Virgil's Georgics and the British Poets 9781463222277

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Virgils Georgics and the British Poets

A n a l e c t a Gorgiana

394 Series Editor George Anton Kiraz

Analecta Gorgiana is a collection of long essays and

short

monographs which are consistently cited by modern scholars but previously difficult to find because of their original appearance in obscure publications. Carefully selected by a team of scholars based on their relevance to modern scholarship, these essays can now be fully utili2ed by scholars and proudly owned by libraries.

Virgils Georgics and the British Poets

Wilfred Mustard

w

1 gorgias press 2009

Gorgias Press LLC, 180 Centennial Ave., Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2009 by Gorgias Press LLC Originally published in All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. 2009

1

ISBN 978-1-60724-643-5

ISSN 1935-6854

Extract from The ^American Journal of Philology 29 (1908)

Printed in the LTnited States of America

AMERICAN

JOURNAL VOL. X X I X ,

OF

PHILOLOGY

I.

W H O L E NO.

113.

I.—VIRGIL'S GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH POETS. The enthusiasm of the British poets for Virgil begins with "the morning star of song, Dan Chaucer". To Chaucer, however, Virgil is regularly the poet of the Aeneid, and there seems to be no evidence in his writings that he was at all acquainted with the Georgics. The expression " the crow with vois of care ", ' Parlement of Foules', 363, has been called a mistranslation of Geor. i. 388, "cornix plena pluviam vocat improba voce;" but this is at least uncertain. Some early echoes of the Georgics may be found in the worthy old poet who " gave rude Scotland Virgil's page", Gawin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld. In the 'Proloug of the Twelt Buik of Eneados' (1513) the passage, " O f E o l u s north blastis h a v a n d no dreyd, T h e sulye spred hyr braid bosum on breid, Z e p h y r u s confortabill inspiratioun F o r till ressaue l a w in hyr barm adoun

is like Geor. ii. 330 ff., " p a r t u r i t almus ager, Z e p h y r i q u e tepentibus auris laxant arva sinus .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

nec metuit s u r g e n t e s p a m p i n u s Austros

aut actum caelo m a g n i s A q u i l o n i b u s i m b r e m " ,

and the lines, " T h e spray b y s p r e n t with s p r y n g a n d sprowtis dispers, F o r callour humour on the d e w y nycht, R e n d r y n g sum p l a c e the gers pilis thar h y c h t A l s far as catal, the l a n g symmeris d a y , H a d in thar pastur eyt and k n y p a w a y ; A n d blisfull blossummis in the b l o m y t yard Submittis thar hedis in the y o n g sonnis s a l f g a r d " , i

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r e p e a t t h e f a n c y o f G e o r . ii. 2 0 1 - 2 , " et quantum longis carpent armenta d i e b u s , e x i g u a tantum g e l i d u s ros nocte r e p o n e t " , a n d G e o r . ii. 3 3 2 , " inque novos soles audent se germina tuto credere". I n t h e t h i r d p r o l o g u e C y n t h i a is c a l l e d

" l e m a n to P a n " ,

i n g t o a p a s s i n g h i n t i n G e o r . iii. 3 9 1 - 3 .

accord-

In the ' P r o l o u g oi t h e

F o w r t B u i k ' the four stanzas about the power of love, " O L o r d , quhat writis m y n e autor of thi force, I n his G e o r g i k i s " , etc., r e f e r t o G e o r . iii. 2 0 9

ff.

C o m p a r e the lines,

" quhow thine y n d a n t i t m y c h t C o n s t r e n i s so sum tyme the stonit hors, T h a t , b y the sent of a mere far of sycht. H e braidis brayis anon, and takis the

flycht;

N a b r i d l e m a y him dant nor bustius dynt, N o t h i r b r a y , hie roche, nor braid fludis s t y n t " , w i t h G e o r . iii. 2 5 0 - 4 , " nonne v i d e s , ut tota tremor pertemptet equorum corpora, si tantum notas odor attulit auras? ac neque eos iam f r e n a virum neque verbera saeva, non scopuli rupesque cavae atque obiecta retardant flumina

".

D o u g l a s m e n t i o n s also the battle of the bulls, " T h e bustius bullis oft, for the y o w n g k y , W i t h horn to horn wirkis vther mony ane w o u n d " , and

speaks

of the behavior of the " m e e k harts ", and rams, and

bears.

A n d , still f o l l o w i n g V i r g i l ' s

stanzas

to the story of Leander.

suggestion, he

three quotations from the Georgics.

In t h e lines,

" F o r a l l the p l e s a n c e of the camp E l i s e , O c t a v i a n , in his G e o r g i k i s , ye may se, H e consalis nevir lordschip in hell d e s y r e " , t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o G e o r . i. 3 6 - 3 8 .

devotes

two

In the sixth p r o l o g u e there are

The

lines,

" T h e warld begouth in veir, baith day and nycht I n veir he sais that G o d als formit m a n " ,

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS

refer to Geor. ii. 336.

AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

3

A n d in the next stanza,

" Happy wer he that knew the caus of all thingis, And settis on syde all dreid and cuir, quod he, Wndir his feit at treddis and doun thringis Chancis vntretable of fatis and destany, A l l feir of deid, and eik of hellis s e e " ,

we have a quotation from Geor. ii. 490-92. In the Scottish metrical romance 'Lancelot of t h e L a i k ' (c. 14901500), lines 2483-5, " A n d scilla hie ascending in the ayre, That euery vight may heryng hir declar Of the sessone the passing lustynes",

repeat one of Virgil's signs of fair weather, Geor. i. 404-9, " apparet liquido sublimis in aere Nisus, et pro purpureo poenas dat Scylla capillo ", etc.

In Alexander Barclay's fourth ' E g l o g e ' (c. 1514) there is an allusion to the general subject of the Georgics ", " As fame reporteth, such a Shepherde there was, Which that time liued under Mecenas. And Titerus (I trowe)was this shepherdes name, I well remember aliue yet is his fame. He songe of Jieldcs and tilling of the grounde. Of shepe, of oxen, and battayle did he sounde. So shrill he sounded in termes eloquent, I trowe his tunes went to the firmament".

A l l this, and much more, is borrowed from Mantuan's eclogue, ' D e Consuetudine Divitum erga Poetas',

fifth

" Tityrus (ut fama est) sub Mecoenate vetusto rura, boves et agros, et Martia bella canebat altius, et magno pulsabat sidera c a n t u " , etc.

A n d the same passage of Mantuan explains Spenser's allusion to the Georgics, 'Shepheardes Calender', October, 55-60: " I n d e e d e the Romish Tityrus, X heare, Through his Mecaenas left his Oaten reede. Whereon he earst had taught his flocks to feede, And laboured lands to yield the timely eare, A n d eft did sing of warres and deadly drede, So as the heavens did quake his verse to here."

Compare Sannazaro's allusion to Virgil, 'Arcadia', Prosa X . : " II quale, poi che, abbandonate le capre, si diede ad ammaestrare i rustichi coltivatori della terra; forse con isperanza di

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cantare appresso con più sonora tromba le arme del Troiano E n e a " , etc. Toward the close of Barclay's poem there is a specific allusion to Geor. iv. 437-42 : " L i k e as P r o t h e u s oft c h a u n g e d his stature, M u t a b l e of figure oft times in one houre, W h e n Aristeus in b o n d e s h a d him s u r e " , etc.

In the third ' E g l o g e ' the sorrow at the " s h e p h e a r d ' s " death, " T h e mighty walles of E l y m o n a s t e r y , T h e stones, rockes, a n d towres s e m b l a b l y , T h e m a r b l e pillers a n d images e c h e o n e , Swet all f o r s o r o w e " ,

reminds one of the death of Caesar, Geor. i, 480, " e t m a e s t u m illacrimat t e m p l i s ebur a e r a q u e s u d a n t " .

Compare Milton's ode on the Nativity (1629), x x i , " A n d the chill m a r b l e seems to sweat, W h i l e each peculiar p o w e r foregoes his w o n t e d s e a t " .

In Barnabe Googe's eighth ' E g l o g ' (1563), " L o o k e how the b e a s t e s begin to fling a n d cast theys h e a d e s on hye, T h e H e a r o n s h e w m o u n t e s aboue the clouds, ye Crowes ech w h e r do c r y : All this showes rayn ",

we have some of the weather signs of the first Geòrgie : compare 375. " aut bucula c a e l u m suspiciens patulis c a p t a v i t n a r i b u s auras ; "

364, "altam supra volat ardea nubem ; " 388, "cornix . . . pluviam vocat ". T h e prefatory poem to ' T h e Zodiake of L i f e ' ( 1 5 6 0 ) shows that Googe was familiar with the works of Aratus; but the behavior of his " h e a r o n s h e w " agrees rather with the Georgics, a part of which he translated and published, about 1577In Brysket's 'Mourning Muse of Thestylis' (1587), various portents which, Virgil tells us, attended the death of Julius Caesar are rather nai'vely borrowed and made to attend the death of Sir Philip Sidney. Compare lines 82-90, " T h e sun his lightsom b e a m e s did shrowd, and h i d e his face F o r griefe, w h e r e b y the e a r t h feard n i g h t e t e r n a l l y : T h e m o u n t a i n e s e a c h w h e r e shooke A n d grisly ghosts b y night were s e e n e , a n d fierie g l e a m e s A m i d t h e clouds, T h e b i r d s of ill presage this lucklesse c h a n c e foretold, By d e r n f u l l noise, a n d dogs with h o w l i n g m a d e m a n d e e m e Some mischief was at h a n d " ,

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS

AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

5

with Geor. i. 466-88, " Ille etiam exstincto miseratus Caesare Romani, cum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine texit, impiaque aeternam timuerunt saecula noctem. Tempore quamquam ilio tellus quoque et aequora ponti obscenaeque canes importunaeque volucres signa dabant . . insolitis tremuerunt motibus Alpes, . . et simulacra modis pallentia miris visa sub obscurum noctis Non alias caelo ceciderunt plura sereno fulgura, nec diri totiens arsere cometae."

