Values and Professional Knowledge in Teacher Education 2018045818, 2018055646, 9781351003346, 9781138544635

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Series
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Acknowledgements
1 The experience of a teacher educator in England: values-based professional knowledge at stake
2 International perspectives on values and professional knowledge in teacher education
3 Applied theoretical principles for developing the relationship between trainee teachers’ values and their professional knowledge
4 The impact of university and school-based training contexts on the development of values-based professional knowledge
5 The challenge of a values-based professional knowledge to current teacher education practice
Index

Citation preview

Values and Professional Knowledge in Teacher Education

Values and Professional Knowledge in Teacher Education provides distinctive insights into potential strengths to develop trainee teachers’ values within schoolbased training. Looking at the personal moral and political values of trainees as fundamental to strategic and critical professional knowledge, the book considers a key question about training contexts: to what extent is teacher education embedded in the purpose and rationale of the school so that trainees’ values, and consequently their autonomy and identity, can flourish? The book is research focused and offers case studies that offer vicarious experiences which resonate with the professional needs and concerns of teacher educators. The book opens with a reflective narrative on the experience of a teacher educator in England. Further chapters explore international perspectives on values and professional knowledge in teacher education, applied theoretical principles for developing the relationship between trainee teachers’ values and their professional knowledge, the impact of university and school-based training contexts on the development of values-based professional knowledge, and the challenge of a values-based professional knowledge to current teacher education practice. Values and Professional Knowledge in Teacher Education will be of great interest to academics and post-graduate students in the field of education, university and school-based teacher educators, trainee teachers, researchers, policymakers and school leaders. Nick Mead was formerly head of the Department of Leadership and Professional Education and is now Associate Lecturer in Education at Oxford Brookes University.

Routledge Research in Teacher Education

The Routledge Research in Teacher Education series presents the latest research on Teacher Education and also provides a forum to discuss the latest practices and challenges in the field. Clinical Experiences in Teacher Education Critical, Project-Based Interventions in Diverse Classrooms Edited by Kristien Zenkov and Kristine Pytash Intercultural Communicative Competence in Educational Exchange A Multinational Perspective Alvino E. Fantini Teachable Moments and the Science of Education Greg Seals Dimensions and Emerging Themes in Teaching Practicum A Global Perspective Edited by Melek Çakmak and Müge Gündüz Teaching, Learning, and Leading with Schools and Communities Field-based Teacher Education Edited by Amy Heineke and Ann Marie Ryan Teacher Education in the Trump Era and Beyond Preparing New Teachers in a Contentious Political Climate Edited by Laura Baecher, Megan Blumenreich, Shira Eve Epstein, and Julie R. Horwitz Values and Professional Knowledge in Teacher Education Nick Mead For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Routledge-Research-in-Teacher-Education/book-series/RRTE

Values and Professional Knowledge in Teacher Education Nick Mead

First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Nick Mead The right of Nick Mead to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Mead, Nick (Writer on education), author. Title: Values and professional knowledge in teacher education / Nick Mead. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, N.Y. : Routledge, [2019] | Series: Routledge research in teacher education | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2018045818 (print) | LCCN 2018055646 (ebook) | ISBN 9781351003346 (E-book) | ISBN 9781138544635 (hardback) | ISBN 9781351003346 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Teachers—Professional ethics. | Teachers—Training of. Classification: LCC LB1779 (ebook) | LCC LB1779.M43 2019 (print) | DDC 370.71/1—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018045818 ISBN: 978-1-138-54463-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-00334-6 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To Hilary, Charles, Henry, Lucy and Robert

Contents

Acknowledgements   1 The experience of a teacher educator in England: values-based professional knowledge at stake

viii

1

  2 International perspectives on values and professional knowledge in teacher education

28

  3 Applied theoretical principles for developing the relationship between trainee teachers’ values and their professional knowledge

57

  4 The impact of university and school-based training contexts on the development of values-based professional knowledge

84

  5 The challenge of a values-based professional knowledge to current teacher education practice Index

122 151

Acknowledgements

I would like to record my thanks to teacher education colleagues at Oxford Brookes University and within the university’s schools partnership, who have, through shared professional reflection on course design, planning and teaching, and through academic discourse, played a formative role in shaping the key ideas in this text. I am also indebted to those who have helped me to articulate my convictions about what I believe is at stake in teacher education in such a way that will make a positive contribution to professional discourse. In particular, I would like to thank Professors Lee Jerome, Paul Gibbs, Victoria de Rijke and Leena Robertson at Middlesex University. A key part of the process of articulating a coherent view of why values matter in the development of trainee teachers’ professional knowledge has been engagement in dialogue with international ITE colleagues. I am extremely grateful to colleagues in the following countries for their insights and their friendship: Estonia – Olga Schihalejev, Margit Sutrop, Kadri Ugur and Toomas Jürgenstein; Finland – Katariina Stenberg, Kristiina Kumpulainen and Sirkku Nikamaa; Japan – Mitsuharu Mizuyama, Kaoru Nishii, Tadayuki Murakami, Andrew Obermeier and Masaki Tsumura; and South Africa – Lorna Balie, Widad Sirkhotte and Lungi Sosibo. Finally, I would like to thank Hilary, my wife, and my family for all their support, interest and encouragement, and Alison Jackson of Cumbria University and Linda Whitworth of Middlesex University for their enthusiasm for this text and their encouragement and advice in the writing process.

1 The experience of a teacher educator in England: values-based professional knowledge at stake

Taking the long view of teacher education Pring and Roberts (2015) argue for the importance of the long view in education, so when did neo-liberal values begin to impact on teacher educators and trainee teachers’ values? The historian Tony Judt (2010) writes that much of what appears ‘natural’ today in terms of the pursuit of material self-interest dates from the 1980s. On the other hand, taking Young’s (2014) sociological view that schools are specialized institutions that have always had constraints as well as opportunities built into them, is it naïve or idealistic to believe that trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values can ever fully flourish in such contexts? Although I acknowledge the institutional constraints which Young speaks of, I also believe that the long view is essential if we are to understand why it is that we have lost sight of trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values to the detriment of their professional knowledge development. There are two strands within the long view which form the backdrop to my own narrative as a school mentor and teacher educator over the past thirty years. The first of these strands well documented by Pring and Roberts (2015) is the erosion of the political consensus about Education, which these authors date back to the Ruskin College speech given in 1976 by the then prime minister Jim Callaghan. This was the first time that a prime minister had said anything about education ‘off his own bat’ (p. 7). Pring and Roberts argue that before this speech, the political consensus accepted that schools should have freedom over the curriculum and gave local education authorities the funding and discretion necessary to develop systems that best met their local needs. After Callaghan’s speech, which marked the beginning of direct political interference in education, the political consensus began to disintegrate with governments reducing spending on education, reducing the powers of local government, and most importantly for this study, reducing the independence of teachers. The second strand, well documented by Craft (1996), focuses on right-wing teacher education reforms arising from the disintegration of political consensus about education. The reduction in teacher independence and the increase in neo-liberal political interference leads to extensive reforms of teacher education from 1989 onwards. The right-wing Tory perspective on training was to prevail and would drive reforms based on a perception of teaching as ‘a purely

2  Experience of a teacher educator in England technicist matter of transmitting an unproblematic body of knowledge’ (p. 37). Craft is particularly concerned with the way in which this instrumentalist view of teacher education led to an attempt to eliminate any values-based professional knowledge from teacher education. For example, Margaret Thatcher, the prime minister at the time, believed that that there ‘was too little emphasis on factual knowledge, too little practical experience and too much stress on sociological and psychological factors’ (p. 37). These views were reinforced by Lawlor’s paper (1990) produced for the right-wing Centre for Policy Studies. Lawlor argued for complete on-the-job training in response to a review of a handful of Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) and Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) courses, which she considered to have too much sociological, psychological and cultural theory in relation to pupil learning. Here we can identify the political antecedents of an instrumentalist approach to initial teacher education, which has continued until the present and which has reduced opportunities for trainees to develop the relationship between their personal moral and political values through the processes of making moral decisions about inclusion and social justice. That this reduction in opportunities was to be thorough for ideological reasons is evident in the 1994 Education Act. The Act divorced Initial Teacher Education (ITE) from universities by diverting the funding to the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) (later Teacher Development Agency; TDA), which, because it controlled the accreditation and the funding, could dictate the content of courses. With the exception of the professional values section in the 2002 set of standards, values have not figured in the TTA and TDA iterations of the teaching standards. At this point in the long view, my own narrative as a teacher educator begins. The two strands outlined above reflecting increasing neo-liberal political interference in teacher education culminated in the recommendation in 1990 made by Ken Clark, the then secretary of state for education, that 80 per cent of a teacher training course should be in school (eventually reduced to 75%). Secondly, teaching standards were introduced for secondary trainees in 1992 and for primary in 1993. These standards focused on subject knowledge and classroom management. Third, university departments were to pay schools for the work of schoolbased mentors.

The importance of the relationship between personal moral and political values For me, as for those who have engaged in professional discourse arising from the case studies in Chapter 4, the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values lies at the heart of professional fulfilment and, consequently, the development of effective professional knowledge and expertise. This belief is part of the personal and professional narrative underpinning this text, and although the relationship will be discussed more theoretically in Chapter 3 once that narrative has unfolded, at this point, I need to explain its significance within my own professional development. There are those academics such as Biesta (2015), who, like myself, argue that teacher education should be understood as a process of the formation of the person; however, what Biesta means here is ‘not the individual

Experience of a teacher educator in England 3 person, but the person as professional’ (p. 12). In a similar vein, Korthagen and Kessels (1999), although describing personal meaning-making in teachers’ practice, limit values to what a teacher considers important, for example, ‘that children in this grade are capable of performing additions up to 100 without making mistakes’ (p. 8). These demarcations reflect concern about straying into the private moral domain, as well as displaying an awareness of the risks of moral coercion, for example within education systems in oppressive regimes. However, insights arising from reflection on my own development from self-understanding to self-realization, as both teacher and teacher educator, lead to a strong belief that the relationship between personal (as opposed to private) moral values and political values is critical to professional knowledge development. I will try to exemplify this from my own experience as Religious Education (RE) teacher, mentor and teacher educator.

The author’s narrative as Religious Education teacher At the heart of RE professional knowledge development has been the tension between an accurate representation of formal, lived belief systems and the beliefs and values of the pupils. This presents a considerable challenge for the positioning of the teacher in relation to their own spiritual, moral and political values. In the late 1960s I had taught RE in a largely confessional way, underpinned by a liberal Christian theological model, which assumed that common Christian values were nominally shared by the teacher and their pupils. This post-war model rooted in national moral restructuring presented a problem for those of us reaching adulthood and professional status at a time of growing secularization and plurality. Two things occurred that influenced the development of my professional knowledge: a disconnect between assumptions about beliefs and values within the RE curriculum and the development of one’s own personal moral and political values. Second, this disconnect displayed itself in the frustration of trying to make the connections between pupils’ lived experience and the faith content in such a way that would be inclusive and contribute to social justice and so would fulfil one’s motivations to want to teach RE. This disconnect between my personal moral and political values and the existing values and assumptions inherent in the subject at the time contributed to a decision to take a year out of teaching for further study but, most importantly, it crystallized for me the integral place of my personal moral and political values in developing a critical and strategic professional knowledge, which would sustain me in future teaching. However, many challenges were to lie ahead. With increasing post-war migration, secularization and greater diversity in British society, confessionalism was superseded by a phenomenological approach, which was adopted for a more multi-faith syllabus and intended to ‘develop an awareness of religious issues based on accurate information, rationally understood and considered in the light of relevant facts’ (Schools Council 1971, pp. 22–24). This approach which would ‘bracket out pupils and teachers own presuppositions and opinions’ (1971, pp. 22–24) was to be combined with a ‘reflective process whereby the outcomes of engaging in a dialogue with experience are brought

4  Experience of a teacher educator in England into dialogue with living religions, so that one can interpret and reinforce the other’ (1971, p. 43). As a result of this approach lacking any kind of pedagogical model, content seemed to drive a wedge between understanding formal belief systems and the development of pupil self-understanding. As Grimmitt has said: the broad liberal educational value that the model attributes to the study of religion, including its capacity to address the personal and existential concerns of the pupil, is largely absent and that it has become a by word for a narrowly descriptive and content-centred approach to RE. (2000, p. 28) Once again, the positioning of the RE teacher in relation to their own personal moral, spiritual and political values is challenged by the phenomenological approach in that they, like the pupils, experience a disconnect between understanding formal belief systems and the development of their own self-understanding. It was, then, with a strong sense of this dilemma that in the late 1980s, I took on a new RE department and, in the process of writing a new syllabus, sought to resolve this tension. This project took on greater significance for my own professional knowledge development because it took place against the backdrop of RE, as a non-national curriculum subject, increasingly ‘falling victim to a technicist and standards-related political ideology of education’ ushered in by Margaret Thatcher and the tory politics of the time (Grimmitt, p. 7). This displayed itself, not only in the narrow interpretation of the subject influenced by the Tory right with the emphasis on Christianity in the 1988 Reform Act clause (HMSO 1988), but also through the influence of content-heavy model syllabuses (SCAA 1994) containing measurable learning outcomes based on pupil competency. As a subject leader, one was pressurized to engage in the ‘new managerialism’ because of the risk, otherwise, of RE becoming marginalized from the rest of the curriculum. However, there were to be consequences for the struggle to develop a meaningful relationship between curriculum content in RE and pupil self-understanding, not least in the subject specialist’s struggle to retain the values underpinning the integrity of the subject as they engaged in the development of increasingly instrumental whole school teaching and learning and assessment policies. On reflection, it becomes clear to me that in this context, I was beginning to understand the nature of critical and strategic professional knowledge which emerges when processes of moral decision-making are required. In particular, in this ethos of measurement and instrumentalism, the relationship between one’s own personal moral and political values is galvanized to do justice to the personhood of each pupil in a specific context which matters to you professionally. Hence, I sought to develop the humanizing influence of RE within and upon the whole curriculum. In writing a new syllabus, I therefore turned to Grimmitt (1987) and Read et al. (1992) and their Westhill RE Project, which had as its central aim ‘to help children mature in relation to their own patterns of belief and behaviour through exploring religious beliefs and practices and related human experience’ (Grimmitt p. 93).This aim gives priority to the pupil’s

Experience of a teacher educator in England 5 personal development rather than being a recipient of a body of knowledge, as they had become in the truncated phenomenological approach. Implicit in the Westhill project was a distinction between learning about and learning from religions based on a theory of human development developed by Grimmitt (1987). Central to that theory is the process of growing in self-knowledge, which involves keeping the interplay between self and others continually in focus. This requires the curriculum content selected from both shared human experience and the religious traditions to be ‘contextualised within the main loci of interaction between self and others – family, faith, community, plural society and world-wide community’ (Grimmitt 1987, pp. 238–246). Grimmitt argued that it is only when there is coherence between the component parts, with each part playing its role, that the educational intentions of the theory become realizable. This coherence contributed to strengthening the relationship between my personal moral and political values in the classroom, and it consequently led to a much more confident kind of critical and strategic professional knowledge. This manifested itself in the articulation of shared personal and professional values underpinning the aims and purpose of an inclusive and socially just RE within the department. Motivating professional fulfilment leading to greater autonomy and a strengthening of teacher identity then followed as we engaged in developing relevant and meaningful learning, resulting in pupil investment in the value of the subject. To conclude, at this point in my professional knowledge development, the foundations were laid for a more theoretical understanding of the relationship between personal moral and political values, and it is to this which I will turn in Chapter 3. At this point, those who teach what they may consider to be nonaffective and values- free subjects in secondary schools may view my narrative as peculiar to the subject of RE. It is therefore worthwhile to have a look at what was happening in Maths during the late 1980s and 1990s. First of all within the Maths subject teaching world, there is a move towards cracking the myth that this is a totally values-free subject (Bishop et al. 1999). Part of this movement is the development of research into teachers’ intended and implemented values and within this research, a recognition that teachers’ personal moral and political values do play a significant role in decision-making in the Maths classroom. This is best exemplified in Dunne’s (1997) research undertaken with four secondary Maths teachers between 1991 and 1994. As in my own experience in adapting RE assessments to comply with whole school National Curriculum procedures, Dunne finds that the introduction of external regulation in Maths presents a significant challenge to teachers’ values. She observes that teacher judgements about test tier entry and pupil performance in class is narrowed to ‘individualised and essentialised notions of ability’ (p. 1). She argues that the reduction of ability to only a personal attribute is superficial and diminishes the significance of the classroom as an ‘arena for inter-subjective interaction, ignoring the constitution of an individual pupil’s and teachers’ subjectivity by relations of, for example, age, gender class and ethnicity’ (p. 1). Dunne concludes that deference to a clinical notion of ability conceals the complexities of social relations, which, in relation to the

6  Experience of a teacher educator in England personhood of the pupil, have a direct bearing on the intended and implemented values of the teacher. This finding, states Dunne, has considerable significance for social justice in education.

The author’s narrative as mentor I have analysed how the ‘new managerialism’ and instrumentalism emerging in the late 1980s and 1990s galvanized the relationship between my personal moral and political values as I sought to preserve the integrity of RE in relation to its contribution to the personhood of the individual pupil. The resulting increased confidence in my understanding of critical and strategic professional knowledge, based on moral decision-making about inclusive and socially just RE, motivated me to engage in the impact of the same instrumentalism beginning to spread beyond the curriculum and assessment and into teacher education. This meant that, as a subject mentor, I was involved in the initial implementation of the first set of Teaching Standards set out in Circular 9/92 (DfE 1992) within the context of what was to be described then in ideological terms as school-based training. Although not as radical as Ken Clarke, the secretary of state for education, had set out in his speech to the north of England education conference in January of 1992, stating that he wanted schools ‘to be in the lead’ (Campbell & Kane 1998), the shift to schools as ‘full partners of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs’) providing twenty-four weeks of training within a PGCE programme was significant enough (DfE 1992). It was significant in particular because the nature of the training set out in the circular was clearly intended to use schools to reinforce the prevailing neo-liberal values underpinning the measurement of competences pervading curriculum, assessment and whole school management: ‘The accreditation criteria for Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses should require HEIs, schools and students to focus on the competences of teaching’ (DfE, 1992 para 22, p. 1). This focus is spelt out most emphatically in the circular’s annex A: HEI institutions, schools and students should focus on the competences of teaching throughout the whole period of initial training. The progressive development of these competences should be monitored regularly during ITT. Their attainment at a level appropriate to newly qualified teachers should be the objective of every student taking a course of initial training. (DfE 1992, annex A para 2, p. 6) The circular goes on to state that it expects schools to develop their own competences-based approaches to the assessment of students, followed by a statement of these competences, which are predictably narrow and instrumental but which should very much be the priority for schools: ‘Schools will have a leading responsibility for training students to teach their specialist subjects and assess their competences in these respects’ (DfE 1992, para 14, p. 4). In annex A, subject knowledge and application are presented functionally as measurable competences in the form of ‘knowledge, concepts and skills’; similarly, class management are presented as

Experience of a teacher educator in England 7 ‘creating a purposeful and orderly environment’ (paras 2.3, 2.4, p. 6). Not surprisingly, competences in the assessment and recording of pupil progress are couched in the language of the ‘new managerialism’ and instrumentalism: students should ‘be able to identify the current level of attainment of individual pupils, systematically assess and record and use assessments in their teaching’ (annex a para 2.5, p. 6). As I progressed in the mentoring role at a time when my own sense of what critical and strategic professional knowledge might look like, underpinned by the relationship between personal moral and political values, I became increasingly aware of the challenge of meeting trainee’s training needs through a standardsbased approach as set out in Circular 9/92. It seemed to me, in the light of my own professional development, that mentors would need to help trainees to realize their personal values and motivations through their developing classroom practice. To achieve this, I felt that I needed to develop my own self-understanding, as well as the dialogic skills which would enable me to articulate the relationship between my own personal moral and political values within my classroom practice, thereby fusing the moral and instrumental within a standards-based framework. Such a fusion was important from my own professional perspective as I sought to support entrants into the profession. This was because I sensed a strong professional imperative to do justice to the integrity of my subject, as well as the beliefs and values underpinning the motivations of the trainees. At the same time, I could not allowing RE ITE to become marginalized by a failure to meet high expectations, albeit within a narrow set of assessment criteria. Subject value meant, then, that I had good reason to be tough on standards, but I did not believe that teaching standards should be the ‘tail which wags the RE dog’, and so I managed to avoid some of the more negative cynicism generated by instrumental and technicist systems which can so easily be passed on to new entrants in training. Being free of negative (but not healthy) cynicism meant I could focus on enabling trainees to develop a critical and strategic kind of professional knowledge, which had at its heart a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values that would inform their decision-making for the benefit of all pupils. Given the opportunities for this kind of professional knowledge to develop through a process of personal development for the trainee, I believed that the teaching standards set out in 9/92 would be fulfilled and indeed exceeded in a meaningful way. However, there was much at stake here because of the potential gap between what I had learnt through my own professional knowledge development and the realities of developing the new and unchartered mentoring role in the way hoped for. Overcoming that gap would require not an embracing of the anti-intellectualism that lay behind the prevailing political ideology that had created Circular 9/92, but an engagement in scholarly and professional debate about the serious arguments for school-based initial teacher education that could contribute to practical decision-making in the school context (McIntyre, Hagger & Wilkin 1993). That decision-making in relation to how experienced teachers can facilitate learning for new entrants would be subject to a range of views about professional education amongst senior leaders and professionals, reflecting the degree

8  Experience of a teacher educator in England to which schools adopted the prevailing neo-liberal values of the ‘new managerialism’. For example, as McIntyre et al. stated at the time: The mentor’s role is likely to be a minimal one if, like Lawlor (1990) one believes that, beyond a good under- standing of the subject to be taught, teaching is the same kind of relatively simple task as driving a car. On this view mentors need only provide a few helpful hints and tips and organise the extensive practice required. (1990, p. 16) In contrast, the contributors to what was one of the first academic and professional texts devoted to mentoring in school-based ITE state: that teaching is a very complex and difficult undertaking, dependent on the development of many kinds of qualities and abilities, and that therefore helping people to learn to teach is also a complex and difficult task. (1990, p. 16) In the immediate post-Circular 9/92 period, there were not in place the professional structures to enable mentors to fully engage in a professional discussion about the complexities of the mentoring process. In school, we had the new role of professional tutor who perceived their role as largely operational in relation to mentors, whereas I had anticipated more than this, for example, in creating a regular forum for sharing issues and good practice. Within the partnership, the university subject tutors gradually began to set up a system of pre-placement ­meetings, but again these were largely concerned with operational matters in terms of meeting provision requirements. It is interesting to note that by 1996 and the introduction of an extremely heavy-handed Ofsted ITE inspection regime (three visits in a year), universities, who were largely driving the partnerships, woke up to the need to galvanize their mentors and introduced mentor training, some of which was becoming accredited. The degree to which such training would address the complexities of ITE as well as the quality of training provision within the structures of the partnership would depend to a large extent on the university subject tutors’ evolving ability to engage in the nature of professional education, as well as subject knowledge and application which were the focus of Circular 9/92. I was fortunate because Margaret Wilkin was working on a post-modern view of ITE within the education faculty of Cambridge University, our partner university. Although aware of the inherent dangers of the fragmentation and relativism of this cultural view, Wilkin introduce a positive counter-movement which could potentially influence the instrumental methodology of standards-based and school-based teacher education. Wilkin argues that within ITE, the emphasis on plurality and democracy which characterizes post-modernism needs to be merged with the values, clearly defined goals and rational actions of modernism: As training becomes school-based, numerous teachers of varied interests, experience and skill must necessarily become empowered to fully share in the

Experience of a teacher educator in England 9 training of students. The particular expertise that they as mentors have to offer must be recognized and reflected in their status as truly equal partners in training who fully share decision-making and whose views are not just to be respected but also to be given institutional expression. Such typically post-modern developments are to be welcomed. But the fusion of boundaries between areas of knowledge which is also a characteristic of post-modernism must surely be rejected. It is essential to negotiate and then retain the boundaries between the roles of mentor and tutor, not to eliminate them. (Wilkin 1993, pp. 50–51) In my own partnership, and undoubtedly because Margaret Wilkin was in the education faculty, tutors encouraged mentors to lead mentor training, and this enabled me to begin to formalize and articulate the challenge of doing justice to the integrity of one’s subject as well as the beliefs and values underpinning the trainees’ professional motivations, all within the expectation of meeting or exceeding the requirements of a prevailing technicist and instrumental system of standards-based teacher education. Essentially, for me, here was a significant shift in the level of mentor analysis of the role which needed to be focused on processes of personal development and which would have implications for their own self-understanding. For example, in planning mentor training sessions with other mentors, I was keen to address the issue of how we would build the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values and their understanding of subject aims. Having lived through the emergent mentor role and having become aware of its ideologically motivated reductive risks which had the potential to marginalize the relationship between trainees personal moral and political values, I believed that the scholarly debate about school-based ITE advocated by McIntyre et al. would be enhanced by mentor research which was informed by the realities of holding together the tensions between subject aims, trainee’s values and the meeting of instrumental teaching standards. Such research was actively encouraged in my partnership by Wilkin’s post-modern position of the time that the views of mentors should not only be respected, but also find institutional expression. Following my research into the mentoring needs of RE trainees (Mead 1996), Wilkin used my findings, along with other small-scale mentor studies, to develop in-house accredited mentor training, as well as enabling my work to be published and disseminated to a wider professional group (Mead 2000). I imagine that for Wilkin, this mentor-led research exemplified the democratic problematizing of the ideological struggle between trainees’ personal moral and political values and the prevailing neo-liberal values of the political ideology driving school-based ITE. Such exemplification was an outworking of Wilkin’s analysis of the transition in ITE from supervision to mentoring as a potentially reductive but alternatively, potentially empowering, opportunity within the struggle for the heart of ITE. Essentially, then, my development as a mentor within the Cambridge Partnership was shaped by school-based experiences which reflected a very positive scholarly and professional debate about the potential of school-based training to overcome the theory-practice gap and how it might contribute to a much more organic, multilayered understanding of professional knowledge. Debates about and experiments to

10  Experience of a teacher educator in England address the theory–practice gap were not new, with, for example, Sussex University pioneering three days a week in ‘tutorial schools’ in the 1960s. However, the debate took on new urgency in relation to developing meaningful professional knowledge when the key word running through 9/92, and which permeated our school ITE documentation, was ‘competences’. McIntyre (1990), at the Oxford Internship Scheme, challenged the Cambridge model of professional knowledge for being too hierarchical about types of knowledge and who should have ownership of which type. As a result Wilkin (1992) became receptive to McIntyre’s more organic model of professional knowledge development and encouraged me to develop this in my own mentor research: The idea of dialogue between and synthesis of different sources of knowledge and different criteria for examining ideas and practices is at the core of the internship scheme. It embodies a respect and a questioning of both the craft knowledge and practical wisdom of practicing teachers. (McIntyre 1990, pp. 30–31) In terms of my own need to hold the tension between the integrity of subject aims, trainees’ moral and political values, and the meeting of instrumental teaching standards, the status which McIntyre gave to mentor’s practical wisdom enabled me to begin to formulate a concept of professional knowledge, which I would later articulate as phronesis (practical wisdom) serving techne (theoretical knowledge). This Aristotelian framework will be discussed in Chapter 3, but the important developmental factor at this point in this narrative is that in 1996, I undertook, with growing confidence about my equal status within the partnership, a research project which in its methodology and its findings would be my initial articulation of what I would later understand as practical wisdom as a form of professional knowledge. As highlighted by McIntyre, once types of knowledge cease to be privileged within a partnership, there is the confidence for questioning and the development of dialogue between different sources of knowledge, such as between mentors’ practical wisdom and trainees’ self-knowledge (phronesis) and theoretical knowledge (techne) underpinning practice and served by the former. The focus of the research project (Mead 1996, 2000) was how mentors addressed RE trainees’ mentoring needs. My aim was to bring to bear my concern about meeting those needs through a set of instrumental ‘competences’ when my own professional development, analysed in this narrative, involved a complex set of relationships between subject aims and pedagogy and my own personal moral and political values. This set of relationships seemed to me at the time to matter even more as the integrity of RE could be diminished by the recruitment of trainees from a range of non-specific subject backgrounds, following the Gates Report (1993) on under-provision of trained RE specialists. Not surprisingly, the mentoring needs were identified within mixed methods data from three partnerships as ‘how subject competence is addressed, how varied student motivations are turned into classroom practice and how subject aims are understood’ (Mead

Experience of a teacher educator in England 11 2000, pp. 197–198). Subject competence emerged predictably as the language of the 9/92 teaching standards, but for me, the most interesting area was mentors’ concerns about how to turn the motivations of a diverse range of trainees into classroom practice which would fulfil subject aims and thus do justice to the integrity of the subject. For the mentors and trainees within my sample, assessing ‘subject competence’ did not capture the nature of the mentoring process required here to meet these needs. What I wanted to do in the second stage of the research was to use qualitative interviews and observations to drill down into trainees’ self-understanding of their motivations in relation to practice and how mentors’ perceptions of these informed a mentoring process that could enable personal motivations to be realized through clear subject aims. In drilling down to understand trainee motivations, both Judith Everington, my supervisor, and I realized what a rich seam of data a more ethnographic approach offers to gaining insights into the processes of teacher education, rather than the competency outcomes. Everington was to go on to write a number of key ethnographic papers based on the training experiences of RE trainees from different religious and ethnic backgrounds (Sikes & Everington 2001; Everington 2014, 2015). My own paper on the experience of black African trainee RE teachers training in England took its impetus from the 1996 study as an attempt to undertake a fuller and much more detailed analysis of academic, cultural, religious and social factors influencing trainee motivations and the significance of these in addressing the mentoring needs which enable trainees to realize their personal moral and political values through classroom practice underpinned by clear subject aims (Mead 2006). The ethnographic insights into trainee motivations were limited, but they did offer some of the initial insights into how they were underpinned by a dynamic relationship between the trainees’ personal moral and political values. Articulation of this relationship in interviews was not confined to those with subjectspecific degrees and often reflected personal formative experience which they wish to pass on: My academic background is in Philosophy but I am keen to teach RE because I am convinced of its importance throughout every pupil’s school life. At its best I think RE should provide children with a context for moral reasoning, a sense of their own identity within the universe and a basis for understanding their own and other cultures, as well as knowledge of particular religions. (Student F) (Mead 2000, p. 198) The moral and political values underpinning such motivations are strong drivers for trainees wanting to give pupils the means to change and develop and a desire to want to participate in that process as political action in the classroom: Students see the outcome of this intellectual enterprise as relating to the dilemma in our society about the relationship between belief, morality and action: there is mention of the influence of personal ideas and values on

12  Experience of a teacher educator in England behaviour, of responding to moral dilemmas which dominate our lives’, of ‘giving pupils convictions and wisdom to change things’, and there is a good deal about teaching respect for culture, law and morality. (p. 198) The point which I wanted to tease out of these data for mentors was that these motivations may be more significant to these trainees who are from a wide range of non-specific subject backgrounds than subject knowledge. Yet subject knowledge figured largely in the 9/92 competences. I make the point, then, that ‘school experience can focus and deepen these motivations or threaten them. Mentors need to nurture such motivations and shape them into realistic classroom competences’ (p. 198). However, the real challenge for mentors was highlighted when I went on to find out to what extent trainees’ motivations related to their understanding of subject aims. In the first phase of the course 44 per cent of the trainee sample were able to give a basic definition of the aims of RE, and 25 per cent were able to give a more advanced definition which demonstrated an understanding of the relationship between learning about and learning from religions. Clearly, then, the challenge was for mentoring to become a process of matching trainees’ personal moral and political values to clarified subject aims, which ensured progression, differentiation and inclusion. My intention was to establish the extent to which such matching was being undertaken by mentors within the sample of three partnerships. What seemed to play a significant part in this process was the nature of the relationship between mentor and mentee. Through interviews and observations of mentor sessions, it became apparent that, when mentors explained the relationship between their own personal moral and political values and what they believed they were trying to achieve in the classroom, there was the modelling of critical and strategic professional knowledge. In what would be a dialogue between mentor and mentee, the former would skilfully encourage the later to articulate the values they sought to develop through a particular lesson and through the interplay between reflecting on their own approach and questioning the trainee, together they would arrive at a lesson structure underpinned by a professional moral judgement based on meaningful and inclusive learning. Such mentoring practice was extremely uneven across the sample; however, what the evidence did suggest is that trainee teachers’ professional knowledge could become critical and strategic if the school-based mentor engaged in a training, as opposed to a supervisory role, and that, within that role dialogic skills would be critical, therefore requiring the mentor to become an equal and proactive partner in the process (Mead 1996, 2000, p. 197). The 1996 research study cemented my convictions about the relationship between trainee teachers’ values, the development of their professional knowledge as critical and strategic and the potential role of school-based training in underpinning the latter with the former. As my data suggested that the relationship between these three elements seemed extremely fragile, I believed that much that mattered was at stake, particularly in the prevailing technicist ethos. This was

Experience of a teacher educator in England 13 brought home to me when giving a keynote presentation on my findings to one of the early School-Centred Initial Teacher Training providers (SCITT) in 1997. In terms of ethos, there was clearly a gulf between my analysis of the relationship between trainee values, development of professional knowledge and dialogic mentoring, and their undeniably impressive ‘systems’ approach to ITE. My talk of values, which was intended to challenge the audience at the end of their awayday, fell rather flat because, I suspect, it failed to connect with the team’s high morale about meeting competences. Of course, the relationship between trainees’ values, their professional knowledge and the potential for school-based training to underpin the latter with the former would also be put at risk if there was little democratizing of types of professional knowledge across a training partnership, as advocated by McIntyre (1990). My 1996 research project also looked at how the training partnership affected the quality of mentoring, and it was evident that presumptions about hierarchical ownership of certain types of knowledge led to a reductive and purely competence-based approach. For example, there were those mentors who did not feel empowered to enable trainees to transform strong personal moral and political values and motivations into effective subject teaching because they perceived the latter as largely dependent on sound subject knowledge, viewed primarily as the responsibility of the university. There was a similar compartmentalizing of professional knowledge, uncoupling it from the impact of school-based experience on trainees’ values and the reflective theorizing which could arise from this and locating it primarily within the university. Notably, amongst a number of mentors in the sample, there was a lack of confidence about their role and part of this was a fear of their work being scrutinized by both the university and other schools: I feel apprehensive about the role because you wonder if you are going to deliver what the university wants. (New mentor C) (Mead 2000, p. 202) Features of entrepreneurial opportunism detected in the ‘systems’ approach of a new SCITT or timid and reluctant conformity of less confident mentors are both identified by McIntyre, Hagger and Wilkin (1993) as potentially highstakes risks arising from 9/92: DFE have transformed what was a gradually developing movement towards school-based ITE in the thinking and practice of professional teacher educators, into a national requirement. Cautious reflective progress on the part of those committed to these new ideas have been replaced by bureaucratic impositions upon everyone, irrespective of their circumstances or concerns. (p. 5) Taking the long view, it seemed at the time that ‘mentoring is one more field on which the battle will be fought for the soul of the profession’ (Smith & Alred 1993, p. 114). There were those teacher educators at the time concerned about

14  Experience of a teacher educator in England trainees’ values, whose published written reflections confirmed my 1996 findings, but whose tone was more strident. Smith and Alred warn against the dangers of ‘falling into the poverty of thinking that mentoring becomes simply a label for a new bureaucracy of teacher training’ (p. 104). They are concerned that competences focus on the end product and obscure a process of development: Attending to the needs of the trainee teacher, properly listening, understanding how they have arrived at their beliefs, taking seriously the reasons they offer for these beliefs while at the same time knowing the whole person well enough to appreciate what the sources of their beliefs might be – all of this takes qualities of understanding, sympathy and humanity, which while they involve certain skills, go well beyond consisting simply of skills. (pp. 105–106) What is most at stake, then, for Smith and Alred, is the kind of person the mentor is. They argue forcefully that any negative impact of bureaucratic impositions will be countered essentially by the self-understanding of the mentor which, in turn, will enable the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values to flourish. In challenging poverty of thinking in mentoring, Smith and Alred confirm in a more combative way my own finding that the critical element in the relationship between mentor and mentee is to encourage a mutual understanding of values by the mentor willingly articulating ‘what they stand for, certain commitments, certain principles and ideals’ (p. 111). Most importantly, in combating instrumentalism, this articulation needs to be framed by questions about the purpose of education. In this way, mentor and mentee engage in a process of mutually supportive self-realization of teacher identity. Smith and Alred are much more forceful than myself in setting out the affective aspects of teaching which are closely linked to fulfilment of personal and political values and which therefore require the mentor to ‘bring their whole being as a person to bear rather than exercising certain skills’ (p. 106): The experience of teaching, at all levels is one in which our feelings, our sense of identity, our vulnerability as human beings are all involved and necessarily involved since it is from the way we handle those feelings that children stand to learn so much that is lastingly valuable. (p. 106) Frost (1993) takes more of a theoretical and less of an experiential approach to challenging the threats of competency-based bureaucratic impositions. His main concern is that shared by Smith and Alred and myself, but again, like the former and unlike myself at the time, his tone is combative, even adversarial: Our aim in reaction to instrumentalism should be to turn the concept of mentoring into a radical and dynamic force for the development of an enhanced critical professionalism which addresses questions of value. (p. 135)

Experience of a teacher educator in England 15 Frost believes that Schon’s (1983) tacit professional knowledge refined through action and reflection does not allow the trainee to bring explicitly into question the moral, social and political contexts of educational practice. In strong terms, Frost makes the case for adopting Zeichner et al.’s ‘reflection as critical inquiry’ (1988) because this approach to reflection takes in the ethical and moral dimension and it is this aspect of reflective practice which I believe is already under threat and could be extinguished completely in the context of school-based ITE. (p. 137) Zeichner et al.’s approach is based on discourse analysis which they claimed at the time covered 2 per cent of reflective practice. Frost seizes on the US data to make his case, but he goes further than Zeichner by personalizing questions of value in a similar way to Smith and Alred and myself: This is not just about critically examining the values which are embedded in classroom practice. It is also important to be aware of the fact that the individual student-teacher acts according to personal value positions and that these takenfor-granted actions transcend the particular teaching strategy or curriculum. (p. 137) Frost concludes his defence of the integrity of teacher education by stating categorically that any critical discourse between mentor and mentee must begin with the pre-existing beliefs of student-teachers: This is done not so much by examining teaching content/materials but by engaging the student-teacher in the analysis of their own actions in the classroom in order to reveal their personal values and call them into question. (p. 138) ‘Calling into question the trainees’ personal values suggests judgement of such values, but I actually think that Frost, in his desire to convey a rigorous process way beyond craft knowledge, overstates what he in the same section describes as problematizing taken-for-granted assumptions which can strengthen existing values through clarification. What is the significance of the more combative tone of the work Smith and Alred and Frost in my narrative? Re-reading their work has helped me to reflect on a transition period in the development of my professional identity and the implications of this for my own personal moral and political values. As a classroom practitioner and subject mentor, I had sought to identify good mentoring practice which would essentially contribute to effective RE teaching and which I could share with other subject mentors in my school. I had, of course weathered the familiar structural conflicts within education inflicted by the ideologies of various governments over nearly twenty years in the profession, and loss of agency had been acutely felt at times. At the time of my engagement in ITE, I was

16  Experience of a teacher educator in England very focused on developing meaningful teaching in a thriving department which included sharing good practice with trainees. In my professional subject network, which included university teacher educators, I did encounter a degree of hostility and negativity towards political interference in curricula and ITE. I was reluctant to be burdened by such negativity as morale in my professional context was high, and the democratizing process of beginning to play a distinctive role as mentor in our ITE partnership was contributing to this. Now re-reading writers such as Smith and Alred (1993) and Frost (1993), I appreciate more how they were setting the scene for the struggle for the soul of teacher education as I moved to the site of that ideological battle: the university.

