Varieties of Poetic Utterance: Quotation in The Brothers Karamazov [1 ed.] 0-8191-4371-5

Table of contents :
Acknowledgements......Page 6
Transliterations and Translations......Page 7
Contents......Page 8
Introduction. A Historical Perspective on the Function of Quotation......Page 10
1. Mikhail Bakhtin and Erich Auerbach on the representation of reality in literature......Page 20
2. Quotations as authoritative and internally persuasive utterances......Page 23
3. The hierarchical system of quotations in The Brothers Karamazov......Page 29
4. The "works" written by Dostoevsky's literary heroes......Page 45
5. Plagiarism as form of quotation......Page 55
6. Imitative quotations......Page 57
1. Taranovsky's concept of quotation, text, context and subtext......Page 61
2. Polyphonic reaccentuation and paraphrased usage of quotations in Bakhtin's system......Page 67
Part Two. Examination of the Quoted Sources......Page 78
1. Biblical quotations and Russian Hagiography as examples of the authoritative word in the novel......Page 79
2. Quotations from Russian Apocrypha as aesthetic and stylistic models for Ivan's "Legend" and "The Life of Father Zossima": the dichotomy of authoritative and internally persuasive quotations......Page 91
1. Veiled quotations incorporated into Ivan Karamazov's philosophical lexicon and their direct usage in Zossima's discourse......Page 97
2. Reaccented and paraphrased quotations for conveying historicity and timelessness......Page 112
3. Echoes of veiled quotations in the subtext of Ivan's poem, in the text of Dostoevsky's novel, and in the cultural context of the 1870s......Page 120
1. The biographical features and individual style of Vladimir Pecherin reorchestrated into the poetic manner of Ivan Karamazov......Page 126
2. Herzen's style reflected in the narrative of The Brothers Karamazov......Page 130
3. The Russian Faust Ivan Fyodorovich Karamazov and his russified Mephistopheles......Page 145
4. The structure of the Devil's monologues......Page 148
1. The book of the Pilgrim Parfeny as an ethical and stylistic paragon......Page 158
2. "Par pro toto" as the basis of polyphony in Zossima's teaching......Page 164
3. Anticipated authoritative discourse in The Brothers Karamazov......Page 170
4. The poetic word of Pushkin as an ideal stylistic paragon......Page 173
1. The parodic linage of the word of public oration: from an authoritative quotation to a meaningless cliche......Page 181
2. Whom do the Russian schoolboys quote?......Page 185
3. Dostoevsky's characters quoting each other......Page 193
4. The Russian schoolboys find a true teacher: the all-encompassing authority of Alyosha's last speech......Page 200
Bibliographical notes......Page 204
Index......Page 228

Citation preview

VARIETIES OF POETIC UTTERANCE Quotation in The Brothers Karamazov Nina Perlina

LANHAM • NEW YORK * LONDON

Copyright © 1985 by

University Press of America, ™ Inc. 4720 Boston Way Lanham. MD 20706 3Henrietta Street London WC2E 8LU England All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Perlina, Nina, 1939Varieties of poetic utterance.

Bibliography; p. Includes indèx. 1. Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 1821-1881. Bratia Karamazovy. 2. Quotation in literature. 3. Originality (in literature) 4. Influence (Literary, artistic, etc.) I. Title. PG3325.B7 1984 891.73’3 84-20959 ISBN 0-8191-4371-5 (alk. paper) ISBN 0-8191-4372-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)

All University Press of America books are produced on acid-free paper which exceeds the minimum standards set by the National Historical Publications and Records Commission.

In memory of my first teacher Arkady Semenovich Dolinin

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Acknowledgements This study achieved its present form under grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Mellon Foundation. I am -grateful to these institutions for enabling me to. conduct research in various libraries and archivesin the United States and Europe. I am particularly grateful to Cornell University, where this study was completed. Segments^of this text have' appeared in'earlier versions and translations: "M.M. Baxtin's Works on Word Poetics in the Narrative Genres of Literature," in,Russian Language Journal., vol. XXXÍ, No. 11Ö, 1977r pp. 45-55 and "The Role and Function ot Quotation in F. M. Dostoevsky's Works," in Forum, 3, 1980, pp. 33-47. ; I am grateful to all my Dostoevsky' colleagues and teachers both in the Soviet Union and in the United States. Had i not been able to spend several years on the preparation of the Dostoevsky Academy Edition and working on the ehxibit at the Dostoevsky Memorial Museum in Leningrad, the major theme of this work — the role of quotation in Dostoevsky's writings -- would never have come into being Thanks to all of my friends in Leningrad whose literary concepts and views, although no longer uttered in the form of a free open conversation or in the black on white of their articles, encouraged and stimulated my writing. I would also like to express iny gratitude to Brown University where I started with this project and especially to Professor Victor Terras who lavishly shared with me his academic erudition in open discussion, whose friendly, tolerant advice was always so helpful. I owe a debt of gratitude to Arlene Forman, my friend, colleague and co-author of two articles, who generously offered her help in translation of several excerpts. And lastly I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness to my friends and colleagues Caryl Emerson and David Lowe who carefully proofread my English.

For all Russian words and names I use System II, the Library of Congress System for translation of modern Russian. In the text of the work, all citations and references are given in this system. For proper and-private names I use English forms, rather than transliteration: Zossima, Alyosha, Dostoevsky, etc. In the Bibliographical Notés, System III is used. Citations to Dostoevsky's texts refer to: F.M. Dostoevsky, Polnoe sobranie sochinenij v tridcati tomax (L., Nauka. 1972-), 26 volumes of which have been published. The arable numerals refer to the volume of this edition. For the English translation of The Brothers Karamazov I.use the Constance Garnett Translation reviséd by R.E. Matlaw (N.Y.: Norton, 1976). For The Diary of a Writer I use Boris Brasol’s’ translation (Santa Barbara, Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith, 1979), however, in several instances I altered their translations. If no source is given for a translation, I have made it myself.

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Acknowledgements

Transliterations and Translations

Introduction.

Part One.

I.

A Historical Perspective on the Function of Quotation

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1

Theoretical Aspects

Quotation as "another person's word” Mikhail Bakhtin and Erich Auerbach on the representation of reality in literature 2. Quotations as authoritative and internally persuasive utterances 3. The hierarchical system of quotations in The Brothers Karamazov 4. The "works" written by Dostoevsky's literary heroes 5. Plagiarism as form of quotation 6. Imitative quotations

1.

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14 20 36 46 48

II. Kiril Taranovsky and Mikhail Bakhtin on quotation 1. Taranovsky's concept of quotation, text, context and subtext 2. Polyphonic reaccentuation and paraphrased usage of quotations in Bakhtin's system

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Examination of the Quoted Sources

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Part Two. I.

II.

The Brothers Karamazov and Russian spiritual literature 1. Biblical quotations and Russian Hagiography as examples of the authoritative word in the novel 2. Quotations from Russian Apocrypha as aesthetic and stylistic models for Ivan's "Legend" and "The Life of Father Zossima": the dichotomy of authoritative and internally persuasive quotations The aesthetics of paraphrased and veiled quotations in The Brothers Karamazov 1. Veiled quotations incorporated into Ivan Karamazov's philosophical lexicon and their direct usage in Zossima's discourse 2. Reaccented and paraphrased quotations for conveying historicity and timelessness 3. Echoes of veiled quotations in the subtext of Ivan's poem, in the text of Dostoevsky's novel, and in the cultural context of the 1870s

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88 103

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III.

On the mechanics of polyphonic reorchestration 1. The biographical features and individual style of Vladimir Pecherin reo'rchestrated into the poetic manner of Ivan Karamazov 2. Herzen's style reflected in the narrative of The Brothers Karamazov 3. The RussianFaust Ivan Fyodorovich Karamazov and his russified Mephistopheles' 4. The structure of the Devil's monologues

IV. Poetics of the’ authoritative word: the harmony of polyphony 1. The book ôf the Pilgrim Parfeny as an ethical and stylistic paragon 2. "Par prpJtoto" as the basis of polyphony inZossima's teaching,: 3. Anticipated authoritative discourse in The Brothers Karamazov 4. The poetic word of Pushkin as an ideal stylistic paragon

V. From the word's distorted image to the resurrection of the word 1. The parodic linage pf. the word of, public oration: from an, authoritative"quotation to a meaningless cliche 2. Whom do the Russian schoolboys quote? 3. Dostoevsky's characters quoting each other 4. The Russian schoolboys find a true teacher: the all-ençompassing authority of Alyosha's, last speech

117 ’ 121 136 139

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155 161 164

172 176 184

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Bibliographical notes

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Index

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INTRODUCTION A HISTORICAL ‘PERSPECTIVE ON THE FUNCTION OF QUOTATION

Among all the 'aesthetic definitions used to describe literature virtually all writers, readers, andcritics agree oh a central dichotomy:f a literary work can be seen as either ergon (final product, something that is achieved) or as energea (something in thè process of -becoming). The^supporters ' of an organic approach always consider a work of art to be "in the process of becoming’. They perceive an artistic creation aš a tributary into•the everchanging and ever.-broadeniňg stream tof human awareness. In emphasizing’ this ongoings process,, different ages have granted to different aspects' the position of highest authority. At' times the authority of-tradition prevails; at other?times innovation may win out. In some eras, elevated genres may supply authoritative models,1 in others they fall victim to parody* Furthermore; parody máy be overthrown by a yet newer form of* parody thatudebunks previous authorities. The works of Mikhail Bakhtin provide çew perspectives for such an, organic approach-. : According to Bakhtin, a Work óf art should be considered an artistic utterance; and.as such it is one of1 the elements of speech communication. The individual 'style1 of the author towhom this artistic?utterance belongs makes his statement (i.e. his, original work) ’ distinguishable from other utterances or’speech acts originating^ from others congurors. The author, or the "speaking subject’," ’introduces clear-cut boundaries into his” utterances.; he determines the • beginning:: and the end of his work and, thus separates it from other individual speech, acts . Each, individual speech act joins the multiplicity of communicative statements as a limited and finalized unit*of discourse .< In this sense, by direct analogy, a work of art can be compared to the rejoinder in: a dialogue;.. Bakhtin says: ’’A work of art,” like a'rejoinder, seeks a response from .others; it seeks their active, comprehension,,' which eventually’ functions as an educating influence for the readers, as an influence on thèir world views and on their critical response." A work (a rejoinder) exerts.its influence "on thé author’s direct followers and on his remote successors.": In the various situations.of speech' 1

communication that exist in a culture, a work of art finds itself in a retaliatory position vis-a-vis others. A work of art is a link in the chain of communication. "Like a rejoinder, a work is related to other word-utterances; those to which It responds and those which respond to it, At. the same time, like a rejoinder, a work is separated from other rejoinders by absolute, insurmountable barriers made, by speaking subjects, (authors)." Bakhtin1s views contribute to and enhancer a traditional organic approach to verbal art. His innovative theory considers the original text by a new author to be a collocation of.direct and transformed rejoinders;, notes;,, and commentaries which refer to statements already existing in literature. The text’s existence as a new el.ement in literature provokes further réplications ànd echoes from the future. Shakespeare’s Romeo..and; Juliet was conceived as ar rejoinder to-an already existing love story whose ability to provoke other rejoindersis still visible in such works as West Bide Story or the Soviet play by Roshchin, Valentin and Valentina. Pushkin’s "Station Master", a variation on the motif of "the prodigal daughter" and en inspiration.for the motif of "poor people" (not necessarily in Dostoevsky’s rendition), is, another example within the framework of Russian literature. In the speech-utterance theory, a work of art cans be also intèrpreted as the writer's immediate response to "another person's discourse" or to "another person's word" (Bakhtin's terminology). Since "another* person's word" is the most, general definition of quotation, this formula leads us directly to the starting point for this study. Quotations are essential elements of the poetic structure of many works. They also function to link new artistic phenomena to the. already existing cultural context. The manner invwhich the writer quotes is precisely the manner in which he recombines all sorts of cultural statements,, from his time and from preceding epochs. Using Bakhtin' s? terminology, we may say that the mannet in which the author quotes from different sources indicates his own position in the cultural and artistic "poiylogue" of his time. It also indicates the writer's relationship toward the preservation and further transformation of culture. The manner of 2

quoting shows the writer's aesthetic predispositions, predilections, as well as his political and social idiosyncrasies. In this respect, the examination of the role and function that quotations perform in the poetic structure of a work will bring greater precision to the understanding of a writér's aesthetic judgements. Dostoevsky was known as a passionate reader. Moreover, he never lost his gift for using his readings in world literature and popular journalism to stimulate his own creative capacity. In chronological succession, Dostoevsky's works reveal, in increasing intensity, the use of the same artistic devices for discussions of the same problems and depictions of the same social occurrences. This is why The Brothers Karamazov, Dostoevsky’s final creation, is his most cumulative work, a novel in which all the themes and motifs discussed, in his previous- works are synthesized. The Brothers Karamazov is likewise a novel that draws ideas and images from Russian and European works, and it is a novel that has provoked responses from Russian and European literature as well. A discussion of the role and function of quotation in The Brothers Karamazov is more than an analysis of the role of "another person's word" in this one novel. The task presupposes the additional demonstration of how this new, individual, persuasive and authoritative aesthetic judgement finds its way into mankind's awareness. The present study develops several aspects of the theory formulated by Mikhail Bakhtin in his works on literature and language. Therefore a short summary of Bakhtin's ideas and an explanation of my usage of his terminology is necessary. I accept Bakhtin's idea of polyphony in all its complexity, and in my study I demonstrate how polyphonic surroundings influence and transform the most pertinent features of quotations. If Dostoevsky indeed "is interested in the hero as One^ particular point of view of the world and of himself," then how does the writer/narrator quote his fictional characters and what is the value of the hero's own word uttered in his own stylistic manner as opposed to the value of the hero's word "quoted" by the narrator? What is the relationship between polyphony of ideas and polyphony of quotations? What do quotations contribute to "the unity of thé author's ideological principles^of representation and the hero's ideological position"? 3