In Samuel Daniel's ' Civile W a r s ' (1595), iii. 5 1 3 , " O happie man, sayth hee, that lo I see Grazing his cattle in those pleasant fieldes ! I f he but knew his g o o d " ,

there seems to be an echo of Geor. ii. 458, " O fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint, agricolas ! "

A n d in ' T h e Queen's Arcadia', iv. 4, " like to the Bee that stinging dies, A n d in anothers wound left his owne l i f e " ,

we are reminded of Geor. iv. 238, "animasque in vulnere ponunt." This comes through Tasso's 'Aminta ', iv. 1 , " in guisa d'ape che ferendo muore, E nelle piaghe altrui lascia la v i t a " .

In Shakespeare's ' K i n g Henry V ' (1599), i. 2, 192 ff., there is a delightful passage about the work of the honey-bees, which is often quoted to illustrate Geor. iv. 1 5 3 ff. T h e expression " t h e tent-royal of their e m p e r o r " , applied to the royal cell of the hive, is an interesting parallel to Virgil's " p r a e t o r i a " , Geor. iv. 75, " et circa reges ipsa ad praetoria densae miscentur", etc.

In Ben Jonson's 'Silent W o m a n ' (1609), ii. 2, we have a bit of literary criticism by Sir John D a w : " H o m e r , an old tedious, prolix ass, talks of curriers, and chines of beef; Virgil of dunging of land and bees; Horace, of I know not w h a t " . In the same play, iv. 2, the L a d y Haughty's reflection, " T h e best of our days pass first ", seems to be borrowed from Geor. iii. 66, " O p t i m a quaeque dies miseris mortalibus aevi prima f u g i t " ,

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a n d in ' E p i g r a m s ' ,

JOURNAL

OF

PHILOLOGY.

LXX,

" Each best day of our life escapes us

first",

the V i r g i l i a n sentiment is e v e n m o r e literally repeated. Masque

In ' T h e

of B e a u t y ' t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n notes refer to G e o r . iv.

3 8 7 - 8 a n d i. 4 5 3 . I n G e o r g e C h a p m a n ' s ' E u g e n i a ' ( 1 6 1 4 ) there is a l o n g list of " tempestatis p r a e s a g i a " , w h i c h s u g g e s t s an a c q u a i n t a n c e not o n l y w i t h the G e o r g i c s , but also w i t h A r a t u s , L u c a n a n d P l i n y .

In

the ' G e o r g i c s of H e s i o d ' the title is b o r r o w e d from V i r g i l , a n d the R o m a n poet's G e o r g i c s a r e mentioned in the i n t r o d u c t o r y note. I n F l e t c h e r ' s ' E l d e r B r o t h e r ' , i. 2, 1 3 0 f f . , the studious C h a r l e s B r i s a c d i s c o u r s e s on the G e o r g i c s : " For, what concerns Tillage, Who better can deliver it than Virgil In his Georgicks? and to cure your Herds, His Bucolicks 1 is a Master-piece ; but when He does describe the Commonwealth of Bees, Their industry, and knowledge of the herbs From which they gather Honey, with their care T o place it with decorum in the Hive ; Their Government among themselves, their order In going forth, and coming loaden home ; Their obedience to their K i n g , and his rewards T o such as labour, with his punishments Only inflicted on the slothful Drone ; 2 I'm ravished with i t " , etc. C o m p a r e G e o r . iv. 1 5 3 ff. 1 T h e name ' B u c o l i c s ' is here applied to the third book of the Georgics, and the name ' Georgics ' to the first book in particular. This may be a bit of etymological pedantry on the part of our " mere s c h o l a r " ; or it may represent a common usage of a generation which was careful to call Virgil's pastoral poems ' Aeglogues'. In E . K ' s note on the ' Shepheardes C a l e n d e r x . 58, the name ' Bucolics' covers even the first book of the Georgics: " In labouring of lands is (meant) hys Bucoliques". • F l e t c h e r must have been reading L y l y , whose king bee is represented as "preferring those that labour to greater authoritie, and punishing those that loyter, with due seueritie " ('Euphues and his E n g l a n d ' , p. 45 Bond). The error of the ancients in supposing the queen bee to be a king had a long life. Xenophon has a queen bee, Oecon. vii. 38, but it is hard to find another in literature until after 1670, when the Dutch naturalist, J a n Swammerdam, discovered the sex of the royal bee by the aid of the microscope. Before 1524, Giovanni Rucellai examined various queen bees with the aid of a concave mirror, but failed to discover their sex (' L e A p i ' , 963-1001).

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS

AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

7

In Herrick's ' Hesperides', 664, " O h a p p y life ! if that their g o o d T h e husbandmen but u n d e r s t o o d ! "

we hear again the words of Geor. ii. 458. In G e o r g e Daniel's 'Pastorall O d e ' part of the praise of a country life, " W h a t though I doe not find M y G a l l e r i e s there L i n e d W i t h A t t i c k e h a n g i n g s , nor C o r i n t h i a n P l a t e " , etc.,

and, again, " W h a t though, my B a c k e , or T h i g h , N o t C l o a t h e d be w i t h W o o l e , in T i r i a n D y e ! "

is due to Geor. ii. 458 ff. Compare lines 461-4, " s i non . . . inlusasque auro vestes Ephyreiaque aera", and 506, " u t g e m m a bibat et Sarrano dormiat ostro". In the lines ' V p o n a Reviewe of Virgil, translated by Mr. O g i l b y ' (1647), " A n d H e s i o d there, w h o sung of Ceres m o s t , G a v e his C o r n e - C h a p l e t s , V i r g i l ' s better boast, When Hee arriv'd",

there is an allusion to the Georgics. ' A Vindication of Poesie',

A n d there is another in

" the M a n t u a n , A s S w e e t in feilds, as statelie, in T r o i e s ' fire " .

T h e motto prefixed to Henry Vaughan's ' Olor Iscanus ' (1651) is adapted from Geor. ii. 488-9, and the motto set on the title-page was taken from Geor. ii. 486. A m o n g his ' Fragments and Translations ' there are versions of Geor. iv. 125-138, and ii. 58. In the preface to the edition of his works in folio (1656) A b r a h a m C o w l e y quotes Geor. iii. 244. In his ' Essays in Prose and V e r s e ' he quotes from the Georgics five times (i. 5 1 4 ; ii. 488-9; ii. 458; iv. 564; ii. 291-2). T h e first essay refers to the story of Oenomaus, Geor. iii. 7, and the fourth contains a * Translation out of V i r g i l ' , Geor. ii. 458-540. In Milton's ' Paradise L o s t ' (1667) the phrase " i g n o b l e e a s e " , ii. 227, is Virgil's "ignobilis o t i " , Geor. iv. 564; and at ii. 665 the " labouring moon " recalls the " lunaequelabores " of Geor. ii. 478. T h e phrase " s m i t with the love of sacred s o n g " , iii. 29, is often quoted to illustrate Geor. ii. 4 7 6 , " ingenti percussus amore " . A t vii. 631, " t h r i c e happy if they know their happiness", there is a verbal resemblance to Geor. ii. 458, " fortunatos nimium, sua si bona n o r i n t " ; and at ix. 852, " a n d ambrosial smell diffused",

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we have the very words of Geor. iv. 415, " et liquidum ambrosiae diffundit odorem ". The mention in ' Comus 114, of the starryquire who " lead in swift round the months and years recalls the " clarissima mundi lumina " of Geor. i. 6, " labentem caelo quae ducitis a n n u m ; " and perhaps the expression at 525, " h i s baneful cup, with many murmurs mixed ", should be compared with Geor. ii. 128-9 : " p o c u l a si quando saevae infecere novercae, miscueruntque herbas et non innoxia v e r b a . "

In Dryden's ' Medal " Too happy E n g l a n d , if our good we knew

we have another echo of Geor. ii. 458 ; and in ' Alexander's Feast ', the " honest face " of Bacchus seems to be the " caput honestum" of Geor. ii. 392. In Roscommon's ' Essay on Translated Verse ', " Who has not heard how Italy was blest, Above the Medes, above the wealthy E a s t ? "

the reference is to Geor. ii. 136 if. W e learn from Dryden's Dedication of the Aeneis (1697) that Lord Mulgrave had made a version of ' Orpheus and Eurydice ' which was "eminently good ". And the Postscript to the Reader speaks in terms of praise of a recent anonymous translation of part of the third Geòrgie, called ' The Power of Love.' The motto of Samuel Garth's ' Claremont ' is Geor. iii. 40-41. The motto of Addison's ' Letter from Italy, 1701 ', is Geor. ii. 173-5. I n P o e n l > " Eridanus the king of floods " is the "fluviorum rex Eridanus" of Geor. i. 482. The poetical works of Addison include ' A Translation of all Virgil's Fourth Geòrgie, except the story of Aristaeus '. The motto prefixed to Pope's 'Pastorals' (1704) was taken from Geor. ii. 485-6. The ' Ode on St. Cecilia's Day ', 5 3 - 1 0 7 , contains a paraphrase of part of Virgil's story of Orpheus and Eurydice, Geor. iv. 481-527. And perhaps the lines, in 'Satires and Epistles of Horace Imitated', Bk. ii. Sat. i, " A n d he, whose lightning pierced the Iberian lines, Now forms my quincunx, and now ranks my v i n e s " ,

refer to Virgil's precept that vines should be set out in the order of the quincunx, Geor. ii. 277-81.