The author’s narrative as a teacher educator In terms of pursuing the significance of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, my move into Higher Education (HE) was, in the words of Furlong et al. (2000), ‘significantly weakened’ (p. 101) by ITE policy flowing from DfE Circulars 9/92 and 14/93. The establishment of partnerships and the shift in funding ‘denied in principle that those in HE had a distinctive contribution to make to ITE’. As Furlong et al. state, this denial was formalized by the introduction of the TTA, which was charged with managing ITE. They then ask: ‘how did those in HE respond to these changes and how was their work in reality changed by these interventions?’ (p. 101). My own narrative bears testimony to school teacher identity and the role of research as the two key features of a teacher educators’ adaption and change during a period in which ITE moved ‘from diversity and autonomy to homogeneity and central control, characterised by a technicist-rationalist methodology’ (Furlong et al. 2000, p. 148). With teacher educators’ identities under threat, one feature which emerges as a constant is the continuation of a school teacher identity with all its deeply held values surrounding care for the personal development of one’s students. This feature is well documented in a number of research studies (Ducharme 1996, Furlong et al. 2000, Boyd and Harris 2010, Murray, Czerniawski and Barber 2011, Ellis 2013, Izadinia 2014). The research confirms my own experience that this continuation of school teacher identity is problematic within the fast-developing structural commercialization of the university sector in the late 1990s. My intention was to model and live out the relationship between my own personal moral and political values, essentially in the ways I had in school, through my subject knowledge as an RE, Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE) and Citizenship specialist tutor, through my pedagogy and through my relationship with my trainees. However, reductions in university-based sessions and school visits, as well as large numbers managed by fewer staff, generated a widespread feeling that that we were increasingly losing touch with our trainees, a feeling identified by Furlong et al. (2000) as a loss of influence on the developmental stages of teacher formation: ‘a loss of having a sustained relationship with our students combined with fewer opportunities to share with them an ecological view of what education is for’ (p. 110). The situation was exacerbated by the fact that the partnership model I had benefited from as a school mentor became mandatory

Experience of a teacher educator in England 17 but remained largely HE led, causing the influence of teacher educators’ values to be diminished but not replaced by strong school-based values which could inform trainee personal development. In this context, the trainee–teacher educator relationship was gradually being replaced by the latter undertaking a generalist role, which Ellis (2013) describes as ‘relationship maintenance’ (p. 270). Within this emerging role was still the school teacher commitment to the personal development of the trainees but also a loss of one’s identity and autonomy as we sought collectively to ‘maintain networks of fragile relationships’ in our partnerships (Ellis, p. 270). As Furlong et al. (2000) state, we were becoming part of a large scheme in which our own personal expertise ‘had to be deployed within a clearly defined and publicly accountable framework’ (p. 166). The accountability in that framework was, of course, intensified by the introduction of the 1996/98 instrumental Ofsted/TTA inspection framework with its focus on (1) Intake, (2) Training and Assessment Procedures and (3) Outcomes. Here lay a tension between personal and professional values and institutional reputation and accountability. It seemed to me that clinging to the school teacher identity would not address such a conflict of values. Murray et al. (2011) have raised questions around the way in which care for student-teachers as a teacher educator became elided with the perceived good practice of school teachers in nurturing pupils (p. 267). The risk here is that Noddings’ ‘Ethics of Care’ (1992) might, as Murray (2007) argues, produce or reproduce inappropriate and outdated models of teacher educator pedagogy and practices (p. 287). The challenge to myself, then, was how to reconstruct the centrality of the development of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values within an increasingly technicist-rationalist and highly instrumentalized form of teacher education. Such a challenge required a change in gear from the school teacher who had been appointed to HE on the strength of their subject knowledge and classroom pedagogy and practice to a much more public-facing and politically engaged professional. Any re-presentation of one’s professional identity is, of course, part of a personal narrative and, later as Head of Department line managing ITE colleagues, I was conscious of the pressures those who were committed to ‘relationships maintenance’ were under. However, there were those academics at the time who saw the political engagement of the teacher educator profession as largely unavoidable if any ‘passionate voice from the heartland of teacher education was to be heard, critiquing the possibilities for a foundation for teacher education’ (Hamilton & Pinnegar 2000, p. 234). Ben Peretz (2001) has argued forcefully that the ‘impossible role’ of the teacher educator at the time could only be addressed if they have heeded the advice of Sindelar and Rosenberg (2000) and others and become more assertive in the political dialogue concerning teacher preparation and development, questioning the existing order and keeping alive ideas of equity and social justice. (p. 51)

18  Experience of a teacher educator in England What was of particular importance to me in this re-presentation of the teacher educator was that the place of values had the potential to become much more dynamic than Nodding’s ‘Ethics of Care’. In Cochran-Smith’s (2000) articulation of reasons why ‘politically motivated solutions to ITE need to be engaged with by teacher educators, I could see how the relationship between teacher educators’, and trainees’ personal moral and political values could be galvanized into becoming the drivers of a much more critical and strategic kind of professional knowledge: Teaching and teacher education are unavoidably political enterprises and are in that sense value-laden and socially constructed. Over time, they both influence and are influenced by the history, economy and cultures of the societies in which they exist, particularly by competing views of the purposes of schools and schooling. Like it or not, more of us in teacher education and in the educational research and policy community will need to engage in those public and political debates if we are to have a real voice in framing the questions that matter for the future of teacher education. (p. 165) Wilkinson (2007) has argued that teacher educators have been unable to resist policy instruments which usurp any sense of service to a professional ideal. In particular, he claims that ‘the profession has failed to unite around any agreed set of transcendental values which it might serve’ (p. 382). I believe that CochranSmith’s position offers a way forward, but for many the positioning of the caring values of the school teacher within a much more politicized professionalism is a challenge and for some, an anathema. How was I, then, in various leadership roles, ranging from programme leader to eventually Head of Department, going to be able to take forward CochranSmith’s articulation of a values-laden but politicized conception of teacher educator identity and practice? It is in attempting to meet this new challenge that the place of research took on a new value and meaning. This, then, is the second key feature of a teacher educator’s adaption and change which emerges in my narrative. In addition to the teacher educator’s loss of autonomy through the mechanics of marketization and bureaucracy, resulting in the risk of teacher education being reduced to ‘an unproblematic technical – rationalist procedure’ (Furlong et al. 2000, p. 132), there has also been the universities’ chastisement of their lack of research outputs (Ellis, p. 276). Ellis has described this process as the ‘proletarianising’ of teacher educators with an expectation that they will undertake generalist ‘relationship maintenance’, but ‘denied the opportunity to accumulate academic capital from their labour within the value-system of HE’ (pp. 277–278). How, then, could the voice of the teacher educator be heard in framing the questions that matter for a values-based professional knowledge development within teacher education? My own approach was to use research as a way of creating a voice of ‘one who was participating in creating the ‘living educational

Experience of a teacher educator in England 19 theory of teacher education within my daily work’ (Hamilton & Pinnegar 2000, p. 235), making what were often implicit theories explicit through case studies in which I was present both as insider and outsider. In this way, I attempted to engage my own personal moral and political values in a critique of the impact of instrumental standards-based ITE on the development of my trainees’ values. In this narrative and autobiographical approach, I was aiming to model how the values of the school teacher rooted in care for the development of one’s students’ values, autonomy and identity, could be merged into a much more dynamic and politicized articulation of questions of value about professional knowledge and the work of teachers. Essentially, I was attempting to exemplify a form of research which could integrate both professional and academic identities and which for myself and my colleagues could be seen to ‘have congruence with our work and with the values and sense of personal mission that underpins it’ (Murray, Czerniawski & Barber 2011, p. 275) I can best exemplify here the form of research I was undertaking by narrating my reflections on capturing the interplay between my own values and those of my trainees in the process of using research to inform how values-based professional knowledge might be developed in a standards-based ITE ethos. The strength of this lies in my lived experience as the researcher who is also a practising teacher educator. Of particular importance here is both the immediacy and evolving nature of the research, as I respond personally and professionally to successive external measures affecting trainee teacher development. At this stage in my narrative, I had not formally adopted a phronetic approach which I will discuss in Chapter 3; however, I sensed that I needed to have the credentials of the researcher as insider if this research was to convey what I felt was at stake in ITE. These credentials, according to Flyvbjerg (2001), consist of an intimate familiarity with the contingencies and uncertainties of practice in my professional context, combined with the experience and professional judgement which enables me to recognize patterns in what I observe. This position alone, however, did not seem to guarantee the potential for this kind of research to contribute to a more public and political discourse. My eventual adoption of an issue-based case study approach which looked beyond the particular, combined with qualitative data analysis strongly influenced by the phronetic approach, raised the question about whether either of the traditional ‘insider’ and ‘outsider’ doctrines applied to my particular understanding of my position as the researcher. The outsider doctrine is based on the belief that only the neutral outsider can achieve an objective account of human interaction because they possess the appropriate degree of distance and detachment. By contrast, the insider position is based on a belief that because the insider has been engaged in the experience which makes up the case group, they have the direct intuitive sensitivity that alone makes empathic understanding possible (Merton 1972). Frequently this polarization of researcher position has led to an unhelpful preoccupation with whether the latter is too ‘in’ or too ‘out’. There are those like Merton (1972) who, because of such disputes, has reached the view that the dichotomy is unhelpful and that there are no overwhelming advantages to being

20  Experience of a teacher educator in England either an insider or outsider. Others like Mercer (2007) and Simons (1996) have moved to the position that insider and outsider are most helpfully understood as ‘being on a continuum rather than a dichotomy’ (Mercer 2007, p. 1). The continuum model was illuminating for my purposes because it seems to be a way of capturing the complex relationship between the intuitive, relational and dialogical found in the context and the process of ‘transforming the content of teacher consciousness explored into a public form so that it can be examined and shared’ (Eisner 1993, p. 7). In essence, this was to involve communicating truths about complex educational endeavours surrounding the relationship between phronesis and techne in teacher education through my own beliefs, values and lived experience as both the researcher and teacher educator. The movement on the continuum is between my daily immersion in the role of teacher educator and a pulling back to articulate what can be shared insights. The nuanced nature of this task which the continuum model captures so well is likened to that of the artist by McDonald and Walker (1975), who describe the case study as ‘the way of the artist who achieves greatness when, through the portrayal of a single instance, he communicates enduring truths about the human condition’ (p. 3). Kemmis (1980) also takes up the artist analogy emphasizing how the ‘indeterminacy of the case study needs preserving and the dialectical processes of its construction’, which reflects that the researcher is not ‘an automaton shorn of human interests and programmed to execute a design devoid of socio-political consequences’ (pp. 119–120). For Simons (1996), the artistic approach is actually the positive outcome of the paradox of being both insider and outsider: Paradox for me is the point of case study. Living with paradox is crucial for understanding. The tension between the study of the unique and the need to generalise is necessary to reveal both the unique and the universal and the unity of that understanding. To live with ambiguity, to challenge certainty, to creatively encounter, is to arrive, eventually at ‘seeing’ anew. (pp. 237–238) How did this paradox work in the development of my research? Essentially, it meant that I found a more public and political voice within case studies which are concerned with the issue of understanding and promoting the critical importance of phronesis, in the form of teachers’ personal moral and political decisionmaking, for the transformation of techne beyond the limits of craft. As Stake (1995) states, case study method is subjective, ‘relying heavily on the researcher’s previous experience and their sense of the worth of things’ (p. 135). In my case, cumulative experience of increasingly instrumental teacher education arising from an all-pervasive prescriptivism has challenged my sense of the worth of values in teacher education. As Kemmis (1980) states, this sense is not arrived at simply through a process ‘of thought going out to embrace its object’ but through what he describes as the active and interventive (p. 119) and what Stake describes as ‘personal, situational and intricate’ (p. 135). My position on the insider–outsider continuum at this stage has to be closer to the former, reflecting

Experience of a teacher educator in England 21 the credibility and rapport I have with my subject and my ‘appreciation of the full complexity of the social world at hand’ (Mercer 2007, p. 7). Of course, there are considerable risks with the subjectivities of the situation that Mercer highlights, such as my commitment to my PGCE students, which ‘would not allow total detachment from their interests’ (p. 10). On the other hand, in the spirit of Simon’s (1996) paradox, I have found, for example, that the research interviewing process can become ‘less a conduit of information from informants to researchers and more a sea swell of meaning making in which researchers connect their own experience to others’ (Mercer 2007, p. 10). This shift in the relationship between researcher and participants is at the heart of narrative inquiry, a method which can be drawn upon here to illuminate what it is like to occupy the insider–outsider position. Clandinin and Connolly (2000) describe narrative inquiry as occupying a metaphorical three-dimensional space consisting of the personal and social (interaction), past, present and future (continuity), and place (situation) (p. 50). As a researcher and teacher educator, I occupy this space with my trainees and together we experience simultaneously what Clandinin and Connolly call the four directions of interaction: inward to our feelings, beliefs and values, and outward to the challenges of the specific training situation, and backwards and forwards along the continuum of our past, present and future experiences which inform our understanding of that situation. This is essentially an autobiographical experience for researcher and participants, the former being ‘part of the narrative unfolding, complicit in the world being studied and therefore needing to remake themselves as well as offer up researcher understandings that could lead to a better world’ (Clandinin & Connolly 2000, p. 61). I would argue that this ‘remaking’ process for all participants provides rich narrative data which contribute significantly to theory-testing case study generalizability. A brief exemplification of some of the features of narrative inquiry in case study five, found in Chapter 4, would help to further illuminate what it is like to occupy the insider–outsider position. As I sat in my office interviewing three of my Black African trainees about the challenges they were encountering in their training, the three-dimensional space of narrative inquiry emerged from the relational context: in hindsight I feel that I could not have made this happen in Kemmis’s (1980) sense of ‘thought going out to meet its object’ (p. 119). The four directions of interaction were experienced as we explored deep feelings about the value of education and the guiding and spiritual role of teachers in their African upbringing. What was particularly profound was the trainees’ deep-seated desires to contribute to the spiritual, moral and pastoral well-being of pupils in their placement schools and the frustrations of not progressing in this in the way they had hoped for because of cultural inhibitors which teaching standards on their own would never address. For me, their frustration took me back to my early teaching experience and the frustration at not being able to realize my values through bringing the subject of RE alive in the way I had hoped for. These memories and feelings merged on the past, present future continuum with my developing beliefs about an inclusive teaching workforce which was representative of UK society and which was informing my selection of trainees as course

22  Experience of a teacher educator in England leader and my research interest in the developing needs of these ­trainees. The ‘remaking’ of myself through this experience contributed to my desire to go back to understanding these trainees’ home cultures and reveal through the relational, situational and intricate the reasons why teaching standards or techne alone will not lead to autonomy and identity as the teacher seeks self-realization in the classroom. For the three Black African trainees, their autobiographical encounter with my beliefs and experience contributed to the start of their ‘remaking’. In my office over a number of interviews and during my visits to their schools, they grew in stature as their deeply held cultural and religious values, and past African experiences of education were recognized and given value thereby enabling them to move along the continuum of self-realization as teachers. The sense that something of value is at stake in standards-based training would not be conveyed so powerfully in case study five without my occupying the insider–outsider position. My working out of the insider–outsider position amounted to a repositioning of the teacher educator research role in order to trouble the dominant discourse of techne. This would inform my daily work as a teacher educator through the problematizing of the impact of an instrumental techne on the integral relationship between the moral development of the trainee and their actions in the classroom as citizens. I hoped that such problematizing would lead to a troubling of professional discourse about the extent to which teacher education processes, pedagogues and provision enabled or inhibited the development of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values. In order to develop an outward-facing discourse, I selected case study contexts as specific arenas of teacher education where I have encountered, through my everyday work, a challenge to the worth of values within the development of trainee teacher professional knowledge. Inevitably what emerged is incomplete personally and socially constructed knowledge; however, the quality and utility of such knowledge, as Stake (1995) reminds us, is not based on its reproducibility, but on whether or not the meanings I have generated (and indeed which the reader generates) are valued (p. 135). Troubling the professional discourse would, of course, have to begin with the members of my department and with my intention to model research which would have congruence with our work and values. It was therefore important that the ‘fuzzy generalisations’ (Bassey 1999) arising from my research were perceived by colleagues as containing the intellectually essential element of uncertainty but remain intellectually honest and, as such, would have the potential to be communicated and injected into our professional discourse. As a result, some transformative initiatives would emerge, such as more inquiry-led teacher education pedagogy, the development of dialogic mentoring in our partnership and a more thematic, values-based course structure that would reflect a move towards a more organic model within which the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values could be strengthened. In developing an outward-facing debate as a practitioner first and foremost, perhaps the most significant element in the research was the way in which ­natu­ralistic generalizations offered teacher educators vicarious experience. This experience

Experience of a teacher educator in England 23 would contribute to making explicit their sense of the values conflict within their own professional contexts. In this way, it seemed to me that they were not just taking the formulations of my informed practical judgement in one context, but were responding to theoretical accounts, which could provide a basis for analysing systematically distorted decisions and practices in ITE policy possibly suggesting the ‘kinds of social and educational action by which these distortions might be removed’ (Carr & Kemmis 1986, p. 39). Particularly powerful here is how I was offering an interpretation based on a personal account which could not be verified scientifically and, as Carr and Kemmis state, ‘could only be validated in and by the self-understanding of practitioners under conditions of free and open dialogue’ (p. 39). It was the case, then, that in both the responses to published case studies, but particularly in the giving of papers to teacher educator teams in other universities, I found that my data generated by my personal exploration of trainees’ values were sufficiently rich, plausible and trustworthy enough for my audiences to recognize that here was something of worth which they might have experienced. As a result, I found the voice to frame the questions that would challenge others to recognize and engage with the critical importance of teacher agency, or lack of, in exercising moral judgements rooted in their personal and political values and that, on reflection, contribute to a more critical and strategic professional knowledge. Therefore, in repositioning myself as outsider as well as insider, I believed that my actions and descriptions were justified and accounted for in terms of the truth status of my findings: ‘through making, even by the case study’s integrity alone, an advocacy for those things we cherish’ (Stake, p. 136).

Conclusion It will be clear by now from the reflective narrative within this chapter that what has evolved during my own professional development is an advocacy for the cherishing of the relationship between a teacher’s personal moral and political values. Rather than beginning with a theoretical or philosophical justification for the efficacy of this relationship in the working life of a teacher, I have sought to contextualize the meaning of this relationship within a personal narrative of my own professional development from teacher to mentor, to university teacher educator. As with my research methodology, I am offering this narrative as an interpretation of a growing sense, as a practitioner, that there is something of worth at stake if the importance of the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values is undermined by standards-based teacher education. That this matters to many trainees, experienced teachers and teacher educators has become evident to me through the opportunities I have had to engage in a new level of professional discourse, and this in turn has validated my own personal belief that teaching offers a unique and fulfilling blend of the personal and the professional. It seems to me that there will be historical, political and professional implications if the polarization of the moral and the instrumental in teacher education is allowed to continue without recognition that the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values is understood to be essential

24  Experience of a teacher educator in England to developing a critical and strategic professional knowledge, based on problematizing the relationship between the moral and the practical. What I hope to have achieved in this narrative chapter is to establish the professional integrity of the place of values in teacher education. It is now my intention in subsequent chapters to set out my claims concerning that integrity which challenges key instrumentalist and positivistic feature within expanding school-based teacher education, particularly in relation to trainee autonomy and identity and which, as I argue, have implications for redefining process, pedagogy and provision within ITE. In the following chapters, I wish to begin to elaborate on, formalize and generalize more fully my framing of the key questions of value which have arisen from my reflective narrative and which I believe should be problematizing, troubling and transforming teacher education. In Chapter 2, the problematizing of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values is set against the backdrop of international concerns about tensions between global neo-liberal market values in education and traditional values combined with rapid social change at the national level. How might international teacher educator discourse inform the philosophical and political theoretical bases for the integrity of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values? The international case studies used in Chapter 2 to address this question are based on my first-hand experiences, and so are also part of the narrative of this chapter, but they serve a humanizing purpose where they are situated. Ultimately, in the process of interrogating my theoretical bases, informed by international perspectives, there will be the need in subsequent chapters to justify and exemplify my claim that the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values is integral to the development of a critical and strategic kind of professional knowledge. Finally, it is particularly through justifying this claim that I want to make the case for why values matter in standards-based and increasingly school-based and school-led teacher education.

References Bassey, M. (1999) Case study research in educational settings, London: Sage. Biesta, G. (2015) How does a competent teacher become a good teacher? Judgement, wisdom and virtuosity in teaching and teacher education, in Heilbronn, R. & Foreman-Peck, L. (eds) Philosophical perspectives on the future of teacher education (pp. 3–32), Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. Bishop, A., Fitzsimons, G., Seah, W. & Clarkson, P. (1999) Values in mathematics education: making values teaching explicit in the mathematics classroom. Paper presented at the combined annual meeting of the Australian Association for Research in Education, Melbourne, Australia, November 29–December 2. Boyd, P. & Harris, K. (2010) Becoming a university lecturer in teacher education: expert school teachers reconstructing their pedagogy and identity, Professional Development in Education, 36 (1–2), 9–24.

Experience of a teacher educator in England 25 Campbell, A. & Kane, I. (1998) School-based teacher education, telling tales from a fictional primary school, London: Routledge. Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming critical: education, knowledge and action research, London: Falmer Press. Clandinin, J. & Connolly, M. (2000) Narrative inquiry, experience and story in qualitative research, San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Cochran-Smith, M. (2000) Teacher education at the turn of the century, Journal of Teacher Education, 51 (3), 163–165. Craft, M. (1996) Teacher education in plural societies, London: Falmer Press. DfE. (1992) Initial teacher training: secondary phase, Circular 9/92, London: DFE. DfE. (1993) The initial training of primary school teachers: new criteria for courses, Circular 14/93, London: DFE. Ducharme, M. (1996) A study of teacher educators: research from the USA, Journal of Education for Teaching, 22 (1), 57–70. Dunne, M. (1997) Positioned neutrality: mathematics teachers and the cultural politics of their classrooms, Educational Review, 51 (2), 117–128. Eisner, E. (1993) Forms of understanding and the future of educational research, Educational Research, 22 (7), 5–11. Ellis, V., Glachin, M., Heighes, D., Norman, M., Sandra, N. & Noris, K. (2013) A difficult realisation: the proletarianisation of higher education-based teacher education, Journal of Education for Teaching, 39 (3), 266–280. Everington, J. (2014) Hindu, Muslim and Sikh religious education teachers’ use of personal life knowledge: the relationship between biographies, professional beliefs and practice, British Journal of Religious Education, 36 (2), 155–173. Everington, J. (2015) Bridging separate communities: the aspirations and experiences of minority ethnic RE teachers in England, Journal of Beliefs and Values, 36 (2), 165–174. Flyvbjerg, B. (2001) Making social science matter: why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Frost, D. (1993) Reflective mentoring and the new partnership, in McIntyre, D., Hagger, H. & Wilkins, M. (eds) Mentoring perspectives on school-based teacher education, London: Kogan Page. Furlong, J., Barton, L., Miles, S., Whiting, C. & Whitty, G. (2000) Teacher education in transition: re-forming professionalism, Buckingham: Open University Press. Gates, B. (1993) Time for RE and teachers to match: a digest of underprovision. Report Prepared for the RE Council of England and Wales, Lancaster: RE-ME Enquiry Service. Grimmitt, M. (1987) Religious education and human development, Essex: McCrimmons. Grimmitt, M. (2000) Pedagogies of religious education, Essex: McCrimmons. Hamilton, M. & Pinnegar, S. (2000) On the threshold of a new century, trustworthiness, integrity and self-study in teacher education, Journal of Teacher Education, 51 (3), 234–240. HMSO. (1988) Education Reform Act 1988, London: HMSO. Izadinia, M. (2014) Teacher educators’ identity: a review of literature, European Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (4), 426–441. Judt, T. (2010) Ill fares the land, a treatise on our present discontents, London: Allen Lane.

26  Experience of a teacher educator in England Kemmis, S. (1980) The imagination of the case and the invention of the study, in Simons, H. (ed) Towards a science of the singular, Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia. Korthagen, F. & Kessels, Jos P.A.M. (1999) Linking theory and practice: changing the Pedagogy of teacher education, Educational Researcher, 28 (4), 4–17. Lawlor, S. (1990) Teachers mistaught, training in theories or education in subjects, London: Centre for Policy Studies, Policy Study 116. McDonald, B. & Walker, R. (1975) Case study and the social philosophy of educational research, Cambridge Journal of Education, 5, 2–11. McIntyre, D. (1990) Ideas and principles guiding the internship scheme, in Benton, P. (ed) The Oxford internship scheme, chap. 2, London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. McIntyre, D., Hagger, H. & Wilkin, M. (1993) Mentoring: perspectives on school-based teacher education, London: Kogan Page. Mead, N. (1996) Mentoring religious education teaching in secondary schools, Unpublished Farmington research paper, Oxford: Farmington Institute. Mead, N. (2000) Mentoring religious education teaching in secondary schools, in Leicester, M., Modgil, C. & Modgil, S. (eds) Education, culture and values, vol.5, chap. 19, 197–203, London: Falmer Press. Mead, N. (2006) The experience of black African religious education trainee teachers training in England, British Journal of Religious Education, 28 (2), 173–184. Mercer, J. (2007) The challenge of insider research in educational institutions: wielding a double-edged sword and resolving delicate dilemmas, Oxford Review of Education, 33 (1), 1–17. Merton, R. (1972) Insiders and outsiders: a chapter in the sociology of knowledge, American Journal of Sociology, 78, 9–47. Murray, J. (2007) Countering insularity in teacher education: academic work on Preservice courses in nursing, social work and teacher education, Journal of Education for Teaching, 33 (3), 271–291. Murray, J., Czerniawski, G. & Barber, P. (2011) Teacher educator identities and work in England at the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century, Journal of Education for Teaching, 37 (3), 261–277. Noddings, N. (1992) The challenge to care in schools: an alternative approach to Education, New York: Teachers’ College Press. Peretz, M. B. (2001) The impossible role of teacher education in a changing world, Journal of Teacher Education, 52 (1), 48–56. Pring, R. & Roberts, M. (2015) A generation of radical educational change: stories from the field, London: Taylor & Francis. Read, G., Ridge, J., Teece, G. & Howarth, R. (1992) How do I teach RE? Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. SCAA (1994) Model syllabuses for Religious Education, London: SCAA. Schon, D. (1983) The reflective practitioner, New York: Basic Books. Schools Council. (1971) Religious education in secondary schools, Schools council Working papers, London: Methuen Education & Evans Bros. Sikes, P. & Everington, J. (2001) Becoming an RE teacher: a life history approach, British Journal of Religious Education, 24 (1), 8–19. Simons, H. (1996) The paradox of case study, Cambridge Journal of Education, 26 (2), 225–240.

Experience of a teacher educator in England 27 Sindelar, P. & Rosenberg, M. (2000) Serving too many masters: the proliferation of ill- conceived and contradictory practices in teacher education, Journal of Teacher Education, 51 (3), 188–193. Smith, R. & Alred, G. (1993) The impersonation of wisdom, in McIntyre, D., Hagger, H. & Wilkin, M. (eds) Mentoring: perspectives on school-based teacher education, chap. 6, 103–116, London: Kogan Page. Stake, R. (1995) The art of case study research, Thousand Oaks: Sage. Wilkin, M. (1992) On the cusp: from supervision to mentoring in initial teacher training, Cambridge Journal of Education, 22 (1), 79–91. Wilkin, M. (1993) Initial training as a case of postmodern development: some implications for mentoring, in McIntyre, D., Hagger, H. & Wilkin, M. (eds) Mentoring: perspectives on school-based teacher education, chap. 2, 37–53, London: Kogan Page. Wilkinson, G. (2007) Civic professionalism: teacher education and professional ideals and values in a commercialised education world, Journal of Education for Teaching, 33 (3), 379–395. Young, M. (2014) What is a curriculum and what can it do? The Curriculum Journal, 25 (1), 7–13. Zeichner, K., Liston, D., Mahlios, M. & Gomez, M. (1998) The structure and goals of a student teaching program and the character and quality of supervisory discourse, Teaching and Teacher Education, 4 (4), 349–363.

2 International perspectives on values and professional knowledge in teacher education

I now want to justify my personal account of the centrality of values in the development of trainee teachers’ professional knowledge by contextualizing that account within the impact of globalization and hegemonic neo-liberal values. In developing my position, I have engaged with teacher educator colleagues across a number of countries. In visiting three countries in particular, I have framed the issues within the question: In the light of global and national issues, what kind of values do twenty-first-century teachers need? This question examines the implications for teacher education of the way in which globalization is homogenizing education systems across the world. Globalization presents all countries with a much more common agenda of problems than ever before. However, this does not mean that their responses to those problems will be similar. National filters modify, mitigate, interpret, resist, shape and accommodate global pressures (Dale 2012). Apple (2004) has identified how certainly in the USA and UK neo-liberals, neoconservatives, religious conservatives and managerial middle classes will jockey for power within the process which Dale describes. The national institutional base is such that Education, like any other social institution is ‘embedded’ in a tightly knit national structure, reflecting modes of regulation, social structures of production, and societal and cultural factors. We will find that institutional practices have been formed by their history, influencing, for example, how inclusive a system might be in addressing capital accumulation and social order (Dale p. 102). Any transnational comparisons of teacher identity will need to consider the embedded nature of Education and therefore require a fundamental questioning of what is meant by teacher identity in a given context. This will involve taking account of historical, political, cultural and social influences, as well as the nature of professional autonomy and what it is it like to be a teacher in a particular time and place. Culture, diversity, context and difference in transnational trends have become, then, a counterforce to neo-liberal globalization with them ‘previously looking like little useless things, but now promising to give globalisation it money’s worth in sleeplessness’ (Odora Hoppers 2009, p. 602). As teacher educators coming together to understand each other’s professional practices, it is extremely important that we listen to each other and fully appreciate the interaction between the global and the national within our respective contexts.

International perspectives on values 29 I now want to briefly consider two major ways in which the interaction between the global and the national impacts on teacher education. First, in terms of a future need for teaching competences in sustainable development and, second, in terms of curriculum and teacher accountability. Odoro Hoppers defines culture within the globalization debate in the following way: ‘Culture encompasses the total way of life of a people, the social legacy the individual acquires from his group, a way of thinking, feeling and believing – a set of techniques for adjusting to the external environment’ (Odora Hoppers 2009, p. 603). As such, culture is the template shaping values, behaviour and consciousness within a human society from generation to generation. Odoro Hoppers argues that globalization challenges culture in the way that previously isolated people are brought closer together through the integration of markets, and yet very little attention is given to understanding difference through interpersonal relations. She goes on to argue that ‘even less visible are the efforts to draw insights from other traditions and cultures and make them part of the global discourse’ (p. 607). Odoro Hoppers concludes that ‘there is a wide gap between the pace of economic globalisation and the reality of a tense, mistrustful world society’ (p. 607). It is extremely important that within teacher education, such a scenario should be addressed through pre-service teachers’ acquisition of global competences for sustainable development. Such competences are needed to encourage in teachers and their learners an understanding of the interdependence of relationships in addressing real-world issues, as well as skills in engagement with different groups, negotiating alternative futures and learning to make moral judgements in uncertain situations (UNECE 2012). The second area of concern is the impact of globalization on the homogenizing of national curricula which has significant implications for pre-service teachers. Global neo-liberalism is framing education in economic terms and has led to its marketization. The increased emphasis on standards, accountability and testing is part of the homogenizing trends within global curricula. We observe the similarities between different national curriculum systems in terms of sequential structures, levels of achievement, attainment targets and learning outcomes. We note the similarities in the language used, for example, ‘attainment targets’, ‘strands’ and ‘learning outcomes’. These similarities are characterized by an instrumental, technical-rational approach in that the outputs from a national curriculum are linked to the future economic success of the country. These global curriculum changes are linked to two contradictory trends: a new managerialism in education drives schools to become increasingly responsible for their day-to-day management, reflecting the neo-liberal free market in which teachers are providers and pupils are consumers. By contrast, there is increasing government control over curriculum content and assessment with teachers ‘delivering’ as technicians without power. The centralization of curricula and assessment is a response to competing global economic forces, reflected in standardized levels and testing and national vocational qualification competences and frameworks. Centralization of curricula is also a reaction against the threats of global forces to national sovereignty, for example in ensuring in the New Zealand curriculum that New

30  International perspectives on values Zealand Society and Culture figures largely as a reminder that national identity is important (Priestley 2002).We see this response and reaction in the recent revisions of the English National Curriculum implemented in 2014. The narrowing emphasis on core academic subjects and a reduction in vocational learning in the 14–18 age group is a response to globalization, mirroring our economic competitors like Germany (Wolf Report 2011). At the same time, there is specific subject value and content emphasized as a reaction against globalization, for example within the British History content of the History curriculum and in increased emphasis on British values permeating learning. What impact have these homogenizing trends had on teacher education in England? First, strategic importance is given by policymakers to a narrow correlation between minimum standards for teachers and nation state economic success. In England, this has gone hand in hand with the rejection of progressivism and the development of performance pedagogies (Macbeath 2011). The word ‘delivery’ is a significant indicator of government thinking about the role of the teacher with a centrally controlled teacher training curriculum mirroring a pupil national curriculum. Within that centralized training programme, the focus is on government strategy rather than theory and reflection which might characterize teacher education. Finally, more time is spent training in school than in the university, indicative of the lack of trust given to theorists who are viewed by policymakers as resistant to neo-liberal trends within education. These developments present fundamental challenges to culturally determined national and local teacher identities and to teacher autonomy and creativity. The trends I have identified as arising from the “push-pull” effect of globalization (Giddens 2003) are well evidenced in international teacher education literature and frequently discussed under three themes: competitiveness, teacher quality and school-based training (Apple 2001; Korthagen 2001; ten Dam & Blom 2006; Maandag et al. 2007; Darling Hammond & Lieberman 2012; Mayer 2014; Bullough 2014; Alcorn 2014). The relationship between these themes has a certain logic: global economic competition generates an aggressive school standards drive, demanding teachers can know about and do certain things, against which their performance is measured in standards and which are best learnt in the school setting. The second of these is particularly significant within the values debate as it begs the question how teacher quality can be captured in any authentic and meaningful way beyond inputs and outputs. As Darling Hammond (2012) argues, contending values about what it means to be a well-prepared teacher have to be contested in a situation in which the ‘policy problem’ of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) occurs in the context of positioning it as a mechanism for achieving ends determined elsewhere according to urgent political agendas. Apple (2001) provides helpful insights into the nature of the ‘policy problem’ in the English and USA contexts by observing how neo-liberalism demands the constant production of evidence that ‘one is in fact making an enterprise of oneself ’ (p. 188). In this ethos of education as a marketable commodity, teachers’ personal moral and political values are ‘subjugated by the values, procedures and

International perspectives on values 31 metaphors of business’, which demand an outcome ‘reducible to standardised performance indicators’ (p. 188). The result is that policy decisions are entirely based on hard data correlating teaching standards with pupils standardized test scores without consideration of ‘any types of situation-specific and qualitative understanding that is grounded in the lived experience of teachers in real schools’ (p. 188). In addition, Apple highlights the reactionary and neo-conservative trends in judging teacher quality which represent the ‘push-back’ effect of globalization when a nation looks back to some romantic age when teachers really were something. This is particularly evident in England and the USA, where national perceptions of teachers are ambivalent. Apple rightly points out how this return to traditionalism delegitimates critical models of teaching and learning which would bring into play trainee teachers personal moral and political values, particularly in relation to critically thinking through issues of social justice and inclusion. As such, Apple defines the conditions of neo-liberalism as based on ‘thin morality’. He argues that markets are grounded in aggregative principles offering a prime example of ‘thin’ morality by generating both hierarchy and division based on the values of competitive individualism (p. 190). This contrasts with ‘thick morality’ ‘wherein principles of the common good are the ethical basis for adjudicating policies and practices’ (p. 190). Apples’ observations of ITE developments in both England and the USA support the view that teachers’ moral and political values and, integral to these, their participations as citizens of their school, will be greatly diminished by the market. In particular, as Apple highlights, a shift to being client responsive in the meeting of external demands will eliminate dissent based on personal moral judgements. This calculus of values now in place based on efficiency, speed and cost control is replacing moral decision-making about social and educational justice. The risk here, as set out in Apples’ conclusion, is that the quality of teaching will be judged by a value-free homogenized professional knowledge, which certainly does not reflect the lived reality of teaching. Second, in terms of energizing trainee teachers’ moral and political values, there will no guarantees that they will have the kind of professional knowledge that prepares them to understand the ideological and political restructuring that is going on around them. Apple’s concerns are echoed by Bullough (2014) who writes as a USA teacher educator with a forty-year perspective on increased federal interference in teacher education, driven by an aggressive neo-liberal political agenda summed up in the slogan arising from the National Education Summit in 1996 as, ‘America’s future depends now, as never before on our ability to teach’ (Bullough 2014, p. 485). For Bullough, the reductive impact of No Child left Behind (NCLB) (2002) on the concept of the quality of teaching is described from a teacher educator’s perspective as ‘shattering’ (p. 488). NCLB represented a shift from ‘getting serious about standards for teachers and students’ with, for example the introduction of teaching standards in 2006, to a focus on measuring outputs using a punitive accountability model. This included annual yearly progress measures in core subjects for all schools and standardized test scores: failure meant school failure. In this outputs culture, Bullough argues that teacher education is reduced to

32  International perspectives on values ‘merely having passed a test of academic competence and having demonstrated verbal ability’ (p. 487). As such, this opens up a competitive market for teacher educator providers and so, for example, The American Board for the Certification of Teacher Excellence (ABCTE), a product of NCLB, describes itself as a quick and inexpensive alternative to university-based teacher education. For admission to candidacy the ABCTE requires a BA degree, a background check and a fee for testing. Bullough describes how now about 40 per cent of teacher education candidates who work online take a set of exams to demonstrate their pedagogical content and subject area knowledge without any other requirements. For Bullough ABCTE’s definition of a ‘highly qualified’ teacher is a ‘slap in the face for teacher education’ (p. 487). For me, this raises fundamental questions about where we will now find Apple’s ‘thick morality’ in ITE and, in particular the development of the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values, exemplified in their decision-making processes. It is emerging that this issue lies at the heart of any international debate about the nature of professional knowledge and teacher quality and must inform individual country’s balancing of global, national and local social, political and economic needs. We find, then that other national responses capture very well Apple’s concerns about teacher quality in relation to the values-based debate about ITE as a ‘policy problem’. In Australia, Mayer (2014) addresses the challenge of how to ensure that teaching standards measuring quality of performance reflect ‘teaching as deliberate intellectual work, as social collaborative and collegial work and as emotional work based on a close examination of the work of teachers, their professional judgements and the practice of teaching in relation to student learning’ (p. 468). Mayer argues that authentic assessments of the actual professional practice of teachers in the workplace, incorporating multiple measures and focusing on judging the impact of teachers on student learning are seldom used as a means to assess graduate readiness to teach (p. 469). Mayer is recognizing how teaching standards risk disconnecting the teacher’s personal moral values from their political values in their working lives. Essentially, in the light of the introduction of teaching standards in Australia, there is a very strong desire to try and capture an authentic assessment of teachers. Of particular significance here is capturing the moral decision-making process which underpins strategic and critical professional knowledge. Mayer refers to the use of Authentic Teacher Assessment (ATA) at Deakin University, which seeks to analyse the impact of teaching on students over an extended period with multiple layers of evidence to capture process. However, Mayer acknowledges that there is very little research of this kind referred to in the Australian Auchmuty Report (1980), which recommended that teacher education research should include longitudinal studies of the socialization of teachers, covering their early years of teaching, with particular reference to the acquisition of professional attitudes and values. Mayer concludes that, in the absence of such research in Australia, attention turns, not to process and values, but to the quality of entrants and the regulations of the ITE curriculum content as ‘proxies for ensuring quality teachers for the profession’ (p. 471).

International perspectives on values 33 We can take some hope from the work of Korthagen (2001) and others in the Netherlands which has sought to capture an authentic assessment of trainee teacher quality such as Mayer speaks of through ‘realistic teacher education’. Unlike the worst aspects of the American ABCTE certification procedure outlined by Bullough (2014) and based on a technical-rational model, the ‘realistic approach takes into account insights about teachers’ functioning, especially the idea ‘that much of a teachers’ behaviour is guided by non-rational and unconscious processes’ (Korthagen 2001, p. 4). In particular, this approach emphasizes the process of professional development and change. Korthagen argues that this requires teacher educators to work with trainee teachers, taking their concerns seriously, which ‘implies taking account of their moral purposes’ (p. 4). The work undertaken by Korthagen and others (Korthagen and Kessels 1999) within the teacher education programme at the University of Utrecht since the 1980s draws on phronetic and organic training models to capture a unity between teacher perceptions, interpretations and actions, generated by concrete practice problems in real contexts. These real contexts are of course schools, which in the Netherlands, as elsewhere, have become the site of the standards and accountability debate. The question is whether Korthagen’s ‘realistic teacher education’ can address Mayer’s concerns in the Australian context: How can there be an authentic understanding of and evaluation of the moral decision-making processes a teacher actually undertakes in their daily work when training is fundamentally at the service of raising standards for enhanced national competitiveness. (p. 471) In response to this question, we can turn to the work of ten Dam and Blom (2006) who have taken forward Korthagen’s work in examining the extent to which student-teachers succeed in developing a ‘deeper personalised meaning on the teaching profession’ specifically in the real contexts of school-based training (p. 648). The most significant factor in their research which illuminates Korthagen’s emphasis on taking account of trainee teachers’ moral purposes is the scope they have in school to realize a cultural historical perspective. Ten Dam and Blom define this as an essential orientation on meaning which is necessary for the development of professional identity. This is the foundation upon which student-teachers form meaningful motivations which support and direct their participation in professional practice. (p. 649) The challenge, however, is for trainees to realize their own meanings in contexts where their own contributions, values and emphases are ‘only accepted if they do not interrupt the rhythm of the classroom’ (p. 649). Darling Hammond

34  International perspectives on values and Lieberman (2012) have drawn attention to some progress being made in overcoming this disconnect between the development of the trainee and the development of the school at the Amsterdam School of Education. Here trainee teachers are expected to explore their personal moral and political values surrounding intercultural communication and inclusive practices through case studies, classroom tasks and dialogic seminars in school (p. 162). Cultural competence as part of professional identity is indeed recognition of a much more complex set of values at work than the simplistic equation between teacher quality and school and pupil success suggests. Snoek et al. (2003) identify four quadrants of societal development which teacher education needs to take note of. These four quadrants represent two fields of change in European society in particular and provide the motivation for decision and change (1) a motivation based on idealism (quadrant 1) or pragmatism (quadrant 2); (2) a motivation focused on the dominant social values in society, emphasizing social coherence (quadrant 3) or individualism (quadrant 4). Navigating these two fields and the risk of extremes in each quadrant present teacher educators with a particular dilemma, well summed up by Alcorn (2014) in describing the New Zealand context: On the one hand, they aim to develop students’ critical awareness about the status quo in education, on the other they must prepare students to work in a system that is constrained, where professionalism means questioning your own classroom practice but not the wider contexts in which schools operate and the factors outside the classroom that affect children’s learning. (p. 458) The fact that this dilemma is particularly acute in New Zealand reflects the way in which competition rather than cooperation has become a key driver of quality in teaching and learning in a society ‘characterised by common values to an unusual degree’ (Alcorn p. 447). Those values, however, continue to keep the wider role of education and its purpose firmly embedded in the New Zealand curriculum, and there is still talk of teachers’ values being the starting point for innovation in some educational research (see Brough 2012). In this respect Alcorn captures the professional dilemma for teacher educators across a number of countries, but also the significance of understanding the national context. Darling-Hammond and Lieberman (2012) used broad categories, for example, that Finland, Singapore and Canada have ‘forged a clear purpose and direction for a university-strong teacher preparation enterprise’ (p. 153). By contrast they claim that England, the USA and the Netherlands (and Australia to some extent) ‘have developed a range of “market-driven” pathways into teaching’. The distinction Darling-Hammond makes is that these latter governments are unclear about what a qualified teacher looks like or should be. I now want to argue that these categorizations are too simplistic when we look at individual countries in detail. I have worked closely with teacher educators in post-communist, social democratic and southeast Asian contexts over a number of years, and through

International perspectives on values 35 shared research and dialogue, we have sought to understand the development of trainee teachers’ values within the “push-pull” effective of globalization. The case studies which follow are intended to highlight Korthagen’s recognition of the need to work seriously with the concerns of the trainee teacher, taking account of their moral purpose within their specific political and cultural context, as well as gain insights into how teacher educators manage the balance between narrowly defined achievement and the wider purposes of education. It is in examining these case studies that I hope to build on some of the key principles identified in the preceding literature to establish an international perspective underpinning my theoretical case for the development of the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values.

Case study one: Estonia Although Estonia has returned excellent results in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), it is still struggling to overcome the influence of the totalitarian society regime. As a result of visiting Tartu University and sustaining a professional dialogue with colleagues there both in school and the university, I have been able to gain a deeper insight into why values matter in teacher education. The “push-pull” effect of globalization is very well demonstrated in the establishment of the national programme for ‘Value Development in Estonian Society (2009–2013)’. The values sought are those which ensure human and social development in Estonia, thereby ‘fulfilling prerequisites for the rapid development of the Estonian economy and other spheres and for the successful integration of Estonia into the European Union (EU)’ (p. 1). The aim is to unite the values that are expressed in the preamble of the Estonian constitution with the founding documents of the EU. The values are moral and social and represent the four quadrants of change which Snoek et al. (2003) argue should be of major concern to teacher educators. In particular, the social cohesion–individualism quadrants are emphasized in the Estonian national values programme: The programme reflects social surveys showing that the sustainability of Estonian society is jeopardised by ignoring moral norms, lack of social cohesion, rising individualistic consumer mentality and hedonistic lifestyles after joining the EU and the restoration of independence post- soviet era. (p. 2) In addressing the key question of how to combine national identity with European identity, the national programme considers teachers to be the target group to take this forward. The consequences of this for teacher education are considerable as the national programme understands this to require ‘a shift from knowledgecentred to values-centred schooling, the former having been the major focus of attention’ (p. 3). The outcomes of these stated aims are already in evidence, for example in the explicit emphasis on values in the new national curriculum within subjects, but which also has a cross-curricular values strand running throughout.

36  International perspectives on values However, most significant is a shift in focus within teacher education to social relationships in schools and the development of a holistic view embracing the wider purposes of education, which Apple (2001, 2004), ten Dam and Blom (2006), Alcorn (2014) and others have flagged as at risk from hegemonic neo-liberalism. Estonian teacher education is seeking an emphasis on how aware trainee teachers (and indeed experienced teachers) are of their own personal moral and political values and how these relate to the values of the school and the needs of their pupils. Most importantly, for my own theoretical position about the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values, is the expectation that they and their university and school-based teacher educators become citizens engaging in an open, non-coercive process of social and political change. This expectation does require them to have the historical cultural perspective advocated by ten Dam and Blom (2006) and that they become culturally competent, for example, in the way that they can critically analyse and evaluate the dynamics between education, the media and private enterprise. Such criticality exercised and modelled by teacher educators and trainees is essential if values are not to be imposed, which is a serious risk following the country’s restoration to independence. The national programme recognizes that within Snoek et al.’s quadrant representing the social cohesion–individualism spectrum, an attempt to avoid the imposition of national values diametrically opposed to those of the previous occupying regime without any alternative has resulted in a ‘values-blindness’, leading to increased individualism. Those of us engaged in international dialogue about what we consider to be the undisputed centrality of values in teacher education will want to create opportunities for direct experience of the kind of shift from knowledge-based to valuesbased teacher education, which is taking place in Estonia. What is striking when engaging in dialogue with colleagues in different departments within Tartu University is the shared philosophy about values. That philosophy is firmly based on a belief that the ITE curriculum should contain preparation for values education through seminars and fieldwork. This also requires a commitment to the professional development of teacher educators, as stated in the national programme (2009–2013, p. 14). The perspective held by all involved in ITE is that values are developed across the learning environment, and this requires trainee teachers to become confident about their own values development. Teacher educators therefore need to be skilled in motivating trainees to engage in such development through observing how values are transmitted through their teaching, through the ways they communicate with pupils, through the whole school culture and through the ways that they manage values-conflicts. I now want to exemplify this shared philosophy about values across individuals and departments at Tartu University by looking at three examples of ITE activity. The first is the Teachers’ Values Game, devised by Tartu University Centre for Ethics, the head of which is Margit Sutrop. I played the game in the centre, talked to Margit about its value and purpose, and then read her paper (2014) on the game which she has disseminated through the Teacher Education Advancement Network (TEAN) journal in the UK. Underpinning the game is the belief

International perspectives on values 37 that teachers should become conscious of the ethical aspects of teaching, thereby deepening their professional knowledge. Sutrop is concerned that surprisingly little is known about how teachers understand or interpret their own values or what happens if their personal values conflict with the organizational values of a school. Sutrop explains that one of the key roles of the Centre for Ethics in developing the national values programme was to enable trainee teachers, as well as practising teachers, to understand that values are not abstract topics for discussion, but rather are entities on which everyday activities and decisions are based. The game has been a pedagogic tool in ITE sessions at Tartu since 2012 and also used in schools with practising teachers. The game consists of twenty-eight different professional scenarios placing the trainee in different roles and relationships, for example with pupils, another teacher, the school principal or a parent. Each scenario involves solving a dilemma containing a conflict of values. Trainees work on one dilemma in groups of five or six and, having stated and justified what their solution would be, discuss a way forward with their peers with the intention of arriving at a group consensus. Following the discussion, the group then matches their outcome to the six possible outcomes offered by the game which is rated according to which values are at stake. This rating provides the group with a final score. The teacher educator does not intervene but facilitates the valuing process, the rating and ranking of values in different contexts. In her paper, Sutrop (2014) argues that the game is not using a character education method which develops certain behaviours but is primarily concerned with the process of ‘how values are continuously ranked’ in a ‘pluralistic society which has a plethora of models of values’ (p. 4). In essence, then, Sutrop believes that the game is about trainees learning to practice moral deliberation as part of their professional knowledge development. By thinking through what they would do in a particular case and by justifying their chosen action to their team members, ‘trainees gain an understanding of how their personal moral and political values influence their decision-making in professional contexts’ (p. 8). Having played the game at Tartu and reflected on it in the light of my own research (e.g. Mead 2011), it seems to me that the absence of any such process in teacher education might well lead to a disconnect between personal moral and political values of which neither trainees nor educators will be particularly conscious. The second example which exemplifies a shared philosophy about values in teacher education across individuals and departments is the contribution of staff involved in journalism, media and communication studies to the development of trainee teachers’ communication skills. Kadri Ugur who I observed lead one such session discussed with me and has also written about the need to bring media and ITE together to develop trainees’ critical reasoning, moral deliberation and, perhaps most importantly, their critical analysis of the impact of media on values. In her joint paper with Harro-Loit and Ugur (2008) maps out how media and communication skills, which are emphasized as vital in the national values programme, can be developed through the deployment of a media-based pedagogy within the undergraduate ITE professional studies programme at Tartu. The first set of skills is described as being able to express oneself in different forms and with different

38  International perspectives on values purposes, orally and visually using different media. The second set is described as involving the creation of a communication format to improve listening, questioning and self-reflection (Harro-Loit & Ugur 2008). Such skills would seem to be fundamental to developing self-understanding and self-realization of one’ own personal moral and political values, but also fundamental to critical discourse analysis of the impact of media on one’s own and societal values. The session which I observed took place within a specialist media room within the Innovation Centre of Tartu University and was led by Kadri Ugur, lecturer in journalism, media and communication studies. The room was equipped with fixed and roaming cameras, sound, multiple screens and an editing desk manned by a technician. The third-year trainee teachers came to the session with a schoolbased scenario founded on a values conflict with a particular pupil, which they had researched and prepared in the previous session and which was intended to be based on their practicum experience. Trainees were filmed enacting out the follow-up interview with the pupil, following the critical incident, one as the teacher and one as the pupil, and as they did this, the technology was deployed to give very close visual analysis of the responses of each person in the dialogue, something otherwise difficult to achieve with a large group. There followed a quite detailed ‘play-pause’ type of playback of the interviews which was conceptually constructed according to media discourse analysis methodology but also drew on three-dimensional psychological modelling. A key element of this was ensuring that trainees could articulate their insights from both the pupil and teacher perspective which would be informed by the close analysis of the visual and oral in terms of the impact of words and expressions used and tone and body language on the process of values conflict resolution. The result was that trainees were introduced to structured critical analysis of communication processes at the same time as being the subject of those processes: a pedagogy which Rogoff (1995) has called ‘participatory appropriation’, leading potentially to deepened self-understanding. My third example comes from Olga Schihalejev, my host at Tartu who has been able to weave together my experiences in that university, which gave me a holistic impression of the centrality of values in ITE. In her work as a teacher educator on the place of values in the practicum, Olga asks her trainees to write an analysis of the practicum school culture: I provide them with a variety of aspects they can choose from. In a school environment values can manifest themselves in many ways and so I ask them to see if and what values can be found, for example in the school logo, the design and content of information boards and school web-site, in the physical décor of the classrooms, offices and staffroom. Olga also asks them to perceive how values are reinforced through different rituals and customs, for example at the beginning and end of the school day, during lunch and at the beginning and end of lessons. Of particular significance

International perspectives on values 39 is how Olga draws her trainees’ attention to the way in which people communicate with each other during lessons (including praise, rewards and sanctions) and breaks, at lunch, in the staffroom, at meetings and with parents. To accomplish this school-based task trainees start with a close reading of the school’s web page and development plan before the practicum. During the practicum, they undertake values-based fieldwork, interviewing teachers and pupils: Sometimes they ask the students to make three photographs or to draw a picture on the topic ‘portrayal of our school’ or ‘what makes our school special’. Then in the seminar we have a discussion about the consistencies and disruption in different levels of values education at school and how they related or could relate their own teaching to the school’s values education. Olga has explained to me that to gain a high mark in this school-based task, trainees must be able to critically analyse their own teaching within the wider context of the school’s values education. These examples from Estonia based on my direct experience at Tartu University and continued liaison with teacher education colleagues have helped to put my personal narrative in Chapter 1 into a global context, but not in any compartmentalized way in terms of which countries know what sort of teachers they want, know what they should be able to do and think, but rather in terms of how the centrality of teachers’ values in the development of their professional knowledge emerges in different ways in very precise cultural circumstances. This is very much the situation with my next two case studies: Japan and Finland. Both countries, in Darling-Hammond’s and Lieberman (2012) language might not appear to be ambivalent about the role and status of teachers and yet, in entering into dialogue with teacher educators as well as first-hand experience of teacher education training in these countries, I have found that the “push-pull” effect of globalization is challenging fundamental assumptions about the place of values within the kind of professional knowledge required of twenty-first-century teachers.

