Viking and Early Medieval Buildings in Dublin: A study of the buildings excavated under the direction of A.B. Ó Ríordáin in High Street, Winetavern Street and Christchurch Place, Dublin, 1962-63, 1967-76 9780860542353, 9781407317298

Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Foreward
Acknowledgements
List of Ilustrations
List of Tables
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: The Building Types
Chapter Three: Structural Details
Chapter Four: The Inter-Relationships of the Buildings
Chapter Five: Parallels
Chapter Six: Reconstruction
Chapter Seven: Conclusions
Catalogue of Buildings
References

Citation preview

Viking and Early Medieval Buildings in Dublin A study of the buildings excavated under the direction of A. B. Ó Riordain in High Street, Winetavern Street and Christchurch Place, Dublin, 1962-63, 1967-76

Hilary Murray with a foreword by

A. B. Ó Rlordain

BAR British Series 119 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D .R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 119,1983: 'Viking and Early Medieval Buildings in Dublin'

©

Hilary Murray,1983

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542353 paperback ISBN 9781407317298 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542353 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C on tents

F oreword

b y A B0 R iordäin

A cknowledgements

v ii

L ist o f

i llustrations

i x

L ist o f

t ables

x v

1

I ntroduction

1

2

T he b uilding

t ypes

5

3

S tructural d etails

1 9

4

T he

4 3

5

P arallels

6 1

6

R econstruction

7 1

7

C onclusions

8 5

i nter—relationships o f t he b uildings

C atalogue o f b uildings

8 7

R eferences

2 07

F oreword

I n 1 962 and 1 963 a rchaeological e xcavations were c arried o ut b y t he N ational Museum o f I reland N icholas o ld

S treet

c ity

o f

b ordered 1 972.

a nd

Dublin .

I n

b y H igh S treet

In 1 969

o n a p lot

B ack L ane 1 967 a nd

e xcavation

o f g round

s outh

o f

e xcavation

s outh a nd

o f

was

C hrist

C hurch

c ompleted

c ommenced

i n 1 973.

C athedral

i n 1 976 .

o f

b ordered C hurch a more

T he

p art

o f

i n

e xtensive

t he a rea

c ontinued u ntil t he

Winetavern

h at p articular p art o f t he Wood

The a t

o n

b y H igh S treet,

C athedral

B ack Lane was b egun a nd

was

S treet - Wood Quay s ite a nd work o n Q uay s ite was c ompleted

C hrist

e xcavation

C hrist

b uildings

o f

a f urther

C hurch P lace which

a re

b egan

d iscussed

s ite

i n 1 972 i n

t his

p aper b y D r . Murray w ere e xcavated o n t he a bove-mentioned s ites u nder t he d irection o f t he writer . D r . Murray worked a s a s ite a ssistant o n t hree

o f

t he

e xcavations

p art o f a d octoral

a nd

s ubsequently

r esearched

t he

b uildings

t hesis o n p re-Norman I rish h ouses ( Murray 1 977) .

a s A s

i t i s n ot e xpected t hat t he f ull p ublication o f t he f inds a nd t he o verall s ynthesis o f t hese s ites will b e p ublished i n t he immediate f uture

i t

h as

b een

a greed

t hat

t he

b uildings

s hould

b e

p ublished

s eparately a s i t i s f elt t hat t heir value f or c omparative s tudies i s s ufficiently great t o o vercome t he s hortcoming o f p ublication i n i solation. P reliminary r eports o n c ertain a spects o f t he f inds a nd s tructures N ational

h ave

b een

p ublished

Museum o f I reland

1 973 ;

i n

r ecent

6 Rlordäin

A NTOINE

y ears. 1 977;

( d P fordäin 1 971; Murray 1 977).

/ B REANDAN 0 R IORDAIN,

D irector,

N ational M useum o f I reland

K . ) , 1 ; , 1 ' , 1 ' , . \ I . ' t 7,. , , . , , . , . , , . , . , , : . : • , : ' , : . . , . , ,„ , ) , „

4 fØ /

74 : • : . e, o k h ,, .

‚ ' '

, . 7, -/ , , i > . ; , 4 ,, , - , -f z ; 7 _ -, 1

,, i 1 ,,1•e '

' -, , r ) , „ ,:. . d ill • K i l l d i j i b

-• 3 /0 4 /0 1 ) ) /P ) ) )

, . . . . -.

, „ ,4 1N 1 WW 1 /7 1 1 , 1 / 1" ' 41 ( i r iae l f ig l i f id l dk b ii

i d o i4 ; ' l i1 0 ) r i i )J )4 t

,4Ag l ie 9 1

i f e lf l e ie li

,

J I l g i ed i g» M i l i , t i 4 1 4 1 . ( t " , A , i d ai i l d g i ja d id l i » : t .4m K e ir g g u L u t u g e t ,a , . ,l A — ' • . r i r 4l e t e i l e i l k . ' i m t i l e i N i -- 1 , 4 ; e 7 . ; . u i l i i i i i i i i iN gg l i i i

i i ' l

i ; . » 1 4. i ' I p l i! 6 1 M ,9 1 , i .N P ; ' ' 1 ) 4, , , • . , i , i ,,, . ? , 1 0(0 111 ' ,1 , 1, j 1 1 „ " 1 ,. _

•e

V . ,• 1 2 • 4! :•'

l l, • h 1. 4 1 ii i : :, ! : :::: , . l . ' i f' 3 1 ; I :9 '

1 /11 f t ; i1 i )lt \ r. ' f . !‘ . ‘ .

•

W

‚

, ; '

' ' % _6 .

' :

d

1

i . 1 ,

.

A cknow ledgemen ts

I w ish t o e xpress t hanks t o t he N ational Museum o f I reland, i ts p resent D irector A B 6 R fordäin and f ormer P irectors Dr J R aftery a nd D r A T L ucas f or f acilitating t he s tudy o f t he r ecords o f f or providing t he p hotographic i llustrations.

6

t he e xcavations a nd I am p articularly

i ndebted t o M r R iordäin f or g ranting p ermission t o t his material a nd f or h is a ssistance o ver t he y ears. I o we a s pecial d ebt

o f g ratitude

B ritish

J ames

Museum

A rchaeology,

a nd

t o D r D avid M W ilson,

Graham-Campbell,

University C ollege London,

t hesis a nd who h ave h elped o f t his

a nd

s tudy a nd

e ncouraged

p ublish

D irector o f t he

Department

o f

Medieval

who s upervised my o riginal m e

t hroughout

t he p reparation

r eport.

Ia m a lso i ndebted

t o Mr Patrick H ealy o f t he Dublin e xcavation t eam

f or

i nfinitely

h is

s uperb

s ite and

a nd

d etailed

s urveying

f or h elpful d iscussion t hereon .

o f

t he

s tructures

o n

Thanks a re a lso d ue t o t he

m any o ther p eople who d iscussed d ifferent a spects o f t he material who helped i n o ther ways i n t he p roduction o f t his r eport a nd,

o r i n

p articular,

my

D r

M B aillie,

Jan Dunbar,

f amily C harles,

D eirdre a nd

S ally.

H S chmidt,

J T Smith and

I s hould a lso l ike t o t hank P atrick F Wallace, A ssistant K eeper, I rish A ntiquities D ivision , N ational Museum o f I reland, f or r eading t his t ext a nd

f or d iscussing

b y h im

t he

b uildings

f rom

t he

s ites

s ubsequently e xcavated

i n D ublin.

T he r esearch f or t his p ublication was made p ossible t hrough a g rant f rom

t he B ritish A cademy f or w hich I a m v ery g rateful.

H ilary M urray.

v ii

L is t o f i l lustra t ions

f rontispiece A rtist's i mpression o f H igh S treet, b uilding 1 1 S9/1, c 1000 , b y J an D unbar I ll 1

M ap o f t he m edieval c ity o f D ublin s howing t he s ites u nder d iscussion ( black ) a nd t he o ther r ecent e xcavations b y t he N ational Museum o f I reland ( stippled). ( 1) H igh S treet 1 962-3;(2) H igh S treet 1 967-72; ( 3) W inetavern S treet 1 969-72; ( 4) C hristchurch P lace 1 972-6. S implified p lan o f 4 -post t ype t erminology u sed i n t his r eport

b uilding

t o

i llustrate

K ey p lans o f l arge 4 -post b uildings K ey p lans o f s mall 4 -post b uildings K ey p lans o f s mall 4 -post b uildings . A :variation p air o f r oof p osts w ithdrawn t o t he e ntrance w all B uilding H S8/3 l ooking

w ith

o ne

f rom N

Key p lans. A :building r elated t o t he 4-post p lan; B :rectangular b uildings w ith s ide e ntrance; C :byres a nd l atrine;

D :Miscellaneous

B uilding W T21/2,

d etail o f N e nd

l ooking S

D etail o f wattle s creen ( HS s creen 7 /4) s howing b inding s trip a t b ase o f p icture B uilding a t

C P85/1,

d etail

o f

t he

j unction o f

t he

s ill-beams

t he S E c orner

D etail o f t he N e ntrance o f b uilding WT21/2 s howing w all f itting i nto g rooved j amb, a nd i nternal p ivot p ost f or d oor D etail o f e ntrance s howing t he t hreshold b ar d owelled t o t he j amb T he s tone-lined A rtist 's

h earth o f b uilding C P85/1

i mpression o f

t he

i nterior o f

( seen f rom W )

b uilding

C P85/1,

b y

J an D unbar K ey

p lan

o f

H igh

S treet

1 0th/early 1 1th c entury

i x

1 967-72,

s quares

1 -4 .

P hase

1 :late

I ll 1 6

K ey p lan c entury

I ll 1 7

K ey p lan o f H igh S treet

I ll 1 8

K ey p lan o f c entury

I ll 1 9

K ey p lan c entury

I ll 2 0

K ey p lan o f W inetavern S treet, 1 2th c entury

I ll 2 1

K ey p lan o f C hristchurch P lace,

I ll 2 2

K ey p lan o f C hristchurch 1 0th/early 1 1th c entury

I ll 2 3

K ey p lan c entury

I ll 2 4

Key p lan of C hristchurch 1 1th/early 1 2th c entury

I ll

2 5

o f

o f

o f

H igh

S treet

W inetavern

1 967-72,

1 962-3, S treet,

W inetavern

C hristLhurch P lace,

s quare

s quares

1 -2 .

s quares

s quares

1 -2.

s quares 1 -2.

P lace,

P lace,

P hase

E arly-mid

1 -2.

S ,

1 1th

M id-llth

L ate 1 1th/early

1 0th c entury 1 -2.

1 -2.

s quares

l ooking

2 :11th

1 1th c entury

s quares

s quares

P lace,

1 ,

1 -4 .

s quares 1 -4.

S treet,

C hristchurch

s quares

Late

M id-llth

1 -2.

s howing

Late

t he

w all

p lanks a nd b uttresses o f C P138/1 b uilt o ver t he e arlier, w attle-walled b uilding, C P171/1 I ll 2 6

S tave w alled

b uilding C P85/1,

l ooking W

I ll 2 7

A : c ross-section o f C P184/1 s howing minimum h eights; B : c ross-section o f C P18 4 /1 , v ariation 1 :pitched r oof w ith a lternative wall h eights; C : c ross-section o f C P184/1, v ariation 2 :split-pitch r oof w ith a lternative w all h eights

I ll 2 8

S implified g round p lans o f b uildings C P6/1, C P184/1 a nd H S9/1, w ith r econstructed l ongitudinal s ections ( not t o s cale)

I ll 2 9

J oints

I ll 3 0

A rtist's

f ound

i n l ate 1 0th t o m id-llth-century D ublin

impression

r econstruction A )

o f

building

C P18 4 /1

( based

b y J an D unbar

I ll 3 1

C P18 4 /1 , r econstruction A

I ll 3 2

C P18 4 /1 , r econstruction B

I ll 3 3

H S9/1,

I ll 3 4

A rtist's i mpression o f b uilding C P85/1,

I ll 3 5

R econstruction o f s unken-floored b uilding W T44/2

r econstruction A b y J an D unbar

o n

I ll 3 6

P lan o f b uilding H SA/1

I ll 3 7

P lan o f b uilding C P6/1

I ll 3 8

P lan o f b uilding C P85/1,

p hase

I ll 3 9

P lan o f b uilding C P85/1,

p hase 2

I ll 4 0

P lan o f b uilding C P138/1

I ll 4 1

P lan o f b uilding C P184/1

I ll 4 2

P lan o f b uilding C P300/1

I ll 4 3

P lan o f b uilding C P71/2

I ll 4 4

P lan o f b uilding H SB/1

I ll 4 5

P lan o f b uilding H SAF/1

I ll 4 6

P lan o f b uilding H S 9 /1

I ll 4 7

P lan o f b uilding H SX/1

I ll 4 8

P lan o f b uilding H S8/3

I ll 4 9

P lan o f b uilding H S17/4

I ll 5 0

P lan o f b uilding W T20/2

I ll 5 1

P lan o f b uilding W T21/2

I ll 5 2

P lan o f b uilding C P171/1

I ll 5 3

P lan o f b uilding C P226/1

I ll 5 4

P lan o f b uilding C P250/1

I ll 5 5

P lan o f b uilding C P253/1

I ll 5 6

P lan o f b uilding C P305/1

I ll 5 7

P lan o f b uilding C P333/1

I ll 5 8

P lan o f b uilding H SB/2

( 1962-3)

I ll 5 9

P lan o f b uilding H SA/3

( 1962-3)

I ll 6 0

P lan o f b uilding H S U/2

I ll 6 1

P lan o f b uilding W T 7 /1

I ll 6 2

P lan o f b uilding W TA5/2

I ll 6 3

P lan o f b uilding W TD/3

( 1962-3)

1

( 1962-3)

a nd

e ntrance H SA/2

( 1962-3)

I ll 6 4

P lan o f b uilding C P312/1

I ll 6 5

P lan o f b uildings C P343/1 a nd C P344/1

I ll 6 6

P lan o f b uildings C P364/1 a nd C P370/1

I ll 6 7

P lan o f b uilding C P40/1

I ll 6 8

P lan o f b uilding H SA/4

I ll 6 9

P lan o f b uilding H S1/1

I ll 7 0

P lan o f b uilding H S3/1

I ll 7 1

P lan o f b uilding H S4/2

I ll 7 2

P lan o f b uilding C P96/1

I ll 7 3

P lan o f b uilding C P142/1

I ll 7 4

P lan o f b uilding C P30/1

I ll 7 5

P lan o f b uilding C P123/1

I ll 7 6

P lan a nd

I ll 7 7

P lan o f b uilding C P356/1 w ith e levations o f N a nd W w alls

I ll 7 8

P lan o f b uilding C P380/1

I ll 7 9

P lan o f t imber-framed

I ll 8 0

P lan w all

I ll 8 1

P lan o f t imber-framed

I ll 8 2

P lan o f b uildings H S6/2 a nd H S7/2

I ll 8 3

P lan o f b uilding H SUU/2

I ll 8 4

P lan o f b uilding W T24/1

I ll 8 5

P lan o f b uildings H SV/2 a nd H SW/2

I ll 8 6

P lan o f b uildings W T1/2, W T2/2 a nd W T4/2

I ll 8 7

P lan o f b uildings W T6/2,

I ll 8 8

P lan o f C P24/1

I ll 8 9

P lan o f b uilding C P69/1

o f

( 1962-3)

s ection o f W T4 4 /2 ( pit)

s tructure H S1/2

t imber-framed

s tructure H S3/4

w ith e levation o f

s tructure C P13/2

W T7/2 a nd W T9/2

S

A cknowledgements

f or i llustrations

P hotographs b y A B Ö R lordäin A rtist 's i mpressions, I ll 1 4,30 ,34 D unbar A ll o ther

KEY

TO

f rontispiece

i llustrations d rawn b y t he a uthor

PLANS

h or izon ta l

v er t ica l

t imber

t imber

b rushwood

k ey

a nd

( 3 ,

s tones

a sh

g rave l

t o i l 1 5 -24

p a th

f ence

b y J an

L is t o f t ab les

T able 1

T he d ate r ange o f t he d ifferent w all t ypes ( Examples i n brackets r efer t o f rag mentary buildings; q uestion marks i ndicate s ome d oubt c oncerning wall t ype)

T able 2

H igh

S treet

1 967-72,

s quares

1 -4.

S tratigraphic

5 8

2 02

r elationships o f t he b uildings d ated b y c oin s equence

T able 3

T able 4

Winetavern S treet, s quares 1 -2. S tratigraphic r elationships o f t he b uildings d ated b y c oin s equence

2 03

C hristchurch

2 04

P lace,

s quare

1 .

S tratigraphic

r elationships o f t he b uildings d ated b y c oin s equence

T able 5

C hristchurch

P lace,

s quare

2 .

S tratigraphic

r elationships o f t he b uildings d ated b y c oin s equence

XV

2 05

I ll 1

M ap o f

t he

m edieval

d iscussion ( black ) N ational

Museum

1 962-3;(2) 1 9b9-72;

H igh

c ity o f D ublin

a nd o f

t he

o ther

I reland

S treet

s howing

r ecent

( stippled).

1 967-72 ;

(1. ) C hristchurch P lace

( 3)

1 972-6.

t he

s ites u nder

e xcavations ( 1) H igh

Winetavern

b y

t he

S treet S treet

1

I n troduct ion

T he b uildings u nder d iscussion w ere e xcavated o n f our s ites i n D ublin ( High S treet 1 962-3, H igh S treet 1 967-72, W inetavern S treet 1 969-72 a nd C hristchurch P lace D irector o f

1 972-76)

u nder

6Riordäin,

t he d irection o f A B

n ow

t he N ational M useum o f I reland.

Three

o f

t he

f our

s ites

( Ill

1 )

c luster

a round

C hristchurch

C athedral ( founded c 1038) o n t he t op o f a h ill o verlooking t he r iver L iffey . a long

Two

o f

t hen i- ( High

t he S s ide o f H igh

p athways

s hows

t hat

t his

S treet

S treet

1 962-3 a nd

a nd

t he

s treet h as

H igh

S treet

1 969-72)

r elationship o f

s urvived

n ear t o

t he

were

f ences

a nd

i ts m edieval l ine .

T he Christchurch P lace s ite was s ituated n ear t he t op o f t he h ill t o t he

S o f

t he

c athedral

a nd

e xtended

d own

t he

S s lope o f

t he h ill.

T he

Winetavern S treet s ite, h alfway d own t he N s lope o f t he h ill t owards t he r iver, T he

l ay j ust

r ecent

i nside t he l ine o f t he l ater medieval c ity wall.

e xcavations

b y 6 R fordäin

a nd

l ater

b y P F Wallace

i n

F ishamble S treet ( Wallace,

1 982) h ave r evealed much o f t he medieval

s horeline a nd

j ust

S treet l ight

i ts r evetments

t o

t he N E

o f W allace's r esults Entries

a N orse

t he o riginal

W inetavern

i n t he I rish h istorical

l ongphort

a t

i n t he

f rom F ishamble S treet.