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

9

I n J o h n P h i l i p s ' ' C y d e r ' ( 1 7 0 6 ) w e h a v e the first of a s e r i e s of eighteenth century didactic p o e m s which are manifestly modeled o n the G e o r g i c s . 1

T h e o p e n i n g lines of t h e first b o o k ,

" What soil the apple loves, what care is due T o orcliats, timeliest when to press the fruits, T h y gift, Pomona, in Miltonian verse Adventurous I presume to s i n g " , r e m i n d one

of the opening

faciat

segetes . . . hinc

laetas

lines o f the

first

Georgic,

canere i n c i p i a m " .

The

"quid subtle

j u i c e , at line 6 5 , " which, in revolving years, may try T h y feeble feet, and bind thy faltering tongue " , is l i k e t h e " t e n u i s L a g e o s " of G e o r . ii. 9 4 , " temptatura pedes olim vincturaque linguam." T h e turn of t h e p h r a s e , at 1 1 6 , " y e t w h o w o u l d d o u b t t o p l a n t s o m e w h a t " , is p e r h a p s d u e to G e o r . iv. 2 4 2 , " a t suffire t h y m o . . . quis

dubitet?"

The

memorials

of

the

ancient

city

of

Ariconium, " huge unwieldy bones, lasting remains Of that gigantic race ; which, as he breaks T h e clotted glebe, the ploughman haply finds, Appall'd r e m i n d o n e of G e o r . i. 4 9 3 - 7 , " Scilicet et tempus veniet, cum finibus illis agricola incurvo terram molitus aratro exesa inveniet scabra robigine pila, aut gravibus rastris galeas pulsabit inanes grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulchris." 1 Other members of the series are, T i c k c l l ' s ' F r a g m e n t of a Poem on H u n t i n g ' ; Somerville's ' C h a s e ' ( 1 7 3 5 ) ; Armstrong's ' A r t of Preserving H e a l t h ' (1744); Akenside's ' P l e a s u r e s of the Imagination' (1744); Smart's ' H o p - G a r d e n ' ( 1 7 5 2 ) ; D o d s l e y ' s ' A g r i c u l t u r e ' (1754); Dyer's ' F l e e c e ' ( 1 7 5 7 ) ; Grainger's ' S u g a r - C a n e ' ( 1 7 6 3 ) ; Mason's ' E n g l i s h G a r d e n ' ( 1 7 7 2 - 8 2 ) ; and (about 1785) Cowper's ' T a s k ' — e s p e c i a l l y the third part, entitled ' T h e G a r d e n ' . In all these poems the model followed is professedly, or at least manifestly, V i r g i l ; and throughout the series there is a careful imitation of the Georgics in structure and tone, and in many a fancy and precept and phrase. T w o of the favorite subjects for imitation are Virgil's episode in praise of Italy and his rhapsody in praise of the farmer's life. Perhaps we should mention here ' T h e Secrets of A n g l i n g ' , by J o h n Dennys, written before 1 6 1 3 (Arber's ' English G a r n e r ' , i. 147 ff.). T h e beginning of the first book, in its statement of the subject and its invocation of the Nymphs, is sufficiently like the beginning of the first Georgic.

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The description of the process of grafting, "force a way into the crabstock's close-wrought grain by wedges", is naturally like Geor. ii. 79, "et alte finditur in solidum cuneis via". The passage, " So Maro's Muse, Thrice sacred Muse ! commodious precepts gives Instructive to the swains, not wholly bent On what is gainful : sometimes she diverts From solid counsels, shows the force of love In savage beasts ; how virgin face divine Attracts the helpless youth through storms and waves, Alone, in deep of night: then she describes The Scythian winter, nor disdains to sing How under ground the rude Riphaean race Mimic brisk Cyder with the brake's product wild ; Sloes pounded, Hips, and Servis' harshest juice

refers to various passages in the third Geòrgie : 245 ff., 258 ff., 352 ff., 376 ff. The mention of spring as the season " w h e n the stork, sworn foe of snakes, returns " is due to Geor. ii. 320, "candida venit avis longis invisa colubris."

The mention of the Rhodian and Lesbian vines, and of "Phaneus self", is due to Geor. ii. 90-102, and the expression, "and shall we doubt to improve our vegetable wealth ", comes from Geor. ii. 433> " e t dubitant homines serere", etc. T h e meadows "with battening ooze enrich'd" recall the " felicem limum" of Virgil's mountain valley, Geor. ii. 188. The long passage towards the close of the first book, " Some loose the bands Of ancient friendship, cancel Nature's laws For pageantry, and tawdry gewgaws . . . If no retinue with observant eyes Attend him, if he can't with purple stain Of cumbrous vestments, labor'd o'er with gold, Dazzle the crowd, and set them all agape ; Yet clad in homely weeds, from Envy's darts Remote he lives", etc.,

is suggested by Virgil's praises of a country life, at the close of the second Geòrgie: cp. 461 ff., " Si non ingentem foribus domus alta superbis mane salutantum totis vomit aedibus undam, nec varios inhiant pulchra testudine postes, inlusasque auro vestes

at secura quies", etc.,

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II

and 505 ff., " h i e petit excidiis urbem miserosque Penates, ut gemma bibat et Sarrano dormiat ostro " , etc.

At the beginning of Philips' second book, " Thus far of trees : the pleasing task remains, T o sing of wines, and Autumn's blest i n c r e a s e " ,

we are reminded of the opening lines of the second Geòrgie : " Hactenus arvorum cultus et sidera caeli ; nunc te, Bacche, c a n a m " , etc.

A t line 62, " T h e well-rang'd files of trees, whose full-ag'd store Diffuse ambrosial steams",

we have a Virgilian phrase, "liquidum ambrosiae diffundit o d o r e m " , Geor. iv. 4 1 5 . The precept, " T h e hoarded store, A n d the harsh draught, must twice endure the Sun's K i n d strengthening heat, twice Winter's purging c o l d " ,

borrows Virgil's phrase, " b i s quae solem bis frigora sensit", Geor. i. 48, and the expression, " with vehement suns When dusty summer bakes the crumbling c l o d s " ,

repeats Geor. i. 65-6, " glaebasque iacentes pulverulenta coquat maturis solibus aestas."

In 1 7 1 0 , Swift wrote ' A Description of a City-Shower, in Imitation of Virgil's Georgics '. This has its own list of " sure prognostics", to match Virgil's " certis signis", Geor. i. 3 5 1 . And, at the close, it has its own picture of the effect of the storm, " N o w from all parts the swelling kennels flow, And bear their trophies with them " , etc.,

to match Virgil's picture, Geor. i. 325, " e t pluvia ingenti sata laeta boumque labores diluit ; implentur fossae " , etc.

In the first canto of John Gay's ' Rural Sports. A Geòrgie ' ( 1 7 1 3 ) we have a list of the subjects in " t h e Mantuan's Geòrgie strains". In ' T r i v i a ' , i. 122 ff., a cheap imitation of Swift's ' C i t y - S h o w e r ' , we have a list of " s u r e prognostics" and

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" c e r t a i n s i g n s " of t h e w e a t h e r , like V i r g i l ' s " certis signis ", G e o r . i. 3 5 1 ff. V i r g i l ' s lines, 4 1 5 - 6 , " h a u d e q u i d e m credo, quia sit divinitus illis i n g e n i u m aut r e r u m fato p r u d e n t i a m a i o r " ,

a r e a p p l i e d to t h e city s p a r r o w s , " N o t that t h e i r m i n d s with g r e a t e r skill a r e f r a u g h t , E n d u e d by instinct or by reason t a u g h t . "

A t i. 204, " So fierce Alecto's s n a k y tresses fell, W h e n O r p h e u s c h a r m ' d the rigorous powers of H e l l " ,

w e h a v e a r e f e r e n c e to t h e " c a e r u l e o s i m p l e x a e crinibus a n g u e s E u m e n i d e s " of G e o r . iv. 482. A n d at ii. 3 9 3 - 8 , w e h a v e a n allusion to t h e d e a t h of O r p h e u s , G e o r . iv. 5 2 3 ff., " H i s sever'd h e a d floats d o w n t h e silver tide, H i s yet w a r m tongue for his lost consort c r y ' d " , etc.

