Unsaturated Soils for Asia 9781003078616, 9058091392, 4654714774, 9789058091390

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 16
Organisation......Page 18
1: Keynote lectures......Page 20
Fundamentals of rockfill collapse......Page 22
Some thoughts and studies on the prediction of slope stability in expansive soils......Page 34
Solar energy and evapotranspiration: A control of the unsaturation state in soils......Page 52
Unsaturated tropical residual soils and rainfall induced slope failures in Malaysia......Page 60
Historical developments and milestones in unsaturated soil mechanics......Page 72
Geotechnical aspects of groundwater recharge in arid regions......Page 88
2: Fundamentals and theoretical developments......Page 102
Prediction of cone-index from the state parameter of unsaturated soils......Page 104
Physical definition of residual water content in unsaturated soils......Page 110
The behaviour of unsaturated porous media in the light of a micromechanical approach......Page 114
Applicability of a general effective stress concept to unsaturated soils......Page 120
A neural network framework for unsaturated soils......Page 126
Study of the influence of adhesion force on deformation and strength of unsaturated soil......Page 132
Application of the effective stress principle to volume change in unsaturated soils......Page 138
CT discrimination of fabric change of unsaturated compacted loess during compression process......Page 144
Generalized pore pressure model considering damage for unsaturated soil......Page 150
Constitutive models for triaxial consolidation and shearing of unsaturated soil......Page 156
Damage function and a masonry model for Loess......Page 162
Change of shear strength due to surface tension and matric suction of pore water in unsaturated sandy soils......Page 166
Three-dimensional elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soils......Page 172
Reconsideration of suction controlled techniques by thermodynamics theory of water in soil......Page 178
Understanding of some behaviour of unsaturated soil by theoretical study on capillary action......Page 182
3.1: Modelling of flow......Page 188
Analysis of non-Darcy flow in unsaturated soils modelled by finite element method......Page 190
A technology for unsaturated zone modelling under variable weather conditions......Page 196
Volume averaged parameters for two-phase flow......Page 202
Application of FE consolidation analysis method to fill-type dams......Page 208
Finite element modelling of geomechanics and geoenvironmental engineering for subsurface systems......Page 214
General partial differential equation solvers for saturated-unsaturated seepage......Page 220
Numerical modelling of soil water plant interaction......Page 226
Water flow in unsaturated soil slopes with horizontal drains......Page 230
Governing equations of unsaturated seepage taking the effects of air flow and volume change into consideration......Page 236
3.2: Modelling of stresses and deformations......Page 240
Using soil diffusion to design slab-on-ground foundations on expansive soils......Page 242
Volume change predictions in expansive soils using a two-dimensional finite element method......Page 250
A numerical model of ground moisture variations with active vegetation......Page 256
A stress-strain relationship to solve the singularity resulting from coupling the yield surfaces of Barcelona model......Page 262
Undrained conditions of unsaturated soil using an integral form of the constraints and full Newton-Raphson procedure......Page 268
Performances of HiSS δl-unsat model for soils under saturated and unsaturated conditions......Page 274
4: Suction measurement techniques......Page 280
A new matric suction calibration curve......Page 282
Comparison of total suction values from psychrometer and filter paper methods......Page 288
Use of a new thermal conductivity sensor for laboratory suction measurement......Page 294
A comparison of in-situ soil suction measurements......Page 300
Comparative measurements with sand box, pressure membrane extractor and pressure plate extractor......Page 306
Suction calibration curve of filter paper made in China......Page 312
Investigation of suction generation in apparatus employing osmotic methods......Page 316
A study of the efficiency of semi-permeable membranes in controlling soil matrix suction using the osmotic technique......Page 322
Response of the IC tensiometer with respect to cavitation......Page 328
5: Soil-water characteristics......Page 334
Mineralogy and microfabric of unsaturated residual soil......Page 336
The use of indicator tests to estimate the drying leg of the soil-water characteristic curve......Page 342
The model of water retention curve considering effects of void ratio......Page 348
A new test procedure to measure the soil-water characteristic curves using a small-scale centrifuge......Page 354
A simple method of determining the soil-water charactistic curve indirectly......Page 360
Preliminary study on soil-water characteristics of two expansive soils......Page 366
Engineering properties of unsaturated soils (volume change and permeability)......Page 372
Soil-water characteristic curves of peaty soils......Page 376
6: Permeability and flow......Page 382
A triaxial permeameter for unsaturated soils......Page 384
An explicit relationship for the average capillary suction at the wetting front of soils......Page 390
A method for determining hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity of unsaturated soils......Page 394
A new laboratory method for the measurement of unsaturated coefficients of permeability of soils......Page 400
Water content and soil suction in the capillary zone......Page 406
Examination of the inverse methods for hydraulic properties of unsaturated sandy soil......Page 412
Grain size and void diameter distributions of sands......Page 418
Investigation of seepage behavior through unsaturated soil......Page 424
Numerical simulation for pore fluid flow through unsaturated soil......Page 428
Impact of surface clogging on artificial recharge......Page 434
Determination of field-saturated hydraulic conductivity in unsaturated soil by the pressure infiltrometer method......Page 440
Hydraulic conductivity measurements in two unsaturated soils of Querétaro Valley, Mexico......Page 446
Temperature effects on water retention and water permeability of an unsaturated clay......Page 452
Measuring hydraulic properties for unsaturated soils with unsteady method......Page 458
Inverse analysis of in situ permeability test data for determining unsaturated soil hydraulic properties......Page 464
The application of knowledge-based surface flux boundary modelling......Page 470
Influence of some hydraulic parameters on the pore-water pressure distribution in unsaturated homogeneous soils......Page 476
7: Mass transport......Page 482
Experimental studies of salt movement through unsaturated soils......Page 484
Role of unsaturated soil on aqueous diffusion......Page 490
States of saturation and flow as key inputs in modelling the biodegradation of waste refuse......Page 496
Coupled transient heat and moisture flow in unsaturated swelling soil......Page 502
Dispersivity of partially saturated sand estimated by laboratory column test......Page 508
Impact of the 'Alsacian vineyard ingrassed' on nitrate transfer......Page 514
8: Strength and deformation......Page 518
Triaxial testing of laterite soils......Page 520
Mechanism of rain-induced slope failure in residual soils......Page 524
Estimation of the relation between suction and cohesion using unconfined compression tests......Page 528
Study on shear strength and swelling-shrinkage characteristic of compacted expansive soil......Page 534
Shear strength and swelling of compacted partly saturated bentonite......Page 540
Combined effect of fabric, bonding and partial saturation on yielding of soils......Page 546
Suction and strength behaviour of unsaturated calcrete......Page 552
Soil behaviour in suction controlled cyclic and dynamic torsional shear tests......Page 558
Effects of moulding water content on the behaviour of an unsaturated silty sand......Page 564
Laboratory study of loosely compacted unsaturated volcanic fill in Hong Kong......Page 570
Direct shear properties of a compacted soil with known stress history......Page 576
Relationship between shear strength and matric suction in an unsaturated silty soil......Page 582
Analysis of a steep slope in unsaturated pyroclastic soils......Page 588
Shear strength behaviour of unsaturated granite residual soil......Page 594
Triaxial testing of unsaturated samples of undisturbed residual soil from Singapore......Page 600
Shear strength of undisturbed Bukit Timah granitic soils under infiltration conditions......Page 606
9.1: Collapse......Page 612
Collapsibility of Egyptian loess soil......Page 614
Effect of dissolution of calcium sulfate on volume change characteristics of unsaturated......Page 620
Boundary value problems associated with unsaturated soil collapse testing......Page 626
Building on unsaturated fills: Compaction, suction and volume change......Page 632
9.2: Shrinkage and swelling......Page 638
Soil structure influence on the heave reduction factor......Page 640
Vertical swelling of expansive soils under fully and partially lateral restraint conditions......Page 646
Influence of structure and stress history on the drying behaviour of clays......Page 652
Study on the swell properties and soil improvement of compacted expansive soil......Page 658
Effect of mode of wetting on the deformational behavior of unsaturated soils......Page 664
An experimental study of elastic volume change in unsaturated soils......Page 670
The influence of fabric and mineralogy on the expansivity of an Australian residual clay soil......Page 676
Estimation of volume change functions for unsaturated soils......Page 682
On the volume measurement in unsaturated triaxial test......Page 688
Shrinkage behaviour of some tropical clays......Page 694
Effects of compaction on the reduction of undrained strength and stiffness of Cikarang expansive clay due to wetting......Page 700
Evaluation of ground movement using a simple soil suction technique in Western Australia......Page 706
Desiccation cracking of soil layers......Page 712
Analysis of swelling pressure for an expansive soil using the resistance concept......Page 718
Clay stiffness and reactivity derived from clay mineralogy......Page 722
The lateral swelling pressure on the volumetric behaviour of natural expansive soil deposits......Page 728
Engineering characteristics of black cotton soils in Francistown......Page 734
Behaviour of an unsaturated highly expansive clay during cycles of wetting and drying......Page 740
Swelling characteristics of compacted clayey soils related to their wetting curves......Page 746
10.1: Foundations and roads......Page 750
The blocking effect of piles on ground water level in slopes under rainfall......Page 752
Total soil suction regimes near trees in a semi-arid environment......Page 758
Distress caused by heaving of footing and floor slab – A case study in Gaborone......Page 764
Properties of swelling soils in West Java......Page 770
Multistory apartment building on poznań clay – Case history......Page 776
On the bearing capacity of an unsaturated expansive soil basement......Page 782
Measurement of soil pore pressures in the Danish Road Testing Machine (RTM)......Page 788
10.2: Slopes......Page 794
Field measurements of pore-water pressure profiles in residual soil slopes of the Bukit Timah Granite Formation, Singapore......Page 796
Preliminary assessment of slope stability with respect to rainfall-induced slope failures......Page 802
Three-dimensional back analysis of unsaturated soil strength parameters......Page 808
A new slope stability analysis for Shirasu slopes in Japan......Page 814
Rainfall-induced slope failures in Taiwan......Page 820
Suction and infiltration measurement on cut slope in highly heterogeneous residual soil......Page 826
Modelling variables to predict landslides in the south west flank of the Cameroon volcanic line, Cameroon, West Africa......Page 832
Laboratory experiments on initiation of rainfall-induced slope failure......Page 838
On the stability of unsaturated soil slopes......Page 844
Water retention in a steep moraine slope during periods of heavy rain......Page 850
Influence of rainfall sequences on the seepage conditions within a slope: A parametric study......Page 856
The measurement of matric suction in slopes of unsaturated soil......Page 862
Suction measurement for the prediction of slope failure due to rainfall......Page 866
Author index......Page 872

Citation preview

UNSATURATED SOILS FOR ASIA

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASIAN CONFERENCE ON UNSATURATED SOILS UNSAT-ASIA 2000/ SINGAPORE/ 18- 19 MAY 2000

Unsaturated Soils for Asia

Edited by

H.Rahardjo, D.G.Toll & E.C. Leong

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

f.?\ Taylor & Francis ~ Taylor&FrancisGroup

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Organised by the NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, with the support of the Technical Committee on Unsaturated Soils (TC6) of the International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.

Cover: The photograph shows a triaxial test set-up for unsaturated soil tests at Nanyang Technological University.

The texts of the various papers in this volume were set individually by typists under the supervision of each of the authors concerned. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Taylor & Francis, provided that the base fee of US$ 1.50 per copy, plus US$ 0.10 per page is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is: 90 5809 139 2/00 US$ 1.50 +US$ 0.10. Published by Taylor & Francis 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Transferred to Digital Printing 2007 ISBN 90 5809 139 2 © 2000 Taylor & Francis

Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Table of contents

Preface

XV

Organisation

XVII

1 Keynote lectures 3

Fundamentals of rockfill collapse E.EAlonso & LAOldecop Some thoughts and studies on the prediction of slope stability in expansive soils CG.Bao & CW.W.Ng

15

Solar energy and evapotranspiration: A control of the unsaturation state in soils G. E. Blight

33

Unsaturated tropical residual soils and rainfall induced slope failures in Malaysia H.AFaisal

41

Historical developments and milestones in unsaturated soil mechanics D. G. Fredlund

53

Geotechnical aspects of groundwater recharge in arid regions S.LHouston

69

2 Fundamentals and theoretical developments Prediction of cone-index from the state parameter of unsaturated soils MZAbedin & MARashid

85

Physical definition of residual water content in unsaturated soils T.Aoda

91

The behaviour of unsaturated porous media in the light of a micromechanical approach XChateau &LDormieux

95

Applicability of a general effective stress concept to unsaturated soils F. Geiser

101

A neural network framework for unsaturated soils G.Habibagahi, S.Katebi &AJohari

107

v

Study of the influence of adhesion force on deformation and strength of unsaturated soil by DEM analysis S.Kato, S.Yamamoto & S.Nonami

113

Application of the effective stress principle to volume change in unsaturated soils N.Khalili

119

CT discrimination of fabric change of unsaturated compacted loess during compression process X.lLi,ZWang &lZYin

125

Generalized pore pressure model considering damage for unsaturated soil X.HLuo

131

Constitutive models for triaxial consolidation and shearing of unsaturated soil MARashid & MZAbedin

137

Damage function and a masonry model for Loess ZlShen &ZQ.Hu

143

Change of shear strength due to surface tension and matric suction of pore water in unsaturated sandy soils K.Shimada,HFujii, S.Nishimura, T.Nishiyama & T.Morii

147

Three-dimensional elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soils D.ASun,HMatsuoka, Y.P.Yao & W.Ichihara

153

Reconsideration of suction controlled techniques by thermodynamics theory of water in soil HSuzuki

159

Understanding of some behaviour of unsaturated soil by theoretical study on capillary action KTateyama & Y.Fukui

163

3 Numerical modelling 3.1 Modelling of flow Analysis of non-Darcy flow in unsaturated soils modelled by finite element method W.Gasaluck

171

A technology for unsaturated zone modelling under variable weather conditions MLGogolev & P.Delaney

177

Volume averaged parameters for two-phase flow MHoffmann

183

Application of FE consolidation analysis method to fill-type dams Y. Kogho, LAsano & HTagashira

189

Finite element modelling of geomechanics and geoenvironmental engineering for subsurface systems N.Abd. Rahman

195

General partial differential equation solvers for saturated-unsaturated seepage N.T.MThieu, D.G.Fredlund & V.Q.Hung

201

VI

Numerical modelling of soil water plant interaction M K Trivedi, K. S.Hariprasad, AGairola & D. Kashyap

207

Water flow in unsaturated soil slopes with horizontal drains D.Q.Yang, H.Rahardjo, ECLeong & S.KKong

211

Governing equations of unsaturated seepage taking the effects of air flow and volume change into consideration H.Zhang & S.Y.Chen

217

3.2 Modelling of stresses and deformations Using soil diffusion to design slab-on-ground foundations on expansive soils B.MEl-Garhy,AAYoussef & W.KWray

223

Volume change predictions in expansive soils using a two-dimensional finite element method 231 V.Q.Hung & D. G. Fredlund A numerical model of ground moisture variations with active vegetation K.G.Mills

237

A stress-strain relationship to solve the singularity resulting from coupling the yield surfaces of Barcelona model KNesnas & LCPyrah

243

Undrained conditions of unsaturated soil using an integral form of the constraints and full Newton-Raphson procedure KNesnas &LCPyrah

249

o

Performances of HiSS 1_unsat model for soils under saturated and unsaturated conditions ARifa'i, LLaloui, LVulliet & F.Geiser

255

4 Suction measurement techniques A new matric suction calibration curve R.Bulut, S.-W.Park &R.LLytton

263

Comparison of total suction values from psychrometer and filter paper methods R.Bulut, S.-W.Park &R.LLytton

269

Use of a new thermal conductivity sensor for laboratory suction measurement D. G. Fredlund, F.Shuai & MFeng

275

A comparison of in-situ soil suction measurements B.AHarrison & G.EBlight

281

Comparative measurements with sand box, pressure membrane extractor and pressure plate extractor E.Imre,KRajkai,ZCzap, T.Firgi, G.Telekes &LAradi

287

Suction calibration curve of filter paper made in China G.Jiang, ZWang, G. Tan & J.Y.Qiu

293

VII

Investigation of suction generation in apparatus employing osmotic methods

297

A study of the efficiency of semi-permeable membranes in controlling soil matrix suction using the osmotic technique

303

E.E.Slatter, CAJungnickel,D.W.Smith &MAAllman

ATarantino &LMongiov'i

Response of the IC tensiometer with respect to cavitation A Tarantino, G. Bosco & L Mongiov'i

309

5 Soil-water characteristics Mineralogy and microfabric of unsaturated residual soil K.K.Aung, H.Rahardjo, D. G. Toll & E.CLeong

317

The use ofindicator tests to estimate the drying leg of the soil-water characteristic curve

323

The model of water retention curve considering effects of void ratio

329

B.AHarrison & G. E. Blight

K. Kawai, D. Karube & S. Kato

A new test procedure to measure the soil-water characteristic curves using a small-scale centrifuge R.MKhanzode, D. G. Fredlund & S.K.Vanapalli

335

A simple method of determining the soil-water charactistic curve indirectly

341

Preliminary study on soil-water characteristics of two expansive soils

347

Engineering properties of unsaturated soils (volume change and permeability)

353

L-W.Kong & L-R.Tan

CW.W.Ng,B.Wang,B.W.Gong & CG.Bao

K. Premalatha

Soil-water characteristic curves of peaty soils

357

J.LTan, E.CLeong & H.Rahardjo

6 Permeability andflow A triaxial permeameter for unsaturated soils

365

S. S.Agus, E. C Leong & H. Rahardjo

An explicit relationship for the average capillary suction at the wetting front of soils MY.Fard

371

A method for determining hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity of unsaturated soils

375

MY.Fard

A new laboratory method for the measurement of unsaturated coefficients of permeability of soils J.K.-MGan & D. G. Fredlund

381

Water content and soil suction in the capillary zone

387

W.N.Houston, D.Al-Samahiji & S.LHouston

VIII

Examination of the inverse methods for hydraulic properties of unsaturated sandy soil

393

Grain size and void diameter distributions of sands

399

T.Ishida, H.Taninaka & Y.Nakagawa

KKamiya & T.Uno

Investigation of seepage behavior through unsaturated soil

405

R. Kitamura, M Seyama & H.Abe

Numerical simulation for pore fluid flow through unsaturated soil

409

Impact of surface clogging on artificial recharge

415

R.Kitamura, Y.Miyamoto & Y.Shimizu

D.lMcAlister,lArunakumaren & T.Grantham

Determination of field-saturated hydraulic conductivity in unsaturated soil by the pressure infiltrometer method

421

T.Morii, M/noue & Y.Takeshita

Hydraulic conductivity measurements in two unsaturated soils of Queretaro Valley, Mexico A Perez-Garcia & D. Hurtado-Maldonado

427

Temperature effects on water retention and water permeability of an unsaturated clay

433

E.Romero,AGens &ALloret

Measuring hydraulic properties for unsaturated soils with unsteady method

439

T.Sugii, KYamada & MUemura

Inverse analysis of in situ permeability test data for determining unsaturated soil hydraulic properties

445

Y.Takeshita, KYagi, T.Morii & Mlnoue

The application of knowledge-based surface flux boundary modelling G. W.Wilson & MD. Fredlund

451

Influence of some hydraulic parameters on the pore-water pressure distribution in unsaturated 457 homogeneous soils

LT.Zhan, C.W.W.Ng,B.Wang & C.G.Bao

7 Mass transport Experimental studies of salt movement through unsaturated soils

465

R.Bhargava &AGairola

471

Role of unsaturated soil on aqueous diffusion P.C.Lim

States of saturation and flow as key inputs in modelling the biodegradation of waste refuse

477

lR.McDougall &LC.Pyrah

Coupled transient heat and moisture flow in unsaturated swelling soil

483

AMQMohamed

Dispersivity of partially saturated sand estimated by laboratory column test T.Sato, MShibata, Y.Usui & H.Tanahashi IX

489

Impact of the 'Alsacian vineyard ingrassed' on nitrate transfer

495

lTournebize & CGregoire-Himmler

8 Strength and deformation Triaxial testing oflaterite soils

501

Mechanism of rain-induced slope failure in residual soils

505

Estimation of the relation between suction and cohesion using unconfined compression tests S.Kato, Y.Yoshimura &KKawai

509

Study on shear strength and swelling-shrinkage characteristic of compacted expansive soil

515

Shear strength and swelling of compacted partly saturated bentonite

521

Combined effect of fabric, bonding and partial saturation on yielding of soils S.Leroueil & P.S.deABarbosa

527

Suction and strength behaviour of unsaturated calcrete

533

Soil behaviour in suction controlled cyclic and dynamic torsional shear tests CMancuso, R.Vassallo &Ad' Onofrio

539

Effects of moulding water content on the behaviour of an unsaturated silty sand C Mancuso, R.Vassallo & F.Vinale

545

Laboratory study of loosely compacted unsaturated volcanic fill in Hong Kong CW.W.Ng, CF.Chiu &H.Rahardjo

551

Direct shear properties of a compacted soil with known stress history T.Nishimura

557

Relationship between shear strength and matric suction in an unsaturated silty soil T.Nishimura &D.G.Fredlund

563

Analysis of a steep slope in unsaturated pyroclastic soils A Scotto di Santolo

569

Shear strength behaviour of unsaturated granite residual soil

575

AMDeshmukh & N.N.Amonkor KKHan &H.Rahardjo

L-W.Kong &L-R.Tan

lKos, lPacovskj & R.Travnfcek

N.LLing & D. G. Toll

MR.Taha, MKHossain & S.AMofiz

Triaxial testing of unsaturated samples of undisturbed residual soil from Singapore D. G. Toll, B.H.Ong & H.Rahardjo

Shear strength of undisturbed Bukit Timah granitic soils under infiltration conditions lCWong, H.Rahardjo, D. G. Toll & ECLeong

X

581 587

9 Volume change 9.1 Collapse Collapsibility ofEgyptian loess soil

595

F.MAbdrabbo,R.MElHansy &KMHamed

Effect of dissolution of calcium sulfate on volume change characteristics of unsaturated soil sediments

601

.S:Azam & .S:N.Abduljauwad

Boundary value problems associated with unsaturated soil collapse testing

607

R.ARohlf&LG.Wells

Building on unsaturated fills: Compaction, suction and volume change

613

HD.Skinner

9.2 Shrinkage and swelling Soil structure influence on the heave reduction factor W. .S:Abdullah, A Basma & MAjlouni

621

Vertical swelling of expansive soils under fully and partially lateral restraint conditions

627

MAAl-Shamrani &ALAl-Mhaidib

Influence of structure and stress history on the drying behaviour of clays

633

F.Cafaro, F.Cotecchia & CCherubini

Study on the swell properties and soil improvement of compacted expansive soil

639

Y.lDu & .S:Hayashi

Effect of mode of wetting on the deformational behavior of unsaturated soils

645

MA El-Sohby, .S: 0. Mazen & M MAboutaha

An experimental study of elastic volume change in unsaturated soils AR.Estabragh,AAJavadi &lCBoot

651

The influence of fabric and mineralogy on the expansivity of an Australian residual clay soil .S: Fityus & D.W. Smith

657

Estimation of volume change functions for unsaturated soils

663

MD. Fredlund, D.G. Fredlund & G.W.Wilson

On the volume measurement in unsaturated triaxial test

669

F.Geiser, LLaloui & L Vulliet

Shrinkage behaviour of some tropical clays

675

P.R.N.Hobbs, KlNorthmore, LD.Jones & D.CEntwisle

Effects of compaction on the reduction of undrained strength and stiffness of Cikarang expansive clay due to wetting

681

HJitno & B.T.Rayadi

Evaluation of ground movement using a simple soil suction technique in Western Australia A Khan & HR.Nikraz

XI

687

Desiccation cracking of soil layers J.KKodikara, S.L.Barbour &D.G.Fredlund

693

Analysis of swelling pressure for an expansive soil using the resistance concept KMawire &K.Senneset

699

Clay stiffness and reactivity derived from clay mineralogy KG. Mills

703

The lateral swelling pressure on the volumetric behaviour of natural expansive soil deposits A Sabbagh

709

Engineering characteristics of black cotton soils in Francistown B.KSahu

715

Behaviour of an unsaturated highly expansive clay during cycles of wetting and drying R.S.Sharma & S.J.Wheeler

721

Swelling characteristics of compacted clayey soils related to their wetting curves R.AASoemitro & lndarto

727

10 Engineering applications 10.1 Foundations and roads The blocking effect of piles on ground water level in slopes under rainfall F.Cai &KUgai

733

Total soil suction regimes near trees in a semi-arid environment D.ACameron

739

Distress caused by heaving of footing and floor slab- A case study in Gaborone B.K Sahu & B. K S.Sedumedi

745

Properties of swelling soils in West Java B.Wibawa & H.Rahardjo

751

Multistory apartment building on poznan clay - Case history AT.Wojtasik &J.Jei

757

On the bearing capacity of an unsaturated expansive soil basement Y.F.Xu, D.Fu & G.J.Zhang

763

Measurement of soil pore pressures in the Danish Road Testing Machine (RTM) W.Zhang & R.AMacdonald

769

10.2 Slopes Field measurements of pore-water pressure profiles in residual soil slopes of the Bukit Timah Granite Formation, Singapore MS. Deutscher, J.MGasmo, H.Rahardjo, E.CLeong & S.KTang

777

Preliminary assessment of slope stability with respect to rainfall-induced slope failures J.MGasmo, H.Rahardjo, MS. Deutscher & E.CLeong

783

XII

Three-dimensional back analysis of unsaturated soil strength parameters

789

J.-CJiang, T.Yamagami &KUeno

A new slope stability analysis for Shirasu slopes in Japan

795

R. Kitamura, K Sakoh & MYamada

Rainfall-induced slope failures in Taiwan

801

H. D. Lin & J. H. S. Kung

Suction and infiltration measurement on cut slope in highly heterogeneous residual soil

807

T.H.Low,H.AFaisal &MSaravanan

Modelling variables to predict landslides in the south west flank of the Cameroon volcanic line, Cameroon, West Africa E. E. Nama

813

Laboratory experiments on initiation of rainfall-induced slope failure

819

MNishigaki &ATohari

On the stability of unsaturated soil slopes

825

LT.Shao &Zh.P.Wang

Water retention in a steep moraine slope during periods of heavy rain

831

P.Teysseire, LCortona & S.MSpringman

Influence of rainfall sequences on the seepage conditions within a slope: A parametric study

837

LTsaparas, D. G. Toll & H.Rahardjo

The measurement of matric suction in slopes of unsaturated soil

843

ZWang,B.W.Gong & CG.Bao

Suction measurement for the prediction of slope failure due to rainfall

847

N.Yagi, R.Yatabe, KYokota & N.P.Bhandary

Author index

853

XIII

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Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Preface

The Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils is organised by the NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, with the support of the Technical Committee on Unsaturated Soils (TC6) of the International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. This publication contains the papers presented at this conference. Although there have been several international and other regional conferences on unsaturated soils, this is the first Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils. It is appropriate to organise this conference in Asia where abundant 'problematic soils' exist such as swelling soils, collapsible soils and residual soils. Common to these soils is their unsaturated nature and their problematic behaviour that arises when these soils come in contact with water. They are called problematic soils because their behaviour cannot be explained using conventional saturated soil mechanics. Unsaturated soil mechanics has developed to the stage where the theoretical frameworks, the required equipment and measuring techniques are readily available to be put into practice. Therefore, the theme 'From Theory to Practice' is adopted for this conference. The First Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils is timely in being organised when Asian countries are actively developing their infrastructures to cater for growth in their populations and economies. Many civil engineering developments involve unsaturated soils that require special consideration, analyses and measurements within the framework of unsaturated soil mechanics. The papers presented to this conference cover a wide range of topics from the fundamentals to practical experiences and from new equipment development to advances in numerical modelling. Flow, shear strength and volume change characteristics of unsaturated soils dominate the discussions of different problems such as heave, collapse, slope instability, foundation failures and contaminant transport. Suction and soil-water characteristics appear to play crucial roles in understanding and solving these problems that are closely related to water flow through unsaturated soils. We hope that this publication helps to bridge the gap between the theory and practice of unsaturated soils. H.Rahardjo, D.G.Toll and E. C. Leong Editors

XV

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Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 1392

Organisation

ADVISORY COMMIITEE Chairman: Prof. D.G. Fredlund, Canada Members: Prof. S.N.Abduljauwad, Saudi Arabia Prof. E. E.Alonso, Spain Prof. T.Amirsoleymani, Iran Prof. C.G.Bao, P.R.China Prof. G.E.Blight, South Africa Prof. S. Frydman, Israel

Prof. S.L.Houston, USA Prof. D.Karube, Japan Prof. S. K. Kim, Korea Prof. Z.J.Shen, P.R.China Assoc. Prof. C.I.Teh, Singapore Prof. S.J.Wheeler, United Kingdom

TECHNICAL COMMIITEE Chairman: Assoc. Prof. H.Rahardjo NanyangTechnological University, Singapore

Technical Secretary:

DrD.G.Toll

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Members:

Prof. H.A.Faisal C.E.Ho Prof. R. Kitamura Assoc. Prof. E.C.Leong Prof. H. D. Lin Assoc. Prof. C.W.W.Ng Dr T. Nishimura Dr R.A.A.Soemitro Assoc. Prof. T.S.Tan S.K.Tang Assoc. Prof. K.Tateyama DrD-Q.Yang

University of Malaya, Malaysia

formerly Prescrete Engineering Pte Ltd, Singapore

Kagoshima University, Japan

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, SAR, P. R.China

Ashikaga Institute of Technology, Japan

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia

National University of Singapore

PWD Consultants Pte Ltd, Singapore

Kyoto University, Japan

Moh and Associates (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore

SECRETARIAT

Er. J. S.Y.Tan

CI-Premier Pte Ltd, Singapore

XVII

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

1 Keynote lectures

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Fundamentals of rockfill collapse E.E.Alonso & L.A.Oldecop

Department ofGeotechnical Engineering and Geosciences, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain

ABSTRACT: Rockfill behaviour is known to be strongly influenced by water action. Collapse settlements typically occur in rockfill darns, in which the upstream shell is flooded during reservoir filling. Moreover, it seems that in some cases collapse deformations were related to heavy rainfall. With the aim of studying the behaviour of rockfill in non-saturated condition under variable water content, oedometer test were performed on a rockfill-type-material, a quartzitic slate, with control of relative humidity. The main conclusion of this work is that it is enough to impose a 100% relative humidity atmosphere within the rockfill voids in order to get the same collapse strain magnitude as obtained by flooding the specimen. Experimental results are inter­ preted and a basic mechanism of rockfill volumetric deformation, which is based on some fracture propaga­ tion mechanisms, is proposed. 1 INTRODUCTION

the concrete facing was severely damaged due to bulging of the upstream slope in its lower half. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the post-construction behaviour of the 150 meters high Infiernillo dam build in Mexico in the 60's. It is a zoned rockfill dam with a thin central clay core. Shells where made of quarried diorite and conglomerates dumped dry and without compaction. The upstream shell col­ lapse upon the reservoir filling, during 1964, may be recognised in the settlement and horizontal dis­ placement records of surface marker M-10 (crest, El. 180). It is worth noting that after a nineteen months period with decreasing deformation rates (from January 1965 to July 1966), a sudden increase in settlement and downstream horizontal displacement rates of the surface markers M-10 and M-23 oc­ curred in august 1966. This new deformation epi­ sode lasted until the end of 1968. In correspondence with the onset of such higher deformation rates, a rather intense rainfall occurred during the second semester of 1966 (as compared with the 1965 rainy season). This fact suggests that the rockfill of the downstream shell may be wetted significantly for the first time in the 1966 rainy season, and that the rain triggered the collapse. It could be expected that the wetting by rainfall is slower than the wetting due to reservoir impounding. Consistent with this sugges­ tion, the deformation process during the downstream shell collapse lasted thirty months whereas the col­ lapse of the upstream shell lasted only seven months. However both produced almost the same amount of crest settlements and horizontal displacement. The

Rockfill shows some distinct features of behaviour due to their particular grain size distribution and grain shape. Time dependent deformations occur starting from early stages of construction and con­ tinue along very long periods. Settlements records of rockfill dams (Sowers et al 1965) showed that the deformation process of rockfill can last many dec­ ades. Another characteristic behaviour of rockfill is the development of collapse strains due to wetting. Upstream shells of rockfill dams show often collapse deformations upon flooding due to the reservoir filling. This behaviour was also observed in labora­ tory test programs in which the specimen was im­ pounded under load (Sowers et al 1965, Marsal 1973, Nobari & Duncan 1972). Collapse of rockfill has also been observed to be induced by wetting due to rainfall. Such a behaviour, which is still not completely understood, was re­ ported for some ten rockfill structures over the world. Naylor et al (1997) reported a correlation between settlements of Beliche Dam (Portugal) and rainfall records in the site. A 360 mm rainfall caused very intense collapse deformations to occur in the 60 meters high Cogswell dam, when it was still under construction (Bauman 1960). In this concrete faced dam, the fill, made of quarried granitic gneiss, was placed by dumping with no compaction nor wetting. In contact with the rain water, vertical settlements suddenly increased up to 4% of the fill height and 3

rainy seasons of 1967 and 1968 are followed by further increments of the displacements rates, sug­ gesting that the wetting of rockfill was not com­ pleted during 1966 and that the incorporation of further water quantities caused additional collapse strains. Marsal (1976) also suggested that the first flooding of the lower part of the downstream shell by the river water that, at the time, had a high level due to the spillway operation, may be the cause of this behaviour. However, the settlements records of cross-arm D-2 from July 1966 to March 1975 (Fig. 2), proves that the strains which occurred along that period affected the material from the foundation up to El. 120 which is clearly very much above the maximum river water level 68 reached in 1967 (see Fig. I). Whereas it is reasonable to accept that the flooding of the lower part of the shell may contribute to the referred deformations, this effect alone does not justifies the straining of the upper part of the shell which was never flooded (from El. 68 to El. 120) and hence such deformations should be attrib­ uted to wetting by rainfall.

160,-----,----.----~----.------.--,

!50 140

130

lOOm

50

0

E!ev. (m)

30 Settlement (em) Figure 2. E! Infiernillo Dam. Settlement record of cross-arm D-2 (see Fig. I for location) (data after Marsal, 1976)

Soriano & Sanchez (1999) reported the post­ construction behaviour of the Madrid-Sevilla (Spain) high-speed railway embankments, some of them ex­ ceeding 50 meters high and mostly constructed with slate and schist rockfill. Figure 3 shows a clear cor­ relation, during 1996 and 1997, between rainfall and settlement rate recorded in one of those embank­ ments. It should be noted that further rainfall at the end of 1997, of almost the same intensity as that oc­ curred in the early 1996, does not cause any observ­ able collapse behaviour. It can be concluded that previous rain events exerted a pre-consolidation ef­ fect in the fill. Terzaghi (1960) suggested that a possible reason for the large deformations of rockfills could be the breakage of rock particles in the vicinity of highly stressed contacts and the subsequent rearrangement of the granular structure into a more stable position. This was confirmed by the large amount of rockfill experimental data produced during the 60s and 70s using large scale testing equipment (Sowers, 1965; Fumagalli, 1969; Marachi et a!, 1969; Marsal, 1973; Penman et a!, 1976; Veiga Pinto, 1983). Particle breakage was observed to occur in all of these tests. Breakage intensity depends on the applied stress level, particle shape and grading (angular particles and uniform grading cause more particle breakage), the rock strength, and the presence of water. In ad­ dition, a size effect was identified (Marachi et a!,

....

.....

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 "" Rese~~~ir ~~te;·~lev~tion (';;;) ""

1964 1965 170

r

•1""1--..,.ri-...~j

' I'

150

f-'+\- Reservoir filling 130

\

\

\

'\

v

v

70 Downstream river water elevation (m) I

l

l

60

/~

50

400 Rainfall (l/m2/month)

...

......

j"l -· ." --+20 ' '

---

200 0 -20

I

'

+40 '

' '

­

y·,, --- 20 ;\:__ 0

'

60 '

'

''

I.

'

I

R-- ' -

'-,

----r'-..

'

80 Settlement (em) 100

-

.

A1

... I

~

-y

.. -

~·--· Horizontal displacement (em),(+)= downstream

0

40

l

.~

.I

.:1.

-- -·---­ ---

1----

--­ ­ -,­

M-10 ~ M-23 M-30

r---- --­ --­ --­

........ ,.......

t---,

Figure I. Post-construction behaviour of El Infiernillo Dam, Mexico (data after Marsal eta!, 1976).

4

1969) which causes that, other factors being con­ stant, the larger the grain size, the more intense is the particle breakage because larger particles are statistically more prone to contain larger flaws. Nobari and Duncan (1972) identified the factors having influence on the collapse of rockfill upon flooding, from the observation of the behaviour of crushed argillite in one-dimensional and triaxial compression tests. They found that the initial water content was the most important factor determining the amount of collapse upon flooding. The larger was the initial water content, the smaller was the collapse deformation. Sieve analysis carried out be­ fore and after flooding the sample, showed that par­ ticle crushing occurs not only due to stress increase but also during collapse due to flooding. This im­ portant observation suggests that the explanation for rockfill collapse should be sought in the influence of water in the rock fracture mechanisms. With the aim of getting a better understanding of rockfill deformation mechanisms, a rockfill-type material was tested in one-dimensional compression applying a relative humidity (RH) control system. The test set up and the experimental results are pre­ sented in the following section. In the last part of the paper the experimental results are discussed and in­ terpreted. A basic mechanism of rockfill volumetric deformation, which is based on a fracture propaga­ tion mechanism, is proposed. It is hoped that a better know ledge of rockfill deformation mechanisms will help to improve design and construction practices of rockfill structures, will improve our prediction capa­ bility and will also help in the interpretation of in­ strumentation records.

2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSION TESTS OFROCKFILL The previous review led to the idea that testing the rockfill under variable moisture conditions would provide a better insight in to the nature of water in­ fluence in the materials behaviour. The experimental program included three classic oedometer tests with sample flooding at some par­ ticular confining stress and one oedometer test with RH control. The tested material is a slate obtained from the Pancrudo River outcrop (Aragon, Spain). The slate belongs to the Almunia formation, which has a Cambric origin. The outcrop is planned to serve as quarry for the construction of the shells for the Jiloca River Regulation Dam, a zoned earth and rockfill dam. Figure 4 shows the water retention curve for the Pancrudo slate rock. A sample of crushed rock was obtained from the quarry with the aid of a digger. Recovered blocks having 200 to 400 mm maximum dimensions were broken down with the aid of a hammer. The material particle size was in the range of 0.4 to 40 mm with D50 = 23 mm and uniformity coefficient Cu =3. 2.1 Test procedure The oedometer test program was carried out in a Rowe type cell, 300 mm sample diameter, and an approximate sample height of 200 mm. Before specimen assembly, rockfill was allowed to reach equilibrium with the laboratory environment (ap­ proximately 50% RH and 22 °C) This resulted in a rather low initial water content (under I% in weight). Specimens were compacted in four layers

11m2/month Monthly rainfall 400.-----.------.------.-----,------,, 360

1000

320 280

• Wetting path 100

240

o Drying path

200

160

'2 10

120 80

40

Po.

6

....L-~.w~~--~-

o~~

mm/month

I':

0

'E::s

Settlement rate

20.-----.------.------.-----.------.. ------­ 18

16 14 12

10

------­ ------­ -----­ -----­

en 0,1

-

0,01

8

0,001

6

0

4 2

0,5

1,5

2

2,5

Water content (%)

o~~~~7 19~9~4~~~~9~9s~~~~9~97 6~~~~~

Figure 4. Retention curve for the Pancrudo slate rock.

Figure 3. Rainfall and settlement records in a 40 meters high embankment from the Madrid-Sevilla high-speed railway built with slate and schist rockfill (after Soriano & Sanchez 1999).

5

3

OEDOMETER

(Rowe type , 0 300 mm.)

=

•

-----+-

Air flow (co ntrolled RH ) Vapour diffusio n

Rock particle

Figure 5. Rock fill one-dimensional compression test with relative humidity control.

by means of a handy compaction hammer and ap­ plying a compaction energy in the range of 600 and 700 Joule/litre, which is slightly over the compac­ tion energy used in the Standard Proctor Test (584.3 Joule/litre). All specimens tested reached a void ra­ tio e =0.55±0.03 after compaction. In test 4, a RH control system was added to the oedometer. The aim of this system is to produce a gradual variation in rock moisture adding controlled quantities of water in a uniform manner across the

specimen. In order to achieve this goal, water has to be transported in vapour state. The system consists in a closed-loop air circulation circuit as shown in Figure 5. The air, impelled by an electric pump, bubbles in a solution vessel and then flows across the specimen from the upper to the lower drainage plate. Saline solutions were used in order to impose a controlled RH to the airflow. An hygrometer in­ serted in the airflow coming out of the specimen al­ lowed to monitor the progress of the test. 6

Rockfill can be considered as a double porosity material. Inter-particle spaces define a first set of large voids. Moreover, rock particles have their own natural porosity, and hence a second set of very much smaller voids can be identified within the rock particles. In the following, large inter-particle voids will be termed "rockfill voids" and the term "rock pores" will be used to refer to the small pores within the rock particles. In the later group, only open pores are considered (i.e. those connected with the rockfill voids). As the test proceeds, the air flows through the rockfill voids, with a controlled RH value. During a wetting path, as in test 4, the RH imposed by the solution in the airflow is larger than the current RH within the rock pores. Water vapour is transported form the vessel to the rockfill voids by advection. Further transport of water vapour occurs from rock­ fill voids to rock pores by molecular diffusion due to the RH gradient created between rockfill voids and rock pores. Water vapour will condense within the rock pores wherever the width of the pore is smaller than approximately two times the equilibrium cur­ vature radio of the gas-liquid interface (Fig. 5). The interface curvature depends on the surface tension of water and the difference between the gas pressure and the pressure in liquid water, i.e. the matric suc­ tion. Moreover, liquid water in rock pores may con­ tain solutes and hence an osmotic component of suction can be defined. The sum of matric plus os­ motic suction is usually termed the total suction, \j/. Total and matric suction would be equal in the case that rock pores contain only pure water. The absorption of water by the rockfill specimen during the test was measured by recording the loss of weight of the solution vessel. Under constant im­ posed RH, the rate of water absorption decreased gradually until an equilibrium state (nil absorption rate) was reached. When the whole system (speci­ men and RH control device) becomes in thermody­ namic equilibrium, the RH is equal at any point of the gas phase within the system and no further trans­ port of water vapour can occur. In such an equilib­ rium state and under isothermal conditions, the RH in the gas phase is univocally related to total suction in the liquid water contained in the rock pores by the psychrometric relationship (Coussy 1995). Therefore RH and total suction, \jf, can be used as interchange­ able parameters measuring the effect of water in the rockfill behaviour. In this work, total suction was used to plot the experimental results for the sole rea­ son that it leads to simpler mathematical expressions for data fitting.

the vertical stress-total suction space, followed by the four oedometer tests carried out with the equip­ ment described in the previous section. Figure 6b shows the plot of the measured vertical strain vs. the applied vertical stress. The load was applied by in­ crements allowing the sample to deform a maximum of 24 hours before the application of the next load increment. Stress-strain data plotted in Figure 6b correspond to a constant time interval of 1000 min­ utes. Test 1, 2 and 3 show the typical rockfill behav­ iour. A unique normal compression line (NCL) seems to exist for the dry (at initial water content) and for the saturated (flooded) states. Saturated rockfill is more compressible than dry rockfill and collapse strains develop if the specimen is flooded under load (test 3). The magnitude of collapse strains is such that, after flooding, the behaviour of the collapsed specimen reaches the NCL of the satu­ a) 1000 - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

~100~~~~~~~~~~~========~ ::s n ·-~~ ii -- - Test 1

';;' 10 o

..