D ublin

i n

s ources r efer t o

8 41

S cotorum, Annals o f C lonmacnoise). a rgued

o f

s ite a nd s o t he l atter must u ltimately b e r e-examined

( Annals

o f

t he

f oundation o f

U lster,

C hronicum

C larke ( 1977, 4 2-6) h as r ecently

t hat t he l ongphort was s ituated i n t he a rea l ater e nclosed by

t he medieval

c ity walls,

F ishamble S treet s ite. h is a rguments

f ocusing

o n a s lipway n ear

t he

e xcavated

H is i dentification o f t he l ongphort s ite a nd

f or c ontinuity o f

t he S candinavian t own s ite f rom t he 9 th

c entury f ail t o t ake i nto a ccount t he

l ack o f material e arlier

t han

mid-10th c entury i n date o n a ny o f t he e xtensive e xcavations i n t his a rea. • An a lternative a rgument

i s

t hat

t he o riginal l ongphort was n ear t o

K ilmainham/Islandbridge, f urther u p t he r iver L iffey . A V iking c emetery f ound a t K ilmainham/Islandbridge i n t he 1 9th c entury, y ielded male a nd t he

9 th

f emale g rave g oods,

n one o f

c entury ( Graham-Campbell,

w hich n eed

1 976,

4 0).

t o b e d ated

l ater

T he g rave g oods

t han

i ncluded

s cales, w eights, s pindle w horls a nd i ron t ools, s uggesting t hat i t was t he c emetery o f a c ommunity, n ot a w ar c emetery . G raham-Campbell h as s uggested

t hat

t his

r epresents

t he

o riginal

s ettlement

f ounded

i n

8 41

a nd d estroyed i n 9 02 a nd h e a rgues t hat w hen t he V ikings r eturned c 914 t hey s ettled t he s ite o f t he medieval t own, i n t he a rea which h as b een e xcavated. l ater

B urials a t

s ettlement

C ollege G reen may r epresent

( Graham-Campbell,

1 976,

t he

c emetery o f

t his

4 0) .

Wallace ( 1981, 1 38-41) s upports t he a rguments f or a l ack o f c ontinuity b etween t he 8 41-902 l ongphort a nd t he 9 14/917 r efoundation

1

o f a dun o r f ortified s ettlement i n D ublin a nd h e s tresses t he p robability t hat t he S candinavians a dopted s ome A nglo-Saxon t raditions d uring t heir e xile. I n s ummary , t he b uildings f rom t he e xcavated s ites s hould p robably b e a ssessed i n t erms o f t he s econd S candinavian s ettlement o f Dublin, i n t he 1 0th c entury.

E XCAVATION The

f our

e xcavated

p reservation o f ground a nd u sual

u nder d iscussion h ere

r emains

d ue

t o

t he

p rovided

a naerobic

e xcellent

c ondition

o f

t he

s o wooden b uilding walls o ften s urvived t o ah eight o f a s

m uch a s 0 .30m . i s

s ites

o rganic While

o n

s ites

t his a llowed

w ithout

f ar more d etail

c omparable

t o b e

r ecorded

p reservation,

i t

t han

s hould

b e

r emembered t hat t his s eries o f e xcavations b egan a s a r escue p roject b efore many s uch waterlogged s ites h ad b een e xcavated. A s a r esult, n ot a ll details s uch a s t his s ort

f rom

t ool marks

t he m ore r ecent

were r ecorded.

e xcavations

( For e vidence o f

s ee W allace,

1 982) .

Good o rganic p reservation can cause s ome problems in t he i nterpretation o f s tructures. F or e xample, a s t he g round c ompacts, p osts

a re

f orced

s ometimes p ost-holes o riginal

u p

c onfusing o r

p lan

c onstruction l evel,

f or e xample,

l ayers o f

more

t hat

a l ater

w ith a ssociated

p osition a re o ften p hases,

t hrough t he

wattle

i solated

d ifficult

t o

o riginally

f eature . c an b e

may o ften h ave t o b e c onsidered

r ather

r elated

p osts w hich h ad r elate

s o

c overed

Whilst

t hat

p osts

b ack

t hem, s et

t o

b een r ammed a b oundary

i n

t hcir i nto

f ence,

i n r elation t o a s eries o f

t han r elated d irectly t o a s ingle p hase.

DATING The t hick o rganic d eposits made d etailed s tratigraphic analysis d ifficult a nd i n g eneral o nly t he most o bviously d ifferent s trata, s uch a s wood c hips, c lay o r a sh, were i dentified a nd p lanned. d eposits s mall

w ere

l enses

f ormed

o f v ery h omogenous

e xtended

f or

s tratigraphic i nformation ,

v ery

s hort

o rganic

d istances .

l ayers T he

T he general i n w hich

l ack o f

while p ossibly u nderstandable

i n

many

d etailed t erms

o f

t he g eneral r escue n ature o f t he e xcavations a nd t o s ome e xtent o f t he n ecessity t o u se n on-specialist l abour, makes t he c onstruction o f a n ormal t he main

s tratigraphic

p roblem

o f

f eatures,

m atrix

r elating a c rude

t he

i mpossible . b uildings

A s a n a lternative a pproach t o

t o

s tratigraphy h as

o ne

a nother

a nd

t o

b een b uilt u p u sing

t he

o ther

t he d irect

r elationships o f f eatures ( walls o verlying e ach o ther, e tc.) and t he f ew i dentifiable l ayers t hat w ere f ully r ecorded. T his f ramework o f d irect

l inks

r eliable. a re

b ased

l evels

( Tables

2 -5:

unbroken

l ines)

i s

a bsolute

a nd

s o

T o t ie i t t ogether, s econdary l inks h ave b een u sed. o n l ess

o ver

v ery

c lear-cut s hort

r elationships,

d istances

( due

t o

i ncluding

t he

t he

p ossibility

f ully These

c omparison o f o f

s ubsidence

o f, f or e xample, a wall o ver a p it, t hese h ave b een u sed o n a v ery l imited b asis). T hese s econdary c riteria a re l ess r eliable, b ut t hey h ave

o nly

meaning.

b een u sed

when

t here

i s

n o

r easonable

d oubt

a s

t o

t heir

D espite i ts c rudity, t his s tratigraphy i s b ased o n p rimary

2

c riteria o bserved, d escribed a nd d rawn a t t he t ime o f e xcavation a nd, a s a r esult, t he a uthor f eels t hat i t r eflects a ccurately t he r elationships o f t he b uildings a nd i s u nlikely t o b e f undamentally a ffected b y w ork o n o ther a spects o f t he a ssemblage . F inally , a lthough t here r emains a p roblem i n r elating b uildings t o b oundaries, y et t he l imitations o f t he s tratigraphy p lans o f i ndividual b uildings.

i n

n o

c ase

a ffect

t he

v alidity

o f

t he

The d ating o f t he s tructures c annot a t p resent b e b ased o n t he f ull r ange o f a ssociated f inds . A lthough v aluable i ndividual s tudies h ave b een c ompleted o n s ome c lasses o f o bject, t hese w ill h ave t o b e l inked t o t he b asic s tratigraphy a nd t reated a s p art o f t he whole a ssemblage, r ather t han a s i solated t ypes o f a rtefact, b efore t hey c an b e u sed t o d ate s pecific f eatures . T he main a rtefactual d ating w hich i s u sed i n t his r eport i s t he c oin s equence . A lthough i ndividual c oins p resent w ell-known p roblems f or d ating, t he l arge n umber o f c oins f ound o n t hese s ites i n a c hronologically r elated s equence s uggests t hat t hey c an b e u sed w ith s ome c onfidence t o i ndicate d ate r anges f or p articular s tructures. T he c oins w ere i dentified b y W A S eaby a nd P rofessor M D olley.

I a m g rateful

f or a ccess

t o t heir r esults.

A number o f d endrochronological d ates a re a vailable f or t hese s ites . T hey g enerally r elate t o t he l atest t imber-framed c ellars a nd t imber-lined p its o f 1 2th-to 1 4th-century d ate. F ew o f t he e arlier s tructures h ad t imbers s uitable f or d endrochronological p urposes ; t he m ajority were b uilt o f a sh which c annot b e u sed r eliably a nd i n a ny c ase much o f t he t imber w as v ery s crappy a nd p robably r eused. H owever , o ne o f t he e arlier b uildings ( CP85/1) h ad s uitable t imber a nd w as t hus d ated b y d endrochronology t o c 1059 . I a m g rateful t o D r M B aillie f or h is c omments o n t he d endrocl iT.o nology o f t hese s ites a nd f or a ccess t o h is r esults ( Baillie, 1 973 a nd p ers . c omm.1983) . T he o verall d ate-range o f t he f our s ites a ppears

t o h ave b een f rom

t he l ate 1 0th t o t he l ate 1 1th/early 1 2th c entury , w ith a f ew p its a nd c ellars o f 1 3th- t o 1 4th-century d ate. T his d ate r ange a grees i n g eneral t erms w ith t he d ating o f t he o ther a rtefacts e xcavated b ut n ot i ncluded i n t his r eport. F rom t he p oint o f v iew o f p arallels t o t he s tructures n o c loser d ating i s n ecessary . T he a ctual s equence o f c hanges i n b uilding t ypes i s b ased o n s tratigraphy a nd i s o nly a ffected b y t he a bsolute d ating t o t he e xtent t hat t his p rovides t he o nly m eans b y w hich t he i ndividual s ites c an b e c ross-related. A s t he a vailable d ating i s c lumsy f or t his p urpose, t he s ites h ave b een c orrelated o n b road d ate b ands s uch a s 1 000-1050 a nd i t i s o nly w ithin t hese d ate b ands t hat c orrelations c an b e made b etween t he o verall p attern o f b uildings a nd b oundaries o n t he a djacent s ites.

N UMBERING F or t he p urposes o f r elating t his r eport t o t he s ite r ecords a nd t o f uture p ublication o f t he f inds, e tc . t he o riginal s ite n umbering o f t he f eatures h as b een k ept t o, a lthough o ver t he y ears s everal d ifferent s ystems w ere u sed. S tructures o n t he H igh S treet 1 962-3 s ite ( HS 1 962-3) were g iven a f eature l etter, f ollowed b y a s quare n umber. H igh S treet 1 967-72 ( HS) w as e xcavated i n f our l arge ' squares' which

w ere

e ventually

c onjoined.

F eatures

w ithin

e ach

b y a s equence o nly a pplicable t o t hat s quare. w ere u sed, l ater t his s ystem w as s implified a nd s equence .

T he

s ame

s ystem

w as

u sed

i n

s quare

w ere n umbered

A t f irst l etter c odes r eplaced b y an umerical

W inetavern

S treet

1 969-72

s quares 1 -3 and i n C hristchurch P lace ( CP) s quares 1 -2. t hese

s ites

a re

t herefore

n umber/square n umber, W T3/2 .

n umbered

b y

s ite

a s a p it,

i s

b uilding

n umbered

c ode/feature

l etter

o r

e .g. W ine t avern S treet, b uilding 3 , s quare 2 =

S eparate n umerical s eries were u sed

s unken-floored

( WT)

F eatures f or

i n

W inetavern

W T44/2

t o n umber p its,

S treet,

w hich

a t

s o t hat

f irst

t he

a ppeared

( pit) .

D EFINITION A

t otal

o f

s tructures more w ith

8 3

w alls

w hich

another

s tructures b uildings WT1/2,

c ould

h as

b y

b e

f eature

w ith t heir

WT2/2,

e xcluded d ue b uildings,

buildings

c atalogued.

i dentified

s uch

o ne

o r

p osition

WT4/2).

a s

more

e ntrance,

walls

which

S ome

c orners

o f

t o a t otal l ack o f s upporting

b ut t he

a n

c ould

e qually

r est

o nly b een c onsidered

o f

t he

w ell o f

h ave

w ith

o r b e

a ll

one

h earth;

o r a nd

i dentified b uildings h ave

a s

( e .g. b een

t hey may h ave b een

b oundary

f ences .

t he d eeply-set

b een d estroyed.

f or t heir s tructural d etail.

4

i ncludes

p ost-and-wattle e vidence :

b een

h aving

f loor c ould

s equence o f

which o nly

b uilding

T his

s tructures

a s b uildings b y t heir a ssociation

i n a s tratified

e ntrances h ave b een i dentified s urvived;

b een

w ith a f airly c omplete g round-plan ;

S everal

j ambs

h ave

T hese

h ave

2

The b u i ld ing t ypes

O f t he 8 3 b uildings e xamined, f ull o r n ear c omplete g round p lans s urvived f or 5 1 s tructures. Examination o f t hese more c omplete e xamples s hows t hat t he majority w ere v ariations o n as ub-square o r s ub-rectangular p lan, d ivided i nternally, w ith a c entral f loor a rea f lanked b y b enches o r s itting a nd s leeping a reas . T he d ominant f eature i n m any o f t hese b uildings w as t he p resence o f f our i nternal p osts, t wo o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral f loor a rea. T his g roup o f b uildings i s t ermed h ere t he 4 -post p lan ( Ill 2 ). W ith t he e xception o f t he l ate t imber-framed c ellars a nd t hree s unken-floored h uts, t he r emaining b uildings w ere s ub-rectangular o r i rregular i n p lan , l acking t he 4 -post r oof s upports o r t he i nternal d ivisions o f t he m ain g roup . D etails o f t he i nternal l ayout a nd t he a ssociated f inds s uggest n on-domestic f unctions f or m any o f t he b uildings i n t he l atter c ategory.

B UILDINGS O F 4 -POST P LAN T here w ere 3 5 b uildings w hich c an b e i dentified a s h aving b een o f t he 4 -post p lan . T he p osition o f t hese p osts i n r elation t o e ach o ther a nd t o t he b enches a nd t he s ide w alls w as s o s tereotyped t hat a s tructure c an o ften b e c onfidently a ssigned t o t his g roup e ven i f o nly t wo o f t he p osts

r emain :

i t

i s o ften t he c ase

t hat l ater p its h ave d eliberately o r

i ncidently c ut away o ne o r more o f t he r oof p osts. W ithin t he g roup t here w as a c onsiderable v ariation i n s ize a nd e xternal w all p lan : 2 5 s tructures were s ub-square i n p lan ; 8 h ad a l arger s ub-rectangular p lan ; a nd t here w as a s ingle b ow-sided s tructure . a lso a ppeared t o b elong t o t he 4 -post t ype.

L arger r ectangular a nd b ow-sided

A D -shaped

b uilding

b uildings

T he l arger b uildings o f t his t ype ( Ill 3 ) r anged i n s ize f rom c 4.85x8.00m ( CP85/1) t o 5 .8x8.5m ( HSA/1)or 5 .00x9.20m ( CP6/1), g iving a n

i nternal a rea o f c 35-46sq m . C P71/2, w hich w as i ncomplete , t o h ave b een e xceptionally l arge w ith a w idth o f 6 .0-6 .20m .

a ppears

The g round p lan v aried. T he e arliest b uilding o f t he g roup ( CP300/1) w as c learly b ow-sided, b eing f ar n arrower a cross t he g able t han a cross t he c entre o f t he b uilding. L ater b uildings were a ll b asically r ectangular, a lthough t he e xact p lan was d ependant o n t he w all material: t he wattle walls o f C P18 4 /1 o r C P6/1 gave a s ubr ectangular p lan w ith r ounded c orners, w hereas t he s tave c onstruction o f C P85/1 r esulted i n r ight-angled c orners. T he main s ize v ariation a ppears t o h ave b een i n l ength ( 7-9m) b ut t he w idth w as f airly s tandard w ith 7 o f t he 9 e xamples h aving a w idth o f b etween 4 .5 a nd 5 .5m.

5

r oo f

p os ts

c entra l f l oor a rea

b ench f o r s i t t ing a nd s leep ing h ear th

e n trance p assage

c orner

I ll

2

r oom

S implified

p lan

t , : ! ninology u sed

o f i n

4 -post t his

6

t ype

r eport

building

t o

i llustrate

W ith t he e xception o f C P71/2, t hey a ll a ppear o riginally t o h ave h ad f our p osts, t wo o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral f loor a rea, t o s upport t he r oof . I n m ost c ases t he p osts h ad b een a t e ach e nd o f t he c entral f loor a rea a t t he d ivision b etween t he b enches a nd t he c entral f loor, f orming p airs b oth l ongitudinally a nd a cross t he b uilding. I n C P85/1 h owever, t he S W p ost was s ituated f urther t o t he E s o t hat i ts p osts were o nly p aired l ongitudinally a nd n ot a cross t he b uilding. R eplacement o f r oof p osts w as c ommon a mong t hese l arger b uildings, w ith t wo o r more p osts g rouped a t e ach p osition . T he d eterioration o f r oof p osts was c learly a c onsiderable p roblem; i n s ome o f t he l ater b uildings, p adstones w ere u sed. I n C P71/2, t he s ame b asic t hree-aisled p lan w as i n u se, b ut t here w ere t hree o r m ore p airs o f p osts. There w as a f airly s tandard r atio o f c entre t o s ide a isle w idth i n t hese l arger b uildings. W ith t he e xception o f C P71/2, a ll t he m easurable e xamples h ad a w idth o f c 2.2-2 .6m a cross t he c entral f loor a rea and a b ench w idth o f c 1.2-1.4m, g iving a r atio o f 2 :1. The l engthwise s pan was v ery v ariable, f rom 2 .8 t o 5 .4m. I n t he a typical C P71/2, t he c entral f loor was 2 .6-3.0m w ide, w ith w ider t han a verage s ide a isles o f 1 .6-1.8m. The i nternal d ivisions w ere c learly d efined a nd t he d ifferent f unctions o f t he b uilding m ore s eparated t han i n t he s maller b uildings . S ix o f t hese s tructures f ormed a s ingle d irect s equence o f b uildings s uperimposed o n t op o f o ne a nother a s r eplacements o n t he s ame s ite a nd, a lthough t hey a ll s howed e lements o f t he s ame p lan w ith b enches o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral f loor a rea, t hey a lso s howed d ifferences w hich must h ave r eflected t he c hanging n eeds o f t he f amily . T he e arliest b uildings i n t he s equence ( though n ot o n t he p lot) C P300/1 h ad ag able e ntrance o pening i nto a r oom a cross t he f ull w idth o f t he e nd o f t he building. The q uantity o f manure, t he small box-like c onstruction ( manger/nesting b ox) a nd t he q uantities o f b roken e gg s hells s uggest t hat t his e nd o f t he b uilding may h ave b een s easonally u sed a s a b yre, p ossibly f or a c ow a nd a f ew h ens. I t may h ave b een u sed f or o ther p urposes t hroughout t he y ear . I t o pened i nto t he c entral h all w ith b enches o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral f loor a rea. T he building r eplacing t his ( CP253/1) d escribed b elow a s o ne o f t he s maller s tructures, a ppears t o h ave h ad b enches a nd p ossibly a c orner r oom a lthough t he e vidence i s n ot v ery c lear . B y C P18 4 /1 , h owever, t he i nterior w as f ar m ore s ophisticated, w ith t he e ntrance o pening i nto t he c entral h all b ut w ith a s creen b etween t he d oor a nd t he h earth . T here w as only a b ench o n t he s ide o pposite t he e ntrance b ut t here w ere c orner r ooms i n t he N E a nd S E c orners; n o d etails s urvived o f t he W e nd . C P85/1 ( 1 a nd 2 ) were t he most e laborate b uildings i nternally . T he t he

b etter p reserved p hase 1 b uilding h ad a n e ntrance o pening p assage i nto t he c entral h all w hich h ad b enches o n e ither

t hrough s ide o f

t he c entral f loor a rea . T here w ere c orner r ooms a t t he N W a nd S W e nds w ith p lank-in-sill w alls a nd e laborate e ntrances . T here w ere a lso l ess e laborate ' rooms ' a t t he N E a nd S E c orners . A l atrine o pened f rom t he c entre o f t he E wall. I t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat, i n t his c ase, t he W e nd was t he s uperior e nd . T he l ate 1 1th/early 1 2th-century b uilding C P6/1, w hich w as l ess e laborately c onstructed e xternally, a lso l acked t hese d etailed i nternal d ivisions. T he h all h ad b enches o n e ither s ide o f a c entral f loor a rea b ut t here w ere n o c orner r ooms, i nstead t here w ere f airly r ough d ivisions m arking o ff t he f ull w idth o f

7

• • • • , .