I n t h e p o e m s of J o h n Sheffield, D u k e of B u c k i n g h a m s h i r e , we h a v e ' P a r t of t h e S t o r y of O r p h e u s . B e i n g a T r a n s l a t i o n o u t of t h e f o u r t h B o o k of V i r g i l ' s G e o r g i c ' . T h e p a r t t r a n s l a t e d is iv. 4 5 3 - 5 2 7 T h e m o t t o e s of t w e n t y - f i v e of t h e e s s a y s in t h e ' S p e c t a t o r ' ( f r o m 1 7 1 0 o n ) a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e G e o r g i c s . T h e m o t t o of J o h n H u g h e s ' ' E c s t a s y ' is G e o r . ii. 4 7 5 - 6 . T h e m o t t o of W i l l i a m C o n g r e v e ' s ' T e a r s of A m a r y l l i s for A m y n t a s ' is G e o r . iv. 5 1 1 - 1 5 . T h e m o t t o of t h e first b o o k of E d w a r d Y o u n g ' s ' L a s t D a y ' is G e o r . i. 3 2 8 - 3 1 . T h e m o t t o of N i g h t t h e T h i r d of Y o u n g ' s ' C o m p l a i n t ' is G e o r . iv. 489. T h e m o t t o of his ' E p i s t l e t o L o r d L a n s d o w n e ' is G e o r . ii. 1 8 - 1 9 . I n C o l l e y C i b b e r ' s ' R e f u s a l ' ( 1 7 2 0 ) , v. 2, t h e r e is a q u o t a t i o n ( s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d ) f r o m D r y d e n ' s version of t h e G e o r g i c s , " H e a r h o w t h e British Virgil sings his s w a y : ' T h u s every creature, a n d of every k i n d , T h e secret joys of m u t u a l passion find ; N o t o n l y m a n ' s i m p e r i a l race, b u t t h e y T h a t w i n g the l i q u i d air, or swim the sea, O r h a u n t the desert, rush into the flame ; F o r love is lord of all, a n d is in all the s a m e ' " .

S e e G e o r . iii. 2 4 2 - 4 . I n t h e s e c o n d c a n t o of S o a m e J e n y n s ' ' A r t of D a n c i n g ' ( i 7 3 ° ) t h e r e is a f o o t - n o t e r e f e r e n c e t o G e o r . i. 5 1 4 , " n e c a u d i t c u r r u s habenas".

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In ' A Fragment of a Poem on Hunting', by Thomas Tickell, the "thousand families of hounds " — " First count the sands, the drops where oceans

flow"—

are as numerous as Virgil's varieties of trees and vines, ii. 1 0 5 - 8 . T h e passage about spring as the season of Venus comes from Geor. ii. 325 ff., iii. 242 ff. T h e fragment breaks off with a reference to the fourth and third Georgics: " Hence bees in state, and foaming coursers c o m e " , etc.

Perhaps the most striking case of the careful study and imitation of the Georgics is that of James Thomson, the author of the ' Seasons'. Indeed, one may apply to his use of Virgil what was said of Spenser's use of his models in the 'Shepheardes Calender:' " whose foting this author every where followeth : yet so as few, but they be wel sented, can trace him o u t " . W e hear a great deal about Thomson's enthusiasm, his passion, for Nature ; but it ought to be more widely known that in much of his imaginative interpretation of the physical world he was avowedly following Virgil. Many of his " n a t u r e " passages were written with Virgil definitely in mind, or with the page of Virgil literally open before him. E v e n the prayer to Nature—which is sometimes quoted as giving Thomson's poetical profession of faith— is a close imitation of a passage in the Georgics. A similar prayer, in a similar context, may be found at the close of Somerville's ' C h a s e ' . In ' S p r i n g ' , 27, the mention of the season when the " bright B u l l " receives the bounteous sun is suggested by Geor. i. 2 1 7 , " candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum Taurus."

Compare Milton, P. L . i. 769, " In spring-time when the sun with Taurus rides " . Lines 3 2 - 3 3 , " Forth fly the tepid A i r s ; and unconfined, Unbinding earth, the moving softness strays " ,

are due to Geor. ii. 3 3 0 - 1 : " Zephyrique tepentibus auris laxant arva sinus ; superat tener omnibus umor."

And the expression, in line 46, " the faithful bosom of the ground "

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is very like Virgil's "iustissima tellus", Geor. ii. 460. we have a direct mention of V i r g i l :

A t line 55

" S u c h themes as these the rural M a r o sung T o w i d e - i m p e r i a l R o m e , in the f u l l h e i g h t Of e l e g a n c e a n d taste, by G r e e c e r e f i n e d . "

A t line 455 we have another reference to the G e o r g i c s : " T h r o u g h rural scenes ; such as the M a n t u a n s w a i n P a i n t s in the m a t c h l e s s h a r m o n y of s o n g . "

The description, at 717, of the nightingale who finds her nest robbed " b y the hard hand of unrelenting clowns", and, retiring to the poplar shade, " sings H e r sorrows through the n i g h t ; and, on the bough S o l e - s i t t i n g , still at e v e r y d y i n g f a l l T a k e s up a g a i n her l a m e n t a b l e strain O f w i n d i n g woe, till, w i d e around, the woods S i g h to h e r s o n g , a n d w i t h h e r w a i l r e s o u n d " ,

is borrowed from Geor. iv. 5 1 1 , " q u a l i s p o p u l e a m a e r e n s p h i l o m e l a sub umbra amissos queritur fetus, quos durus arator o b s e r v a n s nido i m p l u m e s d e t r a x i t ; at ilia flet noctem ramoque s e d e n s m i s e r a b i l e c a r m e n integrat et maestis late loca questibus i m p l e t . "

Lines 791-807, " T h r o u g h all his lusty v e i n s T h e b u l l , d e e p - s c o r c h e d , the r a g i n g passion f e e l s . Of p a s t u r e s i c k , a n d n e g l i g e n t of food, and, i d l y - b u t t i n g , f e i g n s H i s r i v a l g o r e d in e v e r y k n o t t y trunk. to the h o l l o w e d earth, W h e n c e the s a n d flies, they mutter bloody d e e d s " , etc.,

recall the passage in the third Georgic, 2 1 5 ff.: " C a r p i t enim vires paulatim uritque v i d e n d o f e m i n a , nec nemorum patitur m e m i n i s s e nec h e r b a e d u l c i b u s ilia q u i d e m i l l e c e b r i s et tentat sese, atque irasci in cornua discit a r b o r i s o b n i x u s trunco, ventosque lacessit ictibus, et sparsa ad p u g n a m proludit h a r e n a . "

And lines 808-19, " T h e t r e m b l i n g steed, W i t h this hot i m p u l s e seized in every n e r v e , N o r hears the r e i n , nor heeds the sounding thong

etc.,

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15

are a paraphrase of Geor. iii. 2 5 0 - 4 : " N o n n e v i d e s , ut t o t a t r e m o r p e r t e m p t e t e q u o r u m c o r p o r a , si t a n t u m n o t a s odor a t t u l i t auras ? A c n e q u e eos i a m f r e n a v i r u m n e q u e v e r b e r a s a e v a , n o n scopuli r u p e s q u e c a v a e a t q u e o b i e c t a r e t a r d a n t flumina c o r r e p t o s q u e u n d a j t o r q u e n t i a m o n t e s . "

In ' S u m m e r ' , 1 1 1 6 ff., the signs of the rising storm : " A b o d i n g s i l e n c e reigns, D r e a d t h r o u g h t h e d u n e x p a n s e ; save t h e d u l l s o u n d T h a t f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n , p r e v i o u s to t h e storm, R o l l s o'er the m u t t e r i n g e a r t h , d i s t u r b s t h e

flood,

A n d shakes the forest-leaf without a breath. P r o n e , to t h e l o w e s t v a l e , t h e a e r i a l t r i b e s Descend I n r u e f u l gaze T h e c a t t l e s t a n d , a n d on t h e s c o w l i n g h e a v e n s Cast a deploring eye",

are borrowed from Geor. i. 356 ff.: " C o n t i n u o v e n t i s s u r g e n t i b u s aut f r e t a p o n t i i n c i p i u n t a g i t a t a t u m e s c e r e et a r i d u s a l t i s m o n t i b u s a u d i r i f r a g o r , aut r e s o n a n t i a l o n g e l i t o r a m i s c e r i et n e m o r u m i n c r e b e s c e r e m u r m u r . . . . . a u t i l i u m s u r g e n t e m v a l l i b u s imis a e r i a e f u g e r e g r u e s , aut b u c u l a c a e l u m suspiciens patulis captavit naribus auras."