·-g

--Test2

i! - · - -Test 3

i''I - - - - Test 4 L L___ -'="'="=-==-="=-===-=:-=;~=-=·--:-::-='..,..=--===~-

"' ~ o.1

]

I

0,01 +---.,...----.,...----.,...----,-------4 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00 0.00

Vertical Stress [MPa]

b) 0,00

0,20

0,40

0,60

0,80

1,00

-0,50 t---'------'------'--;==='====;1 0,50

-------Test 1 -+-Test2 ___._Test 3

~1,50

~

·fil 2,50 b

..-+----~1_:I·=·=··=in=itia~l•:::'•=•d=y=sta=te=t:==I_

1.6

0

\

"'­ 1

2

3

4

The ratio of depth to thickness of impeding layer

5

5 RELATIONSHIP OF SWELLING POTENTIAL,

Figure 22. Influence of impeding layer on FOS

MOISTURE AND SHEAR STRENGTH

elevation of the impeding layer varies and an ex­ pression (dlt) is used to represent the elevation ofthe impeding layer for each parametric analysis, where d is the distance from the sloping ground surface to the bottom of impeding layer and t is the thickness of impeding layer, which is assumed to be 1m. Figure 22 shows the variations of FOS with the (dlt) ratio. Initially the FOS decreases with an in­ crease in the ( dlt) ratio until a critical value, at which the FOS is the lowest, is reached. After reaching the critical ratio, the stability of the slope improves as the (dlt) value further increases. In this particular study, the critical dlt value is equal to 2. The exis­ tence of a critical (dlt) ratio may be explained by considering two extreme cases, dlt= 1 and dlt=20 (say). At one extreme (i.e., dlt=1), this implies that the impeding layer is just located at the ground sur­ face. Very little infiltration is expected and hence the stability of the slope is not likely to be affected by rainfall. At the other extreme (i.e., dlt=20), the pres­ ence of the impeding layer is not likely to affect the distributions of pore water pressures at shallow depths. The stability of the slope is also not likely to be affected by rainfall. Therefore, there exists an in­ termediate but critical dlt ratio at which the distribu­ tions of pore water pressures and hence the stability of the slope will be affected most.

This section reviews the relationship between swel­ ling potential, moisture content and shear strength of expansive soils, in particular for those along the middle-route of the SIN Water Transfer Canal proj­ ect. The study of each component of the relationship and the relationship between them will, in fact, form the 'right chain' of the flow chart shown in Figure 2.

5.1 Predictive method for swelling potential The term 'swelling potential' used here refers to ei­ ther the ability of swelling capacity, or swelling pressure or swelling percentage of expansive soils. Many different soil properties are related to this po­ tential including soil suction. The relation of the At­ terberg limits, natural density and moisture, swelling potential and soil suction have studied and reported and some prediction models have been proposed in the literature (Komornik, 1980; Vijayvergiya, 1973). It is generally known that swelling potential is in­ fluenced by many factors including both intrinsic and external factors. The intrinsic factors mainly consist of microstructure, mineralogy, physical states and various physio-chemical properties. The external factors refer to rates of evaporation and transpiration, humidity and temperature.

26

Behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils is very complex. It is extremely difficult to predict it accu­ rately as the behaviour is governed by many factors. For the systematic study of the inter-relationships among these factors and their influence on the be­ haviour of expansive soils, the artificial neural net­ work method should be an effective and useful tool for academics and engineers.

meets the given requirement, the 'trained network' can then be utilized for predicting. 5.3 Prediction of swelling potential for Nanyang expansive soils 5.3.1 Establishment of BP network Li & Chen (1994) selected eight major governing factors to be the input nodes for establishing the network. These factors include natural moisture, natural density, degree of saturation and void ratio, liquid limit, plastic index, specific surface and catior: exchange capacity (CEC). Test results from 16 natu­ ral samples were used for the network. Two output nodes, namely, swelling pressure and swelling ca­ pacity were predicted in terms of two BP networks. A three-layer BP model with a structure of 8x10x1 and the full connection between layers were selected in the analyses. Results from 12 out of the 16 sam­ ples were used for training network, the remaining 4 samples were reserved for verifying the output, named expected output. A computational program of BP network was specially developed. The network was then trained by using the 12 data sets. After learning and training, the trained network was used to predict the swelling potential and swellin_g pres­ sure of the remaining 4 data sets. The comparisons between the predicted and the measured values and errors are illustrated in Table 3.

5.2 Brief descriptions of artificial neural network (ANN) ANN is a network inter-connected by numerous neu­ rons (or nodes), which resemble the biological neu­ ral cells in human beings. Its advantage lies in the fact that it can grasp the complicated non-linear re­ lationships between inputs and outputs by learning from given samples. After learning and training, it can be used for predicting. In fact, the ANN method has already been applied to evaluate slope stability (Xu & Huang, 1994). An ANN model should be established not only for processing a large amount of inter-related data, but it should also be trained for predicting. A popu­ lar network - Back Propagation (BP) is commonly used. It usually consists of three layers: input, hid­ den and output. They are feed forwardly and con­ nected by interconnection weights of every layer. A schematic diagram of ANN is shown in Figure 23. In addition to the interconnection weights of every layer, there is also a highly non-linear function, sig­ moid function in general, to reflect the relationship between input and output. The learning process of network consists of two flow procedures: feedforward propagation and re­ verse propagation. The network is 'trained' using a known sample setting on the input layer, based on the feedforward propagation, calculating the output for every layer. If the error of output is beyond the tolerance, errors from the output layer are back propagated to the input layer by means of 'gradient descent method' in order to reduce the errors. By re­ peating iteratively such calculations until the square root deviation of actual output and desired output

., .....

5.3.2 Determination of influential level of each factor The influence level for each factor is summarized in Table 4. It is obtained by the summation of the ab­ solute values of weights, corresponding to the neu­ ron of every factor as shown in Table 4. It is found that factors, which have considerable influence, are the degree of saturation, liquid limit, specific surface and cation exchange capacity. 5.3.3 Comparisons ofANN and regression method It is interesting to compare the predicted results be­ tween the ANN and a conventional regression method. Vijayvergiya & Ghazzaley (1973) proposed a method for predicting swelling pressure, P, and swelling ratio based on test results of 270 intact samples under O.lt/ft2 • He suggested an empirical formula according to the linear relation between val­ ues of swelling capacity or swelling pressure (in logarithm scale) and natural dry density, "(d. liquid limit, LL, or water content, w. The formula for swel­ ling pressure is shown as follows:

y, Error

Xz-+

Ym

-

Expected output

log P = (0.4LL- w- 0.4) I 12 or

Hidden layer

logP=Crd +0.65LL-139.5)1195

Figure 23. Schematic diagram of ANN

By making use of Equation 8 together with the re­ 27

(8)

(9)

Komornik et al (1980) described some test results on shear strength and swelling behavior of expansive clays. Relatively speaking, there is a lack of system­ atic study of shear strength and stress-strain behavior of unsaturated expansive soils under well-controlled suction conditions, together with reliable volume measurements. It is generally accepted that the shear strength of unsaturated expansive soils is closely related to the moisture and swelling pressure. Some empirical equations were proposed to predict shear strength and swelling pressure by using water content with limited success. In recent years, the relationship of swelling pressure and shear strength has been stud­ ied by Lu et al. (1999). Alonso (1998) attempted to

suits from the first 12 samples, the predicted values are listed in Table 5. It can be seen that the accuracy of predictions from the ANN model is much better than those from the regression method. ANN seems to be an appropriate and reliable tool for predicting behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils. 5.4 Prediction of shear strength for unsaturated

expansive soils

Based on some direct shear tests on expansive soil specimens described by Liu ( 1997) in China, it is re­ ported that the shear strength of expansive soils varies inversely with the moisture content in the field and laboratory direct shear tests.

Table 3. Companson b etween measured and trained results of neural network Swelling ratio Sample Measured Predicted Relative Measured No. (%) (%) (kPa) error(%) 1 105 15.3 19.9 30.07 2

40.4

41.0

Swelling pressure Predicted (kPa) 125

Relative error(%) 19.05 10.84

1.49

1190

1319

3

39.0

35.0

10.26

950

987

3.89

4

25.1

17.0

32.27

970

123

87.32

5

28.2

19.0

32.62

27

42

55.56

6

14.8

13.7

7.43

306

9

97.06

7

9.9

10.1

2.02

110

101

8.18

8

17.2

16.0

5.98

48

57

18.75

9

15.7

12.2

22.29

35

41

17.14

10

5.1

3.9

23.53

82

147

79.27

11

10.9

13.0

19.27

138

137

0.72

12

17.3

19.7

13.87

527

78

85.20

Table 4 Influence eve on swe1rmg properties Parameter Influence level (%)

Influence level (%)

Parameter

Natural water content

8.37

Liquid limit

12.94

Natural dry density

11.14

Plastic limit

11.97

Void ratio

10.95

Surface ratio

13.63

Degree of saturation

18.64

Cation exchange ratio

12.36

T able 5. Companson between

Sample

No.

13

Measured (kPa) 14

1

. methods erent pred"Ictive Swelling pressure (kPa)

BP network Predicted Relative er(kPa) ror (%) 17

Equation (3) Relative erPredicted (kPa) ror (%) 117

735.71

39

178.57

17.24

345

296.55

110

26.44

1258

21.38

284

82.25

438

72.62

35

7.89

70

84.21

48

26.32

14

87

102

15

1600

16

38

21.43

Equation (4)

Relative er­ Predicted (kPa) ror (%)

28

develop a constitutive model for unsaturated expan­ sive soils. However, the current understanding of shear behaviour and stress-strain relationship of un­ saturated expansive soils is fairly limited. It is obvi­ ously that further work is needed to improve under­ standing and developing predictive tools. 6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS a) The proposed idea and path of developing an early warning system for unsaturated expansive slopes is not only of great significance for the construction of the South-to-North Water Trans­ fer Canal but it will also help to improve under­ standing of unsaturated expansive soils. b) There are two major "chains" in the development of the early warning system for the instability of expansive soil slopes. The first one is mainly concerned with pore-water pressure distribution and its variation associated with various intrinsic and external factors. The second one is to study the fundamental relationship between the state of expansive soils, swelling potential, stress-strain and shear strength of expansive soils. Based on the observed failure processes of a trial slope in unsaturated expansive soil, it is recognized that slope failure in an unsaturated expansive soil is likely to be ductile and hence the proposed early warning system would be easier to implement and be more effective. c) The soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) is important for research and application in the field of unsaturated soils. Hydraulic conductivity function and shear strength of unsaturated soils can be empirically predicted from SWCC with adequate accuracy for engineering practice. It is therefore important to investigate factors which will significantly affect SWCCs of unsaturated expansive soils. Based on the current reviews and studies, it is found that the most influential factors are soil type, initial and compaction wa­ ter contents, initial dry density, stress state, swelling potential and drying and wetting cycles. d) As it is very difficult to accurately and reliably measure soil suction in the field, analytical and numerical methods may be adopted as a com­ plementary tool for calculating pore-water pres­ sure distributions in unsaturated soil slopes. The prediction of pore-water pressure distributions is not only affected by intrinsic properties such as the shape of a SWCC, saturated permeability, permeability function and anisotropy, but it is also governed by external factors including rain­ fall pattern, intensity and duration, existence of cracks and impeding layer.

e) Conventionally, the influence of transient water flow, deformation and shear strength of soils on the stability of slopes has been investigated in­ dependently. As expansive soils posses the dis­ tinct swelling and shrinkage characteristics, a fluid flow-deformation-shear strength coupled model seems to be essential for accurate calcula­ tions. This is because any deformation and shear strength will be significantly affected by any volume change as a result of swelling and shrinkage of the soils. f) The shear strength and swelling potential of an expansive soil mainly depend on the physical state of the soil such as moisture content and dry density. The complex relationship between the swelling potential and various physical parame­ ters can be explored satisfactorily by the Artifi­ cial Neural Network (ANN). The study of the relationship of swelling potential and shear strength could be of significance for practical application and theoretical developments of ex­ pansive soils. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project is supported by research grants DAG99/00.EG23 & HKUST6046/98E provided by the Research Grants Council of the HKSAR. The authors would like to thank Messrs Zhan L.T. and Gong B.W. and Miss Wang Bin for conducting ex­ periments and assisting in preparing figures pre­ sented in this paper. Their contributions are greatly acknowledged. Finally, the authors are also grateful to Professor Wilson Tang for his continual support to their research. REFERENCE Alonso, E. E. (1998). Modeling expansive soil be­ havior. Key-note lecture of z•d Inter. Conf. on Unsat. Soils. Vol. 2, 37-70. Bao, C. G. (1979). Air phase patterns of unsaturated compacted soils and pore pressure dissipation. Proc. of 3'd China Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Beijing (In Chi­ nese). Bao, C. G. (1998). On the analysis of canal slope stability for expansive soils. The Proc. of 2"d Symposium on Slope stability of expansive soils, Wuhan, 46-57 (In Chinese). Bao, C. G. & Liu, T. H. (1988). Some properties of shear strength on Nanyang Expansive clay. Proc. of the In­ ternational Conference on Engineering Problems of Regional Soils. International Acacdemic Publishers, 543-546.

29

Problems of Regional Soils, International Aca; demic Pubilishers. Lu, Z. J. (1999). Explorations on the suctional shear strength of unsaturated soils. Journal of Chinese Railway Science, Vol. 20, No. 2, 10-16 (in Chi­ nese). Lu, Z. J. & Wu, X. M. Sun, Y. Z. (1999). The role of swelling pressure in the shear strength theory of unsaturated soils. Chinese Journal of Geotechni­ cal Engineering. Vol. 19, No. 5, 20-27 (In Chi­ nese). Miao, L. C., Zhong, X. C. & Yin, Z. Z. (1998). The relationship between strength and water content of expansive soil. Rock and Soil Mechanics, Wuhan, Vol. 20, No.2, 71-75 (In Chinese). Ng, C. W. W. & Pang, Y. W. (1998). Role of surface cover and impedinf layer on slope stability in un­ saturated soils. 13t Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taipei, 135-140. Ng, C. W. W, Chen, S. Y. & Pang, Y. W. (1999). Parametric study of effects of rain infiltration of unsaturated slopes. Rock and Soil Mechanics, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1-14 (In Chinese). Ng, C. W. W. & Pang, Y. W. (1999) Stress effects on soil-water characteristics and pore water pres­ sure. 11th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Korea, 371-374. Ng, C. W. W. & Pang, Y. W. (2000a). Influence of stress state on soil-water characteristics and slope stability. J. Geotech. & Geoenviron. Engrg., ASCE. Vol. 126, No.2. 157-166. Ng, C. W. W. & Pang, Y. W. (2000b). Experiments investigations of soil-water characteristics of a volcanic soil. Provisionally accepted by Can. Geotech. J. Ng, C.W.W. & Shi, Q (1998). A numerical investi­ gation of the stability of unsaturated soil slopes subjected to transient seepage. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1-28. Ng, C. W. W., Wang, B., Gong, B. W. & Bao, C. G. (2000a). Preliminary study on soil-water charac­ teristics of two expansive soils. Proc. of Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Singapore. Ng, C. W. W., Pang, Y. W. & Chung, S. S. (2000b) Influence of drying and wetting history on stabil­ ity of unsaturated soil slopes. 8th International Symposium on Landslides, Cardiff, UK. Ng, C. W. W., Tung, Y. K., Wang, B. & Liu, J. K. (2000c). 3D analysis of effect of rainfall patterns on pore water pressure in unsaturated slopes. Submitted to Geo Eng 2000 International Con­ gress, Melbourne, Australia. Rahardjo, H., Leong, E. C., Gasmo, J. M. and Deutscher, M. S. (1998). Rainfall-induced slope failures in Singapore: investigation and repairs. Proc. 13th Southeast Asian Conf. Taipei, Vol.. 1, 147-152.

Bao, C. G., Gong, B. W. & Zhan, L. T. (1998). Properties of unsatuarated soils and slope stability for expansive soils. Key-note lecture of 2nd Intern. Conf. on unsaturated soils. Proc. of 2nd Interna­ tional Conference on Unsaturated Soils. Vol. 2 71-98. Barbour S. L. (1998). The soil-water characteristic curve: a historical perspective. Can. J. Geotech. J., Vol. 35, 873-894. Chao, K. C., Durkee, D. B., Miller, D. J. & Nelson, J. D. (1998). Soil water characteristic curve for expansive soil. 13th Southeast Asia Geotechnical Conference, Taipei, 35-40. Chen S. Y. (1998). Slope stability analysis consid­ ering the effects of infiltration and evaporation. The Proc. of 2nd Symposium on Slope Stability of Expansive Soils for South-to-North Canal Proj­ ect, Wuhan, 58-62 (In Chinese). Chen, Z. H. (1998) Nonlinear analysis on the inter­ action of water-air-deformation in expansive soil slopes. The Proc. of 2nd Symposium on Slope Stability of Expansive Soils for South-to-North Canal Project, Wuhan, 68-78 (In Chinese). Fredlund, D. G. (1998). Some geotechnical engi­ neering considerations related to the South-to­ North Canal, China. The Proc. of 2nd Symposium on Slope Stability of Expansive Soils for South­ to-North Canal Project, Wuhan, 32-45. Fredlund, D. G. & Rahardjo, H. (1993). Soil me­ chanics for unsaturated soils. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Fredlund, D. G. & Xing, A. (1994). Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve. Can. Geotech. J. 31: 521-532. Komornik, A., Livneh, M. & Smucha, S (1980). Shear strength and swelling of clays under suc­ tions. Proc. of the 4th International Conference on Expansive Soils. Vol. I, 206-226. Lam, L., Fredlund, D. G. & Barbour, S. L. (1987). Transient seepage model for saturated­ unsaturated soil systems: a geotechnical engi­ neering approach. Can. Geotech.. J., Vol. 24, 565­ 580. Li, Q. Y. & Chen, Z. Y. (1994). The study of pre­ dicting mechanical properties for swelling soil using artificial neural network technology. Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute Tech­ nical Report, No. 96-182 (In Chinese). Lim, T. T., Rahardjo, H., Chang, M. F. & Fredlund, D. G. (1996). Effect of rainfall on matric suction in a residual soil slope. Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 33, 618-628. Liu, T. H. (1997). The problem of expansive soils in engineering construction. Chinese Architecture and Building Press (In Chinese). Liu, T. H. & Yang, X. K. (1988). Field monitoring on an expansive soils slope during failure. Proc. of the International Conference on Engineering

30

Sun, H. W., Lam, W. H. Y., Ng, C. W. W, Tung, Y. K. & Liu, J. K. (1999). The Jul. 2 1997 Laiping road landslide. H. K. - hydrological characteriza­ tion. Submitted to 8th International Symposium on Landslide, Cardiff, UK. Sun, S. G., Chen, Z. H. & Huang, H. (1998). The method of stability analysis for expansive soils with the consideration of rainfall infiltration. The Proc. of 2nd Symposium on Slope Stability of Ex­ pansive Soils for South-to-North Canal Project, Wuhan, 63-67 (In Chinese). Srivastava, R. & Yeh, T. C. J. (1991). Analytical solutions for one-dimensional, transient infiltra­ tion toward the water table in homogeneous and layered soils. Water Resour. Res., Vol. 27, No.5, 753-762. Van Genuchten (1980). A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsatu­ rated soils. Soil Science of America Journal, Vol. 44, No. 5, 892-898. Vanapalli, S. K., Fredlund, D. G. & Pufahl, D. E. (1996 a). The relationship between the soil-water characteristic curve and the unsaturated shear strength of a compacted glacial till. Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 19, No. 3, 259­ 268. Vanapalli, S. K., Fredlund, D. G., Pufahl, D. E. & Clifton, A. W. (1996 b). Model for the prediction of shear strength with respect to soil suction. Can. Geotech. J. 33:379-392. Vijayvergiya, V. N. & Ghazzaley, 0. I. (1973). Pre­ diction of swelling potential for natural clay. Proc. of 3'd International Conference on Expan­ sive Soils, Haifa, Vol. 1, 227-236. Xu, Q. & Huang, R. Q. (1994). Artificial neural network methods for spatial Prediction of slope stability. 7'h International IAEG Congress. Vol. VI, Balkema, 4725-4728. Xu, Y. F. & Shi, C. L. (1997) The strength charac­ teristics of expansive soils. Journal of Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, Vol. 14, No. 1, 38-40 (In Chinese). Yi, C. X. (1995). Nonlinear science and its applica­ tion in Geology. Meteorological Press, Beijing (In Chinese). Zhan, L. T., Ng, C. W. W., Wang, B. & Bao, C. G. (2000). Influence of some hydraulic parameters on pore pressure distribution in unsaturated soils. Proc. of Asian Conf. on Unsat. Soils, Singapore. Zhang, J. F. (1997). 3D FEM modelling of satu­ rated-nonsaturated and stable-nonstable seepage analysis. Journal of Yangtze River Scientific Re­ search Institute, Vol. 14, No. 3 (In Chinese). Zhang, J. F., Yang, J. Z. & Wang, F. Q. (1997). Rainfall infiltration test for high slope of shiplock in Three Gorge Dam. Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, Technical Report, No. 97-264 (In Chinese). 31

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Solar energy and evapotranspiration: A control of the unsaturation state in soils G. E. Blight

University ofthe Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT: The depth of the water table in a soil profile, and the net flux of water through the soil surface, largely control the state of saturation in the soil and hence its engineering behaviour. In short, the state of saturation is dependent on the soil water balance, to which the major input is infiltration and the major output is evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration, in tum, is driven by the solar energy reaching the soil surface. Because the characteristics of solar energy are not always fully understood, it is virtually ignored as an energy source, particularly in geomechanics and waste management where its effects could be considered with great advantage. This paper will set out the principles of the availability of solar energy and its potential for drying soil and soil-like wastes. The effects of solar drying can be rationally considered when predicting the performance of soil strata and waste deposits. NOTATION: ex a G H

L.

n!D RA

R.t R. R,

planetary albedo of earth albedo at earth's surface energy converted by heating earth's surface MJ/m2 energy converted by heating air above surface MJ/m2 energy converted to latent heat by evaporating water from surface MJ/m2 ratio of actual to possible hours of sun direct solar radiation at outer limit of atmosphere MJ/m2 direct solar radiation at earth's surface MJ/m2 net radiation at earth's surface MJ/m2 scattered sky radiation MJ/m2

balance becomes negative (i.e. in water deficit) the water table will fall and the soil will shrink. The engineering behaviour of the soil will change corres­ pondingly. If the water balance is zero, water will be stored in the soil corresponding to its suction­ water content relationship, with the suction at any point being equivalent to the height above the water table. Evapotranspiration is a major term in the soil water balance and results from the conversion of solar energy reaching the soil surface. In arid and semi-arid regions of the earth, solar energy has a considerable capacity to evaporate water from the earth's surface, whether from free water surfaces, vegetated or bare soil or the surfaces of soil-like

1 INTRODUCTION The depth of the water table in a soil profile and the net flux (infiltration minus evapotranspiration) through the soil surface largely control the state of saturation in the soil and hence its engineering behaviour. The net flux is a component of the water balance for the soil which can be written: Water input to soil = water output + water stored in soil, or Infiltration - evapotranspiration = recharge of water table + water stored in soil. In general terms, if the soil water balance be­ comes positive, (i.e. in water surplus) the water table will rise and the soil will swell. If the water 33

waste deposits. The evaporative capacity in humid regions is also not inconsiderable, but may be more than balanced by precipitation. Solar radiation nevertheless operates effectively in all climates and its contribution to overall water losses can be pre­ dicted and exploited with benefit. This paper will consider the characteristics of radiant solar energy, how it reaches the earth's surface and how it is converted to effect evaporation and evapotranspiration. 2 THE THEORY OF EVAPORATION FROM A SOIL OR WASTE SURFACE 2.1 Solar radiation

Table 1. Examples of surface albedo values

The evaporative process is a large consumer of energy, which in the case of the surfaces of soils or waste deposits is freely supplied by the sun. If the amount of energy consumed by evaporation can be computed, the corresponding mass of water evapor­ ated can be deduced. The quantum of solar energy arriving at the earth's surface depends on: • the solar constant • the latitude of the location being considered and the time of year • the influence of the atmosphere (dust and clouds) • the albedo of the earth's surface • the elevation of the location The solar constant is the quantity of solar energy at normal incident angles to the atmosphere at the mean sun-earth distance. Some of this incident radiation is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere and does not reach the earth's surface. Most of the radiation reaching the earth's surface is confined to short wavelengths, in the band 0.3 - 3 Jtm. On reaching the ground some of the short-wave radi­ ation is also reflected by the surface. Figure 1 (after Flohn 1969) shows diagrammati­ cally how incoming solar radiation is split, with some being reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere, some being reflected by the ground surface, and some being absorbed at ground level. The diagram represents average annual conditions for the whole earth. The overall radiation balance between space and the earth's surface may be described by the equations: (~

Rn

+ R,)

= RA(l- ex)

= (~ +

R,)(l - a)

outer limit of the atmosphere and ex is the planetary albedo or reflectivity, the proportion of solar radi­ ation reflected by the atmosphere. The planetary albedo ex varies with cloud cover and latitude, but in the earth's inhabited latitudes of 60°N to 45°S, lies in the range from 0.3 to 0.5 with 0.4 being a reasonable average value (Robinson 1966). R. is the net radiation, ~ is the amount of inci­ dent direct solar radiation, R, is the amount of inci­ dent scattered sky radiation and a is the surface albedo or reflectivity of the ground surface. The surface albedo a varies throughout the day and depends on the colour and texture of the earth's surface. Table 1, for example, gives average daily albedo values for various mineral tailings surfaces:

Light grey fly ash: Dark brown tailings: Yellow gold tailings: Water over a light-coloured tailings surface:

a a a a a a

=

0.22 when wet (darker)

= 0.33 when dry (lighter)

= 0.06 when wet (darker)

=

0.14 when dry (lighter)

= 0.16 when wet (darker)

=

0.33 when wet (lighter)

a = 0. 20

Figure 2 shows how the albedo varies throughout a typical day for four surfaces: shallow water over a light-coloured tailings surface, soil surfaces covered by long (0.5 m) grass and short (mown) grass and light grey fly ash. For solid surfaces, the albedo is greatest in the early morning and evening, when the sun's rays strike the surface at a low angle, and least at midday. For water the reverse applies presumably because of the influence of ripples on the surface. Calculated direct solar radiations received at the outer limit of the atmosphere are given in Table 2 (taking the planetary albedo into account), as values of (1- ex)RA. Note that the annual value of RA at the latitude of Stockholm (60°N) is 57% of that at the equator, while at the latitude of New York and Madrid (40°N) the annual value of RA is 79% of that at the equator. Hence useful quanta of solar energy are available even at relatively high latitudes. Apart from the planetary albedo ex , the values of (~ + R,) actually received at the earth's surface depend on cloud cover, elevation or altitude and the number of hours of sunshine. Examples of empiri­ cal relationships between ( 1 - ex )RA and (~ + R,) are as follows (Penman 1956):

(la)

For southern England (latitude 52°N):

(1b)

~ + R,

Here, RA is the direct solar radiation received at the

= (1 - ex )RA(0.18

+ 0.55 niD)

For Canberra, Australia (latitude 36°S) 34

(2a)

Incoming solar

radiation (RA)

100%

-7%

Reflected into

space I rom clouds and dust

18% loss of radiation to space

18%

Scattered In

atmosphere

Absorbed and re - radiated back to earth

Atmospheric counter • radiation

OiHuse radiation +14%

Radiation from surtace

DiHuse radiation (R5}

114o/.

96%

+11%

Figure I . Annual radiation balance for earth; (a) short wave length solar radiation; (b) long wave length terrestrial re-radiation ewater

40

+

Ayash

1!1

Short mown grass

..6.

A

long uncut grass

30

..

t'­

~,Q

20


nn. Using the relation f"A" = ][,where ][is the unit fourth-order tensor, we obtain:

(10)

A9 =At =

where: chom

= (1 -

!)CS : As

(15)

~ (ll- (1- !)A') f

(17)

Equation (11) allows to substitute chom for A':

(11)

with:

(18)

A'=< A >sv P =

lo + (1 -

f)CS :< o >n·

(12)

Thus, the equation (15) takes the form:

p =

(13)

s, (ll -

(!'om : §

5)

:

0

(19)

where S, denotes the liquid saturation equal to jl / (fl + / 9). In this approach, the tensor P proves to be a linear function of the liquid saturation.

An homogenization method aims at estimating the tensors Chom and P. Chom, identical to C0 (see equa­ tion (5)) can be interpreted as the tensor of drained

97

If the gas pressure is taken into account, the macro­ scopic behaviour of the skeleton writes:

:E + (rf' - S,pc)B =

chom :

E

Taking now into account mechanical effects of sur­ face tension, the second equation of (1) writes:

(20)

(V/3 E 19 ) (v ;!;_ E ao•/3)

where B = PIS, is defined by ( 19) and:

:E'

= :E + (rf' -

S,pc)B

(22)

as/3

with, since the solid-gas interface radius R 13 :

(21)

defines the relevant effective stress expression in the situation described by the hypothesis done above. Putting S, = 1 into (20), our estimate coincides with the result obtained by (Auriault & Sanchez Pa­ lencia 1977) for saturated periodic media. In the case of incompressible solid matrix (§' : 6 -+ 0), one ob­ tains B = 6, which is the form proposed by (Schre­ fler 1990). It also corresponds to the classical Bishop effective stress with x = S,. The approach performed here shows that this form can be justified if surface tension effect at the gas-solid interface as well as the surface tension contribution to the Cauchy stress ten­ sor can be neglected. Equations ( 19) and (20) general­ ize Schrefler's approach to the case of a compressible anisotropic solid matrix.

is a sphere of

(23)

In comparison with section 4, the boundary value problem on is now defined by the first and the third equations of (8), the second one being replaced by (22). The contribution of the solid-gas interface 8Si3 to the macroscopic stress writes:

n·

(24)

5 SURFACE TENSION EFFECT For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed in the sequel that the liquid perfectly wets the solid and that the surface tension in the solid-liquid interface is naught. Then we have 'Ytg = ry•Y = 'Y and ry•l = 0. In order to introduce the capillary effects in a more rigorous way than in section 4, the capillary terms in ( 1) and (3) which have been neglected in the simpli­ fied model must be taken into account. This requires to specify the geometry of the interfaces between phases. Let us consider the case where the porous space can be satisfactory described by N subsets of spheres, each subset described by the radius R 13 and the volume fraction j 13 (/3 = 1, ... , N). Moreover it is assumed that the pores belonging to a subset /3 are all filled by liquid or all filled by gas. The distribution of liquid and gaseous phases in the pore network is described by the set / 9 , such as:

where IS/31 denotes the volume of a sphere belonging to the class /3. Equations (22) and (24) indicate that it is possi­ ble to take into account the mechanical effect of sur­ face tension at the interface ao•/3 by considering that these pores are filled by a fluid at pressure p/3. Indeed, the loading applied by such a fictitious fluid on the solid matrix is defined by (22), while equation (24) shows that the contribution of the surface tension to the macroscopic stress tensor :E is identical to that of a negative pressure -p/3 in a volume IS/31. Equation (9) must be remplaced by:

(25)

/3 E / 9 : the pores of the subset /3 are filled by gas. /3 fj. 19 :the pores ofthe subset /3 are filled by liquid.

where a./3 (;1;_) are additionnal concentration tensors re­ spectively associated with the loading parameters p/3, (3 E / 9 • Then, introducing (25) in (3) yields an expression of the macroscopic stress :E as a function of E and p/3:

The porous medium is then described at the micro­ scopic scale by the couple (pc, 19 ). Although the evo­ lutions of these two quantities are linked, there is gen­ erally no one to one relation between pc and the set / 9 • Hence, the set 19 is considered, like p:

~400 u

lli200

~

:9300 ro

~1W ·s:C\l

-~ 200

c

~100

• • • • • NN

100

--Experiment

50

---~ment

•

0+---~----.----.----.-----

• • • • • NN

2 3 Axial strain (%)

0

o+----~----~----~----~ 8 6 2 4 0 Axial strain (%)

4

5

8

.. C\l

0.

.>:

c

:B., " .5

.

"c:

C>

.c:

..

0

.>:

-20 -40

·60

u., " .5

-80

c:

0 ·20 -40

·-··

/

2

8

C\l

0.

c0

."

C>

.c:

'·'\

\

.

_______ 2

4

6

-60 -80

u ·100

u

Figure 3. Typical simulation of training data (MGU 23)

Figure 4. Typical simulation of testing data (MGU9)

4 CONCLUSION

get better understanding of the mechanical behavior of unsaturated soils. This can be achieved by carry­ ing out a parametric study on the trained network.

A neural network with feedback from the outputs was used to simulate the mechanical behavior of un­ saturated soils subjected to the conventional triaxial stress path. It was shown that the neural network is capable of simulating complex behavior of unsatu­ rated soils without making any assumption and/or simplifications. The network could predict the be­ havior of unsaturated soil specimens reasonably well both for specimens used in training as well as test specimens that the network had not been exposed to before. However, the authors believe that the present network may not be an optimum network for such a complex problem. Currently, more research is pur­ sued to improve the performance of the network by changing the input -output combinations as well as trying other probable networks and architectures. Once trained, the network may also be used as a tool to assess the influence of various parameters and to

-100

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Research Council of Shiraz University for providing financial support under research project No. 77-EN­ 1070-624. 6 REFERENCES Alonso, E.E, Gens, A. and Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive model for partially saturated soils. Geotechnique, 40(3), 405-430. Bishop, A.W. and Donald, LB. 1961. The experimental study of partly saturated soil in the triaxial apparatus. Proc 51h Int. conf Soil Mech. Fdn Engineering, I, 13-21.

110

Ellis, G.W., Yao, C., Zhao, R. and Penumadu, D. 1995. Stress­ strain modeling of sands using artificial neural networks. J. ofGeotech. Engineering, ASCE, 121(5), 429435. Fredlund, D.G. and Morgenstern, N.R. 1977. Stress- strain variables for unsaturated soils. J. Geotech. Engineering Div. ASCE, 103, GTS, 447-446. Ghaboussi, J. and Sidarta, D.E. 1998. New nested adaptive neural networks (NANN) for constitutive modeling. Com­ puters and Geotechnics, 22(1), 29-52. Goh, A.T.C. 1994. Seismic liquefaction potential assessed by neural network. J. of Geotech. Eng., ASCE, 120(9), 1467­ 1480. Goh, A.T.C. 1995. Modeling soil correlations using neural networks. J. of computing in civil Eng., ASCE, 9(4), 275­ 278. Habibagahi, G. 1998. Reservoir induced earthquakes analyzed via radial basis function networks. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Eng., 17(1), 53-56. Matyas, E.L. and Radhakrishna, H.S. 1968. Volume change characteristics of partially saturated soils. Geotechnique, 18(4), 432448. Penumadu, D. and Zhao, R. 1999. Triaxial compression be­ havior of sand and gravel using artificial neural networks (ANN). Computers and Geotechnics, 24,207-230. Rumelhart, D.E., Hinton G.E. and Williams, R.J. 1986. Learn­ ing internal representation by error propagation. In Parallel Distributed Processing, I, Cambridge: MIT Press. Toll, D.G. 1988. The behavior of unsaturated compacted natu­ rally occurring gravel. Ph.D. thesis, University of London. Toll, D.G. 1990. A framework for unsaturated soil behavior. Geotechnique, 40(1), 3144.

111

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Study of the influence of adhesion force on deformation and strength of unsaturated soil by DEM analysis S.Kato

Department ofCivil Engineering, Kobe University, Japan

S.Yamamoto

Obayasi Construction Company Limited, Japan

S.Nonami

Oyotisitsu Company Limited, Japan

ABSTRACT:In this study, using the distinct element method analysis, simulations of the biaxial compression test for two-dimensional granular material is carried out. In this analysis, the problems encountered in the tri­ axial compression for unsaturated soil are canceled. The influence of meniscus water in unsaturated soil is re­ produced by introducing constant intergranular adhesive force that acts perpendicular to the tangential plane at contact point. The influence of the intergranular adhesive force on the stress-strain relation and the strength constants are examined. From the analytical results, it is found out that the internal friction angle and the co­ hesion of the assembly of the disk particle increases with the inrergranular adhesive force. I INTRODUCTION In the case of the triaxial test for unsaturated soil, it is not possible to determine the volume change of the specimen based on the displacement, because pore air exists inside the specimen. The double cell method (Bishop and Henkel, 1957) is often used to obtain the volume change. However, in the double cell method, the unobstructed capacity of the inner cell varies with the lateral pressure changes. Accord­ ingly, a correction to the measured change of the unobstructed capacity for the lateral pressure change is required in order to determine the volume change of the specimen. The correcting values have to be obtained before the test, and the test results are ar­ ranged by applying them. It is considered that to ob­ tain test results with reproducibility, a degree of skill is needed, and even then the specimen installa­ tion has effect on the test results obtained. In the triaxial compression test for unsaturated soil, the axis translation technique is often used to apply suction to a specimen. The capacity of the suc­ tion applied is limited by the air entry value (AEV) of the ceramic disk used. It is possible to use a ce­ ramic disk of about AEV=1500kPa in practice, but a ceramic disk of about AEV=500kPa is mainly used, since the coefficient of the permeability of the ce­ ramic disk decreases with the increase of AEV. Consequently, as a testing condition, the suction from 0 to about 500kPa is often applied to the specimen. The intergranular adhesive force acting between particles does not correspond to the suction value applied. It is known that the relationship between

·~

.g"

u

/

Air entry value

Suction Figure I Relationship between cohesion and suction

suction and the cohesion obtained from the triaxial compression test result is approximated by the hy­ perbola as shown in figure 1 (Fredlund et a!., 1995) . As shown in this figure, the cohesion increases pro­ portionally with suction, until the suction reaches the AEV. When the suction exceeds the AEV, the co­ hesion approaches some constant value with increase in the suction. Generally, lOOkPa or less represents the bounds for the value of the AEV in an unsatu­ rated soil. Under a suction of about 500kPa, the rate of increase of the cohesion considerably decreases. This non-linearity means that the intergranular adhe­ sive force acting between particles does not corre­ spond to the suction value applied. Consequently, it is difficult to reproduce the condition in which large intergranular adhesive force acts, with the triaxial compression test apparatus. Accordingly, there exists a limitation in clarifying the effect of the intergranu­ lar adhesive force by the triaxial compression test using the axis translation technique. Void ratio influences the strength and the rigidity of the soil. Accordingly, it is desirable that a soil is tested under the condition in which only the suction 113

. I1 properttes ofth e sampte

Table I Parameters and matena Between par- Between parti­ cle and platen

ticles 0.9X]0 10 1.8 X 10 10 Normal spring constant (N/m/m)

Tangential spring con­ 6.0X 108

3.8 X 108 stant (N/m/m)

Normal damping con­ 1.1 X 105

7.9 X 105 stant (N/m/m)

Tangential damping

2.0 X 104

1.4X 104 constant (N/m/m)

10

16 Friction coefficient (deg.)

2700

Material density (kg/m 3)

I

differs and the void ratio is the same, for clarifYing the effects of suction. However, considerable skill is required to adjust such condition, because void ratio also changes when suction varies. The triaxial compression test for unsaturated soil using the axis translation technique has the problems mentioned above. Consequently, the triaxial test for unsaturated soil itself is difficult to carry out, and the test results are fewer than those for saturated soil. There are some aspects for which the effect of suc­ tion has not been clarified experimentally. In this study, a biaxial compression test for two­ dimensional granular material is simulated by dis­ tinct element method analysis. In this analytical method, the volume change of the specimen is clear, and the size of the intergranular adhesive force can also be optionally set. It seems to remove many of the problems in triaxial compression test for unsatu­ rated soil mentioned above. Based on the analytical results, the effects of the intergranular adhesive force on deformation and strength characteristics of an assembly of disk parti­ cles are examined, and they are compared with the tendencies observed in the triaxial compression test results for unsaturated soil.

namic models (they are generally the Voigt model and Coulomb's friction rule) are introduced at con­ tact points and contacting surfaces between the disk particles with the assumption that the particles are rigid. An independent equation of motion at every element is solved forwardly in the time domain, and interactions between particles and deformation of particle aggregates are traced. This method has the merit that necessary output data such as stress, strain, and rotation angle of some disk particles, and the setting of boundary conditions are easy. In this study, the analysis is carried out using the granular material distinct element analysis system (GRADIA) programmed by Yamamoto(l995). The effect of meniscus water observed in unsatu­ rated soil is expressed by introducing an intergranu­ lar adhesive force described below. The intergranular force acting between contact­ ing particle i and j is denoted as Pu . The x-direction component, y-direction component, and moment component of the resultant force of the intergranular adhesive force at time t are given by the following equations considering that the direction of Pu is normal for the line direction of the particle tangent plane. [F:] 1 =L.PiJcosau '

[F:] 1 =L.PusinaiJ '

The distinct element method (DEM) is one of the discontinuous corpora analysis method proposed by Cundall(l971). Unlike continuum analysis of the finite element method or the boundary element method, it is suit­ able for analyzing the dynamic behavior of the granular material. In the DEM analysis, simple dy­

(2)

j

[M/] 1 =0

(3)

Where, [F;] 1 ,[FP]to£M/] 1 are the x-direction com­ ponent, y-directidn component and moment compo­ nent of the resultant force of the intergranular adhe­ sive force and au is the angle between the normal direction of the contact plane and the x-axis. It is possible to introduce an intergranular adhe­ sive force by deducting these components from each component of the total intergranular force except for the intergranular adhesive force. By integrating these equations of motion for each particle by the Euler method with respect to time, the analysis was carried out. Consequently, the solution becomes stabilized conditionally on the integral time incre­ ment. Cundall(l971) proposed the following equation for the integral time increment.

2 ANALYSIS METHOD AND ANALYSIS CONDITION

2.1 Outline ofDEM analysis with intergranular adhesion force

(1)

j

I:J.t cr3. Mathematically, the stress p for possible value of zero can never be transformed to the log­ scale. Moreover, a model comprising of dissimilar ·•ari:1bles (e.g. p pressure, v ratio) always produces biased values of linear parameters. In general, the pre-determined pressure Pn be constant for all tests conducted for a specified purpose. Normalizingp by Pn and taking in arithmetic scale for its possible value of zero and v in log-scale for its minimum value of unity, the soil consolidation model takes on ln(v)-plpn relationship. The different compression lines, namely the normal consolidation line (NCL), critical state line (CSL), tension cut off line (TCL) and elastic reloading line (ERL) plotted on the ln(v): plpn plane are shown in Figure 1. The differential equation of a line on this plane is: t5vlv=-M(p/p.)

