

to categorize visual

is

group of people during a particular time

both within and outside

Figure 7.5

of the chief functions of the brain

Media coverage and

prejudicial

thinking

definition, different cultures attrib-

photographer in a southern

ute different California neighborhood

is

representative of her age

and

social group.

toy

also

becomes an icon for the fear that

many

people have of

living in that area.

to

similar actions.

Consequently, members of one culture often

By holding a

submachine gun she

meanings

are easy to identify

nicating with a

and have trouble commu-

members of another

multicultural society,

culture. In

members of other

cultures often are stigmatized because of their inability

to

dominant

articulate

culture.

the symbols

of the

Because of the definition of news and the

need

visual

for

oriented, violence

messages is

it

leads"

is

thumb. Pulitzer

be

action-

a chief staple of print

and

and entertainment. "If

television reporting

bleeds,

to

it

an often unspoken rule of

Emmys, and Os-

Prizes,

cars are awarded to image

makers who pro-

duce dramatic pictures of ordinary persons undergoing

and viewers

extraordinary

Readers

events.

are at once repulsed

and

ed by violent acts that occur in their

attract-

commu-

nity.

By concentrating on violence

mary way

as the pri-

for people to solve their problems,

the media perpetuate negative perceptions. In

the absence of a personal basis for any other

shown shape

opinion, images that are

atti-

tudes about specific cultural groups. Because the media crave action, they favor reports of violent activity over reports of calm, "nor-

mal"

activities.

A news

outlet

that

is

community and has wide enormous impact on

its

respected in the

distribution has an

constituents. Because

the media most often substantiate existing prejudices

and because most violent

activities

occur in low-income areas, the media are

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING

Such

therefore filled with race-related images.

stereotyping of ethnic and other groups isn't

a situation guarantees perpetuation of stereo-

a high priority

types.

the

of

Communication

study

research

who watch more

reported that people

than

four hours of television a day tend to believe

world

their

that

actually

TV

on the

the world presented

similar

is

screen.

to

The

Kerner Commission report of 1968, the Na-

same skin

when newsrooms

exhibit

all

color.

Throughout the world an estimated

A University of Pennsylvania Annenberg School

105

1

7,000

distinct cultural groups almost never receive

media attention within

their

In

societies.

Latin America, for example, 600 separate tribes live in

lowland regions alone. In the

United

some 20 million people belong

to

States,

"fringe"

so-called

religious

groups;

75

Pre-

million U.S. citizens classify themselves as

vention of Violence in 1969, the U.S. National

belonging to more than 120 separate ethnic

Commission on the Causes and

tional

Institute of Mental Health

and the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

tee, all

have concluded that the media perpetuate

racial tic

Advisory Commit-

and sexual stereotypes through simplis-

and violent news coverage and entertain-

ment programs. As media

critic

and philoso-

cultures. But the faces that in

still

photographs and moving images are

The 1990

white.

U.S. census identified this

country's four most

Of

most often appear

numerous ethnic groups.

the total of 248 million people, there are

58 million

German Americans, 38

million

pher Jacques Ellul once wrote, "The press

Irish

Americans, 32 million English Ameri-

ignores the truly poor to promote the inter-

cans,

and 23 million African Americans.

esting poor."

More

often than not, an "inter-

esting" poor person

is

one who

involved in

is

Stereotypical

media coverage manifests

it-

of either admission or omission.

also

headed the 1790

census. There are strong indications that the

number

a violent act.

self as a sin

Those same four groups

of Latinos

may

overtake the

number

of African Americans within the next 50 years. In 1992, for the first

time consumers

Media coverage of individuals

in a specific

purchased more bottles of salsa nationally

cultural group usually presents

them

than they did bottles of ketchup.

or,

most

nal

admired

for bettering themselves,

often, reviled for their violent crimi-

actions.

The

of hardworking,

stories

members of various

decent often

are

ignored.

cultural groups

Accounts of their

lives

simply are not considered to be "news." Part

of the problem

Only

5.8

is

percent of

personnel identify themselves as a

another culture.

that

all

media

Sixty-one percent of the

do not

no diverse group members

management

positions.

schools have few professors

or

if

In

addition,

in

media

any culturally diverse

students.