And the effect of the storm on Carnarvon's mountains, 1 1 6 3 : " f r o m the r u d e r o c k s O f P e n m a n m a u r h e a p e d h i d e o u s to t h e s k y , T u m b l e the smitten cliffs",

recalls Geor. i. 3 3 1 - 3 : " ille flagranti aut A t h o n aut R h o d o p e n a u t a l t a C e r a u n i a t e l o deiicit."

T h e panegyric on Britain, 1442 ff, and the list of her "sons of g l o r y " , 1479 ff, were probably suggested by the episode in praise of Italy, Geor. ii. 1 3 6 - 7 6 . And the concluding passage in praise of philosophy, 1 7 3 0 ff, has its parallel near the close of the second Georgic, 4 7 5 - 8 2 . The expression in ' A u t u m n 7 , " whate'er . . . Summer suns concocted strong ", is probably due to Geor. i. 66, " glaebasque iacentes p u l v e r u l e n t a coquat m a t u r i s s o l i b u s a e s t a s . "

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A n d the s a m e V i r g i l i a n p a s s a g e is p a r a p h r a s e d at 408, " The fallow ground laid open to the sun, Concoctive." Line

24, "And Libra weighs in equal scales the year

m a y b e c o m p a r e d w i t h G e o r . i. 208, " Libra die somnique pares ubi fecerit horas." T h e e x p r e s s i o n , at 1 2 2 , " T h a m e s . . . k i n g of floods", recalls V i r g i l ' s " f l u v i o r u m r e x E r i d a n u s " , G e o r . i. 4 8 2 . T h e d e s c r i p tion of the a u t u m n s t o r m , 3 1 1 ff., is a p a r a p h r a s e of G e o r . i. 3 1 6 if. C o m p a r e lines 3 3 0 ff., "And sometimes too a burst of rain, Swept from the black horizon, broad, descends In one continuous flood. Still overhead The mingling tempest weaves its gloom, and still The deluge deepens; till the fields around Lie sunk and flatted, in the sordid wave. Sudden the ditches swell; the meadows swim. Red from the hills, innumerable streams Tumultuous roar; . . . . his drowning ox at once Descending, with his labours scattered round, He sees", etc., w i t h i. 3 2 2 ff., " Saepe etiam immensum caelo venit agmen aquar^im, et foedam glomerant tempestatem imbribus atris collectae ex alto nubes ; ruit arduus aether, et pluvia ingenti sata laeta boumque labores diluit; implentur fossae et cava flumina crescunt cum sonitu ", etc. T h e p i c t u r e of the v i n t a g e , 7 0 0 , " t h e country floats, And foams unbounded with the mashy flood", r e c a l l s G e o r . ii. 6, " t i b i pampineo gravidus autumno floret ager, spumat plenis vindemia l a b r i s ; " a n d the lines, at 1 0 7 2 , " What pity, Cobham ! thou thy verdant files Of ordered trees shouldst here inglorious range, Instead of squadrons flaming o'er the field, And long embattled hosts ! "

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remind one of Geor. ii. 277 ff., " nec setius omnis in u n g u e m arboribus positis secto v i a limite quadret. U t saepe ingenti b e l l o cum longa cohortes explicuit legio, et c a m p o stetit a g m e n aperto, directaeque a c i e s " , etc.

Lines 1233-4, " t h e i r annual toil B e g i n s again the n e v e r - c e a s i n g round " ,

are an echo of Geor. ii. 401-2 : " R e d i t agricolis labor actus in o r b e m , atque in se sua per v e s t i g i a volvitur a n n u s . "

T h e long p a s s a g e — t o o long to q u o t e — 1 2 3 5 - 1 3 5 1 , " O h ! k n e w he but his happiness, of men T h e happiest he ; w h o far from public rage D e e p in the v a l e , with a choice few retired, D r i n k s the pure pleasures of the rural l i f e " , etc.,

is a close imitation of Geor. ii. 458-540. Compare 1235-77 ii. 458-74; 1278-98 with ii. 5 0 3 - 1 2 ; 1299-1310 with ii. 4 9 5 502; 1327-51 with ii. 519-40. T h e address to Nature, 1352-73, is modeled on ii. 475-86. Compare the lines, " B u t if to that u n e q u a l ; if the blood, I n sluggish streams about my heart, forbid T h a t best a m b i t i o n ; under closing shades, Inglorious, lay m e by the lowly b r o o k " , etc.,

with ii. 483-6, " S i n has ne possim naturae accedere partes, frigidus obstiterit circum praecordia sanguis, rura mihi et rigui p l a c e a n t in v a l l i b u s a m n e s , flumina a m e m silvasque i n g l o r i u s . "

T h e line in ' W i n t e r ' „ 2 2 8 , " A n d the s k y saddens with the gathered storm " ,

has its counterpart in Geor. iii. 279, " unde nigerrimus A u s t e r nascitur et p l u v i o contristat frigore c a e l u m . '

C o m p a r e Tennyson, ' T h e D a i s y ' , " T h e g l o o m that saddens H e a v e n and E a r t h . "

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A t 530 we have an indication of Thomson's reverence for V i r g i l : " B e h o l d , w h o y o n d e r comes ! in sober state, F a i r , m i l d , and strong, as is a v e r n a l s u n — ' T i s P h o e b u s ' self, or else the M a n t u a n S w a i n ! "

T h e signs of the rising storm, 118-52, are largely borrowed from Virgil. Compare 126-31 with Geor. i. 365-9 ; 132-7 with i. 3 7 5 - 6 and 390-2; 139-41 with i. 3 8 1 - 2 ; 143-4 with i. 403; 144-6 with i. 3 6 1 - 4 ; and 148-52, " O c e a n , unequal pressed, with broken tide A n d b l i n d commotion heaves ; w h i l e from the shore, A t e into caverns b y the restless w a v e , A n d forest-rustling mountain, comes a v o i c e , T h a t solemn-sounding bids the world p r e p a r e " ,

with i. 356-9, " C o n t i n u o ventis surgentibus aut freta ponti incipiunt agitata tumescere et aridus altis montibus audiri fragor, aut resonantia l o n g e litora misceri et nemorum increbescere m u r m u r . "

Lines 182-3, " L o w w a v e s the rooted forest, v e x e d , and sheds W h a t of its tarnished honours y e t remain " ,

m a y be compared with Geor. ii. 404, " frigidus et silvis A q u i l o decussit h o n o r e m . "

T h e picture of the frigid zone, 816-26, " T h e r e , warm together pressed, the trooping d e e r S l e e p on the n e w - f a l l e n snows ; and, scarce his head R a i s e d o'er the heapy w r e a t h , the b r a n c h i n g elk L i e s slumbering sullen in the w h i t e abyss. T h e ruthless hunter wants nor dogs nor toils, N o r with the dread of sounding bows he drives T h e fearful, flying race ; with ponderous clubs, A s , w e a k , against the mountain-heaps they push T h e i r b e a t i n g breast in vain, a n d , piteous, bray, H e lays them q u i v e r i n g on the ensanguined snows, A n d w i t h loud shouts r e j o i c i n g bears them home " ,

is borrowed from Geor. iii. 368-75, " confertoque a g m i n e c e r v i torpent mole nova et summis vix cornibus exstant. H o s non immissis canibus, non cassibus ullis p u n i c e a e v e agitant p a v i d o s formidine p e n n a e , sed frustra oppositum trudentes pectore montem comminus o b t r u n c a n t ferro, graviterque rudentes caedunt, et m a g n o laeti clamore reportant."

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A n d at 941 if., the lines, " D e e p from the piercing season sunk in caves, H e r e by dull fires, and with unjoyous cheer, T h e y waste the tedious gloom " ,

remind one of G e o r . iii. 376 ff., " Ipsi in defossis specubus secura sub alta otia agunt t e r r a " , etc.

In ' L i b e r t y ' , i. 159, " yellow C e r e s " is V i r g i l ' s " flava C e r e s G e o r . i. 96; and at iii. 512, " t h e d e e p vales of gelid H a e m u s " , w e have the " gelidis convallibus H a e m i " of G e o r . ii. 488. A t the beginning of Part v, the l o n g passage on the happiness and grandeur of Great Britain, 8-85, is m o d e l e d on the episode in praise of Italy, Geor. ii. 136-76. C o m p a r e , for example, lines 8 1 - 5 , " Great nurse of fruits, of flocks, of commerce, she! Great nurse of m e n ! by thee, O Goddess, taught, H e r old renown I trace, disclose her source O f wealth, of grandeur, and to Britons sing A strain the Muses never touched before ",

with ii. 173-6, " Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, magna v i r u m : tibi res antiquae laudis et artis ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere fontes, Ascraeumque cano Komana per oppida carmen."

Virgil's description of the L a g o di Garda, ii. 160, " f l u c t i b u s et fremitu adsurgens, Benace, m a r i n o " ,

is applied to the Severn, " A n d thee, thou Severn, whose prodigious swell A n d waves, resounding, imitate the main ; "

and even the line about the Italian climate, ii. 149, " hie ver adsiduum atque alienis mensibus aestas " ,

is resolutely applied to the climate of Great Britain, " Eternal verdure crowns H e r meads; her gardens smile eternal spring."