Figure I. Compression lines on the ln(v):p/p 0 plane The ln(v)-p/pn model describes vat any level of p as a function of w. It is, therefore, essential to constitute a model that will produce the soil parameters based on soil fabric only. The volumetric deformation is governed by the soil fabric and moisture status described precisely by s,. The ln(v)-p/pn model for soil states p,v,s, extends to ln(v)-plpn-Sr relationship, which at linearity takes on the form: ln(v) = ln(v0 ) - f..(plpn)- J.L S,

(3)

= specific volume of soil at s,=O and and 1-l = soil parameter relating to s,. All these are soil fabric parameters for independence on p and s,.

where, p=O, f..

Vo

= soil parameter relating top,

Figure 2. Typical plots of compression lines & planes Typical compression planes on the ln(v): p/p0 : s, space are depicted in Figure 2. All these compression lines roll over their self-contained surfaces with changes in p and s,. The equations of

(2)

138

orthogonal compression lines, NCL, CSL, TCL and ERL are as follows. NCL: ln(vn) = ln(N)- f...n(p/pn)- J.lnSri

(4a)

CSL: ln(vc) =In(/)- f...(pJp.)- J.l Src

(4b)

TCL: ln(v1) = ln(7)- f...(pJp.)- J.lSrt

(4c)

ln(v)

ERL : ln(v) = ln(R) - K (p/pn) - ro s,

(4d) where, N, r, T, R = specific volumes of soil at s, = 0

and p = 0, f.... f.., K = soil parameters relating to p and J.ln, J.l, ro = soil parameters relating to s, with respect to the NCL, CSL or TCL and ERL. TCL is taken parallel to the CSL. Notice from Figure 2 that the ERP (elastic reloading plane) intersects both the CSP and TCP. The intersection of ERP and CSP along xx line represents soil shearing at the ambient state satisfying the conditions v = v0 , S, = Src = Srv (say) and p = Pc = Pcv (say). Substituting these values into Equations 4(b) and 4(d) and then solving for the stress ratio, PciPn = [ln(flR)- (J.l- ro) Srv] I (f..- K)

Figure 3. State parameters of soil and p = Pcv· A negative If/ associates with soil dila­ tion in the super-critical zone and a positive If/ with soil contraction in the sub-critical zone. The condition lf/=0 indicates soil failing at the ambient state or constant volume. The nature of If/ thus depends on the position of p relative to Pcv which is consistent with the postulation of Been et a/. (1986 & 1987). From the trigonometry of MBD

(5)

Similarly, the intersection ofERP and TCP along the YY line represents the soil-state at zero tension having v = Vt. s, = Srt, p = p 1• Substituting these values in Equations 4(c) and 4(d) and then solving PtiPn = [ ln(T/R)- (J.L- ro) Srt) I (f..- K)

Pew

ln(f' I R)- (J.l-(t))S,.

(9)

atpc:

lf/c =(m+rc'f...p-pc)lp.

(10)

m=

(6)

Alf/c-TC'f/ If/ -If/ c

(11)

The slope m, in fact, is the coefficient of soil dilatancy and tan' 1(m) is the angle of dilation or contraction with respect to the positive and negative values of m.

(7)

Equations 5 through 7 without s, reduce to those obtained from the ln(v)- pip. model. The state parameter If/ that embodies p, q and v relative to the CSL as a dimensionless factor is actually the difference in volumes measured from the ERL to CSL at the same stress level. The state parameter of a soil having ambient states p, s, and failure state Pc, Src is described in Figure 3. By trigonometry, from L\OAB, we get, If/= (A.-rc) (p- Pew)/ Pn

lf/=(m+A.)(p-pc)lp.

Dividing If/ by lf/c and then solving form, we get,

Dividing this by Equation 5, we get,

1!!.... = ln(T I R)- (J.l- (t))S,

atA:

3 SOlL SHEARING MODEL The :-;tress variables relevant to the Mohr-Coulomb failure condition of unsaturated soils are (cr - ua), (u. - Uw) and 't (Fredlund & Morgenstern 1977). A change in e or e. has negligible influence on uw as the pore space of topsoil has a free path to the atmosphere. This reduces the stress variables to cr 't and Uw (suction). The stress variables of dry soii reduce to cr and 't and their magnitudes depend solely on the soil fabrics. The Mohr-Coulomb equation for soil stresses at failure is

(8)

This shows that If/ is negative, positive and zero with respect to the stress conditions p < Pcv, p > Pcv

(cr1- cr3) = (cr1 + cr3) simp+ 2Ccoscp

139

which in terms of p and q is q=q0 +Mp wh ere, M

=

(12) 2sintp d an q0 3- sin tp

.., = •v•C cot,

Llrr = Llatan¢>

(20)

where Llrr is the change of the shear strength, c the cohesion and 4> the internal friction angle. The change of the shear strength parameters, c and ¢>, with the change of the matric suction has been under discussion (Shimada et al., 1999). However, 4> is supposed not to change with the change of the matric suction because friction between soil particles does not change under the existence of some quantity of pore water. Then, we can conclude that the internal friction angle is essentially constant with the change of the matric suction. When 4> is constant in Eq.(20), the change of Lla affects linearly the change of the shear strength. Then, we can compare the tendency of the change of the normal stress and that of the shear strength. We are trying to compare the change of the shear strength (Llrr) with the change of Lla presented in the previous chapter.

151

Particle size (mm) Figure 10. Assumed particle size distribution curves B (R = 1.2 JJ.m)

•• • • • • • •

A (R = 4.5 JJ.m)

50 Matric suction, Su (kPa)

100

Figure 11. Su-Llarelation for assemblies of randomly packed equal-sized (A&B) and non equal-sized spheres (C)

~100 J;i 80

~

1'/

60

]

"'~ 40

Masa96; T

~ 20

~

[J-l.J'

~

7

..J' Fraser River sand

"'-I

than20kPa. Fraser River sand has a low value of Uc and is a poorly -graded sand as shown in Figure 12. Since the particle size distribution of this sand is similar to that of the assembly of equal-sized spheres assumed in the theoretical consideration for the estimation of the change of the normal stress, the sand has shown the same tendency as that predicted from the theoretical consideration. Figure 14 shows the test result of Masa96 with the relation of Su and Tf. As Masa96 has a high value of Uc and is a well-graded sandy soil, its tendency of the shear strength can be predicted from the theory for an assembly of non equal-sized spheres. That is, the shear strength increases gradually with the matric suction, and this tendency is shown in Figure 14.

v ­

0

10 1 0.1 Particle size (mrn) Figure 12. Particle size distribution curves of Fraser River sand and Masa96

0.01

'2 100

a=150kPa

c..

~ ~

~

=

~

..."'

"' .. convergence criterion is that the last k value of all elements does not change from the previous one, in other words, the k becomes con­ stant for each element which could not be achieved. One possible method is to let the program execute for many rounds and report the change of k(e) in

5. CONCLUSIONS

The difficulty of solving the flow equation of un­ saturated soils can be avoided with the help of the fictitious coefficient of permeability technique. The technique enables a simple computer program based on Darcy's law to solve the seepage problems of 174

Figure 6. Phreatic Lines and Equipotential Lines in Non-Homogeneous Earth Dam Found by FEM under Anisotropic Flow Condition. various conditions, even non-linear flow in aniso­ tropic non-homogeneous earth dam. The simple pro­ gram could be easily improved by only changing the k parameter to be an array and increasing the if clause for checking the k(e) convergence. REFFERENCES Basak, P. 1977. Non-Darcy flow and its implication to seepage problems. J.Irrigation and Drainage Div. IR4: 459-473. Bathe, K.J. & Khoshgoftaar, M.R. 1979. Finite ele­ ment free surface seepage analysis without mesh iteration. Int.J.Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics Vol.3: 13-22. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of groundwater. Israel: McGraw-Hill. Desai, C.S. 1972. Seepage analysis of earth banks under drawdown. J.Soil Mechanics. and Founda­ tion Div. SMll: 1143-1162. Dun, R.J. & Mitchell, J.K. 1984. Fluid conductivity testing of fine grained soils. J. Geotechnical Eng. 110: 1648-1665. Fin, L.W.D. 1967. Finite element analysis of seep­ age through dams. J.Soil Mechanics. and Foun­ dation Div. SM6: 41-48. Gasaluck, W. et al. 1995. On the non-linearity and anisotropy of seepage flow. Tranc.JSIDRE No.178: 1-10. Gill, M.A. 1977. Analysis of permeameter data to obtain parameters of non-Darcy's flow. J.Hydrology 32: 165-173. Kazda, L. 1990. Finite element techniques in groundwater flow studies. Czechoslovakia: El­ sevier. Kovacs, G. 1981. Seepage hydraulic. Hungary: El­ sevier. Miller, R.J. & Low, P.F. 1963. Threshold gradient for water in clay systems. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 27: 605-609. Mill, R.J. et al. 1969. The absence of threshold gra­ dients in clay-water systems. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 33: 183-187. 175

Neuman, S.P. 1973. Saturated-unsaturated seepage by fmite elements. J. Hydraulic Div. HY12: 2233-2250. Pane, V. et al. 1983. Effects of consolidation on permeability measurements for soft clay. Geo­ technique 33: 67-72. Ping, L.S. 1963. Measuring extremely low flow ve­ locity of water in clays. J. Soil Sci. 95: 410-413. Remy, J.P. 1973. The measurement of small perme­ abilities in the laboratory. Geotechnique 23: 454­ 458. Scheidegger, A.E. 1974. The physics offlow through porous media 3rd ed. UK: U. of Toronto Press. Segerlind, L.J. 1984. Applied finite element analysis 2nd ed. USA: John Wiley & Sons. Swartzendruber, D. 1962. Non-Darcy flow behavior in liquid-saturated porous media. J. Geophysical Research 67: 5205-5213. Talor, R.L. & Brown, C.B. 1967. Darcy flow solu­ tions with a free surface. J. Hydraulic Div. HY2: 25-33. Volker, R.E. 1969. Non-linear flow in porous media by fmite elements. J. Hydraulic Div. HY6: 2093­ 2114.

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

A technology for unsaturated zone modelling under variable weather conditions M.I.Gogolev & P.Delaney

Waterloo Hydrogeologic Incorporation, Waterloo, Ont., Canada

ABSTRACT: The WHI UnSat Suite Plus software package integrates a tool for generating daily weather pre­ dictions with several popular models for unsaturated zone simulation. A simulation technology, which com­ bines the advantages of different models of the package has been developed for effective modelling of unsatu­ rated flow and transport under variable weather conditions. The use of technology is illustrated with the simulation experiment for two cities with different types of climate. It is found that the accuracy of the trans­ port simulation may be very sensitive to the level of averaging of the flow at the upper boundary of the un­ saturated profile. The differences in concentration caused by differences of inflow averaging depend on cli­ mate being smaller in tropical climate (Malacca). However, even in tropical climate, the concentration may differ up to 5.8 times when monthly and annual levels of averaging are compared. ent the modelling technology and its major compo­ nents and (2) to illustrate the use of the technology by examining the same unsaturated zone profile at different time scales under two different patterns of weather conditions.

1 INRODUCTION While practicing soil scientists and engineers rec­ ognize the importance of modelling physical and chemical processes within the unsaturated zone, a lack of practical tools and technologies restricts their abilities to properly address these important problems. Most of the popular unsaturated zone models were developed as DOS applications and cannot utilize advantages of the WINDOWS com­ puter environment. In addition, the majority of these models rely upon simplified steady-state boundary conditions at the soil surface (constant head or constant flux) which strongly impacts the accuracy, reliability and validity of the simulation results. In an effort to address the problems and diffi­ culty associated with obtaining reliable and realistic boundary data for these models, Waterloo Hydro­ geologic, Inc. (WHI) has developed a software package WHI UnSat Suite Plus that integrates a new tool for generating seasonal weather predic­ tions with several popular models for simulating water flow and contaminant transport through the unsaturated zone. A new software technology, which combines the advantages of different infiltration and percolation models, has been developed for effective modelling of unsaturated flow and transport under variable weather conditions. The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to pres­

2 MODELLING TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Component Models Two of the four models included into the WHI Un­ Sat Suite Plus are used in the described technology. These models were selected after analysis and comparative testing of their performance. The mod­ els are: HELP (Hydrology Evaluation of Landfill Per­ formance) (Schroeder et al 1994) - a versatile model for predicting landfill hydrologic processes and testing the effectiveness oflandfill designs. VS2DT (Variably Saturated 2D flow and Trans­ port) (Healey 1990) - a finite difference numerical model for determining the water movement as well as the fate of agricultural chemicals, landfill leachate, and accidental chemical spills in the un­ saturated zone. As the name indicates, the HELP model is com­ monly used to simulate landfill hydrology. How­ ever, HELP uses numerical solution techniques that account for the effects of precipitation, surface stor­

177

age, snowmelt, runoff, infiltration, evapotranspira­ tion, vegetative growth, soil moisture storage, lat­ eral subsurface drainage, unsaturated vertical drainage, and leakage through soil. This exhaustive list of soil hydrologic processes makes HELP an ideal tool for determining more realistic predictions of upper moisture flux boundary conditions for un­ saturated zone models. HELP cannot be used alone for the assessment of contaminant concentration because it does not simulate unsaturated transport. This problem may be effectively solved by VS2DT, which is able to simulate a wide list of chemical processes but is very limited in capabilities to pres­ ent upper boundary condition of the profile. The combination of advantages of both HELP and VS2DT bears a lot of potential for unsaturated zone simulations.

Table l.Some statistics obtained in comparison of generated and observed data for total monthly precipitation.

Tokyo, Japan

0.08

3.85

City

Monthly Statistic

Mean Absolute Error, 0.02

Mean Relative Error, % 0.09

0.25

0.09

0.58

1.52

0.06

0.1

po

Beijing, China

A reliable source of weather data is a factor of ma­ jor importance for obtaining accurate values of water fluxes at soil boundary. HELP was equipped by its developer Dr. P. Schroeder with the Weather Generator - an effective USDA program that pro­ duces statistically reliable sets of daily values of precipitation, air temperature and solar radiation for periods up to 100 years (Richardson 1984).

To verify the reliability of the newly obtained coefficients, two series of tests were performed. In the first series of tests the generated daily precipita­ tion and temperature were compared to the ob­ served sets for six US cities for which Dr. Clarence Richardson, the developer of the original Weather Generator database, performed his comparison in 1984. Results of the tests proved that errors be­ tween statistics for generated and observed data were in the range or less than when Dr. Richardson performed his tests using another set of observed data and coefficients.

Mean Relative Error, % 4.44

Table 2. Some statistics obtained in comparison of gener­ ated and observed data for monthly air temperature.

2.2 Global Weather Generator

However, the original DOS version of the Weather Generator program included a database with parameters for generating synthetic weather data for only 139 U.S. cities. We have developed a global database that includes more than 3000 mete­ orological stations and a GIS feature for locating the nearest stations. As a source of raw weather data the NOAA database, which contains 14 years (1977-1991) of observed daily precipitation and temperature data for nearly 10,000 stations across the world, was used. It took a great deal of research and programming to decode the database files and develop filters for the records with missing data. Finally, the valid records were mathematically processed and coefficients for weather generation determined for more than 3000 locations.

Beijing, China

Mean Absolute Error, in -0.03

City

Tokyo, Japan

Mean daily temperature Mean daily maximum Mean daily minimum Mean daily temperature Mean daily maximum Mean daily minimum

1.57 -0.25

-0.68

During the second series of tests, synthetic weather data generated, using the new weather co­ efficient databases, were compared with observed weather data for twelve sites around the world. The analysis revealed that the new weather databases could be successfully used to synthesize reliable weather data. Mean monthly temperature was con­ sistently accurate within 3 degrees Fahrenheit. Mean monthly precipitation was consistently accu­ rate within 0.3 inches. Test results for Beijing, China and Tokyo, Japan (the two cities from Asia in the global test set) are presented below in Tables 1, 2. The analysis shows that the developed database could be used to synthesize reliable weather data. The new Global Weather Generator database con­ tains several hundred stations for each continent. It contains more than 400 stations for the new coun­ tries of Asian part of the former USSR and 609 sta­ tions for the remaining Asian countries. National databases include 322 stations for China, 57 sta­ tions for Japan, 63 stations for India, 45 Stations for Korea, 34 stations for Thailand and 21 stations for Turkey. 178

2.3 The technology

The models HELP, VS2DT and the Weather Gen­ erator used for simulation of unsaturated flow and transport under variable weather conditions were developed and thoroughly tested by the major envi­ ronment protection organizations (US EPA and USDA). Each ofthem has certain advanced features that will increase accuracy and reliability of simu­ lation results if they are combined. The role of the technology is to combine advantages of these mod­ els, and to integrate them the most efficient way. At the first stage of this technology, the upper part of unsaturated zone ( specific top layer or the root zone) is simulated with the HELP model and the Weather Generator to provide the high accuracy in assessment of the values of water fluxes at the bottom of the upper layer. At the second stage, the VS2DT model is used to simulate the unsaturated flow and transport of a specific chemical in the major part of the soil profile using the results of the HELP simulation as an upper boundary condition. In an efford to make unsaturated zone simula­ tions easy to perform and analyze, the following interface features have been developed: graphical tools that allows effective editing of the profile structure and layer parameters, database tools for easy editing and managing soil and chemical properties, the GIS searcher for Weather Generator that allows the quick finding nearest weather station, A special interface that allows the transfer of percolation data assessed with HELP into the VS2DT upper flow boundary input module.

tion. The current study is to demonstrate quantita­ tively this impact. To study how this effect might appear in differ­ ent weather conditions, the experiment was per­ formed for two different locations: Buffalo, USA and Malacca, Malaysia. 3.1 Conditions ofthe experiment

The conditions of the numeric experiment were based on a practical case for which WHI UnSat Suite was previously applied. Some innovative companies have developed a process for recycling powerplant bottom ash, the by-product of coal combustion. The processed ash product is used as construction fill to a depth of 2 feet. The ash con­ tains chlorine, which can potentially leach from the ash and contaminate groundwater. Lysimeter ex­ periments showed that, under natural weather con­ ditions, concentration of chlorine in the water drained from the bottom of the ash layer may have the following pattern (Barnes & Roethel1999): Table 3. Concentration of chlorine in the drainage from the bottom of the ash layer. Chlorine concentration, Time, rng/1 days 20000 0-30 30-90 7000 1400 90-210 200 210-365

The natural unsaturated zone profile (under the ash layer) is formed by a 20 feet sandy layer.

The user has a choice to specify at which level of generalization - daily, monthly or annual - the moisture flow through the upper soil boundary has to be specified.

3.2 Stage 1: Simulation of the upper boundary condition for water with HELP

At the first stage, HELP was used to assess the val­ ues of water percolating through the 2 feet ash layer. The compacted aggregated ash has the fol­ lowing parameters: saturated hydraulic conductivity of 0.8 rnlday, total porosity of 0.57 and field capac­ ity of 0.29. The initial conditions for soil profiles were near steady-state as provided by the standard HELP procedure. The length of simulation was one year. The following results have been obtained for Buffalo, USA (Figs 1, 2). As it might be seen from the Figures 1, 2, the precipitation at Buffalo (annual total is 1081 mm) is distributed quiet unevenly during the year which, in combination with temperature pattern (accumula­ tion of precipitation in the forms of snow and ice), cause the absence of percolation at the beginning of the year. The peak percolation 70.5 mm at day 105

3 SIMULATION EXPERIMENT To illustrate the application of the technology we performed a study that has a certain methodological interest. In the computational experiment we at­ tempted to assess the effect of the inflow averaging on the contaminant transport. The neighboring question - the effect of averaging of weather condi­ tions on infiltration into deep (up to 700 meters) unsaturated zone - has been studied by S.A. Sto­ thoff (1997). This study revealed that weather aver­ aging over a month produced underpredictions of infiltration as large as a factor of 5. This fact lets expecting that inflow averaging may has an impact on the results of the contaminant transport simula­ 179

'E

"E

...

~

~

Q)

C1>

:l

:>

ro

1ii

>

>

N

Tme(days)

Tirre (days)

Figure I . Generated daily precipitation for Buffalo, USA.

Figure 3. Generated daily precipitation for Malacca, Malaysia.

M

-

N

­

'E ~ .... ­

.,

.

2

>

N

0

­ l I

101

I 201 Tirre (days)

;. [I ~·.t 0

301

Figure 2. Simulated daily percolation through the ash layer for Buffalo, USA.

I

I

101

,. I

201 Trne (days)

lJ 301

Figure 4. Simulated daily percolation for Malacca, Malaysia.

the unsaturated flow and transport of chlorine in the zone below the bottom of the ash layer. The natural unsaturated zone profile (under the ash layer) is tormed by a 20 teet sandy layer with saturated hy­ draulic conductivity of 2 m/day, porosity of 0.36, and residual moisture content of 0.03 . The unsatu­ rated flow was simulated using van Genuchten's approximation (Healey 1990) with parameters -a' equal to 20 em and P' equal to 5.0. The contami­ nant transport was simulated using the dispersivity value of 40 em and molecular diffusion of 0.5 crn2/day. Calculations for both locations were performed using the pattern of chlorine concentration at the upper boundary presented in Table 3. Because the concentration of leachate depends on the pattern of water inflow, it may not be absolutely correct using data typical for Northern USA for Malacca. How­

is caused by the melting of accumulated snow a few days before. The total percolation through the ash layer for Buffalo is 322mm. Results of the HELP simulation for Malacca are presented in Figures 3, 4. Results for Malacca, where the total annual pre­ cipitation is 1967 mm, show relatively more even percolation through the ash layer. The total perco­ lation through the ash layer for Malacca is 589 mm. To allow the comparison of different scales of averaging, percolation values for both locations were saved being averaged at daily, monthly and annually levels. 3.3 Stage 2: Simulation ofchlorine transport with VS2DT

At the second stage, VS2DT was used to simulate 180

~

---

llily

--+-

Anually

Table 4. Chlorine concentration (mg/1} at different depth for different scales of inflow averaging at the end of the year for Buffalo, USA.

Inflow averaging:

___._ Mxlthly

~§ ~§

J~

Depth, em

Daily

Inflow averaging Monthly

53

210

229

364

209

268

383

1338

603

103

18

1550

Annually

0

130

30

Tun: (days2f

330 Table 5. Chlorine concentration (mg/1) at different depth for different scales of inflow averaging at the end of the year for Malacca, Malaysia.

Figure 5. Chlorine concentration at depth 603 em for dif­ ferent scales of inflow averaging for Buffalo, USA.

Inflcr.vaveraging

Depth, em

Daily

Inflow averaging Monthly

Annually

llily

53

206

210

229

Mrthly

209

255

257

459

Anwlly

603

810

539

3130

2

ence may still be observed (Tabs 4, 5). For depths 53 and 209 em this difference is especially high when daily and monthly averaging are compared with annual averaging of inflow. The difference may be as much as a factor of 5 for Buffalo and as much as factor of 1.8 for Malacca (depth 209 em, daily averaging in both cases). The overpredictions of the chlorine concentration for the annual aver­ aging of inflow is explained by the fact the even in­ flow rate in this case brings a lot of chlorine into the profile during the first several months of simu­ lation when the concentration of inflow is ex­ tremely high. The inflow with daily and monthly averaging, contrary, is very small (Malacca) or even equal to zero for Buffalo. In general, the difference in simulated concen­ trations for Buffalo is much higher than that for Malacca. This phenomenon is explained by peculi­ arities of the climate at two locations. Percolation through the ash layer at Malacca is more stable, freezing does not interrupt it, and the rates of per­ colation are nearly two times higher.

102

Figure 6. Chlorine concentration at depth 603 em for different scales of inflow averaging for Malacca, Malaysia.

ever use of the available data from other region is for ;ange assessment is commonly done in_ engi­ neering practice. Consequently, we have the nght to use this approach in our study, which has the meth­ odological character. The results of the VS2DT simulation are pre­ sented in Figures 5, 6 and Tables 4, 5 . 3.4 Discussion The difference between simulation results obtained for different levels of averaging is increasing with depth and time both for Buffalo and Malacca. Not only the values of concentration but the shape of the breakthrough curve differs for different ways of inflow averaging (Fig. 6). Figures 5, 6 present chlo­ rine concentration close to groundwater level where the maximum difference between simulation results occurs. As it might be seen, the difference in con­ centration for monthly and annual averaging of in­ flow may be as much as a factor of 86 for Buffalo and as a factor of 5.8 for Malacca. However, at the points closer to the soil surface significant differ-

4 CONCLUSIONS The accuracy of transport simulation may be very sensitive to the level of averaging of the flow at the . upper boundary of the unsaturate? profile. The differences in concentratiOn caused by dif­ ferences of inflow averaging depend on the climate being smaller in tropical climate (Malacca). H~w­ ever, even in tropical climate, the concentratiOn 181

may differ up to 5.8 times when monthly and an­ nual levels of averaging are compared. To obtain reliable results of contaminant trans­ port simulation, daily variation of inflow has to be simulated. The efficient way to reach this goal is the application of the unsaturated zone modelling technology based on the functions of the WHI Un­ Sat Suite Plus software package. The Global Weather Generator included into the modelling suite provides a fast and efficient way for assessing daily weather characteristics for around 3000 locations globally. REFERENCES Barnes, J. & F. Roethell999, pers. comm. Healey, R.W. 1990. Simulation of solute transport in variably saturated porous media with supplemental information on modifications to the US Geological Survey computer pro­ gram VS2D. Water resource investigations report 90­ 4025. Denver, Colorado. Richardson, C.W. & D.A. Wright 1984. WGEN: a model for generating daily weather variables. US Department of Ag­ riculture, Agricultural Research Service, ARS - 8. Schroeder, P.R. et a!. 1994. The hydrologic evaluation of landfill performance (HELP) model, EPA report EPA/600/R-94/168b. Stothoff, S.A. 1997, Sensitivity of long-term bare soil infiltra­ tion simulations to hydraulic properties in an arid envi­ ronment. Water Resources Research, vol. 33, N0.4: 547­ 558.

182

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 1392

Volume averaged parameters for two-phase flow Marc Hoffmann Department ofEnvironmental Sciences, Wageningen University, Netherlands

During the last years the theory of volume averaging became widely used among theoretical research on the transport parameters for porous media flow. Practical applications of this theory appeared slowly in the literature because of the complex closure problem. By using idealized geometrical porous media descriptions, the closure problem can be solved approximately. One of the first applications of this concept is the work of (duPlessis & Masliyah 1988) for single phase flow. The volume averaging technique is used to model viscous flow including hydrodynamic drag effects in porous media. In this presentation further developments in the application of volume averaging for two-phase flows are described. The main emphasis lies on slow gas-liquid flows which occur in natural soils. The presence of two mobile fluid phases (e.g. water and air) introduces extra terms in the volume averaging process. We describe the solution of the closure problem with approximate analytical equations. The final volume averaged equations have a non-local structure, but are suited for numerical solution of flow problems in porous media.

LIST OF SYMBOLS A

f !(0,6) g I k lg

£ n

p

Pp q

Q r rcrit

r;

Re

s v

volume of pores in averaging volume

[m3]

area in pore (corner) occupied by fluid

volume of averaging volume [m 3 ], d 3 resistance factor [-] angle of corner rad 6 porosity [m 3 /m 3 ], VpfV0 surface (interfacial) tension at inter­ face [kg/ s 2 ] p density [kgfm 3 ] J.L dynamic viscosity [kgfms] () contact angle liquid - solid rad v normal vector on S [-] subscripts: c mean inside corner l liquid n volumetric intrinsic phase average p mean inside pore s solid symbols: (( ) ) average of quantity deviation from mean streamwise pores II transverse pores ..L Vo [3

[m2]

pore area normal to flow [m 2 ] factor depending on x microscopic characteristic length (RUC)[m] Fanning friction factor for fully devel­ opedflow [-] function describing geometric com­ ponents[-] gravity acceleration [m/ s 2 ] vector integral expression number of corners in channel [-] flow length inside RUC [m] length of interface [m] fraction of porosity occupied by liq­ uid or gas[-] pressure [kg/ms 2 ] perimeter of pore normal to flow [m] volumetric flow rate [m 3 / s] specific discharge over RUC (summed over individual corners)

()

[m 3 /s]

radius of curvature of gas-liquid inter­ face [m] critical radius of curvature of gas­ liquid interface during drainage [m] critical radius of curvature of gas­ liquid interface during imbibition [m] Reynolds number, pvpDh/ J.L, [-]

surface [m 2 ]

velocity [m/s]

INTRODUCTION The description of the flow of multiple phases through a porous medium is important in many areas of sci­ ence and engineering. Examples are unsaturated zone hydrology, petrophysics and catalytic flow reactors in chemical engineering. 183

The equations describing the movement of fluids through a porous medium are usually based on Darcy type equations for slow flow. These equations require the description of parameters like conductivity and the water-content vs. pressure relationship. In practice these parameters are estimated using empirical rela­ tionships or through experiments on specific porous media. This paper uses the method of Volume Aver­ aging (Bachmat & Bear 1986) to describe the be­ haviour of a wetting liquid inside a porous medium with the presence of a non-wetting liquid. The vol­ ume averaged equations have a different form than the Darcy type equations and are used to directly estimate porous media properties. Volume averaging has been used in the last de­ cennia, mostly for single-phase flow in porous me­ dia, although examples of multiphase flow are de­ scribed in (Bear & Bensabat 1989). Volume averag­ ing is a complex mathematical technique and despite the enormous theoretical developments, up to now the practical applications of volume averaging have been limited due to the so called closure problem. Differ­ ent possibilities exist to solve this closure problem: numerical methods (Quintard & Whitaker 1990), ap­ proximations based on empirical equations (Whitaker 1980) and analytical solutions for prototype unit cells (du Plessis & Masliyah 1988; du Plessis & Dieder­ icks 1997). The approach taken in this paper is based on the closure scheme developed in (du Plessis & Masliyah 1988). This scheme is augmented with addi­ tional boundary conditions which are introduced due to fluid-fluid interfaces. This has become possible due to the recent work of (Zhou et al. 1997), who derived an analytical approximation for the resistance factor to flow in comers. The paper starts with a description of the volume averaging process and introduces the volume aver­ aged equations. From these new equations the de­ scription of the volume averaged parameters for two­ phase flow are derived.

v9

=0

Vt

=0

at liquid-solid interface (4)

= Vt

at gas-liquid interface (5)

v9

(p9

-

at gas-solid interface

Pt)lx = 'YgtCix

in longitudinal direction of capillary

(3)

(6)

The last boundary condition describes the surface forces acting on the fluids. It is assumed that the only surface force is surface tension, which is modeled by the Young-Laplace equation. If the fluid contents vary slowly in the longitudinal direction of the capillary (see region C of figure 3), the pressure of the non­ wetting liquid is assumed constant and taken as ref­ erence pressure, the pressure in the wetting phase be­ comes: 'Y p=-(7) r

Only the equations describing the liquid movement will be retained. 3 VOLUME AVERAGING FOR VARIABLE FLUID VOLUME FRACTIONS In the literature several examples exist of the use of volume averaging inside a porous medium with constant volume fractions of fluids inside an averag­ ing volume. Averaging with variable fluid fractions is not common and introduces extra terms in the aver­ aged equations which are similar to the case when the porosity varies. The volume averaged form of equa­ tion (1) for the liquid is:

(8)

2 THE BASIC INTERSTITIAL EQUATIONS As a basis we start with the steady-state Navier­ Stokes equations inside the pores of a porous medium. These equations are then averaged over a Representa­ tive Elementary Volume (REV). To make this possible the REV is modelled as a typical configuration of the pore space, called a Representative Unit Cell (RUC). For each of the fluid phases, e.g. gas and liquid, these equations are:

V' · (pvv)

= pg + 'Vp- ~-t'V 2 v

The surface integral terms have two contribu­ tions: from the gas-liquid and from the liquid-solid interface. Rearranging equation (8), dropping the terms containing momentum advection and convec­ tive terms and writing terms which generate momen­ tum left and dissipate momentum right gives the fol­ lowing steady-state equation:

(1)

EntPtY+mt'VPtn

They are augmented by the mass conservation equa­ tions: (2) 'V·v=O

= -~

f (vpl

+J-tt:)vt)) dS (9)

with boundary conditions: 184

4

MODELLING OF THE VOLUME AVERAGED EQUATIONS In order to find a simple approximation or analytical solution to the closure problem the integral terms in equation (9) have to be rewritten. To make this possi­ ble the RUC concept of (duPlessis & Masliyah 1988) is used. Their RUC concept is changed to accommo­ date the specifics of gas-liquid flows. Flow channels are approximated by triangular channels. This is nec­ essary in order to accurately model the saturation vs. capillary pressure relationship of porous materials. 4.1 Geometrical properties of the RUC The triangular pores are modelled as composed of right-angled triangles. These fit into corners of the RUC (figure 1). The void (pore) volume of the RUC is given by:

As a first approximation the flow length inside the RUC is computed as:

l9

=

3d-

2

3(a+b)

(11)

The geometry of flow inside a corner is shown in figure 2. The geometrical properties £ 91 , £.1 and A can be expressed in terms of r, 6 and (). r is directly linked to the capillary pressure by equation (7). 4.2 Capillary pressure relationship The relation among pressure difference between the fluids and saturation is modelled similar to (Mason & Morrow 1991, eq. 21) using the MSP method. The major difference is that also the longitudinal changes in the fluid gas interface have to be approximated and

T

Figure 2: Geometry of interface between liquid and gas inside a corner, the direction offlow is perpendic­ ular to the paper. that different contact angles are taken into account. The derived relationship does not take into account the effects of surface adhesion forces, but could be modified accordingly. If a non-wetting fluid enters a pore filled with a wetting fluid, an interface between the two fluids is formed. This interface is called a MTM (Main Ter­ minal Meniscus). As soon as the two principal radii of the meniscus have the same magnitude, the non­ wetting fluid enters the capillary. This radius is called the critical radius for drainage, Tcrit· During imbibi­ tion, when a wetting fluid fills a capillary a different critical radius corresponds to complete filling of the capillary with the wetting fluid. This radius r; cor­ responds to the case when the liquid from the sepa­ rate corners starts to touch each other: r crit is always smaller than r;. Both of these critical radii depend on the contact angle. As a simple example the capillary pressure relations for zero contact angle are used in the following. p2

..:..L-

2Ap

27r

(12)

If there are saturation gradients, the average satura­ tion inside the pores is calculated using the saturation profile given by (Dong & Chatzis 1995):

,, ,, '' '

nt =

'

' '' ''

' ' '

:

/

3f(O, 6)l 9 1 2 P! 5 5V.

P

-3

Pt

-

pi) 5 -3

-Po

(13)

4.3 Flow resistance relationships In order to find an approximate analytical solution for the closure problem, the resistance to flow in the RUC channel needs to be specified. In case the channel is filled with one fluid only, standard solutions from (Shah & London 1978) are available. For two-phase flow the solution procedure from (Zhou et al. 1997) is followed. These relationships are valid for laminar flow. The

------.J--,

:'

Pp+~

Tcrit =

''

'''

''' "'

Figure 1: Geometry ofRUC. 185

assumption of laminar flow is generally valid in the regime of slow two-phase flow. The flow resistances are written in terms of dimensionless resistance term f3 and the geometrical properties of the flow itself for the two-phase flow. The derivation of the resistance factors for two­ phase flow is mainly based on the work of (Zhou et al. 1997) and (Mogensen & Stenby 1998). In contrast to single-phase flow, where fRe is given for the whole capillary, in two-phase flow the resistance factor is given for each comer in the capillary separately. This resistance factor is based on the average velocity of the fluid inside a comer of a capillary. This average velocity is defined as: (14)

faces will not contribute to the streamwise com­ ponent of II'. They will contribute to the pressure deviation term. Because the transverse pore sec­ tions have two times the length of the streamwise pore section, they contribute with a factor of two.

I~'= I~'(S1 ) + I~'(S1.) = ~ j Su+2S.L

Qc

Ar2

= -(3 \lp Jll

r depends on the capillary pressure and as in (Mogensen & Stenby 1998).

(15)

f3 is defined

4.4 Modelling of the surface terms In order to solve the closure problem, the integral term in equation (9) needs to be expressed in terms of the resistance factors and geometric terms. The surface integral in equation (9) can be split in the parts con­ taining the liquid-solid interface and the liquid-gas in­ terface. These two terms give the stress components. The tangential stresses at the gas-liquid interface are assumed to be zero, but because of the capillary ef­ fects, normal stresses do exist.

~: dS (17)

5. The shear stress on the liquid is a function of the resistance factor (3. The mass flow is constant in each capillary and the two terms which generate momentum for dissipation are the gravity term and the pressure term. For a single comer the re­ sistance is: avl

T

with inside the comer for the volumetric flow rate:

111

=. J1 8v

(18)

6. The part of Sn contributing to momentum dissi­ pation is: s.l 7. Normal stresses at the interface between the liq­ uid and the gas are given by the Young-Laplace equation. 8. The form of the interface in longitudinal direc­ tion is modelled as in (Dong & Chatzis 1995). This implies that the volume averaged equation is valid inside region C (figure 3). Inside region A a the saturated case is recovered. The integral term in equation (17) is rewritten using the conditions stated above. As before, the equations are developed for a single comer and have to be as­ sembled for the specific form of the capillary. Using equation (15, 17, 18) and some algebraic manipula­ tion: (19)

I~'

5

COMBINATION OF THE VOLUME AVER­ AGED EQUATION If all volume averaged terms are used and the ex­ To evaluate the above integral expression, the fol­ lowing assumptions are made:

~

1. The geometry is given by the RUC shown in fig­ ure 1.

;

:

2. The mean pore velocity vp is directed axially along that specific pore section. 3. Pore sections (and thus also comers) are oriented perpendicularly and transversally with respect to the local average velocity. 4. Shear stresses which occur along transverse sur­

A

: :

B!

C

Figure 3: Regions where solution is valid (A, B); A: saturated, B: region ofMTM [r ~ rcritl, C: two-phase region [r ~ r critl. 186

pression for II' is substituted in equation (9) and re­ arranged:

tion step and it is suited to discretization in standard edge centered finite difference codes or finite volume codes. The non-local structure is due to the incooper­ ation of boundary conditions. A straightforward 1-D discretization for horizontal flow is: Vd ;

The summation term inside the square brackets is a purely geometric term, which is constant for a spe­ cific RUC chosen. Equation (20) contains no specific reference to the length scales of the RUC anymore. The length scale terms are implicitly contained in the boundary conditions p0 and p1. These boundary con­ ditions together with the gradient term depend on the flow itself. If this equation is rewritten in terms of the apparent (or "Darcy") velocity, the similarity to the single-phase volume averaged equation becomes ap­ parent: vd

= _

[t j=l

fj(B ,

/3j

b)] dq

Po

3 4 )

(PI 3 3nNpJ.lt(Po- Pt)

v;,

The main difference is that the saturation n 1 directly enters the equation and that nonlinear contributions from the interaction between liquid pressure and satu­ ration are present. Explicit reference to porous media structure parameters such as RUC length d and pore can be measured directly in homogeneous volume media as shown by (duPlessis & Masliyah 1988). The difference with respect to the classical Darcy type equation is the presence of the non-linear term containing p0 and p1. The first part of equation (20) on the right hand side can be interpreted as a con­ ductivity function. The main difference to a tradi­ tional conductivity-pressure relationship, e.g. (van Genuchten 1980), which is defined in terms of a lo­ cal pressure, is that no local pressures are used, but that boundary conditions p0 and p1 directly enter the equations.

v;,

=

[t

fJ(B,b)] dq 4 (p;:;l/2- pj_!l/2 ) nt;.6.x 3Vp/.ll j=l f3j

(22)

with; the node number. This is a "simple" non-linear equation and together with the saturation profile given in (Dong & Chatzis 1995) the pressure in node ; can be calculated exactly. The first part of equation (21):

[t

j=l

fj(B,

/3j

b)]

dq 4 3VpJ.lt

(23)

contains only porous media and fluid dependent prop­ erties. These are usually temporally constant and the porous medium properties are allowed to change in space. These space dependent parameters can be up­ scaled by standard real space renorma1ization proce­ dures (Hoffmann 1998). Due to the volume averaged nature of equations (20, 21) the boundary conditions need to be specified in volume averaged form. Earlier research (Saffman 1971) showed that at low porosity or equivalent at low water contents standard microscopic boundary con­ ditions can be used with small approximation errors. Further research is needed to specify these boundary conditions at large porosities and fluid contents. 7 EXAMPLE As a simple example consider the behaviour of the discrete, simplified form of equation (20) for horizon­ tal flow: Q; =

3

3

KP;-31; 2 - ; i+l /2 Pi+l/2Pi- 1/2

(24 )

with K denoting all constant fluid and porous media properties. The behaviour of this equation subject to

EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS FOR NUMERI­ CAL MODELLING UNSATURATED FLOW When numerically solving the equations describing the movement of a fluid through a porous medium, usually these equations are discretized and an approx­ imation like finite differences or finite elements is used. The conductivity term needs to be defined for a discrete volume. Usually this is done by averaging nodal values of the conductivity. This averaging intro­ duces approximation errors in the discrete solution. Equation (21) is an "effective" equation in terms of its parameters and the RUC scale. Because of these properties no averaging is necessary in the discretiza­

6

0 0.5 0

·0.5

Figure 4: Example solution ofeq. (24 ), scaled. 187

changing boundary conditions p0 and p1 is shown in figure 4. As can be seen from the figure, the scaled so­ lution shows that at low negative pressures (implying high water content, see eq. (7)) relative high volumet­ ric flows occur. Clearly an averaged pressure can not model the complete behaviour of this solution.

Quintard, M. & Whitaker, S. (1990, October). Two-Phase Flow in Heterogeneous Porous Media IT: Numerical Ex­ periments for Flow Perpendicular to a Stratified System. Transport in Porous Media 5(5), 429- 472. Saffman (1971, June). On the Boundary Condition at the Surface of a Porous Medium. Studies in Applied Mathe­ matics L(2), 93- 101. Shah, R. K. & London, A. L. (1978). Laminar Flow Forced Convection in Ducts -A Source Book for Compact Heat Exchanger Analytical Data, Volume Supplement 1 of Advances in Heat Transfer. New York: Academic Press. van Genuchten, M. T. (1980). A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 44, 892- 898. Whitaker, S. (1980). Heat and Mass Transfer in Granular Porous Media. In A. S. Mujumdar (Ed.), Advances in Drying, Volume 1, Chapter 2, pp. 23-61. Washington: Hemisphere. Zhou, D., Blunt, M., & Orr, Jr., F. M. (1997, March). Hy­ drocarbon Drainage along Corners of Noncircular Cap­ illaries. Journal ofColloid and Interface Science I87( 1), 11-21.