How do.the heroes in this novel quote each other and,, how do. they argue against the persuasiveness of hostile ideologies;? Whose words and world views do the heroes? find authoritative, which is to say, how .and when do the characters in Thé Brothers Karamazov resort to indisputable authority4? All of these questions arè introduced in Part I, Chapter 1, "Quotation as another person's word," and subsequently answered in Chapters 1-5 of Part II. My use of the term "utterance" comes directly from Bakhtin's discourse theory, which advances the notion

that the' primary role of' utterance^ i!s to convey speech Therefore, the length of utterance and communication. its ideological , aesthetic, scientific, religious or cultural characteristics are of lesser importance; The most pertinent and immanent' feature o-f the utterance the* entire text of The Brothers Karamazov is nothing., but a multiplicity of intertwined human voices, human opinions, utterances and "words’1 (quotations’among them).’ Quotation is / indeed the person's word or view. In the polyphonic novel actual quoting öf some original source, self-quotation (thé author's reference to his previous works dr drafts) reproduction of words uttered by à fictional character in the same novel,-in principle do not? differ from each other. Quotation is the smallest particle of discourse/utterance uniting the artistic text with thé wider universal context1; This is the underlying-principle at work in:my examination of the poetics of The Brothers Karamazov. The text of The Brothers Karamazov is replete with quotations whose origin's' aré to be found in” literary traditions ranging from hagiography and religious folklore to the journalism’ of Dostoevsky's dày. Formy treatment of the various types of direct and hidden quotations in the poetic fabric of The Brothers Karamazov I naturally rely upon upon the Academy Commentary in the Complete Works of F.M. Dostoevsky, 9

vols. 14-15. Nevertheless new materials are also brought to light in the present study. I have limited my work to a discussion of only indigenously Russian sources of guotations. This limitation comes directly from the topic of this study, quotation. Quoting from à certain author usually ' provide’s proof of specific authority, proof of the aesthetic or conceptual validity of the cited words within the new work of art and refers to the original soürce. A- translation, on the other hand, is never idèntical to the original and as a poetic unit it evokes its own poetic aura, bringing new aesthetic associations that significantly differ from the original text. The resulting aesthetic influence of the interpreter1s poetic word can be essential, but by no means can it be identified with that of the original author. The way that borrowings from works in translation influence Dostoevsky can be compared to various pictures, scenes, scenaries, landscapes, or intellectual situations These types of borrowings are not indivisible in nature. Their aesthetic structure includes several nonhom'ogènous components, and it would not be possible to reduce their aesthetic influence to that of "the word." A quotation inserted in a new work of art immediately evokes a reminiscence of the style of the quoted author.. A precise feeling of his, poetic word, of his individual intona£jonand of his views and images becomes apparent. This progression from the, writers ’ word to the image of the waiter’s-- word» and his world-view is a significant feature of Dostoevsky’s poetics, since all his novels are ideological.novels and .novels, of ideologies . In my study, I. treat; the aesthetic connections between quotations and; motifs and discuss, ideological interpretations of these borrowed poetic images which Dostoevsky introduced into The Brothers Karamazov,. Here again the most general interpretation of a work of art as "becoming" and the enhancement of the reader’s "responsive comprehension" to a work (that is, á combination of organic and structural approaches) make quotation a significant element of, construction in the whole.

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PART ONE

THEORETICAL ASPECTS Chapter 1 Quotation as "another person's word"

1. Mikhail Bakhtin and Erich Auerbach on the representation of reality in literature Quotations often unite an older poetic text that possesses an authoritative and universal content with a newer one whose authority and significance are still under examination. The aesthetic properties of such -quotations can be discussed in terms of Erich Auerbach's theory of "figural interpretation" as well as in termsjof Mikhail Bakhtin's idea of the /chronotope. Although they did not know each other Bakhtin and Auerbach belong to the same epistemological category. Both men treat the problem of representation of reality in literature as a "process of becoming." In their respective studies of the history of verbal art both Auerbach and Bakhtin employ a similar methodology which could be called the technique of "universal substitution." This is to say they first single out an;unknown phenomenon (P) in art by finding an isomorphous occurrence (Ö) in an earlier epoch whose history, aesthetics and philosophical traditions have already been studied in detail. In the second stage of their investigation, Auerbach and Bakhtin substitute the features of the exhaustively studied paragon for the analyzed specimen, and in the third stage they point out and describe those areas in the new formation which do not coincide with the paragon. Their next step is to find formulaic renditions for these nonisomorphous sectors, so that in the final stage they are able to use the former "new" phenomenon (P) as a new constituent part (O') in the ongoing substitution (S'), thus methodologically progressing with their study of the uninterrupted and increasing "becomingness" in art and in the stream of human artistic awareness. Auerbach puts forth his theory of figural interpretation in his article "Figura," Bakhtin introduces his idea of chronotope as a poetic representation of the evolving and everchanging 11

universe of time and space in his work "Forms of Time and of thé Chronotope in the Novel." Discussing Dante's poetics , Auerbach comes to the conclusion that the universal method of figural interpretation is operative for those spiritual minds who accept the absolute authority of the Bible. Figural interpretation "establishes a connection between two events or persons in such a way that the first signifies not only itself-, but also the second, While the second involves or fulfills the first. The two poles of a figure are separated in time, but both, being real artistic-events-or persons, are' within temporality i They"7 are both contained in the flowing stream which is historical life, and only -the comprehension, the intéllečtus spiritualis of their interdependence’is a spiritual act.The entire multiplicity of allegories^ that are to be found in verbal and visual art introduces only one virtue (i.e., wisdom); only one passion (love of suffering); only, one institution (justice). "They, refer to thé most universal, synthetic meaning of thé historical event, rather th^n to its precise and accurate occurrence in, history." "The Old Testament. . presents universal, history; it begins with the beginning of time, with the creation of the world, and will end with the Last Days, the fulfilling of, thé Covenant, with which the world will come to an end. Everything else that happens in the world can only be conceived as an element in this sequence; into ft everything, that is known about the world. must be fitted as an ingredient of the divine plan. ... ..The, new. apd strange,, world Which now comes into yiew and which, in thé form in- which it presents itself:, proves to be wholly unutilizàble within the religious frame must be so interpreted that it. fcan find a place there. But, this process nearly always reacts ugon the frame, which requires enlarging and modifying." One could easily substitute Dostoevsky for Dante in this passage. Auerbach's concept of figural interpretation supplies a,key to the entire,contextual interpretation of Dostoevsky, if one applies figural interpretation., a novel like The Brothers Karamazov receives a body of additional meanings. Although many direct references to the Bible and. to Biblical, situations are obvious in the novel., none of its, characters is reducible to Biblical allegories of Good 12

and Evil, nor can they be equated to Biblical figures. All of the novel’s characters and their thoughts and actions achieve a wider interpretation (figurai; in its aesthetic essence), which is possible because all of the characters and. the-novel itself are placed within and compared to, events originating; from a highly authoritative realm. The authority , of the. Bible subordinates and structures the^ entire sum of individual "moralities" in The Brothers Karamazov. In the text of the novel, quotations from Holy Scripture appear as words of unshakable authority, as ideal models of indisputable truth, and as "living bond" “ between the eternal and the temporal. A comparison of a hero's own word to the undisputed authoritative word of the Bible, in, direct or indirect quotation, is not necessarily an act of willful competition between his own "individual,truth" and the Absolute; it is rather his attempt to find and to comprehend universal truth. A comparison of a hero's own word to that of the Bible appears as an attempt at the figural interpretation of new and imperfect phenomenon. It reveals a character's hidden potentialities and1 hints at the hero's opportunity to succeed in his individual search for truth. Within the framework of Auerbach's theory, Biblical narrative, the most authoritative and universal text that has eyer existed,, engulfs all the individual discoveries made by Dostoevsky's heroes. A figural interpretation of the novel tends to saturate occurrences of everyday life with, the spirit of eternity. Auerbach's idea of figural interpretation is similar to Bakhtin,' s concept of, chronotope in the sense that the chronotope appears as the one universal form that guarantees the existence, and the transformation of the poetic word. A .dynamic process,, tile chronotope simultaneously presents, exposes and inspires an. everlasting transformation of the poetic word. The aesthetic concepts of time, space, the hero, and the formation of the hero are in their essence chronotopic. Furthermore, the entire concept of world literature is then nothing but a succession of. different types of chronotopes ^hich reveal themselves in the form of the poetic word. While Auerbach employs his method of figural interpretation (whose essence is universal substitution) to study* the. mimetic properties, of verbal art, Bakhtin uses his chronotope (whose essence is universal substitution) to study ideas in their poetic 13

renditions. Bakhtin's and Auerbach's theories consider phenomena that traditionally had been subjects of different areas of literary studies to be homogeneous. In Auerbach, figural interpretation results in a mimetic incorporation of spiritual ideas into literature. In Bakhtin, the transformation of poetic genres and the evolution of a genre, the concept of a hero, the evolution of the hero's and the writer's world views all appear as open manifestations of the word-utteràncè theorÿ. In this respect, The Brothers Karamazov is a chronotopic unit, and it exists as a collocation of several broader chronotopic units: the novel revealing a chronotope of searching and striving, an ideological chronotope of Russian and world literature, the carnivàl and mysterial chronotope of medieval times in its modern transformation, and the result of figural interpretation of the Bible. Amidst this multitude of chronotopés, The Brothers Karámažov exists as a rejoinder, or as a quotation in an all-embracing context Which by its nature can never be finalized. On the other hand, various quotations that are embedded in the narrative'fabric of the novel provide the most effective tool of the novel's figural interpretation.

2. Quotations as authoritative and internally persuasive utterances In his work "Discourse in thé Novel", Bakhtin discusses the problem of "another person's: word.His conclusions are indispensable for a proper understanding Of the role that the quoted" wold plays in the entire structuré öf the genre of" the novel. Bakhtin writes: "The topic of a speaking péršon has enormous importance in everyday life. In real life wé hear speech about speakers and their discourse at everÿ step. We can go so far as to say that in real life people talk most of all about what others talk about they transmit, recall, weigh and pass judgement on other péople's words, opinions, assertions, information; people aré upset by others' words, or agree with them, contest them, refer to them, and so forth. . . One must also consider the psychological importance in our livés of what others say about us, and the importance, for us, of understanding and interpreting these words of others ('living hermeneutics'). The importance of this motif is in no 14

way diminished in the higher and betterr-organized areas of everyday communication. Every conversation is full of transmissions and interpretations of other people's words. At every- step one meets 'a quotation’ or 'á reference' to something that a particular person said, a reference to 'people say' or 'everyone says' to the words of the person one is talking with, or to one's own previous words, to a newspaper, an official decree, a document, a book and so forth. The majority of our information and opinions is usually not communicated in direct form, as our own, but with reference to some indefinite-and general source : 'I heard,' 'It is generally held that,' 'It is thought that,' and so forth. ... It goes without saying that not all transmitted words belonging to someone else lend themselves, when fixed in writing, to enclosure in quotation marks... Furthermore, syntactic means for formulating.the transmitted speech of another are far from exhausted by the grammatical paradigms of direct and indirect discourse: the means for its incorporation, for its formulation and for indicating different degrees of shading are highly varied. . These means, conceived both as a way to, formulate verbally and stylistically another's speech, and as a way to provide an interpretive frame, a tool for the re-conceptualization and re-accenting, - from direct verbatim quotation in a verbal transmission to malicious and deliberately parodic distortion of another's word, slander - are highly varied. . The speech of another, once enclosèd in, a context, is - no matter how accurately transmitted - always subject to certain semantic changes. The context embracing another's word is responsible for its dialogizing background whose influence can be very great. Given the appropriate methods for framing, one may bring about fundamental changes even in another's utterance accurately quoted. . Another's discourse, when introduced into a speech context, enters the speech that frames.it not in a mechanical bond but in a chemical union (on the semantic and emotionally expressive level); the degree of dialogized influence,, one on the othercan be enormous. " “The topic of a speaking person takes on quite another significance in the ordinary ideological workings of our consciousness, in the process of assimilating our consciousness to the ideological 15

world; The ideological becoming*ofa human being; in this viewt‘ is the process of selectively assimilating the words of others." ' r •'The- tendency to assimilate others ’ ; discoursetakes-on an even deeper and more basic-significance in an individual’s ideological becoming, in the möst fundamental sensei - Another*’s discourse perforins’’ here no longer as informationj directions, rules, models arid so forth - but strives rattier*’ to determine the very * bases Of dur ideological ihtéřrelaťibhs with the world,J the very basis of’-our behavior; it performs here as AUTHORITATIVE DISCOURSE, and an INTERNALLY PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE.”6 4