Case study two: Japan Involvement in my own institution’s joint ITE research project with Kyoto University of Education has offered good insights into both the complexities and commonalities of the “push-pull” effect of globalization on values in teacher educa­tion within specific national contexts (Mead & Sakade 2015). Japan’s period of democracy from 1945, which saw the centralization of the education system as imposed by the USA, actually included the influences of Dewey. However, this was followed by a switch to the conservative acquisition of knowledge during the economic boom of the 1970s and 1980s. The 1999 education reforms created tensions between progressives, traditionalists and pragmatists about maintaining academic success and fulfilling a strong public feeling that

40  International perspectives on values Japan needed warm and humane schools that better attended to the psychological and interpersonal problems of individual students (Bjork 2009, p. 29). Different demands from progressive and traditional groups within Japanese society reflected responses to social and economic change, including the need for more creativity and the need to address school phobia and bullying (Ota 2000, p. 50). A major response to these tensions was the introduction of pupil-centred, project-based learning in the form of Integrated Studies (sogo gakushu). This has forced education stakeholders to re-examine their core beliefs about the purpose of schooling, the attitudes and skills that students need to succeed in contemporary society and the responsibilities of teachers (Bjork 2009, p. 20). There is however, an historical ambivalence in Japanese attitudes to the outside world, including Asia (McCullough 2008; Parmenter 2006), which has led to a tradition of the collective and the ‘total humanity’ of the teacher (Kimura & Iwata 2007). This tradition often realizes itself in the form of ‘Japanese spirit, western techniques’. Consequently, many teachers were reluctant to engage in a new kind of pupil-led pedagogy and were inclined to revert to reclaim the curriculum time for Integrated Studies once more for Maths and Language (Bjork 2009). The 1997 teacher education reforms have mirrored the public education debate, and between 1997 and 1999, new capabilities were introduced for trainee teachers which reflected a greater balancing of subject knowledge with professional knowledge about teaching and learning. These new capabilities are described as ‘a capability to act from a global point of view’; the capability to cope with changes as an adult and the capability required in the teaching profession (Ota 2000, p. 48). In addition to a balancing of modules in subject knowledge and professional knowledge, the main school-based placement at the end of the third year of the degree course was extended from two weeks to four weeks (p. 48). Ota argues that these changes to teacher education herald a new kind of centrism in Japanese higher education, which can be compared to neo-liberal developments in education and teacher education in the UK. Ota cites the powers of the Teacher Training Agency as symptomatic of a standards agenda which enables ‘an unelected government appointed group’ to control the provision and assessment of teachers in a way which ‘undercuts the traditional role of the university’ as facilitator of critical engagement with pedagogy and with the philosophy of education (p. 53). Macbeath’s (2011) analysis of developments in teacher education in England bears out the veracity of many of Ota’s perception. From the 1980s onwards, the neo-liberal standards agenda led to the steady growth in the micromanagement of what happens in classrooms. Along with the introduction of a National Curriculum, new agencies were established for determining the initial teacher training curriculum and for establishing teachers’ conditions of service. Macbeath argues that all of this: had far reaching implications for teacher education. At the very centre of initial teacher education there had to be a focus on government strategies, less

International perspectives on values 41 theory and more practice, implementation rather than reading and reflecting, less challenge and more compliance. (p. 378) The National Curriculum mandated not only content, but also mode of ‘­ delivery’. Macbeath rightly picks up on the hidden assumptions held by policymakers about the new role of the teacher as the intermediary between policy prescription and children’s learning. Many UK teacher educators would agree with Galton (2007) that these assumptions represent an attempt to deprofessionalize teaching by challenging teacher autonomy. The area of nurturing or constraining teacher autonomy is, then, an area of concern for teacher educators both in Japan and the UK. However, the two countries arrive at this point from two very different starting points. This is very well summed up by Ota (2000): Japanese education reform has a rather different starting point from the UK where ‘raising standards of educational attainment’ (Mortimore 1997, p. xi) is the main concern and the ‘idea that the intelligence and the ability to learn effectively of the majority of a country’s population will be the key to the future prosperity of a nation’ (p. xi). On the contrary, The Japanese public education system has always enjoyed high standards of attainments among the majority of its population. (p. 44) The debate about teacher autonomy in Japan, therefore, is not so much a reaction against curriculum content prescription as in the UK, but it is about developing capacities or qualities of autonomy in order to address those social and economic changes which demand a warmer and more humane approach to the psychological and interpersonal needs of pupils. What this means, in effect, is that teachers in Japan and the UK, although beginning at different starting points, are both wrestling with the interrelationship between knowledge acquisition/understanding and the human flourishing of individuals. We are, then, dealing with a common problem, but in order to engage in understanding each other’s needs, teacher educators have to engage in important cultural differences. These are values-based and focus in particular on the concepts of individualism, individuality and sociality. Cave (2001) makes the point that although the UK and Japan may be wrestling with a similar problem in teacher education, because they have different starting points, their educational reforms have different purposes. He argues that, unlike the UK, Japanese reform measures are essentially progressive and bear little resemblance to neo-liberal/neoconservative reforms. This is not to say that there is not a neo-liberal, neoconservative lobby which wishes for a greater emphasis on individualism in education. However, the ambiguous term ‘individuality’ is a preferred cultural term, which, as Cave says, is able to hold in tension progressive and some neo-liberal reforms, for example, the introduction of integrated studies, wider curriculum choice in high school

42  International perspectives on values alongside establishing competitive six-year super high schools. Individuality is the compromise in the tension between individualism and sociality, that is, the interdependence of people. As such, it plays an important part in enabling UK teacher educators to avoid falling into the trap of stereotyping Japanese society as purely a group-oriented society. Cave helpfully expands on this point: There is much evidence that Japan is a society where individuals are seen as interdependent rather than independent and that this fundamental understanding of the world is not only the result of the dominant philosophies and social organisation of the past but continues to be fostered in schools, companies and other social arenas. Japanese social interaction and mores tend to socialise people to be sensitive to others’ concerns and to avoid self-assertion, and sometimes this encourages conformism. At the same time, there is also considerable respect in Japan for strong-minded individuals, and both intelligent non-conformity and idiosyncratic enthusiasms are common. (p. 28) Understanding how individuality and sociality translate into elementary classroom practice is critical for any Anglo-Japanese study of current needs in teacher education, and I have had good opportunities on a number of visits to Japan to observe this first-hand. Cave (2001) states that it has been the case that the ideal teacher is one who cares for his or her pupils as individuals and also tries to create a unified class group. The socio-cultural pedagogy this produces ‘is within the bounds of the concept of the whole class as the basic community of learners’ (p. 149). He describes the teacher as constructive facilitator, while children share and engage with one another’s perspectives. The Japanese term nakama is used to capture the way in which ‘members of the class belong together and have a special responsibility to help and support one another’ (p. 84). Cave raises the question of the degree of pupil autonomy because of the constraints on pupils to share insights, learn from one another and make progress together. Pupils interact and discuss but to what extent do they exercise control over their individual learning? This in turn raises the question about the degree of autonomy experienced by trainee teachers who are products of this elementary school ethos and who then train within it. Japanese Ministry of Education survey data (MEXT 2013, 2014) for example, show correspondingly low levels of self-efficacy between students and teachers. There would seem to be a tension between nakama and the new ‘capabilities’ of the individual teacher that requires each trainee to demonstrate how they support children’s individual development in relation to attitude, behaviour and learning difficulties (Kimura & Iwata 2007). This tension will demand new insights and approaches from teacher educators, especially in encouraging greater teacher autonomy to make professional judgements about individual needs. As a result of both observing in Japanese junior high school and talking in depth with high school teachers (see Tsumura in Mead & Sakade 2015, p. 92), I have come to understand how the pressures of enabling all pupils to achieve

International perspectives on values 43 the minimum standards of compulsory education (although 90% stay on to high school) seem to fragment the more organic relationship between individuality and sociality, which exists to a degree in the elementary school. Cave (2011) has observed how junior high school teachers often classified their work into two categories: gakushu shido (academic guidance – largely teaching) and seikatsu shodo (guidance in life habits). Junior high school teachers have shared the same commitment to individuality and sociality as their elementary counterparts, but the latter have ‘seen lessons themselves as vital tools for human development’ (Cave 2011, p. 157). The result is that for junior high school teachers, there is a real tension between lesson preparation, marking and non-academic duties, including homeroom duties, club activities and disciplinary guidance. Cave highlights, for example, that one teacher had made thirty home visits to students’ homes through the year. The impact of the new capabilities required of junior high school trainee teachers, which are intended to recognize the individual learning and psychological needs of pupils, will, as with elementary trainees, demand new insights and approaches from teacher educators, again especially in enabling trainees to develop skills in making autonomous professional judgements in and outside the classroom. The comparative study of teacher education needs in Japan and England demonstrate a convergence of need with very different origins. In the case of Japan, the need to humanize a very successful knowledge acquisition system in recognition of economic and social change has led to new capabilities for trainee teachers, focused on addressing individual needs. The new capabilities require trainee teachers to become more proactive in exercising autonomous professional judgements in what has been essentially a collective project. In England, we have been witnessing something like the reverse of the Japanese situation. A neo-liberal performance and accountability culture in education has, in many ways, run roughshod over the humanizing elements of child-centred primary education. Teaching Standards require trainee teachers to demonstrate the skills more than the dispositions to achieving inclusive education. The latter without the former, however, does not make for an autonomous professional who critically understand why they are making certain decisions in the classroom. How trainee teachers in two very different cultures achieve a balance between national standards and local and individual needs would seem to be at the heart of any debate about values in teacher education. In both countries, there is the risk that teachers’ voices in this debate will be constrained by government policy intended to shape the teaching profession to fix particular problems. Although school-based training in Japan constitutes a small part of teacher education, compared with England, where nearly half of trainees are trained full-time in school, there is consensus between my own university and teacher educators at Kyoto University of Education that the interpersonal, dialogic and generative nature of mentoring is a powerful way to contribute to the challenge, in the case of Japan of developing greater teacher autonomy, and in the case of England, recovering lost autonomy. The challenge in particular for Japan is for trainee teachers to retain the traditional cultural values of the collectivist project

44  International perspectives on values at the same time as exercise the kind of teacher moral autonomy which can recognize and nurture individual creativity as well as build the self-efficacy required for positive social engagement (Tanahasi 2014). There is recognition at Kyoto University of Education that the absence of dialogic mentoring within a collectivist ethos has led to an ‘over-reliance on experience, often abundant but fragmented and tacitly accepted and left unanalysed’ (Obermeier et al. 2016, p. 84). The trial introduction of an analysis tool to shape the introduction of a more dialogic mentoring process within the practicum at Kyoto, following the UK collaboration, is an attempt to blend the collective and individualization projects with opportunities for the trainee to articulate, not simply lesson strategies, but ‘their personal qualities, competencies, intuitions, sensitivities, interests and concerns’ (p. 85). In observing the use of this analysis tool in a one-to-one meeting in a university training school in Kyoto (Obermeier et al. 2016), there was clearly evidence in terms of broadening out reflection into values-based personal and professional attributes. However, the interactions were restricted, reflecting how trainees are used to working in a collective group in one class and feeding back to each other at the end of the day with the class teacher as facilitator. I have observed in school on a number of occasions how the Kyoto training model is essentially collective with four or five trainees working together in one class, taking it in turns to teach and then, again, collectively feeding back to each other in a very supportive way, thereby reinforcing shared cultural values, but without dialogic challenges to individuals to critically justify their decision-making processes. As already stated, Japanese economic and social needs demand that such critical justifications become part of teachers’ professional knowledge. Obermeier et al. (2016), drawing on the student survey work of Tanahasi (2014) identify clearly how lack of trainee teacher understanding of autonomy as underpinned by the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values reflects a reluctance in an educational context to ‘unreservedly express my opinions regarding societal and political issues and, especially, if opinions are different from those of my peers’ (p. 81). It is perhaps not surprising, then, to find that in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) international survey on teaching environments (MEXT 2013), Japanese teachers showed much lower confidence than their European counterparts in their ability to foster autonomous critical thinking in their own work and in their students’ work. I therefore conclude that, as in the case of Estonia, Japan also demonstrates how the development of values education and values development by teacher educators will be critical to the emergence of an authentic and robust kind of professional knowledge for trainee teachers in response to the “push-pull” effect of globalization.

Case study three: Finland My decision to undertake fieldwork in Finland was based on the work of Sahlberg (2011, 2012) and Stenberg (2010, 2014). The former highlights the high status and autonomy that teachers have in Finland, in part linked to the role they have played in developing and strengthening Finnish cultural values and identity

International perspectives on values 45 through the Swedish and Russian period into the emergence of an independent country. Sahlberg (2011) describes young Finns ‘gravitating towards teaching because they consider it an independent, respected and rewarding profession where they will have the freedom to fulfil their aspirations’ (p. 95). By aspirations, I assume he means their beliefs and values that have scope to develop in the absence of the highly regulatory and intrusive accountability systems found in the UK and USA. Darling-Hammond has also highlighted how the absence of such systems has ‘forged a clear purpose and direction for a universally strong teacher preparation enterprise in Finland free of market-driven pathways which result in a lack of clarity about what a quality teacher looks like or should be’ (2012, p. 153). The research work of Stenberg at Helsinki University’s Vikki Teacher Training school was drawn to my attention when making initial inquiries about visiting that university to undertake fieldwork. What Stenberg offered was a values-based personal practical theory which she was beginning to develop within the ITE curriculum and pedagogy at Helsinki and Vikki. As a result of visiting Stenberg at Vikki, undertaking some observations within the training school and engaging in a subsequent longer professional dialogue, I have been able to gain insights into those same “push-pull” effects on ITE in Finland as observed in Estonia and Japan. Although Sahlberg briefly acknowledges some of these in his writing, as well as not recommending that the Finnish ‘success story’ be replicated in another cultural context, he and Darling-Hammond do not fully explore the commonalities surrounding issues concerning values in teacher education across the categories of countries, which the latter describes as either clear or ambivalent about what a high-quality teacher looks like. As a result of my various visits to Helsinki schools, the university and the Vikki Training School, I have observed concern for global economic pressures combined with the need to address significant societal changes. In the case of the former, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been a major focus with schools and teacher education departments were taking a leading role in implementing three national strategies. However, there is a feeling that, having made an early start in the 1990s, other countries are overtaking Finland (Tirri 2014). This has generated a self-help, ‘bottom-up’ attitude, which I witnessed in a Helsinki school where an enthusiastic teacher from a remote rural school had come to lead a teacher education session on how to develop programming skills. In the case of addressing significant societal changes, the work of Stenberg demonstrates a culturally rooted concern for trainee teachers’ beliefs and values within the ITE practitioner community, which I also found in Estonia and Japan, but which needs to be continually brought much more to the fore in the UK and USA contexts. Stenberg’s work has to be seen in the light of a widespread recognition that Finnish teachers need more education in the moral domain and particularly in moral sensitivities (Hanhimaki & Tirri 2009). The social changes identified relate particularly to the rising number of immigrant pupils and those with learning difficulties. My impression is that in urban schools, there are increasingly issues of equality and diversity, which will

46  International perspectives on values require trainee teachers to consider their own personal moral and political values. Sahlberg (2012) has acknowledged that ‘weakening social networks in Finland are increasing the upbringing and caring aspects teachers’ work, which he judges to be creating new responsibilities leading to burnout (p. 20). I was struck on my visits to Helsinki schools both by the curriculum and pedagogic autonomy of teachers, as well as a major preoccupation with pupil well-being, reflected in the number of specialist welfare professionals employed on site and in the way, for example, a school refectory provided through its self-service layout and quality of food, a very calming ambience for pupils and teachers to eat and talk for over an hour at lunch. My host teacher justified the school’s use of over an hour for lunch in terms of both feeding up and re-socializing pupils who would have been neglected over the weekend. Much of what I experienced and felt in Finland is well articulated by Tirri (2014), who maps out a growing explicit movement towards developing the whole person rather than merely the cognitive domain. This is clear in the National Core Curriculum for Upper Secondary Schools, which emphasizes the importance of the social and affective domains. There has developed, then, a general agreement that professional and ethical teachers need competences that are related both to their character and to their conduct if they are to promote the holistic development of their students. Stenberg’s work (2010, and Stenberg et al. 2014) has attempted to address the development of these competences, and it was my intention to visit her at Vikki Training School to gain insights that would support my case for the centrality of values in teacher education. Stenberg begins with the issue of defining high-quality teaching, which, as already discussed, in the UK and USA in particular, has been driven by neo-liberal performativity and outcomes. Stenberg counters the neo-liberal definition by stating categorically that high-quality teaching requires an ‘awareness of the sources for making pedagogical decisions, namely, personal values, beliefs and understandings’ (2010, p. 331). Underpinning that awareness is a capacity to interrogate unexamined assumptions, stereotypes and fixed beliefs, as well as fears. When I met with Stenberg, we very quickly arrived at a common ground about professional knowledge as self-knowledge grounded in contextualized moral decisionmaking. Stenberg very helpfully has called this ‘personal practical theory’, and I wanted to find out how she had implemented this model in the ITE programme at Helsinki. One pedagogical and research method used with trainees has been video diaries and autobiographical stories based around an aspect of their teaching with a series of seminars for feedback and peer questioning. Categories for content were teaching content (the relationship between the trainee and the lesson content), didactic interest (how do I teach), pedagogic interest (were my actions morally right) and personal interest (my personal practical theory of teaching based on my beliefs and values). Categories were also used for the nature of the reflective process arising from the critical incident: routine, rationalization, dialogic and transformative. The last of these would represent analysis of previously unexamined beliefs and a focus on the values operating behind decision-making and moral and ethical considerations. In evaluating this work with Stenberg and some

International perspectives on values 47 trainees who had participated in such activities, I gathered that although there were some qualitative changes in reflection, routine and rationalization tended to dominate rather than transformation. When reflecting on this in her paper on the process (2010), Stenberg states that ‘reflection in which inner beliefs, values and understandings are under critical consideration are hard to obtain’ (p. 342). In discussion both Stenberg and trainees felt that beliefs and values are difficult to access, because they are to a great extent unconscious and affective. A challenge for teacher educators is how to define and expose them to evaluation; this is particularly problematic because they are derived from previous powerful experiences which are deeply embedded. As I have encountered in my own research (Mead 2003, 2004), teacher educators in schools and trainee teachers can be reluctant to open up to a dialogic process of personal evaluation, which requires them to step out of their comfort zone. On my visit to Vikki Training School, Stenberg introduced me to a second pedagogic tool for developing personal practical theory throughout the five-year period of training. Stenberg has been instrumental in creating a tool in the very first module of initial training at Helsinki, which is intended to enable trainees to construct their practical theory at the very beginning of their studies. The tool is based on the theoretical position of Levin and He (2008), who hold that beliefs about teaching and learning play a significant role in teacher education as they create a framework that filters new information and therefore decide what information trainee teachers choose and what they ignore in their training. The aim of the tool is to facilitate the coaching of trainees to reflect on their own practical theories. The aim of the process is to make their implicit values explicit much as in the way I had been experimenting with in a citizenship/PSHE module (Mead 2003). In discussing the process with both Stenberg and trainees at Vikki, I understood that at the beginning of the course, the trainees were asked to explicitly describe their practical theory which guides their teaching and school work. The trainees then write down four to ten beliefs as statements and describe a real-life example of each belief to show the statement in practice. One such example given by a trainee was along the lines that a teacher must treat his or her pupils fairly and equally, and this was exemplified in the use of consistent assessment criteria. Following their description of their personal practical theories, trainees would then reflect on them with their peers. As researchers as well as teacher educators, Stenberg et al. (2014) have collected data from their trainees’ engagement with the personal practical theory tool much, as I have collected data from my own trainees. Stenberg’s intention has been to categorize trainees’ values to demonstrate how different kinds of values filter trainee learning and moral decision-making in both theory and in classroom practice. Beliefs have been categorized into four teacher identity positions: trainee values, practice position, teacher position and context position. Trainee values included powerful filters, such as the view that teaching is a moral endeavour and fundamental teaching matters must emphasize equality, inclusion, impartiality and fairness. Values in relation to practice were very much pupil centred: ‘meaningful learning can only happen in inclusive classrooms. It is the responsibility of the teacher to know every

48  International perspectives on values child and treat every child as an individual’ (p. 211). Values categorized as relating to the teacher’s position were very much about developing self-worth and selfefficacy through the moral decision-making processes in the classroom. Results for context position, which included values primarily about the classroom and working in a collaborative environment, reflected the limited practicum experience of year one trainees and was identified as the weakest category, but it was also seen to reflect trainees’ lack of perspective on the wider and more political purposes of education, a recurring weakness across countries. Stenberg’s work identifies powerful moral, and to the extent they represent a fair treatment of pupils, political values, which, as she argues, teacher educators should be aware of as they ‘influence how trainees define aims, tasks and problems’ (p. 215). The main challenge has been the lack of contextualization around what are essentially child-centred values, which figure largely at the beginning of the training but are not sustained as informing perspectives on the wider purposes of education as training progresses. In my discussions with Stenberg, she has expressed concern that the original intention for personal practical theory to be the thread running through all aspects of the training and especially taken account of during the practicum has not been fully realized. The main difficulty seems to be in creating a workable system for using practical theory effectively, for example, when talking to trainees in later years of what is a five-year course, although they had a strong sense of their personal and professional development, they found it difficult to connect the year one practical theory activity and assignment with their subsequent training. Tirri’s research (2011, 2012) confirms Stenberg’s concerns that Finnish trainee teachers find it challenging to analyse previously unexamined beliefs and values and therefore struggle to develop wider moral and political perspectives on the purposes of education, something which Apple has flagged as a major issue in the UK and USA (2001, 2004). Although in a country in which teachers are highly valued and are given a great deal of autonomy, teacher educators and their programmes need further development to address significant societal change. In discussion with Stenberg, it is her view that a way forward to address this problem would be to use critical incidents in ITE throughout the training as the most powerful vehicle for evaluating beliefs and values. She argues that an unexpected or strange experience pushes for a reconsideration of previously held opinions and ‘demands a new perspective which goes beyond the previous frame of reference’ (2010, p. 343). This kind of critical evaluation of ways forward that I shared with Stenberg is invaluable when a transnational professional dialogue about values reveals commonalities that cut across some stereotypical assumptions about what ‘high-quality’ teaching looks like and actually unites us in an endeavour to seek a more authentic version.

Conclusion Returning to the English context and in the light, particularly of the impact of globalization on ITE and individual country’s responses, there is an emphasis in the UK Coalition’s White Paper The Importance of Teaching (2010) on

International perspectives on values 49 the qualities of leadership needed in twenty-first-century classrooms to meet the demands of a global economy; however, little is said about how the values underpinning leadership in the classroom are formed. Self-belief is not enough, as classrooms are diverse, complex and value-laden places, and trainee teachers need opportunities to formulate and test out value-judgements which impact on every aspect of their practice. Kroll has argued that research into the personal beliefs of trainee teachers shows the robustness of unrecognized beliefs based on early experiences that affect the assumptions about and expectations of pupils. She believes that even when student teachers express professional values that reflect a democratic, humane and equality oriented perspective, without examining how these values might be manifest in teaching, they may not connect their stated values with their actions in the classroom. (Kroll 2012, p. 79) It is possible to consider, then, in the light of my visits to Estonia, Japan and Finland that the limited success of values education in conventional university routes in England has been about lack of trainee autonomy and a more descriptive rather than critical approaches to reflection and collaboration. Each of these factors is more about approach than just time. Greater trainee autonomy allows for the integration of personal and professional values: marrying those deeply held motivations with classroom practice. In seminars, mentoring sessions and written assignments, this would ideally be characterized by participatory appropriation: how trainees themselves ‘change and develop through being part of the activity and with regard to the activity’ (Kroll 2012, p. 51). Reflection would not then be the reductive and often descriptive ‘reflective practice’ which Schon’s (1983) theories have often become: what happened and what I did, followed by smart targets linked to judgements about what was ‘good’ or ‘unworkable’ (Wright & Bottery 1997). By contrast, a critical teacher education pedagogy would be driven by the dynamics between global neo-liberalism and social justice and have at its core moral, political, social, global and pedagogical values. The case studies in this chapter clearly demonstrate how striving for such a pedagogy is actually a common concern across countries, with distinctive needs arising from the push-pull effect of globalization. Perhaps most striking is that Estonia, Japan and Finland have gone beyond identifying the problem and actually begun to address it through some form of values strategy that includes ITE pedagogical experimentation supported by research. Having identified the problem and exemplified some international responses in depth, how in the UK and indeed in the USA would moral, political, social, global and pedagogical values be developed by a critical pedagogy within preservice training? The case studies suggest that we might hope to find that ‘trainee teachers’ moral values are developed through the moral authority of the trainee in investigating what is best for their students’ learning and development’ (Mead 2013). Political values would be drawn upon, challenged and developed through

50  International perspectives on values a skilful integration of personal and professional values about social justice, which surely we want to be at the heart of the education of teachers as citizens (Mead 2013). We would like to see trainee teachers practice social values of inclusion and interdependence in their own learning that support ‘interconnected learning ecosystems’ within which each of them become ‘agents of their own learning, applying their own insights and becoming co-producers of learning’ (Hannon, Patton and Temperley 2011, p. 2). Such practice of values would model twenty-first-century global teaching competences combined with social justice. This brings us to global values which essentially would be about critically understanding, as well as learning to manage, the tension between interdependence and PISA competition. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE 2012) global competences for teaching must figure largely here in terms of teacher and pupil understanding of the interdependence of relationships in addressing real-world issues, skills in engagement with different kinds of people, a preparedness for the unforeseen, an ability to negotiate alternative futures and to challenge assumptions. The development of trainee teachers’ pedagogical values will build on existing self-knowledge, informed by their moral, political, social and global values. As Stenberg states, ‘Self-knowledge enables teachers to recognize what, how and why they act and teach the way they do’ (Stenberg 2010, p. 331). This is why she calls her pedagogical values system a personal practical theory because ‘it is based on experiences, values, beliefs and understanding and works as a lens through which the teacher interprets situations in the classroom’ (Stenberg 2010, p. 339). In conclusion, it is evident and has already been touched upon earlier that there are significant implications for teacher educators if these professional values are to be nurtured. Teacher educators in universities and schools will need to develop skills in framing reflection within constructivist guided participation, beginning with a fundamental question: How can I provoke constructive conversations about social justice and equity in teaching with my students? What questions, activities and projects help my students take an inquiry stance towards these issues? (Kroll 2012, pp. 107–108) The case studies in this chapter have given insights into how this question is being asked in many different cultural contexts in response to the more negative influences of neo-liberalism. However, the latter, in being focused on measurable standards in the race for ‘world class’ education, and therefore world class teacher education, does not always encourage the adoption of an international or cosmopolitan values-based perspective in ITE, which would be mutually beneficial. Alexander (2010) and Nussbaum (2004) have explored this in relation to the impact of a political ideology which speaks of a nations’ schools as striving to be ‘world class’ and how this flies in the face of personal and political values of interrelatedness and cooperation, vital for global sustainability. By contrast with the supremacist values of ‘world class’, and which enables ‘one country merely to beat another’, Alexander speaks of a globally oriented development, that is, ‘engendering the capacity

International perspectives on values 51 to understand, engage with and indeed sustain the world while nevertheless being economically productive’ (p. 801). Nussbaum (2004), similarly, speaks of the importance of students and teachers gaining an ‘understanding of how common needs and aims are realised in different circumstances’ (p. 3). These needs surround equity and social justice, which are easily disconnected from classroom and teacher education if performance and measurement of attainment dominate. As Alexander states, we ‘need to break down the barrier between education for supremacy and education for viability, interdependence and sustainability’ (p. 801). This needs to happen in teacher education if it is to happen in the classroom, and I therefore agree strongly with Alexander’s view that there is a need in teacher education and amongst teacher educators, in particular, for an educational consciousness ‘which is instinctively and inevitably international and which understands that the imperatives are moral as well as economic’ (p. 816). I believe that such an educational consciousness will contribute to these international moral imperatives underpinning ITE pedagogy in such a way as to strengthen the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values. I have found this outlook often more alive in international development contexts and have had the opportunity to engage with colleagues working on ITE pedagogy in post-conflict situations. Such contexts powerfully capture the dynamic between personal and political values and teacher education pedagogy. The example I want to take is the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and Department for International Development (DfID) project (2017) ‘Teachers as Agents of Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion in Post-Conflict Contexts’. I have been particularly interested in the use of a Pedagogy of Discomfort in ITE at Cape Peninsula University of Technology. In the South African past, teachers were mainly distributed across schools in racially defined and unequal ways, a situation that has not shifted significantly since 1994 and the end of apartheid. The challenge in teacher education is to recruit across the racial divide and prepare trainee teachers to teach in multiple contexts. To this end, within the university elements of training, a pedagogy of discomfort is used early on for story-telling, narrative, role play and case study work to address unexamined prejudices and pre-conceptions in racially mixed cohorts. Sirkhotte (2017) in her observations of group work describes how white trainees were shocked by black trainees’ perceptions of them as recounted in their autobiographical accounts. The principles of a pedagogy of discomfort encourage trainee teachers to move outside their comfort zone and question their cherished beliefs and assumptions. As Zembylas (2015) states: This approach is grounded in the assumption that discomforting feelings are important in challenging dominant beliefs, social habits and normative practices that sustain social inequities and they create openings for individual and social transformation. (p. 163) Fundamental to this kind of pedagogic experience is the process of trainee teachers progressing from self-understanding to self-realization, which empowers

52  International perspectives on values them to enact the relationship between personal moral and political values in their classroom practice. In the spirit of the pedagogy of discomfort, the crossover school placement system at Cape Peninsula requires trainees to do a placement in a school which has a different racial profile than their own. Sosibo (2015) describes the South African practicum as a learning process which is not neutral or apolitical but that which may be characterised by contradictions, paradoxes and dilemmas, the latter which may impact on the growth and development of culturally diverse studentteachers in several significant ways. (p. 45) There is a significant challenge for teacher educators, both in the university and in cross-over schools, to become critically reflexive of their own histories if they are to develop in trainees a sense of those ‘moral imperatives’ which Alexander speaks of and which will enable them to create greater equity and social justice in inclusive classrooms. Sirkhotte (2017), in her observational work, notes how mentors in cross-over schools may not be concerned with social cohesion ‘but are narrowly focused on delivering the syllabus’ (p. 151). She also highlights how mentors can inhibit trainees because the former may have very different ideas of what a socially cohesive South Africa is or should be. As a result, many trainees did not find the cross-over practicum transformative ‘because they could not effect the change they wanted’ (p. 118). Critical to the process and something which all ITE contexts can learn from is the need for teacher educators and mentors to have a shared vision so that mentors can be informed about the kind of role they need to play in helping trainees shift their existing dispositions, particularly in relation to social cohesion. As Sosibo (2015) states, ‘mentors may not be so open to engage trainees in dialogue because they are unfamiliar with the pedagogy of discomfort’ (p. 143). The South African example exemplifies how teacher education pedagogy is in the process of being transformed through the development of trainees’ personal moral and political values as the vehicle for social cohesion. In Chapter 1, I set out a personal account of the development of my own professional understanding and commitment to this kind of position. In Chapter 2, I have contextualized that personal account within my own experience of international ITE contexts to demonstrate how an international educational consciousness, based on equity, social justice and the need for interdependence, should be a key driver which ensures that moral imperatives are at the heart of ITE. I have given examples of new ITE pedagogies which are being developed in various international contexts in response to those moral imperatives. If teacher educators, across national contexts, are to harness such pedagogies to disrupt, question and discuss troubled knowledge which challenges trainees, in the university and the schools, to step outside their comfort zones, they do need a strong theoretical position to work from. A theoretical position of this kind needs to be rooted in personal and political values which underpin the integrity of strategic and critical professional knowledge, and it also needs to be infused with the international

International perspectives on values 53 educational consciousness I have been advocating here. In the following chapter, I will set out such a theoretical position, informed by the case studies in this chapter, and explain how it has shaped my own ITE curriculum, professional and research work and my understanding of professional knowledge.

References Alcorn, N. (2014) Teacher education in New Zealand 1974–2014, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 447–460. Alexander, R. (2010) World-class schools – noble aspiration or globalised hokum, Compare, 40 (6), 801–817. Apple, M. (2001) Markets, standards, teaching and teacher education, Journal of Teacher Education, 52 (3), 182–196. Apple, M. (2004) Creating difference: neo-liberalism, neo-conservatism and the politics of educational reform, Education Policy, 18 (1), 12–44. Auchmuty, J. (1980) Report of the national inquiry into teacher education, Canberra: Australian Government Publication Service. Bjork, C. (2009) Local implementation of Japan’s Integrated Studies reform: a preliminary analysis of efforts to decentralise the curriculum, Comparative Education, 45 (1), 23–44. Brough, C.J. (2012) Implementing the democratic principles and practices of student-centred curriculum integration in primary schools, Curriculum Journal, 23 (3), 345–369. Bullough, R. (2014) Recalling forty years of teacher education in the USA: a personal essay, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 474–491. Cave, P. (2001) Education reform in Japan in the 1990s: individuality and other uncertainties, Comparative Education, 37 (2), 173–191. Cave, P. (2011) Explaining the impact of Japan’s educational reform: or, why are junior high schools so different from elementary schools? Social Science Japan Journal, 14 (2), 145–163. Dale, R. (2012) Globalisation: a new world for comparative education, in Schriewer, J. (ed) Discourse formation in comparative education, chap 3, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Dam, G. ten, & Blom, S. (2006) Learning through participation: the potential of school-based teacher education for developing professional identity, Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 647–660. Darling-Hammond, L. & Lieberman, A. (eds) (2012) Teacher education around the world, changing policies and practices, London: Routledge. ESRC/DfID. (2017) Teachers as agents of peacebuilding and social cohesion in postconflict contexts, downloaded at www.sussex.ac.uk/cie/projects/current/peacebuilding/outputs, accessed 10/9/17. Galton, M. (2007) Learning and teaching in the primary classroom, London: Sage. Giddens, A. (2003) Runaway world, London, Taylor & Francis. Hanhimaki, E. & Tirri, K. (2009) Education for ethically sensitive teaching in critical incidents at school, Journal of Education for teaching, 35 (2), 107–121. Hannon, V., Patton, A. & Temperley, J. (2011) Developing an innovative ecosystem for education, White Paper, Innovation Unit & GELP, Cisco: San Jose. Harro-Loit, H. & Ugur, K. (2008) Media education as part of higher education curriculum, Informacijos Mokslai, 47.

54  International perspectives on values Kimura, H. & Iwata, Y. (2007) The historical trend of teacher identity in Japan: focusing on educational reforms and the occupational cultures of teachers, Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, 39, 19–42. Korthagen, A. & Kessels, Jos P.A.M. (1999) Linking theory and practice: changing the pedagogy of teacher education, Educational Researcher, 28 (4), 4–17. Korthagen, F. (2001) Linking practice and theory: the pedagogy of realistic teacher education. Paper to the American Education Research Association, Seattle, April. Kroll, L. (2012) Self-study and inquiry into practice, London: Routledge. Levin, B. & He, Y. (2008) Investigating the content and sources of teacher candidates’ Personal Practical Theories (PPTS), Journal of Teacher Education, 59 (1), 55–68. Macbeath, J. (2011) Education of teachers, the English experience, Journal of Education for Teaching, 37 (4), 377–386. Maandag, D., Folkert Deinum, J., Hofman, A. & Buitink, J. (2007) Teacher education in schools: an international comparison, England, France, Germany, Netherlands and Sweden, European Journal of Teacher Education, 30 (2), 151–173. Mayer, M. (2014) Forty years of teacher education in Australia 1974–2014, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 461–473. McCullough, D. (2008) Moral and social education in Japanese schools: conflicting conceptions of citizenship, Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 4 (1), 21–34. Mead, N. (2003) Will the introduction of teaching standards in professional values and practice put the heart back into primary teacher education? Pastoral Care in Education, 21 (1), 37–42. Mead, N. (2004) The provision for Personal, Social, Health Education and Citizenship (PSHE/Ct.) in school-based elements of primary initial teacher education, Pastoral Care in Education, 22 (2), 19–26. Mead, N. (2011) The impact of Every Child Matters on trainee secondary teachers’ understanding of professional knowledge, Pastoral Care in Education, 29 (1), 7–24. Mead, N. (2013) Values in teacher education, Oxford: Nick Mead & Oxford Berforts Press. Mead, N. & Sakade, N. (eds) (2015) Teacher education for the twenty-first century: what can England and Japan learn from each other? The proceedings of a symposium of joint academics from Oxford Brookes University and Kyoto University of Education, Oxford, November 25–28. MEXT. (2013) OECD interim survey of teacher training environments (TALLIS 2013), downloaded at www.mext.go.jp/components/b_menu/other/icsFiles/ afieldfile/2014/06/30/1349189_1.pdf, accessed 10/3/18. MEXT. (2014) Abstract of the OECD teaching and learning international survey (TALIS), downloaded at www.mext.go.jp/component/b_menu/other/_icsFiles/afield/2014/06/30/1349189_1.pdf, accessed 10/3/18. Mortimore, P. Forward in Hudson, A. & Lambert, D. (eds) Exploring futures in initial teacher education, p. xi, London: Institute of Education, University of London. National programme for values development in Estonian society (2009–2013), downloaded at www.eetika.ee// . . . ut/values_development_in_estonian_soci ety_2009-2013.pdf, accessed 6/1/18. Nussbaum, M. (2004) Liberal education and global community, Liberal Education, winter, downloaded at http://aacu.org/liberaleducation/le-wi04feature.cfm, pp. 2–6, accessed 3/5/18.

International perspectives on values 55 Obermeier, A., Mizuyama, M., Nishii, K. & Murakami, T. (2016) What can we learn by comparing teacher education in Japan and England? Journal of Educational Research, 129, Kyoto University of Education, 79–92. Odora Hoppers, C.A. (2009) Education, culture and society in a globalising world: implications for comparative and international education, Compare, 39 (5), 610–614. Ota, N. (2000) Teacher education and its reforms in contemporary Japan, International Studies in Sociology of Education, 10 (1), 43–60. Parmenter, L. (2006) Asian (?) citizenship and identity in Japanese education, Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 2 (2), 8–20. Priestley, M. (2002) Global discourses and national reconstruction: the impact of globalisation on curriculum policy, Curriculum Journal, 13 (1), 121–138. Rogoff, B. (1995) Observing socio-cultural activity on three planes: participating appropriation, guided participation and apprenticeship, in Wertsch, J., Del Rio, P. & Alvarez, A. (eds) Sociological studies of mind, 139–164, New York: Cambridge University Press. Sahlberg, P. (2011) Finnish lessons: what can the world learn from educational change in Finland? New York: Teachers’ College Press. Sahlberg, P. (2012) The most wanted: teachers and teacher education in Finland, in Darling-Hammond, L. & Lieberman, A. (eds) Teacher education around the world, practice and policies, chap. 1, 1–21, London: Routledge. Schon, D. (1983) The reflective practitioner, New York: Basic books Sirkhotte, W. (2017) The incorporation of social cohesion in an initial teacher education programme in the Western Cape, unpublished M.Ed thesis, South Africa: Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Snoek, M., Baldwin, G., Cautreels, P., Enemaerke, T., Halstead, V. & Hilton, G. (2003) Scenarios for the future of teacher education in Europe, European Journal of Teacher Education, 26 (1), 21–36. Sosibo, L. (2015) The notion of school ‘functionality’ in a teaching practice placement policy, International Journal of Educational Science, 8 (1), 43–52. Sutrop, M. (2014) Using the teachers’ values game to facilitate teachers’ reflections on their own values, Teacher Education Advancement Network Journal, 6 (1), 55–63. Stenberg, K. (2010) Identity work as a tool for promoting the professional development of student teachers, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 11 (3), 331–346. Stenberg, K., Karlsson, L., Pitkaniemi, H. & Maaranen, K. (2014) Beginning student teachers’ teacher identities based on their practical theories, European Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (2), 204–219. Tanahasi, K. (2014) Citizenship of Japanese students from the viewpoints of the world standards research report. World Standards Research Report of the grant in aid for scientific research 2007–2009. Tirri, K. (2011) Holistic school pedagogy and values: Finnish teachers’ and students’ perspectives, International Journal of Educational Research, 50 (4), 159–165. Tirri, K. (2012) The core of school pedagogy: Finnish teachers’ views on the educational purposefulness of their teaching, in Niemi, H., Toom, A. & Kallioniemi, A. (eds) Miracle of education, Rotterdam: Sense Publishing. Tirri, K. (2014) The last forty years in Finnish Teacher Education, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 600–609.

56  International perspectives on values UNECE. (2012) Learning for the future, competences in education for sustainable development, Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. US Department of Education. (2002) No child left behind, executive summary, downloaded at www.ed-gov/nclb/overview/intro/presidentplan/page_pg3.html, accessed 10/11/17. Wolf, A. (2011) Review of vocational education, The wolf report, London: DFE. Wright, N. & Bottery, M. (1997) Perceptions of professionalism by the mentors of student teachers, Journal of Education for Teaching, 23 (3), 235–252. Zembylas, M. (2015) Pedagogy of discomfort and its ethical implications: the tensions of ethical violence in social justice education, Ethics and Education, 10 (2), 163–174.

3 Applied theoretical principles for developing the relationship between trainee teachers’ values and their professional knowledge Introduction The narrative in Chapter 1 traces a personal and formative encounter with the emerging conflict between trainee self-understanding and performativity, as measured by competency-based Teaching Standards, first introduced in 1992 (Department for Education (DfE) Circular 9/92). The introduction of standards in professional values in the 2002 set of Teaching Standards (Teacher Training Agency (TTA) 2002) gave me the impetus to frame my analysis of the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values within ‘a process vs competence debate’, which, I argued might ‘provide the opportunity to put human development back into the heart of teacher education’ (Mead 2003, p. 37). A key question emerging from this analysis and ever present in my daily work has been concerned with the extent to which trainee teachers’ moral and political values and the instrumental nature of their training might be reconciled in aspects of teacher education and in the development of professional knowledge. I set out in Chapter 2 to demonstrate that this question has a global reach within the context of nation state responses to the negative aspects of neo-liberalism and is therefore being asked in international ITE contexts which have the potential to offer collaborative, non-competitive and humanizing insights and answers, such as indicated in the international case studies. Informed by Chapters 1 and 2, I want to set out the theoretical principles underpinning my approach to this question. First, there are two interrelated elements of the research question I have pursued: how might the dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values be developed in standardsbased teacher education, and what contribution might this relationship make to the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge within which the moral and the instrumental are fused? I want to demonstrate how the two key principles of phronesis and political values provide the interrelatedness of these two elements of the research question and then exemplify this through the key areas of a teacher educator’s work: curriculum contexts, professional contexts and research. However, before that, the question being pursued needs to be theoretically contextualized within the emerging conflict between teacher selfunderstanding and performativity.