8 CONCLUSIONS The volume averaged form of the transport equation for two-phase flow has a different structure than the single-phase equation. The most significant is the in­ troduction of boundary conditions in the equation it­ self. Due to its simple structure it can be solved more efficiently than Richards equation after discretization. This is mainly due to the fact that no interpolation and averaging of pressure heads or velocities is nec­ essary. Parameters for this equation follow directly from structural data of the porous matrix and fluid de­ pendent properties. The non-linear contribution from the boundary conditions together with the parameters directly replaces the traditional conductivity-pressure relationship. A point of further research is the specifi­ cation of external boundary conditions. Because the volume averaged nature of the equations, also the boundary conditions need to be volume averaged.

REFERENCES Bachmat, Y. & Bear, J. (1986). Macroscopic Modelling of Transport Phenomena in Porous Media. 1: The Contin­ uum Approach. Transport in Porous Media I(3), 213­ 240. Bear, J. & Bensabat, J. (1989, October). Advective Fluxes in Multiphase Porous Media Under Nonisothermal Con­ ditions. Transport in Porous Media 4(5), 423 - 448. Dong, M. & Chatzis, I. (1995, June). The Imbibition and Flow of a Wetting Liquid along the Corners of a Square Capillary Tube. Journal of Colloid and Interface Sci­ ence 172(2), 278 - 288. du Plessis, J. P. & Diedericks, G. P. J. (1997). Pore­ Scale Modelling of Interstitial Transport Phenomena. In P. du Plessis (Ed.), Fluid Transpon in Porous Media, Volume 13 of Advances in Fluid Mechanics, Chapter 2, pp. 61- 104. Computational Mechanics Publications. duPlessis, J.P. & Masliyah, J. H. (1988, April). Mathemat­ ical Modelling of Flow Through Consolidated Isotropic Porous Media. Transport in Porous Media 3(2), 145­ 161. Hoffmann, M. (1998). Fast real space renormalization for two-phase porous media flow. In Proc. Int. Symp. on Computer Methods for Engineering in Porous Media, Giens, France, sept. 28- oct. 2 I998. Mason, G. & Morrow, N. R. (1991, January). Capillary be­ haviour of a Perfectly Wetting Liquid in Irregular Tri­ angular Tubes. Journal of Colloid and Interface Sci­ ence I4I(l), 262- 274. Mogensen, K. & Stenby, E. H. (1998, September). A

Dynamic Two-Phase Pore-Scale Model of Imbibition.

Transpon in Porous Media 32(3), 299-327.

188

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Application of FE consolidation analysis method to fill-type dams Y.Kohgo, I.Asano & H.Tagashira

National Research Institute ofAgricultural Engineering, Tsukuba, Japan

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this paper is to apply a method of consolidation analysis to fill-type dams to es­ timate the movement behavior of the dams during construction and reservoir filling. The consolidation analy­ sis employs the force equilibrium equations for soil and the Richards' mass conservation equation of pore water as the governing equations and was formulated using FEM. An elastoplastic model for unsaturated soils is used to express the stress-strain behavior of the fill materials. The numerical results were compared with measurements. The analysis results were consistent with the movements observed. The method can continu­ ously analyze the behavior of dams from construction to reservoir filling periods. (1)

I INTRODUCTION Fill-type dams are constructed by compacting un­ saturated soils. After the construction, the dams are saturated with water from the reservoir. The behav­ ior of fill-type dams during reservoir filling is very complex and hard to estimate. Nobari & Duncan ( 1972) pointed out that four separate effects of a rise in water level behind a typical zoned dam might be present. These are (1) downstream and downward movements due to the water-load applied on the core, (2) upstream and downward movements due to the water-load applied on the upstream foundation, (3) upward movements within the upstream shell zone and downstream rotation of the dam due to the buoyant uplift forces in this shell, and (4) downward movements within the upstream shell zone and up­ stream rotation of the dam due to saturation collapse of this shell. Moreover, deformations due to pore water pressures within the core and the changes of material properties due to wetting should occur in the dam. The behavior cannot be analyzed until the consolidation analysis methods with elastoplastic models for unsaturated soils are introduced. The purposes of this paper are to apply a consoli­ dation analysis method coupled with an elastoplastic model for unsaturated soils to fill-type dams, and to discuss the behavior of the dams during construction and reservoir filling.

s*

= (s- s.)

(2)

where ua = pore air pressure; uw = pore water pres­ sure; s. = air entry suction; and the brackets < > de­ note the operation =O at z < 0 and =z at z 2: 0. The consolidation analysis method includes the governing equations and an elastoplastic model for unsaturated soils. They will be described in the fol­ lowing sections. 2.1 Generalized elastoplastic model Kohgo et a!. (1993a) clarified that the mechanical properties of unsaturated soils were controlled not only by suction but also by saturation conditions (or soil water retention conditions). The saturation con­ ditions are divided into three, namely insular satura­ tion, pendular saturation and fuzzy saturation condi­ tions and it was found to be necessary to consider two suction effects to represent the mechanical properties of unsaturated soils. The two suction ef­ fects are (a) an increase in suction increases effec­ tive stresses and (b) an increase in suction enhances yield stress and affects the resistance to plastic de­ formations. The suction effect (a) may be expressed by the following empirical effective stress equations:

a' =a-ueq

(3)

2 CONSOLIDATION ANALYSIS METHOD (4)

At first, suction s and effective suction s* are de­ fined as follows: 189

(5) where u.9 = equivalent pore pressure; a' = effective stress; a = total stress; a. = a material parameter. The equations are derived from the relationship be­ tween suction and shear strength values at the criti­ cal state. The suction effect (b) may be formulated by evaluating the state surface, which defmes elasto­ plastic volume change behavior in unsaturated soils (Kohgo, 1987). The state surface can be plotted in the space with the axes; effective mean stress p ·, ef­ fective suction s*, and void ratio e. The figures of state surfaces depend on the types of soils. Here, the postulated state surface can be expressed as follows:

e=-A.* logp'+r*

(6)

A. A.*=-1+ y

(7)

r* =r +e8y

(8)

l+y

hardening parameter, the yield stress Ic in the model (see Figure 2) can be calculated using Eqs. (11)-(13). Once Ic is identified, the parameters / 0, K*, a, and b* can be calculated using Eqs. (14), (15) and yield surfaces may be determined as Eqs. (17), ( 18). Besides, a*cs> a* and R are material parameters and a*c• and a* can be calculated using Eq. (16). A subloading surface model is also introduced into this model to express the smooth transition from elastic­ ity to plasticity. More details can be found in Kohgo etal. (1993b). 2.2 Governing equations and FEformulation In many geotechnical problems, it seems to be rea­ sonable that pore air is always connected with the atmosphere and the permeability for airflow is suffi­ ciently high. Pore air pressure is therefore always the same as the atmospheric pressure. The field equa­ tions for consolidation problems of unsaturated soils may be presented as the following two weak form equations:

fv( CJ'~.j + OyUeq.j + rF;). ou:dv = 0

(20) (21)

e·r

y=a.

(9)

where A. =A.• in saturation; r =r* in saturation; A* = slopes of e - log p • curves in the elastoplastic range; r• =void ratios of e - log p' curves in the elastoplastic range at p'= unit; a., n., e0°= material parameters. More details can be found in Kohgo et al. (1993a). An elastoplastic model with the two suction ef­ fects described above is employed as a stress - strain relationship. The model is schematically shown in Figure 1. In the following, compression stresses are treated as negative. The suction effect (a) may be automatically taken into account by formulating the elastoplastic model in terms of effective stress in­ variants / 1, J 2 and (} (the Lode angle). The suction effect (b) may be evaluated as follows. If the elasto­ plastic model has plastic volumetric strain e!;as a

where a'y =components of effective stress tensor; oij = Kronecker delta; r = unit weight of the soil; F 1 = components of the body force vector; q1 = compo­ nents of the relative displacement velocity vector of water with respect to the soil skeleton; ti;i = change of storage of water due to change of degree of satu­ ration; Eu = volumetric strain of the soil skeleton; 8u • 1 = virtual displacement vector; 8u • w = virtual pore water pressure. Subscripts after a comma de­ note spatial differentiation. Repeated indices indi­ cate summation and a superposed dot denotes differ­ entiation with respect to time. Equation (20) is the equilibrium equation of the soil and Equation (21) is the Richards' mass conservation equation of the pore water. The governing equations are introduced to the discrete system using the fmite element method and the solution procedure is based on the modified Newton-Raphson method. More details can be found in Kohgo (1995). 2.3 Consideration ofsoil properties Nonlinear properties of elasticity, permeability and soil water retention need to be considered in this consolidation analysis method. Elastic moduli (shear and bulk moduli) are assumed to be functions of p' and .,JJ 2 as follows:

p2

10

K = -2.3(1 + e0) + K.

-II

I(

Figure 1. Yield surfaces of the elastoplastic model (Kohgo et al. 1993b).

190

l

(22 )



increase in

effective stresses due to an increase in An

....

(5).

suction

An increase in yield

stress and resistance to the plastic defonnation due to an increase in

Effective stresses may be calculated by Eqs. (3) to

~

suction

. -3.J3J s ij= uij-30;/J, ' 1 sm30 = ~ (10) 2J2.

The state surface may be estimated by Eqs. (6) to (9).

fi =a *!1+1];_-K*=O

(17)

g(6)

g(O

et'

-·f::-r·,

~

(A. *-te) 2.3(1+ e0 ) ~A. *a -~e2

2.3(1 +eo) In( -Pn)

[: *c -1'*2 (1 +e0 )

(19)

2(.JJ cosO- sinO sintf>')

t (ll)

(12)

,

Q-sin~~

g(6)

/c=-3ex ~

B"

+

h=b,2(11-IS+t1 J,r_tJb,2=o(1s)

Plastic volumetric strain as a hardening parameter

A*

....



I 1 /1 = cr~, J2=2sijsij. J3=3SySjkski

_.

(13)

I - ...!.&.._

o-1+R' a= -{Ic -Io)

b* =-a*,,,lo,

a*

Jj

(14)

K* =-(a* cs -a *Yo

2sinf (3-sint/>')

,a

(15)

2sin~:.

*

cs

(16)

J3(3-sintj>~)

Figure 2. Suction effects and the elastoplastic model.

G = G; + r J.J]; - r pp'.

(23)

Where K = bulk modulus; G = shear modulus; e0= initial void ratio; K = slope of e - log p' curve at unloading; Ki, G;, YJ and rp = material parameters. The permeability property is postulated to be a function of e and S, (Kohgo, 1995). Tangential model is used to express the soil water retention curve. The model satisfies the continuity of tangential slope c of the soil water retention curve. More details can be found in Kohgo (1995).

0~

rtj I

0

50

Downstream

191

150

200

r

100

j :

I l

40

20 0

)!

The method has been already applied to analyze the behavior of a virtual earth dam (height H =50 m and width B =305m) as shown in Figure 3 (Kohgo, 1992 & 1997). Some interesting results were obtained. The most interesting one is movement of the up­ stream crest. Figure 4 shows horizontal displace­ ments with time at the upstream crest. The dam

showed an upstream deformation after commence­

ment of seepage for some time and then moved back downstream. This behavior is consistent with typical dam behavior during reservoir filling. It could not be analyzed until the consolidation analysis method

100

250

300

350

Figure 3. A virtual earth dam and finite mesh.

i

3 CONSOLIDATION ANALYSES

np ffil Um qe~,

Upstream crest~

50

. • •6()

~-80

·100 Upsboam

I

I)"

~ Ri1cof

wat«level

., -I

DuriDg lccp88C

J

r

'"\

Commcuoement ofooepage

~ 1­

~

...

.1.

800 950 107013701670 2270287034704070 Time

{day)

Figure 4. The horizontal displacement history at the upstream crest during reservoir filling.

taking into account the saturated collapse was adopted. In this paper, the method is applied to analyze a rock fill dam named Oroville dam during construc­ tion and reservoir filling. The parameters are shown

Table 1. Material prarneters for analysis of Oroville darn. Elasticity K , (kPa) G , (kPa)

IC

r

r,

J

Subloading

h (kPa)

Initial condition

s.,

a,

r (kN/m')

e,

s.

Impervious Core

0.015

15700

13900

0

54.9 2xl0'

2

0.778

9.4

0.3

Transition

0.005

10000

51400

0

35.4 2x10'

2

0.05

15

0.252

23.5

Shell

0.005

10000

59700

0

39.8 2xiO'

2

0.05

15

0.252

23.5

Plasticity ~

Impervious Core

'

Effective stress ~

'cs

21

25

I

Transition

33.8

38.8

I

-2000 -2E-1{)6

Shell

33.8

38.8

I

-2E-1{)6

Permeability Impervious Core

k. (mid) 3xlo·'

Transition Shell

-398

n,

h.

0

;.

0

O.Q7

.

r

n,

a,

e ' 0.482

0

lxiO"

-127000

0

0

0.014

0.309

0.282

27.6

1.28

-127000

0

0

0.014

0.309

0.282

27.6

1.28

Soil water retention

m,

State surface

I , (kPa) p , ' (kPa) a , (kPa) s , (kPa)

R

23.5

O.Q2

Sn 0.91

2.4xl0'

0.02

3xiO'

0.02

s_

s.,

s • (kPa) s , (kPa)

0.5

0.1

17

0.91

0.5

0.1

0.91

0.5

0.1

in Table 1. The dimensions of the rock fill dam are H =235 m and B =1098 m and it has an inclined im­ pervious core as shown in Figure 5 (a). The finite element mesh and the zoning of the dam are shown in Figure 5. The embankment was completed in 671 days and the speed of construction was constant at 0.35 m/d. Pore water pressures in shell and transition zones were assumed to maintain the initial values during construction. Then, the consolidation behav­ ior of the impervious core was only considered. As boundary conditions, the base was rigid and imper­ vious. The elements used here were isoparametric for displacements and super-parametric for pore water pressures. Reduced integration (2x2 Gauss point integration) was also adopted. The reservoir was filled in 590 days at a constant rate and the full water level was 228 m. The results of this analysis are shown in Figures. 6- 13. Figure 6 shows com­ parisons of the measured and calculated settlements during construction. As would be expected, the values of settlement in the impervious core were larger than those induced in the transition and shell zones. On the whole, the agreement between the measured and calculated settlements was quite good. Figure 7 shows comparisons of the measured and

c. (kPa-') c ,(kPa-') 1.25xiO·'

2.6

60 3.75xl0• 9 2.5xl0· 1

8.33xl0·'

2.6

9 2.5xlo· 1

8.33xlo·'

calculated horizontal displacements during con­ struction. Though the calculated horizontal dis­ placements at measuring point No. 3 are larger than those observed, the agreement between the measured and calculated displacements is quite good on the whole. Figure 8 shows the deformations of the dam. From Figure 8 (a), at the completion of construction, settlements concentrated in the impervious core. Horizontal displacements were smaller than the set­ tlements. The upstream part of the dam moved so as to lean against the downstream shell zone. From Figure 8 (b), it was found that the dam moved more downstream and the tendency was especially re­

ftlrf

:: b:~l . . r:tl::I

1 :::b-~I . . Ilf.l 0

50

100

150

200

250

0

50

100

150

200

250

50

100

150

200

250

50

100

150

200

250

I :1~.1 . . MI (I) Impervious core, (2) Transition, (3) Shell, (4) Core block (Mass concrete)

Height of embsnkment (m)

Figure 5. A section of Oroville darn and finite element mesh used in this analysis.

Figure 6. Settlements at H =97m during construction.

192

pressures accumulated during construction may rapidly disappear and steady state seepage appears in the core. Figure 12 shows vertical stress distributions in the dam. From Figure 12 (a), at the completion of construction, the arching action induced by the con­ centration of vertical stresses at the boundaries be­ tween the impervious core and the transition zones can be clearly seen. However, at full water level, the

Estimations Measurements

250

250

250

250

250

~~

~

~

m

m

1150

150

150

150

150

1100

100

100

too

100

~

i

:i!

50

50

50

50

No.6

-100 102030

-100102030

No.4

-100 1020 30

Horizontal displacement (em)

50 No.3

No.I

-100 1020 30

-100 1020 30

Downstream----. +

Figure 7. Horizontal displacements at H = 62m during con­ struction.

(a)

(b) Original Crest Location

Figure 8. Deformation results (a) Just after construction, (b) High water level. Figure 9. Contours of horizontal disp lacement.

markable near the crest. Figure 9 shows contours of horizontal displace­ ments of the embankment during reservoir filling. In this figure, the downstream movements are express­ ed as positive values. The parts which existed more upstream than the boundary line between the core and the downstream transition zone moved upstream and the more downstream parts moved downstream. As the water level rose, the embankment moved downstream. Contours of the calculated values of settlements during reservoir filling are shown in Figure 10. The maximum value of settlements appears at mid height of the core. The maximum settlement was about 1.8m. The upstream parts of the embankment moved downward as the water level rose. The downstream parts had little influence of reservoir. Figure 11 shows contours of pore water pressure during reservoir filling. The maximum value of pore water pressures in the core induced by self-weight of the core material was about 150 kPa and the value still remained small in comparison with the size of the dam. It arises from the fact that the initial degree of saturation of the core material (Srll=77.8%) is not so high. As the water level rises, the pore water

Figure I0. Contours of settlements .

193

ary between the impervious core and the upstream transition zone. The maximum absolute value of shear stress at completion of construction was higher than that at high water level. 1>00

100

.Joe

40

"'

.no

.200

4 CONCLUSIONS A finite element method of consolidation analysis was applied to a fill-type dam (Oroville dam) to analyze its behavior during construction and reser­ voir filling. The numerical results were consistent with the field movements observed. The method may continuously analyze the behavior of dams from construction to reservoir filling. m

.500

•• coo

·• sao

-21X10

-uoo

-3000

REFERENCES: Figure II . Contours of pore water pressures.

2000

1000

Figu re 12. Vertical stress distribution (a) Just after construc­ tion, (b) High water level.

...""'

Kohgo, Y. 1987. The interpretations and analyses of mechani­ cal behaviour of partly saturated soils using elastoplastic models. Proc. Symposium Unsaturated Soils: 69-78. Osaka, Japan: J.S.S.M.F.E. (in Japanese). Kohgo, Y. 1992. Deformation analysis of fill-type dams during reservoir filling. Proc. 4th Int. Symposium Numer. Models Geomech NUMOG IV 2: 777-787: Balkema. Kohgo, Y. 1995. Aconsolidation analysis method for unsatu­ rated soils coupled with an elastoplastic model. Proc. 1st Int. Conf on Unsaturated Soils 2: I 085-1093 : Balkema. Kohgo, Y. 1997. Method of analysis of saturation collapse. JIRCASJ. 4: 1-24. Kohgo, Y., Nakano, M. & Miyazaki, T. 1993a. Theoretical as­ pects of constitutive modelling for unsaturated soils. Soils and Foundations 33(4): 49-63. Kohgo, Y., Nakano, M. & Miyazaki, T. 1993b. Verification of the generalized elastoplastic model for unsaturated soils. Soils and Foundations 33(4): 64-73 Nobari , E. S. & Duncan, J. M. 1972. Effect of reservoir filling on stresses and movements in earth and rockfill dams. Re­ port No. TE-72-1 : University of California, Berkeley.

1.10

100

,. 0

~

..,.

"""

600

""'

11100

1:100

(b)

0

2000

ISOO

10011

""

.,..,

1200 ·1000 -1500 -'lOOO ..1SIX) -»:10

Figure 13 . Shear stress distribution (a) Just after construction, (b) High water level.

arching action at the upstream boundary is not so remarkable. It still remains at the downstream boundary (see Figure 12 (b)). Figure 13 shows shear stress distributions in the dam. The shear stresses concentrated at the bound­ 194

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Finite element modelling of geomechanics and geoenvironmental engineering for subsurface systems N.Abd. Rahman Faculty ofCivil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

ABSTRACT: This paper describes numerical simulation study of geomechanics and groundwater contamination. The problem of coupled multiphase flow, heat and contaminant transport in a subsurface system is important in environmental engineering. For this purpose, the main objective of this study was to develop a finite element model that describes the flow of multiphase fluids, together with coupled contaminant transport in a deforming porous medium for both isothermal and nonisothermal problems. The multiphase flow model of Brooks and Corey, which express the dependence of saturation and relative permeability on capillary pressure, is presented to simulate subsurface flow and pollutant transport in the system. Subsurface flow is simulated through numerical solution of fluid mass balance equation, where the subsurface system may be either saturated, or party or completely unsaturated. The governing partial differential equation, in term of soil displacement, fluid pressure, energy balance and concentrations are fully coupled and behave non linearly but can be solved by the finite element method. Numerical implementation of the formulation is discussed and examples related to subsurface problems are used to demonstrate the model. INTRODUCTION The simulation of groundwater contamination in subsurface systems by nonaqueous phase liquids, such as petroleum hydrocarbons and immiscible industrial chemicals, requires a solution of the multiphase flow equations for deforming porous media. The spill and leakage of organic chemical into the global environment have resulted in widespread contamination of subsurface systems. Many of these pollutants are slightly water- soluble and highly volatile fluids (NAPLs). In the unsaturated zone, residual NAPL, as well as NAPL dissolved in the water phase, may also volatilize into the soil gas phase. The remaining nonagueous phase liquids may persist for long periods of time, slowly dissolving into the groundwater and moving in the water phase via advection and dispersion processes. Several numerical models have been developed in order to study the movement of organic pollutants in subsurface systems and a few of the reported simulators consider interphase mass transfer of one or more NAPL components to the gas and water phase but assume that the NAPL is immobilized in

the unsaturated zone ( Baehr and Corapcioglu 1987 and Abd. Rahman and Lewis 1997 ). Recently, a nonisothermal model has been developed by Falta et al. (1992), Adenekan et al. (1993) and Panday et al. (1995) for examining nonaqueous phase liquid contamination and remedial scenarios (i.e. stream injection). Fully coupled models for water flow, airflow and heat flow in deformable porous media have been studied by Schrefler et al. (1995) and Thomas and He (1995) which do not consider interphase mass transfer or other limitation (i.e. fluid density is assumed to be function of pressure, temperature and contaminant) in the simulation model for pollutant transport behavior. The problem of coupled multiphase flow (namely gas, water and nonaqueous phase liquids), heat and contaminant transport in a subsurface system is important in environmental engineering. At present, there exists a critical need for the physical observation of coupled transport phenomena in porous media. These observations are required both as an aid to our understanding of coupled process and to evaluated current predictive methods for such phenomena. For this purpose, the main objective of

195

this study was to develop a finite element model that describes the flow of multiphase fluids, together with coupled contaminant transport, in a deforming porous medium for both isothermal and nonisothermal problems. The flow of all multiphase fluids, as well as the water gas phase transport, are included. The governing equations which describe the displacement of soil, multiphase fluid pressures, temperature and pollutant transport are coupled and the resulting non- linear partial differential equation are solved by the finite element method. Non- linear saturation and relative permeability functions are incorporated into a partially water saturated porous media. The physical model and model description of the study based on the reference by Lewis et. al. (1998), Abd. Rahman and Lewis (1997, 1999) and Abd. Rahman (1998). 2

equation i.e the multiphase fluid flow equations and the equilibrium equation are an extension of the study of the model developed by Lewis and Schrefler (1998), Schrefler (1995), Abd. Rahman and Lewis et al. (1999). Nonisothermal deforming porous medium are modelled by utilizing the equilibrium equation together with the governing equation of heat, fluid flow and pollutant transport through such a porous medium. 1) Equilibrium equation

f r/f&TDT ac dQ- fn&T mop dQ+

at

at

ap1 dQf n cT11 DTm at3K,

&TD ac.dQ­ f n &TDmaTp'dQ-f T at fl T at3

fn OuT abat dQ- fr OuT asat df' = Q

MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Contaminant transport models for miscible components cannot describe the migration of an immiscible contaminant. The flow of an immiscible contaminant is controlled by its own flow potential, which depends on pressure, gravity and surface forces and is not necessarily similar to the groundwater flow potential. In order to describe mathematically the flow of immiscible fluids through a porous medium, it is necessary to determine functional expressions that best define the relationship between the hydraulic properties of the porous medium, i.e. saturation, relative permeability and capillary pressure. A mathematical model of the physical processes occuring in multiphase flow with heat and pollutant transport and soil deformation is given in this section, to present the mathematical model as a formulation suitable for numerical solution by the finite element method. The principles of the conservation of mass and energy are employed to derive the governing differential equation for fluid (water, gas and NAPL), heat and pollutant transport in terms of seven primary variables; i.e. U, Pw, Pg, Pw, T, Cw and Cg. These conservation equations are implicitly linked through the dependency of the fluid density, fluid viscosity and matrix porosity upon the fluid pressure, fluid temperature and contamination mass fraction. In a multiphase, water, NAPL and gas in a porous medium, depends primarily on the gravitational force and the capillary pressures between the multiphase fluids. The seven, fully coupled, partial differential

Jn &TDTCdQ­

(1)

2) Multiphase flow equation

3) Pollutant transport equation

4) Energy transport equation

a

-[(1- ¢)p,Cps + ¢pwSwcpw + ¢pgSgcpg

at + ¢p.S.cP.]T + PwSwcpwVw.VT +

pgSgcpgVg.VT + p.S.cp.V•.VT = V.(A.r VT) +(1-(/l)p,Q, +¢pwSwQw + (4) 196

where, a represents the water(w), gas(g) and NAPL (n) phase and ['a is the interphase mass transfer. Detailed notation can be found in Lewis et. al (1998) and Abd. Rahman (1998). 3

FINITE ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION

MODEL

Ax+Bx=F

Where x = [ u, Pw, Pg, Pn, T, Cw, Cg ] and the matrices A, B and F are obtained by inspection . Equation (6) is the final form of the governing equations where displacements, fluid pressures, temperature and concentrations are the primary unknowns. This equation forms a fully coupled nonsymmetrical and highly non-linear system of ordinary differential equations in time and is solved by an implicit scheme with the time weighting parameter set to one. In an implicit scheme, since the entire non-linear coefficient is dependent on the unknowns, iterative procedures are usually performed within each time step to obtain the final solution. The coupling terms are evaluated for each element using this numerical technique and then assembled into the global matrix. The format in the elemental matrices and the global matrix differs in the ordering of unknown variables. Thus it is necessary to transform the coupling terms from the elemental matrices to the global matrix, when assembling the global matrix. Once the global matrix has been fully assembled, the partial differential equations have been transformed into first order ordinary differential equations. A linear variation of the unknown variables in time is assumed to approximate the first order time derivatives. The generalised mid- point family of methods is employed to discretize the time derivatives, which yields the following recurrence scheme,

AND

Due to complexity of the theoretical formulation in the mathematical model, numerical approximation methods are required to achieve the simultaneous solution of the governing differential equations. The finite element method, based on Galerkin's weighted residual approach (Abd. Rahman, 1998), is used for discretization of the governing equations and is implemented as the numerical solution method because analytical solutions are incapable of dealing with the highly complex and non- linear governing equations. The approach adopted in this study employs two- dimensional, nine noded isoparametric element. Fluid pressures, temperatures, concen­ trations and displacements are taken as the primary unknown variables. 3.1

(6)

Numerical Formulation

The procedure used is based on Galerkin's weighted residual method, which implements shape functions to approximate the known variables. In the simulations carried out , there are seven degrees of freedom viz, u, Pg, Pw, Pn, Cw, Cg and T which are approximated as X =NT X (5)

1

n+l

where NT is the transpose of the shape function and X is the nodal value of the variable. In this case nine- noded elements and the associated shape of the equations in the mathematical model, may now be expressed in terms of the nodal displacements , u, v, nodal fluid pressures, i.e. Pn, Pw, and Pg, nodal temperature , T and the nodal concentrations. i.e. Cw and Cg using the Galerkin's method. Discretization of the governing equations is obtained by applying Galerkin's procedure of weighted residuals. Terms involving second spatial derivatives are transformed by means of Gauss's theorem. The field variables are then approximated in space as is usual in finite element techniques, and expressed in terms of their nodal variables. The analysis of a model deals with a seven degree of freedom field problem. Written in a matrix form, the discretized forms of mathematical equations are written in the following form:

X

=

[A+8dtB]

X

[A-(1-e)MB}x" +dtlep••l +(1-e)F• D

(7)

For coupled heat, fluid flow and pollutant transport in deforming porous media, the discretization is accomplished through a fully implicit finite difference scheme. A linear variation of the unknown variables in time is assumed to be a good approximation for the first order time derivative. The generalized mid-point family of methods is employed to discretize the time derivatives. Because of the non-linearity involved, a solution scheme of the fixed-point type is used within every time step. The convergence criteria implemented are based on a maximum change in the unknown variables between successive time step.

197

Figure 1. (a) Surface senlement and (b) water pressures vs. time for the one-dimensional saturated problem

1

$

.. . .

:e

.:1-

••

r~. ~ ~- ~

a.) Geome.ry aJ>.d B.C.

• It

~"

O.t

U

"-

-2.5

Diffusion coeffiCient= 0.002 m•2Jday Diffusion coeffiCient= 0.003 m•2Jday Diffusion coeffiCient= 0.004 m"21day Diffusion coeffiCient= 0.005 mA2Jday Diffusion coeffiCient= 0.006 m"2/day

4

3

~ -1.

.,.,

-2. -3.

(2.0)

-3.0

~-0

-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

vvv vv ~~

7

~

4625m

z 6

5

Figure 3. Comparison of Predicted and Measured Soil Suction Profiles at Sunshine Site, Melbourne, Australia

a

/ / / 7 7 ///777 / / / / 7

--4.625m~

!1

IIi

"'~ 400

"'c:0.04

(2)

'iii

.g

"

~ 'iii 0.06

o Exp, s= 0 kPa

o Exp, s= 100 kPa

~ 0.08

" Exp, s= 200 kPa o Exp, s= 300 kPa

.g

200

>

1000

::!:0.02

CT

.s.!l!

100

10



(3)

::>

0

:g

0 0.3 0.2 0. 1 Axia l strain, Et [-)

0

-Model

0. 1

0.4

Figure 5. Back prediction of isotropic behaviour of kaolin. 0.1

0

0.4

0.3

0.2

0

500

'" .

.g

..!..

>

c"'

..

~

CT

~-

u

tE

::>

(3)

~400

0.1

0.2

0

>

o

• "'

300

~

s= 150, o3= 180 kPa (1) s= 400, o3= 450 kPa (2) s= 600, 03= 725 kPa (3)

Model

200

.s.!!l

100 ~

0.3

o s= 100, o 3 = 250kPa ( 1)

• s= :WO, o, = 350 kPa (2) "' s= 300 , o3= 450 kPa (3) -~

0

Figure 3. Back prediction of unsaturated drained test on silt. 250,------ - - - - - - - - -- - - - .

0

0.3 0.2 0.1 Axial strain, Et (-)

0.4

0

0.1

0.3

0.4

0.2

0

(2) ..!..

IIi

i

~0.05

150

.s·

"'-..:-"11..---''--"'-=-

~

'iii 0.1 ·uc:

.g100

.s

.!l!

a; 50

0

0

.

a;

Exp.

~0

-Model

>

0.3 0.2 0.1 Ax1al strain, £ 1 [-)

0.4

0.3

0.4

(1)

_.......,-"-- ,(f~

0.15 0.2

""'

(3)

Axial strain , Et

1-1

Figure 6. Back prediction of unsaturated drained test on kaolin. 0. 1

0.2

the experimental results in the deviatoric plane (q­ £1). The prediction of the volumetric variation shows that the model overestimates the dilatancy aspect of the behaviour in the saturated case. For the unsatu­ rated case, the prediction of the volumetric deforma­ tion is better. From the predicted results given in Figure 8, one can appreciate the ability of the model to predict the behaviour of the soils in unsaturated conditions.

..!..

I ~

0.02

~0.04

~

0

> 0.06

o o,= 75 kPa (1)

• o3 = 150 kPa (2)

-: -----' al,--st.,..ra"""in- .-e -,:-:11 0.08 .._____,Axi,--.:-c Figure 4. Back prediction of saturated drained test on kaolin.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Figures 7 and 8 show the prediction of constant mean effective stress at different constant suction values. For the two states, saturated (Fig. 7) and unsatu­ rated (Fig. 8), the model predictions are very close to

The HiSS 1 -unsat model was developed and used successfully by Geiser et al. (l997a, l997b and 1999) based on original tests performed on a re­ moulded silt. Here, existing experimental results on compacted silt and kaolin were used to evaluate the

259

200

or-------- - - -,

'"

El

-sa. -s 0

80 75 70 65 10

0.1

100

1000

Suction (kPa) Figure 8. A comparison between the applied suction and the predicted suction using the hysteresis model.

4.3 The Hysteresis ofthe Ceramic The water content versus matric suction curves for any porous material during wetting and drying are generally not the same. The hysteresis in the soil­ water characteristics of the ceramic may cause hys­ teresis in the sensor response upon wetting and dry­ ing (Fig. 7) The research conducted by Feng (1999) indicated that the maximum possible relative error in the suction measurement caused by hysteresis is about 30%. However, the hysteresis loop for the new ceramic tip is stable and reproducible. In the other words, the wetting and drying curves for a ceramic

tip do not change with time. In order to eliminate the influence of the hystere­ sis associated with the ceramic, a hysteresis model was proposed (Feng, 1999). This model can be used to modify data obtained in engineering practice ac­ cording to the wetting or drying history of the sen­ sor. As a result, it is possible to obtain greater accu­ racy in the measurement of soil suction. A comparison between actual soil suction changes and the predicted soil suction changes using the hystere­ sis model are shown in Fig. 8. Good agreement was observed between the predicted soil suction changes and actual soil suction changes.

279

80

70

60

~50 ~ 1::

0

40

t5::J en 30 20

10 0

0

-sensor#18

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Time (hour)

Figure 9 Soil suction readings from thermal conductivity sensor installed in a Indian Head till soil specimen.

5 LABORATORY SOIL SUCTION MEASUREMENTS The new thermal conductivity sensor was installed into a soil specimen in the laboratory to measure soil thermal conductivity sensor. The test result is pre­ sented in Fig. 9. Good agreement was observed be­ tween the soil suction measured using the thermal conductivity sensor and those measured using the tensiometer (prior to cavitation of the water in the tensiometer).

REFERENCES Fredlund, D.G., Gan, J. K-M., and Rahardjo, H. 1991. Meas­ uring negative pore-water pressures in a freezing environ­ ment. Transportation Research Record 1307: 291-299. Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil Mechanics for Un­ saturated Soils. New York, NY, John Wiley & Sons. Fredlund, D.G. and Wong, D.K.H. 1989. Calibration of thermal conductivity sensors for measuring soil suction. ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journall2(3): 188-194. Lee, R.K.C. and Fredlund, D.G. 1984. Measurement of soil suction using the MCS 6000 gauge. Proc. 5th Int. Conf Ex­ pansive Soils. Adelaide, Australia. 50-54.

6 CONCLUSIONS An improved thermal conductivity soil suction sen­ sor was developed to eliminate the difficulties en­ countered with early versions of the device. The new thermal conductivity sensor has been found to be quite sensitive and accurate in measuring soil suc­ tions in the range from 5 to 1500 kPa. The strength and durability of the new sensor have also been sig­ nificantly improved. A laboratory calibration procedure has been set up. A calibration equation has been proposed to fa­ cilitate in the calculation of soil suction from the output voltage. The overall result is an increase in the accuracy of soil suction measurements. Soil temperature and hysteresis in the ceramic have negative influences on soil suction measure­ ments. A temperature correction and a hysteresis model have been proposed to eliminate these influ­ ences and to increase the accuracy of the soil suction measurements.

280

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

A comparison of in-situ soil suction measurements B.A. Harrison

P. D. Naidoo and Associates, Johannesburg, South Africa

G. E. Blight

University ofthe Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT: A number of soil suction measuring devices were employed to measure total and matrix suction in-situ. Two sites were selected, each underlain by different subsoil and groundwater conditions. Measurements of suction were taken over a period of two years, from which it was established that none ofthe instruments yielded comparable values of absolute suction or suction change. The instruments did, however, record suctions that follow seasonal wet and dry cycles. The paper presents possible reasons for the disparity in measuments for the devices. 1 INTRODUCTION The role of soil suction in the prediction of unsaturated soil behavior has been well documented. Over the past decades numerous instruments have been developed to measure matrix and solute suction. However, most of these instruments are amenable for carrying out suction measurements in the laboratory with only a few suitable for operation in-situ. Depending on the suction range of interest, these instruments employ either direct or indirect methods Whereas the latter require of measurement. appropriate calibration prior to use, the former do not. Thus, if inappropriate calibration methods are result, measurements inconsistent adopted, particularly when making comparisons of the various measuring techniques. measurements suction comparative Whilst employing a range of instruments and techniques have been reported in the literature (Lee & Wray ­ 1992, Guan & Fredlund - 1997) all of these comparisons have been carried out on soil samples prepared and tested under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Few reports have been published comparing the results of in-situ soil suction measurements employing different instruments. This paper presents the results of in-situ soil suction measurements using various devices over a period of

281

two years. Two sites were selected, each underlain by different soil types and groundwater conditions. 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SITES 2.1 Climate Two sites, referred to as Site A and Site B, were selected to carry out the soil suction measurements in-situ. Both sites are in South Africa and enjoy warm temperate conditions with summer rain. The area is in a water deficient region where annual evaporation exceeds precipitation. Some climatic statistics are as follows: 713mm Annual average rainfall: Annual A pan evaporation: 2306mm Annual average temperature: 16°C 22°C Mean ofwarmest month: 10°C Mean of coldest month: 2.2 Subsoils The subsoil underlying Site A comprises a deep residual andesite in the form of a slightly clayey silt, which classifies as MH according to the Unified Soil Classification (USC) system. The regional water table is at some 15 to 20m below the ground surface in this area. Site B is underlain by transported colluvium comprising clayey sand, which classifies as SC

according to the USC system. A ferruginised (ferricrete) layer is present beneath the colluvium at a depth of approximately lm below the ground surface. The regional water table in the area is fairly deep. However, the ferricrete horizon forms a relatively impermeable layer on top of which a perched water table develops in the wet summer seasons.

situated in the chamber, to be connected to the recording meter situated outside of it. Air pressures were applied and meter readings taken when A moisture equilibrium had been achieved. hysteresis curve was established by incrementally reducing the air pressure.

3 INSTRUMENTATION

Each psychrometer, gypsum block and fibre cell was inserted into a 1OOmm diameter hand augered hole drilled to a depth of 600mm below the ground surface. The soil removed from the hole was lightly tamped around each of the sensors and the wire electrical leads were sealed in a jar buried just below the surface. The jet fill tensiometer was inserted into a pre­ drilled hole of the same diameter as the tensiometer probe. The hole was prepared just prior to inserting the instrument. The IC tensiometer was bedded into the base of a hole augered near to the sensors, which was also drilled just prior to taking a reading. Periodic readings from the buried sensors were taken over a period of two years and, based on the calibration data, converted to suction pressures. These in-situ suction readings are presented in Figures l(a) and (b) for sites A and B respectively. Neither the jet fill nor the IC tensiometers were able to function at site A, due to the high suctions encountered in the area, however, some readings were possible with the jet fill tensiometer at site B when a perched water table developed in the wet summer seasons. Cavitation occured in the IC tensiometer and no meaningful measurements were possible with this instrument for the soil encountered at this site. Suctions recorded with the jet fill tensiometer are illustrated in Figure 2. Readings were only possible when a perched water table developed on the underlying ferricrete layer, and the instrument was unable to record soil suctions above 75kPa. Superimposed on the figures 1 and 2 is the mean monthly rainfall for the region.

4 IN-SITU SUCTION MEASUREMENTS

The instruments used to measure the soil suction in­ situ at the two sites included thermocouple psychrometer probes, gypsum resistance blocks and fibreglass moisture cells, all of which employ indirect methods to measure soil suction. In addition to these instruments, direct suction measurements were carried out at Site B employing a jet-fill tensiometer and Imperial College (IC) tensiometer. Ridley & Wray (1996) have described the manner in which these instruments measure soil suction. 3.1 Calibration Calibration of the psychrometer probes was carried out by suspending them above salt solutions of varying concentrations, and hence known suctions, and recording the corresponding voltage readout. Both the gypsum blocks and fibreglass cells were calibrated in the laboratory by burying the probes in compacted specimens of the soil encountered at each of the sites. The soil, container and probes were periodically weighed and the corresponding outputs from the readout devices recorded. This process was continued as the soil was permitted to dry evenly through slow evaporation to the atmosphere. Thereafter the soil was gradually wetted and readings repeated. Upon completing the measurements, oven drying the soil enabled its water content to be determined at each of the instrument readings. From separately measured soil-water characteristic curves determined in the pressure plate apparatus (suction vs water content relationship) for each soil, a calibration relationship was derived between soil suction and readout units for each device and soil type. The gypsum resistance blocks were also calibrated directly in the pressure plate apparatus. In this instance the block was inserted in a cylinder which was in turn filled with a slurried specimen of soil. The arrangement was placed onto the saturated ceramic and the apparatus assembled. A specially designed lid enabled the leads from the block,

282

5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS It is evident from Figures l(a) & (b) that none of the devices measure comparable soil suctions. Whilst it can be argued that since the psychrometer measures total suction and the others matrix, the psychrometer should record higher suctions than the other instruments, which in most instances it does.

-=r= . -F

1000 1 · - - -·900 - - T ~ - 1 .! 800 ,..-- ~- +-=-L- 700 ~~"' 600 ·-i­· c 500 t-­ I 0 ·a0 400 ,---- - ;::1 1-- v.l 300 1-·

1--

- ,--

-

-

f--

. -­ -­ .

1

+-1

-- ~-e l - >
-10 1 §

w3 ~

..." "'"' -10° z" 0

10- 4 > .....

.c>­

..."

.....

...."'

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

"

10- 5 ..: 0.5

Volumetric water content

Figure 10. Estimated soil hydraulic properties from Evapora­ tion method

B Q)

"'"'"' "' "'"" Q)

0 .... ...

..3

-los

100

...:>. ..... ...>

.....

- 10 4

10- 1

-1 03

10- 2

0

"'c

"' 0 0

0 .... o-i

-10 2

l o- 3

"" 1 > -10

10- 4

Q)

c

Q)

...., .....

~ Q)

;;...