In ' T h e Castle of Indolence ', ii. 55, the stanza about the toiling swain, " p e r h a p s the happiest of the sons of m e n " , free from

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avarice and " rich in nature's wealth ", owes something to G e o r . ii. 458 if. A n d in stanza 78 the picture of the " saddened country ", " W h e r e nought but putrid streams and noisome fogs F o r ever h u n g on drizzly Auster's b e a r d ; O r else the ground, by p i e r c i n g Caurus seared, W a s j a g g e d with frost, or h e a p e d with glazed s n o w " ,

may be compared with Geor. iii. 279, " unde nigerrimus A u s t e r nascitur et pluvio contristat frigore c a e l u m " ,

and iii. 354-6, " sed iacet a g g e r i b u s niveis informis et alto terra g e l u late septemque adsurgit in ulnas ; semper h i e m p s , semper spirantes frigora C a u r i . "

T h e motto of Somerville's ' C h a s e ' (1735) is Geor. iii. 404. T h e motto of ' Hobbinol ' is Geor. iii. 289-93. T h e motto of Fable xiii is Geor. iii. 97-101. T h e author's model in the ' C h a s e ' is professedly V i r g i l ; in his preface he says, " I have intermixed the preceptive parts with so many descriptions and digressions in the Geòrgie manner, that I hope they will not be tedious " . T h e conclusion, like that of Thomson's ' Autumn ', is modeled on the conclusion of the second Geòrgie : " O h a p p y ! if ye k n e w your h a p p y state. Y e rangers of the fields ;

.

.

.

.

W h a t , if no heroes f r o w n From marble pedestals ;

.

.

.

.

G i v e me to k n o w wise N a t u r e ' s h i d d e n depths, T r a c e each mysterious cause,

.

.

.

B u t if my soul, T o this gross clay confined, flutters on E a r t h W i t h less ambitious w i n g ;

.

.

.

.

G r a n t me, propitious, an inglorious life " , etc.

In G r a y ' s ' O d e on the Spring ' (written 1742) the lines, " T h e insect youth are on the w i n g , E a g e r to taste the h o n i e d spring, A n d float amid the liquid noon " ,

are referred, in the author's own note to Geor. iv. 59, " nare per aestatem liquidam." T h e motto of William Collins' 'Persian E c l o g u e s ' (1742) is taken from Geor. i. 250.

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

21

In Akenside's ' Pleasures of the Imagination ' (1744), i. 599-604, " I unlock T h e springs of ancient Wisdom . . . . A n d tune to Attic themes the British l y r e " ,

we have an echo of Geor. ii. 174-6, " tibi res antiquae laudis et artis ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere fontes, Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen."

And the conclusion of the third book, 568 if., " Oh ! blest of Heaven! . . . what though not all . . . yet Nature's care ", etc., is modeled on the conclusion of the second Geòrgie, 458 ffIn Armstrong's ' A r t of Preserving Health' (1744), we have another didactic poem whose model is doubtless Virgil. The lines in the first book, " Harder in clear and animated song D r y philosophic precepts to convey. Y e t with thy aid the secret wilds X trace Of Nature, and with daring steps proceed Thro' paths the Muses never trod before " ,

may be compared with Geor. iii. 289-93, " Nec sum animi dubius, verbis ea vincere magnum quam sit sed me Parnasi deserta per ardua dulcis raptat amor; iuvat ire iugis, qua nulla priorum Castaliam molli devertitur orbita clivo."

Compare, also, Lucretius, i. 922-30. The third book has a passage in praise of country life which recalls the close of the second Geòrgie ; and the close of the third book, like the close of the third Geòrgie, gives a description of a terrible pestilence. The close of the fourth book, like the close of the fourth Geòrgie, has an allusion to the story of Orpheus, " Sooth'd even the inexorable powers of H e l l , A n d half redeem'd his lost E u r y d i c e " .

Compare the close of Milton's ' L ' A l l e g r o ' , " Such strains as would have won the ear Of Pluto, to have quite set free His half regained Eurydice."

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In the second book of William Thompson's ' Sickness' (1745) there is an allusion to Geor. iv. 2 7 1 ; "amello, blooming still in Virgil's rural page ". And the passage, " Through dreary paths, and haunts, by mortal foot Rare visited",

is referred to Geor. iii. 291-3. In Francis Fawkes' ' Bramham P a r k ' (1745), " Oft, as with shining share he ploughs the field, T h e swain astonish'd finds the massy shield, On whose broad boss, sad source of various woes, H e views engrav'd the long disputed rose. Huge human bones the fruitful furrows hide Of once-fam'd heroes that in battle d i e d " ,

the reference to the civil war is modeled on Geor. i. 493-7. The motto of George Lyttelton's ' Monody. A. D. 1 7 4 7 ' is Geor. iv. 464-6. The motto of John Cunningham's ' Landscape' is a misquotation of Geor. ii. 485. The title of one of John Byrom's poems, ' Dulces ante omnia Musae ', is taken from Geor. ii. 475. In Walter Harte's ' Episode of Orpheus and Eurydice' we have a translation of Geor. iv. 460-527. In ' Contentment, Industry, and Acquiescense under the Divine Will' (1749), we have the lines about " December's Boreas", " Destruction withers up the ground, L i k e parchment into embers c a s t " ,

with a foot-note reference to Virgil, " inamabile frigus aduret". This is a misquotation of Geor. i. 93, " aut Boreae penetrabile frigus adurat". In ' The Enchanted Region " In vain the Mantuan poet try'd T o paint Amellus' starry p r i d e " ,

we have an allusion to Geor. iv. 271. Confessor',

And in ' Macarius; or, The

" A g e seldom boasts so prodigal r e m a i n s " ,

there is a foot-note reference to Geor. ii. 99-100, " cui vix certaverit ulla aut tantum fluere, aut totidem durare per annos."

VIRGIL'S GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH POETS.

23

Smart's ' Hop-Garden' (1752) is a professed imitation of Virgil. T h e sub-title is ' A Georgic. In two B o o k s a n d the motto of the second book is Geor. i. 167-8. The opening lines may be compared with lines 1 - 2 and 47 of the first Georgic. T h e statement " I teach in verse Miltonian" recalls the beginning of John Philips' ' Cyder'. T h e author's own notes indicate various borrowings from Virgil: Geor. ii. 4 8 5 - 6 ; ii. 1 7 3 - 6 ; ii. 8 2 ; i* 373-91 (a long passage on the signs of a rising storm). In Richard Cambridge's ' Scribbleriad', Bk. i, " T h e fierce Bisaltae milk the nursing mare, Mix her rich blood, and swill the luscious fare " ,

we have a statement borrowed from Geor. iii. 463, " et lac concretum cum sanguine potat equino."

In William Hamilton's ' Corycian Swain' we have a translation of Geor. iv. 1 1 6 - 4 8 . T h e first canto of Dodsley's 'Agriculture' (1754) has its echo of Geor. ii. 458, " O happy h e ! happiest o f mortal m e n ! W h o far remov'd from slavery as from pride " , etc.

In the second canto, " W h y should I tell of him whose obvious art Draws its collected moisture from the glebe? Or why of him, who Calls from the neighbouring hills obsequious springs", etc.,

we have a paraphrase of Geor. i. 104-114. In the third canto, at the mention of the battle of the rival rams, there is an allusion to Virgil's battle of the bulls, Geor. iii. 220 ff., " But as deterr'd by the superior bard, W h o s e steps, at awful distance, I revere, Nor dare to t r e a d ; so by the thundering strife O f his majestic fathers of the herd, My feebler combatants, appall'd, retreat."

T h e motto prefixed to the poems of Gilbert West is Geor. ii- 174-5T h e opening lines of Dyer's ' F l e e c e ' (1757)—with their announcement of the subject and their invocation—are like the

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b e g i n n i n g o f the first Geòrgie. Albion

OF

PHILOLOGY.

T h e lines in praise of " n o b l e

" Such n o b l e w a r l i k e steeds, such herds of k i n e , So s l e e k , so vast ; such spacious flocks of sheep, L i k e flakes of gold i l l u m i n i n g the g r e e n , W h a t other Paradise adorn but thine, B r i t a n n i a ? happy, if thy sons w o u l d k n o w T h e i r happiness.

T o these thy n a v a l streams,

T h y frequent towns superb of busy trade, A n d ports magnific add " , etc.,

m a y be compared with Geor. ii. 1 4 5 - 1 6 1 , and ii. 458. T h e mention of the Lappian shepherd, in the " H y p e r b o r e a n tracts " , w h o " burrows deep beneath the snowy world ", is d u e to G e o r . iii. 376-81, " Ipsi in defossis specubus ", etc. T h e motto of W i l l i a m Shenstone's ' E l e g y ' X V I I I , is G e o r . iii. 318-20. T h e motto of ' T h e D y i n g K i d ' is Geor. iii. 66-67. T h e motto of ' L o v e and H o n o u r ' is adapted from Geor. ii. 136-9. G r a i n g e r ' s ' S u g a r - C a n e ' (1763) is called in the Preface " a W e s t India G e ò r g i e " . T h e opening lines, " W h a t soil the cane affects ; w h a t care d e m a n d s ; B e n e a t h w h a t signs to p l a n t " , etc.,

follow the model provided by G e o r . i. 1, " Q u i d faciat laetas segetes, quo sidere terram vertere " , e t c . ;

and the author definitely mentions V i r g i l a m o n g his predecessors in didactic verse. A t i. 223, " N e v e r , ah never, be ashamed to tread T h y dung-heaps",

we h a v e the precept of Geor. i. 80, " ne saturare fimo pingui pudeat sola " . A t i. 170, the list of plagues that annoy the planter reminds one of Geor. i. 181 ff. T h e list of " s i g n s of future r a i n " , at i. 312, begins with an allusion to Geor. i. 351 if., " T h e signs of rain, the M a n t u a n bard hath sung I n loftiest numbers."