In his Study Bakhtin distinguishes; between the categories7 of authoritative arid internally persuasive discourse. * ’’The authoritative woid demands that; wé acknowledge it, ’that we: make'it our own. ' It bind's- us', quite independently1 of ■ anÿ' power* it might* hâve’th? persuadé'us internally; fye encounter* it;with its--” authority already fused to: it. Theauthoritative word is located in adistanced zone; it is felt to be hierarchically higher; . Its authority was already acknowledged * in the past, It is a prior discourse. Its language is a special language. It. is bound to go up to the top one. . '/108/ As Robert Bèlknap observes ,- thé metaphor of the hierarchical ladder defines the composition of Dostoevsky'^characters and explains their relations to each other. The' image thus has a significant, structural meaning. Inhis work Belknap reveals a complicated hierarchy of virtues and iniquities that indicate différent levels of holiness and'sinfulness (righteous Zossima and-his sons in spirit vs. the old sensualist' Karamazov and his sons by blood). Furthermore, thé metaphor of the hierarchical ladder relates the poetics of Thé Brothers Karamazov to some of the greatest creations of world literature. Dante's Divine Comédÿ, also polyphonic in nature*, is based bn this metaphor. The broadest possible interprétation of this bivalent metaphor can be’ traced back to the Bible and leads to the images of the Tower of Babel and to Jacob's Ladder. The metaphor of the hierarchicàl ladder relates the text of The1 Brothers »-Karamazov to the poetics of 20th century modërh novels: here the metaphor organizes the structure of the’ contemporary myth-novel. In its relation to the pást, Dostôévsky's hovel functions as a new text saturated’5 with a multitude öf highly significant quotations, yet simultaneously it acts1 as an authoritative quotation 21

for contemporary art and thus contributes to the "further development of the artistic thinking of mankind." À It has already been shown that Bakhtin!s word-utterance theory considers a literary character not as > a depiction of a certain cultural and historical type, but as a depiction of his word or discourse. This theory perceives the ideological formation of a character as a selective . process , an example. The way he quotes Pushkin's line, from Onegin and the manner in which he ridicules the verse expose his hidden sensualism and his false and corrupted "progressiveness." On .the other hand, a hero's ability to associate his own views with and express his own ideas through the aesthetic authority of Pushkin's word indicate this character'ts nonfinalized nature- and his potential for moral transformation. This is extremely typical of Ivan's character. II. Reaccentuation of internally persuasive words (improper quoting of texts other than Holy Writ and Pushkin). a) Distorted or irrelevant quoting often testifies to the speaker's immaturity. In Dostoevsky, the more paradoxical, incongruous and nonsensical are the combinations of quoted sources introduced by a person, the more unstable or immature his personality is. Kolya Krasotkin, Liza Khokhlakova, and Mitya Karamazov exhibit these features. Since quotation is a subjective-objective unit, the reflections of the, person who quotes are imprinted on the fabric of his citation. The persuasiveness of the quoted word is diminished, and its original meaning degenerates into cliche. Even more indicative are the ways in which the distortion occurs, the irrelevancy of the citation's usage, ancl.the hidden, subjectiye motifs of quoting. When these elements conflict with the context of Dostoevsky's novel, the polyphonic result of this conflict appears as a parody of the quoted author's style. Kolya Krasotkin's irrelevant quoting of an anonymous radical poet, published by Herzen in his Russian Eree Press, turns his accurate yet untimely recital into mere cliche. Various distorted quotations 30

from Turgenev incorporated in Mme. Khokhlakova's discourse ridicule the style of Turgenev's meditative prose and thus parodically characterize Turgenev's ideas as obsolete and transient. Distorted and irrelevant quoting has several negative effects on another person's words. The persuasiveness of the character's views is extinguished, and the significance of ideas professed by the quoted author loses its initial validity as well. The ambivalent contrast between the true voice of the quoted author and its parodic distortion reflects Dostoevsky's polemic with the( public sentiments of Russian intellectuals of the 1870-80S. b) Sometimes quotations originate from the same author and are located on the same level, but along different slopes of the hierarchical ladder. This symmetry indicates the structural significance and polemical content of a theme which is conveyed by quotation. Most of the leitmotifs of The Brothers Karamazov gravitate toward this type of symmetry. Clearly, the suffering of innocent children is one of the leading themes of the novel. Not only does this theme have its own persuasiveness, but it leads us to a better understanding of Ivan's, Dmitry's and Zossima's perceptions and world views. Ivan is the bearer of the theme, of children's suffering. In his discussion he directly quotes from Nekrasov, and the images of Nekrasov's poetry organize the whole logic of his writing, thinking, and argumentation. Quotations from Nekrasov are included in the text of Ivan's "article." Dmitry's tormenting dream of the crying babe is also built on Nekrasov's poetry, but here images and quotations from his poems are relegated to the subtext. Dostoevsky's contemporary readers, who all grew up reading Nekrasov, had no problems deciphering the hidden subtext and recognizing these lines. It is not surprising to find the same author and his poetic lines used to inspire confessions from Ivan and Dmitry, who are, after all, brothers. That we find the same lines from Nekrasov in the subtext of Zossima's teaching is somehow unexpected. The lines that unite these declamations are to be found in Nekrasov's poem "The Crying of Children" (1861) .

31

Nekrasov: Ravnodushno slushaja prokljat’ja/ V bitvě s zhizn * j u' " gibnushchikh ljtiděj-, / Iz-za riikh vy slyshite li, brat’ ja,/ Tikhij plach i zhaloby dete-j?/

Ivani Jà'khotel zagovorit* o strádánijkakh chelovechestva voobshche, no luchshe uzh: ostanovimsja na strádánijakh odhikh detejV /14:216/

V zblotuju*poru malo1et stva/ Vsë zhivoe - shchastlivo zhivet/ Ne trudjas* s likujušhchěgb detstya/

Zossima Emu /dite-N.P./ nado solnce, detskie igry,. i vs judu světly j primer-, i khoť kapljuúíljubvi k němu./14::28 6/.

i

i

Den1 zabav i radosti beret. /^ J Toi’ko nam gul j ať* në| doVegolosja/ Popoljam, po nivam zolotym:/? Celyj den*‘ nà fabrike kolesa/ My vertim - vërtim vertim1/

Koleso chugurinoë Pvertitsja ,-/ I gudit, ivetrom obdaet, Golova pylaeť' i J kruzhitsja,/ Serdce b * et s j à ,ï vsë krugom -idet. /

Dushhàja palata,? stuchashchaj a mash-ina; ves* bozhij den" raboty, razvratnye slova i vino, vino, à to 11- nado du she takogo malogo ditjati? 714:286/ ■

...Vpadaja v issutuplen’ë,/ Nachinaem grbmko my kriçhàt’ f/ -Pogodi,- prokljatoe kruzhen1e!/ Daj nam pamjať slabuju sobrat1 !/

Iván: Ponimaesh li ty eto, kogda malen* koe šushčhestvb,' -eshchë ne umëjüshche’e dàzhe osmyslit ,čhto s nej delaetsja, b*et sebja v podlom meste, v temnote i kholode, kroshechnym svoim 32

Bespolezno plakat' wherein Herzen caustically recollects his own conflict with the Paris Vice-Prëfect of Police..;1 Here again, "style is the man himself," and Miusov’s ^example PÍ motivated connection between far-removed -quotationsiand associationsr.: Let us present another example. In, ïDostpevsky a motivated return! to\,specific key words and -key. images is often found/in the. writer' s intentional choice of his characters' names,' whose symbolic essence, once revealed leads ato a.chain of further key words and key symbols. The Brothers Karamazov may serve as an example,:. Demeter ... —:—^Quotations from Schiller's (lit: "MothM ambiguities? are based upon? either overt or hidden quotations. Finally, quotation is >a poetic element that unites? the* text of a given work with; the broader context of literature, in general. In, reference to this function of quotation, one/may ^efe^to Mandel' shtamls essay "Conversation about Dante'^,:. where this definition of quotation is offered:'J'Citata ne; est’ výpiska. Çitata est;' cikada. Néumolkaempst ' ej svoj.stvenna, " ("Quotation is? not an extract. Quotation is; a, çjcada. Peculiar to it is ah inability to be isilenced") 2. Polyphonic reaccentuation and' paraphrased: usage of quotations* ?The introduction of the concepts of text, subtext, and context helps to reveil the multi-leveled structure of Dostoevsky’s works and their polyphonic .58

nature. As always this polyphony is maintained by an acute perception of another person's word. Quotation itself, as another person's word, may ini.certain circumstances act; as ahf element of the ^subtext? and in others as> an element of theVcontext. One, example is "Starye ljudi" ("Old: People") ,‘ one of ther chapter titles in? The Diary of a Writer, 1873. To the reader who does not . go beyond, th.e^text the title seems logical ,/ and limited, to the’ content, ;of the chapter I"í recollections about Belinsky and about Dostoevsky's entrance into literature. From the point of, view of the readers of 1873, Belinsky, Herzen, Proudhon, and even Dostoevsky were clearly "old people." Nevertheless, from" an examination of the thematics of Dosjxoeysky's works of the' sixties and seventies a subtext immediately arises: since there are "old. people," It. follows that there must be "new people" as well. Änd since novye ljudi ("new people"), is a familiar literary theme, it is here that Dostoevsky enters into the broader context of contemporary Russian literature, where the issue of "new people" was a basic oner. In The' Diary of a Writer and, pthep. works Dostoevsky did much' to. expand, ancl deepen the polemic on this issue. In the Diary of 1873, he inserts his reminiscences into a broader, context,, transferring the text into a context. This reflects upon .everything in the work, from word usage to the formulation of the chapter introductions and conclusions, including even the selection oif subtitles, not to speak of the general thematic development: "Introduction" Indication of a concrete 1. date, December 20, and of a single factual event, Dostoevsky's. appointment as editor ofj The Citizen, "Óld People": 2. Inclusion of a greater number of characters, widening of the temporal perspective, expansion of thé theme. "Environment": From the very first 3. sentence the narrative is transferred into a broad all-èhcompassi’ng context: ("It seems that the oné feeling all jury members 59

in the entire^yorId have in common... " Thismanner, i.e., the embedding of à single fact in the broadest possible and farthest-embracing context, is characteristic of Dostoevsky. It is based on the inherent dialogical nature of his creative thought. It is important, however, to remember that Dostoevsky ’s contemporaries-also accepted each new work in thé context of existing literature. The publicistic quality of Russian’ fiction of the second half of the nineteenth century encouraged this kind of perception. The reader inserted himself^ either sympathetically; or polemically into the work he was reading. Quite naturally this kind of reception was apt to introduce other voices, opinions, and estimations, namely those of the readership, into an existing work of literature. Often these voices would actually shift the author’s original emphasis. . ' Such "contextual" reception of the leading works of Russian literature is readily demonstrated by the activity of second-rate writers of the period, in the second half of the nineteenth öentury theçe developed a whole trend of literature finspired by literature itself. In other words, the authors of such works did not conceive of themselves other than in a bröad literary context. The clear dependence of their works upon already existent Russian literature was easily perceived by the readers of the day. The fact that Pomjalovsky* s Seminary Sketches originated, in a way, in Dostoevsky's Notes from the House of the Dead was quickly noted by Pisarev. An even more characteristic work of derived literature is A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky’s Epizod iz zhizni ni pavy ni vorôny (Àn Episode from the Life of Neither Peacock nor Crow, 1877) , in which" "on a little bench under an old spreading linden" in Baden-Baden, Mr. Turgenev converses with Mr. Solomin (i.e., the author of Smoke and Virgin Soil converses with a character from Virgin Soil). Saltykov-Shchedrin, a great master of this kind of "literature in literature," in his turn strongly influenced the” essayistic manner of Gleb Uspensky. Thus, the internal polyphony of Dostoevsky’s thought found external support in the extremely ^3 polemical, dialogical nature of Russian literature. To characterize Russian literature of the second half 60

of the nineteenth century as a network of dialogues or discourses on important contemporary themes is not too farfetched. It is simply a matter of shifting emphasis from the purely contentual sphere (what is said) to the expressive-contentual sphere (how it is said and what is said). It is obvious that for Dostoevsky as well as for his contemporaries, a perception ofa universal, all-embracing spiritual. lovef.. Thus the compositional» and narrative fabric of The Brothers Karamazov both anticipates and prefigures the emergence of ářquite different and highly specific poetic word in the noyel. This anticipated word was originally^conceived within the» limits of various, religious genres:-/hagiography, religious legendy and patristic writing. This type; of word always appears; as quotation in the novel. Since the quoted word represents its own chronotope, one may expect the emergence, of a different type of time-spatial relationship in The Brothers Karamazov, which does, indeed, occur. Quotations originäting. in religious literature introduce the authoritative word, into the novel. Within the hierarchical system, of The Brothers Karamazov,, they form their own:-hierarchy, the hierarchy of functions. This means: that quotations originating from certain genres of religious literature introduce certain ideological/ moral and’ spiritual values and aesthetic associations into the novel. In; the text of The Brothers, Karamazov, the authors of the Academy Commentary pointed out 55 quotations, from the New Testament, 28 citations, from the Old Testament, and 12 quotations and stylistic parallels that can be traaed to the; book, of. the Russian pilgrim Par feny. Although they demonstrated convincingly the deep influence of 71

the hagiographie genre on the poetics of The Brothers Karamazovr the editors did not find any direct quotations from the Lives of the Saints. This implies the existence of two different types of borrowings from spiritual literature:- one for the Gospels and one for hagiography. Quotations from the Gospels are located on the highest hierarchicai level in the novel. In a sense, they stand above the novel’s poetic system, yet govern and organize it. Thé word of the Gospels is indeed’ the most authoritative quotation in The Brothers Karamazov, and as the novel's épigraph, it prefigures and summarizes in advance the whole narration. Quotations from the Old Testament have the same role in the novel. Biblical quotations; often are accompanied by commentary which; interprets the: universal meaning- of the £ible and relates the message :to; particular instances described in the; novel. There are three expanded commentaries, on the text qf; the Bible in The. Brothers Karamazov. The: first is Zossima's interpretatiön of therparable "about; the rich man and poor Lazarus" (Luke 16:i9-31), which occurs as a refrain jin the legend about Hell narrated by Andrey thé horse5driver. The second is the story of Joseph and his brothers, again in Zossima's interpretation. The third is Zossima's expanded commentary on the Book of Job, whose message serves as a direct analogy to the story of Captain Snegirev who is an earthly Job in this novel. Biblical quotations penetrate and tie together all the elements of the narrative system in The. Brothers Karamazov. The heroes' stream of consciousness, their philosophy, their seeking for truth, their, confessions and ideological statements, all manifestations Of their self-awareness, either ascend to the highest peaks or succumb to the powerof their highest authority. The resulting philosophical and aesthétic effect of the usage of the Biblical'parallels in Dostoevsky can be explained in terms of Auerbach's figural interpretation. Auerbach establishes connections 4"between two events, which are linked neither temporally, nor causally, a connection which is impossible to establish by reason in the horizontal dimension" (i.e., Captain Snegirev as a figural variation of the Biblical Job; Ivan Karamazov as a result of the figural interpretation of Cain). As Auerbach states, this new type of connection "can be 72