— those

social

structure, including the

media

—

are

the ones that control which images get seen. is

It

always to the advantage of the dominant

groups to stereotype other groups in order to

Sensitivity

to

Specific examples of

stereotyping

of

have any diverse staff members, and 92 per-

have

groups

few

member

daily newspapers in the United States

cent

cultural

with the media's

portrayals of minority groups

groups.

dominant

with the most power and influence in the

secure their dominance.

practicing journalists are from diverse cultural

The

be pitied for their terrible living

cial cases to

situations,

as spe-

the

Every form of prejudice

is

based on the

assumption that members of one group are better than false

and

members of another because of

opinions about physical, intellectual, social characteristics.

ry, various ethnic

discriminated

Throughout

histo-

and other groups have been

against

by

the

dominant

IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA

106

groups in

Some groups

societies.

have man-

Irish-American stereotypes

m

aged to overcome discrimination and become a part of the

dominant

Most

societal force.

Almost any group you can think of has

tion

target of prejudice

some time

at

religious

and

—

and discrimina-

children,

and

culture

already

States to

immigrate

Americans, Latinos, city or country dwellers, people with southern accents, people with

women, and homosexuals

are

became

much

overcome

Americans,

squalor and disease were rampant. Their low social status caused personal feelings of infer-

great

strides

discrimination,

work remains lesbians

still

but

to

through alcohol and were arrested

drunkenness and initial

to be done.

face

feel

for public

fighting, the stereotype of

negative

that

drunken

Irish

person was born, with

help from editorial cartoons in publications.

women

have

much

However, gays and

"No

Irish

signs were erected next to

"Help

discrimination

Job

Need Apply" Wanted"

followed

of the Irish managed to find jobs

few others would

that

as

by potential employers.

signs

Many

government acquiescence of

discrimination and extreme prejudicial tudes

their depression

al-

end prejudice and

many

many escaped

Because

the lazy,

made

no choice but

shantytowns where

category.

good examples

and

culture.

slowly and painfully.

Early Irish immigrants had

stereotypes and discrimination against them. Jews, African Americans,

came

to live in poorly erected

Americans have managed to

and looked

active in politics,

But such advances

iority.

most completely

for

that they learned the

members of the dominant

like

of groups that have long been discriminated against. Irish

in large

and

English language, improved their economic

Brooklyn accents, and on and on until every

and African

to Irish assimilation,

mainstream culture, are

the rich, foreigners, Native Americans, Asian

Jewish,

America

freely to

United

the

in

other groups that have successfully entered

status,

Irish,

established

li-

unemployed, the poor and

own

ethnic group that were

the elderly,

berals, the homeless, the disabled, students,

person can find his or her

first

from the dominant English

different

numbers. Keys

political conservatives

professionals, the

were the

Irish

much

others have not been so successful.

been the

The

They worked

take.

atti-

by most members of the majority

and dangerous hours constructing

long, hard,

1

canals and

railroad

lines

and laboring

in

culture. Pictorial stereotypes presented in the

media of

mines and all

mills.

With employment eventual-

these cultural groups shape the ly

came

The

better living conditions.

Irish

public's perception of them.

tended to

live

communi-

together in separate

and helped each other escape poverty.

ties

They were imbued with

the positive moral

values of the Catholic church.

became adept and

at politics

both

in labor organizations.

several

major

cities

in

They soon government

By the

1930s, in

the Irish were the domi-

nant political force and helped improve living conditions for Irish.

all

residents

— not

Better jobs improved their

the

just

economic

Figure 7.6 position Irish

Americans often are

stereotyped as drunken party

animals

— an image not

and

Irish are the

tural

group

ly,

taken on

rare, except

Patrick's day.

community, and

education also aided assimilation. Today, the

erased by newspaper pictures St.

status in the

second largest identifiable cul-

in the

United

States.

Consequent-

media stereotypes of drunken

on

St.

Patrick's

Irish

day (Figure

are

7.6).