. 0 1 (

CF 300 /1

g i

p 7 11 : 1 ,

H

•

y CF 6 /1 CP 1 8 4 /1

• d o

4(

p .

CP 7 1/2

•1 • • •

1 . •

Y

CP 1 3 8 /1

CP 85/ 1 5m

0

1 11 3

K ey

c lans o f ' arge 4 —post b uildings

8

4

t he b uilding a t e ach o f t he g able e nds. A part f rom t his s tratified s equence o f b uildings, C P138/1 may h ave h ad a b ench b eside t he e xcavated l ong w all ; t here w as a lso s light e vidence o f a r oom i n t he S E c orner . I t i s u nfortunate t hat l ittle s urvived o f t he i nternal d etail o f t he e xceptionally l arge b uilding C P71/2, b ut t here a ppears t o h ave b een a b ench b eside t he S s ide T hree

o f

wall .

t hese b uildings h ad

e ntrances

i n

t he

e nd

w alls ( CP300/1,

H SA/1 a nd p robably C P71/2) . I n e ach c ase , t he e ntrance w as c entral i n t he g able w all a nd, a s i n t he s maller b uildings o f t his t ype, i t o pened o nto t he c entral f loor a rea . I n C P300/1 t he p ossible b yre a t t he E e nd o f t he b uilding w ould h ave d ictated a n e ntrance a voiding t he main l iving a rea a nd h all . G iven t he i ncomplete p lan o f t his b uilding t here i s n o i ndication a s t o w hether t here w as o riginally a s econd e ntrance i n t he o pposing g able . T he b uildings w ith more e laborate c entral h alls a nd e nd r ooms ( CP18 4 /1 , C P85/1, C P6/1) e ach h ad a n e ntrance i n o ne o f t he s ide walls. T his was c entrally p laced i n C P18 4 /1 b ut was o ffc entre i n t he o ther e xamples. B oth C P18 4 /1 and C P85/1 ( 1 a nd 2 ) h ad s creens t o s hield t he h all a nd b enches f rom t he e ntrance . T here w as n o c omparable e vidence i n C P6/1 i n which t he e ntrance a ppeared t o h ave o pened d irectly i nto t he b ench a rea. There

was

a g reat

v ariety

o f

wall

t ypes

among

t hese

l arger

b uildings. The e arliest s tructure i n t he g roup ( CP300/1) h ad a l ight s ingle p ost-and-wattle w all w ith n o s urviving e vidence o f c ladding: d ung o r m ud w ere p ostulated. T his b uilding w as r eplaced s uccessively b y b uildings w ith t he f ollowing w all t ypes: d ouble p ost-and-wattle walls ( CP18 4 /1 ) ; s tave-in-sill walls ( CP85/1); a nd, f inally, a f ar t hicker s ingle p ost-and-wattle wall w ith mud c ladding ( CP6/1) . B oth d ouble p ost-and-wattle a nd t he s tave-in-sill w ere u sed f or t he walls o f b uildings w ith e laborate i nternal d ivisions, s uggesting r easonable p rosperity . C P6/1, w ith t he t hick s ingle p ost-and-wattle wall, was s impler i n p lan, b ut t he s ize a nd q uality o f t he w all materials, t he q uantity o f m ud u sed i n t he c ladding, w ith t he a ssociated p roblems o f t he

r etrieval

a nd

t ransport

o f

t hese

materials,

a nd

t he

h igh

s tandard

o f j ointing i mplied b y t he u se o f f reestanding r ather t han e arthfast r oof p osts, a ll s uggest t hat i t w ould b e a mistake t o s tress t he a pparent

s implification

i n

p lan

o f

t his

b uilding.

Another

wall

m aterial, f ine w attle u sed a s t he c ore f or c lay c ladding w ith v ertical p lanks o n e ither s ide, was u sed i n t he mid-llth-century b uilding C P138/1. T he d ating o f t hese v arious w all t ypes s uggests t hat d ouble p ost-and-wattle w as c ommon i n t he 1 1th c entury b ut t hat, t owards t he e nd o f t he c entury, t here was a g reater u se o f a lternative b uilding m aterials a nd

t echniques.

Hearths w ere f ound i n t he c entral f loor a rea o f a ll o f t hese b uildings, e xcept C P71/2, a nd most o f t hem a ppear t o h ave b een p rimarily d omestic . C P138/1 w as u nusual a nd c ould h ave b een a m etal w orkshop , b ut c ertain f eatures s uch a s t he b ench may i ndicate a p artly d omestic f unction a s w ell . C P71/2 was e xceptionally l arge a mong t he b uildings o n t hese D ublin s ites, b ut t he a ssociated f inds d id n ot s uggest a ny p articular s pecial f unction f or i t. T he r emaining b uildings w ere dwellings w ith a c entral h all a nd p rivate c hambers a nd b ecause o f i nhabitants

t heir i nternal were r easonably

d ivisions i t i s s uggested t hat t he wealthy . Only t he e arly 1 1th-century

9

e s

. 4(

. 8(

0

•

HS AF / 1 Key

t ype

l t • HS X /1

HS 1 7 /4

•

CF 3 33 / 1

M .»

C P 305 /1

S O •

•

H

•

4

•

•

•

HS B /1 CF 1 71/1

OM »

• : . 3 4 1 (

CF 2 2 6 /1

WT A5/2 0

I ll 4

•

r 7 1 WT 2 0/2

5m

K ey p lans o f s mall 4 -post

1 0

b uildings

b uilding,

C P300/1,

h ad

a p ossible b yre a t o ne e nd.

S mall s ub-square b uildings T he s maller, n early s quare b uildings o f t he 4 -post t ype ( Ill 4 ,5) r anged i n s ize f rom 3 .5x3.5m ( WT20/2) t o 5 .0x6.0m ( WT21/2), b ut 1 1 o f t he 1 3 w ith c omplete d imensions w ere b etween 4m s quare a nd 5 .5m s quare, g iving a n i nternal f loor a rea o f c 16-30sq m ( HSB/1, H S9/1, H S8/3, H S17/4, W T20/2, C P250/1, C P253/1, -C P333/1, H SA/3, H S11/2, WTA5/2). N one o f t he b uildings w as e xactly s quare, i n a ll c ases t he c orners w ere r ounded o n a ccount o f t he u se o f wattle w alling, which g enerally r esulted i n a v ariation o f 0 .30-0 .50m b etween t he d imensions m easured a cross t he c entre o f t he b uilding a nd t hose m easured a cross t he g able . I n t hose e xamples t hat h ad a n early c omplete g round p lan t he l ength w as u sually

o nly

0 .30-1.00m

l onger

t han

t he b readth .

T he c omplete p attern o f t he r oof p osts o nly s urvived

i n H S9/1 .

I n

t he o ther e xamples t here h as b een d isturbance , o ften d ue t o l ater p its c utting t he r elevant a reas ( in s ome c ases p ossibly t o r emove t imbers f or r e-use). T here was l ittle e vidence o f p ost r eplacement i n t hese b uildings, i n c ontrast t o t he l arger b uildings o f t he 4 -post p lan i n which i t was c ommon f or t he r oof p osts t o h ave b een r eplaced s everal t imes .

T his w ould

s uggest

t hat

i n t hese

s maller b uildings

t he

l ife o f

t he b uilding was d irectly r elated t o t he l ife o f t he r oof p osts a nd t hat t he w hole s tructure n eeded r ebuilding a t t he s ame t ime . T his may a lso i ndicate t hat t he w eather p rotection o f t he w alls t hemselves w as n ot a s g ood a s

i n t he l arger s tructures.

I n t hree ( HS9/1, H S8/3, H S11/2), a nd p ossibly f our ( CP250/1), o f t he e arliest s tructures i n t he g roup, o ne p air o f t he r oof p osts s tood i n t he l ine o f t he f ront e nd-wall, o n e ither s ide o f t he e ntrance. T his w ould o bviously h ave h elped t o k eep t he r estricted i nternal a rea c lear o f p osts. I n H S 9 /1 and H S8/3 t his a lso r esulted i n a l onger l engthwise s pan o f 3 .1-3 .5m a s o pposed t o c 2 .5m f or t he b uildings s uch a s H SX/1 or H S17/4 ( reconstructed) f reestanding i n t he i nterior.

where

a ll

f our

p osts

were

I n t hese b uildings t he r elationship o f t he w idths o f t he b enches t o t he c entral f loor a rea w as v ery v ariable . I n H S9/1 f or e xample t he c entral f loor w as 1 .40m w ide a nd t he s ide a isles 1 .50 a nd 1 .60m r espectively . T he c ontemporary b uilding, H S11/2, w as v ery s imilar , b ut H S8/3, w hich w as a lso o ne o f t he e arliest b uildings i n t he g roup, h ad a f ar w ider c entral s pan o f c 1.80m w ith a s ide s pan o f o nly 0 .90 t o 1 .20m. T he o nly l ater e xample where t hese r elationships c ould b e m easured w as H S17/4 w hich h ad a c entral s pan o f c 2 .00m o f c 1.20m . t he

r atio

T his v ariation w ould o f

c entral:side

s pan

s uggest was

o f

t hat n o

w ith a s ide s pan

i n t hese s mall b uildings, g reat

i mportance

a s

t he

d istances s panned w ere s o s hort. T he i nternal d ivision i nto p assage a nd ' benches ' w as l ess f ormal i n s ome o f t hese s maller b uildings t han i t was i n t he l arger s tructures. O ne p ossible e xplanation f or t his may b e t hat t here i s l ikely t o h ave b een g reater n eed f or t he more l imited s pace t o b e multi-functional s o t hat i t w as n ot s o r igidly d ivided. C lear d ivision

1 1

*ma

WT 2 1/2

CP 253/1

. 4(

•

• 4(

Key

•

t ype

HS 8

4(

0 I

O.

HS

9

/1

OP 250 /1

0

0

5m

HS 11/2

I ll

5

K ey

p lans o f s mall 4 -post b uildings . A :variation r oof p osts w ithdrawn t o t he e ntrance w all

p air o f

12

w ith

o ne

into passage and benches can, however, be seen in the plans of HS9/l, HSll/2 and CP253/l, although in HS9/l that third of the buildin g opposite the doorway was divided into a separate area or room. Elements of the three-aisled plan existed in HS8/3 where grooves in the S faces of two posts in the N gable wall could have held the ends of some partitions along the sides of the bench area. In HSB/1 and HSX/1 there was some slight evidence of floored corner ' rooms'. WT21/2 appears to have been of the basic plan but with two of its corners partitioned off as separate rooms, leaving a narrow passage between them leading from the entrance into the main room which was apparently origin ally three-aisled, although later part was enclosed to form another corner room. In WTAS/2 the tripartite division was present but the benches appeared to have been narrower in relation to the central floor area than in the earlier examples. HS17/4 and WT20/2 are related to thi s group by their size and the position of their roof posts, but there was no surviving evidence of passage or benches. The entrance always appears to have been in the middle of one of the slightly shorter end-walls� In two cases (HSB/1, WT21/2) there were entrances in both end-walls but in each instance there was some evidence that one of the entrances was secondary. Six buildings (HSA/3 (1962-3), HS9/l, HSll/2, HS8/3, CP250/l, CP253/l) had a single entrance in one of the end-walls and this was almost certainly true in two other examples (HS17/4, WTAS/2) where the entrance itself was not excavated but was apparently in an unexcavated end-wall. The position of the entrance could not be assessed for the remaining buildings. Three types of walling were found among these smaller buildings: double post-and-wattle (HS9/l); light single post-and-wattle (HS17/4); and heavier single post-and-wattle (WTAS/2) . With two exceptions, where the interior of the building was badly disturbed (WTAS/2, CP253 /l), all these buildings had hearths or ash deposits of some sort. In all instances they were roughly in the centre of the building in the central floor area between the benches. Many of the buildings appear to have been domestic but in a few cases some craft work may also have been undertaken in them. D-shaped building related to the 4-post type One building, CP40/l, may have been related to the 4-post group (Ill 7A), but the plan is so· irr egular that it must be co�s i der ed separately. Three walls formed three sides of what would have been a small sub- square structure, except that the fourth wall was angled giving the structure a D-shaped plan. In the W side of the building there were roof posts at two of the positions comparable to those in HS9/l and there was a possible padstone at the NE 'post position'. The planks may have been a bench retaining wall. There was a central hearth without a kerb.

13

B uilding H S8/3

l ooking

0

s . 0

r 1

1 4

I RREGULAR B UILDINGS B uildings o f s ub-rectangular p lan w ithout 4 -post r oof s upports C P123/1

h ad

p robably o riginally b een a dwelling .

T he

p rimary

was o nly 0 .70m w ide a nd t here was a c entral h earth. e vidence o f a isling s urvived with

t he

i nitial

4-post

p lan,

p hase.

t hrough

Later,

t he N wall a nd

s o

i t

a lthough a s econd

i s

i mpossible

i t

may

h ave

e ntrance

t o

l ink

i t

b elonged

t o

( 1.17m

i t may h ave b een r eused

e ntrance

N o r oof p osts o r

wide)

d efinitely i t was

i n

i ts

b roken

a s a b yre o r w orkshop .

C P30/1 was a v ery l arge s ub-rectangular b uilding with a d ouble wattle wall. T here was n o e vidence o f r oof p osts but s tone o r p lank p adstones c ould t hat

h ave b een r emoved.

T here

was

s ome

e vidence

t o

s uggest

t he

s maller

i t m ay h ave b een a c arpenter's o r w oodworker's w orkshop. H S4/2

was

3 .4x3.0m

w ith

b uildings o f t he 4 -post

a s ub-square

p lan .

H owever,

p lan t he

s imilar

t o

s ingle, v ery l arge p ost

n ear t he c entre o f t he building was t he only apparent r oof s upport which may h ave h eld l ight r afters r adiating t o t he t op o f t he wall. T he d oor j ambs were a lso s ubstantial a nd c ould h ave c arried s ome o f t he r oof weight, but t his i s u nlikely a s t he e ntrance was n ot c entral i n t he wall. and

t he

A l arge t rough b eside o ne wall,

p aucity o f f inds

c ollapsed T he

s uggest

t imbering b eside r emaining

t hree

t hat

t he N wall c ould

b uildings

t he wide e ntrance ( 1.05m)

i t may h ave b een a b yre.

( Ill 7 B)

w ere

s mall

s ub-rectangular

s tructures with t he e ntrance i n one o f t he l onger s ide walls. was n o

e vidence

a s mall t he

o f

r oof

a sh d eposit,

b ut

t ype u sually f ound

C ircular/ovoid

p osts .

H S1/1

H SA/4 h ad

h ad

T he

h ave b een f rom a s tall.

n o

There

h earth a nd H S3/1 h ad

a n e laborate

s tone-kerbed

o nly

h earth o f

i n t he l arger 4 -post b uildings.

p lan w ith n o i nternal r oof s upports

C P96/1 was n o more t han a c ircular p en c .2.00m i n d iameter; t he s mall s ize a nd n arrow e ntrance s uggest

t hat i t might

s hed.

c onically b y l inking

I t

c ould

t he a pex, O ne i n s hape

b ut

h ave b een r oofed

o bviously t here i s n o e vidence

s mall

s tructure,

C P142/1

s urrounding a c ess

h ave b een a h en h ouse o r t he w all p osts a t

f or t his s uggestion.

was c learly a l atrine .

p it.

There was n o

I t

e vidence

w as o void

t hat

i t

h ad

b een r oofed, but t he f airly e laborate e ntrance s uggests t hat i t may h ave b een c overed. I t was c ontemporary w ith , a nd p robably b elonged t o, t he

l arge

dwellings

dwelling ( beside

C P18 4 /1 .

C P85/1

a nd

O ther

l atrines

were

f ound

a butting

H SB/l).

S UNKEN-FLOORED B UILDINGS T hree

s unken-floored

b uildings

h ave

b een

i dentified

( WT4 4 /2 , C P356/1,

C P380/1). A ll t hree d iffered i n t heir d epth, wall material and r oof s upport, b ut t hey a ll h ad c lear e ntrances l eading i nto s ub-rectangular p its I n

w ith w ooden w alling a nd a t

n o

c ase

was

t here

a ny

l east

e vidence

1 5

s ome o f

e vidence

an

o f ' roof

a ssociated

s upports '.

g round-level

A

• •

t o

CF 40/1

» -

«we

HS

HS A /4

HS 1 /1

3 /1

••

f r

•

C F 96 /1 CF 1 42/1 HS 4 /2

1

e r

CF 1 23/1

•

5m

CF 30/1

I ll

7

Key

p lans.

A :building

B :rectangular buildings l atrine;

D :Miscellaneous

1 6

r elated with

s ide

t o

t he

4-post

e ntrance;

p lan;

C :byres

a nd

s tructure. N one o f t hem was c learly domestic i n f unction a nd t he e vidence s uggests t hat t hey may h ave b een u sed f or f ood s torage. C P356/1,

which h ad a s tone c ulvert l eading o ut t hrough t he e ntrance,

m ight b e

r egarded

a s a b yre o r dwelling, b ut

t he l ack o f

f inds, o rganic

material o r manure makes t his u nlikely. A ll t hree s tructures were built almost d irectly o n t he n atural s oil and c an b e dated t o t he mid t o

l ate

1 0th c entury .

c ontinued

i n u se

while

s ettlement

h ave

t he

f ormed

p art

a nd o f

T his t hese w as

b uilding m ight

t radition d oes

b e

r egarded

i nitially b eing

s imilar

s tructures

a s

b uilt.

b ut

n ot

a ppear

t emporary

t o

h ave

s tores

u sed

A f ew o ther

a ny

d efinite

p its

may

e vidence

w as

l acking.

T IMBER-FRAMED C ELLARS The

t hree

d istinct

t imber-framed

a ll t he o ther buildings. 1 2th a nd h olding

s tructures

i n t heir materials, t he 1 4th c entury, v ertical

mortised

method

A ll a nd

( CP13/2, H S3/4,

t hree b elonged c overed

w ith

f unction ,

f rom

b etween t he e nd o f t he

w ere b uilt o f o ak ,

t imbers

H S1/2) were q uite

o f c onstruction a nd

w ith h eavy s ill-beams v ertical

o r h orizontal

weatherboarding. C P13/2 and H S3/4 b oth a ppeared t o h ave b een woodl ined c ellars. I n H S3/4 t he c ellar p it c ould b e c learly s een i n t he e xcavated

s ection

t o

a d epth o f

h ad b een destroyed, b ut l ate i ntrusive o verlying

f eature .

l evels

h ad

1 .54m.