established only if both occurrences are. vertically linked to Divine Providence, which’alone is able to devise such a plan of history and supply thé key to its understanding. The horizontal, that is, thé temporal and causal connection of occurencesrJis dissolved;, the here and now is.no longer a mere link in anearthly chain .of events, it is simultaneously something which has always been and, which will be ^fulfilled in the,, future;, . in it >is something eternal, ««something omni-temporal, something, already ^consummated in the realm«of fragmentarymodel and its multiple poetic replications is established through figural interpretation .of hagiographie sources in The Brothers Karamazov. In this novel all transformations of documentary and biographical materials originating in the poetic paradigms of The Lives are of the same artistic nature* An essential step toward recognition of this aesthetic principle was taken by R. Pletnev in his article "The Wise Hearts: On [Elders in Dostoevsky” /Serdcem mudrye: o s.tarcakh .u Dostoevskogo/. .Rletnev investigates the significance of the 'religious [concept of;the wise-hearted Elder for Dostoevsky. Pletnev proves that.the portrayalof the wise-Jieartéd Elder in The Brothers Karamazov synthesizes individual features from several Russian .and .European[religious zealots as well as the « features from Dostoevsky's own previous artistic work. Dostoevsky incorporates into the lives of Zossima as a teacher and a wise elder and Alyosha as his disciple the.religious idea of Christian love for all livingbeings. In various ways this idea was similarly incorporated into the chain of holy figures who inspired Dostoevsky in his work. The Russian saint Sergius of Radonezh, the Italian Francis of Assisi, and Saint Rather Gerasim in The Spiritual Meadow bÿ .John Mosch are of equal importance as inspirational models, because in their lives Dostoevsky immediately recognized the presence of thè same authoritative Biblical paragon of the wise heart. One can see again that in Thé Brothers Karamazov, the novel's structure adopts sevéral generic features of hagiography, the major elements of plot and composition are subordinated to the concept of the divine word of the Bible, which is revealed as a quotation. Even, when the elements of plot have the appearance of a biographically successive 77

set of events, their essence is paradigmatic rather than syntagmatic. Paraphrasing Auerbach, one can say that in The Brothers Karamazov a biographically successive set of events,, while it presents itself as an ultimate truth which posešses a single factual meaning?/ on theJother hand claims "a constant interpretative change in its own content. In Dostoevsky figuras and figurai interpretaions of authoritative texts! thus reveal the polyphonic properties of his; novels. As has been mentioned by several scholars, Dostoevsky built his idea of the elder on several sources from Russian religious literature: the works of Tikhon Zadonsky and his Life, the Book of the Pilgrimage of the Morik Parfeny, A Historical Description of Kozelsk Optiri "Monastery. Severa Í

chapters of the History of Optin ’Monastery describe the lives of the Optin Fathers Lev and Amvrosy. Certain biographical elements from the lives of these two monks, that were known to Dostoevsky through books and through his own visits to the monastery, were combined with other nonhomogeneous elements In his portrayal of his ideal hero, Father Zossima. Similarly, Dostoevsky found the most important moral and aesthetic paradigm for Alyosha’s image in the général concept of The Man of God.as ft Was variously revealed in several hagiographie and fólkloric sources: in the canonized hagiological version of the Byzantine Life of Alexy, The Man of God and in the vernacular version of this Life; as prç^erved by the Dukhovny Stikh on Alexey,, a Man of God. Alyosha Karamazov^ "rannij ehe lovekoi j ubec, ’’.ùMan early lover of a man/ is indeed "a man of God," arid this moral property dominâtes all his other^characteristics in the novel. All of the novel's personages feel this aura immediately. It is no coincidence that Rakitin calls Alyosha "Aleshen'ka, bozhij chelovechek," but Rakitin, who Jias no faith in the human soul, accompanies his words with "a hate-filled .grin" /14:321/. As an artistic creation of Dostoevsky, the image .... of Alyosha Karamazov can be read as the.result of figural interpretation of the Biblical formula: "the blessing wherewith Moses the Man of God blessed the children of Israel before his death" (Deut. 33:1). Figural interpretation always suggests more than one poetic implication at a time, and it easily tolerates 78

identity in symbolic meaning with eventual disparity in depicted occurrences. Pluralistic analogies are operative on a higher interpretative level of the novel. Biographically, as a hero of a nineteenth-century novel, Alyosha Karamazov behaves quite differently than his holy patron, St. Alexy. Alyosha Karamazov does not seek a hermit’s life, but goes into secular life. Unlike his holy patron, he does not part from his bride after the wedding feast, but firmly intends to marry Liza Khokhlakova and to stay with her forever. He does not abandon his father's home, and Zossima, his wise teacher, encourages him to go home and to be "his brothers' keeper there." While these actions of Dostoevsky's hero seem to bé deviations from the canonized hagiographie version, they are-not. Through the intermediary of a Russian religious folkloric poem on Alexey,, the Man of God, the novel's poetic meaning returns to the canonic hagiologic text. In his historical treatise, Kljuchevsky discusses the problem of the medieval chronicler's relationship to the subject of his writing, i.e., to the personality of the Saint. Indeed, if the chronicler is just a humble monk, and the Saint whose life he dares to describe is one of those chosen and bidden by God; how then can an imperfect human mind comprehend and grasp the divine wisdom of the Saint's holy life? Where will the chronicler find the words to describe the Saint's holy deeds? On the basis of Old Russian sources, Kljuchevsky reconstructs an intellectual situation, now known as the psychology of the creative process, as it relates to the personality of the medieval monastic writer. Kljuchevsky writes: "He /the hagiographer, N.P./ is above any everyday observations, he is beyond any mere collecting and grouping of facts. Only the Truth excit^jj him> and he attempts to reveal this Truth to people." This is how Kljuchevsky describes the inspirations and moral feelings of a hagiographer: from the sentiments of "a humble narrator," through the state of "an exultant meditative quietness," the religious writer ascends to the highest :stage. "He adheres to the style of the lofty didacticism and invites his listeners to share spiritual food with him; he feeds them with the immortal food of spiritual exhortation." Several inducements live in his heart: "his unquenchable thirst to write on the Saint and his 79

humble love for the Holy Elder.inflame and excite his thoughts ;* a great zeal encourages and .inspires him to speak and write;... .But his unworthiness and..., imperfection, the impurity: of his passionate;heart restrainhim. He suffers perplexedly, heing at a loss to know whether heis among those called to the task of hagiography. Howdoes he wax hold [in his God] to. speak iuntoi his? listeners and to fulfill this work that? is beyond his power;? for gre^ and marvelous works require a righteous tongue." Sometimes a prophétie dream or a vision of “the beloved Saint are sent to the hagiographer; These tokens encourage him to continue with his work.. As Kljiuchevsky explains,i a .Saint was omnipresent in the medieval author1s mind. The x monastic scribe felt the.SainiJiS^protective ; glance and he could 'converse' with his divine patron as if the latter were .alive ; The hagiographer was ?neyer ^àble to distinguish clearly between these visionsuandrieality. Kljuchevsky'.s observations find their parallels in the compositional structuré of "Cana of Galilee." They also help us to understand 'Chapters 2 and 3 in .Book? VI,’ "A Russian Monk." Aesthetically, "Cana of Galilee" is one of the.great .achievements of worldrliterature* iBut from the point of view of nineteenth-century psychological realism the brilliance Of this chapter seems "aesthetically^redundant;" inexplicable and thus unconvincing. Indeed, whose words are these? Who is, the author of this passage?' That;it is not;Alyosha comes clearly from the third person narration. The story is not even taken down in his own words, and there is only^one phrase, added later in quotation; marks by Alyosha himself, which is Alyosha's direct utterance. Hence, “ "Cana1 of Galilee" is written by the novelIs meek and;resigned narrator, who always feels "somewhat at a loss," who is always afraid that-his readers are still unconvinced, and îconstantlÿ doubts whether "he will succeed,in proving" his ideas to the reader. One“cannot fail to notice.that here "style is not the man himself" and that here the concept of a person's style is out;of liné with the concept of his character. Similarly, Chapters 2< ?and 3 from the book "A Russian Monk," which are taken down by Alyosha Karamazov from Zossima's words, dominate Alyosha's intellectual capacities, sin Dostoevsky's mind and in the framework of the novels Zossima' s ideas-are really "great" (velikie), wheréas Alyosha is "bý no means a 80

great man" ( "chelovek on; otnjuď ne velikij f 14:5) , as the -narrator describes him in the preface. The dominant impression Alyosha makes on all the personages of the novel and on the novel's readers as well is more emotional than intellectual. Finally, from a realistic point of view,-considering a "true" sequence of events,, Alyosha did not .have enough'time to reach the,level of lay-brother *in the ^monastery, for he spent less ±han a year there. Nevertheless, it is Alyosha as a secular person who is chosen to complete Zossima's lifer, (zhitie) , and it is. he who is numbered among? the chosen, as J.s indicated in the'text of "Cana of Galilee." Ther,e is no,-çther way to explain the stylistic complexity ;, of the narrator's pose and his figure in The Brothers Karamazov than by paralleling it with the role and position of a hagiographer. The Lives of Russian Saints is ,a convincing "paradigm for the aesthetic and conceptual image of the .narrator in The Brothers , Karamazov. In the chapters , "A Little Onion" and "Čana of Galilee"1 one can ea.sily find all the .elements of narration and of the chronicler's relationship to his holy patron that, KIjucheysky notes as required.features of hagiography. The title of the chapter,.J^izxzhitija v Boz.e prestavivshegosja ierosximonaxa stařca Zosimy, sostavleno s sobstevennyxslov ego.Alekseem Karáiqazovym. Svedenija hiografiçheskie" .,. . ïz besed i pouchenij starca Zosimy," is an accurate imitation of the titles of the works . of Russian hagiographers... /"Notes of the Life in God of the deceased Priest and Monk; thé Elder Zossima, Taken.from,His own.Words by Alexey Fedorovich.Karamazov. Biographical, Notes "5 ... "Conversations arid Exhortations of Father Zossima."/ The entire style of Zossima/s life is hagiographie in nature. Alyosha's renunciation of his own judgement and his, complete submission. to the authority of^his Elder's word are also modelled on the medieval Russian scribe's self-abnegation and. the latter's submission to the divine power of., the Saint. Similarly, the, chapter "A Little Onion" is analogous to the scribe's. temptation arid to a divine token, or sign whose appearance usually precedes a miraculous revelation of Truth to the annalist's mind. "A Little Onion" is followed by "Cana of Galilee," where, the sacred wisdom of the other world comes to Alyosha as revelation and is embedded in his soul for the rest of his life.

Alyosha’s prophetic dreáin is an obvious parallel to the divine visions that came to Russian hagiographers in the crucial momentsof their lives. Here "Caha of Galilee" serves as a prologue to a Life in which the future Saint feels the Holy Spirit descend upon him and speak to him for the first time in his earthly life. Thesé visions always symbolize the momentous transformation of a humble.meek creature into a Christian zealot. The rôle óf authoritative quotations in the architectonics.of these-four chapters is very significant. Zossima's life is an expanded quotation embedded in the text; of the novel. To the extent that it is a careful-imitation of several hagiographie paradigms, "The Life- of the Elder Zossima" as a whole includes many réligipus quotations and commentaries on several Biblical texts. The chapters "A Little Onion" and "Cana of Galilee" are also bui-lt out of quotations (a folk îègend told by Grushenkà, the excerpts from the Gospels and from: the player book, and finally,, Zossima*s authoritative word which comes as a revelation to Alyosha). The chapters centering upon ,Zossima*'s life can also be considered as parts of "The Life of Alexey Karamazov, á Loveř of Men" (in this case, the structural! paragons are the lives of Alexey, the Man of God, and of the youth Varfolomey, who became Sergey Radonezhskÿ in his monastic life). 2. Quotations from Russian Apocrypha Nikolay Tikhonravov's work.Anathematized Books of Old Russia was another academic source known to Dostoevsky and his contemporary readers. ' In his book,' Tikhonravov inblúdeď religious legends created by Russian schismatics and Ëuropèari protestants. In The Brothers Karamazov Ivan reproduces the text of "The Pilgrimage of the Mother of God"5 from Tikhonravov. He quotes from, comments upon, and interprets the text using Tikhonravov, from whom he also borrowed his academic knowledge of Russian and European religious scholarship. In Part's 5 and 6 of Tikhonravov's book, Russian Christian legends "about the afterlife, spiritual visions, revelations and pilgrimages are compared to the European eschatological legends of Luthër's time and to Dante's Inferno. Both Dante and German prophetic literature of the Reformation are mentioned by Ivan. Ivan's academic introduction arid 82