In ii. 131 ff., " N o t the blest a p p l e M e d i a n climes produce, T h o u g h lofty Maro (whose immortal M u s e D i s t a n t I f o l l o w , a n d , submiss, adore) H a t h sung its properties, to counteract D i r e spells, slow-mutter'd o'er the b a n e f u l b o w l , W h e r e cruel stepdames pois'nous drugs have b r e w ' d " , etc.,

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS

AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

25

we have an allusion to Geor. ii. 126-30. T h e description of the hurricane, ii. 286 ff., when " all the armies of the winds engage ", and " r u s h e s the headlong s k y " , recalls Virgil's storm, Geor. i. 318, " o m n i a ventorum concurrere p r o e l i a " , and i. 324, " r u i t arduus aether ". T h e statement, at iii. 46, " T h e planter's labour in a round r e v o l v e s ; E n d s with the year, and with the y e a r begins " ,

is adapted from Geor. ii. 4 0 1 - 2 : " R e d i t agricolis labor actus in orbem, a t q u e in se sua per v e s t i g i a v o l v i t u r annus."

A n d at iii. 102, " S o from no field, shall slow-pac'd oxen draw M o r e frequent loaded w a i n s " ,

we have an echo of Geor. ii. 205-6, " non ullo ex aequore cernes p l u r a domum tardis decedere plaustra i u v e n c i s , "

T h e line in Charles Churchill's ' Independence', 356, " E ' e n V i r g i l to M a e c e n a s paid his c o u r t " ,

refers to the circumstances under which the Georgics were written. T h e motto of Richard Jago's ' E d g e - H i l l ' (1767) is Geor. ii. ^ S - S - T o w a r d the close of the third book, the author has indicated three allusions to the Georgics (i. 419; i. 143; ii. 103-4.) A n d in the fourth book, his foot-notes refer to four other passages of the Georgics (i. 322-26; iii. 4 9 4 - 5 ; iii. 470-3; i. 493-7). T h e motto of John Langhorne's ' F a b l e s of F l o r a ' ( 1 7 7 1 ) is from Geor. iii. 40. In Mason's ' E n g l i s h G a r d e n ' (1772-82) we have stili another didactic poem which is modeled upon Virgil. T h e third book contains a pleasant reference to the Georgics, especially iv. 1 1 6 - 4 9 : " T h a t force of ancient phrase w h i c h , s p e a k i n g , paints, A n d is the thing it sings. A h , V i r g i l , w h y , B y thee n e g l e c t e d , w a s this l o v e l i e s t theme L e f t to the grating voice of modern reed ? W h y not array it in the splendid robe O f thy rich diction " , etc.

T h e fourth book contains a long tale, of Alcander and Nerina, to correspond to the story of Aristaeus in the fourth Georgic

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In C o w p e r ' s ' T a s k ' (c. 1 7 8 5 ) , i. 6, " The theme though humble, yet august and proud T h e occasion", w e h a v e a parallel to G e o r . iv. 6, " In tenui l a b o r ; at tenuis non gloria " , etc.

T h e o p e n i n g lines of b o o k ii,

" Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness, Some boundless contiguity of shade, Where rumour of oppression and deceit, Of unsuccessful or successful war, Might never reach me m o r e ! " m a y be c o m p a r e d with G e o r . ii. 4 8 8 - 9 , " O qui me gelidis convallibus Haemi sistat, sisl et ingenti ramorum protegat u m b r a " ,

a n d ii. 4 9 7 -aut 8 , coniurato descendens Dacus ab Histro, non res Romanae perituraque regna " , etc.

In iii. 4 1 3 " No meaner hand may discipline the shoots, None but his steel approach t h e m " , w e h a v e the tone of G e o r . ii. 3 6 9 - 7 0 , " a n t e reformidant ferrum ; turn denique dura exerce imperia et ramos compesce fluentes." A t iii. 4 2 9 , " With blushing fruits, and plenty not his o w n " , the author a d d e d , in a foot-note, a misquotation of G e o r . ii. 8 2 , " miraturque novtw fructus

et non sua poma."

A t iii. 6 2 5 , " t h e employs of rural life, Reiterated as the wheel of time Runs round " , w e h a v e an e c h o of G e o r . ii. 4 0 1 , " Redit agricolis labor actus in orbem atque in se sua per vestigia volvitur annus." T h e e x p r e s s i o n , at iii. 6 5 0 , " ere he gives T h e beds the trusted treasure of their seeds " .

VIRGIL'S GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

27

may be compared with Geor. i. 223, "debita quam sulcis committas semina ". A t iii. 657, " F e w self-supported flowers endure the w i n d U n i n j u r e d , but e x p e c t the u p h o l d i n g aid O f the smooth shaven prop, and neatly t i e d " , etc.,

we are reminded of Virgil's precept, Geor. ii. 358-61, " turn l e v e s c a l a m o s et rasae hastilia virgae fraxineasque aptare sudes furcasque v a l e n t e s , viribus eniti quarum et contemnere ventos a s s u e s c a n t " , etc.

T h e conclusion of the third book, " O blest seclusion from a jarring world, W h i c h he, thus occupied, e n j o y s ! " etc.,

with its thesis that the country is " preferable to the town ", recalls the conclusion of the second Georgic, 458 if. In v. 135-7, " I n such a p a l a c e Aristaeus f o u n d C y r e n e , w h e n he bore the p l a i n t i v e tale O f his lost b e e s to her maternal e a r " ,

the allusion is to Geor. iv. 374, " Postquam est in thalami p e n d e n t i a pumice tecta p e r v e n t u m " , etc.

T h e motto of ' R e t i r e m e n t " s t u d i i s florens ignobilis o t i " , is from Geor. iv. 564, and there is an echo of the same Latin passage at the close of the English poem : " Me poetry employs . . . fast by the banks of the slow-winding O u s e " , etc. In the lines ' O n the Death of Mrs. Throckmorton's Bulfinch', there is an allusion to Virgil's story of the death of Orpheus, Geor. iv. 523 ff. T h e motto of the ' Y e a r l y Bill of M o r t a l i t y 1 7 9 2 , is Geor. ii. 490-2. In 1794, W . S. Landor wrote a verse translation of Geor. iv. 464-5 1 5- A n d in ' Pericles and A s p a s i a t h e song to Hesperus, vol. v, p. 451, he hints at an antique bit of scandal about Pan and Luna (Geor. iii. 391-3). T h e first dialogue of Mathias' ' Pursuits of Literature' (1794) alludes to Geor. iv. 398, and a note on the second quotes, or adapts, Geor. ii. 173. T h e line in Coleridge's ' Dejection ' (1802) vi, " A n d fruits, and f o l i a g e , not my o w n , seemed m i n e " ,

may be an echo of Geor. ii. 82, " m i r a t u r q u e novas frondes et non sua p o m a . "

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A n d the passage in Wordsworth's ' P r e l u d e v i i i , " Smooth life had herdsman, and his snow-white herd T o triumphs and to sacrificial rites Devoted, on the inviolable stream Of rich C l i t u m n u s " ,

may be due to Geor. ii. 146-8, " hinc albi, Clitumne, greges et maxima taurus victima, saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro, Romanos ad templa deum duxere triumphos."

In the preface to ' H o u r s of Idleness' (1807) Byron quotes Geor. iii. 9, " virum volitare per ora " . In ' Hints from H o r a c e ' , the phrase " fluent as an Orpheus head " is explained by a footnote reference to Geor. iv. 523-7. In 1809, James Grahame published a belated didactic poem, entitled ' British Georgics '. The motto of Thomas Moore's ' Fables for the Holy Alliance' is Geor. iv. 106. The motto of ' H a t versus W i g ' is Geor. ii. 491-2. In ' Evenings in Greece', Second Evening, " ' T i s Maina's land—her ancient hills T h e abode of n y m p h s " ,

the author adds a foot-note reference to Geor. ii. 487, " virginibus bacchata Lacaenis T a y g e t a . " In Samuel Rogers' ' I t a l y ' , xix, we have an allusion to the "biferique rosaria Paesti" of Geor. iv. 1 1 9 : " A n d now a Virgil, now an Ovid sung Paestum's twice-blowing roses."