58  Applied theoretical principles

Background: performativity and values When responding to the short-lived inclusion of standards in professional values in the 2002 teaching standards (Mead 2003), I drew on the important work of Nias (1989), Tann (1993) and Fish (1996) who had already established the significance of the personal/professional dynamic in response to increasing measurement and performativity within teacher development. Nias, drawing on longitudinal data, has given insights into how the attitudes and actions of each teacher are rooted in his or her ways of perceiving the world (1989, p. 156). Tann, writing a year after the first set of Teaching Standards, recognized that what Nias claimed must be addressed in initial teacher education, arguing that trainees come to their training with personal theories about education which they have difficulty in articulating across the personal-professional divide. Much work on the impact of performativity on teachers personal and professional lives and personal practical theory has subsequently built on the work of Nias, Tann and Fish (Day et al. 2007; Goodson 2007; Troman and Raggl 2008; Stenberg 2010). A fundamental theme running through these researchers’ work is the disconnect between the teacher’s personal moral decision-making and their professional judgements in the classroom. Goodson (2007) concludes that ‘the personal missions that people bring to their employment are largely frustrated in the micro-managed and re-regulated regimes of the public sector’ (p. 131). Hargreaves (1998) states that ‘teaching is a profoundly emotional form of work’, and in the work of Hochschild (2012), we find an insightful analysis of the impact of neo-liberal performativity on this kind of work. Hochschild defines three responses to performativity amongst those engaged in ‘emotional labour’. When applied to teachers and trainee teachers, these responses would represent, first, those who identify wholeheartedly with their work and therefore risk burnout. Second, there are those teachers who distinguish themselves from their work and so are less likely to suffer burnout, however, according to Hochschild, such workers ‘may blame themselves for making this very distinction and denigrate themselves as “just an actor, not sincere” ’ (p. 208). Here we see how the separation of personal and professional values affects self-identity and authentic self-realization. The reality of these responses is borne out by Troman and Raggl’s (2008) research into primary teachers’ responses to curriculum reform which, they claim, rode roughshod over the child-centred values of English primary teachers, leading to an over commitment to try and preserve such values, resulting in burnout. In keeping with Hochschild’s second response, Troman and Raggl state that, ‘for those who remained the experience of primary teaching was one largely of change without commitment’ (p. 86). Hochschild’s third response is when the teacher distinguishes himself or herself from their performance, inflicts no self-blame and sees their job as essentially requiring the capacity to perform. The risk here is that any development in the relationship between this teacher’s personal moral and political values will be curtailed by an emotional estrangement from their work, leading to cynicism. Such cynicism arising from performance has a numbing effect on feelings which play

Applied theoretical principles 59 a critical role in the enactment of values. This is because, as Hochschild states, ‘when we lose access to our feelings, we lose a central means of interpreting the world around us’ (pp. 126–127). Goffman (1990) takes up the ethical implications of this loss of feeling for the professional. Unlike Hochschild’s first two responses to performativity, Goffman understands the third response to mean that, not only have teachers lost belief in their own performance, but ‘they no longer have any ultimate concern with the beliefs of their audience’ (p. 28). The ethical implications for the engagement of teachers personal moral and political values are considerable here, manifesting themselves, particularly, in the way performance impacted on the difficulty faced by those interviewed by Troman and Raggl (2008) in ‘developing warm and trusting relationships with pupils’ (p. 341). By contrast, and as discussed in Chapter 2, I visited Stenberg at Helsinki University’s Vikki Teacher Training School and found her analysis of the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values within the less instrumental culture of Finnish education particularly helpful. On entering Stenberg’s elementary grade classroom on a very cold November morning, I had no doubt about the warm and trusting relationship she had with her pupils, and I was struck by the way she hugged each child and teaching assistant as they left the classroom at the end of the day for the start of half-term. Here there was ‘ultimate concern’ with the beliefs of children and adults. The organic nature of the relationship between values and professional knowledge was powerfully brought home to me as following the departure of the class, Stenberg and I sat down at the teacher’s desk to discuss her latest research paper. All elementary and secondary teachers at Vikki hold doctorates and are both practitioners and researchers. In the paper we discussed (Stenberg 2010), she argues that the development of trainee teachers’ pedagogical values will build on existing self-knowledge, informed by their moral, political, social and global values: ‘Self- knowledge enables teachers to recognize what, how and why they act and teach the way they do’ (p. 331). Stenberg calls this pedagogical values system a personal practical theory, which is ‘based on experiences, values, beliefs and understanding and works as a lens through which the teacher interprets situations in the classroom’ (p. 339). I am given hope by Stenberg’s more organic model of personal and professional knowledge, which seems to fuse teachers’ value-judgements with technical skill and which I try to develop as a response to the instrumental policy approach of Every Child Matters in my 2011 case study (Mead 2011). Instrumentalism’s erosion of what Troman and Raggl (2008) call the ‘grand narratives of modernity such as crusading moral purposes’ may have ‘elided into the softer, late modern and ambiguous narrative of “making a difference” ’ (p. 97). Nevertheless, teacher educators can work to preserve and nurture the integrity of the phronetic relationship between moral decision-making and political action within the practice of trainee and developing teachers. Much work has also been done on the origins of teacher performativity through the all-pervasive influence of neo-liberal values in education since the 1980s and 1990s (Giddens 1991; Ball 1994; Apple 2001). The increasing marketization of

60  Applied theoretical principles education with its attendant political, economic and global ideologies, discussed in Chapter 2, is a consistent factor in the struggle to preserve and nurture the relationship between the moral and political, especially within the formation of trainee teachers who need to build resilience. Implied is a clash of values, which I considered to be part and parcel of what trainees would inevitably experience and therefore would be implicit within the empirical data used for case study work, such as found in Chapter 4. Apple (2001) sums up what is a significant threat to the moral and political integrity of the teacher, which is the commodification of pupils and teachers: The coupling of markets with the demand for and publication of performance indicators such as exam league tables in England has meant that schools are increasingly looking for ways to attract ‘motivated’ parents with ‘able’ children. In this way schools are able to enhance their relative position in local systems of competition. The corollary to this is the need to recruit the ‘best’ and ‘most academically talented teachers’ to secure the school’s relational position’. (p. 413) The commodification of education has led to what Ball (2003) calls ‘the terrors of performativity’ which challenge or displace teachers’ personal moral and political values: A kind of values schizophrenia is experienced by individual teachers where commitment, judgement, and authenticity within practice are sacrificed for impression and performance. Teachers are no longer encouraged to have a rationale for practice, account of themselves in terms of a relationship to the meaningfulness of what they do, but are required to produce measurable and improving outputs and performances, what is important is what works. (pp. 221–222) I conclude my analysis of the reality of this professional context for individuals, as well as convey my conviction about its importance as a research focus, by citing one of Ball’s research participants: I never get the chance to think of my philosophy anymore, my beliefs. I know what I believe, but I never really put them into words anymore. Isn’t your philosophy more important than how many people get their sums right? (Bronwyn, p. 222)

Finding a way forward for teacher educators It seemed to me that an increasing competency-based model for initial teacher education would weaken the integral link between the moral formation of the trainee, upon which the ‘very special transactions between teacher and learner’ are built (Pring 1994, p. 184) and the actions of the teacher as citizen. In seeking

Applied theoretical principles 61 to find ways forward to address this problem in my work, I have drawn on the two theoretical principles of phronesis (practical wisdom) and political values, both of which will now be discussed in the light of what has been said about the negative impact of performativity. Following that, the contribution of each of these principles to the development of a more critical and strategic kind of professional knowledge will be considered, including what insights can be brought to bear from the international perspectives of Chapter 2. Third, the theoretical principles will be applied to the development of a more problematizing role for the teacher educator in curriculum, professional and research contexts.

Theoretical principles Phronesis I have found Flyvbjerg’s reassertion of the significance of phronesis (practical wisdom) in professional contexts particularly useful in terms of developing valuebased analyses of the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values. Flyvbjerg has championed phronesis in the face of ‘the dominance of rulebased rationality over practical science which is a problem for the vast majority of professional education’ (2001, p. 24). He draws on Dreyfus (1986), who argues that this dominance tends to generate conscious, analytical division between problem, goal, plan, decision and action in the professional context. Flyvbjerg (2001) argues that in reality, although the general and universal need to be taken account of, complex moral decision-making by teachers leading to political action is more likely to be characterized by phronesis: intuitive, holistic and synchronetic processes which emerge in specific contexts and which are ‘arrational’ (p. 23). Flyvbjerg (2001) provides support for my own concerns about the way in which the dominance of rule-based rationality has resulted in a technicist language., because it has reduced techne to skill and colonized contexts such as professional education, thereby obscuring processes of value-judgement with the language of production. Within the field of Education, both Pring (1994) and Carr (2000, 2007) provided me with the supporting analysis, which I needed to begin to develop a critical case for recognition of the significance of the dynamic relationship between trainee’s moral and political values in the face of increasing neo-liberal instrumentalism within teacher education. Both writers emphasize the phronetic relationship between moral decision-making and political action. Pring talks about teacher moral formation as a process involving ‘caring for the curriculum because of its worth and not its utility, a concern for evidence and reasoned argument, a respect for alternative viewpoints, a search for understanding and the ability to use theory to interpret practice’ (p. 184). In the light of my own standards-based work with trainees, I wholeheartedly agreed with Pring’s view that ‘such values are precious, hard to come by and are easily lost’ in an instrumental and technicist ethos (p. 184). I have found Carr helpful because he moves us from Pring’s moral formation through the moral decision-making process, to action in the classroom. In his

62  Applied theoretical principles analysis, Carr has provided me with a template within my research for evaluating the degree to which a dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values is being developed in various teacher education contexts. For Carr (2000), moral formation provides the phronetic dispositions, which, by their very nature, seek improvement for others. He argues that at the heart of this moral formation are ‘interpersonal qualities of respect, care and trust rather than coercion and control’ (p. 30). On this basis, Carr proceeds to the view that all aspects of teaching constitute a model of virtues as well as skills. At the heart of this model lie the challenges of moral and evaluative deliberations which characterize phronesis. By their very nature, these moral deliberations result in actions which have consequences for the well-being of pupils, and it is in this interdependency of thought and action that Carr demonstrates the dynamic relationship between the moral and the political: ‘the idea of teaching involves that of making people better in some way which one can only suppose is at odds with spreading prejudice and intolerance’ (p. 33). Carr’s template has kept me firmly focused on the values education of the individual trainee teacher in a teacher education ethos heavily dominated by an instrumental techne. I have found that he has provided me with the exemplification of the tension between a phronetic process, which is essentially about the human development of the trainee teacher and an instrumental techne. For example, he suggests that a trainee teacher’s difficulties in creating a positive and inclusive classroom climate may be a defect of phronesis rather than techne, reflecting the teachers ‘lack of authentic engagement with or ownership of what they are teaching’ (2007, p. 381). What I think is crucial here for teacher educators employing teaching standards to make professional judgements is that by ownership, Carr means that the teacher does not model qualities of social justice merely as a strategy to improve classroom climate, but because they believe these qualities ‘have value in and of themselves’ (2007, p. 382). Where there is a lack of ownership, possibly as a result of instrumental methods, then the dynamic link between the moral decision-making and the political action is denied and ‘hence the individual’s own reflection on the point and purpose of education and their part in it as a citizen’ (p. 381). Carr (2003) sums up the disconnect here as caused by encouraging young teachers to conceive of classroom discipline more in terms of managerial or organizational skills than of such moral interrelational virtues or characteristics as care, trust-worthiness and respect: Indeed, the erosion of appropriate morally grounded educational authority and discipline may be one casualty of some unfortunate modelling of teacher professionalism on inappropriate occupational comparisons from commerce or industry. (p. 23) It is this application of phronesis to the teacher education context which has been able to inform both the analysis of the problem I have been wrestling with in my practice and research, and to some degree, the resolution of that problem indicated in my research conclusions.

Applied theoretical principles 63 Resolution of the problem of the tension between the moral and the instrumental in teacher education has emerged in my research papers over more than twenty years of writing. Evaluating now the general direction of the recommendations of that research which inform Chapters 4 and 5, I would support the need for the crucial interrelationship between phronesis and techne to develop critical and strategic professional knowledge such as Carr is describing. This interrelationship is well articulated by Carr and Kemmis (1986) in their definition of critical and strategic professional knowledge. Such professional knowledge is described as strategic because ‘theory and practice are treated in a unified way as problematic, a relationship achieved through the moral disposition of phronesis’ (p. 42). I have sought in the research papers to highlight how opportunities for this problematizing process within teacher education can ‘reawaken the moral disposition of phronesis’ (Carr & Kemmis 1986) and engage the dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values.

Political values When looking back over more than twenty years of writing, I am more able to evaluate why it was not sufficient to engage trainee teachers in discussion about their personal moral values disconnected from what I consider to be political action in the classroom. This awareness stems from a deepening understanding of the role of phronesis and how it serves techne so that personal moral decision-making impacts on socially just pedagogies. This was a challenging notion for trainees in a dominant instrumental and technicist environment and my research reveals varying degrees of engagement. However, there is evidence that many trainee teachers had expectations that such engagement might be possible, and the data suggest disappointment about lack of opportunities for this, leading to declining expectations. This reminds us of the validity of Carr’s (2003) fundamental phronetic understanding of all aspects of teaching as constituting a model of virtues for the purpose of making people better in some way (p. 33). Carr’s view has already exemplified that where there is a lack of ownership of the moral decisionmaking process, possibly as a result of instrumental methods, then the dynamic link between that process and political action is denied as is the individual’s own reflection on the point and purpose of education and their part in it as a citizen. The relationship between morality and politics being assumed here is that set out by Crick (1962) who argues that morality is the activity of politics itself: At the individual and interpersonal level the more one is involved in relationships with others, the more conflicts of interest or of character and circumstance will arise. These conflicts, when personal, create the activity we call ‘ethics’ and such conflicts when public, create political activity. (Crick 1962, p. 20) The Crick Report (Advisory Group on Citizenship 1998) was a significant landmark in setting out a participatory concept of citizenship which would

64  Applied theoretical principles engage both pupils and teachers in the decision-making process at the heart of the dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values. As such, the report was influential in shaping my research and its subsequent critique has played a key part in informing my understanding of how the moral disposition of the teacher as citizen is influenced by political understanding. As Hargreaves (1994) states: ‘political apathy spawns moral apathy’ (p. 33). The Crick Report, drawing on the work of Hargreaves, sets out a dynamic relationship between the moral and political: Civic education is more than civic virtues and decent behaviour. Since Aristotle it has been accepted as an inherently political concept that raises questions about the sort of society we live in, how it came to take its present form, the strengths and weaknesses of current political structures, and how improvements might be made. (p. 10, para 2.6) The report goes on to demonstrate the interdependence between the moral and the political in the context of social and moral responsibility: ‘responsibility is an essential political as well as moral virtue for it implies a) care for others b) premeditation and calculation about what effect actions are likely to have on others and c) understanding and care for consequences’ (p. 13, para 2.12). In setting out this integral relationship between the moral and the political, the report’s intention is to recommend that pupils and teachers should ‘reflect on and recognise values and dispositions which underlie their attitudes and actions as the moral and political woven together’ (p. 41, para 68.2). Although the Crick Report has been criticized for promoting a traditional top-down approach towards conceptions of politics (Faulks 2006; Leighton 2004; Moore 2002; Cunningham & Lavalette 2004), there is, according to McLaughlin (2000) marked evidence throughout the report of the ‘maximal’ or active elements compared with the minimalist interpretations in an earlier attempt to introduce Citizenship Education into schools in 1991. The language used in the report to describe a dynamic relationship between the individual’s personal moral and political values sits comfortably with phronesis and so has provided me with a helpful second model which can be applied to teacher formation. For example, the moral in isolation from the political in the form of doing social good or volunteering is described as not being ‘a sufficient condition of full citizenship since political citizenship is important and must never be taken for granted’ (p. 10). For me, the key question for teacher education is how trainee teachers are nurtured as citizens who can exercise that dynamic relationship between personal moral decision-making and political action in the classroom. As Benninga, Sparks and Tracz (2011) identified in their research into the impact of No Child Left Behind on American teachers’ moral and political decision-making, such policies of performativity and accountability work against democratic education and teachers’ moral judgement as participating citizens. Performativity actually encourages ‘a preference for judging moral correctness by normative rules and

Applied theoretical principles 65 roles in which, in reality, teachers do not play any deciding role’ (p. 182). By contrast, Benninga et al. argue that a fully democratic recognition of the teacher as citizen depends on them having the opportunity, individually and collectively to demonstrate their awareness of a commitment to ‘the burdens of judgement that go with a moral enterprise’ (p. 182). Benninga et al. find that when professionals come face to face with the discrepancy between professional ideals and the conflicting mandates of today’s classrooms, when teachers cannot use their best judgement to assist children, and where their instructional choices are very restricted, the moral milieu or climate can result in a disillusionment and cynicism, which inhibits moral growth. (p. 182) Such cynicism echoes the work of Hochschild (2012) and Goffman (1990), previously discussed, and can only be counteracted by the development of the integral relationship between the teachers’ personal moral and political values which demands, as Benninga et al. state, ‘a much clearer articulation of the foundational purposes of public education in a democratic society’ (p. 182).

Theoretical principles applied to the relationship between trainee teachers’ values and the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge That articulation of the foundational purposes of education will have to come through the way teacher educators use curriculum, pedagogy and research to nurture trainee teachers as citizens in curriculum areas and in wider professional contexts. I want to exemplify now how I took my application of phronesis and political values into the curriculum areas in which I have been involved as a teacher educator and which I sought to broaden out into wider professional contexts and research. What I want to convey in the process is how values and professional knowledge exist organically and by using Carr and Kemmis’s (1986) definition of critical and strategic professional knowledge, show how Hochschild and Goffman’s concern about lack of authenticity and the development of cynicism because of performativity can be challenged. I have therefore deliberately woven into the analyses of teacher educators’ work which follows in the second half of this chapter, the interrelationship between values and professional knowledge, based on a conviction informed both by my experience of an increasingly hollowed out professional knowledge, captured, I hope, to some extent in Chapter 1 and Carr and Kemmis’s explanation of the outcome of this. I turn to Furlong (2005) first in defining what I mean by ‘hollowed out’. He argues that professional knowledge has been successively hollowed out through an almost generification process. By this, he means that the vertical and horizontal discourses in teachers’ professional knowledge, consisting of historical, political and philosophical concepts in the horizontal and in the vertical direction, which provide the critical understanding of the ideological and political restructuring that is going on around them, have been replaced by a

66  Applied theoretical principles training paradigm. Carr and Kemmis (1986) explain the outcome of such a hollowing out in terms of professional knowledge becoming dominated by techne rather than phronesis serving techne, because of performativity, and therefore ceasing to be critical and strategic. It ceases to be strategic because the dominance of techne over phronesis means that theory and practice are not treated in a unified way as problematic, and it ceases to be critical because there is no fusion of the moral and political as teachers encounter the ideological distortions and institutional constraints, which frustrate the realization of their aims and values. Consequently, the teacher ceases to be a participatory citizen, as defined by Crick, enacting political actions, based on moral decision-making, to address and challenge distorted decisions and practices.

The contribution of international perspectives to the application: hollowed-out professional knowledge and courage Finally, before proceeding to the application of my theoretical principles to my work as a teacher educator, I want to convey how these principles have become informed by my understanding and experience of the “push-pull” effect of globalization on the development of critical and strategic professional knowledge in the international case studies in Chapter 2. In particular, I want to take up Groundwater-Smith and Mockler’s (2009) emphasis on courage as a theoretical dimension of the development of professional knowledge: ‘we assert that in this age of compliance, which presses upon practitioners to conform to the wishes and edicts of others, it becomes an essential feature of teachers’ work’(p. 31). Their definition of such courage echoes much that I have said about phronesis and political values in this chapter, in its concern for procedural justice, teaching’s moral purpose, asking the difficult questions and proposing challenging solutions (p. 32). In the international case studies in Chapter 2, we find teacher professional knowledge in various stages of transition and not all hollowed out. We see similarities between England, America, Australia and New Zealand but not without resistance, and I will refer to the work of Kroll (2012) in response to NCLB in America later in this chapter. What is revealed in particular in the case studies from Estonia, Finland, Japan and South Africa is the dynamic which exists between values about education and the rest of life (Alexander 2010). More equal social democracies, post-communist, post conflict countries in particular, and evolving southeast Asian societies seem to demonstrate in more sharply delineated ways the signs of a re-invigoration of critical and strategic professional knowledge as social change causes traditional and neo-liberal values to collide. The domination of techne over phronesis in England can obscure how professional knowledge is not fixed but constantly evolving, and it is therefore an essential part of the work of the teacher educator to both participate in and critique this process. Hence, Sahlberg (2007, 2011), who was a teacher educator, can contextualize the recent gradual development from a conservative pedagogy to a more problematizing professional knowledge in Finland within the development

Applied theoretical principles 67 of a national competitive market economy in a non-market welfare society which is becoming more diverse and complex. This is not without its challenges, as I witnessed in Helsinki schools; however, what I also experienced in Helsinki University training school was Stenberg’s (2010, and Stenberg et al. 2014) work on personal practical theory mentioned earlier in this chapter and which demonstrated to me how a teacher educator who is also a classroom practitioner can both participate in and critique professional knowledge so that it is sustained and not hollowed out. I have been equally inspired and encouraged by my Japanese teacher educator colleagues’ motivation to participate in and critique an evolving professional knowledge which might humanize a very successful knowledge acquisition system. The very real challenges involved in this are conveyed in the case study in Chapter 2. What I have found striking in engaging in research with Kyoto University of Education in this process is the anomalous nature of our relationship: that they should seek to sustain and develop the value of meaningful professional knowledge with guidance and advice from us who often get lost in the mire of instrumentalism! I was quickly convinced that the moral integrity of our Japanese counterparts should challenge any cynicism we might have about a hollowed-out kind of professional knowledge imposed upon us. Here, after all were colleagues committed to wrestling with how to retain the traditional cultural values of the collectivist project whilst seeking to develop a teacher moral autonomy which can recognize and nurture individual creativity and self-efficacy needed for new forms of economic production and social engagement. Fundamentally, what lies behind the moral imperative giving teacher educators the courage to pursue a more critical and strategic professional knowledge for teachers is a national debate about national values and the wider purposes of education. In a post-communist country like Estonia, such a national debate is driven by two major risks, set out in the case study in Chapter 2: that another set of values are imposed following independence from totalitarianism or that there is a ‘value-blindness’ resulting in increased individualism. As I outlined in the case study, the values to counter these risks are social and moral, ensuring the kind of social and human development which will enable Estonian identity to be combined with European identity. The view is that teachers can play a key role in developing these values if there is a shift from knowledge-based to values-based schooling. National values debates of course risk coercion, as fully acknowledged in the national programme for values development (2009–13, p. 14), and so, here then lies the challenge to the invigoration of a critical and strategic professional knowledge: to what extent can teacher educators and trainees in Estonian context become citizens engaged in an open, non-coercive process of social and political change? As in Estonia’s post-communist scenario, the South African post-conflict scenario demands a national debate about values although so much harder to achieve in a fragmented society with less social cohesion and trust but with the same moral imperatives arising from the collision of significant social change, traditional values and neo-liberal pressures relating to economic productivity and

68  Applied theoretical principles social engagement. The reality of the kind of courage needed for professional knowledge development in this context has been fully explored towards the end of Chapter 2. At Cape Peninsula University, there is the courage of teacher educators to become critically reflexive of their own histories, to take risks in the use of pedagogies of discomfort, including cross-over practicums which Sosibo (2015) has described as a learning process which is not neutral or apolitical, requiring, what Groundwater-Smith and Mockler (2009) also emphasize as central to courage: the capacity to live with contradictions, paradoxes and dilemmas. It is in no small part that, as a result of meeting with and engaging in dialogue, as well as sharing in research with my colleagues in these international contexts, I have come to understand the significance of courage in underpinning the application of my two theoretical principles. The reawakening of the moral disposition of phronesis requires of teacher educators and trainees the courage to ask Flyvbjerg’s phronetic questions such as who the winners and losers are, and in the process of phronesis serving techne, the courage is needed to enact the relationship between one’s personal moral and political values, as defined by Crick’s participatory citizen of the institution. Such courage underpins the application of my theoretical principles to the three key areas of a teacher educator’s work: curriculum contexts, professional contexts and research. I now want to reflect on these three areas as a developmental process: courage building through discovering and then sharing with international colleagues what might be possible in applying these theoretical principles in an increasingly centrally regulated English context. Unlike the other jurisdictions of the UK, there is no devolved parliament for England in which debate about values and the wider purposes of education might occur, the reality of which has been forcefully brought home by the imposition of British Values on schools in such a way, whether intended or not, which feels like they are a blunt instrument of identifying unacceptable ‘otherness’.

Understanding and developing the relationship between values and professional knowledge in ITE curriculum contexts It seemed to me that to fully realize their own and their pupils’ potential as citizens, as defined by the Crick Report, teachers need to engage in phronesis. A number of the case studies in the next chapter take the philosophical and political models outlined above and apply them to Religious Education (RE), Personal, Social, Health and economic Education, (PSHE), Citizenship Education and Every Child Matters (ECM) (2004). How did this configuration of papers and subject areas come about? For the author who was a Religious Education specialist, the publication of the Crick Report opened up an interesting debate about the future relationship between Citizenship and Religious Education. At the time, some Religious Education specialists and academics were sceptical about whether there could be any positive relationship between the two subject areas, and the main aim should be to emphasize their distinctiveness. For example, Grimmitt (2000) argued that ‘Citizenship Education further undermines the educational

Applied theoretical principles 69 contribution that Religious Education is making and that this government, like the previous one, has little belief in Religious Education’s personal and community value’ (p. 11). Watson (2004) sums up some of these concerns as arising from Citizenship Education ‘being equated with a conformity to one-nation values, whereas Religious Education celebrates diversity and encourages dialogue’ (p. 268). She argues that Religious Education cannot be ‘used by Citizenship as a means to deliver multicultural training for religious conflict resolution’ because ‘Religious Education is more than just the problem of pluralism, it has a spiritual dimension which engages with the meaning and purpose of our lives’ (p. 168). By contrast, Jackson (2002) argues that Religious Education should make a vital and distinctive contribution to education for Citizenship (p. 162), particularly because, as Ipgrave (2002) argues, Religious Education engages in dialogue with religious and cultural diversity, as well as enabling ‘dialogue with life’s great puzzles as a way of encouraging the reflective nature and moral seriousness needed to become a responsible citizen’ (p. 166). My own approach in the earlier 2000 and 2001 papers was to look for common pedagogic skills across Citizenship and Religious Education which could enhance the teachers’ ability to explore the moral dimension in both subjects, not disconnected from the life experience of their pupils. Both subjects would benefit from teachers able to capture the dynamic relationship between belief and action in the life of both the religious and non-religious citizen through the possibility of them and their pupils entering into dialogue as fellow citizens, rather than pupils as citizens in waiting, being told about other people’s beliefs (Mead 2000, 2001). In retrospect, I fully acknowledge the concerns about the potentially coercive nature of Citizenship as a subject and have recognized this in my 2010 paper. However, as I stated in that paper, the interpretation and implementation of Citizenship Education by teachers and inspectors is more the issue, as also demonstrated by Jerome (2012b) and does not have to diminish the ‘maximal’ elements intended in the original Crick Report from which, as I have stated, I took some of the impetus for my understanding of the dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values. In exploring trainee and practising teachers’ perceptions of common pedagogic skills, it became increasingly clear that much work needed to be done in teacher education on developing teachers’ understanding of the relationship between their personal moral and political values. Focusing on pedagogic skills seemed to me to be a way of engaging trainee teachers more used to a reductive techne than phronesis by working backwards from skills to values and in the process reawakening the dynamic relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values. Such a reductive skillsbased version of techne actually needs to be informed by those phronetic dispositions already discussed and defined by Flyvbjerg (2001) and Carr (2003). Here then, was an attempt to address my research problem by developing a critical and strategic type of professional knowledge, which fused the moral and the instrumental, the theoretical and the practical in the way recommended by Carr and Kemmis (1986). It was at this point that I began to articulate how a common

70  Applied theoretical principles pedagogic skills set could contribute to pupil and teacher growth towards spiritual and moral autonomy; this is because the latter are firmly located in the realm of Crick’s political literacy, which involves an understanding of the values of the individual in relation to political and economic systems. Central to this growth is philosophical and moral reasoning which leads to phronetic action in the classroom. I argued, then, that for teachers, there are questions to engage with through professional dialogue such as ‘what does being a citizen mean to me?’ and ‘do I feel that I am developing morally and spiritually as a citizen?’ (Mead 2001, p. 50) In their responses to the first question, teachers tended to define being a citizen as belonging to a community, reflecting a more communitarian model of citizenship based on preserving freedoms within the local community, rather than the moral-political dynamic of Crick’s version of civic republicanism. It has already been stated that Crick is quite explicit about the importance of the dynamic relationship between the moral and political literacy strands of his report and why the community strand is never going to be enough to fulfil political citizenship. First, then, I believed that the data collected for my 2000 and 2001 papers demonstrated that the introduction of Citizenship had the potential to challenge teachers’ and trainee teachers’ self-understanding of the relationship between their moral and political values. Second, I believed that this self-understanding would have a bearing on their overall confidence to engage in common pedagogic skills in the subject areas of Religious Education, PSHE and Citizenship Education, as well as in the processes of making value-judgements within their wider work about the purposes of education.

Understanding and developing the relationship between values and professional knowledge in ITE professional contexts My 2000 and 2001 papers provided the groundwork needed to address my research problem, resulting in a concern that the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values should be perceived beyond the three subject areas of Religious Education, Citizenship and PSHE. This is in response to a very strong tendency both within schools and teacher education programmes to compartmentalize according to curriculum, especially in a prescriptive and instrumental ethos. Second, I began to develop, in addition to secondary Religious Education, a primary teacher education dimension to my work, which challenged me to consider the wider applicability of my research. The generalizability principle which I talk about in the introduction to my collected papers (Mead 2013) begins with the case for a common skills set across the three subjects made in the 2000 and 2001 papers. As already explained, the argument for a common skills set challenged practitioners to exercise their phronetic dispositions by explicitly considering the relationship between their personal moral and political values in developing pupil spiritual and moral autonomy, an essentially inclusive and political activity. It was my intention, from the 2003 case study found in Chapter 4 onwards, to work with the conviction based on the phronetic model that all trainee teachers, by the nature of their work, and regardless of subject area, need

Applied theoretical principles 71 to be challenged to exercise their phronetic dispositions in the process of achieving equity, inclusion and social justice in the classroom. As my work with primary trainee teachers in the areas of Religious Education and PSHE/Citizenship (PSHE/Ct.) developed, I was able to generalize some of the principles of the relationship between the moral and the political which, I believed, had a bearing on the general practice of the classroom teacher. Reynolds (2001), who I drew on in the 2004 case study in Chapter 4, was pursuing similar links: The irony is that whilst pupils are introduced to citizenship aimed at promoting values at its foundation and linked to fostering in pupils the attitudes, evaluations and modes of acting compatible with inclusion, teaching standards for QTS are linked strictly to the development of the practical competence of teachers. Little attention is given to considering the value-laden foundational principles of practice. (p. 465) Reynolds was able to articulate the relationship between the more general principles of equity, justice, inclusion and phronesis. First, the case is made for the teacher as the crucial influence in education for inclusion and the development of the inclusive school: ‘it is his/her knowledge, beliefs and values that are brought to bear in creating an inclusive classroom’ (p. 466). Second, Reynolds argues that inclusion is not simply about equality of opportunity. Drawing on Pring (1995), a more dynamic definition is developed which relates well to the challenge I began to set out in the 2000 and 2001 papers and which underpins the case studies found in Chapter 4. Pring’s thesis underpinning Closing the Gap: liberal education and vocational preparation (1995) defines Education as intrinsically linked to ideas about social justice because it is intrinsically linked to ideas about the good of society in general. Reynolds goes on to argue that such a definition requires teachers to be actively engaged in trying to ‘realise the rights of the individual, rather than simply providing a facilitative environment’ (p. 467). Inclusion then demands a particular evaluative standpoint which is essentially phronetic: ‘that we value others equally. Inclusion also demands that we act on those values’ (p. 468). The position of my research in relation to teacher criticality and evaluation becomes clear in the light of Reynold’s analysis and hence my persistence in making the case, as a teacher educator, for more criticality within teacher education. The case studies in Chapter 4 focus, then, on both university and school-based training and teacher development contexts within which the degree of critical evaluation highlighted by Reynolds is examined. The positioning of the case studies in relation to the Government’s performance-based standards agenda, already discussed, reflects my intention to respond to Reynold’s challenge: We need teachers who can interrogate their practice by examining the values they are revealing and matching their performance to a fuller range of criteria than those offered by the Teacher Training Agency. (p. 475)

72  Applied theoretical principles I have found Kroll (2012) particularly helpful in analysing and evaluating what I sought to identify in responding to Reynold’s challenge within my own research. In her response to my case study of the development of professional values on a graduate teacher programme in England (Mead 2007), she articulates what I consider to be phronesis within the context of developing the capacity of trainee teachers to create inclusive classrooms. Kroll is writing in the context of the negative impact of NCLB on teacher education in America, which was discussed in Chapter 2, and her response to my case study illustrates my belief stated in that chapter that international teacher educator dialogue rather than competition can strengthen trainees’ values so that their professional knowledge is not reduced to ‘teaching with fidelity’ to the scripted curriculum (p. 80). She argues that while students may express professional values that reflect a democratic, humane and equality-oriented perspective, without examining how these values might manifest in teaching, they may not connect their stated values with their actions in the classroom. Her conclusion is that teacher education must include the explicit addressing of the development and implementation of professional values, or a disconnect between thought and action will continue to occur (2012, p. 79). To address this potential disconnect between thought and action in her work with trainee teachers working in challenging contexts, Kroll draws on the work of Rogoff (1995). Rogoff describes teacher knowledge in a very similar way to Flyvbjerg’s understanding of phronesis (2001) discussed earlier, as residing within an activity, as a local form of interaction or participation. Rogoff describes such knowledge as including ‘practical wisdom’ which, as Schram (2012) also suggests by using the expression ‘bottom up’ (p. 17), is a process that ‘changes or is reconstituted, rather than being something that is acquired from the outside’ (Kroll 2012, p. 21). Kroll believes that this process can be facilitated in teacher education through Rogoff ’s methods of ‘participatory guidance and participatory appropriation’ (p. 99). Kroll’s questions to her trainees moved beyond ‘what worked’ or ‘didn’t work’ to those foundational questions about equity and inclusion: ‘In what ways were all my students participating in this activity?’ ‘Did this activity leave anyone out? In what way?’ (p. 51). Kroll uses participatory appropriation to describe what Frank (2012) refers to as the ‘relational and dialogical nature of phronesis which becomes visible at moments of confrontation’ (p. 64). Drawing on Rogoff, Kroll describes participatory appropriation as ‘how trainees themselves change and develop through being part of the activity and with regard to the activity’ (p. 51). It is through participatory guidance and appropriation that Kroll believes that her trainees develop the moral authority to investigate what is best for their pupils’ learning and development. Kroll’s implementation of a problematizing teacher education pedagogy such as that recommended by Carr and Kemmis (1986) has been particularly influential in helping me to apply my theoretical principles to the broader professional studies dimension of ITE and in particular, in the development of trainee-led inquiry pedagogy, which will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. Most importantly, she has explored in her own teacher education context ways of addressing my research question, which could support the development of the relationship

Applied theoretical principles 73 between teachers’ personal moral and political values, thereby contributing to a greater unity between phronesis and techne in the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge.

Understanding and developing the relationship between values and professional knowledge through teacher educator research In Chapter 1, I talked about my own professional development as a teacher educator, which led to a repositioning of myself as a researcher in relation to problematizing, troubling and transforming values in teacher education. Such a repositioning will generate an understanding of strategic and critical professional knowledge, which can critically inform teacher educators’ curriculum design and pedagogy within ITE. I now want to take forward the theoretical principles of phronesis and political values and apply them to an understanding of case study approaches as a vehicle for that repositioning. Teacher educators as researchers require methodological approaches which can address the two interrelated elements of the research question: how might the dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values be developed in standardsbased teacher education, and what contribution might this relationship make to the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge within which the moral and the instrumental are fused? I will explain why the phronetic case study provides insights into the relationship between personal moral and political values beneficial to the teacher educator, but then proceed to draw on the theory-testing case study method as providing a fuller illumination of the relationship between personal moral and political values and the development of professional knowledge.

The value of Flyvbjerg’s phronetic case study approach for the teacher educator The contribution of Flyvbjerg’s phronetic case study to a repositioning of the research role of the teacher educator, lies essentially, in its focus on the moral disposition of the teacher to act rightly, truly, prudently and responsively to circumstances (Carr & Kemmis 1986, p. 42). As such, the method makes it possible to capture the integral relationship between a teacher’s personal moral and political values in their professional context, drawing on the relational, dialogical, the intuitive and context-bound. It is the contingent nature of phronesis in particular which enables the researcher to gain insights into the moral decision-making process and which makes a dynamic relationship between the personal and the political possible to interpret within the professional context. As Flyvbjerg (2001) argues, phronetic action is about value-judgements concerning what is good and bad for people in a particular context. The phronetic case study is always focused on practical activity and practical knowledge within actual daily practice which constitutes the given field

74  Applied theoretical principles of interest. The researcher ‘records what happened on such a day, in such a place, in such circumstances with the horizon of meaning being that of the individual practice’ (Flyvbjerg 2001, p. 134). In the process of interpretation, the researcher asks phronetic questions, such as who is gaining? Who is losing? How might policy and practice be improved? By definition, then, phronetic research is about values and, in particular, for Flyvbjerg (2001) about how instrumental-rationality might be balanced with values-rationality (pp. 130– 140). This is not, then, a top-down natural science approach where theory precedes practice, but a ‘bottom-up’ approach within which ‘action-oriented knowledge is teased out from the context’ (Flyvbjerg, Landman & Schram 2012, p. 286). The researcher’s exemplification of the relationship between personal moral and political values in their own work and in the work of those they observe ‘grows out of their intimate familiarity with the contingencies and uncertainties of practice in contextualised settings with which they are extremely familiar’ (Flyvbjerg 2001, p. 17). It requires, then, the virtuoso skill of researchers to provide understanding rather than prediction through their experience and judgement which enables them to recognize patterns. Caterino (2010) states that this is ‘a matter of phronesis, that is the practice knowledge of a participant who learns to grasp patterns of life from the inside’ (p. 273). Flyvbjerg (2001) is right to argue that such insights have been denied by a rule-based rationality which first dominated the natural sciences and then the social sciences, thereby causing a problem for the vast majority of professional education (2001, p. 24). This is particularly pertinent to gaining insights into the place of values within teacher education contexts dominated currently by the instrumentalism of teaching standards. In addition to employing a phronetic methodology which enables the teacher educator to analyse the relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values, a framework is also needed to allow them to explore and evaluate the extent to which that relationship could contribute to the development of a critical and strategic kind of professional knowledge which would help to resolve the tension between the moral and the instrumental in standards-based teacher education. In addressing my own research question, the selected case studies in Chapter 4 have a common aim to promote the significance of the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values for the development of critical and strategic professional knowledge. As already argued, such professional knowledge is achieved by the moral disposition of phronesis serving techne, resulting in a fusion of the moral and the instrumental. Carr and Kemmis (1986) observe the trend towards slipping into the language of techne to speak about the whole educational process: when the language of techne is used to speak about phronesis the moral dimension of education is inadvertently suppressed and education becomes a purely technical matter – or some would say, a matter only of training or indoctrination. (p. 38)

Applied theoretical principles 75 Carr and Kemmis (1986) argue that the way in which this trend can be countered is by phronesis serving techne through problematizing. Methodologically, they give emphasis to the way in which the problematizing goes beyond being context-bound, suggesting that phronesis informs and guides a consciousness of teaching, which is historical, social and political as well as personal, rooted in what affects the life chances of those involved and so that ‘every act of teaching and learning is problematic in a deeper sense than the craft or technical view can admit’ (p. 39). Described like this, techne becomes theoretical wisdom which may contain truths or assertions sought from the outset of the moral problem-solving process, arrived at via phronesis and which can be shared beyond the specific context. However, according to Eikeland (2008), the limitation of Flyvbjerg’s phronetic method is the dominance of phronesis over techne, lending too much to the subjectivities of the individual case. Therefore, if the teacher educator is to generalize this kind of critical and strategic professional knowledge within professional pedagogy and discourse, we need to ask what kind of case study model would enable them to do that whilst drawing on Flyvbjerg’s phronetic approach.

Which is the most appropriate research approach for the teacher educator seeking to strengthen the relationship between values and professional knowledge? Bassey (1999), Stake (1995) and Yin (1993, 2014) offer similar case study approaches that might accommodate the twin concerns of the role of phronesis to illuminate the case at the same time as promoting the interrelationship between the latter and techne beyond the case, thereby creating insights into a more critical version of techne as a fusion of the moral and the instrumental. For example, in his theory-testing case study method Bassey (1999) states that the richness of the lived experience of the singularity is chosen because it is expected in some way to be typical of something more general: the focus is on the issue rather than the case as such. Bassey claims that such a case study should have a worthwhile and convincing argument which can support ‘fuzzy generalisations’ that inform theoretical frameworks beyond the context. Stake (1995) offers an instrumental case study method which is very similar to Bassey’s theory-testing method. Again, the method is helpful to teacher educators’ purposes because it emphasizes the importance of arriving at a relationship between phronesis and techne, leading to a theoretical wisdom containing certain truths or assertions that can be acknowledged beyond the context. By contrast, Stake talks about an ‘intrinsic’ case study based entirely on the need to know about a particular case. The instrumental case study, however, is concerned with ‘understanding something else: it accomplishes something other than understanding this particular teacher’ (p. 3). Phronesis plays its part here because, as Stake says, issues are not simple and clean, but intricately wired to particular social, historical and especially personal contexts: ‘issues draw us toward observing, even teasing out the problems of the case, the conflicted outpourings, the complex backgrounds of human concern’ (p. 17). This fits closely to the phronetic analysis of

76  Applied theoretical principles teachers’ personal moral and political decision-making processes at the heart of critical and strategic professional knowledge. Of particular relevance to ITE professional discourse is Stake’s claims that such a case study helps us ‘expand upon the moment’ (p. 17) and in a more historical light recognize the pervasive problems in human interaction. Here then is a way of demonstrating how phronesis is the vehicle which informs and guides the way to a theoretical wisdom which recognizes that something is wrong. In my own case study research explored in the next chapter, this amounts to recognition of the disconnect between the moral disposition of the teacher and technicist modes of teacher education. Finally, Yin’s (2014) explanatory case study method is helpful in emphasizing a causal component which illuminates the interrelationship between phronesis and techne. According to Yin, the purpose of an explanatory case study is to explain how or why some condition came to be or how or why some sequence of events occurred or did not occur (p. 238). A helpful feature of the methodology is Yin’s theory-building which captures the iterative nature of intuitive, phronetic analysis which builds a compelling theoretical explanation. As with Bassey’s and Stakes’s case studies, the explanatory case study begins with an initial theoretical statement or proposition. In Yin’s model, this might consist of a presumed set of causal links against which each section of data analysis is compared and revised. As the case unfolds through sensitive analysis of the relational, the dialogical and the intuitive, the initial explanatory proposition is revised from the perspective of new intuitive insights and a compelling theoretical explanation can emerge, having the potential to deepen techne in other contexts, which are not just other ‘like cases’ (Yin 2014, p. 68). Such an approach taken by teacher educators would enable theoretical explanations, reaching beyond the case, to be generated from iterations of the causal relationship between teachers’ beliefs and actions, as viewed from within different facets of a training context. All three case study methods have the theoretical issue rather than the particular case as their focus. As such, this enables phronesis to serve techne in a problematizing process that generates new insights into how the teacher’s moral disposition might be fused with their craft and skill. This would seem to fit the purpose of this kind of teacher education research which is not only to understand, but to promote the critical importance of the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values for the development of a more critical and strategic professional knowledge. In particular, it is in the problematizing process that Carr and Kemmis (1986) consider to be at the heart of such professional knowledge that we find the moral decisionmaking by the teacher which fuses phronesis as the moral disposition of the latter to act rightly, truly and prudently, with craft and skill, thereby transforming techne into a theoretical wisdom beyond the limits of the instrumental. It is the case, then, that in keeping with the adoption of a theory-testing type of methodology, the initial proposition to be tested is that in teacher education contexts a prevailing instrumentalism can put at risk the interdependence between phronesis and techne, resulting in the possibility of techne becoming a reductive form of

Applied theoretical principles 77 professional knowledge. Essentially, then, a theory-testing type of case study methodology as offered by Bassey (1999), Stake(1995) and Yin (2014) is more appropriate than Flyvbjerg’s phronetic model, which is focused on the individual case, rather than the issue, and which asserts phronesis over techne, rather than the former in the service of the latter. However, the influence of Flyvbjerg’s revival of phronesis, his assertion of its valid and distinctive role in social science research and his definition of the phronetic method and questioning is definitely of value to the teacher educator.