commentary to the "Legend of the Grand Inquisitor" by and large are an accurate summary of Tikhonravov's treatise. Built on the models provided by Tikhonravov, Ivan's refutation of Christian harmony; gravitates toward the descending slope of Dostoevsky's hierarchy. Tikhonravov's work,, however, casts reflections on the ascending slope of the hierarchy as well. Here this influence is to be seen in "A Russian Monk," Book VI. Zossima's recollections o'f his pilgrimage, the spiritual bequest that he giveá to Alyosha and his commanding Alyosha to go into worldly life and to remain among men show the pious honor and respècf that Christian pilgrims were granted by simple Russian people. These themes and their interpretation are important in Tikhonravov. Tikhonravov explains that Russian wanderers considered it an obligation to relate to secular folk what they had seen during their pilgrimages arid tó reveal to^hem the spiritual meaning of "the way of the pilgrim." In Tikhonravov's interpretation, pilgrims were intermediaries or messengers who uttered the word dictated to them by the Holy Spirit. In The Brothers Karamazov, Alyosha is the messènger who delivers the true word and the Truth. On the purely compositional level,1 he delivers messages from place to place and serves as mediator to his brothers in their relations with all the other characters in the novel. Since Alyosha also quotes and delivers1 Zossima's word to other people, on the ideological level, he is a messenger of the authoritative truth already revealed to his wise teacher. On the highest level,. Alyosha's word, in the form of an authoritative quotation, appears as an allegorical sign that unites all the different shades of meanings embedded in the expression "a messenger," thus conveying "the mystery of the sky to the mystery of the earth." In the text of the novel this function of Alyosha's true word and his role as the messenger of the sacred truth become apparent in his conversation with Ivan (Book XI, Ch. 5, "Not you, not you!") Once again, just as in the ecstatic moment of his vision of his deceased mother, Alyosha realizes that "his whole body was shaking. 'It was not you who killed our father...' - Alÿosha said in the same low, quiet, clear voice, but he was no longer in control of what‘he was saying and the words came from his lips as if obeying some irresistible outside force. 'It was not 83

you,■ not you., God.has sent me to tell you this, (No govoril on.uzhe kak by vue sebja, kak by Tie s.voeju volej,, ^povinujas ' kakornu-td .nepreodolimomu velneniju. Ne ty ubijca, slyshish'.menja, íne týl Menj a .Bog poslal tebe èto skazat '. 15:40) ■. ” This scene is an obvious and persuasive example of . Dostoevsky ! si appropriation of .the principles; of Rdssian» religious ^literature-for the purposes of his< novel.? „The/’episode casts reflections backwards and 4fpagwards atpreceding and subsequent situations, thatj^are lopatečL ;at jyarious „ideological levels. In these situations, the direct utterances of several pjther p.ersqnages in, the hovel ate, reproduced. An inverted parallel of this, scene is found in Chapter 10, Bopk XI, It was. he^who isaid tíiat"; ("Žto on govoril") ! : The.„t^tXe /pfjthe/chapter is an anticipated, quotation that/lateij appears .as lyan.Lsř,qwa utterance. Here it is licit Àiypsjia., Èut Lvan,pWiio is np longer ip control of. wlíat . Hé paying. Biswas serfion that Jhe knows about Smerdyakov.'s suicide and his confession that he has halíuciniatíons and' that only Alyosha possesses, the pó^wér to capt out his demon also "comes fřpm his , lips «as if. pbeying some irresistible, outside force., II knew he had^hanged himself... .Yes,, he told me. He told me so just now... .He's .slipped away.. Be was afraid of you,, of, a doye .like you. You are ’a pure cherub.' Dmitry calls you atcherub. Cherub 1.,..The thunderous howl of rapture of, the Seraphims'" /618/., At least four different quotations are hidden in.Ivan's reply, "Golub',." the,,dove, is a messenger, of the.Holy Spirit and ifs emblem. „ lu,addressing Alyosha as "kheruvim" (a cherub), Ivan quotesuhis brother Dmitry. "Chistyj kheruvim." (the pure cherub) is ar quotation from Lermontov's poem "Demon"; and "gromoyyj vopl' vostorga, serafimov" ,/the thunderous howl 'of rapture ,of the seraphim/ comes from Faust H in the Russian, translation. The multileveled and mutually reciprocal poetic system of Dostoevsky's novels was,, in many cases misinterpreted by his, contemporary readers. Many of them were unable, to recognize the aesthetic message of his writing and.blamed jgstoeysky:fpr his subjectivity and his "cruel talent.. " Those properties that Mikhajlovsky defines as Dostpevsky's cruelty find their aesthetic and philpspphical interpretation, in Old Russian literature, where temptations of human.nature, ordeals and battles between sinfulness and chastity

precede the ultimate victory of God's Spirit in the human soul. Tikhonravov provides his readers with analogous explanations in Old Russian texts. His book reprints* an old legend about the appearance of Christianity ih Kievan Rus. Tikhonravov quotes from the old manuscript: "A Greek philosopher showed Prince Vladimir a picture. On it the*Last Judgement was depicted, and it portrayed the righteous joyfully entering Paradise on the rigÿ£ and the sinners goingsto suffer ih Hell on 'the left. " This vision öf eternal suffering influenced Vladimir andsinspired him”to convert to the Christian faith. In The- Brothers Karamazov Ivan’s "quite Unique collection" of documents oh the suffering of innocent children^ Grusha's legend ón ’’thé little öniön^" and Dmitry’s‘dream of the "ciying babe" have the'same stance - the temptätiori of a man"s heart and Spirit. Dostoevsky gives "the stories precisely this reading by nature of their setting and the chapter titles. (Cf* Ivan’s stóry and Alyosha's definition of its message as "rebellion" which he forgives. Grushen’ka’S story about the little ’oniön is preceded by the chaptér "A Critical Montent" and followed bÿ”"Canà of Galilee. " Hence, temptation followed by the battle of Good and Evil iS rêsolved" bÿ^thê finál ťriumphí”íofí3ChrističLh löve and joy. Dmitry*S dream’:of the crying babe concludes the three ordeals of.his soul and precedes his spiritual reformationé) Apocrypha published by Tikhonravov in his collection describes* a vision®of Paradise as reveáléd to Christian ascetics. In Dostoevsky's Diary of’ a Writer and in The Brothers Karamazov one can observe 1 the direct’influence öf the apocrýphál téx£ "Khozlidenie Svjatogo Zosiçjj k Rákhmánam"-/Sti Zossima's Pilgrimage to Rakhmans/. -ÂccordingMio thé ^text öf this apocryphal“pilgrimage, Stí Zossima had visited the Rakhmans, an unknown primitive tribe whose life reminded him ofethe Edenic world. "This is how Zossima's hagiographer describes tlie Rakhman's life: "Serenely flows their pious life: they do not know the number of years, but all their days' are like one day. They know thé time of théir death arid mèét it joyfully and peacefully. Angels.carry their souls tó heaven, and the bléssed souls hear the angëls' singing." Excited with what he had seen, Zossima returned to his own people and started indefatigably to teach his 85

brethren by preaching, to them the truth of the Rakhmans' life. The Edenic vision that was revealed to Zossima moved other people toward self-improvement, and many of them left the path of sin. As the hagiographer says, when the Devil realized the reforming power of Zossima's word, he "burst into bitter tears and said: 'If this, stoty goes into the, world, then will the earth become sinle^j, and I alone will remain in suffering.'" These lines are reflected in the final passageof Dostoevsky's "Dream of.a Ridiculous Man," and through this work their influence expanded to The Brothers Karamazov where they became an element of the Elder Zossima's; life., The name of the hero is a quotation here, and the identity of names implies a similarity between the pursuits of the two. Christian zealots. The Elder Zossima's pilgrimage., his humble adorationiof the joy^àndj»beauty of God's world, and his prophecy of perfection are modelled by the.paradigm of the legendary Zossimaj. Thé apocryphal Zossima also served as a paragon Vf br Dostoevsky's»presentation of joyful radiant love as a moral force able « to reform human nature (cf.: "Radostnyj i tikho smejushchijsja" Zosima; "lico jvse otkryto,; glaza sijajut." Note also Zossima's words as they reach Alyosha in the moment of epiphany: "Veselimsja,.. .p^em vino novoe,,» vino radosti novoj, velikoj." Note also Zossima's blessing of Alyosha's future path: "I ty% tikhij-, i ty, krotkij moj mal'chik, i ty segodnja lukovku sumel podat' alchushchej. Nachinaj, milyj, nachinaj -, krotkij, delo svoel") ,/Zossima joyful and laughing»softly. His face was uncovered, his eyes were shining. "We are rejoicing,".. . . "And you, my .gentle one, you, my ,kind boy, .you too baye known how-to give a" famished woman an onion today. Begin your work,., dear one/ begin it, gentle onel" 14:327/ Discussing the aesthetic relationship of the ideal and reality, Dostoevsky stated: "The ideal is reality, too, only its highest degree." Therefore, he considered it his-direct obligation to embed the ideal,in life and in his contemporaries' consciousness as well. In his writing Dostoevsky enriched the entire system of the nineteenth-century novel with the most essential features of religious literature, since this literature had originally been created to reveal the highest spiritual idea. In The Brothers Karamazov, the fusion of 86

novelistic and hagiographie traditions is noticeable on all poetic levels of the work: 1. on the ideological level, where the didactic and authoritative„teaching of truth dominate and emphasize the edifying element of the novel; 2. on the conceptual level, where spiritual ideas are dominant over other concepts; 3. on the compositional level, where Dostoevsky replaced a traditional linear composition with his hierarchical structure; 4. on the narrative level, where Dostoevsky ,introduced the principle of multivoiced narration; and 5. on the level of logical determinism, where Dostoevsky broke with the tradition of / verisimilitude, replacing it with the evolution of a character through a spontaneous, mysterious transformation of human nature. Using Bakhtin's terminology, one can say that in The,Brothers Karamazov the most essential chronotopic features of hagiography are absorbed and adopted for the purposes of the novel. Dostoevsky did not attempt to revitalize hagiography as a literary genre in The Brothers -Karamazov,.nor did.he communicate to his readers as a religious activist or a preacher. Instead he broadened, the most important structural components of the novel by means of figural interpretation and by paralleling them to the ideal archetypal forms presented in hagiography. As a result., spiritual models pertinent to the genre of hagiography were reincarnated in new chronotopic units: the chronotope of the nineteenth-century novel and the chronotope of the ideal;hero who pursues the word of Truth. The process of translating hagiography into the genre of the novel is a polyphonic process and therefore in The Brothers Karamazov the aesthetic meanings of time, space and word are multi-dimensional and multi-voiced.

87

Chapter II

The aesthetics of paraphrased and veiled quotations

1. Veiled quötatiöns incorporated into Ivan's philosophical lexicon, and their direct usage ih Zossima* s discourse The purpose of the thrèe following chapters is to demonstrate how quotation works in‘the poetic(fabric of The Brothers ^Karamazov and' to éxâmine thé aesthetic function of quotations within that' new genre-unit, the Dostoevskian novel. Quotations are examined as elementsxof Dostoevsky's -own' intense commitment to world literatùre;'aňď| as^elementäry units which constitute the word of -an antagonist in the-nóvél. Multiple heterogeneous texts of a quotation’al "nature are discussed as samples of ideological statements? that are inserted’by the’characters of the novel freely and indepeňdéntly. Anothér aesthetic function of quotation in The Brothers Karamazov is studied hère as well: the role of7quotation in ycréátiíig thé multiple -forms of parody; travesty, burlesque and caricature öh thé descending slope ofDoštóevsky's hierarchy and the:?? archèÿpal role? of quotation in findingvahd uttering the word ’ of1 uiiivéršál 'Truth. Whílé authoritátlve quotations are locatedJat thé highest lève! of the hierarchical ladder, intéřnálly persuasivecitations are to be found on both of the slopes vyet;-never at thé highest lével 'Internally persuasive words are also polyphonic; but here "polyphony" ié mani fé sted: through ’ the non-finaiized convincingness of the státemént proclaimed. sDostoevsky’s characters aré cäpable of growth to the^ëxtént that-the final meaning of’their own word is not-yet realized and that théiř personality and language are< still^in-the process of-„formation.;1" On the; highestfideological lével of thé novel's structure,the final result of polyphony is not the annihilation of an incorrect utterance, but its transformation. This is a process whose final aim is the regeneration of an incorrect word into a true one. The pertinent principles of Dostoevsky's aesthetics are simultaneity and coexistence. As has been shown the simultaneous coexistence of non-homogeneous elements is best expressed in the hierarchy of ascending and descending words (where it 88

forms a system of moral values) and in the generic nature of The Brothers Karamazov (where it appears as a simultaneous transformation and preservation of novelistic and hagiographie generic features). The idea of polyphonic coexistence conflicts with the concepts of historical* past and present, which are“ philosophicallyrinterpreted in a linear progression. At allpstages of his .creative work,, Dostoevsky ignores, chronologica.1 succession. The aesthetic effect of a non-linear composition ? in his novels can be, best shown through discussion of .the factual materials used by Ivan Karamazov for his,verbal performance., The new socialist,ideas /proclaimed by Ivan are in fact derived from quite old if not obsolete ,sour(ces. All the documents and factual materials quoted by Ivan originated in.t.the.period between the 1840s and the early 1860s. Yet in the context of the novel these sources,, when reinterpreted, sound-new and fresh and give the impression that they, are burning issues of the day. At the same time, Ivan's modern theory has a timeless meaning, and the overtone of contemporaneity ambivalently emphasizes the dominant, intonation of universality in this system.). ; While. working on, Ivan[s^image, Dostoevsky substituted old and tinjeless sources .for contemporary materials. These substitutes, whoseorigins are to be traced to older times., allowed him to compare and juxtapose utterances and concepts originating in two differentideological areas — Ivan's and Zossima*s —• and to portray them,as equally powerful. In the.novel Ivan's and,Zossima's actual conversations and their metaphysical polemics are introduced as a philosophical dialogue where each reply is of a guotaiional nature. Ivan Karamazov is a young .man of 23 , with a uniyersity education, well read in Russian and European literature, philosophy, and the social sciences. Father Zossima is a monk and ..therefore not particularly interested in contemporary social and philosophical writings. Even if Zossima touches upon social problems in his conversations,.he does not refer to the source, but adds "they say," "the world.says," ‘'some claim," etc. In Chapter 6, Book II, Dostoevsky emphasizes that Zossima has,not read Ivan's article on ecclesiastical courts, yet (and this is also purposely stressed in the same chapter) it is only Zossima whose opinion is really valuable to Ivan. Everything that Ivan says in 89