.,

.,

o-i

tJl

Q)

z -100

.,"'

0

0 .1

0.2

0.3

0.4

lo-s o.s

0:

Volumetri c water content Figure 11. Comparison of independent methods data and inver­ se method data (Sample D: Silica sand, yd= 1.57kN/m3)

and 10 show for examples the estimated hydraulic property curves for both Multi-step outflow method and Evaporation method. Sample C and I correspond to Figure 4a. However, the shapes of the moisture characteristic curves are different from the relation­ ship between values of a and n, therefore inverse methods overestimated relative hydraulic conduc­ tivity curves compared with independent methods data according to the MVG model (see Figure 4). Being the closest values compared to results of independent methods and inverse methods, showed in sample D of Multi-step outflow method. These retention data of the relation between volumetric water content and relative hydraulic conductivity, and the relation between volumetric water content and negative pressure head, are depicted in Figure 11 with the fitted curves according to the MVG model. Inverse technique approach is located under the curve of the independent methods from obtained retention data, because the a value is small. While, curves of relative hydraulic conductivity are corre­ sponded. Moreover, in this case, 8s values were dif­ ferent so this inverse analysis did not used to esti­ mate the fixed parameter in the optimization. 5 CONCLUSIONS Multi-step outflow method and Evaporation method in the laboratory tests and combined with the nu­ merical modeling and nonlinear parameters were used to estimate the hydraulic properties of unsatu­ rated sandy soils. The objective of this study is to investigate the possibility of these techniques. In or­ der to accomplish our purpose, obtained that data from both independent methods and inverse methods were compared. From this, authors can get the fol­ lowing conclusions. The optimizations were necessary changed fitting parameters in order to agree the measured and opti­

398

mized cumulative out flow curves for soil samples. In other words, it is not possible to limit fixed parameters even in the case of the experiment for similar samples. In initial optimization, the value of 8, tends to be­ come 0. The parameters es and ks should depend on the measured data because they easily obtained dur­ ing the experiments. The a values from Multi-step outflow method are shown to be nearly equal to the results of independent methods compared to Evapo­ ration method. It seems necessary that the impact given to the sample by the experiment because Multi-step outflow method is more abounding, such as pressures applied of subsequently in consecutive steps, than Evaporation method on this. The n values range from 4 to 7 in optimizing were bigger than the result of independent methods, therefore relative hydraulic conductivity curves are overestimated. Multi-step outflow method is an effective method, not only simplify the set of test equipment, but also measurement time can be shortened. In the future, the applicability of inverse methods will be examined using the cohesive soil. REFERENCES Akai, K., Ohnishi, Y. & Nishigaki, M. 1977. Finite element analysis of saturated-unsaturated seepage in soil, Proc. of the Japan society of civil engineers, 264: 87-96 (in Japa­ nese). lshida,T., Nakagawa, Y. & Tatsui, T. 1998. Analysis of drain­ age system for rain infiltration of retaining wall structures, 3rd. Intern. Conference on Hydroscience and Engineering, Abstract:144, paper on CD-ROM, Cottbus/Berlin Germany. Kool, J. B., Parker, J. C. & van Genuchten, M. Th. 1985. ON­ ESTEP: A nonlinear parameter estimation program for evaluating soil hydraulic properties from one-step outflow experiments: Bulletin 85-3, Virginia Agr. Exp. Station Mualem, Y. 1976. A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media, Water Resour. Res., 12(3): 513-522. Takeshita, Y. & Kono, I. 1993. A method to predict hydraulic properties for unsaturated soil and its application to ob­ served data, Ground Engineering , 11(1): 95-113 (in Japa­ nese). van Dam, J. C., Stricker, J. M. N. & Droogers, P. 1992. Inverse method for determining soil hydraulic functions from one­ step outflow experiment, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 56: 1042­ 1050. van Genuchten, M. Th. 1980. A closed-form equation for pre­ dicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44: 892-898. Wendroth, 0., Ehlers, W., Hopmans, J. W., Kage, H. Hal­ bertsma, J. & Wosten, J. H. M. 1993. Reevaluation of the evaporation method for determining hydraulic functions in unsaturated soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 57: 1436-1443. Yamamura, K. Zhu, W. & Ishida, T. 1995. Soil Properties on Rain Infiltration into Embankment, lOth Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineer­ ing, ISSMFE: 361-364, Beijing/China.

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Grain size and void diameter distributions of sands K.Kamiya& T.Uno

Department ofCivil Engineering, Gifu University, Japan

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to understand the intricate structure of soil void space and to evalu­ ate the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soil. In this paper, the relationships between the void diameter dis­ tributions produced by the "air intrusion method" and by the usual "moisture characteristic curve method" and grain size distribution are examined for sandy soils. It is shown that the void diameter distribution by the moisture characteristic curve method tends to be parallel to the mass-based grain size distribution, and that by the air intrusion method is similar to the number-based grain size distribution. The void diameter in both methods is estimated using the proposed Pr-value and particle size. The results provided an understanding of the void structure using the relationship between void diameter and grain size distributions. 1 INTRODUCTION Knowledge of the soil void structure is necessary to evaluate the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soil. The method for predicting unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from void diameter distribution esti­ mated in the "moisture characteristic curve method" is popular. However, the meaning of void diameter distribution is not clear. The "air intrusion method" to measure void di­ ameter distribution was suggested by Uno et al. (1995). The method is based on the technique devel­ oped by Zagar (1956). The shape of void diameter distribution of sand by the air intrusion method be­ comes more uniform than that by the moisture char­ acteristic curve method (Uno et al., 1998). The dis­ crepancy between both distributions was caused by the void structure in void space as a tree of knot (Uno et al., 1999). In this paper, the relationships between void di­ ameter distributions by both methods and particle mass-based and number-based grain size distribu­ tions are examined for sandy soil. The purpose of this study is to understand the intricate structure of soil void on the evaluation of void diameter distribu­ tion.

head of air pressure, ha (em), and air flow rate, Qa (cm3/s), is required. The relationship is obtained when the air intrudes into a saturated soil sample forcing the water out of the voids and passing through the sample (Uno et al., 1995). This relation­ ship is shown as curve B in Figure 1. By using curve B and the capillary tube model, ha is related to void diameter, d. (mm), as follows. (1)

where CJ = surface tension of water (N/m); Pw = wa­ ter density (g/cm3); and g = gravitational accelera­ tion (cm/s2). The percentage of cumulative void vol­ ume, vb (%),is defined as:

vb

=(1- n: }10

2

(2)

where nb = cumulative porosity and is estimated from the air permeability (Kamiya et al., 1996); and n = porosity. The void diameter distribution by the air intrusion method is denoted as the relationship between d. and

vb.

2.2 Moisture characteristic curve method 2 VOID DIAMETER DISTRIBUTIONS 2.1 Air intrusion method For estimation of the void diameter distribution by the air intrusion method, the relationship between 399

In the moisture characteristic curve method, it is as­ sumed that the moisture characteristic curve of the soil shown as the relationship between volumetric water content, (J, and head of suction, hp (em), in Figure 2, is equivalent to the relationship between

parallel to the line A for dry sample

250

40

i p

]

30

.§

20

~~

]

I

measured Equation 3 data

:~.\

•

n= 0.390

~

:

~=8:m

~'~L.----------------~

~- ....

drying process

.A

~~~ -..,.,

0

]

porosity

1>.

..

~~..

wettingpro~~-~1\

IO

'7~1-l

0 oL---~5----~17 o~~~~5~--~2~0~~25

OL---~----L---~--~~~~~

0

head of air pressure h. (em)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

volumetric water content B

Figure I. Relationship between head of air pressure and air flow rate for Nagara river sand (porosity: n = 0.41 0).

Figure 2. Moisture characteristic curve measured by the suction plate method for Nagara river sand.

the water content and height of rise of water in the capillary model. In Figure 2, the curves are fitted us­ ing Equation 3 (van-Genuchten, 1980).

(6)

(3)

where (}, = residual volumetric water conte!,lt; 0, = saturated volumetric water content; and a, n = em­ pirical parameters. In this paper, it is assumed that 0, = 0 and (}, = n for sandy soils. As a result the moisture characteristic curve in Figure 2 shocld be rotated counterclockwise 90°, and h is converted into void diameter, dm (mm), and . into the percentage of cumuIative (} is Pconverted void volume, V, (%),as follows (Uno et al., 1998): (4)

v

r

(J

2

=-·10 n

(5)

The void diameter distribution by the moisture characteristic curve method can be expressed as the . . relationship between dm and V,. In the above conversion, only the drymg curve m Figure 2 is adopted owing to the resemblance of the drying process to the air intrusion method. 2.3 Comparison between two methods Figure 3 shows the examples of distributions ?f ~and void diameter by the two methods for two distribu­ tions of grain size described later. The lines in the distributions by the moisture characteristic curve method represent the following relationship between dm and V, given by substituting Equations 4 and 5 into Equation 3 on the assumption that fJ, = 0 and 0,

=n.

In Figure 3, the shape of the void diameter distri­ butions by the air intrusion method becomes more uniform than the distributions by the moisture char­ acteristic curve method and their distributions are very different from each other. It was recognized that the void diameter, d., by the air intrusion method is in agreement with the di­ ameter, dm, by the moisture characteristic. curve method (Uno et al., 1998). Therefore, the discrep­ ancy between both distributions is caused by the dtf­ ference between the percentage of cumulative void volume, Vb, and V,. It is considered that the void volume estimated by the air intrusion method corre­ sponds to only that of the air flow channel. On_ ~e contrary, the one by the moisture charactensttc curve method corresponds to the volume of water evacuated from the three-dimensional void space. Furthermore, the adaptability of the air in~sio_n method was verified by the measurement of void di­ ameter distribution of an artificial capillary tube sample as the capillary model itself (Kamiya et al., . 1W~ The discrepancy of the distribution by the mm~­ ture characteristic curve method from that by the atr intrusion method can be regarded as a discrepancy from the one-dimensional capillary model. In part of the voids as illustrated in Figure 4, only the inshaded part of the void is estimated by the air intrusion method because the air is stagnant in the shaded part of the void. As a result, it was considered that the discrepancy between the distribution by the air i~~­ sion method and that by the moisture charactenstic curve method is affected by the void structure in the void space as a tree of knot in Figure 4 (Uno et al., 1999).

400

void diameter by air method

---on = 0.383 """ --+--- n - 0.406

---- n = 0.425

void diameter b moisture method

~.-::sured Equation 6 A - · - · - n = 0.383

o o

- ·· - n = 0.406

----- n ~ 0.425

Figure 3. Void diameter distributions by two methods, with grain size distributions by mass-based and by number-based, for Nagara river sand, Mixed sand IT and Toyoura sand. pan of panic~

stagnant air

an of void

Figure 4. A pan of void estimated by air method

3 RELATION OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION TO VOID DIAMETER DISTRIBUTION 3 .l Shape ofdistributions

New particle number-based grain size distributions (Fukuda et al., 1997) can be drawn with the usual particle mass-based distributions as shown in Figure 3. The number-based distribution is denoted as the relationship between particle size, D (mm), and the 401

percent finer by number, PN (%), and the mass-based one as the relationship between D and the percent finer by mass, PM(%). The number-based distribu­ tion is converted from the mass-based distribution by calculating the number using the mass and inter­ mediate size with the range of sieve/particle size. The frequency of small size of particle is higher on the number-based distribution than the mass-based one. Subsequently, the number-based distributions become more uniform than the mass-based one. In Figure 3, it is recognized that the distribution of void diameter by the moisture characteristic curve method is parallel to the mass-based distribution of grain size, and that by the air intrusion method has a strong resemblance to the number-based distribu­ tion. It seems that the discrepancy between the dis­ tributions of void diameter by the air intrusion method and by the moisture characteristic curve method is similar to the gap between the number­ based and the mass-based distributions of grain size.

3.2 Void diameter by moisture characteristic curve method andparticle size

0.5 r----,----..-----.-------.

Owing to the above result, the distribution obtained when particle sizes, D, in the mass-based distribu­ tion is respectively converted to void diameters, dm, by the following relationship, is equivalent to the void diameter distribution by the moisture character­ istic curve method as described by Haverkamp et al. (1986). ~=~n

0

0.4

0

0

where p, =empirical parameter (/3, < 1). Substituting Equation 7 into Equation 6 with V, =PM gives the following relationship between D and PM: 10 2

A

A

t:v

0.2

191

191

0191

D

~D

II

m



~

~

.,~ 0.3

V'

V'

191 River sand V' Mixed sand II D Nagara river sand ~ Toyoura sand A Mixed sand I 0 Glassbeads-AC

0.1~----~------~------~----~

(8)

0.5

0.6

0.7 0.8 void ratio e Figure 5. Relationship between void ratio and p,-value.

0.9

0.8 .-----.------..---....------.----....---~

The mass-based grain distribution can also be ex­ pressed by Equation 8. The value of p, is estimated by fitting the mass­ based distribution with Equation 8 using the values of a and n· in Equation 6 shown such as Figure 3. Figure 5 shows the relationship between p,-value and void ratio, e. The values of p, range from 0.2 to 0.4; for sand. Furthermore, it is recognized that the p,-value for each sample tends to increase with in­ creasing void ratio.

(1, I e = 4 I K, : Equation 9

0.7

-"'

co.

0.6 0.5

~

3.3 Estimation ofp,-value

0.3

According to the theoretical relationship between particle size and void diameter described by Carman (1937), the p,-value can be expressed as:

0.2

4

~=~e s

D 191 River sand D Nagara river sand

A Mixed sand I

V' Mixed sand II • Toyoura sand

0 Glassbeads-AC

0.4

6

5

7

"~

l7

8

10

9

II

shape factor K, Figure 6. Relationship between shape factor and p;e.

00

1.0 r-1"........ , - - . - - - - . . . . - - - - . - - - - - - - . 1.0

where K, = shape factor of particles and is evaluated from the specific surface area of particles (Uno et al., 1993). The value of K, is 6 for spherical particles and is greater than 6 for angular particles. The relationships between shape factor, K,, and the value of p,!e calculated from the measured data in Figure 5 are compared with the theoretical rela­ tionship given by Equation 9 and shown as the solid line in Figure 6. The experimental relationship agrees with the theoretical one for all samples except for Mixed sand I and Mixed sand II . Figure 7 shows the relationship between uniform­ ity coefficient, Uc, of mass-based grain distribution and the value of p,!(4e/K,) calculated by using the data in Figure 6. It is clear that the values of p,l(4e!K,), that is, p,-values decrease with increasing values of Uc. On the other hand, the solid line in Figure 7 represents the relationship between De (mm) from 402

(j-,, D

',,

.--------------~---! [ (1 ,1(4eiK,)]

191 River sand

Nagara river sand

A Mixed sand I

V' Mixed sand II

• Toyoura sand

0 Glassbeads-AC

~

ii

-10

Q;

- 20

~

- 30

-ro

,

___

,~

__

=-:,­ -· '- · ~:-::-:--::-·---:< / / _ _,

~

0

D..

(ij

'E "iii

a:

- 40

[j 10/ 1

: : : 10/ 2

: : .~; :

~: : : : : : : 10/ 3

10/4

10/ 5

10/ 7

10/6

Time

Figure 5 Field measuring results of suction, rainfall and temperature at Harihara in 1999

411

10/ 8

10/ 9

:

~

10/ 10

DRain

4 NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT

gauge [em]

~VE

Surface Layer! Layer2 Layer3 Layer4

•• ••

(j)s

0

20

30 I~

40

1-----'

0

LayerS

0

LayerS

0

I

lio

The numerical experiment was carried out to simu­ late one-dimensional heat conduction and seepage of rainwater in unsaturated soil. Figure 6 shows the ground model for one-dimensional heat conduction and seepage of rainwater in unsaturated soil. The bottom and side boundaries are assumed to be insu­ lated and undrained condition. Figure 7 shows the flow chart for the calculation pro­ cedure. The values of physical quantities in Table 2 are used to determine the initial and boundary condi­ tions which represent the ground model in Figure 6. Figure 8 shows the results of numerical experiment.

60

1-

80

5. CONCLUSION

I';

The numerical model for the seepage behavior of un­ saturated soil was introduced to simulate the seepage behavior of rainwater into unsaturated ground. The field measuring system was introduced and the data of suction and temperature in unsaturated ground, and rainfall measured by this system were shown. Then the change in suction due to rainfall with time

thermometer

0 ; tensiometer

LayerN

Figure 6 One-dimensional ground model

(j) Input initial and boundary conditions of ground

®

Temperature and rainfall on the surface ground ~----,

Heat conduction Calculation of coefficient of heat conductivity Calculation of heat flux

(J)

Calculation of change in suction and permeability coefficient with change intemperature and volumetric water content

No

Figure 7 Calculation procedure

412

Table 2 Values of physical quantities used ground model

30

Number of laver Cross sectional area Thickness oflaver Density of soil oarticle Specific heat(solid) Coefficient of heat conductivity

10

[cml 2.401[l!!cm'l

0.8 IJ/(l!·K)l 3.0 [J/(m·K)l

30

'0

L

e .a

25

~

CD

a. E CD

20

'iii'

10

1­ D..

!

:calcurated [20cm] -- -:calcurated[40cm] · ·· · · :calcurated[60cm]

::::J

Ul

Ul

a. CD

a; :r:

1ii !!!

0

D..

-10 -20

---------------­ ··--····---·-··-­

----------

-30 -40

Time Figure 8 Results of numerical experiment

was simulated to compare it with that measured in the field. It was found out that the proposed numeri­ cal model can express the seepage behavior of rain­ water into unsaturated ground behavior of pore water from soil, which reflect the change in suction due to the change in water content. ACKNOWlEDGEMEN T This research work was supported by the Grant-in­ Aid for Scientific Research (No.09555153, No.l0650490) from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan.

413

REFERENCES Kitamura ,Uemura, Kisanuki and Seyama,(1998): A numerical model for seepage through unsaturated soil, Soils and Foundations, Vol.38,No.4, pp.261­ 265.

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Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 1392

Impact of surface clogging on artificial recharge D.J. McAlister & J.Arunakumaren

Water Assessment and Planning, Department ofNatural Resources, lndooroopily, Qld, Australia

T.Grantham

Qld, Australia

ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on modelling fluid flow processes in the unsaturated zone beneath surface spreading artificial recharge facilities. A sixty layer model has been developed to simulate flow from a recharge basin through the unsaturated and saturated zones. Clogging of in-situ pore space is the major limiting factor in sustainable artificial recharge operations. Clogging rates have been simulated in the surface layers of the model by a power function. Several model scenarios have been generated with uniform and layered hydraulic conductivity soil media. Results of modelling indicate that the majority of recharge occurs in the initial 6 days after flooding of the basin. After this initial period recharge rates are reduced significantly by clogging. An understanding of these key parameters can help in generating and calibrating accurate numerical models. The data derived from these models can be used in management of artificial recharge operations. 1 INTRODUCTION

paper discusses the use of recharge basins. A recharge basin is a shallow excavation surrounded by an embankment, designed to be a water detention area. The AR process involves the introduction of waste water into the recharge basin. Infiltration occurs on the floor of the basin through pore space in the unsaturated zone. Recharge basins can only be used over unconfined aquifers where the unsaturated zone contains highly permeable rock and soil. Most in­ situ materials in the unsaturated zone are heterogeneous and thus vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity is anisotropic. Variations in the vertical hydraulic conductivity in lithological layers affect the rate and volume of water movement to the saturated zone and the aquifer. The clogging of in-situ pore space reduces the rate of infiltration from the recharge basin. This is the significant retarding factor in AR operations. Clogging usually occurs from a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes. For the purpose of this paper the various forms of clogging have been grouped and demonstrated as a rate of reduction in permeability over time. The types of waste water available for AR operations involve storm water run-off, municipal waste water, industrial waste, agricultural run-off or mine tailings. These water types may contain many

Artificial Recharge (AR) is a process where water is introduced into the sub-surface at an accelerated rate by anthropogenic means. AR can be carried out for aquifer storage and recovery, waste water filtration, permanent waste disposal, salt water intrusion remediation and subsidence control. Surface spreading and sub-surface injection are the two main techniques utilised for AR. This paper focuses on modelling the fluid flow processes in the unsaturated zone beneath surface spreading AR facilities. Hypothetical examples have been generated to study controlling parameters associated with modelling fluid. An understanding of the parameters controlling flow in the unsaturated zone is vital for generating accurate predictive models. Factors such as variable vertical hydraulic conductivity, grain size of in-situ material and rates of clogging of pore space are investigated. Results from predictive modelling can be used in economic and management decision making. 2 BACKGROUND Surface spreading AR facilities can be comprised of pits, basins, ponds, trenches, channels and weirs, this

415

suspended and dissolved organic and/or in-organic constituents. Treatment of waste water before recharge may reduce physical, health or environmental problems associated with AR. A degree of filtration will occur as the waste water passes through the unsaturated zone. Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial conditions will reduce the organic load of the waste water, while physical clogging and chemical precipitation will reduce the in-organic load ofthe waste water. 3 UNSATURATED FLOW

(3)

where:

0 = volumetric water content [cm3/cm3]

e, =residual water content [cm3/cm3]

Bs = saturated water content cm3/cm3]

s. =effective saturation [em /cm3] If/ = matric potential [em] (If/ .5"0) a, P, r= empirical parameters andy = 1 - 1113

I

Knowledge of hydraulic properties, as represented in the equations above, is essential in studying the movement of water and solutes through the sub­ surface. Due to the spatial and vertical variability of soils, direct determination of these hydraulic properties in the field, is difficult and expensive. There are a number of indirect methods available to estimate hydraulic properties. These are based on soil texture and other readily available taxonomic information such as particle size distribution, exchangeable sodium percentage, bulk density and/or organic content. Figure 1 and 2 show a trend variation of the van Genuchten parameters a, 13, e. and e, in relation to sand content. It should be noted that the variations in van Genuchten parameters cannot be directly attributed to sand content. These parameter variations depend on other factors such as the silt and clay content. Based on trend analysis, the variation of relative permeability in relation to matric potential and sand content was studied (Figure 3). Figure 3 shows that variations in relative permeability (curved lines) are not directly related to sand content, even if it is assumed that the van Genuchten parameters are directly correlated.

AR by basin infiltration involves unsaturated and saturated groundwater flow processes. The hydraulic properties of the soil that control these processes are affected during recharge. When recharge commences, soil directly beneath the basin is unsaturated. This soil would normally have a lower hydraulic conductivity than the aquifer material. During recharge, clogging of the surface soil occurs, reducing hydraulic conductivity. In unsaturated groundwater flow processes, hydraulic properties are dependent on the water retention characteristics of the soil. To study unsaturated flow processes, it is necessary to define the relationship between hydraulic conductivity versus water saturation and pressure head versus water saturation. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity can be defined by Equation 1: (I)

where: k = unsaturated hydraulic conductivity krw = relative hydraulic conductivity K = saturated hydraulic conductivity The relationship between relative hydraulic conductivity and water saturation is represented by the following equation (Huang et a!, 1996): krw =

S~ 12 [1- (1- s~'r )' y

where:

s.

0.1

1..

-

-

s

-beta

4

I

0.01

Jc:>.

I

tS

(2)

2

/

0.001

=effective saturation [cm3/cm3]

0

20

40

60

80

100

%sand

The relationship between pressure head and water saturation is represented by the following equation (van Genuchten, 1980):

Figure I. Variation of a and sand content.

416

p van Genuchten parameters with

-

-

a;," o(j

0.1

a;,"

The model simulates the flow from the surface (base of the flooded AR basin) to the water table (located at a depth of 3m from the surface). The water level in the recharge basin was kept at a constant head of 2m above the surface. The numerical model consists of 60 layers each of a uniform Scm thickness. The clogging effect has been approximated in the first two layers of the model by a power function (Equation 4). Equation 4 was modified from an equation presented by Behnke (1969). A conceptualisation of the model is presented in Figure 4.

~

I

­

'

.,

0.01 0

- theta-r

---theta-s

40

20

.,

.,

60

80

100

%sand

Figure 2. Variation of9, and sand content.

e, van Genuchten parameters with

k =Kr"

where: k

Kandn

(4)

= hydraulic conductivity (rn/d)

=time (days)

=constants

I

Layers Affected

By Clogging

40

80

60

~~~:"-'l :scm

100

'~---------1' '~---------1' '~---------1' ' ' ' '

%sand Figure 3. Variation of relative permeability with respect to matric potential and sand content.

3m

60 layers

4 MODELLING A numerical model has been developed using MODFLOW-SURFACT (version 2.1) (MS) (HydroGeoLogic, 1998). The model has been used to study the unsaturated flow characteristics from AR basins, where hydraulic conductivity in the surface layers is reduced over time by clogging. MS is a comprehensive, three-dimensional, finite­ difference flow and contaminant transport program. It is based on the United States Geological Survey modular groundwater flow model, MODFLOW (McDonald, 1988). The MS code is a more advanced code that allows simulation of groundwater flow under saturated and unsaturated conditions (based on Equations 1, 2 and 3).

Figure 4. Conceptualisation of the model.

This study considers three different types of sub­ surface media in five cases. The initial three cases shown in Table 1 are each of a uniform grain size media, representing low, medium and highly permeable sediment and soil. Case 4 and 5 were constructed using a layered combination of the different media of the first three cases to simulate more realistic hydrogeological conditions (Table 2).

Table I . Input parameters used in model Cases I, 2 and 3. Parameters were calculated from Figures I and 2. K(md' 1) e, a, %sand a(cm' 1) y ~

texture

Case I

40

5

0.01298

1.46596

0.31785

0.4189

0.0557

Loam

Case2

60

20

0.02605

1.33298

0.24980

0.3978

0.0509

Sandy Loam

Case 3

85

80

0.03780

2.00022

0.50006

0.3728

0.0469

Loamy Sand

417

...

Table 2. Percentage sand content in multi layer model-cases 4 and5. Layer I (0- I m) Layer 2 (0 - 2 m) Layer 3 (2 - 3 m) %sand %sand %sand Case4 40 60 85 40 60 Case 5 85

2.'l

1u

~

£

0.8

§

e ·~

0.6

~

0.4

1u

0.2

~

0.0

Case 1 Case2 ---Case3

d

5RESULTS

~

...... ... 2.'l

Results showed that in Cases 1 - 4 there is an initial period (0 - 6 days) of significant daily recharge. After this initial period daily recharge rates reduced significantly due to clogging in the surface layers of the model. Case 5 showed a linear decline in daily recharge rates. The higher conductivity materials (Case 3 and 2) allow a greater quantity of water to reach the water table over time. The combined layered media in Case 4 showed daily recharge figures similar to the low hydraulic conductivity sand content of Case 1.

~

0

0

30

40

30

40

so

The results of the different model runs can be presented by plotting water pressure on depth versus time graphs (Figures 7, 8 and 9). These graphs show the degree to which the soil is saturated or unsaturated (positive being saturated, negative being unsaturated). Cases 1, 2 and 3 have similar saturation results from modelling (Figure 7). In the initial six days after flooding a large proportion of the profile is saturated. The profile becomes progressively less saturated with time as the surface layers clog (Figure 7). In Case 4 the surficial low permeability zone (layer 1) impedes water transport to the underlying more permeable layers. Layer 3 tends to be less saturated than layer 1 and 2 at any given point in time. This is due to layer 3 having a greater permeability, allowing water to migrate to the water table more rapidly. As in Case 1, 2 and 3, the profile becomes progressively less saturated with time as the surface layers clog (Figure 8). The results from Case 5, where the surface layers are highly permeable, show that a large amount of fluid enters the profile and is retained longer in the less permeable under lying layers 2 and 3 (Figure 9).

40

20

20

Figure 6. Daily recharge divided by the maximum daily recharge, plotted against time. Major differences in results are due to variance of the n factor in Equation 4.

80

10

10

Days

----Case1 -Case 2 -Case 3 ----Case4 - - - -Case5

120

0

1.0

so

Days Figure 5. Model results showing daily recharge to the water table plotted against time.

Rate of reduction of recharge in Cases 1, 2 and 3 was then calculated by dividing the daily recharge results by the maximum daily recharge. These were then plotted against time and compared (Figure 6). Rate of reduction of recharge between cases was very similar. The greatest variation in results was gained by varying the n factor in Equation (4) that controls the rate of reduction in permeability (Figure 6). Varying then factor (as in Figure 6) can be used in calibrating a model to actual observed data. There is a spike in the Case 2 curve where n = 1.5, which is probably attributed to numerical oscillation, generated by the MS program (Figure 6).

418

o. .--------------------~

6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 2 .0 1.8

Results from interpretive modelling, show a distinct reduction in sub-surface permeability after a specific period of time. It is at this point that the economic integrity of the project is affected which can lead to unsustainability. It is important from an economic perspective that the monitoring and maintenance schedules allow appropriate cleaning and drying of the recharge basin at the point where reductions in permeability occur. These schedules are budget sensitive and will vary according to budget allocations related to water treatment and monitoring. Economically, this will be more efficient in allowing the maximum volume of recharge water to enter the aquifer.

1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6

-I

~

..

.J:.

c.

0

-2

,_j 0.4 0.2 - 0.0 . · -0.2 20

40

-0.4

Water pressure

Days

Figure 7. Water pressure plotted on a depth against time plot. Representative of Cases I, 2 and 3.

I

-1 :

-=a ...

Q

7 CONCLUSION

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6

I. Numerical modelling of the fluid flow processes in the unsaturated and saturated zones beneath artificial recharge basins has been carried out. This has been used to simulate the rate and amount of water entering the water table and aquifer. Results of modelling indicate that the majority of recharge occurs in the initial 6 days after flooding of the basin. 2. Physical, biological and chemical clogging are the major restrictions in surface spreading artificial recharge operations. 3. Clogging in surface layers of each model case has been simulated using a power function (Equation 4). Varying some of the parameters in the power function can be used to calibrate model results to observed field clogging rates. 4. Accurate approximation of the reduction in permeability in the surface layers below artificial recharge basins is the most important aspect of the modelling process. 5. Application of the knowledge gained can be applied to the design, maintenance and economic analysis of recharge schemes.

0.4 0.2 0.0 -0 .2 -0.4 - -0 .6 -0 .8

-2 :

Days

Water pressure

Figure 8. Water pressure plotted on a depth against time plot. Representative of Case 4.

0

--5

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8

-l

-=a

..

Q

REFERENCES

-2

Behnke, JJ. (1969). Clogging in surface spreading operations for artificial ground-water recharge. Water Resources Research. Vol. 5, NO 4:870-876.

l-----. .Q.2

40

20

Days

-0.4

Huang, K., B.P. Mohnaty, & M.Th. van Genuchten (1996). A new convergence criterion for the modified Picard iteration method to solve the variably saturated flow equation. Journal ofHydrology. 178:69-91 .

Water Pressure

Figure 9. Water pressure plotted on a depth against time plot. Representative of Case 5.

419

HydroGeoLogic, Inc., (1998). MODFLOW-SURFACT): A comprehensive MODFLOW-based Flow and transport simulator. Code Documentation Report. McDonald, M.G. & Harbaugh, A.W. (1988). A modular three­ dimensional finite difference groundwater flow model. US Geological Survey Techniques Water Resources Investigations Book 6, Chapter AI. van Genuchten, M. Th. (1980). A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal. 4:892-898.

420

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Determination of field-saturated hydraulic conductivity in unsaturated soil by the pressure infiltrometer method T.Morii

Faculty ofAgriculture, Niigata University, Japan

M.Inoue

Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, Japan

Y. Takeshita

Facuity ofEnvironmental Science and Technology, Okayama University, Japan

ABSTRACT: In situ measurements of field-saturated hydraulic conductivity, Kft> are essential for accurate prediction of water movement in soil. The practical applicability of the pressure infiltrometer (PI) method to measure Kft of soil is examined using field and laboratory tests and numerical calculations. Sand and loam soils were selected for the study. Theoretical features of the PI method are explained by the field permeability tests and the numerical calculations. It is shown that the PI method can be an excellent practical in situ permeability test. It is suggested that about 0.06 cm·1 or some smaller value ora• may be more appropriate for sand and loam in calculating Kft of soil, and that the measurement depth of the PI method can be controlled by combining the radius and insertion depth of the ring, and the constant head imposed on the soil surface within the ring. method is calculations.

1 INTRODUCTION It is well established that in situ measurements of

saturated hydraulic conductivity are essential for accurate determination of water movement in soil such as agricultural land, compacted soil and landfill. Because air bubbles are usually entrapped in porous media when they are saturated by infiltrating water, the saturated hydraulic conductivity measured in unsaturated soil is lower than the truly saturated hydraulic conductivity and is often referred to as a field-saturated hydraulic conductivity, Kft. Kft is considered appropriate to describe water movement in soil because many natural and man-made infiltration processes result in significant air entrapment within the soil. The pressure infiltrometer (PI) method has been developed (Reynolds & Elrick 1990, Elrick & Reynolds 1992, Reynolds 1993) as a mean to measure Kft based on a constant-head steady infiltration into soil from a single ring. It involves only a measurement of a steady-state infiltration rate required to maintain a steady head of water applied on the soil surface within the ring inserted a small depth into the soil. An apparatus to measure the steady-state infiltration as well as a procedure to calculate Kp is quite simple. In this study, a theoretical feature of the PI method is examined by comparing the field experiment with the numerical calculation. The accuracy of measurement of Kft is investigated through field and laboratory experiments, and the measurement depth of the PI

estimated

based

on

numerical

2 APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE The PI apparatus consists of a single steel ring with a radius a inserted into the soil to a depth d, a water supply tube and a water reservoir tank as shown in Figure I. The position of an air tube controls the constant head of water H applied on the soil surface within the ring. The steady-state infiltration rate Q, is measured during the constant-head infiltration from the single ring into the soil. Based on theoretical considerations and the Air tube-..

Water supply tube

~

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the PI apparatus.

421

numerical experiments of the three dimensional infiltration from the single ring into the soil, Reynolds & Elrick (1990) developed the equation to calculate Kft of the soil:

steel ring with a=5. 5 em was inserted into the soil to a depth d=3.0 em. H=9.7 em was imposed on the soil surface within the ring for 10 minutes. The infiltration rate from the ring into the soil Q decreased soon after the beginning of the constant­ head infiltration and approached the constant value. Q, which is calculated as an average of the infiltration rate measured during 5 to 10 minutes, was 12.89 cm3/s. h and the volumetric moisture content f) in the soil were monitored using four tensiometers and one moisture gauge, respectively, as shown in Figure 3a. The soil was dug, instrumented and uniformly back-filled before the permeability test. The average value of the dry density in the compacted soil was 1.48 g/cm3 . The pressure head in the soil measured before the beginning of infiltration is given in Figure 3b. Functional relationships between fJ , h and K, were previously determined (Inoue et al. 1982, Inoue 1987) and are shown in Figure 4. Numerically integrating the K, -h relationship in Figure 4 and taking its reciprocal, the integrally-equivalent a • is determined as 0.068 cm· 1 from Equation 3. Inserting values of the integrally-equivalent a • and Qs measured into Equation 1, then Kft=2.74x 10·2 cm/s ofthe sand is obtained. The axisymmetric water movement from the single ring into the soil is analyzed by numerical calculation using the finite element method (FEM) developed previously (Morii 1999). The entire region of the soil to be analyzed is 60 em in depth

(1)

where G is a dimensionless shape factor which accounts for the geometry of the infiltration surface within the ring and is calculated by d G = 0.316- + 0.184

(2)

a

a • in Equation 1 is a parameter which describes an exponential relationship of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity K(h) and suction h of soil, and is interpreted as an index of texture/structure component of soil capillarity. The PI method requires that a • be site-estimated by simple observation of soil. Suggested values of a • for various soil textures and structures are given by Elrick & Reynolds (1992). If K(h) is measured independently, the value of a • can be calculated by

(3)

where Kr=K,(h) is a relative hydraulic conductivity of soil and is defined as a ratio of K(h) divided by Kft (0:5 K,:5 1). a • calculated by Equation 3 will be referred to as an integrally-equivalent a • in the following.

I

Pressure infiltrometer

1/

Initial pressure head

·r

-60

3

FIELD EXPERIMENTS

0 -10

~

~ -20

~

3.1 Moisture movements in soil The field permeability test was conducted at ALRC, Tottori, to examine the theoretical feature of the PI method. The soil tested is classified as sand with low content of fine soil particles. The maximum particle diameter is about 1 mm, as shown in Figure 2. The

..g.

..=

ho,cm -30

c

•

-30

0 -40 -50

b

-6oLI..i...I..L.·LI...L..J.L.J.J...J...J

...

= 50 Cl)

..;:::

= e

0 Moisture gauge (r, z) shows position of instruments in em

Cl)

Cl)

~

0 0.01

0.1

10

Figure 3. The monitoring instruments (a) and the initial pressure head measured in the soil (b) in the field permeability test.

Soil particle diameter, mm Figure 2. Grain size disttibution of the soils tested.

422

and 40 em in radius as shown by the dotted line in Figure 3a. The symmetric axis, the soil surface except for within the ring, and both sides and edge of the ring inserted into the soil are considered as impervious boundaries. 2.5 mm thickness of the steel ring is assumed in the numerical calculation.

-100

1.0

-80

0.8

-60

0.6

-40 = "'e "' ""' -20

0.4

~ El

~

-g

-=e Cl)

·~

·.z:

...,=

= 0

,g

.

]

..., £

..

0.2 ..;

0.0 0 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Volumetric moisture content fl, cm3 /cm3

~

3 .2 Measurement ofKft in sand soils

Figure 4. Unsaturated moisture properties of the soil.

:eEl

40

30

.=

20

ci 0

·.z:

!:1

10

..s

0

El

0

ta

"'!"

-10

-g

-20

e

Measured --FEM

• 0

2

4

6

The pressure heads along the base and the vertical side of the entire region of the soil are fixed at the initial values. The initial pressure head in the soil at the beginning of the infiltration is assumed to be linearly distributed as shown by the regression line in Figure 3b. The allowable tolerance ofthe pressure head during the iterative computations in the FEM calculation is set at O.Olcm. Q from the ring into the soil, h and fJ in the soil measured with time are compared with calculated values in Figures Sa, Sb and Sc, respectively. Fairly good agreement between measurement and calculation confirm the theoretical effectiveness of the PI method. In Figure 6 the FEM calculation is plotted to show advances of the saturated water bulb and the wetted zone with time. The saturation at the wetting front shown in Figure 6 corresponds to 50 %. It is interesting to note that the size of the saturated water bulb remains almost constant during the constant-head infiltration, whereas the wetted zone expands with time. The size of the saturated water bulb depends on the constant pressure head imposed on the soil surface within the ring.

a

The field permeability tests using the PI method were conducted at 142 plots in sand soils at ALRC, Tottori, and Niigata to examine the accuracy of measurement of Kft. The sands with low content of fine soil particles as shown in Figure 2 were tested in the study. A steel ring with a=S.S em and d=3.0 em was employed. H at about 5 to 15 em was imposed on the soil surface within the ring, and Q.

4­ 1

10

8

Soil surface

-=.. -30 Cl)

Cl)

~ -40

£-50 Cl)~

.a..

El

.~.;;-0 El

El

0

2

4

6

8

0.4

c

03 .

-40

·£""" 0.2 El B 0.1

.zg

2

6 4 Timet, min

8

- - Saturaion 100% - - Saturaion 50% t time after beginning of infiltration .

-50

--Measured -o--- FEM

Cl)=

0 ;> 0 . 0 0

10

-60

10

0

30 40 20 10 Radial coordinate r, em

Figure 6. FEM calculation showing the moisture movement in soil with time during the constant -head infiltration from the ring.

Figure 5. Comparison of (a) infiltration, (b) pressure head and (c) moisture content between the field measurement and the FEM calculation.

423

from the ring into the soil was measured. Intact soil cores I 00 cm3 in volume were bored from the test plot after the completion of the PI measurement, and were partially immersed into the water for one day. Then the hydraulic conductivity of the soil cores, was measured using the constant head Kfs(coce)' permeability test in the laboratory. Figure 7 compares Kft determined by the PI method with K fs(coce) · The integrally-equivalent a • of 0.06 em·' obtained in Section 3.I was used in Equation I to calculate Kft. Note both Kft and K/s(core) in Figure 7 are corrected to I5 °C of water temperature. It is found that the PI method yielded a factor of 1.2 to 1.3 higher Kft than the soil cores. This level of accuracy may be sufficient for most practical applications of the PI method. 4 NUMERICAL EXPERIMENTS 4.I Effect of a • on the Kft calculation If an unsuitable value of a • is estimated in the PI method, some error will be introduced in the Kft calculations using Equation I. This type of error is investigated based on the FEM numerical

calculations. The soil region to be analyzed and the boundary conditions of the soil region are the same as Figure 3a. At the beginning of the constant-head infiltration the pressure head is assumed to be distributed linearly from 0 em at the groundwater level located at I 00 em in depth to -I00 em at the soil surface. Four soils published in the literature were assumed and listed in Table I . The saturated hydraulic conductivity K, used in the numerical calculations, the values of a • suggested by Elrick & Reynolds (I992), and the integrally-equivalent a • of the soils are given in Table I . The unsaturated properties of the soils are given in the literature listed in the table. Three rings 2.5 mm thickness with a=7.5 em and d=3.0 em, a=7.5 em and d=5.0 em, and a=5.0 em and d=5 .0 em were employed in the numerical calculations. For each ring, H= IO and 20 em were assumed. Q, was determined from numerical calculation, then two values of the field­ saturated hydraulic conductivity, that is K1s~_,ugg•••> and K/s(equivalent)' were calculated by Equation I using the suggested a • and the integrally-equivalent a ·, respectively. The same tolerance of the pressure head as given in Section 3. I was adopted in the calculations.

Soils K.r-(oqivotent) 1 2

o Tottori c Niigata

3 4

0

•

•

"'

..

c

•

10' ' K.r- ofthe

K.z of soi l.s, cm/s

soil core, cm/s

Figure 7. Comparison of K1, determined by the PI method in the sand soils with the soil cores.

Figure 8. Difference of K13 calculated using the suggested a .. and the integrally-equivalent a ·.

Table 1. Moisture properties of the soils employed in the FEM numerical calculations. a· a' Saturated by Equation 3 suggested conductivity K, Soils crnls 2.0 x w-3 0.065 0.12 I . Manawatu fine sandy loam 0.047 9.722 X w-3 0.12 2. Fine river sand l.OX w·>+ 0.018 0.12 3. Weld silty clay loam 1.21s x w-3 0.022 0.12 4. Muir silt loam • Value of K, is assumed. - The value is suggested as the first choice for most soils (Elrick & Reynolds 1992).

424

Unsaturated moistnre properties. See references. Quadri et al. (1994) Vauclin et al. (1979) Yates et al. (1992) Sisson et al. (1992)

Figure 8 shows the comparison between K, and and between K, and K 1s(equivalent)· It is noticed that a ·=O.I2 em·' suggested as the first choice for most soils yields a factor of about I. 5-2 higher Kfs in sand soil, and a factor of about 2-3 higher Kfs in loam soil than the true value K,. Of course this level of accuracy in determining K1, should be judged based on the objectives of the field test. It may not be wrong to think that, from the results in Sections 3.I, 3.2 and 4.I, about 0.06 em·' or some smaller value of a • is more appropriate for sand and loam soils than the suggested value of a •.