Generating teacher educator professional discourse concerning the relationship between values and professional knowledge Essentially, the theory-testing case study recognizes that it is critical to the place of moral decision-making in the work of teacher educators and trainee teachers that there is a way of reflecting professionally which is not solely based on predictive generalizations. As Stenhouse (1978) argued, such generalizations supersede the need for teachers’ individual classroom judgements. Stenhouse, was, then, thinking very much about teacher education and development when he sought to challenge the traditional polarity between the study of samples and the study of cases by introducing the concept of retrospective generalization. Such generalizations ‘arise from the analysis of case studies and is in the form in which data are accumulated in history’(Bassey 1999, p. 32). This form of generalization has been absorbed into the theory-testing, instrumental and explanatory case study methods which have been identified as particularly applicable to the development of a values-based professional knowledge in teacher education. For example, in keeping with Stenhouse’s concern for teacher education, Bassey (1999) talks about ‘fuzzy generalizations’ which contain the intellectually essential element of uncertainty but remain intellectually honest, and as such, have the potential to be communicated and injected into professional discourse. It is Bassey’s belief that ‘the concept of “fuzzy generalization” coupled with coherent case study reports, is a valuable way of bringing educational research findings into professional discourse, which in turn can influence the practice of teaching and the formation of educational policy’ (p. 56). Bassey (1999) argues that to inform the judgement of practitioners and theoreticians beyond the singularity of the case the researcher needs to be able to collect sufficient data to be able to explore significant features of the case, create plausible interpretations, to test the trustworthiness of their interpretation and to construct a worthwhile argument or story which is conveyed convincingly to an audience. (p. 58) Bassey believes that a ‘fuzzy generalization attracts the interest of the reader because there is recognition that something has happened in one place which

78  Applied theoretical principles might also happen elsewhere: there is an invitation to try it and see if the same thing happens to you’ (p. 56). This recognition from the audience is developed more deeply in Stake and Trumbull’s (1982) concept of ‘naturalistic generalization’ within their instrumental case study method. These generalizations are arrived at ‘through personal engagement in life’s affairs: a learning process through which we individually acquire concepts and information and steadily generalize them to other situations as we learn more’ (Stake 1995, p. 86). As such, the generalization can be made through vicarious experience if it is so well constructed that the reader or audience ‘feels as if it happened to them’ (p. 86). The richness of the data which Bassey (1999) identify as critical to generalizing is also emphasized by Stake (1995): To assist the reader in making naturalistic generalizations the case researcher needs to provide opportunities for vicarious experience. Our accounts need to be personal, describing the things of our sensory experience, not failing to attend to the matters that personal curiosity dictates. A narrative account, a story, a chronological presentation, personalistic description, emphasis on time and place provide rich ingredients for vicarious experience. (p. 87) This is not to say that there are no propositional generalizations made by the researcher, which would be essential in Stake’s instrumental case study model that uses the case to get to something else. Stake makes it clear that the researcher needs to be skilful in balancing the propositional with the vicarious to modify or extend the latter. Certainly, everything that has been said about fuzzy generalizations and naturalistic generalizations offering vicarious experience reflects the teasing out and revealing of the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values in their work. Drawing on Bassey’s (1999) criteria, what will have an impact on the development of a strategic and critical professional knowledge is the teacher educator’s personal exploration of the significance of the place of their values and trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values within their daily work in curriculum contexts, professional contexts and within the processes of scholarly reflection. Second, teacher educators’ plausible and trustworthy interpretations of trainee teachers’ engagement with values in various teacher education contexts need to be viewed as contributing, at the institutional, national and international level, to the critical argument that in an instrumentalized teacher education ethos, phronesis is suppressed by techne. Third, the findings are convincingly communicated so that there are rich enough data for readers to feel that they recognize here something of value which they might have experienced in their own professional contexts. Of particular significance here is the degree to which the reader or audience can recognize and engage with the critical importance of teacher agency, or lack of, in exercising moral judgements that are rooted in their personal and political values and that, on reflection, contribute to a more

Applied theoretical principles 79 critical and strategic professional knowledge. It is hoped, therefore, that fuzzy and naturalistic generalizations will enable the reader or audience to interpret the findings vicariously, not just as the formulations of informed practical judgement in one context, but as theoretical accounts which provide a basis for analysing systematically distorted decisions and practices and which might suggest to them the kinds of social and educational action by which these distortions might be removed. (Carr & Kemmis 1986, p. 39) Here, then, we see how the impact of this kind of research has the potential to be fully realized in professional pedagogical contexts, providing the basis for systematic analysis, but also requiring certain conditions in which the data are received. What is crucial to the vicarious opportunities offered by the research is that the theoretical accounts are not ‘externally given’ or scientifically verified but are offered as interpretations which, as Carr and Kemmis (1986) state, ‘can only be validated in and by the self-understandings of practitioners under conditions of free and open dialogue’ (p. 39). Such self-understanding must be at the heart of phronesis as the moral disposition of the teacher, which can guide and inform the development of techne beyond craft. Such selfunderstanding can lead to a professional knowledge that enables the individual teacher educator and trainee teacher to become aware of the social and political mechanisms. These political mechanisms, as Carr and Kemmis (1986) argue, distort or limit the proper conduct of education in society. Again, the relationship between teacher educator research of this kind and their employment of interrogative or disruptive pedagogies in school or university-based sessions becomes apparent.

Conclusion In this chapter, I have set out the principles which offer the teacher educator a framework for developing the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, which underpins critical and strategic professional knowledge. Most importantly, I have wanted to convey that these principles will only have ‘bite’ if they are applied with the courage I have witnessed amongst my international colleagues in the face of the risk of hollowed-out professional knowledge. In that sense, these principles are infused with an international consciousness which, if part of the mindset of any teacher educator, should give them the capacity to both participate in and critique the development of critical and strategic professional knowledge in their work. My own professional development outlined in Chapter 1 has taught me that the relationship between values and the nature of professional knowledge is elusive, and therefore often contested, until we can find a scholarly approach and research methodology which illuminates it. I believe that the theorytesting case study approach is one such method that can inform teacher educators

80  Applied theoretical principles about the integral relationship between values and professional knowledge and how this might be developed in curriculum and professional contexts, school- and university based. I now wish to exemplify this through my own case study work in pursuit of answers to the two parts of my research question, set out at the beginning of this chapter. The theoretical principles which I have explored in this chapter generate key themes constituting the conceptual framework for the grouping of the case studies in Chapter 4. A key theme at the heart of that conceptual framework is the nature of the impact of a dominant instrumental techne on the integral link between the moral development of trainees and their actions in the classroom as citizens who seeks to make people better in some way. A second theme is concerned with the extent to which standards-based teacher education can develop phronetic dispositions that would enable phronesis to serve techne in learning to become a teacher. A third theme concerns whether opportunities to develop phronetic dispositions have the potential to transform an instrumental approach into a critical and strategic professional knowledge based on teacher ownership of the moral decision-making process. In the first selection of case studies, I explore these three themes through different primary teacher education contexts, focusing on the extent to which, within a predominantly instrumental and standards-based approach, trainees have opportunities to reflect on their values and so develop critical and strategic professional knowledge. In the second selection, I explore the same themes through a case study of a specific policy which is values laden, but which is implemented in an instrumental way so that trainees perceive it as being essentially about techne. In the final selection, the themes are explored through critical moments in teacher education and development when a phronetic understanding of the relationship between teachers’ moral and political values provides the professional understanding which can bring about change in a challenging context.

References Advisory Group on Citizenship. (1998) Education for citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools, The Crick Report, London: QCA. Alexander, R. (2010) World-class schools – noble aspiration or globalised hokum? Compare, 40 (6), 801–817. Apple, M. (2001) Comparing neo-liberal projects and inequality in education, Comparative Education, 37 (4), 409–423. Ball, S. (1994) Education reform: a critical and post-structural approach, Buckingham: Open University Press. Ball, S. (2003) The teacher’s soul and the terrors of performativity, Journal of Educational Policy, 18 (2), 215–228. Bassey, M. (1999) Case study research in educational settings, London: Sage. Benninga, J., Sparks, R. & Tracz, S. (2011) Enhancing teacher moral judgement in difficult political times: swimming upstream, International Journal of Educational Research, 50 (3), 177–183. Carr, D. (2000) Professionalism and ethics in teaching, London: Routledge. Carr, D. (2003) Making sense of education: an introduction to the philosophy and theory of education and teaching, London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Applied theoretical principles 81 Carr, D. (2007) Character in teaching, British Journal of Educational Studies, 55 (4), 369–389. Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming critical: education, knowledge and action research, London: Falmer Press. Caterino, D. (2010) Case study and narrative analysis, in Mills, A., Duropos, G. & Wiebe, E. (eds) Encyclopedia of case study research, vol L-Z, 272–274, downloaded at https://uk.sagepub.com/engb/eur/encyclopedia-of-case-study-research/book/ 231721, accessed 7/5/16. Crick, B. (1962) In defence of politics, London: Continuum. Cunningham, S. & Lavalette, M. (2004) ‘Active citizens’ or irresponsible truants? School student strikes against the war, Critical Social Policy, 24 (2), 255–269. Day, C., Sammons, P., Stobart, G., Kington, A. & Qing, Gu. (2007) Teachers matter, Maidenhead: Open University Press. DfE. (1992) Initial teacher training: secondary phase, Circular 9/92, London: DfE. DfES. (2004) Every child matters: change for children in schools, London: DFES. Dreyfus, H. & Drefus, S. (1986) Mind over machine: the power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer, New York: Free Press. Eikeland. (2008) The ways of Aristotle: Aristotelian phronesis, Aristotelian philosophy of dialogue and action research, Bern: Peter Lang. Faulks, K. (2006) Education for citizenship in England’s secondary schools: a critique of current principles and practice, Journal of Educational Policy, 21 (1), 59–74. Fish, D. (1996) Values, competency-based training and teacher education, in Selmes, C. & Robb, W. (eds) Values in teacher education, 2, 44–50, Aberdeen: National Association of Values in Education. Flyvbjerg, B. (2001) Making social science matter: why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Flyvbjerg, B., Landman, T. & Schram, S. (eds) (2012) Real social science: applied phronesis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Frank, A. (2012) The feel for power games: everyday phronesis and social theory, in Flyvbjerg, B., Lamdman, T. & Schram, S. (eds) Real social science: applied phronesis, part 1, chap. 4, 48–65, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Furlong, J. (2005) New labour and teacher education: the end of an era, Oxford Review of Education, 31 (1), 119–134. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and self-identity, Stanford: Stanford University Press. Goffman, E. (1990) The presentation of the self in everyday life, London: Penguin. Goodson, I. (2007) All the lonely people: the struggle for private meaning and public purpose in education, Critical Studies in Education, 48 (1), 131–148. Grimmitt, M. (2000) Pedagogies of religious education, Great Wakering: McCrimmon. Groundwater-Smith, S. & Mockler, N. (2009) Teacher professional learning in an age of compliance, New York: Springer. Hargreaves, D. (1994) The mosaic of learning: schools and teachers for the next century, London: DEMOS. Hargreaves, D. (1998) Creative professionalism, the role of teachers in the knowledge society, London: DEMOS. Hochschild, A.R. (2012) The managed heart, Oakland: University of California Press. Ipgrave, J. (2002) Inter-faith encounter and religious understanding in an inner city primary school, unpublished doctoral thesis, Coventry: University of Warwick. Jackson, R. (2002) Editorial: religious education and education for citizenship, British Journal of Religious Education, 24 (3), 162–169.

82  Applied theoretical principles Jerome, L. (2012) England’s citizenship experiment, London: Bloomsbury. Kroll, L. (2012) Self-study and inquiry into practice, London: Routledge. Leighton, R. (2004) The nature of citizenship education provision: an initial study, Curriculum Journal, 15 (2), 167–181. McLaughlin, T. (2000) Citizenship education in England: the crick Report and beyond, Journal of Philosophy of Education, 34 (4), 541–570. Mead, N. (2000) Researching skills common to religious education and citizenship, in Clipson-Boyles, S. (ed) Putting research into practice in primary teaching and learning, chap. 15, 165–175, London: David Fulton. Mead, N. (2001) Identifying pedagogic skills common to primary Religious Education and PSHE/Citizenship and the implications for continuing professional development, Curriculum, 22 (2), 43–51. Mead, N. (2003) Will the introduction of teaching standards in professional values and practice put the heart back into primary teacher education? Pastoral Care in Education, 21 (1), 37–42. Mead, N. (2007) How effectively does the Graduate Teacher Programme contribute to the development of trainee teachers’ professional values? Journal of Education for Teaching, 33 (3), 309–321. Mead, N. (2011) The impact of Every Child Matters on trainee secondary teachers’ understanding of professional knowledge, Pastoral Care in Education, 29 (1), 7–24. Mead, N. (2013) Values in teacher education, selected published papers, conference papers and reviews, Oxford: Nick Mead & Berforts Information Press. Moore, A. (2002) Citizenship education in the UK: for liberation or control? Paper presented to the knowledge and discourse speculating on disciplinary futures conference, Hong Kong, June. Nias, J. (1989) Teaching and the self, in Holly, M. & McLaughlin, C. (eds) Perspectives on teachers’ professional development, London: Falmer Press. Pring, R. (1994) The year 2000, in Wilkins, M. & Sankey, D. (eds) Collaboration and transition in initial teacher training, London: Kogan Page. Pring, R. (1995) Closing the gap: liberal education and vocational preparation, London: Hodder. Reynolds, M. (2001) Education for inclusion and the teacher training agency standards, Journal of in-Service Education, 27 (3), 465–476. Rogoff, B. (1995) Observing socio-cultural activity on three planes: participating appropriation, guided participation and apprenticeship, in Wertsch, J., Del Rio, P. & Alvarez, A. (eds) Sociological studies of mind, 139–164, New York: Cambridge University Press. Sahlberg, P. (2007) Education policies for raising student learning: the Finnish approach, Journal of Educational Policy, 22 (2), 147–171. Sahlberg, P. (2011) Finnish lessons: what can the world learn from educational change in Finland, New York: Teachers’ College Press. Sosibo, L. (2015) The notion of school ‘functionality’ in a teaching practice placement policy, International Journal of Educational Science, 8 (1), 43–52. Schram, S. (2012) Phronetic social science: an idea whose time has come, in Flyvbjerg, B., Landman, T. & Schram, S. (eds) Real social science: applied phronesis, part 1, chap. 2, 15–26, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stake, R. (1995) The art of case study research, Thousand Oaks: Sage. Stake, R. & Trumbull, D. (1982) Naturalistic generalisations, in Belok, M. & Haggerson, N. (eds) Review journal of philosophy and social science, V11 (1–2), Meerut, India: Anu Prakashan.

Applied theoretical principles 83 Stenberg, K. (2010) Identity work as a tool for promoting the professional development of student teachers, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 11 (3), 331–346. Stenberg, K., Karlsson, L., Pitkaniemi, H. & Maaranen, K. (2014) Beginning student teachers’ teacher identities based on their practical theories, European Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (2), 204–219. Stenhouse, L. (1978) Case study and case records: towards a contemporary history of education, British Educational Research Journal, 4 (2), 21–39. Tann, S. (1993) Eliciting student teachers’ personal theories, in Calderhead, J. & Gates, P. (eds) Conceptualising reflection in teacher development, London: Falmer Press. Teacher Training Agency (TTA). (2002) Qualifying to teach, professional standards for qualified teacher status and requirements for initial teacher training, London: TTA. Troman, G. & Raggl, A. (2008) Primary teacher commitment and the attraction of teaching, Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 16 (1), 85–99. US Department of Education. (2002) No Child Left Behind, executive summary, downloaded at www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/intro/presidentplan/page_pg3.html, accessed 5/10/17. Watson, J. (2004) Education for citizenship – the emerging relationship between religious education and citizenship education, British Journal of Religious Education, 26 (3), 259–271. Yin, R. (1993) Applications of case study research, London: Sage. Yin, R. (2014) Case study research: design and methods, London: Sage.

4 The impact of university and school-based training contexts on the development of values-based professional knowledge Introduction In this chapter, I have categorized some of my own previously published case studies into three key contexts within Initial Teacher Education (ITE): programmes, policy and critical incidents. The intention then is to undertake critical analysis which will provide insights into the impact of each context on the development of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values and the implications of this for critical and strategic professional knowledge. Following the critical analysis of each context, I will evaluate the extent to which my own experience of these contexts, embedded in the research, has been recognizable to other teacher educators, both national and international, and therefore contributed to encouraging professional discourse about the place of values in developing critical and strategic professional knowledge.

Context one An exploration of opportunities within standards-based primary teacher education for the developing of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values and the implications of this for critical professional knowledge which can overcome the dominance of instrumentalism. The three key issues raised in the conclusion to the previous chapter are explored through an examination of the extent to which the training for large primary cohorts does or does not engage trainee teachers in reflection about their values to develop their competence. The three case studies offer insights into the impact of an instrumental techne on the development of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values. Through analysis of various training contexts, an evaluation is made of the extent to which standards-based training can build a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, based on phronetic dispositions requiring phronesis to serve techne. Judgements are made about the potential for this relationship to generate a critical and strategic kind of professional knowledge which overcomes the dominance of instrumentalism by fusing theory and practice in the moral decision-making processes of problematization.

Values-based professional knowledge 85

Case study one Case study one is titled ‘Will the introduction of teaching standards in professional values and practice put the heart back into primary teacher education?’ This paper was first published in the Journal of Pastoral Care in Education (2003) 21 (1), pp. 37–42. This research was a response to the introduction of teaching standards in professional values and practice into the Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) standards (Teacher Training Agency 2002). The introduction of such standards raised questions for me about how they would be fulfilled within increasingly competency-based and prescriptive teacher education programmes. The focus of the research is within university-based elements of the training and involves a comparative study of a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) primary PSHE/Citizenship elective cohort and a Post-Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) primary cohort. I demonstrate in the study that the B.Ed cohort has the time to examine the relationship between their personal moral and political values within a learning experience similar to Kroll’s participatory guidance and appropriation. Participation in a process of moral inquiry and reflection led to trainees re-assessing and re-evaluating their values in relation to work to be undertaken in pluralistic, values-laden classrooms (Mead 2003, pp. 40–42). By contrast, the PGCE trainees ‘found a frustrating mismatch between the importance of values in the classroom and the lack of time to address values in their training’ (p. 39). What is of particular interest and which exemplifies the phronetic nature of teaching is the expectation of these trainees that they would discuss their values within their training and their ability to articulate the relationship between their personal moral and political values and their actions in the classroom. The study concludes with consideration of the ways in which teacher educators might, by examining the wider educational purposes of their specialist area, enable trainees to explore the relationship between their personal moral and political values. Finally, the recommendation is made that Carr’s (2003) ‘personhood’ of the teacher and their human development be put back at the heart of teacher education. What insights does case study one provides into the contribution of the relationship between personal moral and political values and the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge? The phronetic case study approach has revealed that an understanding how personal moral and political values can bring about inclusive education is best gained through trainees experiencing a process of personal and professional development. The nuanced insights into the context told us that in this respect, B.Ed trainees were winners, and PGCE trainees were losers. The data tease out a qualitative difference in the values education experience of the two sets of trainees; PGCE students, for example, say that they had ‘some discussion about general values, rather than the specific relationship between personal and professional values’ (p. 39). These students ‘had a good understanding of the importance of values in teaching on entry to the course, but they did not necessarily feel that they had experienced a process of personal and professional development in relation to those values during their training’ (p. 39). Second, the case study reveals that the process of personal and

86  Values-based professional knowledge professional development requires a different set of skills which are not instrumental. These are skills in philosophical inquiry and moral reflection. In this way connections are made between the ability to examine the relationship between one’s personal moral and political values and effective PSHE/Ct. pedagogy, for example, in developing an open mind, in recognizing prejudice and in developing sensitive responses to personal issues raised by pupils (pp. 40–41). In teasing out the values education experience of both sets of trainees, it became apparent that the PGCE students were less confident about making these connections, which suggests that the relationship between phronesis and techne needs to be realigned if a critical and strategic professional knowledge is to be developed (pp. 39–40). As one of the B.Ed students states: Surely every teacher training course should include values education in order that the implicit might become explicit and children can benefit from confident teachers with clarified understandings. (Student U, p. 41) Part of combining phronetic and theory-testing cases study methodologies was to reveal the dynamics between institutional structures and the individual development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge. I make recommendations in the conclusion to the paper that bear out the importance of this aspect of the research process for the proper relationship between phronesis, and techne within professional knowledge. At the micro level, it is clear that in terms of teacher educator pedagogy and time allocated, the B.Ed trainees fare better than the PGCE trainees. With limited opportunities for specialist electives such as experienced by the B.Ed. trainees, it would be desirable for teacher educators to dare to revive opportunities to contextualize their own subject within the wider purposes of education and offer personal and professional philosophical perspectives on this. At the macro level, I pose the question whether teacher education institutions should mirror the permeation of values across the teacher education curriculum which the PSHE and Citizenship frameworks are promoting in schools. As for schools, this would require an examination of the enduring foundational truths which all participants believe to underpin their work. In relation to this, how are personal and professional values developed within the school partnership so that the process of human development for the trainee is seamless across placements? I posit in my conclusion that a fundamental structural issue which inhibits progress in making these adjustments is, not only external accountability to government agencies, but also the location of teacher education within large universities with their corporate and income-driven values.

Contextualizing case study one within the wider professional discourse The professional responses to the fuzzy generalizabilities of the study demonstrate recognition of the disconnect between the personal moral and political

Values-based professional knowledge 87 in a training context which is not always characterized by a process of personal and professional development. Jerome (2005) as a trainer of citizenship teachers, cites the study as a glimmer of hope that values might inform the 2002 standards; however, writing two years on, he is of the view that the teaching standards continue to ‘focus on a narrow model of effective teaching with the standards focused on a rather narrow and depoliticised view of teaching as a largely technical exercise’ (p. 6). Similarly, Harrison, in her critique of the assessment of teaching standards in professional values and practice draws on case study one to argue for ‘developing professionalism’ rather than compliance with competences. Her argument is exemplified in her analysis of a trainee’s confusion about the relationship between personal and school values: Not only is the trainee experiencing uncertainty about how this school handles values, there is also an indication that there may be a desire to be told which values to give support to (see also Mead 2003). (Harrison 2007, p. 335) This tension between trainee compliance and self-realization is a major issue in the Finnish context and in the work of Stenberg (2010). As discussed in Chapter 2, when I met Stenberg and we discussed our respective findings, she compared this tension, not with the impact of teaching standards, but with the effects of routinization and rationalization which make beliefs and values difficult to access. She felt that because of this her trainee personal practical theory tool had become disconnected from the other elements of the training programme and the practicum in particular. Other international ITE colleagues focus on the importance of this relationship between teachers’ personal development and their effective professional practice, taken up for example by Rhinehart in America, again drawing on case study one: Professional development for teachers, focusing on standards, practices, outcomes and testing, lacks a commitment to people. Education is not about indoctrination of standards, rather it is about the development of people, including teachers (Mead 2003). More effort devoted to the task of personal reflection and synthesis of style could actually promote the desired increase of standards. Therefore teachers’ personal development, structured in a personal manner, should receive as much attention as student’s development. (Rinehart 2004, pp. 1–2) Likewise, Bainjath, in the light of her country’s needs, draws upon the study in an exploration of how post-apartheid South African teachers need to engage in a process of personal and professional development: The data analysis revealed that teachers were struggling to adopt change and found that the promotion of human values was values education generally

88  Values-based professional knowledge and that teachers were at different levels in their ability to promote values education in their classrooms. (Bainjath 2008, p. xv) In her doctoral thesis, Bainjath develops the argument that theories of values development are largely concerned with children and do not apply to teachers; therefore, a theory which explains how adults form or change their values is required. Drawing on case study one, Bainjath concludes that there is an increasing need for an understanding of values education to be built into both initial and in-service training of teachers. These responses confirm, then, the need for teacher education to be a process of personal and professional change and development if trainees are to develop a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values. In my discussions about the findings in case study one with ITE colleagues in Estonia, Japan and Finland we reached a strong consensus that teacher education needs to become a process and the challenge for teacher educators in all our countries is to find ways to help trainees define their values and expose them to evaluation. In case study one, a philosophical and moral inquiry-based pedagogy is used with B.Ed students to develop a process of self-understanding. This kind of experimentation is mirrored in Stenberg’s (2010) use of the personal practical theory tool in the first year at Helsinki to address the challenge experienced by Finnish trainee teachers of analysing previously unexamined beliefs and values, which causes them to struggle to develop wider moral and political perspectives on the purposes of education. Similarly, and as I have described in Chapter 2, I witnessed Ugur’s (Harro-Loit & Ugur 2008) deployment of a media-based pedagogy within the undergraduate programme at Tartu University, Estonia, to develop trainee’s critical reasoning and moral deliberation, leading to deeper questioning about inclusion. Finally, and again as I have recorded fully in Chapter 2, there is the readiness to experiment with the pedagogy of dialogic and generative mentoring within the Japanese collectivist ethos to address a lack of autonomy in trainee teachers’ justification of their decision-making, due to a reluctance to express the relationship between their moral and political values. It is in understanding these processes which international colleagues are engaging in within nation state contexts experiencing the “push-pull” effect of globalization that we can gain confidence in our own experimenting with and critiquing of the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge.

Case study two The second study within the primary theme is titled ‘The provision for Personal, Social, Health Education (PSHE) and Citizenship in school-based elements of primary teacher education’. This research was first published in the Journal of Pastoral Care in Education (2004a) 22 (2), pp. 19–26. My starting point for this study was to switch the focus from university-based training found in case study one to opportunities for trainees to explore the relationship between their

Values-based professional knowledge 89 personal and political values within the context of teaching PSHE whilst on their final teaching practice. The study begins with the theoretical link made by the teaching standards between the aims of PSHE and the principles of inclusion which underpin the National Curriculum (TTA 2002, p. 27). I draw on Reynold’s view, already discussed in Chapter 3, that inclusion demands of the teacher a particular evaluative standpoint: ‘that we value others equally and we act on those values’ (Reynolds 2001, p. 468). Such a standpoint requires a disposition on the part of the teacher to promote the good for each pupil, rooted in the teacher’s concern for social justice as a citizen. Fundamental here is, as I have previously stated, the trainee teachers’ understanding of the relationship between their personal moral and political values. I argue in the paper that this self-understanding has a significant bearing on how well discrete elements of Citizenship, multicultural education, health and Sex and Relationships Education are taught all under the umbrella of PSHE/Ct. within the primary curriculum. Crucial, then, are the opportunities trainees have to discuss policy and planning, and observe and teach PSHE/Ct. whilst on placement (Mead 2004a, pp. 19–20). The study follows two cohorts of trainee teachers during the first and third year of the non-statutory PSHE/Ct. framework (DFEE/QCA 1999) to evaluate the quality of their training opportunities within the subject. The study identifies some improvement in opportunities to teach PSHE/Ct. and observe different teaching methods; however, there is no significant improvement in opportunities to engage with staff in values-based discussion about the aims and purposes of the subject (p. 21). Of particular significance are the data which demonstrate that less than 50 per cent of trainees have the opportunity to discuss and evaluate the contribution of PSHE/Ct. to multicultural awareness, and 69 per cent have no contact with Sex and Relationships Education (SRE) (pp. 23–25) In the background section of the study, I set out the teaching standard expectation that ‘school-based mentors would be able to articulate the links between curriculum values, personal and social development and effective learning, although trainees may not teach PSHE/Ct.’ (TTA 2002, p. 26). I argue that it is difficult to see how understanding can be assessed through hypothetical or hitand-miss planning and teaching. I draw on Reynolds (2001) to make the point that planning is a skill and does not reflect a process of change in personal perception. That process of change entails a deepening understanding of the fundamental link between the values underpinning the curriculum, which are focused on the principles of inclusion, and the explicit expression of these values through PSHE/Ct. To develop such understanding requires an examination of personal moral and political values in relation to valuing others equally and acting on those values, particularly through respect for the humanity of others and acceptance of difference. This must involve training opportunities within the context of a school placement which offer a combination of observation, teaching and dialogic mentoring linked to social justice, citizenship, rights and responsibilities and the relationship between health inequality and inclusion. The phronetic questions are then asked about what is going on, who are the winners and losers and what can be done differently. Because the context is a

90  Values-based professional knowledge standards-driven training programme, we want to know whether there is a balanced relationship between phronesis and techne which can contribute to the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge. Although over a two-year period there is some redressing of the balance between the two kinds of knowledge, there are still significant numbers of trainees who are not given the time to discuss and evaluate the explicit aims and values of PSHE/Ct. so that inclusive values can permeate their planning and teaching (Mead 2004a, p. 21). There are still limited opportunities to observe and discuss with other teachers who can exemplify how they have adapted their methods in the process of developing a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values in the classroom (p. 24). Often, the level of discussion following a PSHE/Ct. lesson observation revolved around objective and outcomes more than values: After each PSHE lesson, as with other lessons, discussion (very briefly) was held between myself and my mentor. These were not discussed in the light of their contribution to the moral, social and cultural development of pupils, only in terms of how fun the activities were. Two lessons were observed, one by my mentor and one by the class teacher, but the discussion was about the quality of teaching in relation to the learning objectives rather than the social and cultural aspects of PSHE. (p. 24) Of particular importance here is trainees’ understanding how teachers can espouse inclusive values without being coerced themselves or coercing pupils, such as in challenging areas like multicultural education and sex and relationship education. Finally, trainees need many more opportunities to teach PSHE/Ct., be observed, receive feedback and evaluate their lessons. These are structural weaknesses, largely reflecting school subject provision and, in qualitative terms, tokenistic in order to tick off standards. The findings demonstrate that inclusive teaching and learning will only develop when trainees can discuss, implement and evaluate the explicit aims and values of PSHE/Ct. during their placement (pp. 25–26). In this way, the dynamic relationship between a trainees’ personal moral and political values comes into play as part of their human development.

Contextualizing case study two within the wider professional discourse Within the wider professional discourse on values in teacher education, the data in case study two have been used effectively to flag the paucity of school experience in PSHE/Ct, to encourage trainees to become more proactive in improving their own placement experience and to strengthen the case for improved school-based mentoring in the subject (Evans & Evans 2007; Evans et al. 2009; Brown et al. 2011; Cooper 2011). Evans and Evans draw on the study to argue that trainees receiving feedback after teaching PSHE/Ct. would seem to be the

Values-based professional knowledge 91 greatest need and would provide the much-needed values-forum within the school experience which the study highlights: It is possible that trainees’ and new teachers’ lack of confidence may be overcome, not through training per se, but through increased opportunity to be observed and receive feedback on their delivery of PSHEe, both as a separate subject and within subject teaching. Supportive of Mead’s (2004) findings for primary education, this need for experience and feedback on PSHEe delivery was evident in respondents’ comments. (Evans & Evans 2007, p. 48) Byrne et al. (2012, 2015), Dewhirst et al. (2014) and Shepherd et al. (2013, 2015) have all drawn on the study to strengthen the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values and the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge in health education. In a major national survey and literature review of health education in ITE in England undertaken for the National Institute of Health Research (NIHR), by Shepherd et al. (2013), the study was selected as one of twenty international papers making a significant contribution to the debate. The survey’s literature review highlights how the study identifies the importance of trainees having opportunities to understand and experience the relationship between their values and the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge about the health and well-being of their pupils: Mead appears to propose a model of teacher education that places experience of PSHE/Ct. (in terms of discussion about, observation and teaching) at the heart of a process of learning which helps trainees to make their values explicit. (p. 90) In examining barriers and facilitators of effective pre-service health education, the survey acknowledges the negative impact of the absence of explicit references to health and well-being in the 2012 teaching standards (DfE 2012) and the challenges of addressing values in a heavily prescriptive ITT and school curriculum. The report recommends what is at the heart of the study: It would be very useful for trainee teachers to be given the opportunity to explore their personal values and beliefs in relation to health, and to engage in critical reflection with tutors, mentors and each other. (p. 110) Byrne et al. who were co-authors of this NIHR survey have, since 2012, been working on a holistic concept of critical and strategic professional knowledge, which has teachers’ values at its centre and which fuses the moral and the instrumental. In this work, they have explicitly stated how they are addressing the

92  Values-based professional knowledge inadequacies of training opportunities in values identified in case studies one and two (2012, p. 526). In their 2015 paper, in which they also draw on case study four, they elaborate on an understanding of professional knowledge which I have pursued. They argue that this understanding is based on a need to balance the requirements of a competency-based curriculum that focuses on the acquisition of specific skills with opportunities for pre-service teachers to critically engage with sensitive health-related issues and subsequently reflect on and evaluate their professional values as part of health and well-being training. The hope, well summed up in a later paper, is that they will be ‘empowered and motivated to develop their teaching character as autonomous practitioners with professional valuesbased knowledge’ (2018, p. 297). Most importantly for my research question, they conclude that this more liberal philosophy of pre-service teacher education does not have to be at odds with achieving the teaching standards which require professional attributes that are part of the overall requirements of a teacher, such as having respect for one’s students and creating a positive learning environment (p. 219). This more liberal view of pre-service teacher education resonates strongly with the developments in Estonian and South African contexts discussed in Chapter 2. Both countries are having to re-define their values post-independence and post-apartheid, and at the heart of this process is the well-being of society. Under the previous regime, expectations about teacher education had clearly defined parameters, reflecting political structures. In both countries we see how a more liberal pre-service teacher education is critical to avoiding the risks of an uncritical approach to individual needs and inclusion. This is why a mediabased pedagogy has been introduced into professional studies at Tartu and the pedagogy of discomfort used in Cape Peninsula University is challenging trainees to step outside their comfort zone if a more equal and inclusive society is to be established. This includes the cross-over placement which requires trainees to undertake a practicum in a different ethnic setting to their own. I am reminded of the variations in the opportunities for dialogic mentoring and feedback in the data in case study two when I read about cross-over trainees being inhibited by their mentor because of very different perceptions of what inclusion in South African society should be. As I said in Chapter 2, university-based teacher educators and school-based mentors must share the same vision for the well-being of society which can only come from their self-reflection and self-understanding.

Case study three Case study three is titled ‘How effectively does the Graduate Teacher Programme contribute to the development of trainee teachers’ professional values?’ This study was first published in the Journal of Education for Teaching, (2007) 33 (3), pp. 309–321. The focus of the study is the extent to which an employment route into teaching for career-switchers provides the opportunities for trainees to build on their existing understanding of the relationship between their personal moral and political values. Having established the significance

Values-based professional knowledge 93 of this relationship within the university and school-based elements of conventional routes into teaching, the research aimed to establish its significance for career-switchers who might have a strong sense of its importance because of considerable professional experience in other walks of life. The data suggest that entrants to the route already have a good level of self-understanding in this respect, which has been formed by their personal and professional development in previous occupations. These trainees are highly motivated through strong beliefs and values about teaching reflecting the dynamic relationship between their moral and political values. Their key beliefs and values fall into three categories: values about developing the potential of all pupils, values about the responsibility of the teacher to provide inclusive education, based on mutual respect linked to self-esteem, and underpinned by a strong commitment to children’s personal, social and intellectual development and values about pupils’ entitlement to opportunity, including equity, access and social justice (Mead 2007, pp. 313–315). The research tracks a cohort on the first phase of the oneyear programme to identify if and how these personal values are developed and realized in classroom practice in any coherent and meaningful way. Key variables in the training process prove to be the extent to which these values are embedded in their Initial Needs Analysis and Individual Training Programmes. Ultimately, however, coherent values development and application proves to be dependent on the expectations and readiness of mentors to go beyond restrictive, outcomes-driven mentoring: Discussion of teaching issues was useful for both parties – he was able to identify issues which I also recognised as areas for development for himself, myself or the school as a whole. I had to be diplomatic in giving feedback and willing to analyse my own teaching and compare aspects of it with the trainees’ teaching. (Mentor 1, p. 317) The study concludes that when these aspects of the training are in place and reinforced by central training which makes values explicit, the dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, begun in a previous career, can continue to develop in a coherent and meaningful way within their teaching (pp. 318–320). The study demonstrates how mentoring can facilitate or thwart the contribution of a well-established relationship between a trainees’ personal moral and political values to the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge. For example, techne prevails when the development of a trainee’s disposition towards inclusion can be short-circuited by the mentor resorting to the quick fix of behaviour management techniques: The main occasion when I have told people or let people be aware of my values is through behaviour management and showing that I feel strongly about some acts of misbehaviour more than others. However, this is difficult

94  Values-based professional knowledge to only express my values, as it is the school’s policy that I must follow. The children may be unaware that they are my own personal values and beliefs. (p. 318) By contrast, a trainee who has clearly experienced more generative and dialogic mentoring talks about a mentoring process whereby she regularly discussed her values in relation to her teaching style and the ways in which she conveyed her values to her pupils: I feel that my own values have been shaped by my experiences and conversations over the year and will continue to develop, but all the opportunities I have had have helped immensely when I consider my values in relation to my teaching style and the way that I convey values to the children. (p. 317)

Contextualizing case study three within the wider professional discourse Pitfield and Morrison (2009) and Smith and Hodson (2010) saw the relevance of the data in the study for improving the quality of mentoring on increasingly flexible school-based initial teacher education routes and in terms of securing the relationship between theory and practice in pressured contexts. Pitfield and Morrison emphasize how crucial it is that mentoring goes beyond a competencybased approach to understanding the values and motivations of career-switchers in particular: The needs analysis on flexible PGCE courses has to do more than simply focus on gaps in knowledge, on what the trainee doesn’t know and cannot yet do. It should be a rigorous process for identifying the existing skills and experiences which this group (mature entrants to teaching) brought to the courses from their previous careers as well as ‘recognizing well-developed, well-informed and secure beliefs and values which will underpin all that is new to learn about teaching’ (Mead 2007, p. 316). (Pitfield & Morrison 2009, p. 25) The authors found that mentors on flexible routes were adapting their practice to develop more dialogical and values-based mentoring: Gloria (a mentor) is echoing a point made by Mead that the needs analysis should inform an ongoing dialogue with the mentee and that mentors should allocate time to engage with student-teachers’ reflective practice (Mead 2007). (Pitfield & Morrison 2009, p. 25) The authors argue that dialogical and values-based mentoring is fundamental to engaging trainees in ‘a complex set of understandings’ to overcome the

Values-based professional knowledge 95 inclination to separate theory and practice in school-based training because of pressure of time. Pitfield and Morrison therefore conclude that flexible PGCE routes are beginning to demonstrate and definitely need what is a values-based dialogical type of mentoring, as argued for in the third paper: There is a need for the kind of dialogue that takes place as part of the mentoring process which shows the ‘readiness of mentors to go beyond restrictive outcomes-driven mentoring’ (Mead 2007, p. 319) and to take a more holistic view of teaching and learning than a competencies-based approach. (p. 29) What is encouraging about this research is the identification of a much more organic and fluid learning process for trainees, which has the potential to bind the personal and professional dimensions of becoming a teacher, thereby giving the individual trainee much more agency in their professional development. The importance of this sense of agency is also a key feature of the research undertaken by Smith and Hodson (2010), drawing on the data in case study three. These researchers want to understand what Graduate Teacher Programme (GTP) trainees mean when they say they want to get away from theory. Their findings tell us that they do value theory but experienced in a much more organic context and in relation to the interpretation of what Eraut (2004) has called ‘non-codified personal knowledge’ acquired on the job. Smith and Hodson draw on the data in the third paper of this collection to argue that mentors need to provide the formal spaces in which they can support trainees in mobilizing their existing values and experiences to make the connections between theory and practice and so move learning forward in situated contexts (p. 265). The organic relationship between teachers’ values and their practice which gives them agency in their work also concerns Easterbrook and Stephenson (2009). Working in the highly technical-rational ethos of American ITE critiqued by Apple (2001) and Bullough 2014) and as discussed in Chapter 2, these authors draw on case study three to analyse what happens to novice teachers who do not feel confident in their professional values and abandon good practice early on. They draw on the study to argue that when graduating from a teacher preparation programme armed with the latest techniques in instruction, younger, less experienced teachers often find themselves in situations in which their values and skills do not seem to connect to the demands of the job. When this happens, they turn to their more seasoned colleagues for support, resulting in student-teachers’ decision-making skills developing through the filter of the cooperating teacher whose belief-systems have developed over the years. However, the less precisely a cooperating teacher connects practices to the values of a student-teacher, the more likely they are to develop inaccuracies and myth-based practices (p. 462). Underpinning Easterbrook and Stephenson’s analysis is the gap between trainees’ existing values and their classroom practice, which, if not bridged by the mentor, will result in ‘trainees imbibing myth-based practices’ in the area of classroom management when trainees’ attitudes and beliefs about student autonomy and the nature of the pupil–teacher relationship are neglected

96  Values-based professional knowledge in favour of the mentor’s ‘quick fix’. Martin and Yin (2009) have also drawn on the data in the study to argue that any teacher education work in behaviour management must consider teacher characteristics and values related to classroom control. I conclude that the data and findings in case study three are highly relevant to the future development of teachers’ professional knowledge, particularly in light of the expansion of School Direct training contexts. Kroll (2012), counteracting what Apple calls the ‘thin morality’ of the American NCLB discussed in Chapter 2, draws on case study three to argue that, in managing teacher education in challenging schools in particular, learning to teach for equity and social justice will only occur if time is allowed for ‘the explicit addressing of possible issues that might impact how pupils are supported and how fairly they are treated’ (p. 79). She argues that while students may express professional values that reflect democratic, humane and equalityoriented perspective, without examining how these values might be manifest in teaching, they may not connect their stated values with their actions in the classroom. The consequences of this are found in Kroll’s strong assertion of my position that training programmes for teachers’ ‘must include the explicit addressing of the development and implementation of professional values, or disconnect between thought and action will continue to occur’ (p. 79). Research which has drawn on case study three clearly demonstrates that the quality of mentoring will need to ensure that beliefs, values and practice are organically united to generate a critical and strategic professional knowledge. Such knowledge can provide the agency needed to develop effective teaching and learning.

Conclusion to context one In evaluating the issues arising from Chapter 3, it is clear from the data in these three case studies and from ITE practitioners’ responses to those data that a dominant instrumental techne can have a negative impact on enabling trainees to develop a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values. Three key aspects emerge across quite large cohorts following different training routes: process, pedagogy and provision. First, developing phronetic dispositions has to be both a personal and professional process which may appear to be incompatible with an outcomes-driven approach. However, the data suggest, and it is acknowledged by a number of the national and international responses, including the example of Stenberg’s (2010) personal practical theory tool, that a more meaningful meeting of teaching standards is achievable through a deeper understanding of the relationship between personal moral and political values. This is most evident in the development of inclusive practices amongst those trainees who received appropriate values-based pedagogy and training opportunities in the university and in school. Pedagogy figures, then, as a key factor in providing trainees with a process of personal and professional development. The data suggest that philosophical

Values-based professional knowledge 97 and moral inquiry within the university and dialogic mentoring within school can support trainees in developing phronetic dispositions which would enable phronesis to serve techne. There is much which resonates here with the international contexts discussed in Chapter 2, including the need for Apple’s ‘thick morality’ and Kroll’s participatory appropriation in America and the development of media-based communication pedagogies in Estonia and the pedagogy of discomfort in South Africa. Perhaps the most significant aspect of pedagogy recognized in the responses to the study, including the Japanese and South African contexts, is the powerful nature of dialogic mentoring, which can counter mechanistic responses to deeper issues of inclusion and social justice. It is clear that this is skilful work requiring well-developed phronetic dispositions on the part of the mentor; however, it embodies the potential for a process of change in a trainees’ personal perceptions which will underpin techne, for example, in the form of planning. Finally, there is clear recognition in the data and responses of the critical importance of provision. It is clear from those national and international responses to the data which recognize the qualitative difference in trainee understanding achieved when personal moral decision-making and action in the classroom are linked, that provision cannot be tokenistic. Disconnected elements of training clearly do not constitute a process of personal and professional development. This is brought home in the Finnish case study in Chapter 2, in which Stenberg (2014) acknowledges the challenge of sustaining her personal practical theory as a thread running through all aspects of the training and especially taken account of during the practicum. The data and the citations recognize that opportunities to develop practice through observations and feedback from teaching, including understanding how experienced teachers have espoused inclusive values without feeling coerced, are fundamental to building an evaluative standpoint on inclusion and social justice. It is through such provision that developed phronetic dispositions have the potential to transform an instrumental approach into a critical and strategic professional knowledge.