the course of the discussion is addressed to Zossima.. It is only Zossima’s ’response that he is eager to hear. Dostoevsky scholars have noted that the religious disputation inZossima's cell prefigures the central controversy of the novel, its "Pro and Contra." Effective polemics demand-the presence of mutually important topics; of discussion and .the opponents’ reciprocal awareness of eachother’s standpoints arid world views. This fš, óf course, án elementary demand of rhetoric, whose purpose is to develop the art of eloquent dialogue arid; polemic. Nevertheless, it is not the inclusion of "rhetorical elements into the narrative structure ofThe Brothers Karamazov that makes Dostoevsky's poetics ùriiquè(this device had been Used many times be foire in #orlxâ! literature) . " Nor is the question of whether rhetorics caň áčcomodaté oř coexist with polyphony at issue. Some works of ‘rhetoric possess polyphony, and some are’ homóphoriic in nature. The Brothers KarämäzoV is unique because of Dostoevsky's ability io Suild«'the ’whole: of his major heroes' argumentation from à single hase. The fundamental sources discussed by Ivan arid Zossima in The Brothers Karamazov are the same, and polyphony is manifested in thé;diametrically opposed interpretation arid reaccentuatiori of these sources. As a result of polyphonic reaccentuation, the excerpts from thé Old and New Testament and thé passages quoted from the Book of Job, the Apocalÿpsè arid Epistles create a solid base for Ivan's apostasy in the "book "Pro arid Contra." Numerous Quotations from the'same sources permeate all of Zossima's exhortations, where they shape and stylistically organize thé poétic structure of the book "The Russian’Monk." Biblical ^texts that are iricluded in Ivan's ideological cônçeptùalizirig are iritérnally dialogic arid already' carry a polemic mésságe from the original. Ivan frequently quotes from the Epistles, from the Apocalypse, and the Temptation of Christ, but rather rarely référé to thé Gospels. However there is one accurate reference to the Gospels that Ivan includes in the text of his "Dégerid" without áriy reaccentuation: Christ laying hands on the little daughter of Jairus, Mark'5: 22. This referéhce to the Gospels provides more than a few explanations in the novel's poetic whole and evidences Ivan's pèrplexity and his irreconceivable conflict with his own "I". Sirice by performirig this miracle Christ brings an 90

innocent child back to life Ivan must admit the supremacy of Christ's love and justice over any of human actions. To that end Ivan's reference to the Bible supports his "Pro.” However, the setting of the episode supports Ivan's “Contra,” because from here on his Inquisitor proceeds with a denial of the Spirit of Christianity. In terms of figural interpretation, the episode gains further diametrical readings in the framèwork of the novel. Ivan needs miracles in order to "work iniquity" (Mark 7:22), and therefore he is condemned. This veiled reference to the Gospel is amplified by Kolya's false "miracle" with Zhuchka, and by the boy's attempts to attain supreme authority over his schoolmates. Alyosha, on the other hand, advances his affirmative interpretation to the scene by saying that Ivan's "Legend" glorifies Christ. In Ivan's interpretation, the innate internal dialogism of the quoted sources grows into a controversy and even into an absurdity within the authoritative dogma. Ivan herétically reaccenfuatès the Holy Writ in the spirit of modern atheism, and the word of the Biblical Apocalypse sounds like political apocalypse in his interpretation. Zossima's edifying teaching includes the same texts from the Holy Scriptures, but emphasizes and restores their initial affirmative message. This factor contributes to the power of revealed truth which appears as the authoritative word of the wise teacher in the novel. All the original texts underlying either Ivan's or ZosSima's direct or indirect utterances undergo reaccentdation and polarization in The Brothers Karamazov. Ivan's views only seem or pretend to be convincingly correct. It is only Zossima who possesses the truth, whereas Iván either willfully distorts the truth or unwillingly errs. (Cf.: "Prinimaju Boga,...prinimaju i premudrost', i cel' ego,...veruju v porjadok, v smysl zhizňi, veruju v vechnuju gármoniju, v kotoroj my budto by vse sol'emsja, veruju v Slovo,...kotoroe samo 'be k Bogü' i kotoroe est' samo Bog, nu i procheë i prochee i ták dalee beskonechnost'....Kazhetsja, ja uzh ja na khoroshej doroge - a? Nu tak představ' zhe sebe, chto v okonchatel'nom rezul'tate ja mira ètogo Bozh'ego - ne prinimaju.") /...I accept God. I accept His wisdom, His purpose. I believe in the underlying order and the meaning of life; I believe in the eternal harmony in 91

which they say we shall one day be blended. I believe in the Word to Which the universeîis striving, and Which "itself was 'with God,' and Which itself is God, and so von, and so on, to infinity... .1 -seem to be on the right path don't I? Yet would you believe it, Lin the final result I don't accept this world of God's. /14:214/ Here Ivan,' s appstatio. .statement and his direct although polemical quoting of-John 1:1, reveals a hidden quotation from Goethe's Faust:, "Am Anfang war die Tat." (In the beginning was the Act, yhich is,, of course, a paraphrase pf.the same line in the Gospel..) , These words of Ivan Karamazov foreshadow the novel's further composition:-the hero',s. obsession th the devil (who is a caricature of Mephistopheles) and, the Devil Js philosophizing a propos of "infinity," Yet inasmuch asIvan's rebellion is the result of his ardent heart which is ^able '/to. seek the‘things that are above, " as\Zossima.*says (also resorting^to ;the authority of Biiblical-quotations here j-- Col. 3:1-2;' PJiil-. 3:18-20) ,/;not only Ivan' s ^downfall, but also the possibility for his reformation isr hinted at by the authority of the same .quotations. In Dostoevsky,, polyphonic, direct»and reaccented quoting from the same source points to the fact that the authoritative word is not a mere numeric sum of several internally persuasive utterances: this,highest moral instance is to be achieved^ in the, process of the active comprehension of truth. Precisely because reaccented quoting is not»always academically accurate, it allows Dostoevsky to allude to several other sources that are also .reaccented, quotations. The internal,polyphony of each quoted, unit grows tremendouslyandthe hero's own word takes on a, whole varietyof obj eg tiye-? subjective overtones. The scene of the religious dispute in Zossima's cell demonstrates how many different overtonescan be instilledin the same quotation and how;many different interpretations can be-given to a new resulting,textual unit* This;new formation appears as .an element.of the hero's discourse, as hip polemical reply,. or as his affirmative statement. Leonid Grossman. has demonstrated that the real source of Ivan's article-xand the source of, Fathers, Paissy'.s and; Joseph's response tg Ivan's statement was a judicial work written by Professor Gorchakov and entitled "Naughnaja postanovka cerkovno-sudnogo. prava" (The Scientific Foundations,of Ecclesiastic Courts, 92

15:534). Discussing the problem of ecclesiastic courts, Ivan does not mention Gorchakov’s name, but he accurately reproduces the main assertions „of-/his work and even quotes .from Gorchakov. In doing so he tries to bring; his readers and listeners to a correct understanding; of the real' role of the church as a social institution! He also tries to hide his own views in regard to the differences between the Catholic and Russian 'Orthodox Churches, and their understanding of the relations between church and state. Ivan's premise 'Vcuts both ways," as Father Joseph notes. This means that >with his article Ivan may be proclaiming; the primacy of Christian unanimity, which is a basic, statement, of, .Russian Orthodoxy, but he also may be proclaiming the extreme of Catholicism,defined by Miusov as "ultramontanism." Ultramontanism posits the absolute authority of the Church and its supremacy over the state. Miusov is not quite incorrect, for Ivan's "Legend" contains some ultramoritanian ideas. Zossima,' Paissy and Father Joseph also reject the main assertions of Ivan's opponent, but this does not mean that they agree with Ivan's arguments. Zossima's response to the article written by "a prominent, . churchman, " as well as ,the opinions bf Fathers' Joseph and Paisy, differ from Ivan's not so much ,£n logic as in epistemology., Their answers neither "cut bo£h ways," nor do they leav{e any opportunity for a nonorthodox interpretation of the church's, social role. All participants of the discussion use Khomjakov's ideas on the moral authority a,nd religious immaculacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in their defense.' The direct source of their references is Khomjakov's Catechism (1850). It is noteworthy,, nevertheless, that Ivan completely avoids citing the Holy Scripture^ in his ecclesiastic work, whereas the monks quote the Gospels and the Epistles as „the highest and most persuasive authority. Ivan's,polemical article leaves a certain feeling of reticence. He does,not hasten to make clear.his own moral or religious position in this discussion, and his intended objectivity”characterizes him as á young positivist and rationalist, (With good reason the narrator informs his readers that Jvan had recently graduated from the.Department of Natural Sciences.) Zossima's intention is,, ón the contrary, to widen the framework of discussion and to reveal , in it several 93

ideas purposely concealed by Ivan. Zossima tries to reveal the hidden subtext of Ivan's article and of Ivan's consciousness as well. Even in his affirmative statements, Ivan essentially depends on his opponent, "a prominent churchman" (Gorchakov). The central statement in Ivan's article and-its title are polemical borrowings from Gorchakov. (Compare *thé title of Govchakov's work, "The Scientific*Foundations of Ecclesiastic Courts" with Ivan'h "About the*Jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastic Courts.") Tvan-'s centrál proposal — to integrate all social, societal and governmental functions within* the Church —is an inverted formulation of his oppoiieiit's Views. Zossima does not discuss jurisdiction. He talks' about "justice and punishment in the broadest possible moral and religious context,, and fór him !'the awareness of one's own consciousness" is the guarantee of "peace and justice (14:60). During tňe dispute in Zossima's cell, Ivan remains inaccessible to' anyone else's critical comments (except Zossima's), and his position is internally monologic. He addresses his words only to Zossima, and only Zossima's response is important to him. Zossima's position in this discussion can be described as one of deliberate multivoicedness. His opinion summarizes the views expressed by thé other monks, Fathers Paissy and Joseph, and carefully preserves the mošt valuable elements of Ivan's views. In his conversation, Zossima addresses not Only Ivan, but all of his guests, all people in generali In other words, this statement is addressed to the wide, nonfinalized humàn universe (mir) . A Ivan's assertion of thé primacy of the Church over all other social institutions 'receives its further development in his "Legend of the Grand Inquisitor." Zossima's idea of the awareness of one's conscience is at the core of his exhortations and his teaching that "everyone is guilty for everybody.*1 However sharply Ivan's "Legend" and Zossima's "exhortations" differ, they still remain two attempts to interpret the Bible and to embed the results of their spiritual interprétation of it in earthly life. ’The architectonics of Books V and VI illustrate Dostoevsky's usage of devices borrowed from the genre of clerical oration. Clerical oration has a firmly outlined hierarchical structure, and numerous 94

nonhomogeneous materials from everyday life appear there as didactic examples of religious dogma. The religious awareness conceptualizes the entire universe as an endless set of positive and negative manifestations of the same divine truth. The interpretation of this truth can be correct (righteous) or wrong (heretical or apostatic). In Books V and VI the theme of religious faith is examined through a set of antinomies which Dostoevsky formulates through the dichotomy of Ivan's and Zossima's direct utterances: "vse dozvolenor bunt, svoevolie" - "Dlja.vsekh Slovor vse sozdanie i vsja tvář' ustremljaetsja k Slovu; Bogu slavu poet" /all things are lawful, rebellion, willfulness The Word is for all creatures; each creation and 'each creature hastens to the Word, singing the Glory of God. 14:268/ The dichotomy of the heroes’ languages is preserved even when the protagonists use the same premises and resort to the authority of the same quotations. Zossima glorifes nature, Ivan and all the Karamazovs do too. Only Zossima^ Markel, and later Alyosha, however, understand the love of nature as a hypostasis of Christian love of God and God's creation. Only Zossima recognizes the preformed beauty of immortal divine harmony in the beauty of earthly nature. Ivan (and here he is indeed a Karamazov) associates sensual, destructive, Käramazovian features with his-love of nature; All of Ivan's statements arid direct utterances (as well as those of other personages) are included as anticipated words in Zossima's universal, all-embracing teaching. Each of Zossima's replies and all of his words are internally multivoiced and polyphonic by definition. Zossima's polyphonic word and the polyphonic context of his teaching accommodate Ivan's words and his philosophical statements as à set of alien utterances that are composite, but non-polyphonic in structure. In order to analyze the poetic structure of The Brothers Karamazov, oné must single out and study the smallest indivisible element of these utterances. Ellis Sandoz in his work Political Apocalypse analyzes the problem of faith and disbelief in Dostoevsky's "Legend of the Grand Inquisitor." Hë writes: "The attempt to gain access to its meaning will be made...through a series of associative aggressions, each of which reconstructs a facet of the author's meaning. This is an essentially meditative method of 95