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING

Jewish-American stereotypes

the morals of the country.

man Prejudice often

is

sparked by outward, visible

symbols that identify a person's association with a particular group. Although are based

on

and

religious teachings

a Jewish

Leo Frank, was arrested

in Georgia,

murdering

allegedly

When

107

a

young

for

an angry

girl,

mob broke into the jail and Ku Klux Klan used this

lynched him. The

The Klan

erected burning

case

to

inflame

roots

its

hatred of Jews. practices,

crosses

on the front lawns of Jewish families

persons of the Jewish culture are difficult to

and vandalized synagogues. Exclusive counidentify because the religion spans

all

country clubs

tries, races,

ly

religion

is

and housing developments

effective-

and ethnic orientations. Even the

banned Jewish

participation.

practiced by three different branch-

es of the faith

— Orthodox, Conservative, and

Jews were

media — what

thought to control the

was

shown on TV, and presented

printed,

in

Reform. As one writer noted, Jews "are peo-

who

ple

A

think of themselves as such."

prejudiced person makes judgments based on

movies.

With the discovery of the massacre of

some 6 million Jews by Nazi Germany during assumptions about physical appearances, accents, last

names, occupations, and, of course,

World War

II,

the wholesale discrimination

practiced through the

1930s declined. Be-

places of worship (Figure 7.7).

Government

cause most Jewish immigrants were highly

and ordinary

officials

citi-

skilled,

zens throughout history have used Jewish

people as scapegoats to divert attention from various economic and social problems.

The

United States has received three major waves of Jewish immigrants because of widespread

and often violent discrimination

home

countries.

discovered the

Unfortunately,

they soon

long held the Jewish people responsible for the death of Jesus without recognizing that he recently did

convocation of Catholic cardinals, Vatican

renounce that teaching. But the

Jews for

all

a II,

biblical inter-

pretation created a historical trend to

blame

the problems suffered by any

majority in a country. Cartoon drawings in

major publications characterized Jewish people

money-grubbing

as

noses

shysters with large

and funny accents.

renamed "Jew York"

in a

New

across the country racially litical

York was

cartoon published

in Life magazine. Editorials in

newspapers

denounced the assumed

motivated nationalism of Jewish po-

groups. Because

many

into

the

at a faster rate

than

other immigrant groups. However, me-

dia representations of Jewish stereotypes

still

appear. Recently, a character in the popular

program "L.A. Law" played by

comedian Shelley Berman was an obnoxious Jewish stereotype.

primary concern

popular teaching of Christianity has

relatively

— often

their

same type of discrimination

was Jewish. Only

many

television in

that they were trying to escape.

A

they quickly assimilated

dominant culture

Jews were

at-

tracted to the theatre, writers attacked Jewish

performers and producers for undermining

Money was as

the character's

he spat out Yiddish

Figure 7.7 Jewish Americans march in

New

Orleans carrying the

symbols of America,

and

their religion.

Israel,

IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES IN THE MEDIA

108

dialect in a

throwback

to the

extreme car-

Noah drank too much

toons of the 1930s. Such a character only

account,

serves to substantiate a prejudiced person's

wine),

view that

all

Jews have the same

Noah was

Ham

alcohol (in a nonflood

said

happened

to see his father naked.

When Noah awoke and saw

traits.

him, he promptly cursed

his son staring at

Ham

past

is

directly tied to

government-sanctioned

enslavement.

Since the early days of the slave trade, pictorial

stereotypes have been used to maintain the

dominant

culture's

Americans have faced

quently, African

mendous

in

difficulty

despite

types,

power over them. Conse-

legal,

overcoming

tre-

stereo-

economic, and social

than

is

the belief that one race

another because

person's chromosomes. plorers

came

genes

of the

When

is

the original inhabitants of Africa.

Ham

meaning of the word most

The

literal

"black." But

is

biblical scholars interpret the biblical

reference to

to indicate the black soil of the

it

delta region of the Nile River rather than skin

Nevertheless,

color.

the

myth linked

words black, Africa, and slavery

in

a

European ex-

many concluded

that Afri-

cans must not have the Europeans' mental processing abilities because African societies lacked the technological advances

common

in

Europe. Later, evolutionary theory became a scientific justification for racism,

Those with economic

better

into contact with Africans in the

sixteenth century,

with west-

trade used

the

in a socially

ing of Africans simply as animals only a few steps

up from apes and

to

become

treatment during capture, transport to the

New

World, and enslavement.