K 1s(suggest)

s

4.2 Measurement depth ofthe PI method FEM numerical calculations which simulate the constant-head infiltration from the single ring into the soil was conducted to investigate the measurement depth of the PI method. For this, it was assumed that a horizontal lower soil which was less permeable than the upper soil was present at a depth in the soil region given in Figure 3a. Then at which Q, from the soil surface changes significantly can be regarded as the measurement depth of the PI method. Two 2.5mm-in-thickness rings with a=7.5 em and d=3.0 em, and a=S.O em and d=S.O em were employed, and H=IO and 20 em were assumed for each ring in the numerical calculations. was changed from 60 to 5 em, where =60 em means a homogeneous soil region. The field-saturated hydraulic conductivity of the upper soil as well as the homogeneous soil, Kfs(upper)' was assumed to be

s

s

s

1.2 1.0 i 0.8

~ 0 .6 ~ 0.4 ~ 0 .2 0 .0 0 1.2 1.0 i 0 .8

0.6 ~ 0.4 ~ 0 .2 0 .0 0

the same value as the sand described in Section 3. I, and Kfs of the lower soil be one-tenth of K fs(upper)· Both the upper and lower soils had the same unsaturated properties as shown in Figure 4. The boundary and initial conditions of the soil region are same as adopted in the preceding section. Figure 9 shows the results of the numerical calculations, where Kfs estimated from Q, using Equation I is divided by K fs(upper) that is a true value to be estimated. It is found that the ratio of K1j K 1s(upper) begins to decrease from I. 0 when approaches to IS-25 em. This value of may correspond to the measurement depth of the PI method, using the ring and H specified above, in the soil with Kts of the order of I o·2 cm/s. A potentially important feature of the PI method induced from Figure 9 is that the measurement depth of the PI method can be controlled by combining a and d of the ring and H. This offers a practical advantage in conducting the in situ permeability test in compacted soil in earth works such as embankment dams and landfills. A typical result of the FEM calculations is given in Figure I 0 to show the water movement into the layered soil from the single ring, a=7.5 em and d=3.0 em, during the constant-head infiltration. The less permeable lower soil is located at =10 em. Contrary to Figure 6 which shows the water movement in the homogeneous soil, the saturated water bulb is expanding with time. This is because the water flow from the ring is prevented from moving downward. Since the hydraulic gradient

s

s

s

a

Upper soil a=7.5cm, d=3.0cm

-o~

10

H= !Ocm H=20cm

20 30 40 50 Depth oflower layer ~, em

60 Lower soil -40

~

a=5 .0cm, d=5 .0cm

-o~

10

-50

H= IOcm H =20cm

50 40 20 30 Depth of lower layer~ , em

- ­ Saturation 100% - ­ Saturation 50% t=time after in.filrration.

60 Radial coordinate r, em

Figure 9. FEM calculation to estimate measurement depth of the PI method in sand soil. The rings with (a) a=7.5 em and d=3.0 em and with (b) a=5.0 em and d=5.0 em are employed in the calculations.

425

Figure 10. FEM calculation to show the water movement into the layered soil from the single ring during the constant-head in.filrration.

beneath the soil surface within the ring decreases as the saturated water bulb expands, Q. will also decrease, resulting into the lower estimation of Kft by Equation I. This is the reason that induced the decrease in Kf/Kfs(upper) in Figure 9.

Quadri, M. B., Clothier, B. E., Angulo-Jaramillo, R., Vauclin, M & Green, S. R. 1994. Axisymmetric transport of water and solute underneath a disk permeameter: experiments and numerical model. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal. 58: 696-703. Reynolds, W. D. 1993. Saturated hydraulic conductivity: field measurement. In M. R. Carter (ed.}, Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis: 599-613. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers. Reynolds, W. D. & Elrick, D. E. 1990. Ponded infiltration from a single ring: I. Analysis of steady flow. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal. 54: 1233-1241. Sisson, J. B. & van Genuchten, M. Th. 1992. Estimation of hydraulic conductivity without computing fluxes. In M Th. van Genuchten, F. J. Leij & L. J. Lund (eds), Indirect Methods for Estimating the Hydraulic Properties of Unsaturated Soils; Proceedings of the International Workshop, Riverside, California, 11-13 October 1989: 665­ 674. University of California, Riverside, CA. Vauclin, M., Khanji, D. & Vachaud, G. 1979. Experimental and numerical study of a transient, two-dimensional unsaturated-saturated water table recharge problem. Water Resources Research. 15(5): 1089-1101. Yates, S. R., van Genuchten, M. Th., Warrick, A. W. & Leij, F. J. 1992. Analysis of measured, predicted, and estimated hydraulic conductivity using the RETC computer program. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal. 56: 347-354.

5 CONCLUSIONS The practical applicability of the PI method to measure the field-saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil was examined by field and laboratory permeability tests and FEM numerical calculations. Sand and loam soils were selected for the study. The following are concluded: I) Theoretical features of the PI method are well confirmed by the field permeability tests and the FEM numerical calculations. 2) The PI method can be a excellent practical in situ permeability test because of its simple and speedy procedure to determine the field­ saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil. 3) About 0.06 cm· 1 or some smaller value of a • may be more appropriate for sand and loam soils in calculating the field-saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil. 4) The measurement depth of the PI method can be controlled by combining the radius and the insertion depth of the ring, and the constant head imposed on the soil surface within the ring. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported in part by the Joint Research Grant made by the Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, Japan. The authors are grateful to Misses E. Hata, S. Yoneguchi, Y. Akita and M. Sato for their help in conducting the field and laboratory permeability tests.

REFERENCES Elrick, D. E. & Reynolds, W. D. 1992. Infiltration from constant-head well permeameters and infiltrometers. In G. C. Topp, W. D. Reynolds & R. E. Green (eds), Advances in

Measurement ofSoil Physical Properties: Bringing Theory into Practice. SSSA Special Publication 30: 1-24. Soil

Science Society of America, Madison, Wl. Inoue, M. 1987. Evaluation of soil water properties during drainage periods in a sand field. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Japan. 40: 119-129. (in Japanese with English summary) Inoue, M, Yano, T., Yoshida, 1., Yamamoto, T. & Chikushi, J. 1982. Determination of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from soil water characteristic curve. Research Association

ofSoil Physics, National Institute ofAgricultural Sciences, Japan. 46: 21-29. (in Japanese with English summary)

Morii, T. 1999. Prediction of water movement in soil by finite element method. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Japan. 52(1): 41-54.

426

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Hydraulic conductivity measurements in two unsaturated soils of Queretaro Valley, Mexico A. Perez-Garcia & D. Hurtado-Maldonado Engineering Faculty, UniversidadAde Queretaro, Mexico

ABSTRACT: In this paper the authors describe an experimental apparatus capable of measuring the hydrau­ lic conductivity of unsaturated soils. The method uses the principle of instantaneous modified profile for the permeability measurements. The apparatus consist of a series of rings in the vertical and horizontal position with a soil sample inside. Hydraulic head is applied and kept constant during all the test. All rings have a hole with a psychrometer probe for measuring the soil suction in each ring of soil. With increase of water volume in the soil we determine the flow rate and the hydraulic conductivity at each point. We present the results ob­ tained from two compacted soils, namely a silty sand and montmorillonite clay of Queretaro Valley. Hydrau­ lic conductivity values presented in this paper seem to agree with those reported in the literature.

1 INTRODUCTION

easy circulation of the water, and as a consequence a decrease of the hydraulic conductivity, k(y). The permeability that corresponds to the saturated soil has a constant value. When the suction increases the degree of saturation reduces and k(y) decreases. However, hysteresis is present. This implies that the reverse path is not the same; that is, for the same suction, the permeability on the drying path is dif­ ferent from that on the wetting path. The permeabil­ ity decreases when the volumetric water content also decreases. The main objective of the paper is the description of an experimental laboratory test for measuring hy­ draulic conductivity, as well as to show the curves of hydraulic conductivity obtained and other parame­ ters of the studied unsaturated soils. The method used corresponds to that of the instantaneous profile method for unsteady flow.

1.1 General The importance of knowing the phenomenon of wa­ ter flow in unsaturated soils, for both geotechnical projects and environment protection, has generated the necessity to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in the laboratory and to estimate it in situ. This parameter is very important for the under­ standing and the solution of the phenomena present in: a) expansive soils, b) the problem of environmental protection by means of compacted clay soils in sanitary fills, and c) polluting liquid deposit lagoons. It is necessary that engineers have experimental tools to describe the behavior of these soils. Cur­ rently, several procedures are available to measure the rate of water flow in unsaturated soils. However, it is necessary to delve more deeply in this respect. In the case of unsaturated soils, the flow is due to hydraulic gradients in the soil mass, making the wa­ ter move from a point with a higher hydraulic head to a smaller one. In the case of partially saturated soil, one gener­ ally has negative pore-water pressure and the flow is in fact generated by the gradients or differences of negative pressures in the soil. The water moves from areas of smaller suction to areas of larger suction. The gas bubbles prevent an

2 PREVIOUS STUDIES The instantaneous profile method in the laboratory was first proposed by Richards in the fifties. Ham­ ilton used the same idea and proposed a similar ap­ paratus in 1981. Richards indicated that the method can be useful for in situ tests. Klute in 1972 consid­ ered it the best field test method.

427

Alimi-Ichola & Bentoumi (1995) showed several infiltration tests in unsaturated soils placed in a spe­ cial permeameter that uses the instantaneous profile method. The apparatus provided results in the verti­ cal as well as in the horizontal positions. These tests were compared with the hydraulic conductivity and the diffusivity of an unsaturated soil obtained in a theoretical way. Infiltration tests were made in a col­ umn 225 mm high, formed by soil rings. The suction and humidity were measured at different heights of the column, in the soil rings to give suction profiles and humidity versus depth. Juca & Frydman (1996) reported that there were enough measurement data on the flow properties of unsaturated soils. These data indicate a trend to­ wards direct measurement of the hydraulic conduc­ tivity. However, the results are still within a small range of soil suction. Benson & Gribb (1997) analyzed a total of 40 methods to measure the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils and discussed its advantages, dis­ advantages and costs. The methods analyzed include both laboratory and field methods. They recom­ mended the instantaneous profile method for tests of fine grain soils and also when these have high suc­ tion values. Benson and Gribb reached the conclu­ sion that it is necessary to continue with the devel­ opment of methods for the conductivity measurements where the stress state can be con­ trolled during the test.

.•.

._1)(~

50

100

?)

V

0

. ()

150

200

(1)

IL1y =Hydraulic head gradient in the y direction = iwy; kw is the perme­ ability coefficient; for saturated soils kw is consid­ ered to have a constant value. Several authors have demonstrated that Darcy's law is also applicable for water flow through an un­ saturated soil, that is to say, it has been demonstrated that the flow speed through a partially saturated soil is linearly proportional to the hydraulic head gradi­ ent. However, the value kw is not constant, thus it is more convenient to use the concept of hydraulic conductivity k(y) instead of the coefficient of perme­ ability. During the wetting and drying processes the soils exhibit hysteresis. This arises mainly in the relation­ ship between hydraulic conductivity, k(y}, and ma­ tric suction or in the relationship between volumetric water content and matric suction. 3.1 Instantaneous profile method.

This direct method is classified as unsteady flow. A cylindrical specimen of soil was subjected to water flow from one end. Several procedures exist, which have variants in the form of flow entrance, in the measurement of the hydraulic head gradient and in the flow speed. The hydraulic head gradient and the flow speed are determined at several points along the specimen, using some variants described by Fredlund (1993) . In one of them, the water content and the distribution of the pore water pressure head were measured in an independent way. The water content profile is used to calculate the flow speed. The pressure head of pore water can be calculated from the measurements of the soil suction by means of tensiometers and psychrometers.

0>

250

=-k MJw w .6.y

Where:

()

()

w

vw =Water flow speed; Llhw

Desorption Sorption

Field-Saturated

••

mass is proportional to the hydraulic head gradient.

300

Matric Suction Head (m)

Figure 1. Tests of hydraulic conductivity obtained in an silty clay (Wenatchee) on the drying and wetting path (Meerdink et al. 1996, mentioned by Benson & Gribb 1997).

3 DARCY'S LAW FOR UNSATURATED SOILS

4 MODIFIED APPARATUS TO MEASURE THE PERMEABILITY

The water flow in a saturated soil can be described using Darcy's law (1856). In this law it is demon­ strated that the speed of water flow through a soil

Hamilton et al. (1981) had used the instantaneous profile method. The water flow is controlled at one end of the soil specimen, while the other end is

428

opened to the atmosphere. Hamilton et al. used the final volumetric water content along the specimen, and the corresponding measured suction to produce the soil-water characteristic curve.

The contact between the soil of two rings was made through two filter paper disks. We believe that, there is no influence of the paper in the measure­ ments due to the high permeability of the material with which the filter paper is made of. 4.2 Calculations

Top connected to water reservoir

1

Metalic rings containing soil and psychrometer

j~

f:

Base with porous stone open to atmosphere

To determine the permeability of the soil, it is neces­ sary to know the flow speed and the hydraulic gradi­ ents that act on the specimen which can be calcu­ lated using the hydraulic head (hw) against distance (x) -or depth - for each time. The hydraulic head that acts on the specimen consist of the gravity head and the pressure head: (2)

Figure 2. Apparatus used in the measurement of soil perme­ ability.

The apparatus consists of ten rings of 5 em inner diameter and 2 em thick. It also has, in the ends, two porous stones of 0.5 em thickness. The water flow is controlled at one end. The other one is opened to the atmosphere. The test is carried out with specimens of compacted soil or with natural specimens of ex­ pansive soil. The soil is placed inside each ring and later, all the rings are assembled to form a column of nine or ten rings, which are sealed with 0-Rings. Water is supplied at one end under a constant hy­ draulic head in all the tests. For this, a device based on the Mariotte bottle principle was built. Each ring is provided with a psychrometer. The set-up was placed in the horizontal position for maintaining a constant head. The apparatus was placed inside a constant temperature chamber maintained at 20°C +/- 1° C and under a relative humidity of 70%. 4.1 Preparation ofthe samples

Where:

y = Elevation of the point in study referred at a

reference level; Uw = pore water pressure, in this

case the measured suction; g = Gravity acceleration;

Pw =Water density. Once the hydraulic head was obtained, one pro­ ceeds to the gradient calculation:

.

dhw dx

(3)

I=­ w

Where:

iw = Hydraulic head gradient at a point for a specific

time; dhw'dx = slope of the profile of hydraulic head

gradient at the point under consideration.

The flow speed " vw ", at a point is similar to the water volume that flows through the area of the specimen traverse section, during an interval of time " dt ". The water flows from the permeameter left­ end to the right end.

The soil used in the tests was a fine sand with 22% of fine, classified as SM according to the Unified soil classification system. The soil was previously sieved through mesh number 20 to remove large grains that could inter­ fere with the compaction process. The soil was com­ pacted such that it begins with a maximum suction. The soil was compacted inside rings of stainless steel using static compaction in order to achieve a soil, with the following initial characteristics:

SUCTI ON PROFILE. SILTY SAND

0 2 4 6 8 101214161820

-+-t=Oh •

t=28.5h

"

x

t=48.8 h t=71.8 h I

X

t=95.3h

•

t=144h

+

t=169h

-

t=193h t=216h

•

t=243 h

DISTANCE (an) -o-1=337 h ~------------------------------Figure 3. Suction profile measured at different times in the rings of the first studied soil (silty sand).

SaturationS= 35%, dry unit weight Yd = 17.7 kN/m3, initial water content Wi =5.5%

429

_ .1=0 h

Silty Sand

v

---1=28.5 h --.- 1=48.8 h

ffi~

0.25

1-1- 0.20

~ffi .I-

0.15

1!01: "'­

I G. f'l's I "' t!l: !::&

La

"""-;

I~

i"' ::0

~ ~ r....

-~ :;f ~ ..JZ 0.10 -~ ;;> oo 0.05 -~ >u 0.00 ­ 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

\\\

DISTANCE (em)

[\,.'

,­

-- 1=169 h

-

1=193h

-

l=216 h

~1=243h

kw =

(4)

Where:

dvwi = Water volume increase in a point "i", in an

interval of specific time; dwwi = water weight in­

crease at a specific point "i", in an interval of spe­

cific time; yw= Water specific weight

The total water volume "dVwj" that passes through a point "j" during the time interval under consideration "dt" and is the sum of the volume changes that passes between the point under consid­ eration and the last ring (m = 10):

(5)

Where: d Vwj = total water volume that passes through the point "j" in an interval of time "dt"; dvi = water vol­ ume increment in each ring in an interval of specific time" dt". The flow speed at a considered point "j", is calcu­ lated as follows:

(7)

iprom

5 OBTAINED RESULTS

dw ,.;

r ..

v

w_ __

Where:

vw = Flow speed; iprom = Gradient of average hy­

draulic head.

The calculations can be repeated for different points and at different times. As a result, many per­ meability values can be calculated for several water contents or for suction values obtained in the test

The total volume of water that passes through a point (for example the center of any ring) in the soil specimen, during a period of time, is similar to the change of water volume that passes between the point under consideration and the right end of the specimen during the period of specified time. To find the changes of water volume in each ring it would be enough to divide weight increment in each ring by the water specific weight: w;

(6)

-o-1=337h

Ftgure 4. Evolution of the volumetric water content during the flow test in the studied soil (silty sand).

dv

dVwj Adt

=-­

Where:

vw = Flow speed of water, A = Area of the cross

section ofthe specimen, dt =time interval.

The water flow speed corresponds to the average of the hydraulic head gradients "iprom", obtained from two time series. Thus, the water permeability "kw" is calculated dividing the flow speed "vw" by the gradient of average hydraulic head "iprom":

_,._1=71.8 h

0.30

"'

The graphs obtained are shown in Figures 4 and 5 for the first studied soil. In these graphs, both the suction evolution and the volumetric water content as a function of time is observed. With time, the suction profile decreases because of the advance of the wetting front Clearly, the water content in the soil rings increases with time. These profiles allow the hydraulic conductivity in each of the soil rings to be calculated. Figure 5 and Table 1 show some of the most im­ portant results obtained by this procedure for silty sand. The points represent results of different rings, on the wetting path. The data shown in Figure 5 can be compared with the hydraulic conductivity data ob­ tained by Meerdink et a!. (1996) shown Figure I. In Figure I , the experimental points on the wetting path are very similar quantitatively in terms of hydraulic conductivity k(y) for the suction values obtained in this study. In the studied soil the lowest hydraulic conductiv­ ity, measured and calculated is in the order of 5.83 E-ll em Is.

430

Hydraulic Conductivity k (y) vs. Suction. Silty sand

~...>- "'"'

OJ

g~

o~

1-

z

~-

1.E-08

z

1.E-09

0

L E-10

0

t

1.E-06 L E-07

LE- 11

0

1000

2000

0 .25

o

5000

SUCTION (KPa)

~

0 .35

0

1­

3000

0 .40 0 .30

a: w

•

0 .45

I!!z 0

•

--t:Oh ---t : 19 .5 h

Queretaro V alley Clay

~

~

0 .20 0 .15 0 .10 0 .05 0 .00 0

Figure 5. Hydraulic conductivity k(y) of the soil studied versus the soil suction.

--- t: 91.75h --1:115h _,._t: 139 .75 h ....._ t: 163 .33 h 1:187 .33h 1 1: 258 .5 h t: 283 .5 h --o-1: 45 2 .5 h -- t • 499 h _...,.._t: 599 .5 h __ t: 61 8 .75 h

IIIII!J .... I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 D ISTANC E (em)

9 1 _,._t: 64 3 .75 h -o-l : 667 .33 h t : 690 .75 h

Figure 7. Volumetric water content measured at different times in the rings of the studied soil (clay CH Queretaro, Mexico). SUCTION PROFILE

Queretaro Valley Clay --- t -6-

t

= 19.5

h

Hydraulic Conductivity k(y) vs. Suction. Queretaro Valley Clay

= 91 .75 h

~~ !i]Fbi4H4J

10000

""t 1000 ~

z

0

t;

::3

100

0

1000

Ill

2000

3000

4000

5000 6000

SUCTION (KPa)

DISTANCE (em)

--

t

Figure 8. Hydraulic conductivity k(y) of the clay soil studied versus soil suction. The points represent results of diverse rings on the wetting path.

= 667 .33 h

6 CONCLUSION

Figure 6. Suction profile measured at different times in the rings of the studied soil (clay CH Queretaro, Mexico).

Hydraulic conductivity for a silty sand and a clay soil were obtained as a function of the suction using the instantaneous profile method. The results are in agreement with those reported in the literature as can be observed in Figures 1 and 5

Table I. Example of calculation of the hydraulic conductivity by using the data taken at different times in one of the rings of the apparatus (for silty sand). RING Number 4 TIME (HOURS) 0.0 28.5 48.8 71 .8 95.3 144.1 168.6 193.1 215.8 243.3 337.0

WATER VOLUME ACCUMULATED (cm3) 0.00 0.30 1.40 1.98 1.64 2.48 1.78 3.93 2.62 3.08 17.69

~.;ORRECTE

SUCTION IN 4 (KPa) 2492 1515 468 253 194 149 143 93 83 116 37

I

PREVIOUS POSTERIOR HYDRAULIC DISTANCE t CONDUCTIVITY GRADIENT (SECONDS) k (i) (cmlseg) 5.83E-11 102600 2552 1.20E-10 72900 8127 1.30E-10 82800 9376 1.10E-09 84888 895 175500 2.38E-09 302 7.03E-09 88200 146 7.98E-09 284 88200 8.57E-09 81612 191 1.43E-08 99000 111 2.75E-08 337500 97

-

­

for the silty sand soil and in Figure 8 for the clay soil. The method has the disadvantage of providing re­ sults after some four weeks. But the results demon­ strate that it is feasible to obtain low values of hy­ draulic conductivity for soils with high suctions if these are within the measurement range of the psy­ chrometers. The method was used to measure the conductivity following a wetting path in the soil. Very likely, the same procedure can be used in the drying process to complete the k(y) graph and also for undisturbed soils. A limitation of the apparatus is that it does not consider the control of the stress as recommended by Benson & Gribb (1997). It was demonstrated that the method works for two compacted soils that pos­ sess very low permeabilities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The present work was financed entirely by the U.A. de Queretaro, Mexico. The authors would like to thank C. Lopez-Cajun for his help to prepare this paper. • (e-mail: [email protected])

REFERENCES Alimi-Ichola 1.& Bentoumi 0. 1995. Hydraulic conductivity and difusivity in vertical and horizontal inflow. Ist. Int. Conf on Unsaturated Soils. Paris, France. Benson C.& Gribb M. 1997. Measuring unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in the laboratory and the field. Unsaturated Soil Eng. Practice. ASCE GSP No. 68. Fredlund D.G.& Rahardjo H. 1993. Soil Mechanics for Un­ saturated Soil. Wiley inter science. Hamilton J.M., Daniel D.E., Olson R.E. 1981. Measurement of hidraulic conductivity of partially saturated soils. ASTM STP 746, cited by Juca & Frydman 1995. Juca J. & Frydman S. 1995. Experimental techniques. Ist. Int. Conf on Unsaturated Soils. Paris, France Perez-Garcia A. 1997. Medici6n de succi6n con psicr6metro en suelo no saturado de Queretaro, Mex. Simp. Brasileiro de solos ilao saturados, Rio de J. Brazil 1997, in spanish. Zepeda-Garrido A. 1989. Propiedades mecanicas e hidniulicas en suelos no saturados. Curso intemacional de mecanica de suelos arcillosos. U.A. Queretaro-U. Laval, in spanish.

432

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Temperature effects on water retention and water permeability of an unsaturated clay E. Romero, A.Gens & A.Lloret

Geotechnical Engineering Department, Technical University ofCatalunya, Barcelona, Spain

ABSTRACT: Laboratory tests were conducted on artificially prepared unsaturated fabrics obtained from natu­ ral clay to investigate hydraulic changes induced by heating (up to 80°C) in relation to water retention and water permeability characteristics. Retention curves at different temperatures show that total suction tends to reduce with increasing temperatures at constant water content in the high-suction or intra-aggregate zone. Temperature influence on water permeability is more relevant at low suctions corresponding to free water pre­ ponderance (inter-aggregate zone), whereas below a degree of saturation of 70% (intra-aggregate zone) no clear effect is detected. Experimental data show temperature dependence of permeability at constant degree of saturation smaller than could be expected from the thermal change in water viscosity, indicating that thermo­ chemical effects altering clay fabric and pore fluid chemistry could be relevant. 1 INTRODUCTION The influence of temperature on hydraulic properties of clays is of major concern in the design of engi­ neered barriers in underground repositories for ra­ dioactive high-level waste disposal. There are anum­ ber of laboratory results concerning thermal effects on saturated water permeability (Towhata et al. 1993, Khemissa 1998), but in contrast, experimental information concerning unsaturated states is very limited and restricted to sandy and silty soils (Hop­ mans & Dane 1986). In addition, testing results of temperature effects on water retention have been usually limited to low suction values (sandy and silty soils) and/or low temperatures (Nimmo & Miller 1986, Constantz 1991, She & Sleep 1998). To gain insight into these aspects of behaviour, a systematic research programme has been carried out on artificially prepared clayey samples to investigate changes in hydraulic properties induced by heating. In this study, maximum temperature is limited to 80°C, which is a little lower than the value of 1oooc prescribed for unsaturated backfill in many repository reference designs. The paper presents water retention results of water content - temperature relationships at constant suction and isochoric retention curves at different temperatures. Water permeability depend­ ence on degree of saturation, void ratio and tem­ perature obtained from inflow/outflow test data is also presented. Finally, a phenomenological inter­ pretation of temperature and suction effects on hy­ draulic properties is described.

2 MATERIAL, TESTING PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT 2.1 Material Laboratory tests were conducted on artificially pre­ pared (statically compacted on the dry side) powder obtained from natural Boom clay (Mol, Belgium). This moderately swelling clay (20%-30% kaolinite, 20%-30% illite and 10%-20% smectite) has a liquid limit of WL= 56%, a plastic limit of Wp= 29% and 50% of particles less than 21-1m. In preparing speci­ mens for vapor equilibrium control, powder was left in equilibrium with the laboratory atmosphere at an av­ erage relative humidity of 47% (total suction of 'I'"" 100 MPa) to achieve a hygroscopic water content of (3.0±0.3)%. For samples tested using the air overpres­ sure technique for matric suction control, the required quantity of demineralised water to achieve a prede­ termined gravimetric water content of (15.0±0.3)% was added to the powder, previously cured at a rela­ tive humidity of 90%. After equalization, an initial total suction of approximately 'I'"" 2.3 MPa is achieved. A static compaction procedure has been followed until a specified final volume is achieved under constant water content. Experimental data is interpreted based on the ex­ istence of two main pore size regions, as observed from the analysis of mercury intrusion I extrusion po­ rosimetry results (Romero et al. 1999). Firstly, an intra-aggregate porosity with quasi-immobile water at gravimetric water contents lower than 15% and pore sizes smaller than 150 nm. Secondly, an inter­ 433

aggregate and interconnected porosity containing free water. Experimental results presented by Ro­ mero et al. ( 1999) show that intra-aggregate water represents between 54 and 59% of the total volume of water in soil in a low-porosity ~acking compacted at a dry unit weight of 16.7 kN/m, whereas it corre­ sponds to around 28 and 38% in the case of a pack­ ing compacted at a dry unit weight of 13.7 kN/m3 • 2.2 Testing procedures for prescribing suction Results in the high suction range were obtained from isothermal main wetting paths performed with single­ stage vapor equilibrium technique at different tem­ peratures and under free swelling conditions (( crm­ ua) = 0). Sodium chloride solutions with varying sol­ ute quantities were used in order to achieve the pre­ determined soil-water potential. The relation between the relative vapor pressure or activity a1 of the NaCl aqueous solution and the molality of the solute m (mol of NaCl/kg of pure water), as a function of temperature TeC), is given by the following empiri­ cal expressions (Horvath 1985, Romero 1999): a1

=1-0.035m-m(m-3)f(T)

(1)

f(T)=1.977xl0- 3 -1.193xl0-5 Tform~3mol/kg (2) f(T)=l.142x10" 3 form-

(J

'-'

GA run 1

100

"Cl o:l 0

1-

::t:

e e p...

0

-~ -200

....­

~

~ 1'-.

'"3

6 -400

Precipitatio•

~

---

"'-­ ..........

........

;:)

u -600 -800 0

50

100

Infil tration

....__

Time (days)

150

AE

PE 200

Figure I0. Cumulative fluxes for sand cover.

for infiltration equal to approximately 50 mrn or about 10% of total precipitation. Figure 11 shows the water content profiles for the 1.5 m thick sand cover on days 0, 10, 65 and 150. It can be seen that a wetting front advances through the profile on day 10 of the simulation followed by a second wetting period on day 65. This shows that

454

significant quantities of water readily infiltrate through the sand cover. In summary, the perform­ ance of the sand cover system is considered unac­ ceptable.

e o.5o '-'

-5

0.

8

1.00 1. 50 0

proaching zero. The silty loam profile in the cover performs as a store and release cover system. Infil­ tration water that enters the soil profile early in the simulation period (actually a result of snow melt during the spring) is retained near the ground sur­ face for a sufficient period of time such that it may be removed during the high evaporation period that occurs during the summer months. In summary, the analyses show that a material with a moderately low value of hydraulic conductivity (i.e., 1 x 10·7 m/sec) such as silt can provide a barrier to infiltration in semi-arid climates with wet and dry periods.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

:§: 0.50 f-----1---t-..,.,..

Degree of Saturation Figure II. Water content profile for sand cover.

-50.

Q 1.00+--

Figure 12 shows the cumulative ground surface fluxes for a cover system consisting of 1.0 m of silty loam over 0.5 m of fine sand. The climate data used for the simulation was exactly the same as that used for the previous analysis. It can be seen in Figure 12 that the net infiltration is reduced to zero for the 150 day period. This occurs as a result of the higher value of actual evaporation (AE) equal to approxi­ mately 400 mm. The performance of this cover system shows significant improvement compared to the homogeneous 1.5 m sand profile.

1.50 L____l_~_

0

IPrecioitatio

.r'"

120ol;::: 0

-~

0 -20

~

....

Infiltration

0~ .....__-...._

~"' -40'U

~'--...

............

........

u -60'U

--..._

-800 0

60

80

100

120

Figure 13. Water content profile for the silt over sand cover.

5 CONCLUSIONS

.-... 400 ~

40

20

_L___::c::::=:r:==:=l

Degree of Saturation

60'U

ii:

-H. .- t - - ­

50

100 Time (days)

AE PE

150

200

Figure 12. Cumulative fluxes for silt over sand cover.

The application of the SoilCover model to the de­ sign of a soil cover system for a municipal landfill was demonstrated. The results of the simulation show that a silty loam material provides a barrier to infiltration in the semi-arid climate that prevails in Saskatoon. It is interesting to note that a silt rich material can provide better protection against infil­ tration than a highly plastic clay material since se­ vere cracking associated with desiccation is avoided. The numerical modelling and design of the cover system was assisted with the use of a knowledge base system for the selection of suitable soils of testing and analysis. This approach reduced the amount of laboratory testing and time required to complete the analysis.

Figure 13 presents the computed volumetric wa­ ter content profiles for the 1.0 m silt over 0.5 m sand cover profile. It can be seen that the silty loam ma­ terial maintains a relatively high value of water satu­ ration. This can be attributed to the higher air entry value and water retention capacity of this material compared to the sand. The net result in retaining more soil water near the ground surface provides a higher value of actual evaporation. This translates to a reduction in net infiltration equal to a value ap­

REFERENCES Edlefsen, N.E. & Anderson, A.B.C. 1943. Thermodynamics of Soil Moisture, Hilgardia, 15(2}, pp. 31-298. Fredlund, D.G. & Xing Anqing, 1994. Predicting the perme­ ability for Unsaturated Soils Using the Soil-Water Charac­ teristic Curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.31, pp. 521-532. Fredlund, M.D., Wilson, G.W., & Fredlund, D.G., 1998. Es­ timation of Hydraulic Properties of An Unsaturated Soil Using A Knowledge-Based System, Second International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, August 27-30.

455

Penman, H.L., 1948. Natural Evaporation From Open Water, Bare Soil and Grass. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 193; pp. 120-146. Ritchie, J.T., 1972. Model for Predicting Evaporation From a Row Crop with Incomplete Cover. Water Resources Re­ search, 8(5): 1204-1213. SoilCover, 1997. User's Manual, Unsaturated Soils research Group, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada. Tratch, D.J., Wilson, G. W. & Fredlund, D.G., 1995. An In­ troduction to Analytical Modelling of Plant Transpiration For Geotechnical Engineers. Proceedings of the 4sth An­ nual Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Vancouver, BC, September 25-27, pp. 771-780. Wilson, G.W., Fredlund, D.G. & Barbour, S.L., 1997. The effect of soil suction of evaporative fluxes from soil sur­ faces. Canadian Geotechnical Journal (34), pp.l45-155.

456

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Influence of some hydraulic parameters on the pore-water pressure distribution in unsaturated homogeneous soils L.T.Zhan, C.W.W.Ng & B.Wang

Department ofCivil Engineering, Hong Kong University ofScience and Technology, SAR, People's Republic of China

C.G.Bao

Yangtze River Scientific Research Institute, Wuhan, People's Republic ofChina

ABSTRACT: In this paper, a horizontal homogeneous soil layer subjected to rainfall infiltration is adopted to study the influence of some hydraulic parameters on the pore-water distributions systematically. The pore­ water pressure profiles are calculated using a published analytical solution. The results from the study demon­ strates that the influence of desaturation coefficient of the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) is the most significant, followed by the saturated permeability and the difference between saturated and residual volumet­ ric water contents. 1 INTRODUCTION Soil layers near the ground surface are normally un­ saturated in arid and semi-arid areas. The existence and the variation of negative pore water pressure (i.e., matric suction in the case where the pore-air pressure is atmospheric) in unsaturated soils has great influences on soil properties (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). Therefore, negative pore water pressure distribution and its influencing factors should be investigated firstly when confronting with engineering problems related to unsaturated soils. For instance, residual soils near the slope surface are mostly unsaturated, and negative pore water pressure is a major contributor to the shear strength of soil and therefore to slope stability during dry seasons. However, the value of negative pore water pressure can be reduced significantly or even destroyed com­ pletely when a certain amount of rain water infil­ trates into the soil slope during wet seasons. Under such circumstances, the originally stable slope is likely to fail. Thus, to make reasonable evaluations on slope stability, it is necessary to know the distri­ bution and variation of negative pore water pressure in the soil under various climatic conditions. The distributions of negative pore-water pressure are affected by many intrinsic and external factors. The intrinsic factors here mainly refer to the hy­ draulic properties of soils, including SWCC and hy­ draulic conductivity. The external factors mainly re­ fer to climate conditions, such as rainfall intensity and duration, rainfall pattern, evaporation rate. Ng and Shi (1998) and Ng et al. (2000) performed

457

parametric studies of the effects of rain infiltration on unsaturated slopes, in which the effects of various rainfall events and patterns, anisotropic soil perme­ ability, presence of an impeding layer and conditions of surface cover were investigated using numerical simulation. In this paper, three hydraulic parameters are firstly introduced to describe an idealized SWCC and hydraulic conductivity function. Following Sri­ vastava and Yeh (1991), an analytical solution for!­ dimensional (lD) rainfall infiltration in homogene­ ous soil is derived and then applied to carry out a parametric study for investigating the influence of the three hydraulic parameters and the saturated water permeability of the soil on pore water pressure distributions. 2 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF UNSATURATED SOILS The hydraulic property of a soil affects the interac­ tion between soil and water and water flow in the soil. It mainly includes the moisture retention char­ acteristic and the hydraulic conductivity. Moisture retention characteristic of a soil can be represented with a soil-water characteristic curve (i.e., SWCC), which is defined as the relationship between water content and matric suction. Figure 1 shows an idealized plot of SWCC with two charac­ teristic points, A* and s*. Point A* corresponds to the air-entry value (i.e., (u.-uw)b), and s* corre­ sponds to the residual water content (i.e., 8,). As shown in Figure 1, the SWCC between A* and B* is

On the other hand, when the suction is beyond the air-entry value (about 1.5 kPa for the sand and 4 kPa for the loam), the desaturation rate of the sand is larger than that of loam. For the sand, a same in­ crease in matric suction will lead to more water be­ ing expelled from the loam. In other words, more water content change is needed to reduce a same value ofmatric suction (e.g., 2-100 kPa). Corresponding to Figure 2, Figure 3 shows the hydraulic conductivity curves together with meas­ ured data for Superstition sand and Guelph loam. As shown in the figure, there is an interesting phenome­ non. For matric suction less than 2 kPa, the hydrau­ lic conductivity of sand is larger than that of loam, but for matric suction greater than 2 kPa, it is on the contrary. This phenomenon may be attributed to the different desaturation rates of sand and loam (Figure 2). The former is larger, i.e., the moisture content in the sand decreases rapidly with an increase in matric suction. Therefore, the hydraulic conductivity of sand decreases sharply with the increasing matric suction due to a sharp reduction in the area of cross section for water flow.

nearly a straight line on logarithmic scale. So the linear part of SWCC can be approximately repre­ sented with the saturated and residual volumetric water content, and the desaturation rate of SWCC.

10

100

1000

10000 100000.000000

Ua·Uw(kPa)

Figure I An idealized soil-water characteristic curve

In a saturated soil, the saturated hydraulic con­

ductivity (permeability) is a function of void ratio. However, it is generally assumed be a constant. In an unsaturated soil, the hydraulic conductivity is significantly affected by both void ratio and degree of saturation or matric suction of the soil. Water flows through the pore space filled with water, so the percentage of the voids filled with water (degree of saturation) is an important factor. The relationship of degree of saturation to matric suction can be rep­ resented with SWCC. Thus the hydraulic conductiv­ ity of unsaturated soils with respect to matric suction bears a relationship to SWCC, and it can be esti­ mated from the saturated permeability and SWCC (Marshall, 1958; Fredlund et al., 1994). The hydraulic property of a soil can be approxi­ mately reproduced with the desaturation rate, the saturated and residual volumetric water content and the saturated permeability of the soil. Figure 2 illustrates the SWCCs for Superstition sand and Guelph loam. As shown in the figure, the SWCC of the sand lies above that of the loam, which indicates that the volumetric water content of loam is larger than that of the sand with the same matric suction. In other words, the capacity of moisture re­ tention for the loam is larger than that for the sand.

1.E-04

!

1.E-OS

'\

~

.,

1.E-06 -~ >

. g

1 1.E-o7 u

"'iii

1.E-o8

~ 1.E-09

n.

Guelph loam • Superstition sand

I

\\ \\

1.E-10 0.1

Suction (kPa)

"'

~

10

100

Figure 3. Hydraulic conductivity curves for different types of soils (Data from Richards, 1952; and from Elrick and Bowman, 1964)

The discussion above may be helpful to explain the influence of hydraulic parameters on the pore­ water pressure distributions in the soil subjected to rainfall infiltration.

60

~50 ~

~ 40

J

\

~

u

20

~ • Guelph loam • Superstition sand

~ 10

IIIIII

0

0.1

3 ANALYTICAL SOLUTION FOR 1D VERTICAL INFILTRATION IN AN UNSATURATED HOMOGENEOUS SOIL LAYER

I"- .....

\

8

~30

I

~

10

The governing equation for 1D vertical infiltration in unsaturated soils is as follows, which is, namely, Richard's equation.

100

Mattie suction (kPa)

i.[k

Gypsum blocks were placed at 10 em, 30 em, 50 em, and 70cm depth. To maintain the porosity of the soil in all the runs a measured quantity of soil was used to fill the column. Clear water was then passed through the soil at a constant head of 1 em and soil moisture meter reading were noted at 10 em depth till the soil became saturated at that depth. Similar observations were recorded at 30, 50 and 70 em depth. The volume of water collected was recorded at the outlet point from the time the first drop appeared till the outflow rate became constant, which indicated the saturation of the complete soil column. The procedure was repeated three times for each of the soils.

UJ

2

a: UJ a.

0

UJ

SOIL- 2

I

1­

z

0

\.)

UJ a: :::> I-

!!l

8 6

,.,

~

II

II

E

4

t:)

,....

In

II

II

0

0

0

0

0

u

:£ ..... a.

~

z

UJ

UJ 2 \..)

0

a: UJ a. 0

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2500

TIME IN Seconds

(b)

..... z

40

8

30

~ z

SOl L- 1

SOIL-3

UJ

a:

SOl L- 2

:::>

0

~

Vl

II

6 20

E

~

:X:

z

UJ

~

0

In

II

II

0 toII

u

'

~ 10

40

,.,

0

1­

oSOIL-3

u.

z

800

600

400 200 TIME IN Seconds

0

z 10

120

I-

0

UJ

The soil was filled as above and the water containing 500mg /1 salt was allowed to flow through the column for dry as well as for saturated soil. The EC was measured in the water passing through the outlet till saturation was achieved in the case of unsaturated soil, or till the effiuent concentration is same as input concentration (which is also known as breakthrough) in the saturated column.

X

UJ

I-

3.2 The Salt Movement Observations

a: 80 UJ z

II

II

Q.

UJ

!).

In

.....

~

\.)

0,....

0

II

u :X:

4

3.1 Soil Moisture andflood measurements

z

,.,

0

0

UJ

I-

a.

0

\.)

\..)

a: UJ a.

a.

UJ Q.

1·00 IN mm

0

0

2000

4000

I

cl

6000 8000 10000

TIME IN Seconds

1(}00

(c)

Figure 2. Particle size distribution for different soils

Figure 3a,b,c. Variation of percentage moisture content versus time

466

MOISTURE CONTENT

9 (cm3tcm3 )

0o~--~2____,4~---6r---~8--~~10 10

20

0·1 0

0·2

0·3

0·4 I I

).

Timrz : 20 minutrzs 20

SOIL-2

2 hours,_./ I

, ,----

II

I

40

I I

E 30 u

,,~

~

:X:

~ 40 UJ

0 50

II

N

:X:

......

~ 100 -I

0

MOISTURE CONTENT

If)

0or---~2~--~4~--~6____T8--~10 10

20

il

80

a..

120

/I:

9 ho~rj..- /1 _,,-"'

,I

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11~'Y/: _,...

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I

I

140

I I

TIME : 5 minutrzs 160

SOIL-1

180

I

17hours.,../

,------­ (d )

RESULT REPORTED BY GUPTA S.(1991)

E

u

Figure 4d. Variation ofpercentage moisture versus depth

:X:

......

a..

~ 6

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

MOISTURE CONTENT 35 oo~~sr-__ 10r-~1r5___ 2r0___ 2r5___ 30~_, 10 TIME :100 minutrzs 20

The physical properties of soils are listed in Table 1. Soil 1 is riverbed soil, soil 2 is topsoil and soil 3 is a mixture of top soil and Dhanouri clay. The particle size distribution is shown in Figure 2. Table 1. Ph~sical ProEerties of Soils Soil K (cm/s) G e n Pd Saturated T~e M~m3 Soil! 0.006 2.65 1.7 0.59 0.37 Soil2 0.00016 2.67 1.373 0.97 0.5 Soil3 0.000097 2.7 1.3 0.99 0.49

SOIL- 3

30 E

S(m) 4.6 2.79 2.74

u

The movement of moisture with time is shown Figure 3{a, b, c) from which it is concluded that the variation of moisture content with time resembles plug flow (i.e. the complete front moves, also known as piston flow) in all the soils. Figure 4{a, b, c) shows the variation of moisture content with depth at specific time after water starts flowing. The trend compares well with theoretical results (Gupta 1991) shown in Figure 4d. Suction head with percentage moisture is plotted in Figure 5 for which the trend compares with Abeliuk's (1981) work shown in Figure 6 i.e. initially the suction head decreases with increase in moisture contents faster than at later stage.

:X:

......

a..