I n C P13/2

t he a ssociated T here

b een

c ut

w as n o

s uperstructures a ssociated Archaeological

a nd

o verlying

l evels

i ndication r egarding H S1/2 a s

away b y modern c ellars,

i t a ppeared s imilar t o t he o ther e xamples. t he

t he

f inds i ndicated t hat i t was a b ut

t he

s tructurally

There was n o e vidence o f

w ith t hese c ellars .

dendrochronological

dating

p lace

these

s tructures i n t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c enturies. E arly 1 4th-century P urveyance a ccounts ( pers .comm.1976 . P rofessor J Lydon ) mention c ellars i n t his p art o f Dublin r ented b y t he p urveyors t o s tore f ood b efore e xporting

i t

t o S cotland.

1 7

3

S tructura l d eta i ls

D ue t o t he e xcellent o rganic p reservation o n t hese s ites i t w as p ossible t o e xamine t he v arious main s tructural e lements o f t he b uildings i n s ome d etail . T hese w ill b e d iscussed u nder t he f ollowing osts; f oundations; e ntrances; h earths; h eadings: walling; r oof p H owever, i t must b e n oted t hat, a t t he t ime b enches; a nd c orner r ooms . t here was l ess understanding o f t he o f t hese excavations, f w ood-working t echniques a nd, a s a r esult, a rchaeological r ecognition o s t ool m arks, w ere n ot r ecorded. d etails o f c arpentry, s uch a T hroughout t his c hapter, p arallels a re d rawn f rom c ontemporary a nd n on-contemporary s ources b oth i n I reland a nd e lsewhere. T hey a re i ntended p urely t o c larify s tructural d etails o r t o s how t hat c ertain c onstructions, d educed f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence i n D ublin , h ave b een f ound

e lsewhere.

W ALLING T he main wall-types e xcavated w ere : s ingle p ost-and-wattle; d ouble p ost-and-wattle; w attle w ith p lanks; a nd s taves s et i n a s ill-beam . I n t he e arlier s ummary p ublication o f t hese s tructures ( Murray , 1 981) t he w all t ypes w ere u sed a bandoned

f or t he b asic d ivisions b ut

t his c lassification i s

h ere.

W attle C ertain d etails o f t he w attle c onstruction w ere c ommon t o a ll f orms o f w attle wall . A ll t he v erticals w ere r ound p osts, g enerally r etaining t heir b ark . T he a verage s pacing o f t he p osts w as c 0.15-0.30m. W ith t he e xception o f s ome o f t he v ery t hin i nternal w alls, t he s ize o f t he p osts d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave c aused t heir s pacing t o b e a ltered. I n a f ew c ases t he p osts h ad b een p aired . T his o ccurred b oth i n v ery l ight walls ( such a s t hose o f C P96/1) a nd i n h eavier w alls ( such a s WT1/2). I n a f ew c ases where t he wattle was b roken i t i s p ossible t hat t he p airs r epresented t he a ddition o f n ew p osts o n t he s ame w all l ine, b ut w here t he w attle w as u nbroken t he p aired

p osts

w ere

p robably o riginal,

i nserted a t weak p oints while t he wall was b eing b uilt. I n f act, r ecent e xperience o f b uilding w ith w attle s uggests t hat i t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat a ny s uch p osts w ere r epairs a dded a fter t he w all w as c ompleted

( Murray ,

I n a ll

A berdeen ,

t he b uildings

1 980) .

t he e nds o f t he p osts h ad b een a dzed

t o

r ough

p oints a nd i n s ome c ases a ppeared t o h ave b een f ire h ardened. R ecent e xperiments o n p ost d urability u ndertaken b y t he F orestry C ommission ( UK)

( Clarke

a nd

B oswell,

1 976,

1 9

1 3)

s uggests

t hat

t his

p ractice,

a lthough c ommon i n t he p ast, d oes n ot i n f act l engthen t he l ifespan o f t he p ost. T he p osts g enerally e xtended c 0.20-0.40m b elow t he f loor l evel.

T his m ay,

h owever,

h ave b een g reater

t han

t heir o riginal d epth

a s t hey would h ave b een f orced d eeper i nto t he s oft e arth b y t he r oof w eight. I t i s n ot n ecessary f or w all p osts t o b e p articularly d eeply e mbedded f or s tability ( see f or e xample t he i nternal w alls s et i n s illb eams: I ll 5 4). T here w as n o e vidence o f w all t renches a nd t he p osts a ppeared

t o

h ave

b een

h ammered

i nto

p osition .

The

s ize

o f

t he

h orizontal w attles d epended t o s ome e xtent o n t he s ize o f t he p osts. T he w attles i n t he l ight s ingle w attle w alls, i n t he o uter w alls o f t he d ouble wattle walls a nd i n t he i nternal w alls o f a ll t he b uildings, w ere g enerally t hin , a veraging 1 5-25mm i n d iameter . T he w attles o f t he o ther walls w ere t hicker, a veraging 2 0-30mm i n d iameter. T he o nly s ignificance i n t hese s izes i s t hat t hinner, m ore f lexible w attles w ere n ecessary w here t he v ertical p osts w ere c lose t ogether o r w here a v ery f ine w oven wattle was r equired. I t i s a lso t rue t hat, while t he t hinner wattle c ould b e t he p roduct o f c asual t rimmings o r o f s hortt erm c oppice g rowth ( deliberate o r n ot), t he t hicker w attles a re m ost l ikely t o b e t he r esult o f l onger t erm c oppicing. T he weave o f t he wattle was generally s imple, e ach wattle l ying b ehind e very a lternate p ost. O n o ne f allen wall ( HS, s creen 7 /4. I ll 9 ), t he t hree l owest s trands o f wattle h ad b een p laited t ogether a s t hey were w oven t hrough t he p osts, f orming a s trong b inding s trip a t t he b ase o f t he wall . There was n o e vidence c oncerning t he i ntended f unction o f t he s creen a nd n o s imilar s trips w ere o bserved o n a ny o ther wall, b ut i t i s ad etail t hat w ould r arely h ave s urvived. A s imilar b and a ppears t o b e d epicted o n t he t op o f a w attle f ence i n a n e arly 1 6th-century F lemish c alendar ( British L ibrary A dd MS. 2 4098, f 29b). I n a modern I rish p arallel, t he s imilar s trips w oven a round t he b ase o f w icker s heep f eeding c ribs ( O'Sullivan 1 971, 1 10-1, p l x xii:b ) c onfirm t he i nterpretation o f t he f eature a nd p erhaps s uggest t hat i t may h ave b een u sed o n s mall f reestanding i nternal s creens, w hich may e ven h ave b een moved f rom t ime t o t ime t o d ifferent p ositions w ithin t he b uilding. I t i s a lso p robable t hat i n b etter b uilt h ouses a s trip o f t his s ort w as u sed t o b ind t he t ops o f t he w alls. S mall 8 -shaped k nots o f wattle, which were o ften f ound n ear t he walls, may h ave b een u sed t o s ecure t he e nds a nd t ops o f t he r ougher walls, a t t he j unction o f f ences a nd a s ab inding f or s imple j oints. S imilar o bjects a re i llustrated i n t he 1 4th-century L uttrell P salter where t hey a re s hown s ecuring t he f our c orners o f a wattle s heep p en ( Luttrell

P salter 7 9:f163b).

A s imilar t echnique i s u sed b y modern

h urdle makers t o twist a h azel while t urning i t b ack a round t he e nd u pright o f a h urdle; t he t wist t o t he f ibres p revents t he w ood s napping. I n s everal f ences or s mall e nclosures ( HSU/4, W T33/2 n ot i llustrated) a c ouple o f l ines o f b lackthorn h ad b een u sed a s w attles a t t he b ase o f t he wall. D escriptions o f f ences i n t he 8 th-century I rish

l aws

mention

t he

a nd u se

i n

t he

1 2th-century

s tory A islinge

o f a c rest o f b lackthorn a t

Meic C onglinne

t he t op o f s ome wattle

f ences t o d eter a nimals ( Aislinge M eic C onglinne . M eyer ( ed) 1 892, 8 7, l ines 1 3-15). I t i s p ossible t hat t he b lackthorn a t t he b ase o f s ome o f t he Dublin f ences may h ave b een t o d eter v ermin o r s mall d omestic

2 0

2 1

a nimals s uch a s s cavenging c ats o r d ogs. T he r ecognised a long t he w alls o f a ny o f t he dwellings .

f eature

was

n ot

I n t he p re-Norman p eriod i n D ublin t he w ood m ost c ommonly u sed f or b oth p osts a nd w attles w as a sh . I ts g reat f lexibility o bviously m akes i t i deal f or w attling. T he n atural s hape o f t he t hinner a sh b ranches o n a mature s tandard t ree t ends t o c urve u pwards, b ut t here w ere s ome w attles o n t he D ublin b uildings w hich h ad a s urviving s traight l ength o f a c ouple o f m etres a nd i t i s p robable t hat f rom a n e arly s tage s ome c oppicing was b eing p ractised. T his may o riginally h ave b egun i ncidentally a s t he r esult o f t he n ew w ood g rowing u p a round t he b ase o f f elled t runks, b ut i n v iew o f t he m assive q uantities o f w attle u sed n ot o nly i n h ouses b ut a lso i n f ences, p aths, p it l inings, e tc., i t i s h ard t o b elieve t hat c oppicing w as n ot u nderstood a nd e xploited. I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat a sh i s v ery e asy t o c oppice . T his s uggestion a grees w ith t hat b y R ackham ( 1982, 2 06) c oncerning t he p ossible n ature o f e arly t imber p roduction i n I reland. T he u se o f a sh f or t he d oor p osts a nd r oof p osts s uggests, o n t he o ther h and, t he o ccasional u se o f t he whole t ree ( standard). T he f act t hat a sh i s a n e asy w ood t o w ork w ith a n a xe w ould

h ave b een a n i mportant

f actor.

O ther t ypes o f w ood i dentified f rom t he p re-Norman l evels i ncluded h azel a nd e lm ( 6 R iordäin 1 971,77). T he s tave b uilding C P85/1 was o f o ak, b ut t here was n o s ubstantial u se o f o ak u ntil t he N orman p eriod, r epresented o n t hese s ites b y t he t imber-framed c ellars a nd p its. The s implest f orm o f wattle c onstruction c onsisted o f a s ingle p ost-and-wattle w all a round t he c ircumference o f t he b uilding. T here w as, h owever , s ome s ignificant v ariation i n t he s ize o f t he p osts u sed i n t he w alls . T he m ajority o f t he b uildings w ith s ingle w attle w alls, i ncluding most o f t he i rregular p lan a ncillary b uildings and t he e arliest, f ragmentary b ut a pparently 4 -post b uildings o n C hristchurch P lace ( CP333/1) h ad w alls w ith p osts 0 .02-0 .07m i n d iameter s paced a t i ntervals o f 0 .18-0 .30m . T he u se o f a h eavier s ingle p ost-and-wattle wall w ith l arger p osts a ppears t o h ave b een a l ater f eature a nd o ccurred o n f our o f t he 4 -post b uildings ( CP6/1 p hases 1 a nd 2 , W TA5/2, WT7/1) a nd i n s everal o f t he v ery f ragmentary s tructures ( CP24/1, W T1/2). T he w all p osts w ere l arge, r anging f rom 0 .06-0 .09m i n d iameter i n o ne b uilding t o 0 .07-0 .13m i n a nother . T he s pacing r emained c 0.18-0.30m. I n C P6/1, p hase 2 , mud h ad b een u sed a s a t hick d aub.

a t

T he s ize o f t he wall p osts o f t hese b uildings c an b est b e a ppreciated b y a c omparison w ith a t otal o f c 40 wattle w alled b uildings o f 1 3th-and 1 4th-century d ate e xcavated i n P erth a nd A berdeen , S cotland ( Murray 1 980,40) o f w hich t he a verage w all p osts w ere o nly 0 .02-0 .06m i n d iameter . Experiments h ave s hown t hat t hese l ight w alls w ere r emarkably s trong d ue t o t he f lexibility o f t he w attle w hich a llows i t t o a bsorb s tress a nd s hock b etter t han a m ore r igid wall o f s imilar t hickness. I t s eems u nlikely, t herefore, t hat t he c hange i n s ize o f t he p osts i n D ublin was merely t o g ain s trength . I t i s p ossibly s ignificant t hat t hese e xtremely l arge p osts w ere i n u se i n t he l ate 1 1th t o mid-12th c entury i n a p eriod when t he f oundation l evels w ere b ecoming w aterlogged, f ollowing t he b uild-up o f r ubbish a nd m anure , a nd were c onsequently u nstable; i t i s p ossible t herefore t hat t he u se o f l arger p osts m ay h ave b een a n a ttempt

2 2

t o r educe t he t win p roblem o f t he

p osts r otting a nd i nstability . S ome s light s upport f or t his v iew i s g iven b y t he f act t hat i n b uilding C P6/1, w hich h ad t hick s ingle w attle w alls, t he r oof p osts w ere s upported o n p ad s tones t he u se o f w hich c an a lso b e i nterpreted g round ( see b elow). T here

w as

n o

a s a r eaction

c lear

t o

i ncreasing

e vidence o f d aub

o n

i nstability o f

t he

t he majority o f t he w alls .

T he only e xception was C P6/1 where t rampled s od h ad b een u sed o n t he t hick w attle w all . T he u se o f m ud o r d ung i s, h owever, q uite p ossible a nd might n ot h ave b een o bserved during e xcavation . T urf c ould a lso h ave b een u sed e ither b uilt a gainst t he wall o r p egged t o i t a s w as c ommon i n t he W o f S cotland i n t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies a nd e arlier ( Fenton a nd W alker, 1 981,100-1).

p robably

D aub c an h ave f our p ossible f unctions: a s e xternal w eather p rotection f or t he w all i tself ; a s i nsulation t o p rovide g reater w armth i nside t he b uildings; a s a f ire r etardant a gainst s parks f rom a h earth i nside t he b uilding o r a gainst a ccidental f ire f rom o utside ; a nd e ven a s decoration t o i mprove t he a ppearance o f t he b uilding. Modern p arallels c onfirm t hat t he u se o f d aub w ould h ave b een d ependant o n t he f unction o f t he b uilding a nd d emonstrate t hat i t may n ot h ave b een n ecessary o n a ll t he b uildings . F or e xample, a 1 9th-century p hotograph o f a s tone b uilding w ith a n a ttached b yre i n L och D uich, W ester R oss, S cotland ( Washington W ilson : L och D uich ) s hows a w attle w all w ith n o i nsulation f orming

t he e nd

wall o f t he b yre.

S imilarly a h ay b arn

r ecently r ecorded i n t he A pplecross p eninsula, W estern S cotland, s hows t he u se o f u ndaubed wattle i n t he e nd wall t o p rovide c irculation o f a ir

t o t he h ay ( I am g rateful t o G S tell o f t he R oyal C ommission f or

A ncient a nd H istoric B uildings , S cotland, f or t his i nformation ) . S o, s tructures s uch a s l atrines o r b yres may n ot h ave b een c onsidered t o r equire a ny i nsulation o n t heir walls. A s imilar l ack o f d aub was o bserved o n t he w alls o f s heds a nd n on-domestic b uildings i n e arly m edieval L und ( Märtensson 1 966,4-5) . I t i s i nteresting i n t his c ontext t o n ote t hat, a lthough t here a re many r eferences i n I rish s ources t o t he u se o f w attle a nd t he c ollection o f t he m aterials, t he w riter k nows o f n o c lear r eference t o d aub ( Murray 1 979,83-5) . D ouble p ost-and-wattle w alls w ere f ormed w ith t wo p arallel w alls 0 .07-0.30m a part a round t he p erimeter o f t he b uilding a nd u p t o 0 .45m a part a t t he c orners. A n e xception t o t his was C P253/1 i n which t he w alls w ere 0 .25-0 .55m a part a round t he s ides o f t he h ouse a nd 0 .70m a part a t t he c orners. T he o uter wall was o ften s lightly l ighter i n c onstruction t han t he i nner w all, w ith p osts o f 0 .02-0 .06m i n d iameter a s o pposed t o p osts o f 0 .03-0 .07m a verage d iameter i n t he i nner w alls . I n s ome c ases s uch a s H S 9 /1 t he t wo w alls w ere o f e qual s trength . I n m ost o f t he h ouses t he o uter wall h ad b een b uilt a t a l evel s everal c entimetres l ower t han t he There

a re

t wo

i nner w all.

p ossible

i nterpretations o f t hese d ouble walls:

e ither t he o uter wall was s imply a l ow r etaining wall o r k erb a round t he s od f oundation, o r b oth w alls w ere o f f ull h eight w ith a f ill o f i nsulating m aterial

i n t he

i ntervening g ap.

T he main a rgument i n f avour o f r econstructing t he o uter w all a s a r etaining w all a round t he f oundation i s t hat t he b ase o f t he o uter w all

2 3

was o ften l ower t han t he b ase o f t he i nner wall. l evel

c an

b e

b uildings c overed t he

e xplained

were

b y

p repared

t he

t he

t hat

t he

T his d ifference i n

s ites

of

many

o f

b y a t hick l ayer o f s ods c 0.20m d eep

u nderlying d ebris .

f oundation ,

f act

T he o uter

i nner

w all

w all

w as b uilt

a round

w as b uilt o n t op o f i t.

t he

t he

which

e dge o f

T he o uter

w all

c ould, t herefore, h ave b een f or r etaining t he s od ' platform ' on which t he

h ouse

w as

movement

o f

f oundation w as

b uilt . t he

s ettled

0 .20-0 .50m

T o

s ome e xtent

i nner

i n

wall

o ver

t he

h eight

i t

which

i t

w ould

might

h ave s topped

h ave

u nderlying

s oft

w ould

a dditionally

h ave

t he

o ccurred

l evels.

I f

l ateral

a s

t he

s od

t he o uter

p rotected

w all

t he

b ase

o f t he main h ouse w all a gainst w eather a nd i ncidental a nimal a nd h uman damage. I t would not have reduced t he damage caused by t he d eterioration o f

t he e arthfast

f oundations .

w attles o f t he o uter wall s uggest t hat main h ouse w all,

a s i ts t hinner,

T he l ighter w all p osts a nd

i t may h ave b een built a fter t he

more p liable,

w ood w ould h ave b een t he

e asier t o weave n ear an e xisting wall. T his i s apparently i n s light c ontradiction t o t he g enerally l ower p osition o f t he o uter w alls, b ut i f

i t

i s

a ccepted

' platform', h eight

h as

n o

a gainst a nd b uilding 's

t hey

were

built

s equential

s ignificance .

t hrough t he w attle w ould l ife,

c reating

A s imilar E lisenhof

t hat

a round

with t he i nner wall b uilt on t op,

i n

i ts

a ppearance

t he

a s

c reated

p eninsula

e dge

o f

t he

s od

s light

s pread

o f

t he

s od

i nevitable d uring a nd a fter t he

a ppearance

was

E iderstedt

S ome

b e

t he

t hen t he d ifference i n

e xcavated.

i n

s ome

o f

( Bantelmann ,

t he

b uildings a t

1 975

e .g .