From 1619

until the

as a

way of linking

skin color to slavery. According to biblical

Ham

was the name of Noah's

second son. After a night on the ark

in

which

end of the

in 1808, millions of Africans

from

credible hardships

Ham

or ordained

eternal slaves, excused their severe

cattle

story of the curse of

gorillas,

because of a curse uttered during a hangover

ern Europeans thought to be on a higher

Prejudiced people also used the biblical

interests in the slave

these rationalizations. Think-

all

evolutionary plane than other races.

tradition,

the ancestor of

acceptable way.

reforms.

Racism

Ham became

after the flood

live in

Old Testament,

servitude. According to the

African-American history

and prophe-

would always

sied that his descendants

African-American stereotypes

have invented

to

Atlantic,

their

were herded

homes, made

on

and forced

slave trade like

to suffer in-

slave ships crossing the

to live in English, French,

and Spanish colonies

(later

southern

the

United States and Caribbean) under primi-

Although

tive living conditions (Figure 7.8).

an extremely small number of Southerners

owned

slaves,

they were the most wealthy and

politically influential persons in that culture.

Figure 7.8

As advocated by these

A

needed in order

seventeenth-century

to

individuals, slavery

the South, which might collapse

diagram of a slave ship

was

maintain the economy of if fair

wages

were paid to plantation workers. Slavery also

shows how African kidnap

was

justified to preserve the

Southern culture

victims were packed for their

from "contamination" by Africans. transatlantic journey. But

impersonal draftsmanship

cannot possibly detail the

its

Unlike other ethnic groups that immigrat-

ed voluntarily and retained their tures, African

horrors during such a

re-create their

voyage.

slave

own

cul-

Americans were not allowed

colonies.

to

own

African cultures in the

The

master-slave mentality

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF STEREOTYPING

also

made

Thirteenth

after the

extremely difficult

assimilation

slavery following the

Amendment outlawed Civil War (Figure 7.9).

However, discrimination was rampant in

Few

the North.

in the

North had had any

Up

of racism.

Many

parents continue to pass

on

their prejudices

Americans

African

members of

and

to their children

aided by media stereotypes that portray

109

as

do

are

little

to

productive

society.

until

After the Watts riots in Los Angeles in

1860, there were over 500,000 free African

1965, political and religious leaders pointed

contact with African Americans.

Americans

been born of

own

the South.

living in free

They had

mothers, had paid for their

freedom, or had been set free by their

an accusatory finger

the nation's

at

media

for their stereotypical portrayals of African

Many

Americans.

thought that pre-

critics

owners. In the South these freed slaves had

senting African Americans only as train por-

occupations as diverse as architects and hotel

ters,

clerks.

But in the North, discrimination in

and education was much more

jobs, housing,

common and

institutionalized,

making the

sports heroes, entertainers, or criminals

contributed to the frustration that led to the violence.

Much

media had

of the criticism stated that the

failed to report responsibly

assimilation of African Americans into the

social inequalities faced

dominant culture

cans. In a University of

color helped

particularly difficult. Skin

make

identifying and isolating

them from mainstream

society easier than for

report, for example,

marked

that

on the

by African Ameri-

Washington seminar

Lawrence Schneider

"although

charged with the

other cultural groups with lighter colored

responsibility of keeping a close check

skin.

government, of rooting out

In

1896, in Plessy

v.

Ferguson, the U.S.

protecting the weak, the

re-

injustice,

American

on

and of

press

.

.

.

Supreme Court formalized segregation of the

had not discovered the problems of the Black

races. Separate

man

restroom,

railroad, facilities

come

but equal (in

meant

the

hotel,

reality,

unequal)

and educational

that discrimination

law of the land.

had be-

Despite

their

in

America, nor had

to solve the problems." sion's report

on

civil

more emphatic when

it

led in the struggle

The Kerner Commis-

disorders in 1968 was it

simply stated that

"it

unequal status in the culture, between 1899

and 1922 voluntary immigration of African and

West

Indian

people

totaled

about

Figure 7.9

150,000. Restrictive immigration laws passed

With a bust of Caesar

in 1924, however, slowed immigration to a

overhead

trickle of

only 122 Africans a year.

The Lasting Legacy of Racism

power

— Visual

—

— a symbol of a nineteenth-

century plantation owner

shocked from his reading

Stereotyping

when a nurse midwife In

Brown

preme Court

v.