analysis which commends itself as the /one best , suited j, to the exploration of^a deeply stratifiedjcompositioni such as the ’Legend'." Through his meditative method of analysis, Sandoz »convincingly shows that by the structure and by the sources used in the ^Legend," Ivanas wórkgis to be considered as heretical literature. Sandoz continues /his study by exposing the .political, but not necessarily theological, properties of Ivan.Karamazov's work. Inthe text of the "Legend" Sandoz discovered an abundance of direct and hidden Biblical quotations .> / His numbers differ markedly from the .numbers given in the Academy Commentary to the novel. This quantitative; difference reveals several aspects of the poetics of The.Brothers 7 Karamazov. The Academy/Commentaryideal's»primarily with direct quotations,, which are rather limited in number. Multiple hidden and veiled ./quotations serve ^a special aesthetic role in/Dostoevsky. Veiled, reinterpreted and reaccented quotations in the text of "The. Legend" encourage the reader activity, make the reader partake of the heroes' search.for truth, /enabling him to distinguish between true and false words and to independently and Voluntarily choose the word that he believes'is the authoritative one., Through polyphony;,! Dostoevsky makes his hero feel fully responsible /forf.his vówn jwords and concepts as well?as for their historical roots and the-future, implications. ;of,his suggestions. Dostoevsky 's contemporaries recognized ~ a Bogu ugodno bylo, chtoby ona stala dlja nas vnutrenneju /Christ's law is freedom. The Redeemer removed his visible presence from the Disciples. Nevertheless, the Orthodox Church rejoices with joy.. But why does a Roman Catholic rejoice? He has no right to do so....A Roman Catholic believes that from the top Of the Capitol the soothsayer will speak. Would not it have been better to hear the Truth from the mouth of the Redeemer himself? Yet He did not want that. Visible Christ would have been evidence of an imppséd, indisputable truth (in all the material palpability of its existence). But God wanted the Truth to be adopted freely. Visible’Christ would have made the Truth an external matter^but God Wanted the Truth to be internal./ In Ivan's "Legend," thé Inquisitor preserves the message as well as théJeloquençé ofr Khomjakov'š polemical* stance. Khomjakov's negative statements create the core of the Inquisitor's heretical affirmative premises. Khomjakov's original is seen as an inverted reflection in this passage. Imeesh' li Ty právo vOzvestiť nam khoť odnu iž tajn tógo mira, iz kotorogoty prishel? sprashiváet Ego moj starik i sam btvechaet Emu za nego - net, ne imeesh' chtoby he pribavljat' k tomu, chto uzhe bylo prezhde skazano i chtoby he otrijat' u Ijudej svobody, zà kotoruju Ty tak stojal, kogda byl na žemle. Vse, chtó ty vnov' vozvestish', posjagríet na svobodu very Ijudej, ibo javitsja kak chůdo, a svoboda ikh very Tebe byla dorozhe vsego eshche ťogdá,'poltory tysjachi leť nazad. /"Do You think4 You have the right to reveal even a single mystery of the world from which You come," the old man asks Him and then answers himself: "No, You do not, for You may not add anything to what has been said before and You may not deprive men of the freedom You defended so strongly *109

when You were on earth. Anything new that You might reveal to them now would encroach upon the freedom of their faith, for it would come to them, as a miracle, and fifteen centuries ago it was freely given faith that was most important to You. /14:228-229/ The Grand Inquisitor’s assertion that they are the ones who, by virtue of their'authority, will "reconcile all the irreconcilable strivings on earth" by feeding the hungry, by suppressing rebels, and by forgiving the fainthearted and weak their sins is also to be traced back to Khomjakov1s statements which the latter addressed polemically to the Western Church. In the framework of the whole isovel, the "Legend" is transformed into a willful and heretical distortion of the prescript: "Many are called, but few are chosen" /Matt. 22:14/. A direct and righteous interpretation of this prescript follows the false one, and in "Cana of Galilee" the truth; appears to Alyosha, revealed to him by Zossima in Zos'sima's own word and in his voice /14:327/. In Zossima*'s imagined conversation with Alyosha, as earlier in his real conversation with Ivan /Book II, Ch. 5/, the: Elder's word, a direct quotation in form, unites and harmonizes many other voices: the voice of Father Paissy, who is reading the Prayer Book, Alyosha's own unuttered thoughts, and the word of the Gospel to which Alyosha is listening. In the chapter "Cana of Galilee," Zossima's voice unites all other people's voices and words and raises this new, poetic fusion to the highest level, to universal Truth. Zossima's word also serves as a message to Alyosha and encourages him to join "the chosen" and to carry truth into the world. If Ivan accepts the precept "Vse- dozvoleho" /all things are lawful/ he must also .accept its,logical continuation: to uphold "Lozh1 po sovesti" /A lie as a matter of conscience/. So he does, and here the torment of his heart begins, for, according to Dostoevsky, Ivan is a true Russian, and as such he seeks and strives for truth with the utmost passion. The four-line quotation from Tjutchev1s "Eti bednye seienja" has a symbolic meaning here and illustrates the most pertinent feature of all the Russian people. This basic trait is their sense of Christian suffering as a mark of their national identity. Quite purposely Ivan emphasizes this fundamental trait in his 110

recitation of Tjutchev's poem: "U nas Tjutchev, gluboko verovavshij v pravdu slov svoikh, vozvestil, chto Udruchennyj noshej krestnoj Vsju tebja, zemlja rodnaja, V rabskom vide Car’ Nebesnyj Iskhodil blagoslovljaja. Chto nepremenno i bylo tak, èto ja tebe skazhu. /Among us, Tjutchev, with absolute faith in the truth of his words, bore witness that Burdened with bearing the cross, The Heavenly King in slave’s form Went throughout.all of you, you, Native land, with his blessing, and that certainly was so, I assure you. 14:226/ Here again the poetic function of the quote is polyphonic. Its direct meaning leads to Dostoevsky's own understanding of Russian world-wide universality and to his belief that the Russian people, as a national, moral and historical entity, are among those chosen by God. In this sense,, Ivan Karamazov says exactly what Dostoevsky himself believed to be true. Discussing Russian problems with Alyosha, he speaks of "russkikh mal*'chikakh i ikh mirovykh voprosakh.... est ' li Bog, est' li bessmertie" /Russian boys and their eternal questions, such as the existence of God and. immortality. 14:213/ In his characterization of the Karamazovs, Dostoevsky time, and again emphasized that they are all Russian people., that their problems are specifically Russian problems. Even Ivan's nihilism and his rebellion are Russian. Hence, if Ivan would only find the path of salvation, this would be "The Russian Solution to the Problem," (The Diary of a Writer, February, 1877). 3. Echoes of veiled quotations in the subtext of Ivan's poem, in the text of Dostoevsky's novel, and in the cultural context of the 70s The emphasis added by Ivan to "u nas," "vozvestil," "chto nepremenno i bylo tak," "èto ja tebe skazhu," is not emotional, but conceptual. The inclusion of this quotation from Tjutchev in the text of the novel implies several veiled citations originating in two of his other poems: "Encyclica" (The Day) , J^65 and "Dva Edinstva" /Two Unities, The Dawn, 1870/. Tjutchev's poems juxtapose two polemical 111

contexts. The poet’s affirmative statement corroborates the entire -.sum; of Dostoevsky’s "Pro",, and his negative statement contributes; to the seeming persuasiveness of the Inquisitor's lack of faith. He who proclaimed by his Encyclicalthe principle of the pope's infallibility ;is indeed the false vicar of Christ ("Lzhenamestnik JChrista";) . In -the name of God's truth, hisr apostasy is .not to >be pardoned ("Ne prostitsja pravdoj Bpga") Ne ot mecha pogibnet on zemnogo, Mechom zemným vládevshij: stol'ko let. Ego: pogubit rokovoe slovo: "Svoboda sovesti est' bred!" /Not from> the/ earthly sword will he perish, He who owned the: earthly sword for so many f years, He will beundoneby the fatal word: '^.Freedom of conscience is delirium"?/ Ivan's Inquisitor paraphrases Tjutchev's "false vicar of Christ " when he states : "Pj atnadcat' vekov my muchiiis' sètoju svobodoj, no teper' delo koncheno, i koncheno krepko." /For fifteen centuries we have been wrestling with Thy freedom/ but now it is ended and over for good. 14:229/^ For him the freedom of thought is delirium and he wants to unite the world oh thé basis of "authority." Here Tjutchev's second poem> "The Two Unities," contributes to the context of Dostoevsky's entire novel, for this poem juxtaposes armeduforcé and love as two .powers? that attempt to reconcile, human discord5 and??bring; unanimity to the world: < "Edinstvo, - vozvestil orakul nashikh dnej, Byť" mözhet späjänö zhelezom ill krov"ju..." No my popröbuem spajat' ego ljubov'ju, A tarn posmotrim, chto prochnej1... /The unity of the world, prophesied the oracle of our days, may be welded together either with iron or blood. But we'll try to weld it with love, and we ' 11 see which is more1 lasting). I An echo of this citation is audible in Ivanr's statement: Velikie-zavoevateli, Timury i Chingiz-khany, proletěli kak vikhr 'i po zemle, stremjas' zavoevat' vselennujy, hb i te, khotja i bessoznatél'no, vyrazili tu zhe samuju velikuju potřebnost' chelovechéstva ko 112

vsemirnomu i vseobshchemu edineniju; P r in j av mir i porfiru kesarja, osnovalcby všemirnoe carštvo i dal by vsemirnyj pokoj....My i vzjali mech kesarja, a vzjav ego, konechno, otvergli Tebja i poshli s nim. /The great conquerors, Timors and Genghis-Khans, whirled like hurricanes over the face of the earth striving: to subdue its people, and they too were but the unconscious expression of the. same craving; for universal unity. Hadst Thou taken.the world and Caesar's purple, Thou wouldst have founded the universal state and have given universal peace....We have taken the sword of Caesar and in taking it, of course, have rejected Thou and followed him." 14:235/ The sources for Ivan's philosophical concept are numerous, but the imagery and lexicon are borrowed from Tjutchev (cf.: edinstvo - vseobshchee edinenie; zhelezo - mech Kesarja; krov' - porfira). -The intense emotion of Tjutchev's stanza finds its echo in Book VI of the novel, in Zossima's behest to rely on love, not ein force.' Ivan's allusions to Tjutchev were clear to the readers of the time, for. they knew, the addressee; of Tjutchev's poem to be Bismark, the famous political oracle, "unifier,;" and remarkable conqueror of thé nineteenth century. In Ivan' s "Legend" and? in Tj utchev's verse, the poetic inspiration for- the . "Legend" and the two contrasting; elements are shown in conflict, whereas in the; context of the whole novel love wins out over hatred. The actual readers of the novel were quick to comprehend the hidden meaning of "The Legendand to decipher Tjutchev's quotations in subtext. A letter written by Ekaterina Tjutcheva, the poet's daughter, is but one example. Her letter is unique, however, not necessarily; because she deciphered thé hidden poetic subtext in Dostoevsky's novel, but mostly because she repudiated thé way it was incorporated poetically into the novel. She relied on Tjutchev's poetic authority, thus attacking Dostoevsky's poetics with the same weapon the writer himself used in his novel. Her aesthetic standpoint is defined in; »Tjutchev's poem "Silentium. "5 In October 1879, just after she. had read Book VI of The Brothers. Karamazov ("A Russian Monk"), Ekaterina Tjutcheva wrote, to Konstantin Pobedonoscev: 113

We have read the last part of The Brothers Karamazov« In his novel, Dostoevsky undertook too difficult a work; he wanted to bring in line, to depict in words what only life alone is able to join in common, and the strong spirit enlightened and edified by Heaven is able to reconcile, i.e., to unite the temptation, of supërficial faith, fainthëartedness, and flippancy of a believer in God with the infinite Harmony of The Truth. There are '.deep fonts ’ that a human word cannot and ought not to disturb. The dark spirit of temptation and willful doubt will be cast out not by ^dispute, but by prayer and fasting. One cam expose plagues, but who will heal them? Tjutcheva’s expressions "glubokie klujchi" /deep fonts/ and "molitvoj i postqm" / by prayer and fasting/ are both quotations, one from Tjutchev another from a Russian Orthodox exëgesis. The concept and jimage of "the false vicar of Christ" appear in Dosotevsky's notebooks as early as 1864, under the influence of his reading of Khomjakov and Tjutchev. As early as 1864, Dostoevsky equated Catholicism with, the concept of Utopian Socialism. It was also in 1864 that the idea of selfless, yet apostatic and accursed belief in God first came to. Dostoevsky as an adequate definition for the Western Church. In his later novels these views underwent further development, progressing through The Idiot to The Possessed, and from there to the political articles of 1873''. In his political article dated October 8, 1873, Dostoèvsky „discussed the false and fleeting triumph of the Roman iCatholic idëa: Rome knows how to appeal to „the people, those same people; whom the Roman .Church used to haughtily' spurn, from whom it hid the Gospel of Christ by banning its translation. The Pope knows how to appear to people, ’unmounted and bare, poor and naked,’ followed by an army of twenty thousand Jesuits, experienced in hunting human souls. Will Karl Marx and Bakunin be able to withstand this force? That is unlikely, for Catholicism knows how to concede and to agree to everything when it needs to. Is it so 114

difficult to convince uneducated and poor people that Communism is exactly the very same as Christianity and that this is precisely whàt Christ was talking about! Even now there are some clever and witty Socialists who are convinced that both are exactly?, the same and honestly take the Anti-Christ for Christ..../21:202-203 Both the article’s concept and all its penetrating images and verbal formulas were later borrowed by Dostoevsky for the poetics of Ivan's "Grand Inquisitor." Dostoevsky's main statement in this article is developed into several independent and convincing concepts in The Brothers Karamazov. Polyphony, whose nature is of musical origin, allows Dosotevsky to compose variations on the initial themes and th^eby to form new conceptual units on the same basis. These new formations are easily recognizable in the artistic fabric of The Brothers Karamazov and are all reciprocal. Their correspondence becomes even more' apparent after the hidden quotation, their common original source, is identified. The passage cited above is the embryo of at least three independent, yet reciprocal themes in The Brothers Karamazov; 1) "...hid the Gospels..." This factual notion refers to the history of the Roman* Catholic Church. In The Brothers Karamazov it is transformed into the Inquisitor's dicta: "We shall deceivë'them again, for we will not let Thee come to us again. /14:231/ 2) "...unmounted and bare, poor and naked." This direct quotation from Apocalypse 3:17 appears as a paraphrase in "The Legend": "At this moment he^js wearing his coarse, old monk's cassock. 14:227/ In Ivan's mind, the stubborn asceticism that characterizes his Inquisitor is support of his belief. 3) "...followed by an army of twenty thousand Jesuits experienced in 'hunting human souls'..." This is a direct quotation from Ezekiel 13:18. The original text of the Biblical passage accuses the false prophets and their false prophesy that led people astray. In the context of the novel, this undeimaged, larger quotation contributes to the entire stance of Dostoevsky's work. Yet again, the citation's polemical essence helps Dostoevsky to depict an antagonistic figure and to verbalize Ivan Karamazov's apostatic views. Ivan Karamazov's and/or the Inquisitor's 115