UJ 0

80

(c)

Figure 4a,b,c. Variation ofpercentage moisture versus depth

467

3·00

For study of salt movement, the results of EC vs time are shown in Figure 7. These are comparable with theoretical values plotted in Figure 8 (Gupta, 1991). The comparison of flow of salt through saturated and unsaturated column shows that in unsaturated soil the salt appears at a later time as compared to saturated soil and the eruption of salt is more or less abrupt, while in saturated column it slowly reaches the breakthrough. This explains the reasons for fast increase in the contaminant concentration in ground water after it's first appearance. Such study can be useful in planning solid waste/waste water disposal on the ground because the leachate shall be seeping down in the same manner.

• SATURATED SOIL

Ill

z

ILl

x UNSATURATED SOIL

2·50

~

ILl Ill

SOIL-1

2·00

_,_,

1·50

~

~

u

1·00

ILl

2oo

0' 5

TIME IN Seconds

(a)

40 35 1­

z

•

x SATURATED SOIL

30

ILl

1­

z

0

u

UNSATURATED SOIL

SOIL.,.2

Ill

_,_,

25

~

ILl

a: 20 :J

1·20

z

1­

Ill

0

~

u

15

w

ILl

C)

!

1\ 1\ \

4

0

I'\

'

6

0

-+- 40

1"\

~

Day 20

400

--+--

500

t

SOOO 10000 15000 20000 25000 lOOOO Melhanogen population [mg/1]

Figure 5. Methanogenic biomass profiles in saturated waste column.

accumulation is constrained by the infiltrating flux. The peak VF A concentrations in Fig.4, which appear in the column profiles after I 00 days at around 15m to 18m, reflect an equilibrium condition between the flushing effect of the infiltrative flux and the inherent growth and decay functions. In this VF A­ rich waste layer, the growth of MB struggles to offset its advective removal; methanogenesis is not well established so hydrolysis products accumulate and, as shown in Fig. 6, inhibit SOF depletion at this elevation. The SOF distribution profiles in Fig.6 not only reiterate the non-uniform variatiOn in biodegradation over time, they also reveal a complex spatial variation.

20

~

16

'E

\

';;"" 12 0

10

~

8

-;:;

8"

~

" li..

~

6

I'­

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r-­

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r-­

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t­

~

-.....;

18 16

I

g

-~

/

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I

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-.;

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8"

.

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j

-----0-

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t

-----

+

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~

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-

4

100

150

200

250

0.22

0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 Volumetric moisture content

0.34

0.36

Whilst there are certainly differences in the detail of the time series plots for the saturated and partially saturated cases, the column profiles provide the more interesting comparisons. Consider first the VF A concentration profiles shown in Fig. 8. The impact of non-uniform moisture content on the accumulation of VFA is clearly seen in the 10, 50 and 100 day profiles. Accumulation rates are generally slower but particularly so in the upper part of the column. Peak concentrations occur at about the same time as for the saturated case (1 00 days) but at lower magnitudes. Variations in post peak VFA concentration profiles are more pronounced with a more persistent and slightly deeper VFA-rich layer. All of these effects are entirely consistent with the much slower rate of methanogen growth evident in Fig. 9 compared with Fig. 5. 20

Day 5

~~

18

40

~~

100

300

I

400

.I

./

/

--

' j

./o"'

200

j

t

300

Solid organic fraction remaining [kglm3]

0

\

\

...

\

.........

DayO

--II­

so

--5-­

100

_,_

!\ ..

10

--+- 200

500

0

50

r-­

Figure 7. Infiltration moisture profiles at selected times

2

0

0

r-­

500 days

t:----.

0.2

In this simulation, the column is initially partially saturated in hydrostatic equilibrium with a suction of 10 kPa at the base. The infiltrative flux, again of 16.2mm/day, is defined using a Neumann boundary condition at the upper, infiltration surface. Figure 7 shows a series of moisture profiles at selected times during the simulation. It is evident that the column reaches its steady infiltration state moisture profile within 20 to 50 days. In fact, monitoring of the basal element shows that discharges first appear on day 3 and reach steady flux of 16.2mm/day by day 35. Mass balance in the hydraulic model is good with a reported gross infiltration of 8092 litres and discharge of 7835 litres. For a metre square column the prescribed infiltration over a period of 500 days would result in a gross infiltration of 8100 litres. The discrepancy in the discharge figure is due to the amount of the moisture retained in the column at the end of the test. 20

50 days

--..........

0

3.3 Variation of VFA, MB and SOF in a partially saturated column with advective flux

I 0 days

--+-

r\

14

-~

-----

\

18

it

--

300

soo

i

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ VFA conccntraiion img!Lj ­

Figure 8. VFA concentration profiles in partially saturated waste column.

Figure 6. SOF depletion profiles in saturated waste column .

481

----

20

18 16

:§: 14

.§ 12 ~ 10

(9)

where cp 0 (Co) =partly mobilized friction angle (co­ hesion) at rest. Lambe & Whitman (1969) published the equation similar to Eq. (6):

Ko = (1 -tan ~)/(1

(10)

+tan~)

slope of the stress path Ko. The limit values of stress at rest can be computed as active and passive stresses from partly mobilized strength parameters. Generally, stress at rest can be computed using partly mobilized strength parameters from cp0 (co) to zero (because after isotropic consoli­ dation, the soil is also at rest). The behaviour of the model and loose bentonite powder (w = 7%) is shown in Figure 8. The speci­ men was compacted during the first loading. (It was slightly overconsolidated during its prepa­ ration - approx. 40 kPa. Back analyzed parameters of the bentonite powder are: CJ>u = 30°; Cu = 160 kPa; C (= dlncr/dE) = 22; Co (at rest)= 200.) where~=

Stress (kPa)

0

where dcr = stress increment in the next loading step. The oedometer modulus is then modified ac­ cording to the following rule. If the soil is at rest, i.e. the strength of the soil structure (interparticle shear strength) is not overcome and the statistically deci­ sive amount of particles is not in motion, the oedometer modulus is several times higher than the typical value. These high values of oedometer modulus can be derived from initial stages of one­ dimensional unloading and reloading. The state at rest of soils is understood as a state of stresses, in which the mobilized shear strength of the soil is so low that the strength of most (theoretically all) interparticle contacts is not overcome. It means that shear strength is only partly mobilized. The limit values of shear parameters at rest can be derived from the equivalence of Jaky's coefficient

4

400

600

800 1000 1200 1400

•

Measured

--Computed

6

t

8

~

10

c:

200

12 14 16

•

18~-----------~

Figure 8. Computed and measured one-dimensional stress­ strain relationship of bentonite powder.

524

At the end of the first loading, horizontal stresses reach their maximum values having positive influ­ ence on the extent of vertical stress interval at rest during unloading. On the contrary, reloading starts from lower vertical and horizontal stresses and the interval of one-dimensional stress at rest is shorter than that of unloading. This is the reason for soil hysteresis. When the soil is wetted, suction and cohesion (at rest) are reduced. The new (computed) lower limit of stress at rest is higher than the actual stress. The soil becomes overloaded. The process of consolidation starts without an increment of external load, i.e. as the result of watering. The soil collapses. During this process, lateral stress increases from the actual value to a new value of stress at rest. It is not easy to solve this problem by a model based on the elastic contin­ uum. The model described uses fictitious vertical stress increments to increase lateral stresses and also one-dimensional strain. The oedometer modulus is computed as dependent on the actual strain, not di­ rectly on stress. Swelling is a similar process. It starts after wet­ ting when the soil is overconsolidated. In this case, the lateral stress is higher than the vertical one. One­ dimensional collapse and swelling are shown in Fig­ ures 9 and 10. The bentonite specimen (powder) was watered after unloading. The model computed "elastic" unloading (Fig. 9). Then, the soil computer model was wetted at the end of the first loading (it collapsed) and at the beginning of unloading (it swelled - Fig. 10). Back analyzed parameters of the bentonite pow­ der (Figs. 9,10) are: cp. = 30°; Cu = 160 kPa; C (= .­

Q..

5 400

0

~

~ 300

'~

Gl

€ u; 200 m J::

U)

iij

100

v

(a)

-

:E 01 Q..

5

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.n

:E ~ 200 m Gl

=100 kPa =200 kPa =400 kPa

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U)

iij

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(b)

~

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01 Q..

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=100 kPa

t. p-ua =200 kPa p-ua =400 kPa

500

(b)

5400

~300

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//

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400 0

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/~

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Gl

op-ua t. p-ua p-ua

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=100 kPa =200 kPa =400 kPa

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400 100 200 300 Matric suction, (u 8 -Uw) (kPa)

0

100 0

0

op-ua

=100 kPa

t. p-ua =200 kPa

p-ua =400 kPa

100 200 300 400 Matric suction, (u 0 -Uw) (kPa)

Figure 4. Initial shear stiffness versus suction for the optimum compacted soil: a) RC tests; b) TS tests.

Figure 5. Initial shear stiffness versus suction for the wet compacted soil: a) RC tests; b) TS tests.

6 MEASURED SHEAR STIFFNESS'

mean effective stress changes and the initial gradient of the G0:s function is expected to be the same as that of the G0:p' function at a mean effective stress equal to the (p-u.) value where drying is initiated.

Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 plot initial shear stiffness G0 against matric suction obtained in the suction con­ trolled resonant column and in torsional shear tests at a 0.5 Hz loading frequency. According to previous observations at large strains (Rampino et al., 1999a), most of the suction effects are observed for s ranging from 0 to about 200 kPa. For suction higher than 200 kPa G0 tends toward a threshold value that depends on the mean net stress level. The effect of suction is significant. Suction variation in the 0+400 kPa range causes an increase in G0 ranging from 85% to 50% for the optimum soil and from 165% to 40% for the wet compaction. The stiffness values of both optimum and wet compacted materials are clearly distinct for constant stress levels and show an S-shaped increase with suction. This mechanical response complies with the typical S-shape of the soil-water characteristic curve, and can be explained dividing the G0 :s curves into three different zones:

Zone II - In the second zone (intermediate suction) air starts to enter the pore voids. Increasing suction determinates a progressive shift of the soil response from bulk-water to menisci-water regulated behav­ iour, i.e soil response ranges between zones I and III. Zone III- For suction values high enough to allow dominant menisci water effects soil response com­ plies with the behaviour expected from the simple model presented in Fig. 1. The initial shear stiffness increases with suction at an initially fast rate and then tends toward a threshold value, near which fur­ ther effects of suction are negligible. Compaction water content seems to affect the ratio between the saturated value and the unsaturated threshold values of shear stiffness and the suction values [called s* from now on] characterising transi­ tion between bulk- and menisci-water regulated be­ haviour. This latter point could be justified on the basis of intuitive physical considerations. As a mat­ ter of fact, due to the increase in moulding water content, pore sizes of the wet material can be

Zone I - The first zone begins at null suction (i.e., saturated conditions) and is restricted to low suction values. Herein bulk-water effect dominates soil be­ haviour since the air entry value of the specimens is not trespassed. Variations in s are thus equivalent to 542

thought smaller than those of the optimum soil. ~s helps justify the higher s* value of the wet soil (around 100 kPa in Fig. 5) with respect to that of the optimum one, around a few tens ofkPa. Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 also reflect the idea that wet compaction induces a weaker soil fabric than opti­ mum compaction. In fact, the increase in moulding water content has caused a strong reduction in the initial shear stiffness of Metramo silty sand, under both RC and TS conditions. For example, the RC data of the saturated samples indicate that the G0 at (p-u.) equal to 100 kPa is about 80 MPa for the wet material and 130 MPa for the optimum compacted soil. Therefore, stiffness decreases by more than 60% with respect to the optimum by increasing moulding water content from 9.8% to 12.3%. Simi­ lar effects are observed for all the suction levels. Besides the observed softening effect, the detected trend confirms that fabric is the key regulator of soil behaviour, since other factors such as ageing, stress and suction states or stress histories were not changed in the previous comparison. It must also be considered that void ratio variations are quite limited for Metramo silty sand (Rampino et al., l999a). Thus, the observed trends would hold even if data correction were attempted with some function of the void ratio, as originally proposed by Hardin & Drnevick (1972). 7 MODELLING G0-SUCTION BEHAVIOUR The way in which a real soil moves from bulk- to menisci-water regulated behaviour depends on its re­ sponse to de-saturation, i.e. on its characteristic curve. According to the previous discussion on the meaning of the S-shaped G0 :s relation, the null suc­ tion stiffness (G0),91 can be expressed as: (Go)s=O =S·[(p-ua)c]n ·f(e) Pa Pa

(1)

Eqn. (1) is similar to that proposed by Hardin (1978) for saturated soils, calculated at the mean net stress (p-uJc where drying starts. In the equation Pa is the atmospheric pressure, f( e) a rational scaling function for void ratio-induced heterogeneity. S is the stiff­ ness index and n the stiffness coefficient, which rep­ resent the stiffness of the material under the refer­ ence pressure and the sensitivity of the stiffness to the stress state, respectively. The behaviour described by eqn. (1) should be valid not only when s equals zero, but should hold up to the air entry value (%v) of the_ soil. Th~refor~, in the zone I the G0 versus suct10n relationship should follow the equation: (Go)sss.. =S·[(p-ua)c+s]n ·f(e) Pa Pa

'iU 500 a.

6

0

(!)

j

400 ui Ul Q)

~ 1ii .... Ill 300

I

v

Q)

.J::

Ul

"iii

E

-=

200 0

100

200

300

400

Matric suction, (u 8 -Uw) (kPa)

Figure 6. RC tests on the optimum compacted mate­ rial (reference stress level400 kPa). Once the air entry value of the soil is reached, fur­ ther increments of suction cause progressive de­ saturation of the soil and move the G0 :s relationship from the bulk- to the menisci-water regulated zone. Here, it would be reasonable to assume that the ef­ fect of suction starts with a gradient equal to that de­ fined by eqn. (2) at (p-uJc+sEv· The G0 :s curve in this zone is the link between the functions in zones I and III and must tend towards the latter for higher suctions. However, both the shape and the position in which menisci-water effects start prevailing (i.e. the end of zone II) depend on the details of the spe­ cific de-saturation process and are not straightfor­ ward. In this paper a simplified shape for the G0 versus s relationship is proposed, as derived from the ex­ perimental evidence. Fig. 6 displays an example of RC test data performed on the optimum compacted material at a reference stress level of 400 kPa. It shows that both zone II and III can be described modifying the equation proposed by Alonso et al. (1990) as a pattern for menisci-water regulated be­ haviour. Using the suction value s* defined above, the experimental data can be fitted by the relation: Go = (Go)8 • • {[1- r] · e-~·(s-s•)+ r}

(3)

where p is a parameter controlling the rate of in­ crease of soil stiffness with suction and r defines the ratio between shear stiffness G0 at s* and the thresh­ old value for increasing suction. On the basis of the former discussion it is possible to deduce that the s* value should fall into zone II. The assumptions made, however, imply a disconti­ nuity between zones I and III, i.e. zone II has zero extension and s* is equal to %v· The use of eqn. (3) does not follow directly from Alonso et al. (1990). As a matter of fact, they use a similar relationship to account for the variation with suction of soil parameters such as compressibility

(2) 543

index A.. Therefore, if an analogy is drawn between G0 and bulk modulus it would be expected that G0 varied inversely to the Alonso et al. (1990) function. The shape of this function, however, is not different from that obtained by eqn. (3), and the latter is pre­ ferred since it is more manageable and yields to a clear meaning of the r and ~ coefficients. Further­ more, as this relation is assumed to describe the be­ haviour in the zones II and III, the variable s-s* is used, always being s greater than s*. The example of Fig. 6 shows that the expression proposed can fit the experimental data properly, starting from stiffness values higher than those pre­ dicted by eqn. (2), extended to zone II. 8 CONCLUDING REMARKS The experimental program here presented was con­ ceived to analyse the effects of compaction-induced fabric and suction on small strain stiffness. Overall, results indicate a significant effect of these two vari­ ables on G0 and confirm the functionality and the great potential of the new RCTS-NA. It has been observed that soil fabric causes serious variations in stiffness and affects the ratio between the saturated and unsaturated threshold values of G0• Experimental results show a significant increase in G0 with increasing suction. For both the optimum and wet compacted materials most of the suction ef­ fects are observed for s varying in the range 0+200 kPa. Detected values are well grouped for constant stress levels and show an S-shape with increasing suction. This is explained by a progressive change of soil behaviour from a bulk-water to a menisci-water regulated response. If this remark is confirmed by further experiments, it will be concluded that me­ nisci water effect dominates bulk water at relatively high suction, while low suction lead to the opposite. This would also help reduce the number of ex­ perimental data required for the determination of the G0 :s function. As a matter of fact, G0 at (p-uJ+sEv could be inferred from the G0 :p' function calculated at (p-uJ+sEV. The G0 values required to fix r and ~ parameters should be measured at s higher than sEv· One at very high suction would allow to fix the r co­ efficient and one or two at intermediate s values would be enough to reasonably set the ~ coefficient.

Burland, J.B., Ridley, A.M., 1996- General report. The im­ portance of suction in soil mechanics. Proc. UNSAT­ ASIA'96. Cabarkapa, Z., Cuccovillo, T., and Gunn, M., 1999- Some as­ pects of the pre-failure behaviour of unsaturated soil. II Int. Conf. on pre-failure behaviour of geomaterials, Turin. Delage., P., Audiguier, M., Cui, Y.D. & Howat, M.D., 1996­ Microstructure of a compacted silt. Can. Getotech. Juorn., 33, 150-158. d'Onofrio, A., 1996 - Comportamento meccanico dell'argilla di Vallericca in condizioni lontane dalla rottura (in Italian). Doctoral Thesis in Geotechnical Engineering, University of Naples "Federico II". Fisher, R.A., 1926 - On the capillary forces in an ideal soil, Journal Agr. Science, 16, 492-505. Fredlund, D.G., Morgemstern, N.R., 1977 - Shear state vari­ ables for unsaturated soils, Journal Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, 103(5), 447-466. Fredlund, D.G., Rahardjo, H., 1993- An overview of unsatu­ rated soil behaviour, ASCE. Geotech. Spec. Pub!., 39. Hardin, B.O., 1978 - The nature of stress-strain behaviour for soils. State of the Art, Proc. Geotech. Eng. Div. Specialty Conf. on Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, ASCE, Pasadena, California. Hardin, B.O., Drnevich, V.O., 1972 - Shear modulus and damping in soils: measurements and parameter effects, Jou. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, 98(6), 603-624. Marinho, E.A.M., Chandler, R.J., Crilly, M.S., 1995- Stiffness measurements on an high plasticity clay using bender ele­ ments. Proc. UNSAT'95, Paris, France, vol. I, 535-539. Picornell, M., Nazarian, S., 1998 - Effects of soil suction on the low-strain shear modulus of soils. Proc. UNSAT'98, Peking, China, 2, 102-107. Quin, X., Gray, D.H., Woods, R.D., 1991- Resonant column tests on partially saturated sands. Geotech, Test. Journ., ASCE, 14(3), 266-275. Rampino, C., Mancuso, C., and Vinale, F., 1999a- Mechanical behaviour of an unsaturated dynamically compacted silty sand. Italian Geotech. Journ., 33(2), 26-39. Rampino, C., Mancuso, C., and Vinale, F., 1999b- Laboratory testing on a partially saturated soil: equipment, procedures and first experimental results. Can. Geotech. Journ. 36(1 ), 1-12. Sivakumar, V., 1993 - A critical state framework for unsatu­ rated soils. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Sheffield. Vinale, F., d'Onofrio, A., Mancuso, C., Santucci de Magistris, F., Tatsuoka, F., 1999- The prefailure behaviour of soils as construction materials. II Int. Conf. on pre-failure behav­ iour of geomaterials, Turin. Wheeler, S.J., 1996- Inclusion of specific water volume within an elasto-plastc model for unsaturated soils, Canadian Geotech. Journ., 33(1 ), 42-57. Wu, S., Gary, D.H., and Richart, F.E., 1989- Capillary effects on dynamic modulus of sands and silts. Journ. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, 110(9), 1188-1203.

REFERENCES Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., and Josa, A., 1990 - A constitutive model for partially saturated soils. Geotecnique, 40(3), 405­ 430. Bishop, A.W., 1959 - The principle of effective stress. Proc. Tekenisk Ukebald, 39, 859-863. Bishop, A.W., Blight., G.E., 1963 -Some aspects of effective stress in saturated and partially saturated soils, Geotech­ nique, 13(3), 177-197.

544

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Effects of moulding water content on the behaviour of an unsaturated silty sand C. Mancuso, R.Vassallo & RVinale

Dipartimento de Ingegneria Geotecnica, Universitii di Napoli Federico II, Italy

ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the results of an experimental study carried out on an unsaturated silty sand to investigate the influence of compaction induced fabric and suction on soil behaviour. A series of triaxial tests was conducted on both the optimum and wet compacted material, under controlled suction conditions. The observed effects of fabric and suction are relevant in all the stages of the tests and highlight the need of carefully considering these two variables in handling engineering problems involving compacted soils as construction materials. 1 INTRODUCTION Unsaturated soils can often be encountered in practical applications. In particular, even though index properties of a soil as a construction material are left unchanged, the compaction procedure (moulding water content, compaction energy, etc.) influences the mechanical response of the resulting material, its after compaction degree of saturation and, more generally, the earth constructions' behaviour (Vinale et al., 1999). It is possible to identify two levels at which the selected preparation procedure influences soil response. First, it usually yields to an unsaturated material and determines its initial suction, i.e. its initial stress state. Second, it can profoundly affect soil fabric, thus causing a different response even under the same conditions of suction and after compaction testing path. At present, direct evidence of the separate effect of both variables (i.e. suction and fabric) is very limited (Gens et al., 1995). This lack is probably due, to some extent, to the need for more sophisticated experimental apparatuses designed for unsaturated soil testing, indispensable to isolate the above mentioned factors. Regarding this point, it is worth recalling that experimentation on unsaturated soils requires the separate measure of water content and volume changes and the control of an additional stress state variable, which is suction. As a matter of fact, the presence of both air and water in the voids makes the pore fluid compressible, so volume changes can not be inferred from water content variations. Furthermore, it causes the stress-state of a soil element to be affected by air-water interfaces in the

soil mass, and as a consequence, Terzaghi's principle is no longer valid and a two stress variable approach is required. In this paper, reference is made to net stress lu-u.l, reducing to net mean stress (p-u.) and deviator q under triaxial conditions, and suction (u.-uw)· The latter influences menisci curvature, essentially affecting normal stresses acting at the contacts between particles. As a consequence, increasing suction improves slippage strength between the contacts, i.e. stiffness and strength of the soil skeleton. The discussed aspects of soil behaviour have been widely studied at the Dipartimento di lngegneria Geotecnica of Naples through suction controlled devices (Mancuso et al., 1999; Vinale et al., 1999). This extensive work has included a series of triaxial tests performed on an optimum and wet of optimum compacted soil. Its main results are presented in this paper. 2 TESTED MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM The tested soil is a silty sand from the core of the Metramo dam (Italy). It is an inorganic clay of medium plasticity according to the Atterberg limits and Casagrande's classification. Table I summarises its main physical and after-compaction properties. The material was compacted at optimum (w0p1=9.8%) and wet of optimum (wop1+2.5%) water contents according to the modified Proctor procedure. The under-compaction technique (Ladd, 1978) was used to improve soil homogeneity along the height of the sample. Using the Imperial College 545

Table I. Average properties of the tested soil.

Index Properties After Compaction at w=9.8% S, Wp PI v Gs WL Ua-Uw % % % % kPa 2.64 35.4 21.7 13 .7 1.345 75 800 tensiometer the after compaction suction was measured to be as high as 800 kPa for the optimum material and as low as 60 kPa for the wet specimens -a first relevant effect of the moulding procedure. This material has a non-negligible fine-grained component, hence, some dependence of the observed behaviour on the compaction procedure is foreseeable. As a matter of fact, compaction variables have a fundamental role in the structure of fine grained soils. In particular, soil fabric is strongly influenced by menisci-water and solid­ water adsorption interaction occurring at a microscopic level. This statement is not supported by S.E.M. or mercury intrusion porosimetry measurements on the tested soil, but arises from literature studies devoted to direct observations of microfabric (Barden & Sides, 1970; Delage et al., 1996). The mentioned experimental works led to the conclusion that fine grained soils compacted dry of optimum generally exhibit a fabric made up of aggregates of varying size and tend to have a bimodal pore size distribution, whereas soils compacted wet of optimum tend to show a more homogeneous matrix-dominated fabric and a single pore size distribution. The experimental program was conceived in order to analyse the effects of both suction and fabric on soil behaviour. Overall, it consisted of 23 triaxial tests, performed using a Bishop & Wesley cell. This device, suited for the control of suction through the axis translation technique and for the separate measurement of volume change and water content change, is described in detail by Rampino et al. (1999a). The investigated suction levels were 0, 100, 200, 300 kPa for the optimum compacted soil and 0, 100, 200 kPa for the wet compacted material. Isotropic compression stages, carried out at constant suction level, were preceded by an appropriate equalisation stage. The subsequent shear stages, i.e. both constant mean net stress (p-u.) shear tests and "standard" shear tests, were all conducted under drained conditions and constant suction.

After Compaction at w=l2.3%

v S, Ua-Uw % kPa 1.389 83 60

q and then waiting for suction to become uniform in the whole specimen. In the present study (p-u.) and q were chosen equal to 10 and 0 kPa respectively, so that the soil behaviour could be investigated starting from low net stress levels in the subsequent compression stages. The end of equalisation is deduced from the stabilisation of the monitored state variables, i.e. specific volume and water content or, equivalently, specific water volume (vw=1 +S,·e). The optimum and the wet compacted specimens exhibited very different behaviours. This is clearly shown by Figure 1a and Figure 1b, which plot the results in terms of water content versus logarithm of time. As a consequence of both the imposed suction level and the compaction induced suction, the optimum material follows a wetting path while the wet one follows a drying path. In other words, suction decreases for the former, causing a water flow directed towards the specimen, while it increases for the latter, making water flow out. For both materials, the change in water content is more pronounced as the absolute value of the imposed suction change increases. This observation is also valid for other state variables such as v and Vw. Under the same suction level, water content variations are greater for the optimum material, as a consequence of the greater difference between initial and final suction values.

c "#. c8

.g

1.32

·g 1.30 a. (/) 1.28

1.26

-suction = o kPa --suction = 100 kPa -- suction = 200 kPa · ·- suction = 300 kPa

10

4 ISOTROPIC COMPRESSION STAGES Compression stages were carried out by linearly increasing (p-u.). A loading rate of 4 kPa/h proved to be sufficiently low to ensure water-drained conditions for the tested soil (Rampino et a!., 1999b). Figure 2a and Figure 2b represent the results in terms of specific volume versus net mean stress for the optimum and the wet materials. The effect of (u8 -uw) increases suction is significant: as compressibility is reduced and the apparent over­ consolidation pressure is increased. The stiffening of the soil due to suction also occurs with reference to unloading-reloading lines, although this is more evident for the wet compacted soil, while it is almost irrelevant for the optimum material. Compressibility index A ranges from 0.022 to 0.015 for the optimum material and from 0.040 to 0.029 for the wet compacted soil. It can be said that A. follows an exponential trend: the greatest amount of suction effect occurs in a limited suction range (0+ 100 kPa) while A tends to a threshold value for (u8 -uw) greater than 200 kPa. This agrees with the basic concepts of the modelling criteria for isotropic stress-strain behaviour from critical state models for unsaturated soil (Alonso et a!., 1987; 1990). In particular, the dependence of Aon suction (s) is well interpreted by the equation proposed by Alonso eta!. (1990): A(s) = A.(O) · [(1- r) · exp(-P ·s) + r]

- r-

> 1.38

(1)

where p governs the rate of change of A. with suction and r defines the ratio between A.(O) and the threshold value for increasing suction. The detected p and r parameters were 0.024 kPa· 1 and 0.68 for the optimum material and 0.015 kPa· 1 and 0.73 for the wet soil, respectively. The compression curves in terms of specific water volume have the same trend as those in terms of specific volume and show smaller changes in Vw than in v. For both materials, water always flows out of the specimen: as the specific volume decreases, the soil expels water in order to hold suction at the imposed value. The lower compressibility of the optimum compacted material also implies a lower reduction of vw upon compression. Again, the slopes of the normal compression lines at virgin state and those of the unloading-reloading cycles exhibit a sharp decrease when moving from saturated to unsaturated conditions.

1.40 > 1.38

E1.36

a

100 Mean net stress, (p-u.) (kPa)

'!=- I--

1000

-suction= 0 kPa --suction= 100 kPa - -· suction= 200 kPa

-

~I

~ 1.34 >

.g

--­

1.32 ·g 1.30 a. (/) 1.28

~~

r­

.:::::::t--­

I'.

1.26 10

100 Mean net stress, (p-ua) (kPa)

(b 1000

Figure 2. Isotropic compression stage: a) optimum compacted soil; b) wet compacted soil. The degree of saturation always increases with confining pressure, as a consequence of changes higher in specific volume than in specific water volume. Comparing experimental findings on the optimum and the wet specimens, it is observed that an increase in moulding water content induces a severe increase in compressibility. The indexes A.(s), for instance, almost double when going from the lower to the higher compaction water content. This supports the previous opinion that different moulding water contents correspond to different soils, even if the physical and mineralogical characteristics of the grains and the grading curve of the material are left unchanged. In addition, data indicate that both the shape and the position of the after compaction loading-collapse loci (LC) are largely affected by moulding water content. This is a further indication that soil susceptibility to collapse depends on that compaction variable. The apparent yield points were estimated using different procedures (Casagrande, 1936; Tavenas et a!. 1979 and Graham et a!., 1983). The obtained average values are well interpolated by a modified version of the Alonso et a!. (1990) equation (Rampino et a!., l999b; Vinale et a!., 1999), as displayed in Figure 3. At the applied suction levels the yield net stress is always greater for the optimum soil, except for the saturated one, in which these stresses have sensibly the same value for the two materials. In fact, the yield net stress ranges from 35 to 170 kPa for the optimum material 547

~ 400

I

I

c

350 300 250 c: 200 B 150 u iil 100 u 50

"J

i

~

::!!:

/wet

-­ 1

/

!?-­

0 0

L'

17

,/.(' optimum-

50 100 150 Yield mean net stress, (p - u.) (kPa)

200

Figure 3. After compaction LC yield loci. and from 39 to 1OS kPa for the wet material. Furthermore, also the yield loci show that suction effect has a decreasing gradient. The question whether the observed curves are effectively the "after-compaction" loci could arise. This would be true if the volume change of the specimen in the previous equalisation stage were reversible. Such a conclusion applies to the optimum compacted soil, expanding and reducing its suction during equalisation, while for the wet material it is valid under the hypothesis that LC and SI (i.e. suction increase locus) movements are independent from one another (Alonso et al., 1990). On the other hand, if the LC and SI movements were coupled by a hardening law (e.g., that proposed by Alonso et al., 1990), the conclusion that the elastic region found for the wet soil is larger than that corresponding to its after-compaction state would be reached, as this soil shrinks during equalisation. However, this hypothesis implies that the difference between wet and optimum materials is even more pronounced than displayed in Figure 3. Thus, regardless of the assumption made, it is possible to assert that, in its after compaction state, the wet material is more sensitive to potential collapse than the optimum. It is noteworthy that Gens et al. (1995) observed a different behaviour through oedometer tests on a low plasticity compacted dry and wet of optimum silt. Their results, however, do not refer to the after compaction state, as do the data presented here, but to wet specimens brought to the same initial conditions as the dry ones, in terms of density, moisture content and suction. Working with this material and experimental procedure they found that the dry specimens have larger compression strains on saturation (i.e., larger sensitivity to collapse).

5 SHEARSTAGES Figure 4 and Figure 5 plot the results of two shear stages, displaying deviator versus axial strain and volumetric strain versus axial strain. Observed trends can be considered representative of the

behaviour of the optimum and wet materials, respectively, in all the deviator stages. The influence of the dynamic compaction procedure and water content becomes clear under shearing. The mechanical response to increasing deviator is always that of dense granular soils for the optimum compacted specimens (Rampino et al., 1999b) and that of loose materials in the wet of optimum case (Vinale et al., 1999). The optimum soil is characterised by stress-strain curves which always exhibit softening, with a distinct peak in the deviator stress at &a=4%, final stable q value at &8::12% and corresponding volume changes showing evident dilatancy. The variations of Vw follow the same trend as v, but are very small in absolute value and lower than the changes in specific volume. A fmal stable value is also achieved for these variables, at about the same axial strain level as that pertaining to deviator stress. On the other hand, when tested under normally consolidated state, the wet soil shows no evident peak in the q:&a curve. This behaviour can be clearly classified as that of a loose granular soil, as mentioned above, because the deviator increases with axial strain moving towards an ultimate value and then becoming sensibly constant. The volume changes, however, do not confirm the latter statement. As a matter of fact, in all the shear stages it is observed that, after an initial shrinkage, dilatancy also occurs for the wet material. Furthermore, the ultimate state is not achieved in terms of specific volume: even for axial strains greater then 15% the gradient of the &a:&v curve is not negligible. Like in the case of the optimum soil, the diagrams &8 :vw have the same shape as the curves &8 :v. This is probably due to the soil's tendency to keep a constant degree of saturation (because of the imposed constant suction) while its volume is changing. A further difference between the two materials is the shape of the failed specimens. The optimum soil exhibits a clear bulging in saturated state, and with increasing suction evident shear bands appear. On the other hand, the wet material shows no shear bands when reaching the ultimate state, for all the applied suction levels. The observed behaviour is strongly dependent on suction for the optimum and wet materials: increasing (u.-uw) has a beneficial effect on both stiffness and shear strength. For instance, with reference to standard shear stages performed at (p­ u.) equal to 100 kPa and moving from 0 to 200 kPa of suction, the ultimate state deviator changes from about 345 to 720 kPa for the optimum compacted soil and from about 345 to 640 kPa for the wet material. A similar comparison can also be made by plotting secant Young modulus versus axial strain. However, it is worth highlighting that this calculations provide reliable values only in the large

548

Iii 1000 D.. tT

800 V\

Ul

600

~

ui

~....

.9 Ill ·:; CD

c

400

200

--

/\ ~ I 1\

~

deviator vol. strain

0 .:

""'-

~I

-1

r: "i!!

-2

·!:! Gi

-3 E :::>

0

-4

0

Ui

5 10 Axial strain,

20

15 &8

~

(%)

Figure 4. The shear stage performed on the optimum compacted soil at (Ua-Uw}=100 kPa, after isotropic compression up to (p-u.}=100 kPa.

Iii 1000 D.. ~

800

ui

600

tT

Ul

I!! Ui ....

.9

Ill ·:;

CD

c

400 200 0

---......

;.........--

v 0

v

-

0 .:

~ _. v-"

........

5

~

deviator vol. strain

-1

Axial strain,

15 &8

Ui

-2 .!.!

""'

"'\

10

r: "i!! ~

-3 E :::>

-4

~

20

(%)

Figure 5. The shear stage performed on the wet compacted soil at (u.-uw}=100 kPa, after isotropic compression up to (p-Ua)=100 kPa. strain range, as the used apparatus is not equipped with devices for local strain measurement. The small strain stiffness of Metramo silty sand was recently investigated through an RCTS cell, as described in a companion paper by the same authors. If the final stable values of the stresses Were plotted in a (p-Ua):q plane, it would show that for both materials the data are well grouped for constant suction level and can be interpolated by the equation originally proposed by Wheeler & Sivakumar (1995):

(2) Thus, an ultimate state line can be drawn for each suction value. A constant value of 1.54 was detected for the M coefficient of the optimum material. The effect of growing suction on it is an increase in apparent cohesion, ranging from 0 to 240 kPa for suction varying in the entire investigated range. The wet material shows lower shear strength values for all the analysed suction levels. As fewer data on this soil are available, some uncertainties are found in interpolating ultimate strength values. The M coefficient seems to be different from the value

(1.54) of the optimum soil. However, if M is forced to 1.54, i.e. it is assumed to be dependent only on physical and mineralogical grain properties, the effect of changing moulding water content is a significant reduction in the apparent cohesion f.1(s}, which varies from 0 to 150 kPa in the investigated suction levels. For both the optimum and the wet material the apparent cohesion shows an initially fast increase with suction and then tends towards a limiting value. Rampino et al. (1999a) observed that, for the optimum soil, f.1(s) data can be fitted by the exponential law expressed by Equation (1) with r and ~ parameters different from those pertaining to compressibility indexes. This consideration can be extended to the wet soil, as it exhibits a similar trend. By the extrapolation of the ultimate state lines in the (p-u.):q plane it is possible to draw another branch of the yield locus in the (p-u8 ):s plane. In fact, the yield stress pertaining to each suction is obtained from the intersection point of the relevant ultimate state line and the negative portion of (p-Ua) axis (Alonso et al., 1990). Also on the basis of this observation, it is possible to affirm that one effect of moving from the optimum to the wet compaction water content is a reduction of the size of the after compaction yield surface. 6 CONCLUDING REMARKS An experimental program has been carried out to investigate the effects of both compaction induced fabric and suction on the behaviour of an unsaturated silty sand. The optimum and the wet compacted specimens exhibited very different behaviours in all the stages of the tests. For example, during the equalisation stage, optimum material swells and absorbs water, while wet soil shrinks and expels water. This response was explained as a consequence of the imposed suction levels (from 100 to 300 kPa) and of the after compaction suction, equal to about 800 kPa for the optimum material and to about 60 kPa for the wet specimens. The results of the isotropic compression tests highlighted the strong effect of suction on soil compressibility. The greatest part of this effect occurs in a limited suction range (0+100 kPa) while A. tends to a threshold value for (u8 -uw) greater than 200 kPa. Comparing experimental fmdings on the optimum and the wet specimens, it was observed that an increase in moulding water content induces a severe increase in compressibility. In addition, data indicated that both the shape and the position of the after compaction loading-collapse loci (LC). expressing soil susceptibility to collapse, are largely affected by moulding water content. 549

Shear stages confirmed that moulding water content influences the soil stress-strain behaviour severely. For instance, a distinct peak followed by softening is observed in E3 :q curves for the optimum material, while for the wet soil the deviator continuously increases with axial strain level, tending towards a limiting threshold value. Suction significantly affects both stiffness and resistance. The ultimate state data points seem to be well grouped for suction levels and can be interpreted through straight fitting lines having the same M coefficient in the (p-u.):q plane. The detected effect of moving from the optimum to the wet compaction water content is a weakening of the material, as shown by the decrease in stiffness and in apparent cohesion. For both isotropic and shear stages it was demonstrated that the experimental data can be satisfactorily modelled by the modem theories for unsaturated soils (Alonso 1990, Wheeler & Sivakumar 1995), if it is assumed that the different preparation procedures yield to different soils. Altogether, the obtained results emphasise the relevant effect of fabric and suction on the material response and also highlight the need of appropriate testing devices and procedures to identify the separate influence of these variables on soil behaviour.

Tavenas, F., des Roisiers, J.P., Leroueil, S., La Rochelle, P. & ROY, M., 1979- The use of strain energy as a yield and creep criterion for lightly overconsolidated clays. Geotechnique, 29(3), 285-303. Vinale, F., d'Onofrio, A., Mancuso, C., Santucci de Magistris, F., Tatsuoka, F., 1999 - The prefailure behaviour of soils as construction materials. II Int. Conf. on pre-failure behaviour of geomaterials, Turin. Wheeler, S.J., Sivakumar, V., 1995- An elasto-plastic critical state framework for unsaturated soils. Geotechnique, 45( 1), 35-53.

REFERENCES Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., Hight, D.W., 1987- Special problem soils. General report- IX ECSMFE, Dublin, 3, 1087-II46. Alonso, E.E., Gens, A., and Josa, A., 1990 - A constitutive model for partially saturated soils. Geotechnique, 40(3), 405-430. Barden, L., Sides, G.R., 1970 - Engineering behaviour and structure of compacted clay. Journ. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, 96(4), 1171-1197. Casagrande, A., 1936 - The determination of the pre­ consolidation load and its practical significance. I ICSMFE, Harvard, 3, D-34, 60-64. Delage., P., Audiguier, M., Cui, Y.D. & Howat, M.D., 1996­ Microstructure of a compacted silt. Can. Getotech. Juom., 33, 150-158. Gens, A., Alonso, E.E., Suriol, J. & Lloret A., 1995- Effect of structure on the volumetric behaviour of a compacted soil. I Int. Conf. on unsaturated soils, Paris, 83-88. Graham, J., NooNan, M.L. & Lew, K.W., 1983 -Yield state and stress-strain relationship in natural plastic clay, Can. Geotech. Joum., 20(3), 502-516. Ladd, R.S., 1978 - Preparing testing specimen using under compaction. ASTM Geotech. Test. Joum., 1, 16-23. Mancuso, C., Rampino, C., Vinale F., 1999 - Experimental behaviour and modelling of an unsaturated compacted soil. Submitted to Can. Geotech. Joum. Rampino, C., Mancuso, C., and Vinale, F., 1999a- Mechanical behaviour of an unsaturated dynamically compacted silty sand. Italian Geotech. Joum., 33(2), 26-39. Rampino, C., Mancuso, C., and Vinale, F., 1999b- Laboratory testing on a partially saturated soil: equipment, procedures and first experimental results. Can. Geotech. Joum. 36(1), 1-12.