H ouse 6 )

b ut h ere t he two walls a ppear n ot t o h ave b een c ontemporary,

t he s od

h aving b een l aid d own t o c over t he e arlier w all b efore r ebuilding a n ew wall a long t he s ame l ine, c ompression o f t he s oil c reating t he impression o f ad ouble wall.

The writer d oes n ot

f eel t hat this was

t he c ase i n Dublin b ecause o f t he l arge n umber o f e xamples and t heir c onsistency, t hat

c ombined

w ith t he l ack o f

t he l ower o uter w alls

a ny f urther

e vidence

t o

s uggest

w ere a ssociated w ith e arlier s tructures .

I n s ix o f t he Dublin b uildings o f t his t ype, t he o uter wall c rossed i n f ront o f t he e ntrance. T his p art o f t he outer w all c annot h ave been more t han c 0.20m h igh and t his f eature i s t o b e r egarded a s t he e quivalent o f t he r aised

t hreshold

h ouse;

p reclude t he r est o f t he

i t d oes n ot,

h igher, b een

a s

w attle

f ound

medieval P HSEC,

i n

s ites

h owever , w alls

buildings i n

1 980)

w ith

A berdeen

f orthcoming).

A berdeen

c ontinuing

h ave

a cross

( Murray

1 982,

t o k eep mud o ut o f t he wall h aving

b een

t he b ase o f a n e ntrance h ave

f ull-height

Experiments s hown

b ars u sed

s ingle

I ll

3 7)

i n building

wattle

a nd

t he

o uter

wall

c onsiderably s trengthened b y h aving

t his

u nbroken b and

o n

P erth ( Murray i n

w ith

t hat

walls

wattle

would o f

(Murray

h ave

w attle

b een

a round

i ts b ase. A n

a lternative

s uggestion

t o

a rguing

f or

a l ow

t he f ull p erimeter i s t o r econstruct b oth walls f illing d ung;

t he

t his

s pace b etween w ith s ome i nsulating w ould

p articularly a s a round

t he

n ot

i t

h ave

m ight

b uilding

w ell

s ite

v isually i ndistinguishable A n

a rgument

i n

b een

i dentifiable

h ave b een

c ollected

s o

would

f rom

t he

s urrounding

f avour o f

b e

r econstructing

2 4

w all

an e qual

material

e asily

a nd

o uter

t o

s uch a s mud

during

u p

a round

h eight,

f rom

t echnically

o r

e xcavation, i mmediately a s

well

a s

l ayers.

t he

walls

i n

t his

way

i s

t he f act

t hat t hey w ere s ucceeded,

i n

b uildings o f e qual s tatus,

b y

walls o f s trong s ingle p ost-and-wattle or o f h eavier t imber c onstruction . F or e xample, C P184/1 o f d ouble wattle t ype w as s ucceeded b y t he s tave-built wall o f C P85/1 a nd l ater b y t he s trong s ingle wattle o f C P6/1. T his m ight i mply t hat t he d ouble w alls p rovided o r a ttempted t o p rovide t he e quivalent o f t he s trength a nd i nsulation a chieved b y t he h eavier w alls . I t i s a lso s ignificant t hat d uring t he 1 1th c entury, while d ouble wattle w as g enerally u sed f or dwellings, i ncluding t hose o f t he r icher i nhabitants, t he c ontemporary a ncillary b uildings u sed

l ight

s ingle w attle w alls.

T he u se o f w attle t o f orm a c avity w all i n t his w ay i s a ttested b y 1 9th-century d escriptions o f b ark p eelers ' h uts i n H igh F urness, C umberland ( Cowper, 1 901,142-3) ' Side w alls w ith r ounded c orners a re c onstructed o f t wo f aces o f w attle p acked b etween w ith e arth a nd t hen r aised t o a h eight o f t wo f eet. O n t he t op o f t his wall l ighter p oles — . a re p laced c lose t ogether w ith t heir t ops s upported a gainst t he r idge p ole '. I t i s i nteresting t hat t his p ractice i s r ecorded B ritain i n c lose c ultural c ontact w ith I reland. The

r econstruction o f b oth w alls

t o

f rom

a n

a rea

o f

f ull h eight might a lso b e

c onsidered i n r elation t o t he d iscussion o f t he h ouse o f t he ö caire ( a s mall f armer) d escribed i n t he 8 th-century I rish l aw C rith G ablach ( Binchy e d 1 970, ' It

i s

4 ,1ines 9 9-100). w attle

t o

t he

l evel o f t he l intel.

T here

a re a p air o f r afters b etween e very t wo s ections o f w attle f rom t he l intel t o t he r idge'. I n a p revious d iscussion ( Murray , 1 979,91) t he w riter a ssumed t hat t his r eferred t o s ections a long t he wall, b ut i t i s e qually p ossible t o i nterpret t his p assage t o mean t hat, a s i n t he H igh F urness h uts, t he r afters e xtended f rom t he r idge t o t he t op o f t he w all, t heir b ases r esting b etween t wo p arallel

s ections o f w attle - i n o ther words a

d ouble w all. T he b asic i dea o f b uilding w ith i nner a nd o uter w all f aces o f o ne m aterial a nd a c avity f ill o f i nsulating m aterial w as n ot u ncommon i n t he V iking A ge . T he wall o f h ouse 1 a t K aupang, V est f old, N orway h as b een i nterpreted i n a s imilar w ay ( Tollnes 1 969, 9 4-5), w ith a n i nner w all o f h orixontal p lanks f ixed t o v ertical p osts a nd a n o uter w all f ormed o f a n e arthfast p alisade . T he i ntervening s pace may h ave b een f illed b y al ayer o f t urf. R udolf ( in J ankuhn, 1 963, 1 20) s uggested a s imilar r econstruction f or o ne o f t he b uildings a t H edeby w ith a d ouble w all c omposed o f w attle o n o ne f ace a nd p lanks o n t he o ther w ith i nsulating material b etween t he t wo. S tone walls w ith a t urf o r s oil/sand c ore a re e qually c ommon i n a reas o f S candinavian s ettlement a nd/or

c ontact

J arlshof,

i n

F reswick.

t he

S cottish

s ee F enton,

I sles

1 979,

2 5

a nd

1 0-11).

mainland

( e.g.

B irsay,

O ne o f t he D ublin e xamples ( CP30/1) w as a typical b ecause, u nlike t he o ther e xamples o f t his t ype o f w all, t he b ase o f t he o uter wall w as h igher t han t he b ase o f t he i nner w all, h aving b een built o n t he s ods w hich h ad b een t hrown o r p acked a gainst t he o utside o f t he i nner w all . S econdly, t he o uter w all w as f itted i nto t he g roove i n t he S jamb o f t he e ntrance . U sually i t was t he i nner w all which f itted i nto t he j ambs . H owever, a s t he i nner w all p osts o f t his b uilding w ere r iddled w ith w oodworm i t i s p ossible i n t his c ase t hat t he o uter w all was b uilt t o r eplace o r s upplement t he i nner o ne . T he t wo must, h owever, h ave c oexisted a s t he i nner wall h ad c ollapsed o ver t he outer wall a t o ne p oint w hen i t w as d emolished. T he s tructure i s t oo u nusual f or u se a s a n e xemplar t o p rove t he u se o f f ull h eight d ouble w attle. S ince w riting t his d iscussion I h ave b een i nformed b y P Wallace t hat, o n t he m ore r ecent e xcavations, a f allen wall w as e xcavated w hich c an b e i nterpreted a s ad ouble wall o f c 1.20m f ull h eight ( pers c omm, 1 983 . F ishamble I I, p lot 4 ) . A lthough t his i s o nly a s ingle e xample i t a ppears t o c onfirm t his writer 's o pinion t hat t he two walls of t hese b uildings w ere i n f act o f e qual h eight w ith a n i nsulating f ill p ut i n a s t he w alls w ere b eing b uilt u p. T he p receding t ypes o f w attle h ave u sed e arthfast W attle u sing p osts s et i nto a t imber s ill b eam w as n ot

v ertical p osts . i n u se f or t he

o uter

s ites,

s tructural w alls o f a ny o f t he b uildings o n t hese

i t was f ound i nstance f or

a lthough

i n u se f or i nternal p artitions ( CP253/1) a nd i n o ne a n i solated s ection o f w all ( CP . N ot i llustrated).

W allace ( 1982, 2 73) c ites e xamples o f t his t ype o f c onstruction f oun d on t he F ishamble S treet s ites, a pparently a lso u sed f or i nternal d ivisions o f s ome s ort. While w attle i n a s ill i s o bviously l ess p rone t o r ot t han i f s et i n t he ground, i t l acks t he s tability o f e arthfast p osts a nd w as, t herefore, g enerally u sed a t f irst f or n on l oad-bearing w alls a s i n t hese D ublin e xamples, o r f or s creening b etween e arthfast o r j ointed t imbers i n t he w all l ine w hich c arried t he r oof w eight. W attle s et i n s ills h as a lso b een e xcavated i n 1 1th-century A ntwerp ( Walle, v an d e, 1 961, 1 28, f ig 3 5), 1 2th-century S chleswig ( Vogel, 1 974, 4 3), 1 2thc entury R ibe ( Stiesdal, 1 968, 1 58) a nd p ossibly 1 0th-century S igtuna ( Arbman, 1 926, 1 27). I t h as b een f ound i n l ater medieval c ontexts a s a t P erth, S cotland ( Blanchard, 1 980, 3 6, f ig 3 ); i t was o f c ourse c ommonly u sed a s t he i nfill o f t imber-framed c onstruction ( e .g. V oskull, 1 979, f ig 4 9b, 4 9c). Only

o ne

b uilding

w attle w ith p lanks . T he t o t he 4 -post p lan g roup .

o n

t he D ublin

s ites ( CP138/1)

h ad

a wall o f

b uilding i s i ncomplete b ut p robably b elonged T he w all h ad a c ore o f v ery f limsy p ost-and-

w attle w ith s mall v ertical e arthfast p lanks a t i ntervals o n e ither s ide o f i t. B urnt c lay f ound a longside t he wall s uggests t hat t he gap o f 0 .05-0 .12m a cross t he w all, b etween t he p lanks, w as p robably f illed b y d aub

c overing

t he w attle c ore.

T he c ompleted

wall may h ave h ad a n

a lmost h alf-timbered a ppearance . T he p lanks o f t he N wall w ere s lightly l arger t han t hose o f t he o ther w alls. T he p lan h ad r ighta ngled c orners a nd f airly s traight s ides a nd i t i s p robable t hat t he w alls c arried w all p lates . B uttresses w ere f ound a longside t he S a nd W walls, s tanding 0 .80-1.00m away f rom t he o uter f ace o f t he wall.

2 6

T he

b uttresses, which v aried i n s ize f rom 0 .07x0.10m t o 0 .10x0 .14m, w ere i nclined a t a n a ngle o f 6 0° t o t he h orizontal a nd w ould h ave met t he w all

l ine

a t

a h eight

o f c 1.70-1.80m.

T he u se o f v ertical p lanks b eside t he w alls w as f ound i n s ome o f t he buildings o n t he c ontemporary F ishamble S treet s ites ( Wallace, 1 982, 2 66), i n 1 0th-century l evels i n Y ork ( Hall, 1 982, 2 36, f ig 1 3:3) a nd i n a n 1l th-century wall i n V iborg, D enmark ( Nielsen, 1 968, 3 1-2). S imilar t echniques h ave b een f ound i n f ar e arlier w alls a s i n t he 2 nd4 th-century c ontext o f T ofting H ouse 1 , S ettlement I II ( Bantelmann, 1 955, 3 0-7, p l v iii:3 ,x111) a nd t he t echnique w as a lso c ommon i n l ater medieval b uildings o f 1 3th- a nd 1 4th-century d ate ( e .g . M urray , 1 982, 2 25). I n general, p articularly i n t he l ater e xamples, t his c onstruction was u sed i n a n a ttempt t o f ree t he i nterior o f t he b uilding o f r oof s upport

p osts.

S tave c onstruction Only

t wo dwellings

w ere

e xcavated

w ith

s tave-built w alls ( CP85/1,

p hases 1 a nd 2 ) . I n b oth t he c onstruction c an b e d escribed a s a s tave w all s et i n a s ill-beam. T he s ills w ere f ormed o f r oughly s haped t reet runks . A t t he c orners t hey h ad a pparently b een h alf-jointed t ogether , a f eature b est p reserved i n t he S E c orner o f p hase 1 ( Ill 1 0). T he s ills h ad b een l evelled b y u nderlying t imbers s et r oughly a t r ight a ngles t o t hem . T hese c ross-timbers w ould a lso h ave h elped t o p revent t he s ills f rom s inking i nto t he s oft u nderlying l evels . I n t he E w all o f p hase 1 , t he S wall o f p hase 2 a nd t he b etter p reserved o f t he i nternal walls, i t was c lear t hat t he wall p lanks s tood i n g rooves a long

t he c entres o f t he

s ills .

I n t he s w all o f p hase 1 t hey a ppeared

t o s tand o n a r ebate a long t he o uter e dge o f t he s ill, b ut a ppearance may h ave b een d ue t o t he d eterioration o f t he t imber .

t his

The s tave c onstruction o f t he wall c onsisted o f a lternate h eavy p lanks w ith g rooves u p b oth e dges a nd t hinner p lanks w hich w ere t apered a t t he e dges t o f it t he g rooves . A p lank w hich a ppeared t o h ave f allen f rom t he E w all w as g rooved o n e ither s ide u p t o a m etre b ut a bove t his t he s ides were t apered.

I t s eems p ossible t hat a ll t he p lanks were

t apered a bove t his h eight t o f it i nto a w all p late . h ave b een e ssential t o h old t he t ops o f t he p lanks h ave b een s imple t o c onstruct, a s t he s ides o f

A w all p late w ould t ogether a nd w ould t he b uilding w ere

s traight a nd t he c orners r ight-angled. T he j unction o f t he w all p lanks o nly s urvived i n t he S E c orner o f p hase 1 and i n t he N E c orner o f t he S W r oom a lso i n p hase 1 . I n b oth i nstances, t he e nd o f t he p lank i n t he

s ill-beam which f ormed

t he l ower member o f t he h alf j oint,

a cross t he e nd o f t he u pper s ill-beam, a ngles ( Ill 1 0) . T here w ere n o c orner C learly,

t his

b uilding,

d ated

a butting p osts . b y

i ts

e nd

p lank a t

d endrochronology

t o

l ay

r ight

c 1059

( Baillie, p ers .comm), s hows a g reater s kill i n c arpentry a nd i n t he u se o f t imber t han a ny o f t he e arlier b uildings o n t hese s ites a nd i t c ould r eflect t he s imilar d evelopments which Wallace ( 1982, 2 93) s uggests o ccurred i n t he F ishamble S treet s ite, t owards t he e nd o f t he 1 1th c entury . H owever, a s W allace h as s hown f or F ishamble S treet, t here a re f ew n ew t echniques i nvolved, t he g rooving u sed i n t he s ills a nd i n t he

2 7

I ll 9

D etail

o f

wattle s creen ( HS

s trip a t b ase o f

I ll

1 0

B uilding a t

C P85/1,

s creen 7 /4) s howing b inding

p icture

d etail

t he S E c orner

2 8

o f

t he

j unction

o f

t he

s ill-beams

t hicker v ertical w all p lanks h ad b een i n u se t hroughout t he l ate 1 0th a nd e arly 1 1th c enturies f or t he g rooves i n t he d oor j ambs . T he h alfj oint u sed a t t he c orners i s, h owever, n ew t o t he h ouse b uilding r epertoire . I t i s i nteresting t hat, d espite t he c hanged wall c onstruction , a ll t he e lements o f t he t raditional 4 -post p lan r emained v irtually u nchanged. Many o f t he d etails o f t he c onstruction c an e lsewhere . T he g rooves a long t he u pper e dges o f

b e p aralleled t he s ills a re

c omparable, f or e xample, t o t he c onstruction o f t he s ills i n t he m id1 1th c entury s tave c hurch a t H oltälen, N orway ( Bugge, 1 935, f ig 2 :3), o r i n 1 1th-to 1 2th-century h ouses a t B üderich , G ermany ( Müller-Wille, 1 968, f ig 7 ,9). T he h alf-joints b etween t he s ills were s imilar t o t hose e xcavated i n t he 1 1th-to 1 2th-century b uildings a t B üderich ( Müller-Wille, 1 968, f ig 1 9,20) a lthough i n t he D ublin e xamples t he s taves t hemselves d id n ot a ppear t o h ave b een j ointed a t t he c orners .

w all

The u se o f a lternate s taves a nd t hinner p lanks o r t ounges i n t he i s a t ype o f c onstruction k nown f rom N orway f rom t he e arlier

c hurch a t U rnes which i s g enerally d ated t o c 1060 ( Graham-Campbell, 1 980, 1 73) a nd f rom t he c hurch a t H oltälen w hich B ugge d ates t o c 10501 100 ( Bugge, 1 935, f ig 2 :3) a nd i n Sweden f rom t he c hurch a t'i länga which i s d ated t o t he 1 2th c entury ( Ekhoff, 1 914-16, 2 35-55, f ig 3 29, 3 30) . I t a lso o ccurred i n D enmark a t R ibe, i n a 1 2th-century c ontext, where t he t ounge p lank was n arrower t han i n C P85/1 ( Stiesdal, 1 968, 1 57-8, f ig 4 ), a nd a t t he l ate 1 0th-century s ite o f T relleborg t he p ost-holes a nd s everal p reserved t imbers h ave b een i nterpreted a s t he r emains o f a n e arthfast w all w ith s taves o f t his t ype ( Nhrlund, 1 948, 7 1-7) . A r elated t ype o f w all, i n w hich t he p lanks w ere m ore s quared, was f ound i n b uilding 1 o n t he 1 1th-to 1 2th-century s ite a t B üderich ( Müller-Wille, 1 968, f ig 7 ,11,12); t his was s omewhat d ifferent, h owever, a s h eavier v ertical p lanks w ere u sed a t i ntervals i n t he w all . Palisade w alls s et i n s ill-beams a nd c ombined w ith e arthfast c orner a nd i ntermediate p osts w ere f ound i n t wo a pparently n on-domestic s tructures

o n

t he D ublin

s ites.

C P81/2

c onsisted

o f

t wo

p arallel

w alls, 2 .00-2.20m a part, which were i nterpreted a s f ences o n e ither s ide o f a p ath . T he s ills w ere f ormed o f r ough t ree-trunks o r b ranches c 0 .18m i n d iameter w ith g rooves a long t heir u pper s urfaces v arying f rom 0 .05-0.09m i n w idth a nd 0 .04-0.07m i n d epth . I n t he N f ence two s ections o f t he s ill were r oughly t enoned i nto a l arge e arthfast v ertical p ost w hich s tood o n t he l ine o f t he w all . T he E e nd o f t he s ill was s imilarly t enoned i nto a n e arthfast v ertical t imber. T he

w all

p lanks

w ere h alf

s ide f acing o utwards. t o f it

p osts 0 .13-0 .14m

i n d iameter w ith t he c onvex

A t t he b ase t hey h ad b een c ut t o a wedge s hape

t he g rooves i n t he s ills.

T he c onstruction o f p latform ( ?) C P11/1 w as s imilar . I t c onsisted o f t he S a nd E walls o f a r ectangular s tructure c 3.50-4.0m w ide a nd 4 .70+m

l ong.