Context two An exploration of a prescribed policy initiative which impacts on the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values and the development of their understanding of professional knowledge

Case study four Case study four contributes to a deepening of the analysis of the first and third issues identified in the conclusion to Chapter 3, which are concerned with how the impact of a dominant instrumental techne on the integral relationship between the moral development of trainees and their actions in the classroom as citizens can determine trainees’ understanding of professional knowledge. Building on the pedagogical and mentoring variables across courses which determine the quality

98  Values-based professional knowledge of trainees’ values education found in case studies one to three, study four drills down to explore how the development of a dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values can be compromised by the instrumental implementation of one particular policy. The top-down implementation of Every Child Matters (DFES 2004) should have been an ideal opportunity for trainees to develop the relationship between their personal moral and political values as citizens through engaging with the values of a social justice policy. However, the study reveals how a disconnect appears between trainees’ personal moral and political values when techne dominates and phronesis is marginalized because of the instrumental implementation of the policy, causing professional knowledge to become narrowly perceived as the acquisition of strategies, skills and safeguarding knowledge. Case study four is titled ‘The impact of Every Child Matters on trainee secondary teachers’ understanding of professional knowledge. This study was first published in Pastoral Care in Education, (2011) 29(1), pp. 7–24. The intention was to establish the efficacy of what I had been sensing over a number of years as a teacher educator, that the instrumental, legalistic and accountabilitydriven implementation of what was intended to be a social justice policy (Every Child Matters (ECM) DFES 2004) had the potential to weaken the dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values (Mead 2011, pp. 8–11). I was concerned that trainees who entered their training programme with a very strong relationship between their personal moral and political values would find this relationship threatened by the professionalization of the technical processes of learning which are perceived to be driven by the accountability and legality of ECM. Data collected from the 2005–2006 and 2007–2008 cohorts demonstrate a degree of movement in emphasis from an organic, values-based understanding to a more propositional, skills-based trainee understanding of professional knowledge. For example, 2005–2006 trainees refer to the development of their personal attributes and values that are enhanced by their appropriating a fluid and ongoing professional learning and how this development of self is closely linked to the life, values and ethos of the school and classroom: Professional knowledge is about growing into how our own personal strengths will contribute to the teaching context. (p. 14) In the 2007–2008 data, there is a shift from 0.9 to 23 per cent of those who define professional knowledge as a set of skills, and there is a significant increase in professional knowledge defined as knowledge for successful subject teaching competences (from 5.5% to 43.5%): Professional knowledge is complex. It requires AfL, seeking out information in a focused way, relating different aspects of learning, balancing exam techniques with individual needs and being clear about setting boundaries and use of behaviour policy. (Science trainee, p. 15)

Values-based professional knowledge 99 Professional knowledge allows you to deliver subject knowledge in a manner that is identifiable and accountable to professional bodies. (p. 21) Our professional knowledge helps us to deliver our subject knowledge. It allows us to get a job, stay within the legal requirements of the job and control classes so we can teach using our subject specific knowledge. (p. 21) The data suggest that this shift in understanding professional knowledge is contributing to a weakening of the intrinsic relationship between the development of the personal values of trainee teachers and the well-being of pupils. This results in the overall finding of the study that the embedding of ECM in trainees’ developing practice is perceived by them as more strategic than values-based (pp. 18–21). The case study concludes very much in the vein of Kroll’s (2012) participatory guidance and appropriation methods, challenging teacher educators to provide similar opportunities in which trainees can ask foundational questions such as ‘who am I and what do I bring’, rather than ‘what do I need to understand and do in order to implement ECM?’ (p. 17). This must lead to trainees critically evaluating the values underpinning a policy such as ECM in relation to their own experience and values. Like participation in citizenship education, ECM is a moral and political issue for teachers as citizens to engage in. The fundamental relationship between personal moral and political values is depoliticized if instrumentalism uncouples the moral decision-making from the political action. When this happens, a prevailing deontological ethic replaces the dynamic relationship between teachers’ personal and political values captured by phronesis. Hence the preoccupations with the professional duties surrounding safeguarding within ECM and ensuring that all pupils participate to ‘make a positive contribution’ (DFES 2004). What does this study have to say about the contribution of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values and the development of a critical and strategic understanding of professional knowledge? The phronetic research undertaken in the paper reveals how there is a disconnect between trainees’ personal moral and political values when techne dominates because of the instrumental implementation of a top-down policy, causing professional knowledge to become increasingly perceived as the acquisition of strategies, skills and safeguarding knowledge. The phronetic research reveals that in the data collected from the 2005–2006 cohort of trainees, following the implementation of ECM as a required part of training, trainees offer definitions of professional knowledge which are more organic in terms of the intrinsic relationship between their personal moral and political values, ownership of their professional knowledge and their concern for the well-being of pupils (p. 22). What is teased out from the data from the 2006–2007 cohort is a degree of movement away from an organic definition of professional knowledge to one more focused on skills and competences which are not intrinsically linked to the development of a dynamic relationship between the trainees’ personal moral and political values (pp. 17–18). There appears to be emerging an imbalance between techne and phronesis which, if to

100  Values-based professional knowledge be addressed, will require opportunities for trainees to critically evaluate a valuesladen policy such as ECM in relation to their own personal and political values. Structurally, this would mean a shift from knowledge-imparting sessions on ECM to a problematizing approach requiring trainees to make personal and political value-judgements which underpin the kind of critical and strategic professional knowledge as recommended by Carr and Kemmis (1986, pp. 16–18, 22). The implications of this shift for teacher educators is well summed up by Webb (2017) in her application of the findings of case study four to the correlation between teacher self-efficacy and the effective problematizing of inclusion issues. Writing about the technical-rationalist ethos of NCLB in the American ITE context as discussed in Chapter 2, she argues that teacher professional learning opportunities ‘need to enhance teacher personal development, ultimately creating professionals who take control of their environments’ (p. 62). Webb considers the findings in case study four to present a challenge to teacher educators ‘to identify key questions and establish pedagogical priorities that counter the view that professional learning opportunities should simply be designed to allow teachers to acquire strategies and skills to ensure accountability’ (p. 61).

Contextualizing case study four within the wider professional discourse Case study four has been widely consulted, and there is encouraging evidence of teacher educators using the data to inform a critical professional knowledge which has issues of social justice at its heart. For example, in his online discussion with PGCE Maths trainees at Durham University, Peter Gray argues that, in the light of the study, trainees need to critically own policies through their own values-based judgements: In reading Mead (2011) it is worth considering that ECM is a living document in the sense that it has no power except in our apprehension and implementation of it, and that it behoves us to think very carefully about how we can bring ECM to life for the benefit of our learners, of our colleagues and ourselves. (2011, p. 1) Similar critical reflection by trainees on social justice values underpinning health and well-being aspects of ECM has been built into the health promotion component of pre-service training at Southampton University, well documented by Byrne et al. (2012, 2015) and Dewhirst et al. (2014). The researchers draw on case study four to analyse the connections they wanted trainees to make between knowledge, skills and personal and professional values about health education: This approach considers that curricula should not be overly prescriptive but should allow students to have some autonomy so that they can develop

Values-based professional knowledge 101 not only their knowledge base but also their own skills, attitudes and values towards health issues in order to become effective health promoters (Mead 2011). (Byrne et al. 2012, p. 528) The researchers go on to define in what sense autonomy in the training process contributes to effective health educators: Furthermore the changes encompassed opportunities for the pre-service teachers to reflect on personal values and attitudes towards their own health and that of others, with the intention that they would continue to promote health throughout their careers. (2012, p. 528) These researchers make the crucial link between increasing trainee confidence and autonomy in their practice and their ability to reflect on their professional values, which will enable them, as health promoters ‘to engage meaningfully with their pupils (Mead 2011)’ (2012, p. 539). Byrne et al. conclude their rationale by citing one of the key arguments in case study four, which lies at the heart of the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge in teacher education: However, merely meeting and evidencing particular competencies is regarded as a technical/functionalist approach to teacher education (Pollard 2005). Furthermore, Mead (2011, p. 19) argues that a technical/instrumental approach to pre-service teacher education without the opportunity to reflect upon and develop professional values “can potentially weaken the intrinsic relationship between teachers’ values, ownership of professional knowledge and pupil well-being”. From our perspective this approach will not result in pre-service teachers that are effective health promoters wherever in the world they may be training to teach. (pp. 528–529) It follows that the issue of time for reflection on values in pre-service training remains important but less so than the type of reflection employed, which gives opportunities for trainees to invest their moral and political values as they collaborate in the process, something which all the case studies in this chapter seek to exemplify. Byrne et al. (2012, 2018) argue that such pedagogical approaches give trainees autonomy over their professional development and can increase their sense of self-efficacy, leading to an enacting of their values within a more confident understanding of the wider role of the teacher. Such autonomy is critical to case study four and a deepening of our understanding of the elements needed to enable standards-based training to develop the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values. In drawing on case study

102  Values-based professional knowledge four, Byrne et al. contribute to identifying how autonomy is empowering and provides trainees with Opportunities which can enable connections to be made between values, professional knowledge and the aims of practice which will facilitate a more profound understanding of the wider role of the teacher (Mead 2011). (p. 228) Boney (2014) draws on case study four to develop a very similar argument to Byrne et al. (2012) but applied within the American context of NCLB (2002). Boney draws on my comparison between the ways in which ECM and NCLB as values-based national social justice policies become instrumentalized within teacher education, resulting in a technicist understanding of professional knowledge based on a disputed definition of ‘high-quality’ teaching: Mead found that ECM in England, while informing teachers’ planning, resourcing, teaching and assessing, ‘the instrumentalist implementation of what is undoubtedly a values-laden social justice policy has weakened the intrinsic relationship between teachers’ values, ownership of professional knowledge and student well-being, replacing it with the professionalization of the technical processes of learning that are driven by legality and accountability’ (Mead 2011, p. 22). (p. 8) Boney believes that the shift in emphasis in teacher knowledge towards content knowledge described by Smith and Gorard (2007), as well as an emphasis on the technical processes of learning described by me in case study four, is a current reality in the US (p. viii). This reality is elaborated upon in my analysis of the work of Apple (2001) and Bullough (2014) in Chapter 2. Like myself, Boney ‘senses a growing concern that something of fundamental importance and moral significance is missing from the vision of what it means to be a professional in the field of education’ (p. 8). She goes on to argue for a reconception of teacher knowledge as phronesis. Her data collection amongst experienced practitioners subject to NCLB training reveals the need for a fusion of the moral and practical in professional knowledge, facilitating a more profound understanding of the wider role of the teacher advocated by Byrne et al. (2012), which echoes Apple’s (2001) ‘thick morality’. The latter emphasize autonomy as a key element in reaching this deeper understanding, but for Boney, another critical element is identity. She argues in response to the gap between personal and professional values, which is at the heart of case study four, that teacher professional/personal and instructional goals are tied to the identities of the individual participants and reflect how the unique phronetic dispositions of the participants influence the factors they consider in making instructional decisions. It is Boney’s contention that the relationship between phronetic dispositions and teacher identity provides a viable construct within the practice of highly competent teachers (p. ix).

Values-based professional knowledge 103 Boney’s response to case study four is extremely helpful because it suggests that teacher identity is a missing element in the development of high levels of competence when implementing a values-laden, social justice policy.

Conclusion to context two Case study four clearly demonstrates the absence of process, pedagogy and provision, identified in the studies in context one, in developing a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values. Far from building this relationship, the instrumental implementation of ECM actually uncouples it. Although the data reveal a disturbing gulf between trainees’ developmental needs in relation to such a values-laden policy and the reality of their training experience, we are challenged again, as in context one to ask, with the support of the citations, how might standards-based teacher education provide a deeper engagement with such a policy so that critical and strategic professional knowledge might be generated? As already stated, the data suggest an imbalance between techne and phronesis, which requires process, pedagogy and provision enabling trainees to critically evaluate the policy in relation to their own personal moral and political values. I feel however, that the sharp delineation of the negative impact of one policy on teacher education and the rich vicarious experience it offers other professionals actually moves the debate on from context one onto a more profound footing. That depth acknowledged in the citations seems to be focused on my view that a technical/instrumental approach to pre-service teacher education without the opportunity to reflect upon and develop professional values ‘can potentially weaken the intrinsic relationship between teachers’ values, ownership of professional knowledge and pupil well-being’ (Byrne et al. 2012, p. 528 citing Mead 2011, p. 22). There are three important aspects in this statement captured in this citation by Byrne et al. and in the citation by Boney (2014). The first is teacher autonomy in terms of trainees’ ownership of professional knowledge, the second is the relationship between teacher identity expressed through phronetic dispositions and the practice of highly competent teachers (Boney 2014, p. ix), and third is the relationship between teacher autonomy and identity and pupil well-being. It would seem to me that these three aspects give us a deeper insight into the nature of the process of personal and professional development identified than offered by the case studies in context one and they also help to illuminate the challenge of developing autonomy, self-understanding and moral decision-making in the international ITE contexts of considerable social change analysed in Chapter 2. Significantly for our research question, we find in these three aspects an integral relationship between phronesis and techne which may enable teacher educators to develop the pedagogy and provision for supporting the dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values, which, in turn, would generate not an information-driven professional knowledge such as we saw in case study four, but one which is strategic and critical. By introducing the integral relationship between teacher autonomy and identity and highly competent practice for the well-being

104  Values-based professional knowledge of all pupils, Byrne considers that pedagogical approaches will ‘facilitate a more profound understanding of the wider role of the teacher’ (p. 228). For Boney in the American ITE context and reacting to what Apple (2001) calls the ‘thin morality’ of competitive individualism, case study four confirms her ‘growing sense that something of fundamental importance and moral significance is missing from the vision of what it means to be a professional in the field of education’ (p. 8). Beyond the significance of process, pedagogy and provision for addressing the imbalance between phronesis and techne we add, then, teacher autonomy and identity for a fuller account of how teacher education can strengthen the intrinsic relationship between teachers’ values, ownership of professional knowledge and pupil wellbeing. This fuller account anticipates the impact of teacher cultural identity along with conceptions of the teacher as citizen on values development in context three.

Context three An exploration of critical moments in teacher education and development when a phronetic understanding of the relationship between teachers’ moral and political values provides the critical and strategic professional knowledge which can bring about change in a challenging context. Case studies five, six and seven are distinct from the preceding studies because they offer in-depth analysis of significant moments in teacher education set within challenging contexts. These contexts demonstrate how a phronetic understanding of the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values can contribute to the development of a more critical and strategic professional knowledge, which brings about change in a challenging situation. As such, these papers deepen the analysis of the second and third issues identified in the conclusion to Chapter 3 by giving a more positive insight into the potential for standards-based teacher education to develop phronetic dispositions, which would enable phronesis to serve techne and in that process transform instrumental approaches into critical and strategic professional knowledge.

Case study five Case study five is titled ‘The experience of black African religious education trainee teachers training in England’, first published in the British Journal of Religious Education, (2006), 28 (2), pp. 173–184. The study uses the life history method to explore the challenges encountered by three Black African trainee teachers, educated to university level in their own countries and training to teach Religious Education in England. The qualitative data set in sharp relief those key areas at the heart of teacher education which will reveal whether a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values develops. The data reveal in a nuanced way those categories of trainee experience which are inhibitors in this process. This phronetic study is able to identify and analyse the conflict between these trainees’ personal cultural, religious and educational values and the reality of the English classroom. For example, the black African trainees in the study perceived education as closely aligned to the values of the Christian faith, which made stepping outside

Values-based professional knowledge 105 formal spirituality and engaging in affective pedagogies challenging for them. This was compounded by a genuine bewilderment about the apparent lack of concern for religion within UK society and education. Teacher identity is strongly linked to a role as moral guide and authority, which tend to lead to didactic teaching: When you go into school and you get responses like ‘I don’t believe in God’ and ‘I don’t want to know,’ this is a real challenge. Religion doesn’t mean the same thing to others around you, but you have to teach it to everyone. It requires a lot of preparation to do this. (p. 178) Here then, we can observe the disconnect between personal moral values and political values enacted in the classroom. Although these trainees have very strong convictions about the personal, moral and spiritual well-being of their pupils, they are unable to implement their beliefs and struggle to progress in their training. Techne alone is unable to provide the necessary development, as is evident in the failure of these trainees to progress towards meeting the teaching standards: I think that partner schools need to have prior warning of these challenges. We are not the same. I am not the same as someone who has grown up here and gone to school in England. There are things which can be assumed and I have seen that. I will get on but I do need as much help as possible in these things. My mentor made assumptions and his attitude too quickly was, ‘I don’t want to know a lot about your planning, it’s your class, get on with it’. (Trainee M, p.178) By contrast, the study demonstrates how a phronetic understanding of the relationship between personal moral and political values would enable phronesis to serve techne, giving these particular trainees ownership of strategic professional knowledge insights around communication and pedagogy. Without a phronetic understanding of the relationship between these trainees’ personal moral and political values, standards-based training would fail them on the grounds of poor language skills and didactic teaching. However, the findings demonstrate that if trainees and teacher educators focused more on the development of phronetic dispositions, the disconnect between belief and action in the classroom practice could be overcome in a way that techne alone could not address. For example, mentors using those teaching standards which address trainee communication may well restrict their judgements to spoken and written English whereas, crucially, in the case of these trainees, the need to be addressed is the trainees’ understanding of young people’s social, moral, spiritual and cultural experiences and concerns in the UK context (pp. 181–182). Without this understanding these trainees failed to communicate abstract religious concepts in ways which were contextualized within pupils’ experiences: In terms of language, I do realise that sometimes when I explain things in class and I think that I have explained it well, some students don’t seem to

106  Values-based professional knowledge get it that much and so my mentor would suggest different ways. There is a lot of work for me to do on this. I know that what I am saying isn’t really right and I need to get down to their level or use their language. (Trainee MA, p. 182) The findings also reveal that strong Christianity subject knowledge is not enough; trainees need to have additional pre-course experience of UK classroom interactions. There are clearly modifications to techne required in these findings, as well as structural changes which impact on trainee progress, for example, more differentiated training on placement that one is giving a longer run in to build interactions with pupils and increased preparation time on the first two placements to address the implementation of pedagogies unfamiliar to the trainees (pp. 182–183). Most importantly, there are implications for the role of the mentor in ‘encouraging trainees to authenticate their pedagogy through the incorporation of their cultural values and perceptions into their teaching rationale’ (Mead 2006, p. 183). Here again, when mentors begin to affirm the African identity of the trainee within their teaching, including their personal moral and political values, we see the potential for standards-based training to develop phronetic dispositions which enable phronesis to serve techne. The result is that trainees develop a more critical and strategic professional knowledge, which empowers them to experiment with more interactive pedagogy and communication. This is revealed very powerfully when the Rwandan trainee is encouraged by his mentor to teach about the Rwandan genocide within the topic of suffering and evil. The trainee over a period of time moved from a transmission model to a much more exploratory approach, with pupils interjecting and asking pertinent questions. This resulted in an increasing mutual respect between trainee and pupils and a developing balance in his lesson between teacher transmission, independent pupil research, discussion and well-formulated pupil opinion (p. 180).

Contextualizing paper five within the wider professional discourse Case study five has been valued in recent professional discourse because it ‘consciously builds on a finding from an earlier study by Sikes and Everington (2001) that highlighted the place of religion and culture within the personal histories of religious education teachers’ (Robbins & Francis 2016, p. 60). Both papers were re-published to form the section on Religious Education teacher education in the latter world class reader titled The empirical science of Religious Education. The vicarious experience of case study five, communicated and injected into professional discourse, is located, in particular, according to Robbins and Francis, in the progression from Sikes and Everington’s (2001) study of a cohort of secondary PGCE trainees to the ‘sharp focus which concentrates on a specific ethnic group, namely Black Africans’ (p. 60). The sharp focus of the case study in paper five is recognized by professionals in the field, such as Baumfield 2007) as providing

Values-based professional knowledge 107 the richness of data which both Bassey (1999) and Stake (1995) consider to be essential for generalizability: Current and existing research has used narrative methods such as the life history approach to elicit rich accounts of novice teachers’ experiences in order to understand what they know and how that knowledge is acquired (e.g. Mead 2006). (p.77) Everington (2014) is one such author who cites case study five with the intention of taking forward the rich accounts of values conflict experienced by the Christian Black African trainees into the lives of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh teachers of Religious Education. Significantly, these trainees have all been educated in the UK and are confident about drawing on their cultural, religious identity and experience in making Religious Education ‘real’ and accessible for their pupils in the way the Rwandan trainee was being encouraged to move towards in case study five. Like the Black African trainees, Everington’s case study trainees had strong personal moral and political values about inclusion, but paradoxically, they were not prevented from implementing these because of pedagogical and communication issues, but often because of pressure from their own faith community members within the school to be more exclusive. Although not addressing the impact of standards-based training on the development of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, Everington acknowledges how critical it is that teacher educators provide multi-ethnic trainees with the opportunity to reflect on the relationship between their personal and professional lives if they are to become confident and inclusive practitioners. Everington emphasizes how skilful these trainees are at deploying their personal values in their teaching to build trust and make RE ‘real’ and accessible. This resonates with the concept of a strategic and critical professional knowledge within which phronesis and techne are fused. Without such knowledge, techne alone would not have enabled the trainees to resist the pressures from faith community members in school to become exclusive teachers. Everington’s study confirms the view in case study five that standards-based training, given the encouragement of phronetic dispositions, can ensure that phronesis will serve techne, and a critical and strategic professional knowledge can then develop, enabling trainees to overcome critical challenges in enacting their values in the classroom. The bleak alternative to this, which standardsbased training is susceptible to if phronetic dispositions are not encouraged by educators, is captured well in Limonds (2008) historical analysis of black African teachers encountering similar conflicting sets of values to those in case study five in England in the 1950s. In Limond’s case study V and W are two African teachers sent on a programme backed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization to live and work in a small rural English market town with the intention of dispelling pupils’ monocultural prejudices. Limond believes the project was a failure because the African identities of the

108  Values-based professional knowledge two teachers were not allowed to emerge, and he cites case study five to conclude that things may be no better: Contemporary evidence suggests that teachers and student teachers from similarly ‘exotic’ backgrounds still encounter as much, if not more, bewilderment and hostility from the majority ethnic population in English schools as did V and W (Mead 2006). (p. 40) Limond, however, does not acknowledge how case study five demonstrates that the bewilderment and hostility need not continue if we protect the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, encouraging phronetic dispositions so that phronesis serves techne and a critical and strategic professional knowledge emerges which enables trainees to problematize values conflict. Note, then, the contrast in the experience of V and W with Student S in case study five whose mentor encouraged him to teach about the Rwandan genocide which allowed his Rwandan identity to emerge and which gave him confidence to be his African self in his teaching, in his pastoral relationships and in his communication with parents. The authentication of trainee pedagogy through the incorporation of their cultural values and perceptions into their teaching rationale, supported by dialogic mentoring as exemplified in case study five, resonates strongly with the challenges encountered in the international case studies in Chapter 2. These case studies complement case study five by providing insights into the processes of self-understanding needed if autonomy and identity are to be integrated into the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge. For example, in the Japanese context, there is a tension between the need for greater individual autonomy in teacher decision-making and the societal collective identity. In South Africa, we see how the use of a disruptive pedagogy and form of mentoring is intended to encourage trainee teachers to examine black and white identities and perceptions to authenticate a much more inclusive pedagogy for a post-apartheid country. This case study highlights how such a process might be thwarted by the lack of a common teacher education vision and the kind of mentoring evidenced in case study five which understands how autonomy and identity are key to the development of phronetic dispositions which can serve techne, thereby ensuring that professional knowledge becomes both critical and strategic. Case study five and the international case studies in Chapter 2 highlight what are undoubtedly complex processes and go some way towards addressing the issue discussed in Chapter 2 and posed by Mayer (2014) in Australia and Korthagen (2001) and Dam and Blom (2006) in the Netherlands of how we capture an authentic assessment of what teaching really entails. This can fulfil but also far exceeds instrumental teaching standards.

Case studies six and seven Case studies six and seven also seek to demonstrate how a phronetic understanding of the relationship between personal moral and political values can enable

Values-based professional knowledge 109 teachers to develop in a critical situation in one school, where potentially these two sets of values might become disconnected and where techne will dominate to the detriment of whole school ethos and pupil–teacher relationship. Case study six is titled ‘Conflicting concepts of participation in secondary school Citizenship’. This study, which was first published in Pastoral Care in Education, (2010) 28 (1), pp. 45–57, demonstrates how the enduring nature of Crick’s foundational tenet that participation in citizenship is grounded in the relationship between the moral and the political is challenged and compromised by structural factors within schools (Mead 2010, pp. 46–48). The example is offered of the uncoupling of teachers’ and pupils’ personal moral and political values in the context of participation within Citizenship for reasons of instrumentalism and techne, which are related to pupil compliance and Ofsted-driven school improvement (see Ofsted 2006). Tentative findings from a small sample of Ofsted reports 2007–2008 indicate that in outstanding schools where positive attitudes to participation in learning and the life of the school generally exist, there are few references to the knowledge and understanding required in citizenship education and the quality of the teaching and assessment of the subject. In stark contrast, all the reports in the inadequate sample comment on the content and quality of citizenship teaching, making explicit and prescriptive links between content lacking and pupils’ attitudes and behaviours, which, by implication, have a bearing on their attitudes and receptivity to learning, for example: Attendance is below the national average, although the range of strategies employed is having a satisfactory impact on improvement. The strategies for reducing fixed-term exclusions at KS3 are having an impact, although this is not the case at KS4. Students’ spiritual, moral, social and cultural development is satisfactory. However, students have a limited understanding of Britain as a diverse society and the promotion of cultural diversity is currently underdeveloped (Ofsted 2007–2008, p. 5). (p. 50) In particular, what is diminished here is the integral relationship between the moral and the political based on moral questions arising from young people’s and teachers’ judgements about what kind of political participation is appropriate and just. Case study six clearly demonstrates the very real way a dominant instrumental techne impacts on the integral link between the moral development of the teacher (and indeed the pupils) and their actions in the classroom as citizens (pp. 53–56). By contrast, case study seven offers insights into my second and third key issues concerning the extent to which standards-based teacher education (and development in this case) can develop phronetic dispositions which would enable phronesis to serve techne and in doing so generate transformative professional knowledge. Case study seven is titled ‘The management and impact of a student-led Iraq war protest in a fresh start school’, first published in Pastoral Care in Education (2004b) 22(4) pp. 6–12. This is a case study of a 2003 student-led Iraq war protest, which

110  Values-based professional knowledge presents a much more complex and dynamic picture of participation than the compliance model found in case study six and which brings into play the relationship between personal moral and political values for teachers and students, and consequently their ownership of the moral decision-making processes involved. This study gives us a glimpse of staff and students in a secondary school individually engaging in the complex but dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values as they address the student protest (Mead 2004b, pp. 10–11). Data from teachers give insights into how the dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values is engaged and, in some cases, changed through their involvement in the complexities, emotions and contradictions of managing the protest. For senior leaders, managing the protest was about the risks involved in balancing pragmatism and creativity. The lead assistant head for pastoral care described the protest as ‘one moment in time you couldn’t afford to lose’: If you want to improve a school you have got to have the pupils on board and once you have got that, then they will move things on themselves because they feel valued. (p. 9) For teachers, this is a learning opportunity, generating new critical and strategic professional knowledge, which, because it is derived from phronesis serving techne, brings about profound changes in the school ethos linked to the development of more mutually respectful student–teacher relationships, the development of more democratic and inclusive classrooms and the development of a more authentic student voice: Perhaps the protest reminded me to listen to and respect pupils’ opinions. At the end of the day, they are trying to make sense out of things and they often need our help. I ignore first assumptions and take their views at face value. (Teacher A, p. 11) I think that the school has improved, but I think that there is only so much that you can do to improve as things get built on; for example, after the protest about the war we didn’t just feel like children, we felt like responsible people who have their views heard and are not just silenced. (Pupil D, p. 11) This, I consider to be teacher education at work in the whole school context which, through enlightened and risk-taking leadership, creates a fusion of phronesis and techne that generates a transformative critical and strategic professional knowledge (pp. 9–10). At the same time, this process plays a significant part in getting a failing school back on its feet, thereby confirming the necessity of phronesis serving techne. As with case study five, study seven demonstrates the potential for trainers and leaders to develop phronetic dispositions in trainees and teachers working in challenging

Values-based professional knowledge 111 contexts, thereby generating transformative professional knowledge which can bring about change in practice. However, the study raises some fundamental issues surrounding this process which are relevant to all the training contexts examined in the preceding case studies (pp. 6–8). If the last three studies of the seven point to the potential for overcoming the limitations of standards-based teacher education, essentially through the self-realization of the identity of the teacher as citizen, teacher educators must ask, who models this potential for trainees. Another question must be asked about how schools might change so that teachers and students have opportunities to realize their identity as citizens, thereby providing trainee teachers (and indeed experienced teachers) with a professional development environment within which the relationship between their personal moral values and their political values can flourish. Third, teacher educators need to ask how we minimize the risk of teachers, leaders and indeed inspectors, appropriating the dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values in a way which does not do justice to teachers’ identities as citizens in the classroom in order to meet standards-based and instrumental expectations. Case studies five, six and seven raise questions, then, which seem to go deeper than the preceding studies into the very identity of the teacher themselves in relation to the extent to which standards-based teacher education can develop phronetic dispositions, which in turn can generate a critical and strategic professional knowledge. This depth has resonated with researchers in the field, again demonstrating the efficacy of the fuzzy generalization and vicarious experiences offered by rich case study material discussed in Chapter 3. I therefore intend to discuss these critical questions in the context of the contribution of case studies six and seven to the wider professional discourse.

Contextualizing case studies six and seven within the wider professional discourse First, who models the potential to overcome the limitations of standards-based teacher education through the development of phronetic dispositions? This essentially goes to the heart of the trainees’ own learning experience. I have argued consistently since examining the relationship between Religious Education and Citizenship (Mead 2000, 2001), and subsequently in contexts one to three here, that the extent to which trainee teachers will be challenged to critically examine personal and professional values will depend on the model of citizenship education which they are invited to engage in by their teacher educators. So, for example, in case study seven, we see teachers exposed to a much more justice-oriented concept of citizenship; the communitarian model may be upheld by a number of teachers in the school, but it is not the prevailing response of the senior management team who wish to allow a much more critical model of citizenship to emerge (pp. 9–10). The key learning point for teachers moving away from the communitarian model is that they perceive the reality of student-led agency, which gives them the phronetic insight into how the learning relationship between students and teachers might be reconfigured (pp. 10–11). Banaji (2008), in her study of youth agency in the context of the Iraq war protests, cites case study seven as

112  Values-based professional knowledge providing a rare but valuable insight such as gained by some of the teachers and trainees in the school context: There is evidence to support the truth of positive outcomes of the antiwar civic actions, particularly for some young people’s sense of agency in the public sphere (Mead 2004b) and the sense of the need for a broader accountability from governing elites. (p. 552) In the school context, there is almost a mirror image of the need for teachers to recognize that the personal moral and political decision-making process must be mutually respected and recognized by all involved in a democratic learning process (pp. 10–11). The same point is made by Bowman (2012) who sees the scenario at the start of case study seven as providing ‘a familiar illustration, abiding, even after a decade of the alienation between young people and conventional politics’(p. 38). Yet he cites the study because in the case of this particular school, the senior management team play an important part in overcoming the discrediting of young people’s activism as disruptive and therefore offers an example of addressing: The disconnection between prescribed paths to engagement and adulthood and later treatment by those who prescribed these normative pathways. (p. 38) Case study seven offers what the editor of Pastoral Care in Education described in her editorial as a ‘compelling study’ (McLaughlin 2004) because the senior leaders of the school involved had the courage to model for trainees how the relationship between teachers’ and pupils’ personal moral and political values are at the heart of a social justice and inclusive understanding of schools and learning (pp. 7–10). This lies at the heart of the problematizing process which Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe as characterizing critical and strategic professional knowledge. Many situations in class and in the life of a school provide similar potential to develop phronetic insights when leaders are not risk averse because of the standards agenda. Pedagogy is another key area in which modelling should be done in schools and in the university. Case study one was very much concerned with trainees’ own pedagogical experience in university sessions, and this has to be the key to trainees recognizing the mutually respectful nature of teachers and students’ moral decision-making. It follows that if trainees are to recognize young people’s agency, they will need to experience themselves critical approaches within their own learning. This will challenge liberal and communitarian values and, indeed, the deficit and compliance model of engagement with pupils, which may meet standards but denies the individual integrity of students and teachers. Struck again by the efficacy of the relationship between personal moral and political values for students and teachers in case study seven, Biddulph (2012), as a teacher

Values-based professional knowledge 113 educator, draws on the paper to set up a powerful pedagogic model in the context of sexualities within citizenship education: Mead (2010) raises the question about how participation within citizenship is to be achieved and I agree with his view of the limitations of the ‘liberal project of citizenship’, where arguably tolerance is not enough. To be tolerant could imply that some concession is being made; it is a position of distance, of being a bystander which can be questioned from a moral point of view. (p. 109) Biddulph goes on to capture very well the alternative kind of critical approach, which will challenge the values and assumptions of all those involved in a democratic learning process: The challenge is to provide the debate about the plurality of sexuality in an inclusive and sensitive way that pushes students to really interrogate their values and understanding. I genuinely think this would make a fairer and more understanding world. (2012, pp. 109–110) Trainee teachers will struggle to achieve this kind of pedagogy if they have not experienced anything like it themselves in their pre-service education. Biddulph is right about the link between such ‘interrogation’ of values and youth agency in relation to social justice – the ‘fairer world’. Teachers’ recognition of the integrity of this link through phronetic dispositions such as explored in case study seven, should ensure that they go beyond the liberal tolerance of communitarianism, which encourages a deficit view of the needs of young people and develop an understanding of how interrogated values can impact on social justice in schools and classrooms. My discourse with colleagues in the international case studies in Chapter 2 clearly supports the view emerging from case studies six and seven that teachers, as citizens, need to understand how interrogated values can impact on social justice in classrooms. For example, in the Finnish context, Stenberg (2014) has introduced the personal practical theory tool because trainees find it challenging to analyse previously unexamined beliefs and values and, as a result, struggle with wider moral and political perspectives on education and social justice. Those perspectives should be at the heart of a participatory citizenship engaging with significant social change, such as immigration, increase in special needs and a weakening of social networks (Sahlberg 2012). The same need for teachers to interrogate their values in the face of significant social and political change is identified in the Estonian case study in Chapter 2 where there is also an analysis of pedagogical response such as the use of communication and media pedagogies to enhance critical and moral reasoning in relation to resolving pupils’ needs and conflicts. The values game developed by the University of Tartu is intended to

114  Values-based professional knowledge galvanize teachers in an interrogative process. In South Africa, the pedagogy of discomfort is grounded in the belief that social justice post-apartheid demands that trainees’ dominant beliefs and values are interrogated through feelings of discomfort (Zembylas 2015). By contrast, in Japan there is, as discussed in Chapter 2, a crisis concerning the confidence of teachers and trainee teachers, as citizens, to engage in public moral and political discourse. The citizenship aspect of this dilemma has been the focus of the work of Mizuyama with whom I have spent many hours here and in Japan, in school and university contexts, working on this issue. For Mizuyama (2013, 2016) the lack of trainee teacher self-efficacy in relation to political and societal issues, discussed in Chapter 2 (Tanahasi 2010, 2014), can only be overcome by mentoring, collegiality and publicness in ITE (2016, p. 21). At a cultural level, these are significant challenges, captured by Mizuyama’s use of the expression ‘unhelpful politeness’ (p. 21), which puts deference to authority before individual autonomy and which also leads to’ politely pretending not to notice each other’s weak points’ (p. 21). Mizuyama believes that to address these challenges, teacher educators need to develop pedagogies, not of reflection, but meta-reflection in which, with mentor-like qualities, trainees can recognize and support each other’s perspectives, leading to a ‘publicness that assumes and accepts individual differences’ (p. 23). In turn, this creates ‘teachers who respect each other’s individuality in a stronger collegiality’ (p. 23). Beyond asking how teacher educators might model democratic learning processes for trainees training in outcomes driven contexts, a second question for teacher educators arising from case studies six and seven is concerned with how schools, as the primary site for teacher education, might have to change so that teachers and pupils have opportunities to realize their identity as citizens. Only in this way can schools provide trainee teachers (and indeed experienced teachers) with a professional development environment within which the relationship between their personal moral values and their political values can flourish. Drawing extensively on case studies six and seven, this question is central to Horsley’s (2015) doctoral work, which seeks to ‘make an argument for a more nuanced understanding of the value of citizenship education in schools through which the edifying contribution of engagement with the political and the personal might be recognised and nurtured’ (p. 2). In an outcomes-driven ethos, Horsley considers that what is ‘really striking’ about case study seven is the pupils’ sense of empowerment in the wake of the Iraq war protest (p. 189). The richness of the case study data provides her with a vicarious experience, motivating her to ‘explore citizenship education on a deeper level through engaging with the experiences and understandings of teachers and pupils using a methodology which is similar to Mead’s (2010) analysis of anti-war protests’ (p. 4). Although not directly focusing on teacher education, Horsley’s analysis leads her to contend that only a radical departure from the outcomes-driven norms of English secondary education would bring the changes necessary for all participants to become agents in what needs to be a process of social change: Mead is convincing in his analysis of the importance of engaging all members of the school as stakeholders in its core processes. Participation on

Values-based professional knowledge 115 these terms is fundamentally different from Chandler’s (2000) ‘technical’ participation or, in Mead’s (2010, p. 55) words, ‘instrumental participation that uncouples the political challenge from the moral decision-making, and is ‘done’ by staff to pupils’. While there may be much to be gained from structured participation in the classroom, if this is not complemented by critical thinking and agency, it will depoliticise the political education Crick advocated. (2015, p. 190) Horsley’s position brings us to the third question for teacher educators arising from case studies six and seven. This concerns how we address the single most powerful inhibitor to schools moving in the direction advocated by Horsley, which is teacher’s appropriation of citizenship education to address standardsbased issues within their own school. Jerome (2012b) draws on my analysis of Ofsted inspectors’ appropriation of concepts of citizenship in case study six to address school improvement but extends outwards to teachers in two different schools. He argues that teacher perceptions are brought to bear on conceptualizing citizenship in their particular schools, ‘although these are not always overtly political and often reflect wider beliefs about the schools context’ (p. 139). For example, the teachers in one school ‘identify parochialism as a problem in their school and they formulate citizenship as an educational response’ (p. 140). In another school, the diagnosis of each teacher is different, and the different needs of different intakes of pupils lead to the lack of a whole school understanding of citizenship. Jerome concludes that The significant observation seems to be that, whatever the nature of the deficit to be remedied, citizenship may be being used to address perceived social problems in the school. This in turn reflects a broader dimension in New Labour’s citizenship policy relating to what has been called the ‘responsibilisation’ or ‘remoralisation’ agenda. It also indicates one significant reason why we might expect citizenship to vary between schools. (p. 140) This conclusion has considerable implications for teacher education because opportunities for trainees to problematize social justice issues within their practice may be narrowed by an in-house conceptualization of citizenship used instrumentally to remedy deficits rather than build interdependent teacher and student moral and political agency. The extent to which teacher educators in schools can provide trainees, as citizens, with opportunities to problematize social justice issues, is also a concern for international colleagues who have welcomed discourse on this in relation to case studies six and seven. For example, as already discussed in Chapter 2, in the South African context, the ethnicity and cultural background of certain mentors in crossover schools can inhibit the trainees’ enactment of their personal moral and political values about inclusion in a post-apartheid country (Sirkhotte 2017). In Estonia, the development of a national values game for teachers and pupils has helped in

116  Values-based professional knowledge sensitizing schools to the processes of problematizing social justice issues (Sutrop 2014). However, the degree to which the trainee participates as a citizen in the school seems to be significantly dependent on their commitment to undertaking the school-based tasks set by the university. As discussed in Chapter 2, these involve interviewing and engaging with pupils and staff about the practicum school values, observing how these values are enacted in and out of the classroom, and third, trainees critically analysing their own teaching in the wider context of these values. Of course, undertaking such tasks will also be affected by the readiness of school staff to express opinions, and in my experience of this when visiting Religious Education and Citizenship lessons in Tartu, staff acknowledge their uncertainty about an open expression of personal values in lessons. In the Finnish context, Stenberg (2010) believes that the reluctance of trainees to engage in a problematizing process may be addressed through critical incidents, such as in case study seven. Such unexpected or strange incidents would enable the school to support trainees in the process of examining unexamined opinions and develop wider perspectives. These international examples support the need identified by Jerome (2012b) and Horsley (2015) for the school itself to engage the personal moral and political values of all its members as participatory citizens in problematizing social justice. This is a fundamental aspect of the professional discourse arising from case studies six and seven and to which we will return in Chapter 5.

Conclusion to context three Case studies five, six and seven, in addressing challenging moments in teacher education, deepen the overall analysis of the research question across the seven case studies. Here are the critical insights provided by rich data which offer fuzzy generalizations and vicarious experience to other professionals. Their responses to these case studies have provided significant insights into the ways in which the dynamic relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values might be developed in standards-based training, thereby generating a critical and strategic professional knowledge in which the moral and instrumental are fused. Contexts one and two have identified process, pedagogy, provision, autonomy and identity as key elements in this process but, building on the latter two elements, context three demonstrates that, ultimately, it is through the self-realization of the identity of the teacher as citizen that the agency is secured, which enables a dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values to flourish. That this flourishing will ensure that high standards are achieved by competent teachers is rooted in pupil–teacher mutuality as citizens within the school. Those who have responded to the vicarious experiences offered by the three studies in context three point us back to process, pedagogy and provision with deeper, more far-reaching consequences than examined in context one. For example, the studies in context three deepen our understanding of process which was described as a process of human development for trainees in context one, but now is contextualized. In addition, there are questions about who will model for trainees Crick’s (1962) understanding of citizenship, as exemplified in the Advisory Group on Citizenship Report (1998). Teacher education Pedagogy for

Values-based professional knowledge 117 values development in context one was perceived as philosophical and moral inquiry, but now the question is asked who will model for trainee teachers ­Biddulph’s (2012) interrogative pedagogy for social justice? Finally, and fundamental to the future of teacher education, can schools make a radical departure from the ­outcomes-driven norms that would bring the changes necessary for all participants to become agents in what needs to be a process of social change? This, then, is the deeper understanding of the provision issue, which in context one may have focused on variations in training opportunities, but here now refers to the ethos, values and degree of democratic processes for pupils and teachers in a holistic understanding of the training context. These questions are increasingly important as the main site for teacher education in England is now the school with the development of School Direct and Teach First. The questions raised by the studies reflect a deepening of understanding, particularly within the elements of trainee autonomy and identity, as well as a keen awareness of the practical implications surrounding process, pedagogy and provision, if the self-realization of teacher identity as citizen is the way forward in ensuring that the dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values is nurtured in training. In the next chapter, I want to reflect on this deepening of understanding in my own professional life and, in particular, explore why these case studies have important practical implications for the development of critical and strategic professional knowledge in teacher education, with a focus on the recent English context.

References Advisory Group on Citizenship. (1998) Education for citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools, The Crick Report, London: QCA. Apple, M. (2001) Comparing neo-liberal projects and inequality in education, Comparative Education, 37 (4), 409–423. Bainjath, I. (2008) Changing times, changing values: an alchemy of values education, doctoral dissertation, University of Kwazulu-Natal, downloaded at researchspace. ukzn.ac.za/xmlail/handle/10413/1138, accessed 5/4/13. Banaji, S. (2008) the trouble with civic: a snapshot of young people’s civic and political engagements in twenty-first century democracies, Journal of Youth Studies, 11 (5), 543–560. Bassey, M. (1999) Case study research in educational settings, London: Sage. Baumfield, V. (2007) Becoming a teacher of RE in a world of religious diversity, Journal of Beliefs and Values, 28 (1), 77–81. Biddulph, M. (2012) Sexualities and citizenship education, in Arthur, J. & Cremin, H. (eds) Debates in citizenship education, chap. 9, 100–114, London: Routledge. Boney, K. (2014) Beyond the skilled application of know-how: pedagogical reasoning as phronesis in highly competent teachers, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of South Florida, downloaded at graduate theses and dissertations http://scholarcommons.usf. edu/etd, accessed 10/3/16. Bowman, B. (2012) Young people’s politics, engagement and antipolitics: a thematic review of the literature, Master in Research dissertation, University of Bath, downloaded at people.bath.ac.uk/bd203/docs/Diss_BenjaminBowman_0912.pdf, accessed 18/5/13.

118  Values-based professional knowledge Brown, J., Bushfield, R., O’shea, A. & Sibthorpe, J. (2011) School ethos and personal, social, health education, Pastoral Care in Education, 29 (2), 117–131. Bullough, R. (2014) Recalling forty years of teacher education in the USA: a personal essay, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 474–491. Byrne, J., Rietdijk, W. & Pickett, K. (2018) Teachers as health promoters: factors that influence early career teachers to engage with health and well-being, Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 289–299. Byrne, J., Shepherd, J., Pickett, K., Dewhirst, S., Speller, V., Grace, M. & Almond, P. (2015) Pre-service teacher training in health and well-being in England: the state of the nation, European Journal of Teacher Education, 38 (2), 217–233. Byrne, J., Speller, V., Dewhirst, S., Roderick, P., Almond, P., Grace, M. & Memon, A. (2012) Health promotion in pre-service teacher education: effects of a pilot inter-professional curriculum change, Health Education, 112 (6), 525–542. Carr, D. (2003) Making sense of education: an introduction to the philosophy and theory of education and teaching, London: RoutledgeFalmer. Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming critical: education, knowledge and action research, London & Philadelphia: Falmer Press. Cooper, H. (ed) (2011) Professional studies in primary education, London: Sage. Crick, B. (1962) In defence of politics, London: Continuum. Dam GTM ter. & Blom, S. (2006) Learning through participation: the potential of School-based teacher education for developing a professional identity, Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 647–660. Dewhirst, S., Pickett, K., Speller, V., Shepherd, J., Byrne, J., Almond, P., Grace, M., Hartwell, D. & Roderick, P. (2014) Are trainee teachers being adequately prepared to promote the health and well-being of school children? A survey of current practice, Journal of Public Health, 36 (3), 467–475. DfE. (2012) Teachers’ standards, London: DFE. DFEE/QCA. (1999) Non-statutory framework for PSHE/Ct., in National curriculum teacher’s handbook, primary education, London: DFEE/QCA. DFES. (2004) Every child matters: change for children in schools, London: DFES. Easterbrook, S. & Stephenson, B. (2009) Veteran teachers’ use of recommended practices in deaf education, American Annals of the Deaf, 153 (5), 461–473. Eraut, M. (2004) Informal learning in the workplace, Studies in Continuing Education, 26 (2), 247–273. Evans, C. & Evans, B. (2007) More than just worksheets? A study of the confidence of newly qualified teachers of English in teaching personal, social and health education in secondary schools, Pastoral Care in Education, 25 (4), 42–50. Evans, C., Midgley, A., Rigby, P., Warham, L. & Woolnough, P. (2009) Teaching English: developing as a reflective secondary teacher, London: Sage. Everington, J. (2014) Hindu, Muslim and Sikh religious education teachers’ use of personal life knowledge: the relationship between biographies, professional beliefs and practice, British Journal of Religious Education, 36 (2), 155–173. Gray, P. (2011) Nick Mead: the impact of Every Child matters on trainee secondary teachers’ understanding of professional knowledge, Durham University PGCE online google group, downloaded at http://groups.google.com/forum/?hl=en&fromgroups#/ durham2011/XK-wL3AVE, accessed 5/5/13. Harrison, J. (2007) The assessment of ITT standard one professional values and practice: measuring performance or what? Journal of Education for Teaching, 33 (3), 323–340. Harro-Loit, H. & Ugur, K. (2008) Media education as part of higher education curriculum, Informacijos Mokslal, 47.

