US-Japan Human Rights Diplomacy Post 1945: Trafficking, Debates, Outcomes and Documents 9781912961139

The USA, post-1945, has deployed public diplomacy to lead the global fight against sexual and labour trafficking. This b

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US-Japan Human Rights Diplomacy Post 1945: Trafficking, Debates, Outcomes and Documents
 9781912961139

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US-JAPAN HUMAN RIGHTS DIPLOMACY POST 1945

US-Japan Human Rights Diplomacy Post 1945 TRAFFICKING, DEBATES, OUTCOMES AND DOCUMENTS VOLUME 1: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES, ASSESSMENTS AND PRIMARY SOURCES 1945–1995

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by

Roger Buckley

5HQDLVVDQFH%RRNV$VLD3DFLÀFVHULHV9RO,661 US-JAPAN HUMAN RIGHTS DIPLOMACY POST 1945

TRAFFICKING, DEBATES, OUTCOMES AND DOCUMENTS

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Contents ¡ Acknowledgements Abbreviations Introduction

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VOLUME 1: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES AND ASSESSMENTS &KDSWHU &KDSWHU &KDSWHU &KDSWHU &KDSWHU &KDSWHU

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Postscript

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(  YDQ/XDUGA History of the United Nations, volume 1: The Years of Western Domination, 1945–1955 /RQGRQ S  Ashild Samnoy Human Rights as International Consensus: The Making of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1945–1948 %HUJHQ1RUZD\ ¶+XPDQULJKWVUHIHUHQFHVLQWKH81&KDUWHU·$SSHQGL[ $UWLFOHS  6HH )DELDQ .ORVH ¶6RXUFH RI (PEDUUDVVPHQW· +XPDQ 5LJKWV 6WDWH RI (PHUJHQF\ DQG WKH :DUVRI'HFRORQL]DWLRQ·LQ6WHIDQ/XGZLJ+RIIPDQQ HG  Human Rights in the Twentieth Century



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