T he

s ills

w hich w ere

t enoned

i nto

l arge

e arthfast

c orner

p osts were L-shaped i n s ection w ith a r ebate a long t he i nner f ace t o h old t he w all p lanks . T he p lanks w ere o n a verage 0 .28m w ide a nd 0 .08m t hick w ith a f lat s ide r esting a gainst t he b ack o f t he s ill a nd a c onvex s ide f acing c 0 .15m

t he

c onvex

t owards i nner

t he c entre o f t he

f aces

w ere

c ut

2 9

t o

s tructure .

f orm

a l edge

A t a h eight o f w hich may

h ave

h eld

h orizontal

f loor-planks.

F loor-planks

w ould

h ave s topped

t he

u prights s lipping i nwards o ff t he l edge o n t he s ill . A bove t he l edge t he p lanks h ad a r ectangular c ross-section . T here was n o j ointing b etween t he p lanks . A t i rregular i ntervals t he s ill-beams w ere b raced b y a ngled t imbers, o ne e nd o f w hich w as h ooked o ver t he b ack o f t he s ill a nd t he o ther wedged i nto t he g round a t t he c entre o f t he s tructure,

b elow t he l evel o f t he

p resumed

f loor .

The b races w ere

d esigned t o w ithstand o utward p ressure f rom w ithin t he s tructure. S imilar b races h ave b een f ound b racing p ath r evetments o n C hristchurch P lace a nd W inetavern S treet s quare 2 i n mid t o l ate 1 1th-century c ontexts. A s imilar t echnique o f c utting t he u pright w all t imbers t hinner a bove f loor l evel w as u sed i n H ouse 3 a t T he H usterknupp i n t he R hineland, G ermany ( Herrnbrodt, 1 958 , f ig 1 3 ,15), a lthough i n t his c ase o nly t he e arthfast i ntermediate p osts were c ut i n t his w ay, w all p lanks t hemselves . B oth o f t hese

n ot

t he

s tructures d iffer f rom t he s tave c onstruction o f

C P85/1 i n o ne f undamental w ay; n either t he s ill-beams n or t he wall p lanks w ere d irectly j ointed t ogether b ut d epended f or t heir s tability o n e arthfast c orner a nd i ntermediate p osts, w hereas i n C P85/1 t he w alls c onsisted o f j ointed w all p lanks s et i nto s ills w hich w ere t hemselves j ointed a t t he c orners, f orming a r igid s elf-supporting s tructure. P alisade walls o f e arthfast p lanks w ithout a s ill w ere u sed f or t he o uter f ence a round W TD/3 a nd f or t he w all l ining i nside t he s unkenf loored s tructure WT4 4 /2 . I n b oth i nstances t he wall w as f ormed o f t hin v ertical p lanks. I n WT44/2 t hese v aried i n w idth f rom 0 .140 .30m s et s ide b y s ide w ithout a ny j ointing, t he p lanks h ad b een s ecured b y s tones p acked a gainst t heir b ases, b elow t he l evel o f t he w ooden f loor . T he o uter w all o f W TD/3 h ad c learly b een s et i nto a w all t rench . A lthough b oth t hese e xamples o f e arthfast p alisading were a ssociated w ith d omestic s tructures, i n n either c ase w ere t hey a m ain o r l oad-bearing e lement; t he p lanks i n W T4 4 /2 c an b est b e r egarded a s w ainscoting a nd t he o uter w all o f W TD/3 may h ave b een l ittle more t han t he e quivalent o f t he wattle p rotective f ences f ound a round t he e arliest

b uildings

o n

t he

H igh

S treet

s ite ( e .g.

H S8/3).

H orizontal l og c onstruction T here w as a s ingle e xample o f t he u se o f h orizontal l og w alling. T his w as i n t he s unken-floored b uilding C P356/1 w hich h ad walls o f h alved l ogs h eld b etween t he p it s ide a nd i nternal v ertical p osts . T he l ogs w ere n ot j ointed a t t he c orners a nd t he c onstruction c an n ot b e l inked t o t he l og c onstructions o f N S candinavia. I t h as, h owever, c lose p arallels

i n V iking A ge Y ork ( see C hapter 5 ).

T imber-framing T he t hree 1 3th/14th-century t imber-framed c ellars ( HS1/2, H S3/4, C P13/2) b elonged t o a m ore d eveloped t radition o f b uilding . T he u se o f o ak i n t hese s tructures i ndicates t he i ntroduction o f n ew t ools a nd w oodworking t echniques. w hich r esulted

c an b e

T he g enerally h igher s tandard o f c arpentry

i llustrated

b y a b rief e xamination o f s ome o f t he

3 0

n ew o r d eveloped j oints. F or e xample, t he mortise a nd t enon j oints u sed t o h old t he v erticals i n t he s ills were more d eveloped t han t he e arlier n otch-and-tenon j oints, a s u sed b etween t he s ill-beams a nd t he e arthfast p osts o f C P81/2 o r C P11/1 . T he t enons w ere o ften s houldered a nd w ere u sually d owelled i nto p osition . T he mortises w ere a lso o ccasionally s houldered, p ossibly t o a llow t he j oint t o b e s ecured b y a w edge d riven i n b eside o f t his.

t wo

t he

t enon ,

a lthough t here w as n o d irect e vidence

H alved s carf-joints w ere u sed t o f orm a l ongitudinal j oint b etween s ections o f t he s ill-beams i n t imber-framed c ellar H S3/4. B y

c ontrast,

i n

t he

e arlier

w all

C P81/2

two

s ills h ad

r oughly t enoning b oth i nto a n e arthfast v ertical j oints w ere f ound i n t he s ills o f C P85/1.

p ost;

b een j oined n o

b y

l ongitudinal

N otched l ap-joints were u sed b etween t he b races a nd u prights i n C P13/2. T he o nly e arlier b racing, b eneath t he f loor o f p latform C P11/1 a nd i n t he c onstruction o f s everal f ences ( e.g. C P2/2), c onsisted o f a ngled t imbers h ooked o ver t he s ill a t o ne e nd a nd p egged i nto t he ground a t t he o ther, d epending o n i ts e arthfast e lement t o p rovide s tability. A f inal d ifference b etween t hese t imber-framed c ellars a nd t he e arlier s tructures i s t he f act t hat t he wall c ladding was s eparated f rom

t he

s tructural

f rame o f

t he

wall.

I n

t he

e arlier C P85/1

t he

s taves w hich h ad p resumably f itted i nto a w all p late must h ave c arried a t l east p art o f t he w eight o f t he s uperstructure o f t he r oof . I n t he t imber-framed b uildings t he m ain v ertical w eight b earing t imbers o f t he w all f ormed a n i ndependent f ramework . T he c ladding o f h orizontal o r v ertical w eatherboarding was s imply a ttached t o t he f ramework a nd c arried n o w eight, i ts s ole f unction b eing w eatherproofing. I n a ddition t o t he c ellars, o ther e xcavated

e xamples o f t his 1 3th-

a nd 1 4th-century c arpentry w ere t imber-framed p it l inings s uch a s p it WT13/2 ( 5 R fordäin, 1 971, f ig 2 6) b ut t hese c annot b e f ully e xamined h ere .

T here

w ere n o

s urviving

g round

l evels o f

t he

p eriod

o n t he s ite

a nd s o o nly d ug-in f eatures r emained. F ar m ore d etailed e vidence f or s uch l ater medieval c arpentry w as r ecorded d uring t he more r ecent e xcavations o n t he W ood Q uay s ites ( Wallace,

1 982).

R OOF P OSTS M ost o f t he e vidence f or f reestanding r oof s upports c omes f rom t he 4 p ost t ype o f b uildings. T he i rregular p lan buildings a ppear t o h ave h ad s impler s ystems o f s upport, f or e xample i n H S4/2 o nly o ne r oughly c entral

p ost w as

f ound.

M ost o f t he 4 -post b uildings h ad

t wo p airs o f p osts o n e ither s ide

o f t he c entral f loor a rea, 1 -1.40m f rom t he s ide walls a nd 0 .90-2.30m f rom t he e nd w alls. I n H S8/3 a nd 1 S9/1 o ne p air o f p osts w as i n t he l ine o f t he e ntrance wall. T he g ap a cross t he c entral f loor b etween t hese r oof p osts w as o ften a pproximately t wice a s l ong a s t he d istance b etween t he p osts a nd t he s ide walls. I n C P18 4 /1 , f or e xample, t he s ide a isles w ere 1 .20-1.40m w ide a nd

3 1

t he c entral

f loor w as c 2.30m w ide.

T he

l ongitudinal

r elationship b etween

t he

p osts v aried.

I n

C P6/1

t hey were 5 m a part a nd i n C P18 4 /1 t hey w ere o nly 3 m a part. T he p osts w ere u sually a rranged r egularly i n p airs b ut i n C P85/1, t he S W p ost h ad b een p laced e lm f urther E t han t he N W p ost. T he p osts v aried

i n s ize f rom t he h alf t ree-trunks ( 0.34x0.16m)

f ound i n C P85/1, p hase 1 , t o p osts which were o nly 0 .09-0.14m i n d iameter i n H S9/1. I n many o f t he l arger b uildings t he r oof h ad o bviously b een r epaired a s two o r t hree p osts o ften s tood a t e ach p osition. I n t he e arlier b uildings t he p osts w ere f airly s mall t imbers b ut t hey w ere s et d eeply i nto t he g round. I n t he m id t o l ate 1 1th-century b uilding C P85/1 t he l arge p osts o f p hase 1 were o nly e mbedded t o a d epth o f a f ew c entimetres ( and t his w as p robably s inkage d ue t o r oof w eight). B y t he l ate 1 1th o r e arly 1 2th-century b uilding C P6/1, t he p osts s tood o n s tone b ases. Wooden p lank b ases may h ave b een u sed i n t he m id 1 1th-century b uilding C P184/1. T his s equence s uggests t hat t he d epth o f t he p osts was r educed a s t he g eneral s tandard o f c arpentry i mproved

a nd

t he

whole

s tructure

c ould

b e

made

more

r igid.

T he

a dvantage o f u sing w ood o r s tone b ases f or t he p osts w as o bviously t o r educe t he p roblems o f r otting a nd o f i nstability c aused b y t he s oft u nderlying l ayers.

F OUNDATIONS V arious f eatures s uggest t hat t hroughout t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 1th c entury i t was b ecoming i ncreasingly d ifficult t o s tabilize t he b uildings b ecause t he b uild u p o f o ccupation m aterial p rovided o nly a v ery

s oft

f oundation .

F rom e arly o n i t w as c ommon p ractice t o c over t he d emolished r uins o f o ne b uilding w ith a l ayer o f s ods b efore c onstructing t he n ext b uilding. B y t he l ate 1 1th c entury t his d id n ot a lways p rovide s ufficient s tability a nd r afts o f wattle ( WT 7 /1 ) o r o f h orizontal t imbers ( WT1/1) were o n o ccasion u sed a s a n a lternative f oundation . T he p roblem w as g reater w ith t he m ore e laborately c onstructed b uildings w hich l acked t he f lexibility o f w attle . C P85/1 ( 1060-80), t herefore, h ad h orizontal b ranches c rosswise b elow t he s ills, b oth t o l evel t hem a nd t o p rovide s ome s ort o f a nchorage . C P138/1 made u se o f b uttresses t o s upport i ts wall ( mid 1 1th c entury). B y t he l ate 1 1th c entury p athways a nd r evetments, a s w ell a s t he ' platform ' C P11/1, w ere b eing b raced

b y h ooked

P roblems o f

t imbers

f ixed d own i nto t he u nderlying e arth.

s ubsidence o bviously h ad

c onsiderable e ffect o n t he

r oof p osts o f t he 4 -post b uildings a nd t his i s w ell i llustrated b y t he r epeated d uplication o f r oof p osts ( e.g. C P71/2) i n t he l arger b uildings . A ttempts t o c ounter t he s inkage o f p osts a re a lso r eflected b y t he p rogression d iscussed a bove, f rom e arthfast p osts t o p osts o n s tone b ases. T hese

p roblems

w ould

h ave

a ffected

t he l ife o f t he b uildings,

a lthough n o e stimates a re p ossible f or t he

3 2

s maller b uildings,

b ut

t he w ell-

dated sequence below CP6/l suggests a life of 10-20 years for the larger buildings. Wattle buildings in 18th-century Scotland were estimated, in contemporary sources, to last 8-20 years (Allen, 1979,

4).

ENTRANCES The position of the entrance varied. In the early to mid-llth century the entrance was usually in the end wall; during the mid-llth to early 12th century it appears to have been more often in a side wall. In the small, nearly square buildings of the 4-post type, such as HS8/3, HS9/1 and H S ll/2, the entrance was in one of the marginally shorter end walls. In other small buildings not of the 4-post type, such as HS3/1 and HSl/1, it was in one of the longer side walls. In t he 1a rge bu i 1 d i ng s of t he 4-post t y pe there a pp ears to have been a more distinct change. From the 10th to the mid llth-century there were only end entrances, but in the late 11th century their use overlapped with that of side entrances which continued to the early 12th century. The evidence here is based very largely on Christchurch Place. Changes in the position of the entrance may have been partly due to the dictates of taste, but more probably the variations in the entrance position should be regarded as local reactions to the alignment of streets and access to individual properties (see Chapter

4).

The position of the entrance could differ in relation to the internal design of the buildings. For example, an entrance could open through the end wall into the central floor area (CP71/2, CP300/1) or i t c ou 1 d o pen t hrough t he s id e w a 11 , cutt i ng th rough t he 1 in e of the benches to reach the central floor area (CP6/1, CP85/l). Where an entrance was directly through the side wall, in line with the hearth, some form of screening was used, either between bench and entrance (CP85/1) or between entrance and hearth (CP184/1) . A single entrance appears to have been the norm in most of these buildings. However, two of the buildings on HS1962-63 had two opposed entrances, one to the street, the other to the backlands. In WT21/2, there were two opposed entrances although the elaboration of the N entrance appears to be in contrast to the rather crude S entrance which may be a later addition. The only other building on these sites with two definite entrances (i.e. excluding the possibility that buildings with incomplete plans had two entrarices) was CP123/1 whe�e the S entrance was original, belonging to the original phase of the building when it was apparently used as a dwelling, while the N entrance was secondary, having been cut through the wall when the structure was apparently reused as a byre. The limited number of buildings with two opposed entrances is in contrast both to the Fishamble Street sites and also to the native Irish tradition where the historical sources frequently mention the use of opposed doorways (e.g. C rfth Gablach. Binchy ed., 1970, 4, lines 100-101) a tradition which was retained in vernacu lar rural architecture into the last century in many parts of Ireland (Lucas,

33

I ll 1 1

D etail o f t he N e ntrance o f b uilding WT21/2 s howing wall f itting

I ll 1 2

i nto g rooved

j amb,

a nd

i nternal

p ivot

p ost

f or d oor

D etail o f e ntrance s howing t he t hreshold b ar d owelled t o t he

j amb

3 4

1956, 27). However, in Dublin, the need for a second entrance in some buildings may have been purely practical; for example, on frontage sites, the larger buildings which extended the full width of their properties would have needed a second entrance for access to their back yards. This would have been less vital in a building like HS9/1 which was built within an open yard area, or in buildings li ke CP6/1 which were set askew within their properties. The maj ority of the entrances varied in width between 0.80 and 1.10m and were generally flanked by large deeply-set squared jambs. There was evidence of two methods used to secure the ends of the wattles on either side of the entrance. The simplest way was to bend each wattle back around the post nearest the gap and tuck it into the wattle below. However, in many of the wattle-walled buildings there was a vertical groove in the outer edge of each jamb, which held the ends of the wattles (Ill 11). This had the advantage of avoiding any gap between the jamb and the end of the wall. This feature which was common to many of the wattle buildings up to the late 11th century was not found in either of the surviving entrances in the buildings with thick single wattle walls (CP6/1, WTl/2) . In several buildings, such as HSB/1, the wattles were held between extra pairs of vertical timbers standing on either side of the wall near the jambs. The jambs of the earlier entrances in buildings with double wattle walls, and in the thin single wattle walls of the ancillary buildings, were noticeably lighter than those of the latest entrances with the thick single wattle walls. This may be connected with the way in which the door itself was hung. In several buildings such as CP40/1 s mall posts found beside the jambs have been interpreted as the hanging and meeting posts of the door. In WT21/2, and in an isolated entrance (HSA/2) on the 1962-63 High Street site, there was a short hollowed pivot post beside the left jamb (Ill 11). The upper ends of these two doors must have been held in a perforated timber, or even a leather thong, attached to the lintel. Pivot posts may have been far more common but can rarely be positively identified. Wooden pivots of this sort occur elsewhere, for example at Hedeby (Schietzel, 1969, fi g 16,19: 1,2) and at Elisenhof (Bantelmann, 1975, fi g 67). A similar construction is the use of stone pivots by the doors of some Irish Early Christian period clochain (e.g. Beenbane, Co.Kerry: Henry , 1957, 133) and oratories (e.g. Church Island, Co.Kerry: 0'Kelly , 1958, 96-8, fig 9:5) . Iron hinge hooks have also been found near many of the Dublin houses (e.g. E122:12500 found in CP6/l). These iron hinge hooks are L­ shaped, with one wedge-like arm and one round-sectioned arm. They would have been inserted into the door jamb with the round end attached to the door, pos sibly by a leather strap (Salzman, 1952, 295). Although none of these hinge hooks has been found in a jamb in Dublin, one was found at the monastic site of Nendrum, Co.Down, beside the burnt door of the so- called schoolhouse (Lawlor, 1925, 148, pl xiii: 35

7 6,77)

s o

T he

t hat

t his

e ntrance

i nterpretation o f

f eatures

t heir u se s eems t o b e v alid.

w hich o ccurred

o nly

w ith

t he

d ouble

w attle

walls w ere r aised t hreshold b ars ( Ill 1 2) a nd e ntrances i n w hich t he o uter wall o f t hese d ouble walled b uildings c rossed i n f ront o f t he e ntrance . T hese h ave b een f ound b oth t ogether a nd s eparately , b ut t hey a ppear t o h ave b een u nrelated. T he

r aised

t hreshold

b ars

w ere

h orizontal

p osts

l ying

a cross

t he

e ntrances a t ah eight o f 0 .08-0.10m a bove f loor l evel and d owelled t o t he i nner o r o uter f aces o f t he j ambs . T hey w ere n either s trong e nough t o a ct i n a ny s tructural c apacity , s uch a s h olding t he j ambs t ogether n or h igh e nough t o k eep d ogs o r h ens o ut o f t he h ouse. I t i s p robable t hat t hey a cted a s w eatherboards t o f orm a b arrier a gainst mud a nd r ubbish. S imilar t hreshold b ars h ave b een f ound d owelled t o t he j ambs o f d oors o n t he 8 th-century s ite o f E lisenhof ( Bantelmann , 1 975, f ig 8 5), a nd i n t he 9 th-to 1 0th-century s ite a t H edeby ( Schietzel, 1 969, 2 9-30 , f ig 1 7,19:3). They a lso o ccur i n l ater c ontexts s uch a s a 1 3th/14thc entury b uilding i n P erth , S cotland ( Murray i n P HSEC, f orthcoming). A r elated f eature i s c reated i n s tave b uildings w here a s tep i s f ormed b y t he s ill c rossing t he e ntrance ( Ekhoff, 1 914-1916, f ig 1 96). I t i s p ossible t hat when t he o uter wall c rossed i n f ront o f t he d oorway , i t may i ncidentally h ave h ad a s imilar f unction a s a s tep t o e xclude mud, a lthough i ts main f unction was a lmost c ertainly t o s trengthen t he b ase o f t he wall. C learly, i n t hese buildings, t he o uter wall c ould o nly h ave b een 0 .20-0 .30m h igh i n f ront o f t he e ntrance r egardless o f h ow t he d ouble w all w as r econstructed a round t he r est o f t he b uilding ( see a bove). I n

t his

c ontext

i t

i s

w orth

l ooking

a t

t he

F ebruary

i llustration

i n t he M s . B ook o f H ours o f H ertog v an B erry ( Limburg) ( Voskuil , 1 979, p l 1 1), d ated t o c 1410 , w hich i llustrates a w attle s heep-shelter w ith w attle a cross a n o pening e asily s tep o ver

i t b ut

i n t he wall t he

t o s uch a h eight

s heep w ould

t hat

p eople c ould

b e d eterred.