Values-based professional knowledge 119 Horsley, N.S. (2015) Citizenship education in English secondary schools: teaching and learning to transform or conform? Doctoral Diss. University of Leeds, downloaded at http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/7824/1/citizenship education in English secondary schools_8th Dec 2014.pdf, accessed 1/6/16. Jerome, L. (2005) Critical citizenship experiences? Working with trainee teachers to facilitate active citizenship in schools. Paper given at International Convention on Education for Teaching, 50th World Congress, Pretoria, SA, July 12–15, downloaded icet.org/download.aspx?file YearbookFiles/2005/Paper%20 Jerome, accessed 1/6/13. Jerome, L. (2012) England’s citizenship experiment, London: Bloomsbury. Korthagen, F. (2001) Linking practice and theory: the pedagogy of realistic teacher education. Paper to the American Education Research Association, Seattle, April. Kroll, L. (2012) Self-study and inquiry into practice, London: Routledge. Limond, D. (2008) Strangers and Sojourners: who were miss v and miss w? African Identities, 6 (1), 29–43. Martin, N. & Yin, Z. (2009) Teacher characteristics and classroom management styles: implications for professional development, Contemporary Issues in Education, Louisiana Education Research association (LERA), 3 (1), 34–41. Mayer, M. (2014) Forty years of teacher education in Australia 1974–2014, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 461–473. McLaughlin, C. (2004) Editorial, Pastoral Care in Education, 22 (4), 2. Mead, N. (2000) Researching skills common to Religious Education and Citizenship, in Clipson-Boyles, S. (ed) Putting research into practice in primary teaching and learning, chap. 15, 165–175, London: David Fulton. Mead, N. (2001) Identifying skills common to primary religious education and PSHE/Citizenship and the implications for continuing professional development, Curriculum, 22 (2), 43–51. Mead, N. (2003) Will the introduction of teaching standards in professional values and practice put the heart back into primary teacher education? Pastoral Care in Education, 21 (1), 37–42. Mead, N. (2004a) The provision for Personal, Social, Health Education (PSHE) and Citizenship in school-based elements of primary initial teacher education, Pastoral Care in Education, 22 (2), 19–26. Mead, N. (2004b) The management and impact of a student-led Iraq war protest in a fresh start school, Pastoral Care in Education, 22 (4), 6–12. Mead, N. (2006) The experience of black African religious education trainee teachers training in England, British Journal of Religious Education, 28 (2), 173–184. Mead, N. (2007) How effectively does the Graduate Teacher Programme contribute to the development of trainee teachers’ professional values? Journal of Education for Teaching, 33 (3), 309–322. Mead, N. (2010) Conflicting concepts of participation in secondary school citizenship, Pastoral Care in Education, 28 (1), 45–57. Mead, N. (2011) The impact of Every Child Matters on trainee secondary teachers’ understanding of professional knowledge, Pastoral Care in Education, 29 (1), 7–24. Mizuyama, M. (2013) Consideration of the activation of citizenship education from the viewpoint of skill and aptitude, Journal of Educational Research, 13, Kyoto University of Education, 33–42. Mizuyama, M. (2016) How can we reform the educational climate in the trainee teachers’ and teachers’ faculty? Obermeier, A. (ed) Proceedings of the 2015 joint Oxford Brookes University and Kyoto University of Education research seminar: Teacher

120  Values-based professional knowledge Education for the Twenty-First Century: support and autonomy in teacher training, March, Kyoto University of Education, Japan. Ofsted. (2006) Towards consensus? Citizenship in secondary schools, London: Ofsted. Ofsted. (2007–2008) A selection of school inspection reports, downloaded at http:// www.ofsted.gov.uk/oxedu_reports/display, accessed 25/2/09). Pitfield, M. & Morrison, L. (2009) Teachers’ experiences of mentoring on a flexible initial teacher education programme: implications for partnership development, Journal of Education for Teaching, 35 (1), 19–32. Pollard, A. (2005) Learning through mentoring in initial teacher education, in Pollard, A., et al. (eds) Reflective teaching, London: Continuum. Reynolds, M. (2001) Education for inclusion and the teacher training agency standards, Journal of in-Service Education, 27 (3), 465–476. Rinehart, F. (2004) professional development on a personal level, unpublished paper for M.Ed, Ashland University USA, downloaded at personal.ashland.edu/~dkommer/ Irq papers Fall o4/Rinehart Final,pdf, accessed 10/3/13. Robbins, M. & Francis, L. (2016) The empirical science of religious education, London: Routledge. Sahlberg, P. (2012) The most wanted: teachers and teacher education in Finland, in Darling-Hammond, L. & Lieberman, A. (eds) Teacher education around the world, changing practice and policies, chap. 1, 1–21, London: Routledge. Shepherd, J., Dewhirst, S., Pickett, K., Byrne, J., Speller, V., Grace, M., Almond, P., Hartwell, D. & Roderick, P. (2013) Factors facilitating and constraining the delivery of effective teacher training to promote health and well-being in schools: a survey of current practice and systematic review, Public Health Research, 1 (2). Shepherd, J., Pickett, K., Dewhirst, S., Byrne, J., Speller, V., Grace, M., Almond, P. & Roderick, P. (2015) Initial teacher training to promote health and well-being in schools: a systematic review of effectiveness and barriers and facilitators, Health Education Journal, 1–16. Sikes, P. & Everington, J. (2001) Becoming an RE teacher: a life history approach, British Journal of Religious Education, 24 (1), 8–19. Sirkhotte, W. (2017) The incorporation of social cohesion in an initial teacher education programme in the Western Cape, Unpublished M.Ed. thesis, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Smith, E. & Gorard, S. (2007) Improving teacher quality: lessons from America’s No Child Left Behind, Cambridge Journal of Education, 37 (2), 191–206. Smith, K. & Hodson, E. (2010) Theorising practice in initial teacher education, Journal of Education for Teaching, 36 (3), 259–275. Stake, R. (1995) The art of case study research, Thousand Oaks: Sage. Stenberg, K. (2010) Identity work as a tool for promoting the professional development of student teachers, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 11 (3), 331–346. Stenberg, K., Karlsson, L., Pitkaniemi, H. & Maaranen, K. (2014) Beginning student teachers’ teacher identities based on their practical theories, European Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (2), 204–219. Sutrop, M. (2014) Using the teachers’ values game to facilitate teachers’ reflections on their own values, Teacher Education Advancement Network Journal, 6 (1), 55–63. Tanahasi, K. (2010) Citizenship of Japanese students from the viewpoints of the world’s standards. Research Report of the Grant in Aid for Scientific Research 2007–2009. Tanahasi, K. (2014) Teacher education for fostering globally talented person. Publishing Seminar of KyodoSyupan in Hiroshim, October 18.

Values-based professional knowledge 121 Teacher Training Agency (TTA). (2002) Qualifying to teach, professional standards for qualified teacher status and requirements for initial teacher training, London: TTA. US Department of Education. (2002) No Child Left Behind (NCLB), executive summary, downloaded at www.ed.gove/nclb/overview/intro/presidentplan/page_ pg3.html, accessed October 2008. Webb, C. (2017) Knowledge of teacher self-efficacy: designing professional learning opportunities to reduce the discipline gap for Afro-American students with disabilities, Ed.D. thesis, Baltimore: Baltimore University, downloaded at https:// jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/bitstream/handle/1774.2/58653/WEBB-DISSER TATION-2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y, accessed 10/6/18. Zembylas, M. (2015) Pedagogy of discomfort and its ethical implications: the tensions of ethical violence in social justice education, Ethics and Education, 10 (2), 163–174.

5 The challenge of a values-based professional knowledge to current teacher education practice

Introduction This chapter sets out the distinctive contribution of the case studies in Chapter 4, which rests in the identification of identity and autonomy for the teacher as moral agent and which troubles the dominant discourse of techne. Current policy trends are then challenged, both in terms of their weaknesses and their potential strength. Finally, I demonstrate how my approach yields a distinctive agenda for adapting and improving ITE through process, pedagogy and provision.

The unique cohesiveness of the case studies in Chapter 4 First and foremost, the substantive contribution of the case studies to teacher educator discourse is grounded in the case for their cohesiveness developed over the preceding chapters. What emerged in my own professional narrative as a teacher educator in Chapter 1 and which became more fully articulated in Chapters 3 and 4 are the two interrelated elements of a critical question for teacher educators which the case studies in Chapter 4 address: 1

How might the dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values be developed in standards-based teacher education? 2 What contribution might this relationship make to the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge within which the moral and the instrumental are fused? I then proceeded to develop an interpretation of the critical question for myself and teacher educators through the adoption of certain applied principles in Chapter 3, which led to the three themes identified at the end of that chapter: Theme 1 – the nature of the impact of a dominant instrumental techne on the integral link between the moral development of the trainee and their actions in the classroom as citizen who seeks to make people better in some way Theme 2 – the extent to which standards-based teacher education can develop phronetic dispositions that would enable phronesis to serve techne in learning to become a teacher

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 123 Theme 3 – whether opportunities to develop phronetic dispositions have the potential to transform an instrumental approach into a critical and strategic professional knowledge based on teacher ownership of the moral decision-making process These themes cohere around the view that the dynamic relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values might be developed in standardsbased teacher education and generate a critical and strategic professional knowledge if teacher educators deepen their understanding of the place and nature of trainee autonomy and identity. The overall cohesiveness is complete when I make the case that new insights into trainee autonomy and identity provide original interpretations of process, pedagogy and provision within teacher education, which can make a unique contribution to addressing key issues in current practice.

The distinctive nature of the approach taken The distinctive characteristic of the case studies in Chapter 4 emerges through my lived experience in the dual role of researcher and teacher educator. The case studies provide iterations of phronetic insights into the trainee experience rooted in my own practice and reflections over a period of substantial policy change and practice in teacher education. The uniqueness of this stance has been theoretically underpinned and fully justified in Chapter 1, drawing on my development of the insider–outsider continuum and in Chapter 3 where I discuss this repositioning of the role of the teacher educators as researcher to problematize, trouble and transform values in teacher education. Of particular importance here is both the immediacy and evolving nature of the research as I respond personally and professionally to successive policies and initiatives affecting trainee teacher development. The purpose of the case studies was to make sense of these experiences over a long period of personal and professional development as a teacher educator, as well as to capture the professional trajectories which deepened my understanding; for example, I map in Chapters 1 and 3 an outward movement from subject specific issues related to values to a broader concern for the development of a values-based critical and strategic professional knowledge. The efficacy of this lived experience is borne out, I hope, in a teacher educator’s use of the theorytesting case study method to demonstrate the intrinsic relationship between values and professional knowledge, as advocated in Chapter 3. The contributions of the case studies to the wider professional discourse, analysed and discussed in Chapter 4, powerfully exemplify how rich data can provide the ingredients for ‘fuzzy’ generalizations and learning through vicarious experience, precisely because it is personalistic, has an emphasis on time and place and develops a plausible and worthwhile argument in its own context. Essentially, the discussion in Chapter 4 demonstrates how the discourse arising from the case studies has been incorporated into a continuing professional dialogue which strengthens my fundamental conviction that something of worth is at stake when values are neglected in teacher education. Another dimension to the lived nature of the case studies is the less common focus on teacher personal and professional development rather than

124  The challenge of a values-based knowledge curriculum; the latter has come to dominate teacher education research in England and undoubtedly reflects the positivistic nature of knowledge within prevalent neo-conservative and neo-liberal ideologies of education. The reality is that since 2000, the Initial Teacher Education (ITE) curriculum in England has increasingly become the mirror image of the school curriculum and, like the latter, has been regulated and judged according to Ofsted criteria. Of course, the separation of values from curriculum is artificial as there is an ongoing values debate focused on content vs student-centred curricula, key protagonists being Young (2007, 2009, Young et al. 2014) and Reiss and White (2013), defending, on the one hand, powerful knowledge for social justice, and on the other, student-centred curricula for human flourishing. There are those like Brough (2012) in New Zealand whose research has demonstrated that teachers will only take risks in, for example, curriculum co-construction with pupils, through the development of their values-oriented dispositions, rooted in moral and political democratic principles which they feel strongly about. In my experience, it is technical-rational approaches to content rather than these values-based debates which have dominated much of ITE. I feel strongly, then, that my lived experience of striving to give cognizance to phronetic knowledge which serves techne, rooted in what should be a dynamic relationship between a teacher’s personal moral and political values, is essentially a distinctive contribution, and this should be much more evident in the literature in the field. It is the case that any online search of The Journal of Education for Teaching or The European Journal of Teacher Education will yield a paucity of titles which contain the key words ‘teachers’ values’. Having considered the cohesiveness and approach of the case studies and their distinctive contribution to the current ITE discourse, I now wish to demonstrate more specifically how the deepening of the claims made by the case studies makes a further contribution to challenging current practice in teacher education. I wish to make the claim that identity and autonomy play a critical part in developing the trainee teacher as a moral agent. I then examine aspects of current teacher education practice with the intention of evaluating the extent to which it enables identity and autonomy to flourish. Finally, I set out a future agenda for adapting and improving teacher education in the light of my evaluation.

How the case studies challenge assumptions and expectations in current teacher education practice Section one – identity and autonomy as critical to the development of a dynamic relationship between trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values In case study one in Chapter 1, trainee autonomy is encouraged through philosophical inquiry leading to a re-assessment of their values in relation to work they would be doing in pluralistic and values-laden classrooms. The research demonstrates B.Ed trainees moving towards a greater level of confidence and autonomy

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 125 in making connections between their personal moral and political values and inclusive pedagogy, particularly in relation to PSHE/Ct. What is offered here by the research are unique phronetic insights into how ownership of a more critical and strategic professional knowledge might be developed, which allows for the individual’s autonomous reflections on the purpose of education and their part in it as a citizen. Case study two demonstrates the challenges faced by mentors and others in school in giving trainees opportunities to exercise this autonomy in school-based training contexts. The study asks key questions which are at the heart of the relationship between the moral and the political, for example how does valuing others equally through respect for the humanity of others and acceptance of difference permeate teaching and learning? How do teachers adapt their methods in relation to maintaining a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values? How do teachers espouse inclusive values without coercion, for example in areas of multi-culturalism and sex education? Case study three builds on our understanding of the development of autonomy by giving important insights into how trainees have been addressing such questions in their life experience preceding initial training. The development of trainee autonomy is therefore also located in the ‘recognition of well developed, well informed and secure beliefs and values which will underpin all that is new to learn about teaching’ (Mead 2007, p. 251). Case study four, which is concerned with the implementation of Every Child Matters (ECM) within ITE, provides a significant deepening of the insights into the critical nature of trainee autonomy. In this research, autonomy is examined in the context of a study of the impact of a dominant instrumental techne on the integral relationship between the moral development of the trainee and their autonomous actions in the classroom as citizens. Autonomous ownership of a strategic and critical professional knowledge is compromised by the disconnect between trainees’ personal moral and political values when techne dominates and phronesis is marginalized. The unique insight here is that much of the organic understandings of professional knowledge owned by trainees through their life experiences and evident in the pre-existing values of GTP trainees in case study three, are replaced by propositional knowledge, skills and competences, with the result that the intrinsic relationship between teachers’ values, autonomous ownership of professional knowledge and pupil well-being is weakened. I believe that case studies one to four make strong claims about autonomy as critical to developing a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values. However, I want to argue that in the remaining case studies, it is both trainee autonomy and identity which play a critical part in building a relationship between values which in turn generates a strategic and critical professional knowledge. This is not to say that identity is absent in contexts one and two, but I would argue it is more implicit. For example, in case studies one to three, it is found in references to the development of trainee ‘self-understanding’ through making implicit values explicit and becoming an autonomous teacher with clarified understandings who can model inclusive values and create an inclusive classroom ethos. In case study three, it is evident that well-formed values,

126  The challenge of a values-based knowledge which need to be made explicit if trainee autonomy is to develop, are inextricably bound up in personal and professional identities from their pre-teaching life. Similar concepts of self-understanding are evident in the data from the first cohort of trainees in case study four, who have an organic understanding of how the identity which they bring to the course continues to evolve as they interact with the life, values and ethos of the classroom and school. Changes in perception of professional knowledge found within the following year’s cohort, resulting from the instrumental implementation of ECM, demonstrates the delicate balance between autonomy and identity at the level of individual self-understanding. It is in case study five where I move beyond individual self-understanding to identify how complex cultural and religious values and beliefs impact on trainee identity and autonomy in a particular training context. I make the claim that for the Black African trainees to develop ownership of their professional knowledge, they need to be encouraged by their mentors to authenticate their pedagogy through the incorporation of their cultural values and perceptions into their teaching rationale (Mead 2006, p. 183). It is when the African identity of the trainee is affirmed within their teaching, including their personal moral and political values, we see the potential for standards-based training to develop in trainees’ phronetic dispositions, which will enable them to engage in moral decision-making, problematizing issues of inclusion and exercise an autonomous critical and strategic professional knowledge. My analytical trajectory of the relationship between autonomy and identity progresses from self-understanding in the case studies in contexts one and two and outwards to the part played by cultural and religious values in context three, finally arriving at the part played by the culture, ethos and values of the whole school in case study seven. Here, interaction between autonomy and identity is demonstrated in the way we see staff alongside students individually engaging in the complex but dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values as they address the student protest. The relationship between identity and autonomy is changed through their involvement in the complexities, the problematizing and contradictions of managing the protest. This was the personal and professional learning process which led to deepened self-understanding talked about in earlier case studies. Autonomously owned and new strategic professional knowledge is acquired which eventually impacts on student–teacher relationships and the development of more democratic and inclusive classrooms. Teachers are empowered by new insights into student agency which in turn clarify and strengthen their own identities as pro-active citizens within an increasingly justice-oriented environment. I wish to conclude this section by claiming that the extent to which standardsbased teacher education might effectively develop a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, and thereby generate a critical and strategic professional knowledge, will ultimately be dependent on the identity of the teacher as citizen. I believe that it is through the self-realization of the identity of the teacher as citizen that the autonomy and, therefore, the agency are secured, enabling a dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values to

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 127 flourish. For me, this final claim is the measure of the original and unique insights I have brought to bear on my work as a teacher educator and researcher that forms the narrative of Chapter 1. Such a claim offers a significant challenge to increasingly school-based teacher education, and so it is essential that we now evaluate the extent to which current practice can provide opportunities for identity and autonomy to flourish.

Section two – the extent to which trainee identity and autonomy can flourish in current teacher education practice The impact of recent policy change In Chapter 1, I used the narrative form to develop personal, values-based reflections on the impact of the move to school-based training post 9/92 on my own professional development. As I outline in Chapter 1, my reflections became increasingly values-based as it dawned on me that the introduction of a competency-based and school-based ITE model was part of the wider neo-liberal ideology driving the ‘new managerialism’ and instrumentalism, which has since underpinned standards and performativity in England, America and Australia in particular (Apple 2001). Looking back on my reflections in Chapter 1 as a mentor, it is not surprising that identity and autonomy figure in my final claims for the future of ITE. It became very important to me that my subject integrity through its inclusive pedagogy and more holistic assessment was not compromised by a standards-based performativity for pupils and teachers. I therefore focused on mentoring skills which would enable trainees’ personal moral and political values to be realized in their training, thereby contributing to the flourishing of their identity and autonomy. Perhaps what is more surprising in my final claim for ITE is the view that the flourishing of trainee teachers’ identity and autonomy is more likely when they realize a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values as citizens of the school. I did not have this perspective as a mentor twenty-one years ago, but its importance has become critical in making sense of the most recent policy developments in ITE from a values-based professional knowledge perspective. I have given an overview in Chapter 2 of the “push-pull” effect of globalization on education which has led to the preoccupation with competitiveness, teacher quality and school-based training, particularly prevalent across England, America and Australia and well documented by Macbeath (2011), Apple (2001), Bullough (2014), Mayer (2014). As discussed in Chapter 2, these three themes have a certain logic: global economic competition generates an aggressive school standards drive demanding teachers can know about and do certain things, against which their performance is measured in standards and which are best learnt in the school setting. Both Apple (2001) and Bullough (2014) have denounced the consequent marketization of diverse routes into teaching and Mayer (2014) has bewailed the loss of any insight into what is authentic teaching in these input–output driven training contexts. Of particular significance here for the final claim I am reaching in

128  The challenge of a values-based knowledge this chapter is Apple’s view that the marketization of school-based training routes will greatly diminish the principles of ‘thick morality’ wherein the common good is the ethical basis for teachers’ professional judgements. As discussed in Chapter 2, Apple (2001) argues that trainee teachers’ personal moral and political values which inform their moral decision-making about social and educational justice will be eroded by a value-free homogenized professional knowledge which does not reflect the lived reality of teaching. This contextual material, drawn from preceding chapters is critical to what now follows, which is a policy outline of two new school-based routes in England, as well as another new external policy measurement of school and teacher performativity, The Prevent Strategy (2011), which is values laden. I will then undertake a critical evaluation of the extent to which trainee teacher identity and autonomy can flourish in current teacher education practice in England. I have given quite a full personal account in Chapter 1 of my own engagement with the first serious wave of school-based training in England, resulting in two-thirds of training in schools, school–university partnerships with the latter funding school-based mentoring and the introduction of external teaching standards (DfE Circular 9/92). Since 2012, we have witnessed a second and more far-reaching wave of this ideologically driven policy in the form of School Direct. More far-reaching in pragmatic terms because, as Jackson and Burch (2016) note, the government has diverted a significant proportion of Initial Teacher Training (ITT) funding away from the universities and directly to schools. Initial indicators anticipating such a move are evident in a key policy document produced in 2010 by a predominantly Conservative coalition government and another in 2011, produced by a Conservative government, both therefore reflecting a degree of ‘unfinished business’ around the ideology of the then Conservative government Circular 9/92. The White Paper of 2010 (DfE 2010) speaks of reforming teacher training so that more training is ‘on the job and focuses on key teaching skills’ (p. 20). In addition, there is mention of the creation of national teaching schools, modelled on teaching hospitals, ‘giving the outstanding schools the role of leading the training’ (p. 20). The view is that the best way to train to teach will be from the best practitioners in our best schools (p. 23). In the 2011 policy document (DfE 2011), neo-liberal ideological reasons for increased training by schools becomes more explicit. As so astutely critiqued by Macbeath (2011), Apple (2001), Bullough (2014), Mayer (2014), the linkage between training and outcomes is made when best quality provision is described as being linked to ‘specific school needs’ (p. 13). The relationship between theory and practice is another ideological background which has its roots in Lawlor’s (1990) paper precipitating Circular 9/92: ‘Trainees who follow teacher training programmes that are led by schools are more likely to find their training provided relevant knowledge, skills and understanding to teach’ (p. 14). In 2012, this ideology which had been fermenting since 1992 is fully realized by the diversion of funding already mentioned, and so for that money, schools can now request training places directly form the government; select their own candidates, according to the school’s needs, in anticipation that they may be employed by the

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 129 school after training; select the accredited provider of teacher training they want to work with as a partner (which may be a university); agree the content and focus of the training programme depending on the school’s and trainees’ needs; and negotiate directly with the provider about how the money for training should be divided (DfE 2012a). Since 2012, most schools involved in School Direct have now formed teaching alliances with an outstanding or good lead school and have a partnership agreement with an ITT provider. The need for such teaching school alliances to generate income leading to a focus on selling easily commoditized ‘best practice’ knowledge (Greany & Higham 2018) should, of course, alert us to Apple’s (2001) critical stance on the risk of ‘thin morality’ and the eroding effect of a value-free homogenized professional knowledge for trainee teachers. Within these alliances, trainees can follow one of two pathways: salaried and unsalaried, the former replacing the Graduate Teacher Programme which was designed to attract experienced career-switchers. Within the two pathways, trainees can opt for either a Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) only route or a PGCE route. Design of course content for each of these routes is very much in the hands of the schools, and particularly the lead school, with quality assurance advice from the accredited ITE provider. This means that, unlike university-based courses, the focus of assignments will reflect the ethos, values and needs of the participating schools. This is the case also with training sessions, most of which will be within individual schools and led by senior staff who can contextualize key concepts such as inclusion within the values and structures of their school. In the case of subject knowledge, and for secondary specialists in particular, the individual schools and the alliance are responsible for supporting the development of the trainees’ specialist knowledge, following a subject knowledge audit on entry to the programme. This support may take the form of attendance at external booster courses as well as inter- and intra-departmental sessions using expertise within the individual school and alliance. In addition, there is generic central training led by the lead school which, again, will reflect the beliefs and values of that specific teaching alliance. The key person at the school level is the mentor, supported by a professional tutor who is shaping the training experience very much around both the trainees’ initial needs analysis and the needs of the school. In all of this, the role of the ITE provider, usually a local university, is to provide quality assurance involving a termly visit to observe trainees teaching, examine evidence of progress and moderate the school-based teacher educator’s judgements. The second recent major policy shift in school-based training in England has been towards the introduction and expansion of Teach First. Viewed initially as a niche route, this has been small-scale with a London secondary focus from 2003 to 2006 and now has two-thirds of its trainees placed in primary and secondary school across England and Wales. In the last fifteen years, it has trained ten thousand teachers, which is small-scale, but its value to policymakers is greater because within it lies the potential to replicate small parts of the behaviour of its participants across other ITE routes. Teach First predates School Direct and in the policy documents of 2010 and 2011 is seen as a precursor for an effective development of the latter. Essentially, Teach First is viewed by policy-making as embodying those three key ingredients of the prevailing neo-liberalism:

130  The challenge of a values-based knowledge competitiveness, teacher quality and school-based training. With an eye on ‘the world’s best-performing systems which draw graduates from the highest achieving third of graduates’ (DfE 2011, p. 4), both the White Paper (DfE 2010) and the 2011 policy document advocate expanding Teach First because it recruits highly able and motivated graduates to a post-graduate diploma in education (PGDE), trains them for six weeks in the summer and then sets them to work in some of the country’s most challenging schools for at least two years. Trainees who feel strongly about overcoming social injustice through education are joining a leadership development programme which ‘provides world-class teacher and leadership training for people who are passionate about giving children from the poorest backgrounds a great education’ (Teach First 2017). The desired correlation between teacher quality and school-based training has led Ofsted, Teach First itself and academics to judge if such impact can be measured. Statistical evidence seems to be hard to quantify with Allen and Allnut (2017) identifying a possible gain of one grade in one of the pupils’ best eight GCSE subjects. Data taken from a department of six teachers suggests that the presence of a Teach First trainee can create a gain of over 5 per cent of a subject grade, but Allen and Allnut suggest that this is due to the presence of a highly motivated trainee having an impact on the attitude of other staff. The evidence from Ofsted (2008) suggests that the real impact would seem to be much more in affective areas such as the influence on the whole school of a group of highly motivated trainees committed to countering educational disadvantage. Ofsted note how most schools, because of trainees’ commitment were open to their ideas for improvement and gave them a good deal of autonomy to implement changes. After two years, some trainees were starting to have a notable impact, for example, in transforming underperforming departments. Ofsted record how one of the schools visited attributed a rapid improvement in its standards almost entirely to the contribution of Teach First participants (pp. 5–6). These landmark policy changes involving School Direct and Teach First have had a significant impact on my personal and professional narrative as a teacher educator begun in Chapter 1. In terms of generating yet another stage of the professional discourse arising from my work as practitioner and researcher, I have to ask what impact these policy changes, alongside existing university partnerships within which I have worked and researched, have on my final claim for the relationship between trainee values and professional knowledge. As Jackson and Burch (2016) state, School Direct entails not just a much reduced income stream for universities, but it also places schools in the role of principal course designers and deliverers of ITE programmes in what has become a school-led rather than a university-led training system. (p. 512) The reality of this is brought home by Ofsted (2017) data, which tell us that five years ago in England, 61 per cent of all ITE partnerships were based in universities and now that figure stands at 48 per cent. The reality of the ideological battle

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 131 having been won is perhaps reinforced by Ofsted telling us that 27 per cent of university-based programmes are graded outstanding compared with 45 per cent of school-based programmes. All of this represents the hinterland between my claim arising from the case studies in Chapter 4 and whether the policy shift to an essentially school-based system is a help or a hindrance to that claim. It is possible, in phronetic terms, that such a shift to prolonged situated professional learning can contribute to the self-realization of the identity of the trainee as citizen so that the autonomy and therefore agency are secured, which enables a dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values to flourish which underpins a critical and strategic professional knowledge. However, as has been discussed earlier in this chapter and more fully in Chapter 2, the ideology underpinning school-based training has been primarily instrumental rather than phronetic. There are two factors worth bearing in mind here which have already emerged. First, in Chapter 2, the development of ‘realistic teacher education’ in the Netherlands was hampered by the lack of the schools’ commitment to take on ownership of the training, which would require them to balance the needs of the trainee with those of the school. Without this, such training could never be fully authentic in the moral, political and cultural way Korthagen envisioned it to be (Korthagen & Kessels 1999). As discussed in Chapter 2, Dam and Blom (2006) support Korthagen’s position by arguing that it is only in schools which take responsibility for accepting trainees’ contributions, values and emphases for their own value as participatory citizens within the school, and not simply because they happen to fit what the school wants, will they develop a cultural, historical perspective which can inform a deeper, personalized meaning of the teaching profession (p. 648). In England, however, it seems that we do have a mind shift towards such a commitment, although we are still in the early stages of embedding this in the quality of school-based training, because schools are struggling to balance the needs of trainees with those of the school (Brown, Rowley and Smith 2016). Nevertheless, all of this begs the question whether or not there is potential for what Mayer (2014) has talked about as an authentic understanding and assessment of the moral decision-making processes a teacher actually undertakes in their daily work as a citizen of the school. Second, the data from Teach First (Teach First 2017; Ofsted 2008) seem to be more insightful, not in technical-rational terms, but in affective terms and this opens up the whole area of the development of trainee identity and autonomy in contextualized professional learning when the school takes ownership for recognizing and valuing them as fully participating citizens of the school. With these policy developments and their implications in mind, I now want to bring to bear my final claim arising from the case studies in Chapter 4 on the current routes into teaching, which we have been discussing. Before doing this, I want to explain why I have included the Prevent strategy within this critique. Briefly, I will first explain what this strategy is in England and then justify its inclusion within my critique. The Prevent Strategy (2011) was constructed by the coalition government of 2010 as a national security measure with three objectives: to respond to the ideological challenge of terrorism and the threat we face from those who promote it; prevent people from being drawn into terrorism

132  The challenge of a values-based knowledge and ensure that they are given appropriate advice and support; third, the strategy aims to work with sectors and institutions where there are risks of radicalization (p. 7). When the Prevent Duty is translated into practical terms by the Department for Education (2015), it is through the promotion of fundamental British values that pupils will build resilience to radicalization (p. 5). These values have become embedded in an existing dimension of the work of schools and teachers in England called the Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural (SMSC) (DfE 2014b). The significance of SMSC for trainee teachers is that after providing a ‘broad and balanced curriculum’, it is the second requirement of the English National Curriculum (DfE 2014a, para 2.1, p. 1) and is a key focus in Ofsted inspections Ofsted 2018, para 144, p. 40). It follows that the view taken by the Department and clearly stated within the second part of the QTS Teachers’ Standards DfE (2012b, p. 73) is that any attempt to promote systems that ‘undermine fundamental British values’ would be completely at odds with a school’s duty to provide SMSC (p. 73). Specifically, it is the ‘Social’ in SMSC that is the focus of the requirement: ‘pupils’ social development is shown by their acceptance and engagement with the fundamental British values of democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty and mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs (Ofsted 2014, p. 2). The reason I have included Prevent when evaluating my final claim, particularly in relation to school-based training, is that it has the potential to contribute to either facilitating or inhibiting trainee teachers as citizens of their placement schools and will therefore have some impact on their development of critical and strategic professional knowledge. It demands the problematizing skills of that kind of professional knowledge, for example in discerning what happens to teacher identity and autonomy when Ofsted are at risk of equating failure to promote British values with a failure to identify extremism (Arthur 2015, p. 324).

A critical evaluation of the extent to which identity and autonomy can flourish in current teacher education practice Having worked through many years of university-based ITE, with the exception of the GTP (case study three in Chapter 4), and now as a School Direct tutor, I want to evaluate the extent to which current training routes, reflecting the policy changes discussed in the previous section, can contribute to the self-realization of the trainee teacher as citizen of the school. Such potential self-realization can, as I have been exploring through my own professional narrative, practice and research as a teacher educator, enable trainees to secure the autonomy, and therefore the agency which will support the development of a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values, which lies at the heart of critical and strategic professional knowledge. This kind of professional knowledge is needed to counter the very real prospect of Apple’s (2001) value-free homogenized professional knowledge threatened by the marketization and instrumentalization of standards-based teacher training. In the light of this evaluative section, I then want to offer a new agenda for the three key areas of

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 133 ITE identified in Chapter 4: process, pedagogy and provision, which is informed and deepened by understanding the importance of trainee identity and autonomy. University partnerships – for those of us working in university partnerships, course coherence has been a recurring issue, arising from increasing centralized prescription, which must be held in tension with holistic understandings of the wider role of the teacher and the variables in opportunities provided by different types of school placement. It is arguable that in the best school-based examples, such as Teach First, the intrinsic relationship between trainees’ values, their autonomous ownership of professional knowledge and their addressing of pupil well-being may be more organic and coherent than in university partnerships. My research claims in Chapter 4 do challenge the coherence of the university partnership model and the recommendations I have to make about process, pedagogy and provision in the next section in the light of new insights into autonomy and identity are highly relevant, not least of course because they have emerged from data collected in mainly university partnership contexts. The relevance of the findings as they emerged over time in my own professional context can be exemplified in my decision to restructure the secondary PGCE programme so that it was framed by values-based themes linked to areas given increasing importance: political literacy, global citizenship, sex and relationships education, and respecting difference and latterly British Values. These themes were woven into structures, assignments, inquiry-led and trainee-led seminars, and school-based research tasks throughout the year. A critical structural feature introduced was the role of the pastoral mentor within the two-thirds element of school-based training and in addition to and distinct from the subject mentor. This role was intended to develop a more holistic dialogue with the trainee based on the relationship between identity and autonomy and which would nurture the intrinsic link established in my research between trainees’ values reflecting who they are, their autonomous ownership of professional knowledge and their addressing of pupil well-being. On reflection, it is evident how my attempts to bring about greater course coherence are symptomatic of the effect of the ‘troubling binaries’ and ‘disturbing dichotomies’ in the university partnership model which Jackson and Burch (2016, p. 516) speak of and which present a challenge to overcoming a disconnect between trainees’ values reflecting who they are, ownership of their professional knowledge and the well-being of their learners. Although I have found this a creative challenge in areas of process, pedagogy and provision, the fact remains that the university partnership model has been based on a cognitive model of transfer in which decontextualized knowledge and skills are learnt in the university ready to be utilized in school at a much later date. The result is that because the learning struggles to be coherent and organic, the enactment of personal moral and political values in the classroom is not a synchronous and therefore transformative experience. But perhaps, most importantly, as Jackson and Burch (2016) argue, trainees’ beliefs and values in a transmission context can easily masquerade as knowledge in the form of what Brookfield (1995) calls ‘paradigmatic assumptions’, resulting in unexamined beliefs and values not necessarily being

134  The challenge of a values-based knowledge challenged by the reality of ‘learning teaching’ as a fellow citizen of the school along with colleagues and pupils. Such disturbing dichotomies are evidenced in the case studies in Chapter 4, particularly in the examples of the primary PGCE trainees in case study one who felt strongly that their implicit values had not been made explicit in any kind of educative process and in the example in case study four of the secondary PGCE trainees’ experience of the reduction of ECM to propositional knowledge. In Chapter 2, I have given international examples of similar attempts to reconcile troubling binaries and disturbing dichotomies which may act as inhibitors to the self-realization of a trainees’ identity and autonomy. For example, Stenberg’s (2010) ‘personal practical theory’ tool was introduced into the Finnish training context to create an organic and coherent approach which would encourage trainees to examine unexamined beliefs and values in the light of practice. Similarly, in South Africa, the uses of a pedagogy of disturbance and disruption, both by university teacher educators and by mentors in schools, is designed to bring about a transformational examination of the unexamined through a more coherent and organic experience. All of the examples in the case studies in Chapter 4 and the international contexts in Chapter 2 drawn mainly from university partnerships remain highly relevant to the new agenda for ITE, which I put forward in the next section. However, I have to say that the fundamental question which began to emerge for me after School Direct was introduced in 2012, and for others, such as Jackson and Burch (2016), was whether or not School Direct (because it has the potential to do away with the binaries which create a lack of coherence) may contribute more effectively to the self-realization of the trainee’s identity and autonomy as citizen of the school. This question has remained foremost, requiring me to critique what seemed to be the high stakes slide towards commodified and homogenized professional knowledge in School Direct so well documented by Apple (2001) and Bullough (2014). School direct – Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016) have identified the single most critical issue in School Direct as ‘reductionist models of what counts as “knowledge” as something which is a commodity that can be delivered and received according to external specification whilst positioning educational practice as defined by quality assurance structures and indicators’ (p. 7). Although the majority of trainees surveyed for the 2016 report had opted for the School Direct route on the basis that they believed that gaining more practical experience would be advantageous, in reality the emphasis on the importance of practice creates a trend towards using practical elements as ‘descriptors to contrast more academic/theoretical elements which are seen as not much use’ (p. 23). This trend is exacerbated by a ‘range of beliefs about what is favourable or deemed “useful” depending on provision, location, underlying principles and the stage of development of any local provision’ (p. 23). Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016) argue that their evidence suggests that the significant variations in School Direct local provision reflects what is in fact an ‘ignoring or simplifying what is actually a very complex business’ (p. 23). This is particularly evident in the work of schoolbased mentors who, supported by the instrumental definition of mentoring in the Carter Report (2015), are increasingly deploying conceptions of practice that integrate situated conceptions of theory responsive to the needs of practice.

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 135 The result is that trainees craft their professional knowledge and understanding according to the legislative framework rather than being educated to engage critically with evolving demands. Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016) conclude the first full report on School Direct in a striking way which resonates with the challenges and provocations offered by the claims arising from the case studies in Chapter 4 set out in section one of this chapter: The teacher educators and trainees have an understanding of their own practice. Yet these understandings are referenced to discursive parameters that encapsulate particular ideological slants on the matters in hand. People are processed through the metrics that are compliant structures rather than understood as humans in a stand-alone sense. (p. 27) Significant to the validity and impact of my research claims are the report’s authors’ recommendations that trainees need to experience a process of development within which there is the space for autonomy and identity to emerge. An emphasis is placed on the need for what Jackson and Burch (2016) identify as ‘a new breed of school-based teacher educators’ (p. 517) for whom ‘every moment is potentially a teachable moment’ (p. 516) and who can therefore support trainees in building and taking ownership of what Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016) describe as an ‘independent analytical capability’ (p. 27). This should be achieved through a process of reflective practice, which is ‘underpinned by successive reconceptualisations of practice and which essentially, in the light of my research claims: “enhances trainees” abilities to claim intellectual space in these regulative times’ (p. 27). Jackson and Burch (2016) describe this as a potential third or hybrid space in which the troublesome binaries between values and enactment, theory and practice, university and school could be combined in a dynamic and collaborative framework, underpinned by a common moral purpose: the flourishing of both trainee teachers’ and pupils’ identities and autonomy as citizens of the school. Teach first – weaknesses in trainees’ ability to check on pupils’ understanding and variations in the quality of mentoring may belie some aspects of instrumentalism evident in School Direct, but overall most recent Ofsted reports on Teach First highlight outstanding qualities which my research claims would support. I was particularly struck by a description in the North East region Ofsted report (Ofsted 2016), which I felt resonated with my claim that it is through the selfrealization of the identity of the teacher as citizen that the autonomy and agency are secured, which enables a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values to flourish. The inspector is impressed by The enthusiasm and high levels of collaboration and cooperation, in a close knit partnership based on positive relationships, mutual respect, high expectations and shared vision and commitment to improving life chances for children and young people in the North East region.

136  The challenge of a values-based knowledge Not surprisingly and in keeping with my research claims, standards are ‘deeply embedded’, suggesting phronesis is serving techne, resulting in trainees who are characterized by their ‘motivation and commitment to raising educational achievement, addressing educational disadvantage and in the process becoming highly effective teachers and leaders’ (p. 6). It would seem that autonomy and identity and, in particular, ownership of a critical and strategic professional knowledge comes from a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values rooted in their readiness to engage in a shared vision about understanding and addressing the causes of underachievement. Here, I sense there is Carr’s (2007) definition of trainees taking ownership of their understanding of the purposes of education. The Ofsted report, not surprisingly, emphasizes trainees’ ‘reflectiveness, resilience, conscientiousness and ability to seize the initiative’ (p. 9). I want to be as even-handed as possible about school-based training, even though my career and research reflect the university partnership model. I am currently a School Direct tutor, and although I recognize all the key issues raised by Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016), I believe that school-based training has the potential for the self-realization of the identity of the teacher as citizen. Teach First, it seems to me, supports my research claims, and so, the issue for me which it presents is about replicating such good practice across School Direct. I intend to address this issue in the next section when I consider the impact of my insights into process, pedagogy and provision. Prevent strategy – The only reference to values in the 2012 Teaching Standards (DfE 2012b) charges trainee teachers to uphold British values, which is a far cry from the embedding of professional values in the 2002 version (DfE/TTA 2002). However, this brief reference to values belies the enormity of the challenge of the Prevent Strategy for school-based teacher educators, and I therefore believe that my research claims are highly pertinent to practice in this current context. Not dissimilar to ECM, Prevent is values laden, especially when we add in British Values which have been described as ‘ill defined’, vulnerable to misinterpretation and deeply ill-considered (Burns 2015). As I demonstrated in case study four, Prevent, like ECM will only inform a critical and strategic professional knowledge if trainees have been given the opportunity to examine the policy in relation to their own values, leading to ownership of professional knowledge and consequent pupil well-being. Robson (2012) has identified the moral ambiguity and uncertainty amongst practitioners when dealing with the rights of ethnic minority pupils. This is particularly relevant to the Prevent Strategy which, as Awan (2012) points out, fails to distinguish between extremists and Muslims. Robson (2012) argues that Prevent conflates ‘threat’, ‘Al Qaida’, ‘Muslim’ and ‘terrorist’ and, in doing so, closes down dialogue which Richardson (2004) and Madood (2010) consider essential if new or complex understandings of the underlying reasons for terrorism are to be sought and the othering of Muslims is to be avoided. The accumulative effect of these negative trends in schools, and particularly on trainee teachers, is a growing unease identified by academics (Robinson 2010; Phillips, Tse & Johnson 2011; Awan 2012). That unease is based on a sense that teacher surveillance is undermining the trust and openness

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 137 which should underpin the values and ethos of democratic schools within which, as I claim, teachers (and pupils) can realize their identities and which, in turn, secures their autonomy to develop a dynamic relationship between their personal moral and political values.

Section three – a distinctive agenda for adapting and improving current teacher education practice Within teacher education professional discourse in England, there has been widespread dismay and concern about the fundamental policy shift to School Direct, which echoes many similar concerns about the diversification of and competition between ITE routes in America and Australia, as discussed in Chapter 2. Ellis (2010) traces very well the antecedents of the concerns in England back to the post Circular 9/92 era and the dangers of instrumentalized performativity, which I have discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. Ellis, however, is more constructive in her diagnosis of a fundamental problem which is that, although one might expect an essentially school-based form of teacher education to be premised upon a participatory view of learning in the workplace and a socially systemic view of teachers’ knowledge, all too often it is actually based on an acquisition and transference view of learning. This diagnosis, characterized by ‘delivery’ (Edwards, Gilroy & Hartley 2002), routinization, compliance and teaching by proxy (Edwards & Protheroe 2004) is certainly evident in my evaluation in the previous section of the extent to which School Direct might enable trainee’s identity and autonomy to flourish. It is the case, then, that there are undoubtedly weaknesses here, which justify the view that trainee teachers may have an impoverished training experience. However, I am encouraged by Ellis’s diagnosis, which seeks a way forward in identifying the need for a coherent and organic model of work-based learning, based on how knowledge is developed through experience and active engagement with ‘being in the world’ (p. 112). This diagnosis is supported by Brown, Rowley and Smith’s (2016) recognition of the need for trainees to develop an ‘independent analytic capability’ through ‘successive reconceptualisations of practice’ (p. 27) and Jackson and Burch’s (2016) new breed of school-based teacher educators who can create a ‘third space’ within which the troublesome binaries of values and enactment and theory and practice can be overcome. As I have demonstrated in the previous section, I am also heartened by the current evidence for more coherent and organic school-based teacher education within Teach First which seems to offer the potential to enable trainee identity and autonomy to flourish, thereby generating a values-based critical and strategic professional knowledge I am arguing for. In terms of my own distinctive contribution to the way forward for professional knowledge development in university partnerships and, in particular, for school-led programmes such as School Direct and Teach First, I therefore believe that the case studies in Chapter 4 give distinctive insights into potential strengths within school-based training for the development of a values-based professional knowledge. It is my intention, then, to offer the following analysis as a future toolkit which can play a part in developing ITE professional discourse.