formulas, and the cornerstone of their,false faith have theirs roots in Chapter 13 of Ezekiel,, which Dostoevsky first quoted in his article and then reinterpreted in the novel. It reads: "Woe, unto the foolish prophets, that follow their own spirit" (To "follow their own spirit,which Ivan and the Inquisitor intend to do, is the basis of their, lawlessness ) "They have made men to hope that the word will« be, confirmed" (in the Inquisitor’s language;, this; gives the concepts of "an authority" and of a; pardonable falsehood). The Inquisitor's belief in the power? of earthly bread,L of miracle,, and of Caesar's sword,* as well as his idea of capturing human souls, are all rooted in this passage from the Bible, Thus Dostoevsky; transplants into his novel the. spirituals emotions1 that reading the Bible,; evoked,-; in, him. He reorchestrates andreaccentuatestheir . conceptual, meaning tó that .extent that they relate to Ivan' s worldview, yet he ;resorťs“ toi their, affirmative convincing power in ;Book VI of the novel ,and in the poetic framework of 'the novel's whole. Reorchestration as a polyphonic device allows Dostoevsky to include his own phrases; and concepts in Ivan's directs philosophical utterance. Reorchestration distances, Dostoevsky's own word form Ivan's statements, yet at the same time carefully preserves all similar shades of? meaning. The passage quoted from Dostoevsky's article is internally multivoiced, because it includes the opinion of Dostoevsky ';s hypothetical opponent/ that is of a "smart Socialist" who believes that "Communism is exactly the same as Christianity." This statement is variously repeated and, its validity is variously refuted .in several episodes of the; novel: in the dispute in Zossima'St-cell, inf the text-of "The Legend," and, in Kolya Krasotkin'.s«incurable Socialism. " Hence, the same quotation from the same original source casts multiple* reflections on, various levels^ of the hierarchical system in the novel, and once cited, the word; is then variously replicated and echoed in the text of the novel.

*116

Chapter III On the mechanics of polyphonic reorchesttation

1. The biographical features and individual style of Vladimir. Pecherin reorchestrated into the poetic manner of Ivan Karamazov "The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor" and its logical counterpart, the chapter "The Devil, Ivan Fyodorovich's Nightmare," unite and contrast seyeral, themes: the examination of truth vs. temptation for the seeker after truth; lies vs. truth; Christ vs. Anti-Christ; universal brotherhood and love vs. the Tower of Babel and hatred. Anti-Catholic and anti-socialist motifs play only a partial role in the novel and represent only two individual voices in the novel's polyphony. Dostoevsky’s disagreement with the tenets of nineteenth-century Westernizers (another theme of both of these chaptersand of the entire novel as well) is introduced into The Brothers Karamazov largely in parody, which, by its artistic form, acquires the image of the; characters ’ individual discourses. The final effect, of this artistic device is, of course, the parody, of polyphony, /i.e.., the parody of multivoicedness., which eventually divests individual statements of any reliability. To that end Dostoevsky uses polyphpnically reorchestrated quotations.in authorial and authoritative polemics with his own fictionalized antagonist, Ivan Karamazov and creates the latter’s imaginative, speech-companion — the Devil. Here the number of .reorchestrated voices (i.e., utterances, and quoted ^statements) characterizes the qualitative rather than quantitative features of Dostoevsky's aesthetics. The nonfinalized philosophical content of. the noyelf suggests a large list of names and their multiform combinations that can be considered, prototypes.of Ivan Karamazov and his discourse. It also suggests . that.,,for Dostoeysky. the only thing of importance is the prototype of a concept, or a worldview and the manner in which a, person utters and give .shape to his beliefs. , In his book Through the .Landmarks of Names Moisey Al'tman demonstrated that Ivan Shidlovsky, a friend of the youngDostoevsky and a second-rate romantic poet of the 1840s, was a prototype ,for J van Karamazov, (who also, is a minor romantiq poet)’. Tn support of his "! 117

statement, Al'tman refers to the memoirs written by Vsevolod Solov’ev, who learned of the similarity between Shidlovsky and Ivan Karamazov from Dostoevsky himself. Several biographical traits of Ivan Shidlovsky are hinted at in Ivan Karamazov's love story. His ideology, however, has little in common with Ivan Karamazov’s. Here an influence of an entirely different nature is felt. The image of Ivan Karamazov carries a definite imprint of Vladimir Pecherin's and Alexander Herzen's ideologies. Not Ivan Karamazov's figure, but rather "the image of his word" is modeled on Pecherin's and Herzen's philosophical positions. Biographically Ivan Karamazov has very little in common with either Herzen ( a political exile) or Vladimir Pecherin (a religious exile). Nevertheless, Ivan's philosophy presents several basic elements of Herzen's and Pecherin's views as they were understood, evaluated, and reinterpreted by Dostoevsky. For Dostoevsky Herzen and Pecherin had much in common. Though Russians by birth, both willfully abandoned their native land and their native faith and thereby, in Dostoevsky's view, inevitably lost the very sense of life, its living spirit. Hopeless pessimism, as Dostoevsky believed, was the only option available to Herzen and Pecherin. They share this perspective with Ivan Karamazov who is equally unable to grasp the meaning of life or to visualize his future in any fruitful way. The most significant features of Ivan's philosophy can be seen as a combination of Pecherin's and Herzen's fates. Pecherin was cut off from the Russian Church and joined the Catholics, while Herzen was cut off from his motherland and suffered in European exile. Pecherin's and Herzen's names are frequently mentioned in Dostoevsky's writings. Dostoevsky was familiar with the correspondence between Herzen and Pecherin that was published in The Polar Star, No. 6, 1861. In his novel The Idiot Dostoevsky quoted several excerpts from this correspondence, and in The Possessed he used Pecherin's romantic work, "The Triumph of Death" (also published by Herzen), as a parodic model for Stepan Verkhovensky's allegorical poem. As Arkady Dolinin has shown, the biographical and ideological influence of Pecherin and Herzen ^s also present in the image of Versilov in A Raw Youth. In The Brothers Karamazov quotations borrowed by 118

Dostoevsky from Pecherin for the image of Ivan are all introduced as secondary artistic formations which is to say that they appear in the novel via the mediation of Dostoevsky’s own earlier works: his political articles of the 1870s, The Diary of a Writer and A Raw Youth. In The Brothers Karamazov, Dostoevsky ignores biographical likeness and treats solely the stylistic and conceptual elements of Pecherin’s writings. Pecherin's romantic moods and his mode of thinking inspired Dostoevsky with several philosophical statements that he incorporated into his novel as true hallmarks of Ivan Karamazov's poetic style. One could say that Pecherin and Ivan Karamazov are poets of the same Romantic school and even possess the same _ second-class talent. Ivan shares Pecherin's admiration of Schiller and his ideals: an exalted yet abstract image of universal harmony is characteristic for both "poets." Pecherin’s religious seeking and striving is also a refrain in "The Legend," whose style bears the clear imprint of Pecherin's confessional writings. Some motifs that are muffled in Ivan's "Legend" are apparent in Pecherin's writings and vice versa. At times Pecherin's voice unites, as it were, the text of the "Legend" with Ivan's own commentary on it; sometimes Ivan's poem varies Pecherin's leading themes. Ivan's Inquisitor experiences the same emotions as did Pecherin. In both characters, their disdain for people evolves into pity for a humiliated and miserable mankind. For Pecherin, people are^"unizhennye sushchestva i ljudi bez verovanij" /humilated beings and men without faith and God/: for the Inquisitor the whole human race is "slaboe i unizhennoe ljudskoe plemja" /weak and humiliated tribe/. Similarly, both despise people for their sins and foibles. For Ivan Karamazov, his Inquisitor, while "an accursed man," is still an honest person and a true sufferer. As though Ivan himself, not Dostoevsky, were familiar with the story of Pechrein's conversion, Ivan's commentary repeatedly points out that "ètot edinyj chelovek i ne oskudeval nikogda mezhdu stojashchimi vo glave /katolicheskogo/ dvizhenija" /there has always been such a man among those who stood at the head of the Catholic movement. 14:238/ Pecherin's quite uncommon fate gains universal meaning for Dostoevsky as he progresses from paraphrased quoting from Pecherin to Pecherin himself as the basis for Ivan's opinions. 119

Dostoevsky borrowed most of his information on Pecherin from Herzen's "Pater Vladimir Petcherine." The episode describing Herzen's meeting with Pecherin is dated 1853. Rather than writing an accurate biography of Pecherin or discussing his exceptional personality, Herzen attempted a socio-historical sketch drawn upon Pecherin's case. He also limited his text to information that would have been acceptable to Pecherin, who was at that time a Catholic brother at the Monastery of St. Mary. The latter allowed its publication, but preserved a certain distance between himself and Herzen and did not even bother to correct a serious factual error: Pecherin belonged to the Redemptorist Order, not to the Jesuit Brothers, as Herzen believed. Although he was only five years older than Herzen (Pecherin was 46 in 1853), Herzen implies in his depiction of Pechrin in My Past and Thoughts, that the latter belonged to an older generation, to a bygone era, distanced from the present. The last passage of Herzen's memoir article is purposely indistinct in style: Two years passed. The gray gloominess of the European sky glowed red with the fire of the Crimean War: the darkness grew deeper, and all of a sudden amid this bloody news, I read in the paper that somewhere in Ireland "a rever Father Vladimir Petcherine, a native Russian," underwent a trial, accused of a deliberate public burning of the Protegtant version of The Bible in a city square. Most likely, this laconic reference to Pecherin's trial made a strong impression on Dostoevsky. One may assume that the core of the Inquisitor's apostasy, his intention to put Jesus Christ to the torch in the name of Christ and Christian faith, comes directly from this passage. To be more precise, Dostoevsky developed Herzen's phrase, "publichnoe sozhzhenie protestantskoj Biblii," into a colorful metaphor that gave impetus to the allegorical symbolism of Ivan's "Legend." Burning the Bible is an attempt to destroy the Word of God by fire, and since "The Word was with God and The Word was God," the horrible imagery of the poem comes to Ivan's mind from this association. Ivan's Grand Inquisitor shares many traits with the "Jesuit Pater Vladimir Pecherin," yet insofar as the Grand Inquisitor is Ivan's romanticized alter ego, a similar parallelism 120

exists between Ivan Karamazov himself and Pecherin. The hopelessness of Pecherin's seeking and striving poetically foreshadows the same pessimistic outcome for Ivan. The eloquent example of Pecherin’s fate, as depicted by Herzen, is used as a didactic premise in The Brothers Karamazov. In Ivan Karamazov's image, the entire complex of Pecherin's poetic reflections is used as "qui pro quo." 2.Herzen's style reflected in the narrative of The Brothers Karamazov The role that Herzen's own^writings play in the novel is much more complicated. Dostoevsky's manner of quoting from Herzen, his manner of referring to his works, and even the way in which he suggests Herzen's name to the reader, all illustrate new stylistic properties of polyphony and demonstrate various types of polyphonic reorchestration of an initially quoted phrase in the framework of a new poetic entity. Herzen's original words are garbled sarcastically, travestied, parodied and caricatured in The Brothers Karamazov, thus filling various levels of the descending slope of Dostoevsky's hierarchy. Yet elements of Herzen's ideology simultaneously form the very core of Ivan Karamazov's honest conviction. Thus, Herzen's word, though reaccented, remains valid in the novel and displays all the properties of "another person's word" and of an "internally persuasive utterance." The peculiar reciprocal interplay of these dialogic and polylogic relations needs further examination. In The Brothers Karamazov Herzen's influence is quite profound, permeating all stylistic levels of artistic narration. Ivan's philosophy presents many of the basic elements of Herzen's views as they were understood, appraised, and reinterpreted by Dostoevsky. Herzen's philosophy, his literary images, and his keen remarks and sharp observations are all absorbed by Ivan Karamazov. Reorchestrated, they also permeate the thoughts uttered by Miusov and even those of Ivan's Devil. The number of sources from Herzen used in The Brothers Karamazov is extremely large. As it has been shown in Part I, Ch. 1, the first paraphrase of Herzen appears in Miusov's "Paris anecdote," when the latter tells about his conversation with the superintendent of a whole regiment of political detectives in France: 121

My, - skazal on, - sobstvenno vsekh ètikh socialistov-anarkhistov, bezbozhnikov i revoljucionerov ne ochen'-to opasaemsja; my za nimi sledim i khody ikh nam izvestny. No est' iz nikh, khotja i nemnogo, neskol’ko osobennykh ljudej: èto v Boga verujushchie i khristiane, a v to zhe vremja i socialisty. > Vot etikh-to my bol'she vsekh opasaemsja, èto / strashnyj národ! Socialist-khristianin strashnee socialista-bezbozhnika. /"We are not particularly afraid," said he, "of all these socialists, anarchists, infidels and revolutionists; we keep watch on them and know all their doings. But there are a few peculiar men among them who believe in God and are Christians, but at the same time are socialists. Those are the people we are most afraid of. They are dreadful people! The socialist who is a Christian is more to be dreaded than a socialist who is an atheist." 14:62/ Several pages later, in the chapter "Why is Such a Man Alive," Ivan briefly summarizes the essence of the story: /...voobshche evropejskij liberalizm, i dazhe