A f ew o f t he j ambs s uch a s t hose i n C P6/1 h ad a n on-functional mortise t hrough t he t imber, b elow t he f loor l evel. O ne p ossible e xplanation i s t hat t hese m ortises s inkage, c omparable t o t hose o n

h eld a nchor t imbers t o c ounteract t he b uttresses o f t he E lisenhof

b uildings ( Bantelmann, 1 975, f ig 7 0,73,74,78). H owever, n either i n t hese b uildings n or i n t he many more e xamples w ith t his t echnique e xcavated i n F ishamble S treet ( Wallace, 1 982, 2 67) were a ny a nchor t imbers f ound. I t i s a lso p robable t hat i f s inkage h ad b een s uch a p roblem

w ith t he j ambs

t hen a s imilar d evice w ould

c ertainly h ave b een

u sed f or t he r oof p osts w hich c arried a f ar greater l oad. A n a lternative s uggestion ( which I owe t o M r P H ealy) i s t hat r opes o r t imbers w ere p ut i n t hese m ortises t o l ower t he j ambs i nto p osition , b ut a gain i t s eems c urious t hat t his was n ot a lso d one i n t he c ase o f t he

e qually

l arge r oof

p osts .

36

H EARTHS T he h earths f ound i n t hese b uildings v aried f rom s imple u nenclosed a sh d eposits t o r ectangular s tone-lined h earths. T hey were g enerally a t t he

c entre

o f

t he

b uilding

o r

s lightly o ff-centre

o n

t he

l ongitudinal

a xis . T he e laborate s tone-lined h earths w ere n aturally e nough i n t he l arger more e laborate h ouses o f mid-llth t o e arly 1 2th-century d ate ( Ill 1 3) . A f ew o f t he e arlier e xamples h ad o ne o r t wo k erb s tones b ut i n t hese c ases t he h earths a ppear t o h ave b een r ounded r ather t han r ectangular. R ectangular s tone h earths a re f ound i n V iking A ge S candinavia, f or e xample a t H edeby ( Schietzel, 1 969, 3 6-9, f ig 2 5) a nd a t T relleborg ( / ‘4 4rlund, 1 948, 8 3-4, f ig 7 3), a nd i n N orse F uglafjogur i n t he F aroes ( Dahl, 1 970, f ig 2 5). T here w ere s mall c ompartments a t p hase

1 a nd

H SB/1,

s ettlements

s uch

a s

t he e nd o f t he h earths i n C P85/1,

which may h ave b een u sed

t o k eep

t he

e mbers

i n

o vernight a nd p ossibly a lso a s a p lace t o k eep p ots o f f ood w arm. S mall p its f ound b eside t he h earths i n C P6/1, p hase 1 , WT21/2 a nd C P138/1 may h ave h ad a s imilar f unction . S imilar f eatures t o t hese w ere c ommon i n many W iliam, 1 978).

1 9th-century

r ural

b uildings

i n

B ritain ( e.g.

S imilar s mall p its h ave b een f ound i n s ome o f t he b uildings a t T relleborg ( N ( hrlund, 1 948, 8 4, f ig 7 3), i n t he V iking A ge h ouses a t K vivik a nd F uglafjSc tur i n t he F aroes ( Dahl, 1 970, 6 7, f ig 2 4) a nd a t H ofstaoir i n I celand ( Olsen, 1 965, 1 82, f ig 1 8). F lat

s tones

f ound

a t

t he

c entre o f

t he

h earths

i n C P184/1

and

H SX/1 w ere p ossibly u sed f or b aking b read . S imilar f lat b ake-stones h ave b een f ound i n m edieval c ontexts i n T rondheim, N orway ( Long, 1 975, f ig 8 :r). T here were n o b read o vens a ssociated w ith t he b uildings o n t he D ublin s ites. T he s mall h eat-cracked s tones f ound i n W T21/2 may h ave b een u sed t o h eat l iquid, b y dropping t hem r ed-hot i nto t he b ucket o r p ot. H istorical s ources r efer t o s tones b eing u sed i n t his w ay t o h eat w ater f or d rinks ( Life o f Lug. P lummer, 1 910, I I, 2 11, p ara 1 7); t o c ook f ood ( Life o f M unnu . P lummer, 1 910 , I I, 2 28 , p ara 6 ) ; a nd e ven t o h eat

w ater

f or

b aths

( Aislinge M eic C onglinne .

M eyer

( ed),

1 892,

1 1,

l ines 2 2-3). N one o f t he h earths e xcavated i n t hese b uildings c ould b e p ositively i dentified a s b eing i ndustrial i n f unction a lthough t he s lag e tc. a round t he h earth i n C P138/1 m ay h ave d erived f rom m etal-working.

B ENCHES M ost

o f t he b uildings

i nto a c entral The

i n t he 4 -post g roup h ad

a b asic i nternal d ivision

f loor-area w ith b enches o n e ither s ide ( Chapter 2 ).

b enches

w ere

1 .0

t o

1 .50m

w ide,

o ften

w ith

a l ayer

o f

I ll 1 3

T he s tone-lined h earth o f b uilding C P85/I

3 8

( seen f rom W )

b rushwood

u p t o 0 .20m

t hick ( compacted).

T his must h ave a cted

a s a

f oundation b elow s kins, r ugs o r ' mattresses ' f or s itting a nd s leeping o n . T o a void t his b edding material s pilling o ver i nto t he c entral f loor-area a round t he h earth, t he b enches o ften h ad a l ow r etaining k erb w hich c ould b e m ade o f p lanks s et o n e dge, a s i n C P6/1, o r w attle, a s i n C P300/1 o r H S9/1. I n s ome i nstances n o c lear k erb s urvived ( CP85/1). T he p lanks s et b eside t he b ench i n C P6/1 were c 0.20m h igh, a gain s uggesting t he h eight o f t he b ench f oundation. The b enches w ere s imilar t o t hose which h ave b een f ound i n many t hree-aisled h ouses. T hey o ccur f or e xample a t T relleborg ( N (k.l und, 1 948 , 9 7, p l i i) w here t heir e dges w ere s ometimes marked b y s mall p osth oles, a t F uglafjSrCur i n t he F aroes ( Dahl, 1 970, 6 9, f ig 2 5) a nd a t I sleifsstaCir i n I celand ( Stenberger ( ed), 1 943, f ig 1 04). S traw b edding was f ound i n s ome o f t he b ench a reas o f h ouses o n t he 2nd-to 6 th-century s ite P t V allhagar i n S weden ( Stenberger ( ed), 1 955, 2 05). S uch b enches n eed n ot, h owever, b e a S candinavian o r N E uropean f eature a s t hey h ave b een f ound i n S cotland a t t he U dal, N U ist a nd a t B uckquoy , O rkney , 3 , f ig 1 ).

i n i mmediately p re-Norse c ontexts ( Ritchie,

1 975,

3 2-

I t i s i nteresting t o c ompare t he a rchaeological e vidence o f t he b ench a reas w ith a n a ccount o f p rimitive b eds i n B rittany, F rance, q uoted b y M eirion-Jones ( 1976, 6 1) ' the b ed was f ormed b y a r ange o f s takes p lanted i n t he g round w ith t wisted s trands o f b irch s tretched b etween t hem. D ry b racken s erved f or a n u ndermattress a nd c overs s tuffed w ith r ye s traw f or a m attress'. C oope

i n h is e xamination o f b eetle r emains f rom b elow t he N b ench

o f D ublin b ui L ling C P85/1 i dentified v arious s pecies w hich o ccur i n t he w armth o f r otting v egetation a nd h e h as s uggested t hat t he b uild-up o f a t hick l ayer o f v egetation, r otting a t t he b ase, was a d eliberate a ttempt

t o g enerate w armth ( Coope,

1 981,

5 5-6).

C ORNER R OOMS I n

t he

l arger

p artitioned When

b uildings

o ff t o c orner

o ne

o r

more

o f

t he

c orners

w ere

o ften

f orm s eparate r ooms o r c ubicles. r ooms

e xisted

t he

w alls

were

o f

p ost-and-wattle

( WT21/2), s taves s et i n a s ill ( CP85/1), h orizontal p lanks ( CP6/1), o r w attle i n a s ill ( CP253/1). T heir c onstruction w as n ot n ecessarily t he s ame a s t he e xternal walls o f t he h ouses. I n f our c ases i t was p robable t hat t he ' room' h ad b een f ully e nclosed w ith a w all o n t he p assage s ide o f c 1.50-1.80m h eight a s t here were f ull-size e ntrances o pening i nto t he c entral f loor-area. T he e ntrances t o t he NW a nd S W r ooms o f C P85/1, p hase 1 a nd t o t he N W r oom i n C P253/1 w ere i ndicated b y p lain t hresholds i n o therwise g rooved s ill-beams . t he S E r oom i n W T21/2 was a g ap i n t he wall f illed s tones,

a p ossible

t hreshold

t imber l ay t o

t he N .

T he e ntrance t o b y t hree p aving

I n o ther c ases,

s uch

a s the N E and S E r ooms i n C P18 4 /1 , t he walls were o f s trong c onstruction a nd h ad p robably b een f ull h eight, a lthough e ntrances w ere n ot i dentified. I n t he N E a nd NW c orners o f WT21/2, h owever, t he ' rooms ' w ere e nclosed b y h orizontal p lanks w hich d id n ot a ppear t o h ave

39

I ll

1 4

A rtist 's i mpression J an D unbar

o f

40

t he

i nterior

o f

b uilding

C P85/1,

b y

b een u sed a s s ills. i t i s p ossible t hat i n t hese e xamples, t he r ooms h ad n o p ermanent walls b ut were s creened o ff when n ecessary b y c urtains. T he c orner r ooms w ere g enerally c 1.80x1.35-1.80m . T here w as n o e vidence f or t heir u se b ut i t i s p robable t hat t he f ully e nclosed r ooms were t he ' bedchambers ' o f t he s enior c ouple i n t he f amily ; t he m ore o pen c orner r ooms may h ave h ad m ore g eneral f unctions, p ossibly i ncluding

s torage o f f ood

e tc.

4 1

4

The i n ter-re la t ionsh ips o f t he b u i ld ings

I NTRODUCTION C ertain b roader a spects o f t he b uildings n eed t o b e e xamined: t he c hanges o f p lan a nd s tructure o ver t he y ears, t he i nter-relationships o f main a nd , s ubsidiary b uildings a nd t heir w ider r elationships t o y ards, l anes a nd f ences. T hese a re a ll d irectly d ependent o n t he o verall s tratigraphic i nterpretation o f t he s ite a nd t herefore, a s t he d etailed s ite r eports a re n ot y et a vailable, a s ummary o f t he major s equence i s i ncluded f or e ach s ite w ith k ey p lans t o s how h ow t he b uildings i nter-relate . T his i s b ased o n t he a uthor 's i nterpretation o f t he s tratigraphy , t he d etails o f w hich a re a vailable i n a rchive w ith t he s ite r ecords i n t he N ational M useum o f I reland.

T HE LAYOUT O F T HE S ITES ( 1) H igh S treet T he

e arliest

:1 967-72

a ctivity o n t he main H igh S treet

s ite ( Phase 1 ) a ppears t o

h ave b een t he l aying o ut o f p roperties f acing t owards t he modern l ine o f H igh S treet ( Ill 1 5) . T hree b uildings ( HS9/1, H S11/2, H S8/3) b uilt o n t he o riginal g round s urface c an b e a ttributed t o t his p eriod. Two c oins s tratified d irectly b elow H S 9 /1 c an b e d ated t o c 1010 a nd 9 791 016 r espectively ( E71: 9 760, E 71: 9 726), g iving a n otional d ate o f c 1010-1030 f or t he l ife o f t hese b uildings. A ll t hree o f t hese e arliest b uildings w ere f oreshortened v ersions o f t he 4 -post p lan w ith d ouble w attle w all c onstruction . E ach h ad a n a dditional w attle f ence f orming a s mall ' yard' 1 -2m f rom t he o uter wall o f t he h ouse. A s t he a rea a ppears t o h ave b een f airly o pen a t t his t ime , t his m ay h ave b een i n p art a p rotection a gainst a nimals ( wild o r d omestic) o r e ven a s a w ind p rotection . I t i s a f eature w hich o nly o ccurred i n t hese e arliest p hases . A ll t hree b uildings f aced r oughly t owards H igh S treet, b ut t he o rientation o f H S8/3 a nd o f i ts a ssociated b oundary a nd d rain w as more t o t he N E s uggesting t hat t he o riginal l ine o f H igh S treet may h ave c urved, t urning o f S quare 2 .

m ore

t o

t he

W a t

s ome

p oint

p arallel

t o

t he m id-point

A t t he s ame p eriod a w ood-lined d rain w as c onstructed p arallel t o H S8/3 but p ossibly i n t he n ext p roperty t o t he W a s t here was a n i ntervening w attle f ence w hich may h ave b een c ontemporary . T he d rain e xtended

f or

s ome 2 5m

a cross

s quares

3 a nd

4 l inking

t hem

a t

t his

l evel.

h ave

The a rea i mmediately W o f t he d rain, t owards H S11/2, a ppears t o b een u sed a s y ards w ith n umerous p its b ut l ittle s tructural

4 3

9,1

SQ 1

1 ,2

p lts

M

M .

••••

SQ 2

C if

8,3

SQ 4

SQ 3

0 1 1

I ll

1 ' )

K ey

1 1 17 : :

p lan

= 1 1

o f

1 0th/early

9r n 11 1 1

H igh

S treet

1 1th c entury

4 4

1 967-72 ,

s quares

1 -4 .

P hase

1 :l ate

3 /1

p roperty

X /1

6

1 / 1 p roperty

5

SQ 1 62

p roperty

4 7 /2 1 0/2 • •• •• •

« •• ••

• •••

V /2 p roperty

3 4 /2

L U U i

• ••••

••

SQ 2 C . 0

p roperty

2

2 1/3

•

P roperty

1

SQ 4 SQ 3

0

I ll

1 6

K ey p lan c entury

9 r n

o f

H igh

S treet

4 5

1 967-72 ,

s quares

1 -4 .

P hase

2 :11th

e vidence.

Wattle f ences a ppear t o h ave d ivided i t i nto t wo s eparate

y ards o r p roperties b etween t hose a ssociated w ith H S8/3 a nd H S11/2. H S11/2 a nd H S 9 /1 were s eparated b y a p ath l eading p roperties t owards t he p resent H igh S treet.

b etween

t he

t wo

A t t his s tage t he b uildings w ere dwellings a nd n o a ssociated s ubsidiary b uildings w ere e xcavated . T he h ouses w ere s mall a nd s uggest n uclear f amily u nits. P hase 2 i s a b lanket t erm u sed t o i nclude a ll t he b uildings l ater t han t hose o f t he i nitial s ettlement but s ealed by ( and s o e arlier t han) a s terile y ellow/grey c lay l ayer i dentified a s p hase 3 . T he s equence w ithin e ach p roperty ( Ill 1 6) i s r elatively s imple ; i t i s m ore d ifficult t o l ink t he d evelopments o f t he i ndividual p roperties . T here a ppears t o h ave b een r elatively l ittle b uilding i n t he two E p roperties ( 1 a nd 2 ). A s mall 4 -post b uilding ( HS17/4) w ith a l ight s ingle p osta nd-wattle wall was built a t t he b ack o f p roperty 1 . A n E -W l ine o f b rushwood t o t he N o f i t may h ave b een a p ath l eading E ; another p ossibility i s, t hat H S17/4 may h ave h ad a ccess t o a p ath o n t he l ine o f B ack L ane which b y t he l ater medieval p eriod r an behind t he H igh S treet p roperties. Ac orner o f o ne b uilding, p ossibly i n t wo p hases ( HS21/3, H S D /3) was f ound i n t he NW c orner o f s quare 3 . T he l ack o f much b uilding o n t hese p lots c ontrasts w ith t he p roperties t o t he W ; t his c ould p ossibly b e e xplained i f t he l ine o f H igh S treet h ad m oved s lightly t o t he N h ere, s traightening o ut t he a pparent e arlier c urve, f or s uch a move a t t his s tage w ould h ave m eant t hat t he f rontage w ould h ave l ain t o t he N o f t he e xcavation . S uch a r ealignment h ad c learly o ccurred w hen t he n ext b oundary f ences w ere b uilt a t r ight a ngles t o t he t he t he t he

p resent r oad l ine . I t i s a lso p ossible, h owever, t hat t he whole o f e xcavated a rea w as b ehind t he f rontage a t t his s tage, i n w hich c ase c ontrast w ould b e b etween t he m ore b uilt u p b acklands t o t he W a nd o pen a rea i n t he E .

I n t he n ext p roperty t o t he W ( 3) t here a ppears t o h ave b een b uilding V /2 o nly a p art o f w hich w as r ecovered a nd a c urved w all w hich may h ave b een

p art

o f a s ubsidiary b uilding o r a nimal p en .