138  The challenge of a values-based knowledge

Process Having examined the issues within current teacher education practice in the light of my claims about the critical roles of trainee identity and autonomy in developing a dynamic relationship between personal moral and political values, I now wish to set out the strength of the challenges and provocations I believe my research contributes to adapting and improving current teacher education practice through new insights into the key components of process, pedagogy and provision. To begin with process, in context one of the case studies in Chapter 4, I have argued that the development of a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, which can bring about inclusive practices, is best gained through the experience of a process of personal and professional development. Strengthening selfunderstanding through the development of phronetic dispositions was certainly not part of the PGCE trainees’ experience within my own university partnership, recorded in case study one (Mead 2003). In addition, it now seems even more removed from the trend within School Direct towards ‘crafting professional knowledge and understanding according to the legislative framework’ (Brown, Rowley & Smith 2016). However, the case studies in context one clearly make the case that a more meaningful meeting of teaching standards is achievable through a deeper understanding of the relationship between personal moral and political values, evident in the development of effective inclusive practices amongst trainees who received appropriate values-based pedagogical and training opportunities in the university and in their schools. The fact that there appears to be more evidence of process rather than outcomes in Teach First where standards are much more embedded, strengthens my challenge to School Direct to address this deficit. Case study four in context two deepens our understanding of process to the extent that explains and therefore challenges what is actually going wrong in relation to the trend away from critical and strategic professional knowledge in School Direct towards reductive positivistic knowledge (Brown, Rowley & Smith 2016). The case study demonstrates how the instrumental implementation of ECM contributes to an uncoupling of the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values. As other scholars in the field who have drawn heavily on this study to enhance their own practice have agreed with me that without opportunities to reflect upon and develop personal and professional values the intrinsic relationship between trainees’ values, their autonomous ownership of professional values and their addressing of pupils’ well-being is potentially weakened. This analysis deepens insights into process because it demonstrates the integral relationship between phronesis and techne, the former serving the latter, which Carr and Kemmis (1986) consider to be the hallmark of a critical and strategic professional knowledge. I have already indicated that Ofsted data suggest that in the Teach First training context the trainees’ phronetic dispositions seem to be galvanized by the shared vision for social justice and inclusion; trainees are deeply reflective because their analysis of their practice is sharply focused on what impact their values are having on pupil progress in their learning (Ofsted 2016). I believe that the deeper insights into process in case study four, and which

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 139 are borne out in some good Teach First practice, provide a significant challenge to addressing the urgent need identified by Brown, Rowley & Smith 2016) for School Direct trainees to develop an independent analytical capability and claim intellectual space in a highly regulated training context. In context three, there is a significant shift in the understanding of process which demonstrates the integral relationship between the development of trainee identity and autonomy and the nature of the training context. Case study five shows how critical it is for self-understanding to become self-realization through the training context encouraging trainees to incorporate their cultural, religious and political values into their teaching rationale. The importance of the training context is broadened out even further in the study of the Iraq war protest in case study seven. I have already indicated that context seems to be a significant factor in Teach First with self-realization of trainees and pupils underpinned by positive relationships, mutual respect, high expectations and a shared vision for inclusive practices. Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016) argue that much of the official specification and surveillance of teaching practice within School Direct is generating a commodification associated with the economic metaphors of ‘delivery’, ‘providers’ and ‘performance’, which actually changes the relationship between individuals and the context of their practice. I believe, then, that case studies five and seven pose a fundamental challenge to School Direct schools to become places where teachers and pupils have opportunities to realize their identities as citizens. In this way, the school context can provide trainee teachers with a professional development environment within which the relationship between their personal moral and political values can flourish. As already stated, this requires a new breed of mentor who can craft a process-centred third space which exists outside the old binaries such as Jackson and Burch (2016) speak of. I also believe that kind of training ethos will put into perspective trainees’ uncertainties about having to develop a surveillance role as part of their training in Prevent. The underlying truth about context which matters for trainees and pupils here was well articulated by Hunjan (2007) who responded to the Ajegbo Report’s (Ajegbo, Kiwan & Shama 2007) recommendation for the inclusion of Britishness in Citizenship by arguing that this was unhelpful and misplaced and that the best way forward for schools was to ensure that pupils were fully participating in decisionmaking processes.

Pedagogy The challenges to process will clearly not be met without significant changes to teacher education pedagogy, both in the university and in school-based training contexts. Teacher educator assumptions about pedagogy are challenged in case study one of context one through my introduction of a student-centred and philosophical and moral inquiry-based pedagogy within a PSHE/Ct. primary elective. In this way, I was directly challenging myself and my colleagues in a university partnership context with the beginnings of my research claims. Case study one offers original insights into how trainees develop phronetic dispositions, enabling

140  The challenge of a values-based knowledge them to generate a dynamic relationship between their personal moral values and values about inclusion. Within school-based contexts, case studies two and three challenge assumptions about mentoring, demonstrating the significant impact of dialogic mentoring pedagogy on developing the relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values, thereby deepening their understanding of and increasing their confidence in the use of inclusive practices. The strength and the necessity of these pedagogical claims are brought home when we compare evidence of practices in School Direct and Teach First. Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016) exemplify the gap between personal moral and political values, as enacted through curriculum teaching, acknowledged by a School Direct schoolbased mentor: ‘perhaps what we’re not experts in is really the pedagogy behind it because we don’t have the time to reflect on what we’re doing and why we are doing it, it is very much in the moment’ (p. 24). By contrast, Ofsted describe the ‘cohesion’ (Ofsted 2016, p. 6) in Teach First mentoring pedagogies, which creates an organic relationship between trainees’ values ‘rooted in addressing inequality’, ‘deep critical reflection on theory and practice’ and the development of ‘a range of high quality teaching skills which address the causes of low achievement’ (p. 6). Case study four in context two brings into sharp relief what happens to process when positivistic understandings of knowledge create an information driven pedagogy. My analysis of the impact of an instrumental ‘delivery’ of ECM on trainees’ professional knowledge challenges teacher educators to consider that there will be a disconnect between trainees’ personal moral and political values if they are not given opportunities to critically evaluate such a values-laden policy in relation to their own personal moral and political values. The paper demonstrates that this disconnect leads to the dominance of techne over phronesis, which does not make for critical and strategic professional knowledge. From the citations in Chapter 4, there is evidence that some teacher educators are recognizing the risks of positivistic professional knowledge, particularly in school-based contexts, and are seeking to develop more inquiry-led pedagogies in central training sessions, drop-down thematic days and in developing dialogic and generative mentoring pedagogies (Whitehead & Fitzgerald 2006). In my own practice as course leader, I have challenged my colleagues to develop Kroll’s (2012) pedagogies of participatory guidance and appropriation, which begin with trainees’ questions arising from their practice with dialogue between peers, guided by the tutor, serving to problematize the relationship between their values and the development of inclusive practices. This is clearly teacher learning ‘informed by a richer, more complex understanding of experience’ (Ellis 2010, p. 111), which Jackson and Burch (2016) describe as potentially characterizing a ‘pedagogy of enactment’ within a third space way of learning teaching in School Direct (p. 520). Such a pedagogical space can make much more synchronous than in the university partnership context the problematizing of the relationship between trainee’s personal moral and political values and the enactment of those values in classroom decision-making. There is, however, another level of process which I arrive at in the third context of case studies, and this too demands new pedagogical approaches. In

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 141 claiming that, because of teacher identity and autonomy, process needs to progress from self-understanding to self-realization of the teacher as citizen, I am challenging teacher educators to adopt an interrogative pedagogy. In responding to my analysis of this pedagogy in case study six and exemplified in case studies five and seven, Biddulph (2012) states that I am challenging teachers to go beyond a tolerant liberal view and to engage with pluralities by interrogating their values and understandings with the intention of creating a fairer and more understanding world (p. 109). Essentially, such a pedagogy does not merely invite participants to engage in questioning and self-reflection in a liberal educational context, but rather, characterizes the purpose and rationale of the institution itself within which personal moral and political values are increasingly fused. The international case studies in Chapter 2 identified how in those countries a moral and political imperative to pursue some form of interrogative pedagogy in teacher education has emerged through the “push-pull” effect of globalization combined with internal rapid social and political change. The level of interrogation in these contexts is institutional as part of a much wider public debate about societal values. The personal practical theory tool in Finland, the media and communication teacher education pedagogy and values game pedagogies in Estonia, the quite revolutionary desire to introduce dialogic mentoring in Japan, and the pedagogy of disruption in post-apartheid South African ITE all represent various stages of development along this pedagogical spectrum. In England, there has been an absence of public debate, best illustrated by the sudden announcement in parliament by the Secretary of State for Education of what our fundamental British values are in reaction to concerns about radicalization (Parliament UK 2014)! However, School Direct and Teach First create a powerful opportunity for individual schools who have complete ownership of their ITE programmes to interrogate with trainees both the nature of and the enactment of their values in terms of social justice and inclusion. In looking at the qualitative differences across current training routes, it seems to me that Teach First’s engagement of trainees’ values with the training partnership’s shared vision to improve life chances exemplifies something of this interrogative pedagogy which is woven throughout the training process. Clearly such a pedagogy will stand a better chance of engaging trainees in developing an embedded, confident and meaningful approach to the complex layers and nuances of the Prevent Strategy.

Provision I want to argue that provision takes on a new and more creative meaning when viewed from the perspective of generating opportunities for identity and autonomy to flourish. As already discussed, one strong reaction to the introduction of School Direct was that this would lead to impoverished training provision. My view is that if a more organic model of teacher education is developed, teacher educators’ frustrations and concerns about shortage of time and limited number of sessions cease to be as important as a discernible qualitative difference in the

142  The challenge of a values-based knowledge trainee experience, not least because every moment is a teachable moment out of which values-based critical and strategic professional knowledge can emerge. This is not to say that the key ingredients within an organic model can ever be tokenistic, as I now elaborate. My claim that developing trainee identity and autonomy gives agency to the relationship between their personal moral and political values, makes a strong challenge to tokenistic and one-off elements of provision within teacher education. In case study one, we see how the process of personal and professional development experienced by B.Ed trainees on a sixty-hour university-based elective does not compare with the random engagement of PGCE trainees in anything remotely related. In school-based contexts, a process of personal and professional development will not happen without regular dialogic mentoring provision based on observations, feedback and exploration of the relationship between personal moral and political values. As a result, trainee identity and autonomy will not be developed through phronetic dispositions which build an evaluative standpoint on inclusion and social justice underpinning professional knowledge. Second, my research claims challenge teacher educators to consider how cohesive their training is. Pressures on time in university partnerships and ensuring cohesion across university and schools plus the dangers of everything being ‘of the moment’ in the School Direct context mitigate against, not just a training process unfolding, but also deepening. The challenge here is brought home by case study four, which makes explicit the complex relationship between trainees’ values, ownership of professional knowledge and pupil well-being. There are examples from the citations in Chapter 4 of colleagues rising to the challenge to deepen the training process by developing more fluid and organic models of mentoring provision (Pitfield & Morrison 2009) and more explicit opportunities to examine the relationship between personal and professional values (Byrne et al. 2012, 2015; Dewhirst et al. 2014). Stenberg (2014) has found it challenging to give an organic cohesiveness to the Finnish model when implementing the personal practical theory tool discussed in Chapter 2. Her intention was for personal practical theory to be a thread running through all five years of training and in every aspect of university and school elements of the training. However, this has not been fully realized, particularly because of the difficulty in developing a whole course system within which the contextualizing of successive stages of values development could be sustained and reflected upon. For example, and as discussed in Chapter 2, fragmentation occurred between the very strong focus on personal practical theory in year one and subsequent training and between strongly contextualized child-centred values early on, which do not inform wider perspectives on the purposes of education as training progresses. There is, then, recognition of the need, nationally and internationally for a more cohesive provision. What I would say is, that, when looking at the Teach First trainees, working in schools that have complete ownership of the training process, they appear to experience a more cohesive provision. This provision seems to reflect a more dynamic engagement of their personal moral and political values in the shared vision of the school to improve

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 143 life chances, leading to a greater sense of agency in use of critical professional knowledge, which is consistently directed towards understanding and overcoming underachievement. The shared vision rooted in social change which characterizes Teach First, as reported by Ofsted (2016), points to the ultimate challenge of my research claims found in the third context of case studies, and particularly in case study seven. Can schools make a radical departure from the outcomes-driven norms, which would bring the changes necessary for trainee teachers, teachers and pupils to become agents in a process of social change? This, it seems to me, is the more profound challenge arising from my research and gives a deeper meaning to the concept of provision. Variations in atomized elements of training, for example tokenistic Prevent training, are replaced by the ethos, values and degree of democratic processes for trainee teachers, teachers and pupils in a holistic understanding of training provision. It seems to me that in school-led training contexts with such provision, the self-realization of the trainee as citizen provides the agency for the development of a dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values.

Conclusion There is a dearth of papers on teachers’ values and at a time when there appears to be widespread confusion about, what in practice, a school-led training model is meant to be. Certainly, one thing is sure, as identified by Brown, Rowley and Smith (2016), that ‘all partners seemed to be forced to speak the neo-liberal language’ (p. 20). That language is characterized by deregulation, performativity, market forces and positivism. Those of us who have worked predominantly in university partnerships 1996–2010, even though we were coping with increasing neo-liberal performativity, may now feel that the school-led model offers an impoverished experience. However, I do not believe that is a constructive position to hold going forward, and so throughout this period, it has been my intention to focus on how trainee teachers’ values, as fundamental to their personal and professional development, could thrive in increasingly instrumental contexts, whatever form these may take. Not surprisingly, then, I chose to use the concepts and language of phronesis and citizenship rather than neo-liberal positivistic forms of knowledge to capture original and unique insights into the lived experience of trainees, which can be vicariously communicated and so contribute to professional discourse. By contrast, the few papers on values written by teacher educators over the same period have often been concerned with subject values; however, even that would seem to be a luxury, as I have observed how many of my academic colleagues have been compelled by successive iterations of the National Curriculum to research neo-liberal curriculum goals for the benefit of their trainees. In my own research as a teacher educator, my awareness of the limitations of Flyvbjerg’s (2001) phronetic method with its dominance of phronesis over techne, lending too much importance to the subjectivities of the individual case (Eikeland 2008), led me

144  The challenge of a values-based knowledge to combine it with a well-justified theory-testing case study method, which has provided the rich case study material found in Chapter 4, and it has plausible, trustworthy and worthwhile interpretations that go beyond the specific case. I believe that if I had not taken this approach and had the case studies not been published over a period of significant policy change, there would be a greater absence of meaningful insights into the impact that the relationship between teachers’ personal moral and political values has on their capacity to develop a critical and strategic professional knowledge. The link with the nature of professional knowledge is fundamental to the contribution of the case studies to professional discourse because leaders and practitioners talk about it a good deal, although not about values. I would argue therefore that my personal narrative of Chapter 1 and my firsthand experience of the international contexts in Chapter 2, combined with the case studies of Chapter 4, make an original and unique contribution to counteracting the development of a widespread positivistic and therefore reductive professional knowledge, which we have been wrestling with to some degree since the introduction of the first set of teaching standards in 1992 (DfE 1992 9/92) but which is now intensifying through the current, confused neo-liberal School Direct model. The citations in Chapter 4 suggest that providers and individual practitioners are beginning to look more closely at process, pedagogy and provision in the light of these case studies. However, there is a need now for teacher educators to carry out more systematic research into these three areas in both School Direct and Teach First contexts, particularly because my analysis of current practice suggests that my research claims are supported by evidence of good practice in the latter context which might be transferable to the former. Like many ITE colleagues, as a School Direct tutor, I certainly have access to both data collection and professional dialogue which I would want to pursue in the future. In terms of contributing to the development of a values-based professional knowledge, I would recommend adopting the insider–outsider research position as practitioner and researcher which I have set out in Chapter 1. This would certainly contribute to creating that school-led, cohesive third space which overcomes the binary between values and enactment. Second, I would recommend the use of the theory-testing case study method as set out in Chapter 3. This enables teacher educators to generalize beyond the context and engage in professional discourse about professional knowledge in other contexts beyond English teacher education debate. In this way, we collaboratively rather than competitively participate with international colleagues in developing a valuesbased paradigm for understanding and addressing the tension between trainee teachers’ personal, cultural and political values and the global commodification of education. My final theoretical claim for teacher education, particularly in the school-led mode of School Direct which has contextualized professional development as its main asset, is that through the self-realization of the identity of the trainee teacher as citizen in the school autonomy and therefore agency might be secured. This

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 145 enables the dynamic relationship between trainees’ personal moral and political values to flourish. I believe that the outcome of such flourishing is the development of a critical and strategic professional knowledge characterized by personal moral decision-making informing practical theory. The development of such professional knowledge has the potential to provide a meaningful fulfilment, as well as an exceeding of, the expectations of teaching standards, thereby overcoming the instrumental tendencies within the latter. This theoretical claim is essentially optimistic and seeks in particular to exploit the potential of context within school-led routes such as School Direct and Teach First; however, it demands a reinterpretation of process, pedagogy and provision in current teacher education practice. Instrumental teaching standards have led to an input-output model rather than a process model of teacher education. Teacher educators need to focus on enabling trainees to progress from self-understanding to self-realization in the classroom. I believe that in school-led training contexts trainees can develop the moral agency, which is critical to self-realization by fully participating in the school’s shared vision for social justice and inclusion. Deep reflection leading to critical and strategic professional knowledge comes from trainees having a sharp focus on what impact their personal moral and political values are having on achieving the shared vision through pupil progress in learning. This organic model for trainee development will not happen without a reinterpretation of teacher education pedagogies and provision appropriate for school-based training contexts. Central training sessions in any school-led training programme ought to be able to model the relationship between a school’s vision for social justice and inclusion and the investment of personal moral and political values of those participants in that vision, including trainees. One of the strengths of School Direct is that senior leaders who have ownership of the training, as well as driving social justice and inclusion, often lead central training sessions and who therefore are very well positioned to engage trainees in examining the impact of their values on pupil progress in learning. Crucial to this being successful is the flourishing of trainee’s autonomy and identity as citizens in the school and so pedagogies characterized by discomforting, trainee-led moral inquiry and participatory appropriation will enable them to develop ownership of critical and strategic professional knowledge. Ultimately, the use of an interrogative pedagogy would galvanize trainees and school-based teacher educators in a critical reflection on the purpose and rationale of the school itself. In this way, trainees gain moral agency as players in the bigger picture. Second, a dialogic mentoring pedagogy is needed, which will earth trainees’ personal moral and political values in the whole school context of addressing inequality and improving life chances. Again, personal moral and political investment is needed from mentor and mentee, essentially as citizens of the school who are both committed to a process of self-realization as professionals. Schoolbased mentors need to be trained in dialogic skills, including the modelling of such skills, so that they develop an understanding of the relationship between trainees’ values, the addressing of inequality and the development of deep critical

146  The challenge of a values-based knowledge reflection on theory and practice. Such reflection will lead to trainees exercising autonomous judgements about the teaching skills required to address the causes of underachievement. The processes and pedagogies of an organic model of teacher education will not be achieved without a new interpretation of training provision. First, an organic model is not helped by atomized or tokenistic elements of training. Just as pupil autonomy and identity flourish within a coherent curriculum and school ethos, so too for trainee teachers. In this sense, trainees and pupils are striving for mutual self-realization as citizens of the one school community. Good teacher education provision is not so much about quantity of hours for atomized elements of the training but should be about a coherence which reflects the dynamic engagement of trainees’ personal moral and political values in the school’s shared vision to improve life chances. This requires programme structures to become both more organic and synchronous, for example, in the way that values-based themes such as inclusion, respect for difference, citizenship and reflection on British values might form a core permeating every aspect of the training and realized through pedagogies of interrogation and discomfort and critical incidents. Such a structure is more likely to generate a critical and strategic professional knowledge which trainees own because its valuesbase core contributes to knowledge derived from their personal moral decisionmaking informing practical theory. To conclude, I believe that the reinterpretation of teacher education processes, pedagogies and provision which I am advocating will only be achieved if school-led training is fully embedded in the rationale and purpose of the school itself. School Direct, therefore, offers a significant opportunity for senior leaders and school-based teacher educators to critically engage in reflecting on the degree to which their trainees, teachers and pupils are flourishing as autonomous citizens whose identities are being fully realized. I will finish with a brief insight into the impact of embedded training on trainee development from my own experience as a School Direct tutor: I am now and then struck by the confidence with which a School Direct trainee can talk about the values and vision of their school in relation to their own values and developing practice. This gives me considerable hope!

References Ajegbo, K., Kiwan, D. & Shama, S. (2007) Curriculum report: citizenship and diversity, ­London: DfES. Allen, R. & Allnut, J. (2017) The impact of Teach First on pupil attainment at age ­sixteen, British Educational Research Journal, 43 (4), 627–646. Apple, M. (2001) Comparing neo-liberal projects and inequality in education, ­Comparative Education, 37 (4), 409–423. Arthur, J. (2015) Extremism and neo-liberal education policies, a contextual critique of the Trojan Horse affair in Birmingham schools, British Journal of Educational Studies, 63 (3), 311–328.

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 147 Awan, I. (2012) Paving the way for extremism: how preventing the symptoms does not cure the disease, Journal of Terrorism Research, 2 (3), downloaded at www.jtr. st.andrews.ac.uk/articles/10.15664/jt224, accessed 10/6/15. Biddulph, M. (2012) Sexualities and citizenship education, in Arthur, J. & Cremin, H. (eds) Debates in citizenship education, chap. 9, 100–114, London: Routledge. Brookfield, S. (1995) Becoming a critically reflective teacher, San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Brough, C.J. (2012) Implementing the democratic principles and practices of student-centred curriculum integration in primary schools, Curriculum Journal, 23 (3), 345–369. Brown, T., Rowley, H. & Smith, K. (eds) (2016) The beginnings of school-led teacher training: new challenges for university teacher education, School Direct research project final report, Manchester Metropolitan University, downloaded at www.esri. mmu.ac.uk/regroups, accessed 7/6/16. Bullough, R. (2014) Recalling forty years of teacher education in the USA: a personal essay, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 474–491. Burns, J. (2015) Ignore rules on promoting British values, teachers urged, BBC new webpage, downloaded at www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-32120583, accessed 31/3/15. Byrne, J., Speller, V., Dewhirst, S., Roderick, P., Almond, P., Grace, M. & Memon, A. (2012) Health promotion in pre-service teacher education: effects of a pilot inter-professional curriculum change, Health Education, 112 (6), 525–542. Byrne, J., Shepherd, J., Pickett, K., Dewhirst, S., Speller, V., Grace, M. & Almond, P. (2015) Pre-service teacher training in health and well-being in England: the state of the nation, European Journal of Teacher Education, 38 (2), 217–233. Carr, D. (2007) Character in teaching, British Journal of Educational Studies, 55 (4), 369–389. Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming critical: education, knowledge and action research, London: Falmer Press. Carter, A. (2015) The Carter review of initial teacher training, downloaded at www.gov.uk/government/publications/Carter-review-of-initial-teacher-training, accessed 10/6/16. Dam, G. ten. & Blom, S. (2006) Learning through participation: the potential of school- based teacher education for developing professional identity, Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 647–660. DfE. (1992) Initial teacher training: secondary phase, Circular 9/92, London: DfE. DfE. (2010) White Paper, the importance of teaching, London: DfE. DfE. (2011) Training our next generation of outstanding teachers, London: DfE. DfE. (2012a) New school direct programme opens, September 28, downloaded at www. education.gov.uk/uk/inthe-news/inthenews/a00214911/new-school-directprogramme, accessed 7/6/18. DfE. (2012b) Teachers’ standards, downloaded at www.gov.uk/government.publica tions/teachers-standards, accessed 2/7/18. DfE. (2014a) English national curriculum, downloaded at www.gov.uk/govern ment/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-framework-for-key-stages1-to-4/thenational curriculum, accessed 2/7/18.

148  The challenge of a values-based knowledge DfE. (2014b) Promoting fundamental British values as part of SMSC in schools, London: DfE. DfE. (2015) Prevent duty department advice for schools and childcare providers, downloaded at https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attach​ment_data/file/439598/prevent-duty-departmental, accessed 5/6/18. Dewhirst, S., Pickett, K., Speller, V., Shepherd, J., Byrne, J., Almond, P., Grace, M., ­Hartwell, D. & Roderick, P. (2014) Are trainee teachers being adequately prepared to promote the health and well-being of school children? A survey of current practice, Journal of Public Health, 36 (3), 467–475. Edwards, A., Gilroy, P. & Hartley, D. (2002) Rethinking teacher education: collaborative responses to uncertainty, London: RoutledgeFalmer. Edwards, A. & Protheroe, L. (2004) Teaching by proxy: understanding how mentors are positioned in partnerships, Oxford Review of Education, 30 (2), 183–191. Eikeland, O. (2008) The ways of Aristotle: Aristotelian phronesis, Aristotelian philosophy of dialogue and action research, Bern: Peter Lang. Ellis, V. (2010) Impoverishing experience: the problem of teacher education in England, Journal of Education for Teaching, 36 (1), 105–120. Flyvbjerg, B. (2001) Making social science matter: why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Greany, T. & Higham, R. (2018) Hierarchy, markets and networks: analysing the self-improving school-led system agenda in England and the implications for leadership, London: IOE Press. Her Majesty’s Government (HMG). (2011) Prevent strategy, downloaded at http:// assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/Attach ment_data/file/97976/prevent-strategy-review.pdf, accessed 16/7/18. Hunjan, R. (2007) quoted in the House of commons education and skills committee: Citizenship and education (second report of the session 2006–2007), downloaded at www.publications.parliament.uk, accessed 10/5/15. Jackson, A. & Burch, J. (2016) School Direct, a policy for initial teacher training in England: plotting a principled pedagogical path through a changing landscape, Professional Development in Education, 42 (4), 511–526. Korthagen, A. & Kessels, Jos P.A.M. (1999) Linking theory and practice: changing the pedagogy of teacher education, Educational Researcher, 28 (4), 4–17. Kroll, L. (2012) Self-study and inquiry into practice, London: Routledge. Lawlor, S. (1990) Teachers mistaught, training in theories or education in subjects, London: Centre for Policy Studies. Macbeath, J. (2011) Education of teachers, the English experience, Journal of Education for Teaching, 37 (4), 377–386. Madood, T. (2010) Still not easy being British, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. Mayer, M. (2014) Forty years of teacher education in Australia 1974–2014, Journal of Education for Teaching, 40 (5), 461–473. Mead N. (2003) Will the introduction of teaching standards in professional values and practice put the heart back into primary teacher education? Pastoral Care in Education, 21 (1), 37–42. Mead, N. (2006) The experience of black African religious education trainee teachers training in England, British Journal of Religious Education, 28 (2), 173–184. Mead, N. (2007) How effectively does the Graduate Teacher Programme contribute to the development of trainee teachers’ professional values? Journal of Education for Teaching, 33 (3), 309–322.

The challenge of a values-based knowledge 149 Ofsted. (2008) Rising to the challenge: a review of the teach first initial teacher training programme, London: Ofsted. Ofsted. (2014) School inspection handbook, revisions to Ofsted inspections from September 2014, spiritual, moral, social and cultural definitions, downloaded at www. schoolslinkingnetwork.org.uk/news-and-events/revisions-to-ofsted-inspectionsfor-seot-included-changes-to-smsc-definitions, accessed 8/5/15. Ofsted. (2016) Ofsted reports on all teach first regions, downloaded at www.teachfirst. org.uk/news/our-training-rated-outstanding-ofsted, accessed 10/11/16. Ofsted. (2017) Initial teacher education inspection statistics as at 30th June 2017: the changing landscape of initial teacher education provision, paragraph 5, downloaded at www.gov.uk/government/publications/initial-teacher-education-inspectionsand-outcomes-as-at-3o-june-2017/initial teacher, accessed 3/5/18. Ofsted. (2018) School inspection handbook, downloaded at https://assets:publishingser vice.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_dat/ file/699810/school-inspection-handbook, accessed 2/7/18. Phillips, C., Tse, D. & Johnson, F. (2011) Community cohesion and prevent: how have schools responded? London: DfE. Pitfield, M. & Morrison, L. (2009) Teachers’ experiences of mentoring on a flexible initial teacher education programme: implications for partnership development, Journal of Education for Teaching, 35 (1), 19–32. Reiss, M. & White, J. (2013) An aims-based curriculum: the significance of human flourishing for schools, London: IOE Press. Richardson, R. (2004) Curriculum, ethos and leadership: confronting Islamophobia in UK education, in Driel, B. (ed) Confronting Islamophobia in educational practice, 19–34, Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. Robinson, R. (2010) Liberty’s response to the home office consultation on the prevent strategy of the UK counter-terrorism strand, downloaded at www.liberty-humanrights.org.uk/sites/default/files/response-to-the-home-office-consultationprevent-january-2011.pdf, accessed 10/5/15. Robson, J. (2012) Understanding practitioners’ responses to inequality and breaches of human rights, doctoral thesis, Christchurch University, downloaded at Christchurch.ac.uk/12166/1/Robson.pdf, accessed 16/6/15. Stenberg, K. (2010) Identity work as a tool for promoting the professional development of student teachers, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 11 (3), 331–346. Stenberg, K., Karlsson, L., Pitkaniemi, H. & Maaranen, K. (2014) Beginning student teachers’ teacher identities based on their practical theories, European Journal of Teacher Education, 37 (2), 204–219. Teach First. (2017) Teach first impact report 2017, downloaded at www.teachfirst. org.uk/sites/default/files/2017–2009/teach_first_impact_report.pdf, accessed 27/6/18. Teacher Training Agency (TTA). (2002) Qualifying to teach, professional standards for qualified teacher status and requirements for initial teacher training, London: TTA. Whitehead, J. & Fitzgerald, B. (2006) Professional learning through a generative approach to mentoring: lessons from a training school partnership and their wider implications, Journal of Education for Teaching, 32 (1), 37–52. Young, M. (2007) Bringing knowledge back in: from social constructivism to social realism in the sociology of education, New York: Routledge.

150  The challenge of a values-based knowledge Young, M. (2009) What are schools for? in Daniels, H., Lauder, H. & Porter, J. (eds) Knowledge, values and educational policy 2, Critical perspectives in education, 10–18, London: Routledge. Young, M., Lambert, D., Roberts, C. & Roberts, M. (2014) Knowledge and the future school, curriculum and social justice, London: Bloomsbury.

Index

Alcorn, N. 34 Alexander, R. 51 Allen, R. 130 Allnut, J. 130 Alred, G. 14 – 16 American Board for the Certification of Teacher Excellence (ABCTE), 32 Apple, M. 28, 30 – 32, 60, 127 – 128 Auchmuty Report (Australia) 32 Authentic Teacher Assessment (ATA) 32 autonomy: as critical to values 49, 124 – 127; in current teacher education 132 – 137; evaluating growth of in ITE 132 – 137; impact of policy change on 127 – 132; of trainee teachers 42 – 44, 101 – 104 Awan, I. 136 Bainjath, I. 87 – 88 Ball, S. 60 Banaji, S. 111 Bassey, M. 75, 77 Benninga, J. 64 – 65 Biddulph, M. 113, 141 Biesta, G. 2 black African trainees’ experience 105 – 107, 126 Blom, S. 33 Boney, K. 102 – 104 Bowman, B. 112 British Journal of Religious Education 104 Brough, C.J. 124 Brown, T. 134 – 135, 138, 139 – 140 Bullough, R. 31 – 32, 127 Burch, J. 128, 130, 135, 137 Byrne, J. 91, 100 – 104 Callaghan, J., Prime Minister 1 career-switching trainees 92 – 94

Carr, D. 61, 62, 63, 69, 85, 136 Carr, W.: on critical/strategic professional knowledge 63, 65 – 66, 75 – 77; on problematizing process 112; on teacher educator research 23, 79 case study(ies): on approach to research 20 – 21; on black African trainees’ experience 104 – 107; Estonian 35 – 36; on explanatory method 76; Finnish 45 – 48; fuzzy generalizations and 77 – 78; on impact of ECM 94 – 103; on importance of autonomy/ identity 124 – 127; instrumental method 75 – 76; Japanese 40 – 44; on personal/professional development 123; phronetic approach to 73 – 75, 77; on secondary school citizenship 109 – 110, 115 – 116; on studentled Iraq war protest 111 – 114; on teaching standards in professional values/practice 85 – 88; theory-testing method 75 – 77; on trainee teachers of PSHE/Ct 89 – 91; on values for career-switching trainees 92 – 94; on values in teacher education 123 Caterino, D. 74 Cave, P. 41 – 43 Centre for Ethics (Tartu University) 36 – 37 citizen, teacher as 64 – 65, 126 – 127, 136, 144 citizenship education: common pedagogic skill set in 69 – 70; Religious Education (RE) and 68 – 69; social justice and 112 – 117 Clandinin, J. 21 Clarke, K. 2, 6 Closing the Gap: liberal education and vocational preparation (Pring) 71

152  Index Cochran-Smith, M. 18 coherence, in theory of human development 5 cohesive provision 142 competences: approach to student assessment 6 – 7, 10 – 11; global 29, 50 competitiveness, in international teacher education literature 30 Connolly, M. 21 continuum model, of insider-outsider positions 20 courage, professional knowledge and 66 – 68 Craft, M. 1 – 2 Crick, B. 63, 70, 109 Crick Report, The 64, 68 – 69 critical thinking, in trainee teachers 44 culture, globalization and 29 curriculum, centralization of 29 – 30 Dam, G. ten 33 Darling-Hammond, L. 34, 45 Dewhirst, S. 91, 100 dialogical mentoring 92 – 97, 140, 142, 145 diversity issues 45 – 46 Dreyfus, H. 61 Dreyfus, S. 61 Dunne, M. 5 – 6 Easterbrook, S. 95 education: defined 71; marketization of 18, 59 – 60, 127 – 128; neo-liberal trends in 29 – 31, 40, 144; for supremacy vs. interdependence 51 Education Act (1994) 2 Eikeland, O. 75 Ellis, V. 18, 137 empirical science of Religious Education, The 106 Estonia case study: media/ communication skills and 37 – 38; national values programme 35; school-based task 38 – 39; shift to values-centred schooling 36; Teachers’ Value Game 36 ethnographic data, trainee motivations and 11 European Journal of Teacher Education, The 124 Evans, B. 91 Evans, C. 91 Everington, J. 11, 106 – 107

Every Child Matters (ECM), impact of 98 – 103, 125 – 126 explanatory case study method 76 Finland’s case study: diversity/equality issues 45 – 46; personal practical theory tool 45 – 48; teacher status 44 – 45 Fish, D. 58 Flyvbjerg, B.: on phronesis 61; phronetic case study approach and 73 – 75, 77; on researcher credentials 19 – 20 four directions of interaction 21 Francis, L. 106 Frank, A. 72 Frost, D. 14 – 16 Furlong, J. 16 – 17, 65 fuzzy generalizations 75, 77 – 79, 111 Galton, M. 41 Giddens, A. 30, 59 global impacts, on teacher education 28 – 31 Goffman, E. 59, 65 Goodson, I. 58 Gray, P. 100 Grimmitt, M. 4 – 5, 68 Groundwater-Smith, S. 66 Hargreaves, D. 58, 64 Harrison, J. 87 Harro-Loit, H. 37 – 38 He, Y. 47 health education 88, 91 high-quality teaching 46 Hochschild, A.R. 58 – 59, 65 Hodson, E. 94 – 95 Hoppers, O. 28 – 29 Horsley, N.S. 114 – 115 Hunjan, R. 139 identity: in current teacher education 132 – 137; evaluating growth of in ITE 132 – 137; impact of policy change 127 – 132; teacher 102 – 105 Importance of Teaching, The (UK Coalition’s White Paper) 48 inclusive teaching/values 90 individuality, sociality and 41 – 43 Initial Teacher Education (ITE): complexities of 8; identity/autonomy in 132 – 137; impact of policy changes 127 – 132; instrumentalist approach

Index 153 to 2; media/communication skills and 37 – 38; pedagogy in 139 – 141; pedagogy of discomfort in 51 – 52; personal moral/political values in 9 – 10; process in 138 – 139; provision in 141 – 143; RE trainee motivations 10 – 11; standards-based approach in 7; technical-rational approach in 124; theory-practice gap and 9 – 10; values/ professional knowledge in 18 – 19, 68 – 73 insider-outsider position 20 – 22 institutional constraints 1, 28, 66 instrumental case study 75 – 76, 78 Integrated Studies 40 interrogative pedagogy 141, 145 ITE see Initial Teacher Education (ITE)

media-based pedagogy 37 – 38 mentoring: for career-switching trainees 92 – 94; dialogic 92 – 97, 140, 141 – 142, 145; partnership model 16 – 17; pedagogy of discomfort and 51 – 52; research project regarding 10 – 11; school-based ITE and 6 – 9; trainee motivations/values and 11 – 13 Mercer, J. 20 – 21 Merton, R. 19 Mizuyama, M. 114 Mockler, N. 66 moral values see personal moral/political values Morrison, L. 94 – 95 multicultural education 89 – 90 Murray, J. 17

Jackson, A. 128, 130, 135, 137 Jackson, R. 69 Japan’s case study: educational developments and 39 – 41; individuality/sociality in education 41 – 42; teacher autonomy in 42 – 44 Jerome, L. 87, 115 – 116 Journal of Education for Teaching 92, 124 Journal of Pastoral Care in Education 85, 88 Judt, T. 1

narrative inquiry 21 National Core Curriculum for Upper Secondary Schools (Finland) 46 national impacts, on teacher education 29 – 31 naturalistic generalizations 78 – 79 neo-liberalism, framing education 29 – 31, 40, 143 – 144 Nias, J. 58 No Child Left Behind (NCLB): instrumentalized 102; reductive impact of 31 – 32, 66 Noddings, N., ‘Ethics of Care’ 17, 18 Nussbaum, M. 50 – 51

Kemmis, S.: on critical/strategic professional knowledge 63, 65 – 66, 74 – 76; on problematizing process 112; on teacher educator research 20 – 23, 79 Kessels, J. 3 Korthagen, F. 3, 33, 131 Kroll, L. 49, 72, 96 – 97, 140 Lawlor, S. 2 Levin, B. 47 Lieberman, A. 34 Limond, D. 107 – 108 long view, of teacher education 1 – 2 Macbeath, J. 40 – 41 Martin, N. 96 Maths subject teaching 5 Mayer, M. 32, 127 McDonald, B. 20 McIntyre, D. 8 – 10 McLaughlin, T. 64

Obermeier, A. 44 Ofsted reports/data: citizenship education and 109, 115; on motivated trainees 130; on schoolbased programmes 131; on Teach First 135 – 136, 139 Ota, N. 40 – 41 Oxford Internship Scheme 10 paradox, necessity of 20 – 21 participatory guidance and appropriation 72, 99, 140 Pastoral Care in Education 98, 109, 110, 112 pedagogy: of discomfort 51 – 52, 134; improving teacher education 140 – 142; interrogative 141, 145 – 146; of meta-reflection 114; modelling 112, 117; in teacher education 96, 103

154  Index Peretz, B. 17 performativity, values and 58 – 60 Personal, Social, Health and Economic Education, (PSHE) 68, 70 – 71, 88 – 91 personal evaluation 47 personal moral/political values: autonomy/identity and 124 – 127. see also autonomy; identity; for career-switching trainees 92 – 94; categorizing trainee values 47 – 48; central in teacher education 12 – 13, 22 – 25, 46; motivations and 11 – 12; of multi-ethnic trainees 104 – 109; performativity and 58 – 60; professional knowledge and 65 – 66, 73, 79 – 80, 144; provision for 103 – 104; RE curriculum and 3 – 6; relationship between 2 – 3, 63 – 65; school-based ITE and 9 – 10; within standards-based framework 6 – 7; thin morality vs. 31; of trainee teachers 49 – 50 personal practical theory tool 46 – 48, 134, 141 – 142 phenomenological approach 3 – 5 phronesis (practical wisdom): enabling 122; marginalization of 98 – 100; political values and 61 – 63; in research methods 75 – 77; serving techne 10, 63, 104 – 110; in teacher education 20 – 21 phronetic case study approach 73 – 75, 77 phronetic dispositions 122 – 123 Pitfield, M. 94 – 95 policy developments 127 – 132 political interference, in education 1 – 2 political values: morality impacting 63 – 65; pedagogy of discomfort and 51 – 52, 114; student-led Iraq war protest 109, 111, 114; see also personal moral/political values practical wisdom see phronesis (practical wisdom) Prevent Strategy 128, 131, 136 – 137 Pring, R. 1, 61 – 62, 71 problematizing process: characterizing professional knowledge 112 – 113; phronesis serving techne 75 – 76; for social justice issues 115 – 117; in teacher education 72 – 73 process: improving teacher education 138 – 139; of personal/professional development 96 – 97, 103, 117

professional knowledge: courage and 66 – 68; practical wisdom as 10; skillsbased 97 – 100; teaching standards and 85 – 89; value-free homogenized 30 – 31; values-based 11 – 13, 22 – 25, 65 – 66, 73, 79 – 80, 144 provision: cohesive 142; for democratic process 117; improving teacher education 142 – 143; for professional development 97, 103 – 104 PSHE see Personal, Social, Health and Economic Education, (PSHE) pupil-led pedagogy 40 Raggl, A. 58 – 59 Read, G. 4 reflection 47, 49 – 50 Reiss, M. 124 Religious Education (RE): author’s experience 3 – 6; black Africans teaching 104 – 107; citizenship education and 68 – 69; common pedagogic skill set in 69 – 70; trainee mentoring needs 10 – 11; values matching subject aims 12 – 13 Reynolds, M. 71 – 72, 89 Rinehart, F. 87 Robbins, M. 106 Roberts, M. 1 Robson, J. 136 Rogoff, B. 38, 72 Rowley, H. 134 – 135, 137, 139 – 140 Ruskin College speech 1 Sahlberg, P. 44 – 46, 66 Schihalejev, O. 38 School-Centred Initial Teacher Training providers (SCITT) 13 School Direct 128 – 129, 134 – 135, 145 schools, as specialized institutions 1 self-knowledge 50, 59, 125 – 126 self-realization: flourishing in ITE 132 – 137; of teacher as citizen 113 – 117, 126 – 127, 135 – 136, 144; trainee compliance vs. 87 sex and relationships education 89 – 90 Shepherd, J. 91 Sikes, P. 106 Simons, H. 20 – 21 Sirkhotte, W. 51 – 52 Smith, K. 94 – 95, 134 – 135, 137 – 138, 139 – 140 Smith, R. 13 – 16 Snoek, M. 34

Index 155 social justice, citizenship education and 112 – 116 Sosibo, L. 52 Sparks, R. 64 specialized institutions, schools as 1 Stake, R. 20, 22 – 23, 75, 78 Stenberg, K.: on Finnish teachers 44 – 48; personal practical theory tool 50, 59, 87 – 88, 113, 142 – 143 Stenhouse, L. 77 Stephenson, B. 95 student-led Iraq war protest 109, 111 Sutrop, M. 36 – 37 Tann, S. 58 teacher assessment: authentic 33; highquality 46; by value-free knowledge 30 – 32 Teacher Development Agency (TDA) 2 teacher education: adapting/improving 137 – 143; for career-switching trainees 92 – 94; centrality of values in 12 – 13, 22 – 25, 46; criticality in 71; four quadrants of 34; funding for 128 – 129; identity/autonomy in 132 – 137; importance of values in 123; increasingly technicistrationalist 16 – 17; long view of 1 – 2; national/global influences on 28 – 31; personal/professional development in 124 – 125; as political 18 – 20; politicized conception of 18 – 19; realistic approach 33; school-based 127 – 133 Teacher Education Advancement Network (TEAN) journal 36 – 37 teacher educators: care for trainees’ development 16 – 18, 22; conflict of values for 17; insider-outsider position 20 – 22; personal evaluation in 46 – 47; professional dilemma for 34; as researchers 19 – 20, 73; way forward for 60 – 61 teacher identity, transnational comparisons of 28 Teachers as Agents of Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion in Post-Conflict Contexts (ESRC & DfID project) 51 Teachers’ Value Game 36 – 37 Teacher Training Agency (TTA) 2, 40

Teach First 129 – 131, 135 – 136 teaching standards 2, 6 – 11, 22, 30 – 33, 85 – 93 TEAN (Teacher Education Advancement Network) journal 36 – 37 techne (theoretical knowledge): as dominating factor 97 – 100, 109 – 110, 122, 125; phronesis serving 10, 62 – 63, 104 – 109; in research methods 75 – 77; in teacher education 20 – 22 Thatcher, M., Prime Minister 2, 4 theoretical knowledge see techne (theoretical knowledge) theory of human development 5 theory-testing case study method 75 – 77, 144 thin morality 31, 96, 104, 129 Tirri, K. 46, 48 Tracz, S. 64 Troman, G. 58 – 59 Trumbull, D. 78 TTA (Teacher Training Agency) 2, 40 Ugur, K. 37 – 38 unhelpful politeness 114 university partnership model 133 – 134 Value Development in Estonian Society programme 35 values education 36, 39, 49, 62, 85, 87 – 88 Vikki Teacher Training school (Finland) 45, 59 Walker, R. 20 Watson, J. 69 Webb, C. 100 Westhill RE Project 4 – 5 White, J. 124 White Paper of 2010 128 Wilkin, M. 8 – 10 Wilkinson, G. 18 Yin, R. 75 Yin, Z. 96 Young, M. 1, 124 youth agency 111, 113 Zeichner, K. 15 Zembylas, M. 51