Board of Education the Su-

in 1954 signaled the

of the end of legally imposed segregation. In the 1960s, Congress enacted sweeping civil rights laws,

moved

and the courts

legal barriers to equal

minorities.

relentlessly re-

opportunity of

However, 200 years of slavery

followed by 150 years of social conditioning that African

Americans are biologically

rior to other races

presents

an African-

beginning

infe-

have maintained the legacy

American baby freshly delivered by his wife. Such

images played on the fears that

many had

at

thi

about the consequences of different races socially.

mixing

is

IMAGES THAT INJURE: PICTORIAL STEREOTYPES

110

is

the responsibility of the news media to

undercut the stereotype. Television producers

tell

the story of race relations in America."

and reporters recognized

speeches and act ion -oriented marches and

of Urban League Executive Director Whitney

demonstrations often led to violence. They

can

He commented

that African-Ameri-

were visually stimulating and necessary to

newspapers and

hold the viewer's interest in news programs.

coverage in

pictorial

magazines "was awful,

is

better,

and has

Moreover,

to

program

get better."

Twenty-seven years

after the

Watts vio-

would

South Central Los Angeles again was

lence,

the center of a tragic firestorm.

Much

unrest following the not-guilty verdict in the

can Americans as train porters or servants

of the four Los Angeles policemen in-

Political

14).

(Figure 7.10). For example, the

and

was an ex-slave who was an

religious leaders

the 1940s, she

and possible solutions

servant

to

the catastrophe.

torial

improvement

stereotyping. Although

in

American

pictures of African

changed

in size

common

still

important for children, but the

"make

it"

in society only

a long

I'm

"comical, " open-mouth

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intended

for a racist audience.

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Comic

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is

no longer a

mov-

in the

presents a stereotypical pattern that con-

on sexual and violent concerned that

acts.

Many

television's situa-

comedies also continue

false

impressions

about African Americans (Figure 7.11).

a.

The media

I s

h

"

g

demn

I

I:

are quick to report

such behavior in

example, in

its

and con-

overt form. For

1992, major league baseball's

banned Marge

Schott,

owner of the Cincinnati Reds, from

baseball

| ~ Executive

Night Out, 6 very Funny. "Girls with

vg moves WH'^t'C

of African

choice). Despite a few exceptions,

critics are

|

12 cents a Set. Engaged," 8 Awful Funny.

Comic.

titles

portrayals

African-American representation

centrates

COMIC CARDS,

come

of the most

Americans ("Amos and Andy"

helped

her age.

many

they

issue of pictorial stereotypes that perpetuated Jr.,

woman

if

ies

King,

on the box.

television have

in eliminating

stereotypical

program

Luther

To reduce

presumably shares

any

blatant

tion

is

woman who

that

Figure 7.10

advertisement

way

tion in the 1960s, the press largely ignored the

Martin

her

a contemporary,

is

is

Before the enactment of civil rights legisla-

racism.

made

the manufacturer

in a corner

Aunt Jemima

gray-haired

excel in those fields.

twentieth-century

and placed

Motion pictures and

they can

this early

many and

African-American entertainment and sports is

house

In the socially

to that of a housewife.

it

Currently,

relate to

message being sent to these children

Nigger,"

to

equal social status with

sports,

heroes

Aesthetic

illiterate.

and entertainment. Having

crime,

"mammy"

a

controversy further, the picture was reduced

pictorial

more African Ameri-

cans are seen in the media, the most

excellent cook. In

used slang phrases that

was offensive

coverage in print and broadcast media little

the

conscious decade of the 1960s, the symbol

being analyzed and criticized.

Recent studies of African-American pic-

have noted

who

became

appear energetic, yet

the media's coverage of African is

woman on

box of Aunt Jemima pancake flour originally

have spoken eloquently about the causes of

Americans

"De

tuned and watch the com-

change the popular advertising image of Afri-

Once again

such as

also stay

they

violence,

for the civil

Chapter

and

and

controversy

mercials.

volved in the arrest of Rodney King (see

African American

viewers were riveted by news

Pressure from civil rights activists helped

trial

image of a

if

has

been written about the causes

its

that his passionate

Typical of the views at the time were those

Young.

With

THE MEDIA

IN

Council

8

made

her attend a multiracial

3

j for

|

o

awareness training program, and fined her

£