T hese

w ere

s ucceeded b y t he b yre H S4/2 which o pened t owards a very d isturbed s eries o f w alls which may h ave f ormed a n a ssociated b uilding o r s uccession o f b uildings ( HS H /2, 5 /2). I n t he n ext p roperty ( 4) t here w as a s uccession o f t hree p hases o f b uilding w ith t he p hase 1 p ath l ine c ontinuing t o t he W . T he b uildings ( HS10/2, H S7/2, H SW/2, H S6/2) w ere f ragmentary b ut m ay b e t he r emains o f dwellings o r w orkshops w ith a ccess t o t he r oad b y t he p ath t o t he W . T hey w ere o f b oth s ingle a nd d ouble w all c onstruction b ut t hey w ere t oo f ragmentary t o b e s ure i f t hey w ere o f t he 4 -post t ype. I n

p lot

5 t here

a pparently o f 4 -post

w as

a

s mall

t ype ( HS1/1).

i rregular

p lan

b uilding,

I t may h ave b een built

n ot

s lightly

l ater t han b uilding H S3/1 o n t he a djacent p roperty t o t he W . H S3/1 w as i n many r espects s imilar i n p lan a nd b oth b uildings h ad walls o f d ouble p ost-and-wattle c onstruction. While H S1/1 was s till i n u se o n p roperty 5 , H S3/1 may h ave b een r eplaced

o n

p roperty

6 b y

b uilding

4 6

H SX/1,

l ittle

detail

o f

which

s urvived. A lthough H SX/1 was n ot s ealed b y t he p hase 3 c lay l ayer i t w as s ealed b y a l ayer c ontaining l ate 1 1th-century material a nd i s p robably t o b e r egarded a s b elonging t o p hase 2 . T he n otional d ate f or p hase 2 i s m id-llth c entury. I n

p hase 3 t he

w attle b uildings

i n

s quares 4 ,3 a nd

p art o f 2 w ere

s ealed b y a c lay l ayer . T his was d escribed i n s quare 2 a s a h ard s terile y ellow c lay o ver much o f t he s quare, a nd i n s quare 3 a s a ' sterile a rea ' w ith s ome p ossible t ree t runks; t he s ite n otes l ink t his t o t he s quare 2 h orizon . L eather s crap l ying o ver t his l evel i n s quare 3 f ormed p art o f a v ery d eep d eposit o f l eatherworking s crap which e xtended o ver t he W p art o f s quare 4 . T he l eather i n s quare 4 o verlay a l ayer o f g reyish a lmost s terile c lay c ontaining v ery f ew f inds; t his may r easonably b e i dentified w ith t he c lay a nd s terile l ayers o f s quares 2 a nd 3 . I n s quare 4 , two c oins a t t he b ase o f t he c lay were d ated t o c 1030 a nd t o t he 1 040 's r espectively ( E71:16598; E 71:16518). T he e arliest c oins f ound o ver t he c lay a nd f rom i ts t op d ate t o c 1185 . I n s quare 3 , t hree c oins f rom a n a rea E o f t he s terile c lay b ut p robably c ontemporary w ith i t w ere d ated c 1135 . I n s quare 1 t here w as n o r eference t o s uch a n i dentifiable s terile h orizon b ut a ' fairly u niform l ight-dark b rown s oil ' s ealed t he wattle b uildings H SX/1 a nd H S1/1. I t w as n oted t hat, w hile t he s ealing l ayer c ontained p ottery , p ottery w as s carce f rom t he l evel o f t he w attle . A s imilar s tatement w ould b e t rue f or s quare 4 b elow t he c lay w hich p rovides a t enuous l ink b etween t hem, f or t he 1 1th-century l evels o n t hese s ites a ppear t o h ave b een v irtually a ceramic . On t he p hase 3 c lay, r oughly a t r ight-angles t o c onsiderable

wattle f ences e nclosed l ong n arrow p lots t he p resent l ine o f H igh S treet . T here w as

e vidence o f b one a nd

e vidence f or a ssociated b y l ater c ellars. A n umber o f

t imber-framed

t hese

s tructures

h ave b een d ated b y d endrochronology 1 4th c enturies .

l eather w orking b ut

b uildings a s

l evels

c ut

i nto

t o b etween

H S1/2 may h ave b een t he

t hese l ayers .

t he l ate

T he

1 962-3

H igh

S treet

s ite

1 2th a nd

T hey e arly

f loor l evel o f a b uilding,

c ellar H S3/4 h ad c learly b een c ut f rom a h igher l evel . c annot b e r elated t o t he e arlier p roperties. ( 2) H igh S treet/St N icholas S treet

l ittle c lear

w ere b adly d isturbed

T hese

b ut

f eatures

: 1 962-3

c overed

a n

a rea

o f

2 0

s q

m which

l ay

r oughly p arallel t o t he 1 967-72 H igh S treet s ite, s ome 3 0m E o f s quares 3 a nd 4 ( Ill 1 ). T he s tratigraphy i n t his e xcavation w as t otally c onfused a nd o nly two main p hases c an b e r oughly i dentified f rom t he p lans. I n b oth p hases ( Ill 1 7) t here a ppear t o h ave b een t wo p roperties a t r ight-angles t o H igh S treet w ith a b oundary f ence l ying N -S b etween t hem. I n t he W p roperty t he e arliest b uilding ( HSB/l) h ad aNe ntrance o n t o a p lanked a rea which may h ave p rovided a ccess t o H igh S treet .

T here

i s s ome c onfusion i n i ts p lan a nd

b uilding may h ave h ad a s econd l ean-to

s hed/latrine

w as

e ntrance

a dded

t o

t o t he t he

a t

s ome s tage t he

S i nto t he b acklands .

S wall

a t

a

p eriod

A n ot

c ontemporary w ith t he p ossible S e ntrance . I n t he E p roperty a t t his s tage t here w ere f aint t races o f a b uilding o n t he S e nd o f t he s ite a nd

p art o f a s mall,

p robably 4 -post

4 7

t ype,

b uilding o n t he

f rontage

( n A /3

B /2

0 1 B /3

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1 7

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11

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W INETAVERN S TREET

C N ▪ , I

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C HRISTCHURCH P LACE

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C oin a nd D endro d ates

ul cn

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CN . . ., CN ., CV . . . . . . CV . .,

00 r 4 . 1CV . S D IA OD OD Ch 00

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n atural b oulder c lay

S tone c ellar + c ulverts

S tratigraphic r elationships o f t he b uildings

CHRISTCHURCH P LACE

4 1 0

i n

• 1 3

a )

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c o

t he b uildings

b y c oin s equence

H iberno-Norse c oin E 122 :8435

c ounter

C oin a nd D endro d ates

R e f erences

A ddyman,P V

1 972

England,l,

' The A nglo-Saxon h ouse:

a n ew r eview ', A nglo-Saxon

2 73-307.

A islinge M eic C onglinne

M eyer,K ( ed)

1 892

A islinge M eic C onglinne,

The V ision o f M ac C onglinne. L ondon.

A llen,N

G

1 979

' Walling

materials

i n

t he

e ighteenth-century

h ighlands', V ernacular B uildings,5,1-7.

A nderson,H H e t a l.

1 971

A rhus S ( 6ndervold,

u ndersSgelse ( Jysk A rkaeologisk S elskabs

A rbman,H

1 926

' Bidrag

e n b yarkaeologisk S krifter,1).

011 k ännedomen o m d et ä ldsta S igtuna',

F ornvannen,21,171-95.

B aillie,M G L

1 973

A d endrochronological s tudy i n I reland w ith

r eference t o t he d ating o f m edieval a nd p ost-medieval t imbers, P hD t hesis,

B aillie,M G L d ating',

Q ueens U niversity,

1 974

' Dendrochronology :

i n S cott,B G ( ed),

p apers p resented

1 955

E idermündung

a n e xercise i n a rchaeological

P erspectives i n I rish A rchaeology :

t o t he 5 th a nnual s eminar o f t he A ssociation o f

Y oung I rish A rchaeologists.

B antelmann,A

B elfast.

T ofting,

B elfast,6-16.

e ine v orgeschichtliche W arft a n d er

( Offa-Bücher,x1i).

N eumünster.

2 07

B antelmann,A

1 975

D ie F rühgeschichtliche M arschensiedlung b eim

E lisenhof i n E iderstedt S chleswig-Holsteins,

B ecker,C J

1 981

S erie A ,

E lisenhof B and

' Viking A ge v illages a nd

R ecent d iscoveries',

B lanchard,L

( studien f ür k üstenarchäologie

1 980

S impson,A a nd

" manors" i n D enmark .

P roc E ighth V iking C ongress.

' Kirk C lose - a b ackland S tevenson,S

m edieval S cotland:

i ).

O dense,25-36.

e xcavation',

( eds), T own h ouses a nd

i n T urner

s tructures i n

a s eminar.(Scottish B urgh S urvey) G lasgow.

B lomqvist,R a nd M ärtensson,A W

1 963

T hulegravningen 1 961

( Archaeologica L undensia,2) L und.

B ugge,A

1 935

' The o rigin, d evelopment a nd d ecline o f

t he N orwegian

s tave c hurch ', A cta A rchaeologica,6,152-65.

C larke,H B

1 977

' The t opographical d evelopment o f e arly m edieval

D ublin ', J R oy S oc Antiq I r,107,29-51.

C larke,J C a nd B oswell,R C

1 976

' Tests

o n r ound

t imber f ence

p osts', F orest R ecord,108,1-44.

C oope,G R

1 981

' Report o n t he c oleoptera f rom a n e leventh-century

h ouse a t C hrist C hurch P lace,

D ublin '

P roc E ighth V iking C ongress.

O dense,51-6.

C owper,H S

1 901

' A c ontrast

i n a rchitecture',

T rans C umberland

W estmorland A ntiq A rchaeol S oc,16,142-3.

C rith G ablach

B inchy,D A ( ed)

I rish s er,11).

1 970

D ublin

2 08

C rith G ablach

( Medieval a nd M od

e D ahl,S

1 970

' The N orse s ettlement o f t he F aroe I slands', M edieval

A rchaeo1,14,60-73.

D ixon,F E

E khoff,E

1 959

' Weather i n O ld D ublin',

1 914-16

E s v an,W A

1 967

S venska s tavkyrkor.

F enton,A

S tockholm.

W ijster - a n ative v illage b eyond

f rontier 1 50-425 A D.

E vnns,E E

D ublin H ist R ec,15,65-73.

1 957

t he I mperial

G roningen.

I rish f olk w ays. L ondon.

1 979

C ontinuity a nd c hange i n t he b uilding t radition o f

n orthern S cotland

( Asa G W right M emorial

F enton,A a nd W alker,B

1 981

l ectures,4).

R eykjavik.

T he r ural a rchitecture o f S cotland.

E dinburgh.

G elling,P S

1 958

' Recent e xcavations o f N orse h ouses i n t he I sle o f

M an ', J M anx M us,6,54-6.

G elling,P S

1 964

' The B raaid

s ite:

a r e-excavation o f o ne o f t he

s tructures', J M anx M us,6,201-5.

G raham-Campbell,J

1 976

' The V iking-age s ilver h oards o f I reland',

P roc S eventh V iking C ongress.

G raham-Campbell,J

H all,R A

1 982

M cGrail,S

H amilton,J R C

1 980

D ublin,39-74.

T he V ikings. L ondon

' 10th c entury w oodworking

i n C oppergate,

Y ork ',

i n

( ed),231-44.

1 956

E xcavations a t J arlshof,Shetland.

2 09

E dinburgh.

H enry,F

1 945

N orth,

H enry,F

' Remains o f t he E arly-Christian p eriod

o n I nishkea

C o.Mayo', J R oy S oc A ntiq I r,75,127-55.

1 957

' Early m onasteries,

b eehive h uts,

a nd d ry-stone h ouses

i n t he n eighbourhood o f C aherciveen a nd W aterville ( Co.Kerry)', P roc R oy 1 r A cad C ,58,45-166.

H errnbrodt,A

1 958

H ewett,C A

D er H usterknupp ( Beihefte d er

1 969

s tudy.

B onner

J ahrbücher,6) .

T he d evelopment o f c arpentry 1 200-1700:

a n E ssex

N ewton A bbot.

H ewett,C A

1 971

H oldsworth,P

T he b arn a t G range F arm,Coggeshall,Essex .

1 975

' Two n ew s tructures

C helmsford

f rom S axon S outhampton ',

A rchaeol A tlantica,1,199-206.

J ankuhn,H

1 963

H aithabu,

e in H andelsplatz d er W ikingerzeit.

N eumü lster.

L awlor,H C

L ong,D L

1 925

1 975

N orway ',

L ucas,A T

T he m onastery o f S aint M ochaoi o f N endrum.

' Excavations i n t he medieval

B elfast.

c ity o f T rondheim,

M edieval A rchaeo1,19,1-32.

1 956

' Wattle a nd

s traw m at d oors i n I reland', S tudia

E thnographica U psaliensa :Arctica,2,16-35.

Luttrell P salter

T he Luttrell P salter,with i ntroduction b y E G M illar.

L ondon.

M ärtensson,A W I Lund

1 976

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2 10

f ör P Kbanken

L und

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M eirion-Jones,G I

1 500

( Brit A rchaeol

O xford.

1 976

' Some e arly a nd

p rimitive b uilding

f orms i n

B rittany ', F olklife,14,46-64.

M olaug,P B

1 973

M üller-Wille,M

1 968

B uderich,

Murray,H K

1 977

I reland

N icolay,13,26-7.

' Eine N iederungsburg b ei H aus M eer,

K reis G revenbroich',

t o Dublin,

Murray,H K

' Nodre-felt-Gamlebyen-Oslo',

G em.

R heinische Ausgrabungen,1,1-55.

I rish h ouses 4 00-1200 A D,

w ith s pecial r eference

P hD t hesis, L ondon U niversity.

1 979

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i n

c .400-1200 i n t he l ight o f a rchaeology' ‚ Medieval A rchaeol

2 3,81-97.

M urray,H K

1 980

' Medieval w ooden a nd w attle b uildings e xcavated

P erth a nd A berdeen', T own h ouses a nd

i n T urner S impson,A a nd

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" Houses a nd 1 962-76:

o ther s tructures f rom t he D ublin

a s ummary ', P roc E ighth V iking C ongress

O dense,57-68.

M urray,J C ( ed) 1 973-81,

1 982

( Soc A ntiq

E xcavations i n t he m edieval b urgh o f A berdeen S cot M onogr S er,2).

N ational M useum o f I reland

1 973

N ational M useum Excavations,

E dinburgh.

V iking a nd m edieval D ublin. 1 962-73-catalogue o f e xhibition.

D ublin.

2 11

N ielsen,E L

1 968

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' Pedersstraede

IV iborg',

1 976

' Hus o ch h uskonstruktioner',

1 948

T relleborg.

K um1,23-81.

i n M ärtensson,A W ( ed.)

4 1-71.

N Srlund,P

O 'Kelly,M J

1 958

K Sbenhavn.

' Church I sland n ear V alencia,

C o.Kerry ', P roc R oy

I r A cad C ,59,57-136.

O lsen,0

1 965

' 1Srg,

H oy o g K irke',

A arb her f or N ordisk

O ldkyndighed o g H istorie,5-307.

Ö R iordaln,A B S treet,

oRiordaln,A

1 971

' Excavations a t H igh S treet a nd W inetavern

D ublin', M edieval A rchaeo1,15,73-8.

B

1 976

V iking C ongress.

Ö R iordaln,A B

1 981

' The H igh S treet E xcavations',

P roc S eventh

D ublin,135-40.

' Aspects o f V iking D ublin',

P roc E ighth V iking

C ongress. O dense,43.

O 'Sullivan,J C I r

e

1 01

O swald,A

1 971

' Sheep c ribs f rom C o.Offaly', J R oy S oc Antiq

1 09-12.

1 962-3

' Excavations

b uilding a t W eoley C astle,

o f

a t hirteenth-century

B irmingham,

w ooden

1 960-61',Medieval A rchaeol

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P lummer,C ( ed.)

R ackham,0

1 982

i n M cGrall,S

1 910

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' The g rowing

a nd

t ransport o f

( ed.),199-218.

2 12

t imber a nd

u nderwood',

R ahtz,P

1 976

' Buildings a nd

r ural

s ettlement',

Archaeology o f A nglo-Saxon E ngland.

R ahtz,P

1 979

T he

A rchaeol R ep B rit

R ichmond,I A

1 932

i n W ilson,D M ,

T he

L ondon,49-98.

S axon a nd m edieval p alaces a t C heddar ( Brit s er,65).

O xford.

' The I rish a nalogies

f or

t he R omano-British b arn

d welling', J R oman S tud,22,96-106.

R itchie,A

1 975

' Pict a nd N orseman i n N orthern S cotland',

S cot

Archaeol F orum,6,23-37.

R oesdahl,E

1 982

V iking a ge D enmark. L ondon.

R oussell,A

1 943

' Skallakot,

p jörsärdalur',

i n S tenberger,M ( ed.),

5 5-71.

S alzman,L F

1 952

h istory.

S chietzel,K

B uilding i n E ngland d own t o 1 540 - A d ocumentary

Oxi( ,rd.

1 969

' Die a rchäologischen B efunde ( 1963-1964)',

B erichte ü ber d ie A usgrabungen i n H aithabu,1,10-59.

S chietzel,K

1 981

' Stand d er s iedlungsarchäologischen F orschung

H aithabu - E rgebnisse u nd

i n

P robleme', B erichte ü ber d ie

A usgrabungen i n H aithabu,16.

S chmidt,H

1 973

' The T relleborg h ouse r econsidered', M edieval

A rchaeol, 1 7,52-77.

S chmidt,H

1 981

' Viking h ouses

i n D enmark ',

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2 13

S mith,J T

1 963

' Romano-British a isled

h ouses',

A rchaeol J ,120,1-30

S tenberger,M ( ed.)

1 943

F ortida G grdar 1 I sland.

S tenberger,M ( ed.)

1 955

V allhagar :

o n G otland,

S tiesdal,H

K f 6benhavn.

a m igration p eriod

s ettlement

S weden.Copenhagen.

1 968

' An e xcavation i n t he

t own o f R ibe,

D enmark :

a

b uilding

a t

p reliminary r eport', R otterdam P apers,1,155-60.

T ebbutt,C F B uckden,

1 962

H untingdonshire', P roc C ambridge Antiq S oc,55,13-5.

T horvildsen,E

T ollnes,R L

' An e leventh-century " boat-shaped"

1 972

1 969

' Dankirke',

' Bygningsrester

V iking a nd M edieval Dublin

V ogel,V

1 974

f ra K aupang', V iking,33,41-96.

s ee N ational M useum o f I reland.

' Die a rchäologischen A usgrabungen

S chleswig',

V orting,H C

N ationalmuseets A rbejdsmark,47-60.

i m S tadtkern v on

B eitrage z ur S chleswiger S tadtgeschichte,19,37-48.

1 972

' Gammelby,

e n v ikingetidsbebyggelse

i E sbjerg',

M ark o g M ontre,20-6.

V oskuil,J J

1 979

V an v lechtwerk t ot b aksteen

B oerderij-onderzoek M onogr 2 ).

V oss,0

1 957

W allace,P F

' Traelborg',

1 981

( Stichting H istorisch

A rnhem.

S kalk,4,14-6.

' The o rigins o f D ublin ',

S tudies o n E arly I reland:

i n S cott,B G ( ed.),

E ssays i n h onour o f M V Duignan.

B elfast,129-43.

W allace,P F

1 982

' Carpentry i n I reland A D

2 14

9 00-1300 - The W ood

Q uay

e vidence',

i n M cGrail,S

1 , 7 111e v an d e,A

1 96 1

( ed.).263-300.

' Excavations

i n a ncIelt

A ntwerp',

M edieval

A rchaeo1,5,123-36.

W ashington W ilson p hotographs.

W aterman,D M

P late g lass n egatives o f G eorge W ashington W ilson K ings C ollege.

1 963

A rchaeo1,26,3rd

W iliam,E

1 978

' Excavations a t D uneight,

1 958

C o.Down',

U lster J

s er,55-78.

' Yr A elwyd - t he a rchitectural d evelopment o f

h earth i n W ales',

W inkelman,W

A berdeen.

t he

F olklife,16,85-100.

' Die A usgrabungen i n d er

f rühmittelalterlichen

S iedlung b ei W arendorf ( Westfalen)', N eue A usgrabungen i n D eutschland ‚ 492-517.

2 15