Compare Ovid, Met. xv. 708; Propertius, v. 5. 61. And the motto of the lines ' T o an Old Oak ' is taken from Geor. ii. 294-5. In Macaulay's ' H o r a t i u s v i i , " Unwatched along Clitumnus Grazes the milk-white s t e e r " ,

we have the " hinc albi, Clitumne, greges " of Geor. ii. 146. in the next stanza, " This year, young boys in Umbro Shall plunge the struggling sheep ; And in the vats of Luna, This year, the must shall foam Round the white feet of laughing girls, Whose sires have marched to Rome " ,

And

VIRGIL'S GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

29

may be compared with Geor. i. 272, "balantumque gregem fluvio mersare salubri",

and Geor. ii. 6-8 : " spumat plenis vindemia labris ; hue, pater o Lenaee, veni, nudataque musto tingue novo mecum dereptis crura cothurnis."

In the ' Battle of the L a k e Regillus', ii, the picture of " wild Parthenius tossing in waves of p i n e " , recalls Geor. ii. 437, " undantem buxo spectare Cytorum." In Matthew Arnold's 'Memorial Verses. April, 1850', " And he was happy, if to know Causes of things, and far below His feet to see the lurid flow Of terror, and insane distress, And headlong fate, be happiness",

we have an echo of Geor. ii. 490, " felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari."

In the sonnets of Charles Tennyson Turner, ccvii, ' T h e Steam T h r e s h i n g - M a c h i n e t h e r e is a pleasant allusion to Virgil, " him. who set his stately seal Of Roman words on all the forms he saw Of old-world husbandry."

A n d in Sonnet ccviii, " it might be Some poet-husbandman, some lord of verse, Old Hesiod, or the wizard Mantuan W h o catalogued in rich hexameters T h e Rake, the Roller, and the mystic Van ",

we have an allusion to Geor. i. 164-6. ' Free Greece

In Sonnet ccxxxviii,

" And spread our sails about thee lovingly

we have a foot-note reference by the author to Geor. iii. 285, " singula dum capti circumvectamur amore."

In Robert Browning's ' Ring and the B o o k v i i i , " A h , fortunate (the poet's word reversed) Inasmuch as we know our happiness! "

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t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o G e o r . ii. 458, " O fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint, agricolas." I n part i x , t h e lines, " L i k e the strange favor Maro memorized A s g r a n t e d A r i s t a e u s w h e n his hive L a y empty of the swarm ? . . . . A n d lo, a n e w birth filled the air with j o y , S p r u n g from the b o w e l s of the generous s t e e r " , a l l u d e to G e o r . iv. 5 5 5

ff.

The

v e l o p e d , as its m o t t o m i g h t

poem

' Pan

suggest, from

and

Luna'

Virgil's

is

brief

dehint,

G e o r . iii. 3 9 1 - 3 , " M u n e r e sic niveo lanae, si credere dignum est, P a n deus A r c a d i a e captam te, L u n a , fefellit in nemora alta v o c a n s ; nec tu aspernata v o c a n t e m . " T h e L a t i n p a s s a g e is p a r a p h r a s e d at t h e c l o s e of t h e E n g l i s h p o e m : " H a , Virgil?

T e l l the rest, y o u !

' T o the deep

O f his domain the w i l d w o o d , Pan forthwith C a l l e d her, and so she f o l l o w e d ' — i n her sleep, S u r e l y ? — ' b y no m e a n s spurning him.' " T h e lines, " I f one forefather ram, though pure as chalk F r o m tinge on fleece, should still d i s p l a y a tongue B l a c k 'neath the beast's moist palate, prompt men b a l k T h e p r o p a g a t i n g plague " , g i v e " t h e f a c t as l e a r n e d V i r g i l g i v e s i t " , G e o r . iii. 3 8 7 - 9 .

The

p a s s a g e in ' T h e R i n g a n d t h e B o o k ' , i x , " D a r n e l for w h e a t and thistle-beards for grain, Infelix

folium,

carduus

horridus",

m a y b e c o m p a r e d w i t h G e o r . i. 1 5 1 - 4 , " h o r r e r e t c a r d u u s infelix

. . .

lolium."

I n T e n n y s o n ' s o d e ' T o V i r g i l ' t h e r e is a v e r y fine a l l u s i o n the G e o r g i c s : " L a n d s c a p e - l o v e r , lord of l a n g u a g e more than he that sang the W o r k s and D a y s , A l l the chosen coin of fancy flashing out from many a g o l d e n phrase ; T h o u that singest w h e a t and w o o d l a n d , tilth and v i n e y a r d , hive and horse and herd ; A l l the charm of all the M u s e s often flowering in a l o n e l y word.'

to

VIRGIL'S

GEORGICS AND THE BRITISH

POETS.

3*

T h e passage in ' T h e D a i s y ' , " T h e rich Virgilian rustic measure Of L a r i M a x u m e " ,

refers to Geor. ii. 159, "anne lacus taritos ; te, L a r i M a x u m e " , etc. A n d the allusion in ' Queen M a r y ' , iii. 1, " Well, the tree in Virgil, sir, T h a t bears not its own apples " ,

is to Geor. ii. 82, " miraturque novas frondes et non sua poma."

T h e opening line o f ' L o v e and D e a t h ' , " What time the mighty moon was gathering l i g h t " ,

has been aptly compared with Geor. i. 427, " L u n a , revertentes cum primum colligit i g n e s . "

T h e earliest complete translation of the Georgics into English verse seems to have been published by Abraham Fleming in 1589, though a " w y t t y translation" of a good part of the poem had already been printed by Master Barnabe Googe. Later versions are those of M a y (1628), Ogilby (c. 1647), L o r d Lauderdale ( 1 6 9 4 - 1 7 3 7 ) , Dryden (1696), T r a p p ( 1 7 3 1 ) , Warton ( 1 7 5 3 ) , Andrews (1766), Sotheby (1800), Sewell (1846), Singleton ( 1 8 5 5 ) , K e n n e d y ( 1 8 6 1 ) , Blackmore ( 1 8 7 1 ) , Rhoades ( 1 8 8 1 ) , L o r d Burghclere (1904). Other translators of parts of the poem are : Cowley (ii. 458-540), Henry Vaughan (iv. 1 2 5 - 3 8 ) , L o r d Mulgrave ('Orpheus and E u r y d i c e ' ) , Addison (book iv. except the story of Aristaeus), Sheffield (iv. 453-527), Benson (bocks i-ii), Hamilton (iv. 1 1 6 - 4 8 ) , Landor (iv. 4 6 4 - 5 1 5 ) , Trench (iv. 4 5 2 - 5 1 6 ) , C. S . Calverley (iii. 5 1 5 - 3 0 ) . T o this long list of poetical tributes to the Georgics we may add a few other "testimonia" in prose. T h e aged Tennyson, during a serious illness, "often looked at his Virgil, more than ever delighting in what he called 'that splendid end of the second G e ò r g i e ' " (Memoir, ii. 348). T h e youthful Addison remarked, in his essay on the Georgics, that Virgil "delivers the meanest of his precepts with a kind of grandeur ; he breaks the clods and tosses the dung about with an air of gracefulness". In the dedication of his translation of the Georgics, Dryden boldly calls them " t h e best poem of the best p o e t " . And, in the preface to his ' S y l v a e ' , he speaks of them as "those four books, which, in my opinion,

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are more perfect in their kind than even his divine A e n e i d s " . In Cowley's fourth essay, ' O f Agriculture', we are told that the first wish of Virgil was to be a g o o d philosopher; the second, a g o o d husbandman: " a n d G o d . . . made him one of the best philosophers, and best husbandmen; and, to adorn and communicate both those faculties, the best p o e t " . In Sir John Harington's ' Briefe A p o l o g i e of Poetrie' (1591) there is a pleasant comment on the triumph of Virgil's style over an uninviting subject: " for m y n e owne part I was neuer yet so good a husband to take any delight to heare one of my ploughmen tell how an acre of wheat must be fallowd and twyfallowed, and how cold land should be burned, and how fruitful land must be well harrowed ; but when I heare one read Virgill, where he saith, Saepe etiam sttriles incendere profuit agros, Atque leuem stipulam crepitantibus vrere flammis. Siue inde occultas vires ct pabula terrae Pinguia concipiunt: siue illis omtte per igtiem Excoquitur vitium, atque exsudat inutilis humor, e t c . ,

and after, Mulum adeo, raitrisglebas qui frangit Vimineasque trahit crates iuuat arua ;

inertes,

with many other lessons of homly husbandrie, but deliuered in so g o o d Verse that me thinkes all that while I could find in m y Hart to driue the plough ". A n d in Sir T h o m a s Elyot's ' G o v ernour' ( 1 5 3 1 ) the works of Virgil are recommended for their utility as well as for their b e a u t y : " I n his G e o r g i k e s lorde what pleasant varietie there is: the diuers graynes, herbes, and flowres that be there described, that, reding therin, hit semeth to a man to be in a delectable gardeine or paradise. W h a t ploughe man knoweth so moche of husbandry as there is expressed ? who, d e l i t y n g e in good horsis, shall nat be therto more enflamed, reding there of the bredyng, chesinge, and k e p y n g of them? In the declaration whereof Virgile leaueth farre behynde h y m all breders, hakneymen, and skosers", etc. (i. 10). W I L F R E D P. MUSTARD. JOHNS HOPKINS

UNIVERSITY.