550

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Laboratory study of loosely compacted unsaturated volcanic fill in Hong Kong C.W.W.Ng & C.RChiu

Department ofCivil Engineering, Hong Kong University ofScience and Technology, SAR, People's Republic of China

H.Rahardjo

NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

ABSTRACT: A laboratory investigation was carried out to primarily study the unsaturated shear behaviour of loosely compacted fills. The soil used was a colluvial fill of volcanic nature and the soil samples were initially compacted to a dry density of 70 % of the maximum dry density obtained from the standard Proctor compac­ tion test. Two series of triaxial tests were conducted. The first series were consolidated undrained shear tests on saturated samples and the second series were constant water content tests on unsaturated samples. From the test results, a nonlinear shear strength - matric suction relationship is observed for the loosely compacted unsaturated volcanic fill. The frictional characteristic of the fill is independent of matric suction while the ex­ tent of the increase in the shear strength with matric suction is influenced by the degree of saturation. INTRODUCTION Many loose fill slopes have been constructed in Hong Kong before the 1970s. The upper part of these slopes is generally unsaturated in the dry sea­ son. The existence of the matric suction helps to maintain their stability. Over the years, there have been a number of severe loose fill slope failures in Hong Kong during rainstorms, resulting in cata­ strophic flow slides and disasters (HKIE 1998). One of the major challenges for the geotechnical engi­ neers in Hong Kong is to upgrade these marginal slopes safely, quickly and economically under con­ gested working conditions. Recently, it has been proposed to use soil nails to reinforce the loose fill slopes because of its speedy and simple operation. Due to the lack of understanding of the fundamental behaviour of unsaturated loose fill, soil-nail interac­ tion and long-term potential corrosion problems, no convincing conclusion can be reached after a large number of heated debates for sometime in Hong Kong. In the modelling of unsaturated soils, it is now generally accepted to use two independent stress state variables to explain their mechanical behaviour (Fredlund & Morgenstern 1977). The most common stress state variables used are the net normal stress, a - u. and the matric suction, Ua - Uw, where a is the total stress, u. is the pore-air pressure and Uw is the pore-water pressure. Since the early 1990s, several researchers have extended the critical state frame­ work to unsaturated soils (Alonso et al. 1990, Toll

1990, Wheeler & Sivakumar 1993). Most of the theoretical work has been based on laboratory stud­ ies on well-compacted and intact soils. Relatively little research has been done on loosely compacted soils except Maatouk et al. (1995). In this study, two series of triaxial tests have been conducted on a loosely compacted fill, namely (i) consolidated undrained tests on saturated samples and (ii) constant water content tests on unsaturated samples. The prime objective of the study is to in­ vestigate the influence of matric suction and degree of saturation on the shear behaviour of unsaturated loosely compacted fill. 2 SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TESTING PROCEDURES The soil used in this study was a colluvium taken from a slope at the Victoria Peak, on the Hong Kong Island. The colluvium originated from decomposed volcanic. The soil can be described as slightly sandy SILT (GCO 1988). The particle size distribution is shown in Figure 1. Its liquid limit and plastic limit are 48 % and 35 %, respectively. Proctor compac­ tion tests gave a maximum dry density of 1540 kglm3 and optimum moisture content of 21 %. The testing programme is summarised in Table 1. Triaxial samples were prepared by moist tamping. All soil specimens were compacted at a moisture content of 20 %, which is 1 % dry of the optimum obtained from Proctor compaction test. The samples

551

T able 1. Testmg . pro~ amme Specific Initial Sample volume, v, specific identity before shear volume 2.065 2.422 s1

Applied suction, s (kPa) 0

Applied net mean stress,

p (kPa) 25

s2

2.419

2.005

0

50

s3

2.43

1.938

0

100

s4

2.464

1.862

0

200

s5

2.435

1.797

0

400

u1

2.486

2.462

80

25

u2

2.503

2.416

80

50

u3

2.526

2.215

80

150

u4

2.504

2.068

80

310

uS

2.505

2.467

150

25

u6

2.493

2.408

150

50

u7

2.490

2.256

150

100

u8

2.489

2.178

150

150

were compacted in 10 layers and the under­ compaction approach was employed to achieve a more uniform sample as suggested by Ladd (1978). All samples were compacted to a dry density of 70 % of the Proctor's maximum, which corresponds to a specific volume (v) of 2.47 and a degree of satura­ tion (S.) of 36 %. Saturation of the samples was done by applying a vacuum of 15 kPa to evacuate air bubbles, followed by flushing them with carbon dioxide for at least 30 minutes, after which de-aired water was slowly in­ troduced from the bottom of the samples. Back pres­ sure was used until the B-value achieved a minimum value of 0.97. All the saturated samples were first isotropically compressed and then sheared under a strain-controlled loading environment. For tests on unsaturated samples, a computer­ controlled triaxial stress path apparatus equipped with three water pressure controllers and one air pressure controller was used. Matric suction (s) was applied to the samples through pore-water and pore­ air pressures. Pore-water pressure was applied or measured at the base of the sample through a porous filter, which has an air entry value of 500 kPa. Posi­ tive pore-water pressure was maintained at the base by using the axis translation principle proposed by Hilf (1956). Pore-air pressure was applied at the top of the sample by a filter with a low air entry value. The initial suctions of the unsaturated samples were controlled to 80 kPa (u1 to u4) and 150 kPa (uS to u8). Then they were isotropically consolidated to net mean stress (p = total mean stress - pore-air pres­ sure), specified in Table 1. After that the samples were sheared under constant water content.

3 SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SAMPLE Figure 2 shows the effective stress paths in the de­ viator stress (q)- effective mean stress (p') plane for five consolidated undrained tests on saturated sam­ ples of the loose volcanic fill. It can be seen from the figure that no strain softening is observed for all five tests. Bulging failure is observed for all samples at the end of the tests. Critical state is defined as the state in which shear produces no change in stress, or in volume of the soil. All the five tests approach the critical state line (CSL), with a gradient (Mcs) of 1.32 (Ng & Chiu 2000). All the effective stress paths shown in Figure 2 have similar shape. In the beginning, each path moves towards the left-hand side until a turning point, after that it turns right and finally reaches the critical state at the end of the test. This turning point is termed the point of phase transformation (Ishi­ hara, 1993), which is defined as a temporary state of transition from contractive to dilative behaviour. This observed behaviour resembles those of typical sand/clay on the dry side of the critical, even though the states before shear lie on the wet side of the criti­ cal. The dry side of the critical refers to the state lies below the CSL whereas the wet side of the critical refers to the state lies above the CSL. The relative states of the soil samples with respect to the critical state line will be discussed later. 4 SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF UNSATURATED SAMPLE Figures 3 and 4 show the stress-strain relationships for the constant water content tests on unsaturated samples of the loose volcanic fill at initial suctions

80

~

bQ

.s

~

60

.

S'"c "

~

40

20

0

~--~--~----~--~--~

0.001

O.ot

0.1 Particle si7e (nun)

Figure 1 Particle size distributions

552

10

100

~

800 .--------------::.......---,

c p=25 kPa ooooO oo p=50 kPa 0o

0

I> p=ISO kPa 00o Op=310kPa 0

600 0

0

0

200

0 0

0

"'"'IS. "'IS.

..-...

10

30

20

Axial strain (%)

Effective mean stress, p' (kPa) Figure 2. Effective stress paths of consolidated undrained tests on saturated samples

/~

Figure 3. Stress-strain relationships for constant water content tests on unsaturated samples at initial suction of 80 kPa 800 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , Cp=25 kPa p=SO kPa l>p=IOOkPa -;o-600 Op=150kPa

of 80 kPa and 150 kPa, respectively. The shear strength increases steadily with axial strain and ap­ proaches almost a plateau at an axial strain over 25 %, with no evidence of any strain softening. It can be noted from both figures that the shear strength of the unsaturated specimens at constant water content increases with net mean stress. Similar to undrained shear tests on saturated samples, all unsaturated samples failed by barrelling. Most of the tests only approach the critical state but do not actually reach it even at strains in excess of 25 %. However, by in­ specting the stress-strain relationships in both fig­ ures, it may be reasonable to use the stress state at the end of each test to approximate the critical state. The suction during shear was measured by the difference between the positive pore-water pressure at the bottom of the sample and a constant applied pore-air pressure maintained at the top of the sam­ ple. The measured final suctions range from 72 to 79 kPa for samples u 1 to u4 and from 140 to 144 kPa for samples u5 to u8. Hence, the change of suction at the end of the constant water content tests was at most 10 kPa for all unsaturated samples. The approximated critical state of each unsatu­ rated sample of the loose volcanic fill is plotted in v - log p plane in Figure 5. It can be seen from the figure that the critical state for all unsaturated sam­ ples may be represented by a single critical state line despite their fmal suctions which range from 72 to 144 kPa. It can be noted that all stress states before shear for saturated samples lie on the wet side of critical and all the samples change from contractive to dilative behaviour during undrained shear (refer to Fig.2). On the other hand, only contractive behav­ iour is observed for all unsaturated samples despite two of the unsaturated samples (u1 & u5) lie on the dry side of critical and the rest lie on the wet side of critical. The gradients of the critical state lines ('lf(s))

~

C'

u8

"'"' ~ 400

~ ">

"

0

u7

200

u6 uS

0 0

10

20

30

Axial strain (%) Figure 4. Stress-strain relationships for constant water content tests on unsaturated samples at initial suction of 150 kPa

for unsaturated and saturated samples in v - log p plane are 0.233 and 0.087, respectively. Figure 6 shows the critical state of the loose vol­ canic fill in q - p plane. It can be noted that a single critical state line may be used to represent the criti­ cal state for all unsaturated samples at a range of fi­ nal suctions from 72 to 144 kPa. For the loose fill, it appears that matric suction has a large contribution to its shear strength for suctions ranging from 0 to 79 kPa but does not have a significant effect on its shear strength for suctions ranging from 72 to 144 kPa. The critical state line for unsaturated samples has a gradient of 1.33 and an intercept of 33 kPa. In addition, this line is approximately parallel to the one for saturated samples. This may suggest that the gradient (i.e., the angle of internal friction, cl>') of the critical state line in q - p plane is a constant for the 553

2.6

>

.; E

.g

Cl)

800

CSL (unsaturated)

2.5

(s=O kPa)

2.4

.A Critical state (s=O

2.3

0 Be ore shear

~

IICritical

g"' 400

2.2 0"' >

1

t:. Before shear

2.1 2

1.9

Iii s=80 k.Pa (ul -u4)

..

~600

kP~

o­

(s=80 kPa)

.,;

.."'

state (s=80 , s I &

:.., kP~ u 7.

o Be ore shear si'A, u3

s3"A..sh s4' ~sfl. uS

5

f1

·;;

8 200

sS~~

1.8 1.7

6 s=O k.Pa (s I-sS)

CSL 100 10 Net mean stress, p (k.Pa)

•

0 0

1000

200 400 Net mean stress, p (kPa)

600

Figure 5. Relationship between specific volume and net mean stress for the loose volcanic fill

Figure 6. Relationship between deviator stress and net mean stress for the loose volcanic fill

limited range of applied suction. Gan & Fredlund (1996) reported that' is independent of the applied matric suction for two Hong Kong saprolites (Gan & Fredlund 1996). Hence the influence of matric suc­ tion on the shear strength of the unsaturated loose volcanic fill could be reflected by the intercept of the critical state line in the q - p plane and will be dis­ cussed in the next section.

to model non-cemented soils only as no specific term can be used to describe effective cohesion. Be­ sides, Ma and Mw are equivalent to tan' and tan b, respectively.

5 COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND A THEORETICAL MODEL 5.1 Constitutive model (Tolll990) Under the extended critical state framework for un­ saturated soils, Toll (1990) postulated the following shear strength equation for unsaturated soil, (1)

where Ma and Mw are two strength parameters re­ lated to net mean stress and matric suction, respec­ tively. Previously, Fredlund et a!. (1978) suggested the following unsaturated shear strength equation:

where t is the shear strength, c' is the effective co­ hesion, cr - u. is the net normal stress, u. - Uw is the matric suction, l

(3)

where a and A. are fitting parameters. The values of fitting parameters are summarised in Table 4. Table 4. Fitting parameters for pxroclastic soil B.

N

~Ow.

48

0,992 0,455

Bwr

0

a

A

[kPa"1] 0,1065 0,4063

Experimental data and the fitting curve are shown in Fipre 6. The air-entry pressure (ua-Uw)e, derived as a.: , for this soil appears to be less than 10 kPa and the major variations are recorded for values less than 100 kPa. The hydraulic conductivity function in terms of k, (kw I ksat), plotted in Figure 6, has been obtained by indirect method as proposed by van Genuchten

J

(4)

where r = is the shear strength of an unsaturated soil; c and rp = are soil strength parameters for satu­ rated soil; (cr - u.) = is the net normal stress on the plane of failure; (u.-uw) =is the matric suction of the soil; e = relative volumetric water content and k is a fitting parameter. The first part of the equation is the saturated shear strength, and it is a constant for particular net normal stress. The second part of the equation is the shear strength contribution due to the suction, which can be predicted using the soil water characteristic curve. Substituting in (4) equation (3) proposed by Brooks and Corey [1964] in the case of the suction is greater than the air entry value give:

Figure 5. Failure envelopes of pyroclastic specimens obtained from fitting experimental data.

SOIL

=[c+(u-u)·tanq.>]+(ua -u)[(ef ·tanq.>

This function is plotted in figure 7 on the plane {( u.- uw), r} at different values of net stress by means of the results of direct shear test on saturated sample (Bl) and soil- water characteristic curve re­ ported in figure 6. In figure 7 are also shown the peak shear strength performed on direct shear apparatus, with respect to suction. The matric suction of the specimens was obtained from measurements of water content by means of knowledge of the water-characteristic curve, or direct measurements of suction by means of Imperial College tensiometer [Ridley & Burland, 1993]. It is assumed that the matric suction suffers small changes during the tests. It is also assumed that at failure the pore-air pressure is atmospheric. It can be seen that the predicted shear strength are generally greater than measured one at least for the range of stress tested. Actually are in progress other experimental ac­ tivities with the aim of consolidate these preliminary results.

572

1,2 ; -Brooks & Corey [1964) ::: • Richards Plate

1 0,8 .:tt:....

®

0,6

---~··

0,4 ---·- ··--·-·-·. ..

0,2

N=;48 :

0

100

10

1

1000

Figure 6. Soil-water characteristic curve and conductivity function for soil B.

160 140 120 100

'ii' a.. 80 ~

"'

60

. . . ..... - . - .. -

40

7

20

.;

0 0

0 9,8 50

0 25

100

200

300 Ua- Uw

400

500

+ 19 .A.100

600

[kPa]

Figure 7. Comparison between measured and predicted values of shear strength against matric suction.

Table 5. Peak strength parameters derived from the envelope of experimental data. GROUPS c [kPa] f

81 82 83

34°48'

s,

13.39 48.01 69.99

0.249 0.103

573

18.42 14.78 13.87

method F 0.94 2.78 3.97

4 STABILITY ANALYSES

Fredlund D.G. & N.R. Morgenstern (1977). Stress state variables for unsaturated soils. J. Geotech. Eng. Div. ASCE, GT5 103: 447-466. Fredlund D.G., Rahardjo H. & J.K.M. Gan (1987). Nonline­ arity of strength envelope for unsaturated soils. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Expansive Soils, New Delhi, I: 49-54. Fredlund D.G., A. Xing, M.D. Fredlund & S.L. Barbour (1995). The relationship of the unsaturated soil shear strength to the soil-water characteristic curve. Can. Geotech. J. 32: 440-448. Gan J.K.M., D.G. Fredlund & H. Rahardjo (1988). Determi­ nation of the shear parameters of unsaturated soil using the direct shear test. Can. Geotech. J., 25: 500-510. Nicotera M.V. (1998). E.ffetti del grado di saturazione sui comportamento meccanico di una pozzolana del napoletano. Tesi di dottorato consorzio tra le Universita di Roma "La Sapienza" e Napoli "Federico II". Oloo S.Y. & D.G. Fredlund (1996). A method for determina­ tion offor statically compacted soils. Can. Geotech. J., 33: 272-280. Orsi G., M. DiVito & R. Isaia (1998). Volcanic hazards and risk in the Parthenopean megacity. Field excursion guide­ book, Int. Meet. on Cities on Volcanoes, 206 pp., Naples. Pellegrino A. (1994). I Fenomeni Franosi nell'area Metro­ politana Napoletana. Acta Nepolitana, 18, 237-256, Guida Ed., Naples, (in Italian). Ridley A.M. & J.B. Burland (1993). A new instrument for the measurement ofsoil moisture suction. Geotecnique 43, No 2: 321-324. Scotto di Santolo A. (2000). Analisi geotecnica dei fenomeni franosi nelle coltri piroclastiche della Provincia di Na­ poli.Ph.D. thesis, Universities of Naples & Rome, (in Italian). Vanapalli S.K., D.G. Fredlund, D.E. Pufahl, A.W. Clifton (1996). Model for the prediction of shear strength with respect to soil suction. Can. Geotech. J. 33: 379-392. van Genuchten M.Th. (1980). A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsturated soils. Soil Science Society American Journal, 44: 892-898.

The safety factor (F) variation as a function of Sr was investigated trough several analyses of stabil­ ity. Sixteen potential slip surfaces have been exam­ ined, according to the in situ observations. These analyses were carried out in terms of total stress, using the Bishop's method, with reference to the physical and mechanical parameters of soils B in terms of friction angle and cohesion intercept, as reported in Table 5. In all the examined cases the slip surface coincided with the one observed in situ. The results are shown in Table 6. The results that emerged from these analyses were that the shallow instability phenomena could occur when the degree of saturation is greater than 80%.

5 CONCLUSION The effect of water content on the shear character­ istics of undisturbed samples of pyroclastic soils was investigated by means of several direct shear tests. Test results proved that the most important fac­ tors affecting the strength of the soils tested are be­ sides the initial void ratio the degree of saturation. Particularly the general stress-strain behaviour changes from brittle to ductile as the degree of saturation increases. This increase of the degree of saturation also produces a reduction in shear strength. Moreover the comparison between the predicted and measured relationships of shear stresses and matric suction seem overestimate the contribution of suction to the soil strength. The correlation expressed by equation (2) offers an easy and convenient alternative for take into ac­ count the contribution of suction to shear strength of an unsaturated soil. 6 REFERENCES Brand E.W. (1985). Predicting the performance of residual soil slopes. Proc. II th Int. Conf. On Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, 5: 2541-2578. Burland J.B. (I 964) Effective stress in partially saturated soils- Co"espondence. Geotechnique, 14:64-68. Calcaterra D. & P.M. Guarino (1999a). Morphodynamics and recent landslides in western hills/opes of Napoli. Geologia Tecnica ed Ambientale, 2/99: 11-17, (in Italian). Di Vito M., L. Lirer, G. Mastrolorenzo, G. Rolandi, R. Scan­ done (1985). Volcanologic map ofCampi Flegrei. Dip. di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, largo San Marcellino 10, 80138, Naples, Italy. Escario V. & J. Saez (1986). The shear strength of partly saturated soils. Geotecnique, 36: 453-456.

574

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Shear strength behaviour of unsaturated granite residual soil M.R.Taha, M.K.Hossain & S.A. Mofiz

Department ofCivil and Structural Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia

ABSTRACT: The shear strength behaviour of an unsaturated granite residual soil were investigated using consolidated drained (CD) and constant water conten)(CW) triaxial tests with special emphasis on the effect of the matric suction. Shear strength parameters (c', 'I' ) were evaluated using two-dimensional graphical and numerical methods. It was found that a linear relationship can be correlated between shear strength and matric suction. The value of c 'obtained using the graphical method is almost invaqably greater than that obtained using the numerical method. However, both methods give similar values of rp. The c' values obtained in this study are significantly different from tests on saturated soil. 1 INTRODUCTION· Residual soils cover more than three-quarters of the land area of Peninsular Malaysia. A significant pro­ portion of residual soils is granite residual soil. Many steep slopes in these residual soils often have a deep ground water table above which the soils pos­ sess high matric suction (Hossain 1999). It is well established that the stability of a natural or a cut slope in these soils depend on the shear strength which is affected by the matric suction. Thus, it is important to study the shear strength characteristics of the residual soils particularly with respect to changes in matric suction. This study attempts to find the shear strength parameters of the granite re­ sidual soil with respect to changes in soil suction utilising a modified triaxial test apparatus. 2 SHEAR STRENGTH OF UNSATURATED SOIL Many researchers such as Croney (1952}, Bishop (1959), Aitchison (1961), Jennings (1961) and Ri­ chards (1966}, have developed relationships for ef­ fective stress equation for unsaturated soils. How­ ever, a more systematic approach was given by Fredlund et al. (1978) who developed a shear strength relationship for unsaturated soils in terms of two independent stress variables: 't

= c' + (u. -Uw) tan~b +(a-U.) tan~'

(1)

where c' = effective cohesion, u= total stress, u. = pore-air pressure, uw = pore water pressure, rp'= effective angle of friction, l =angle indicating the rate of increase in shear strength with respect to matric suction, (u. - uw). The two-dimensional graphical and numerical methods used to evaluate of from unsaturated shear strength parameters (c ~ triaxial tests were discussed in detail by Ho (1981).

l)

3 SOIL PROPERTIES The soil used in this study was obtained from a re­ sidual granite soil formation in Cheras, just 8 km south of Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of Malaysia. The block sampling technique was adopted for soil sampling in which thirty 300 mm cube samples were hand cut, wax around the sides, place in wooden boxes and stored in the laboratory until required for testing. The mean dry density obtained from field tests was 13.6 kN/m3 with natural moisture content of about 31%. The specific gravity of this soil (2.55 to 2.61) shows a change from the specific gravity of fresh granites (2.65 to 2.68). Optimum moisture content and maximum dry density were found to be 23% and 14.7 kN/m3 , respectively from compaction test. Based on Unified Soil Classification System (USCS}, the soil was grouped as "clay with high plasticity" (CH). It was also classified in the "A-7-6" group according to the AASHO classification sys­ tem.

575

4 TESTING PROGRAM

6.1 Two-dimensional Graphical Method

The testing program consisted of consolidated dr~ined (CD) and constant water content (CW) tri­ axial test on unsaturated specimens. The detailed testing program is shown in Table 1. These tests were performed under constant net confining pres­ sure, ( U 3 - u.) and varying matric suction, (u. - uw)· The tests reported in this paper were carried out un­ der initial effective confining pressure of 600 kPa and initial matric suction of 50 - I 000 kPa. The strain rates for CD and CW tests were used 0.00166 %/min and 0.00666 %/min, respectively.

With the values of u 1, u3 , u and u at failure from triaxial tests on unsaturated ~oil s~ples, Mohr cir­ cles corresponding to various matric suction values can be drawn on -r vs. (u- u.) plot. The ordinate in­ tercepts of the various matric suction contours can be obtained by drawing tangent at all Mohr circles using the angle of friction (J' from triaxial test on saturated sample. Either by plotting or using linear regression analysis on the intercept (shear stress) vs. matric suction data, the angle ¢1 of the unsaturated soil can be obtained. From the intercept of the best­ fit straight line, c' could also be obtained.

Table 1. Test progr!UD for CD and CW triaxial tests on unsaturated specimens.

6.2, Numerical Method

Test type CD

Test no. 1 2 3 4 5

cw

6 7 8 9

crJ- U. ' (kPa) (m) (") 34 139 8.5-9.5 Nl PWD 15.0-16.0 36 107 Nl PWD 18.0-19.0 37 167 PWD Nl 35 95 0.5 Hritzuk (1997) Trial pit

(c) u,-uw = 150kPa

800 400

(cr-u,)(kPa) -400

-800 Figure 6. Extended Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes for the undisturbed Jurong soil for rnatric suction values of (a) 50 kPa (b) 100 kPa (c) 150 kPa and (d) 200 kPa

It is possible that the high friction angle observed in the unsaturated tests could be due to the high den­ sity and degree of cementation of the specimens. As noted earlier, the specimens did manifest brittle and rock-like behaviour during shearing indicative of a high degree of cementation. Even so, a ~· value of 51° does seem to be unrealistically high. An alternative explanation could be that the three specimens tested, although coming from the same sample tube, did have differing degrees of cementa­ tion leading to different c' values. It must be reme­ bered that the three Mohr circles shown for each matric suction value have been measured on differ­ ent specimens. Figure 8 shows an alternative interpretation of the data for a matric suction of 50kPa, assuming that ~· = 36° (the average value determined from satu­

585

rated tests measured on single specimens). This re­ sults in a different cohesion value for each specimen. .. 800

~

400 c=200kPa c=140kPa c =IOOkPa 0 ittir-------1r+----tt-----1H (cr-u,.)(kPa) 500

-400 -800

u.-uw = 50kPa

Fig. 8: An alternative interpretation of the data in Fig. 6(a) based on the assumption that 41'=36".

Figure 9 shows the values of total cohesion ob­ tained from extending the approach used in Figure 8 to other suction values.

from Singapore. The angle of friction ($') for the re­ sidual soil formed from the weathering of the Bukit Timah granitic formation was found to be 32°. The highest $b angle for the soil was determined to be 28° at matric suctions lower than 25 kPa. Beyond this matric suction value, the $b angle decreased and dropped to almost zero for matric suctions above 150 kPa. The results of unsaturated tests on the undisturbed residual soil from the Jurong sedimentary formation suggested an angle of friction($') of 51°. This very high friction angle could be attributed to the high density and cementation of the specimens. However, an alternative interpretation was also considered based on the results of saturated tests which showed an average $' of 36°. This interpretation indicates high effective cohesion values between 91 and 173 kPa, consistent with the saturated test results. In this case $b values of 10-22° are indicated for the Jurong soil. The possibility for alternative interpretations highlights the great difficulties in determining soil parameters for residual soils where the natural het­ erogeneity means that one is never sure that speci­ mens used in testing are identical. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

50

50

100

Matrix suction (kPa)

150

200

Figure 9. Total cohesion values versus rnatric suction for the Jurong soil based on the assumption that 41'=36".

This work forms part of a project funded by the Na­ tional Science and Technology Board of Singapore {NSTB 17/6116: Rainfall-induced Slope failures). Thanks are also due to Mr Kevin Quan and Mr Tang Sek Kwan of PWD Consultants Pte Ltd for the tri­ axial test data shown in Table 2. REFERENCES

This alternative interpretation suggests an almost linear relationship between total cohesion and matric suction over the suction range 50-200kPa. The $b values are 22° for two specimens and 10° for the third. It is interesting to note that if these linear trends are projected back to Ua-Uw = 0, the effective cohesion values predicted range from 91 to 173kPa, very similar to the range of values in Table 2. Either of these interpretations could be correct, but clearly each interpretation suggests very differ­ ent values for $b. This highlights the great difficul­ ties in determining soil parameters for residual soils where the natural heterogeneity means that one is never sure that specimens used in testing are identi­ cal.

Chang, M. F. 1988. In-situ testing of residual soil in Singapore, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf on Geomechanics in Tropical Soils, Singapore, Vol. I, 97-108. Rotterdam: Balkerna. Ho, D.Y.F. and Fredlund, D.G. 1982. A multi-stage triaxial test for unsaturated soils, ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, 5(1/2): 18-25. Hritzuk, K. J. 1997. Effectiveness of drainage systems in maintaining soil suctions, MEng Thesis, School of Civil and Structural Engineering, Nanyang Technological Uni­ versity. Ong, B.H. 1999. Shear strength and volume change of unsatu­ rated residual soil, MEng Thesis, School of Civil and Structural Engineering, Nanyang Technological University. Pitts, J. 1984. A review of geology and engineering geology in Singapore, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 17: 93-101. Poh, K.B., Chuah, H.L. and Tan, S.B. 1985. Residual granite soils of Singapore, Proc. 8th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conf, Kuala Lumpur, Vol. I, 3-1 to 3-9. Satija, B.S. and Gulhati, S.K. 1979. Strain rate for shear testing of unsaturated soil, Proc. 6th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Singa­ pore, 83-86.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Consolidated drained triaxial tests with controlled matric suction have been used to determine the shear strength parameters of two types of residual soil

586

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Shear strength of undisturbed Bukit Timah granitic soils under infiltration conditions J.C.Wong, H.Rahardjo, D.G.Toll & E.C. Leong

NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Shearing infiltration tests were conducted to simulate the stress path followed by unsaturated soils during infiltration due to rainfall. A modified direct shear and a modified triaxial apparatuses were used to carry out the tests on undisturbed Bukit Timah granitic residual soils from Singapore. The specimens were sheared under drained conditions to a pre-determined stress level about 90% of the peak shear strength of the specimen. After creep monitoring, water was injected through the base of the specimen at a constant rate until the specimen failed due to the decrease in matric suction. In triaxial testing, miniature pore-water pressure transducer was utilised to measure pore-water pressure changes at the mid-height of the specimen, especially during infiltration (before and after the failure). The results show that the specimens failed during infiltration due to the decrease ofmatric suction in both the direct shear and triaxial tests. 1 INTRODUCTION Landslides occur frequently during heavy rainfall. Infiltration of rainwater into the soil slope results in the loss of negative pore-water pressures thus caus­ ing a reduction in shear strength. Understanding this reduction in shear strength can be quite critical to understanding the causes of slope instability. There­ fore, shearing infiltration tests have been conducted to simulate the stress path as followed by an unsatu­ rated soil element in a slope during rainfall. The normal stress, O"n, and the shear stress, 't, essentially remain constant during rainwater infiltration into the slope. Consequently, the failure of the slope is pri­ marily caused by a reduction in the matric suction. Han (1997) and Melinda (1998) conducted a se­ ries of constant suction shearing and shearing infil­ tration tests on compacted residual soils from the Bukit Timah granitic Formation, Singapore, using a direct shear apparatus with suction control. Their re­ sults showed that the strength obtained from shear­ ing infiltration tests was higher than that from con­ stant suction shearing tests. The strength of the soils was affected by hysteresis (i.e. differences between wetting and drying). Lower strength was observed for the soils subject to wetting compared to soils subject to drying. 2 DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT Conventional direct shear and triaxial apparatuses have been modified to allow the shearing infiltration

tests to be conducted on unsaturated soil with control of the matric suction using the axis translation tech­ nique. Data acquisition and control were carried out using the Triax4.0 program (Toll, 1999). 2.1 Direct shear apparatus The modified direct shear apparatus was developed by Han (1997). A 500 kPa high air entry ceramic disk is secured into position on top of the water compartment and the pore-water pressure, Uw, in the water compartment is controlled using a digital pres­ sure/volume controller (DPVC). A force actuator is used to maintain the desired shear stress during creep monitoring and infiltration. 2.2 Triaxial apparatus For the purpose of measuring the pore-water pres­ sure at the centre of the specimen, a miniature pore­ water pressure transducer was installed at mid­ height. Therefore, a larger triaxial cell was utilised to provide enough space for the installation of the miniature pore-water pressure transducer. Studies have been conducted using different miniature pore pressure transducers to measure the matric suction of unsaturated soils (Ridley and Burland 1993; Mura­ leetharan and Granger 1999). However, these previ­ ous studies have not installed the transducer directly onto a triaxial san1ple. Figure 1 illustrates the set up of a triaxial soil specimen with the installation of a miniature pore­

587

water pressure transducer. A 500 kPa high air entry disk was glued into the pedestal on top of the water compartment. The water compartment was con­ nected to a DPVC to allow the measurement and the control of pore-water pressures at the base of the specimen. The water compartment was designed to allow for flushing of air bubbles on a periodic basis. The cell pressure, cr3, was controlled by another DPVC. The pore-air pressure, u,, was applied and controlled through a pore-air pressure line connected to a loading cap which was placed on top of the soil specimen. Pore air pressure

rubber and a fast cure catalyst F in 10:1 ratio. A stainless steel sheath was made to shroud the threaded miniature pore-water pressure transducer. A circular hole in front of the sheath was made to house a 5 bar ceramic disk. The sheath was designed and machined so that a small gap of about 250J.!m was created between the back of ceramic disk and the frontal sensor of the transducer. This gave a small volume of 3 mm 3 water in the gap so as to minimise the formation of the air bubbles in the gap (Ridley and Burland, 1993). Before the test started, the disk in the sheath was saturated by ap­ plying pressure cycles with de-aired distilled water for a couple of days. Increasing water pressures should dissolve the air trapped in the gap between the disk and the sensor and decreasing water pres­ sures should assist dissolved air to flow out from the gap.

For details, refer Figure 2

O·rings Base pore·water

(;,;;;;=__. ~=~:,control line

Miniature pressure tmnsduttr

Figure I. Set up of soil specimen with installation of miniature pore-water pressure transducer

The axial load, cr~, was applied vertically to the soil specimen using a force actuator through a load­ ing ram with a load cell attached and a loading cap. The force actuator was used to displace the soil specimen during shearing and to maintain the de­ sired deviator stress during the creep monitoring and infiltration. A LVDT was attached to this vertical loading ram to measure the axial strain. The miniature pore-water pressure transducer used was an Entran EPX-V03-250P (X-option) with a working range of up to 1500 kPa. After a few tests with the transducer in pressurized water, it was found that the transducer was not submersible. The water managed to seep through the connection be­ tween the wire and the transducer and subsequently short-circuited the transducer. Later, Araldite 2021 epoxy was used to seal the critical connection. Ini­ tially, the transducer worked well and read the pres­ sure changes satisfactorily. However, after a few months, the pressure readings became unreasonable and it was suspected that the bonding of epoxy had broken down. The data of the pore-water pressures using the miniature transducer presented here were those when the transducer was functioning well. Figure 2 shows the details of installation for the miniature pore-water pressure transducer. A silicone rubber grommet housed the miniature pore-water pressure transducer. The grommet was moulded from a mixture of Dow Coming 3120 RTV silicone

Latex rubbtr, applied to seat between the rubber membrane and grommet S bar high air entry

disk

Rubber membrane where a hole is

punched ror installation orgrommcl

Figure 2. Details of the installation for the miniature pore-water pressure transducer

To install the grommet, a hole was cut in the rub­ ber membrane at its mid-height by using a hole puncher. After inserting the grommet into the hole, latex rubber was applied between the rubber mem­ brane and the grommet. Before pushing the trans­ ducer into the grommet, a thin pad of saturated kao­ lin was smeared on the disk in the sheath to ensure good pore-water phase contact between the specimen and the disk. After inserting the transducer into its housing, two 0-rings were fastened onto the grom­ met, over the latex rubber coating to prevent leak­ age. 3 TEST PROCEDURES The test procedure for conducting shearing infiltra­ tion tests for both direct shear and triaxial tests can be divided into three stages, i.e. saturation, equalisa­ tion and shearing-infiltration. Before saturation can 588

start, the high air entry disk must be in a saturated condition to ensure correct measurement of pore­ water pressures and to prevent 'blow-through' of air into the water compartment. The pore-air pressure, Ua, was maintained constant throughout the shearing infiltration test.

water was injected from the base of the specimen at a constant rate of 89 mm3/h. This water injection rate was calculated based on the same infiltration rate (height/time) that was used in the direct shear test­ ing. Again, failure was defined as a point when there was a significant increase in axial strain.

3.1 Direct shear test

4 SOIL PROPERTIES

Saturation of the specimen was achieved by applying a water pressure of 3-4 kPa at the bottom of the specimen. This small pressure difference causes water to flow from the bottom to the top of the specimen and force air out of the specimen. Mean­ while, 5 ml of de-aired distilled water was added to the top of the specimen to speed up the saturation process. During the equalisation stage, the specimen was brought to equilibrium under a net normal stress of275 kPa and matric suction of200 kPa. The shearing-infiltration stage consisted of shearing, creep monitoring and infiltration processes. Having attained equilibrium at the end of the equali­ sation stage, the specimen was sheared to a stress level that was approximately 90% of the estimated shear strength of the soil. The rate of displacement used during shearing was 0.240 mm!h. This rate of displacement was found not to cause any excess pore-water pressure to build up during shearing (Han, 1997). The force actuator was then pro­ grammed to maintain the shear stress level during creep monitoring. Creep monitoring was considered to have finished when the rate of horizontal dis­ placement approached zero. This was done to ensure that any increase in horizontal displacement during infiltration was not caused by creep. Once the creep monitoring was completed, the DPVC was pro­ grammed to inject water from the base of the speci­ men at a constant rate of 144 mm3/h. When there was a sharp increase in horizontal displacement during infiltration, failure was deemed to have oc­ curred. 3.2 Triaxial test The specimen was saturated until a value of the Bw parameter exceeding 0.9 was obtained (Head, 1986). During the equalisation stage, the specimen was brought to equilibrium under 50 kPa net confining pressure and 50 kPa matric suction. Upon attaining equilibrium, the specimen was sheared at a constant rate of0.054 mmJh by a force actuator. This shearing rate was found to be suitable for CD tests for Bukit Timah granitic soils (Lim, 1995; Ong, 1999). The deviator stress was maintained constant by the force actuator once the pre-determined stress level was reached. The creep monitoring procedure was con­ sidered to have finished when the axial strain rate approached zero. During the infiltration procedure,

Undisturbed samples of Bukit Timah Granitic resid­ ual soils were tested. They were taken out from a site in Yishun in north-central Singapore by Mazier drilling. The specimens used in direct shear and tri­ axial tests were from borehole Yl at depths 5.5 to 6.5 m and 7 to 8 m respectively. The properties of the specimen are shown in Table 1. Table I. Soil properties for the specimens Property Bulk density (Mg/m ) Initial water content (%) Specific gravity Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Sand(%) Silt(%) Clay(%) USCS Classification

Direct shear test 1.71 48.4 2.64 63 43 6 69 25 Clayey silt MH

Triaxial test 1.57 56.1 2.63 77 47 3 69 28 Clayey silt MH

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A consistent sign convention is used for presenting both direct shear and triaxial test results. A negative water volume change means pore-water flows out from the specimen and vice versa. In direct shear test, a negative vertical displacement indicates a set­ tlement of the specimen and vice versa. In the triax­ ial test, a negative axial strain shows a compression in the specimen in the axial direction and vice versa. A negative volumetric strain means compression in the total volume of the specimen and vice versa. 5.1 Direct shear test results The results of the shearing-infiltration stage are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3(a) shows that the speci­ men was sheared to a stress level of 250 kPa and 3.65 mm of horizontal displacement was needed to mobilise this stress level. During shearing, the ma­ tric suction of 200 kPa was maintained constant as shown in Figure 3(b). The specimen compressed and the pore-water flowed from the specimen as depicted by the decrements in vertical displacement and water volume changes in Figure 3(c).

589

JOO

~

250 200

~

150

~

100

50 0

~-VI/_-1- --r+·· . . . · · · ........ ~- 1J+--1--+- F>ill

I

I

--1 •

shear'"""l o,- u, - m kPnl ­ u.- u.- .. 200 kPal

v

10

0

12

14

16

18

20

Horizontal dis pl;u:cment (mm)

possibly indicating yielding points, as shown in Fig­ ure 3(b). Failure was deemed to have occurred at a matric suction of 56 kPa when there was a signifi­ cant increase in horizontal displacement at 7.29 mm. Once failure occurred, the specimen compressed rapidly with a sudden decrease in vertical displace­ ment as shown in Figure 3(c). This contraction at failure is probably due to the high net normal stress (275 kPa). Because of the contractant behaviour, the matric suction continued to decrease.

(a)

5.2 Triaxial test results Shearing

Creep monitoring

Figure 4 shows the results of the shearing stage. Fig­ ure 4(a) shows that the specimen was sheared to a 200 pre-determined deviator stress of 187 kPa. After ~· 150 failure due to infiltration occurred, the deviator stress decreased to an ultimate strength which re­ 100 mained constant for large strains. v 50 'E Figure 4(b) shows the behaviour in terms of axial ~ strain, base and mid-height matric suctions with o.oo 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 6().00 70.00 80.00 time. During shearing and creep monitoring, the E12p!ed llmt (hours) mid-height matric suction remained constant. This proves that the drained shearing rate used was ap­ propriate and it did not result in any build up of ex­ (b) cess pore-water pressure. During creep monitoring, the axial strain decreased slowly (specimen com­ pressed in the axial direction) but stabilised eventu­ Infiltration Shearing Creep monitoring ally. It shows that the effect of creep was negligible. 0.6 3000 7 Once infiltration started, the matric suctions at the jjCJ u = 275 kP: t\1/a[er \'Oiume change 0.4 c } 2000 1/ I u,-u., • 200kPo '-.. base and mid-height decreased. However, the base !'. 1000 0.2 ~ y I _ matric suction reduced quicker than the mid-height ; 0 Faihrn: iE ·~ ~ ·0.2 ~ s matric suction. It clearly shows that the base and ~ -1000 .I ..... ~ __ .......

mid-height pore-water pressures were not the same -OA ~ i -2000 -0.6 ~ ~ -3000 1 -f- Vertical djspla.cement during infiltration. Just before failure took place, the ~ ~ -4000 -0.8 mid-height matric suction was 6 kPa higher than the 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 base matric suction. This suggests that there was a El1psed IJme (hours) water front moving vertically up from the base of the specimen. Once failure occurred, the axial strain de­ (c) creased drastically (the specimen compressed in the axial direction). Figure 3. Results for shearing-infiltration direct shear test under The fluctuations of the volumetric strain during 275 kPa net normal stress and 200 kPa matric suction (a) shear shearing and creep monitoring as shown in Figure stress versus horizontal displacement (b) matric suction and 4(c) were due to expansion and contraction of the horizontal displacement versus elapsed time (c) water volume big triaxial cell due to temperature changes. This change and vertical displacement versus elapsed time. caused some difficulty in interpreting the small total volume change of the specimen. However, the During creep monitoring, the horizontal displace­ volumetric strain increased greatly after failure. This ment initially increased gradually but then levelled is different from the behaviour in direct shear due to off with time as seen in Figure 3(b). Therefore, any the lower net confining pressure used (50 kPa). horizontal displacements due to creep were com­ If the soil on a potential failure surface fails in a pleted before starting the infiltration procedure. No dilatant mode, the infiltration-dependent suction changes in water volume change suggests no move­ change and strain-dependent suction change coun­ ment of pore-water in or out of the specimen. teract since for dilatant shear, a suction increase is Once infiltration commenced, the matric suction induced by shear (Brand, 1981 ). The matric suction decreased from 200 kPa and the rate of decrement increased immediately after failure as seen in Figure became gradual with time. During infiltration before 4(b) because the strain-induced suction change was failure, the horizontal displacement increased gradu­ greater than the infiltration-induced suction change. ally and the graph showed some changes in slope, However, continued infiltration of water causes the

. i "'~

250

~

111 •

1

-

590

infiltration-induced suction change to overcome the strain-induced suction change and this explains why the matric suction decreased eventually. 200 180 160 140 't 120 ~ .t 100

.-..L

-E

..,.~

i

so 60 40 20

·~

c

I I

I

I

Failwe

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50 kP:I=

1 os · u, -

• Devi.ator stress

u.· u... ~so kPa

~

"-

'

I

0 -12

· 10

·2

-14

-16

(a)

- 16

-1---+----+--- -+- --1------1­

0.00

20.00

40.00

60J)()

100.00

80.00

El.11pnd cin)r (ho un)

6 CONCLUSIONS In both direct shear and triaxial tests, it is seen that failure of the specimens during infiltration was due to the decrease ofmatric suction. Some of common behaviour observed in both di­ rect shear and triaxial testing: (a) During shearing, pore-water was expelled from the specimen as the specimen compressed. (b) During creep monitoring, there were no changes in pore-water volume. (c) During infiltration, the matric suction decreased. The rate of the suction decrement reduced with time. (d) The specimen yielded before failure but showed a large increase in strain at failure. The lower pore-water pressures at mid-height compared to that at the base during infiltration sug­ gests that the pore-water pressure distributions were not uniform. Water takes time to travel from the base to the top ofthe specimen. When failure occurs in dilatant mode, the strain­ induced suction change counteracts the suction re­ duction due to infiltration, as the suction increases under shear. However, continued infiltration further reduces the suction.

(b)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Shearin&

~~l · u• •

c n~ep

so kP~l

I

u. · u. • 50 t~.Pa . ' ollilmelric \ ra.fB

I

I

\

W11rr volwmc chanac 11nin - ­ 2000

~0.00

This research was supported by a grant from the Na­ tional Science and Technology Board (NSTB Grant 17/6/16: Rainfall-induced Slope Failures) in Singa­ pore. Many thanks are due to Vincent Heng for his assistance and valuable comments to carry out the research.

. n 11r2110• m 0 n ilonfiJ. llil

60.00

,,L.-j­ 1/

.7 --,_..,.. 8000

t OO 00

E la ps ed lime (hours)

REFERENCES

(c)

Brand, E.W. (1981). Some thoughts on Rain-Induced Slope Failures. Proceedings of 1Oth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Stockholm. Vol. 3: 373 - 376. Han, K.K. 1997. Effect of hysteresis, infiltration and tensile stress on the strength of an unsaturated soil. Ph.D. Thesis. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Head, K.H. (1986). Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol. 3. ELE International Limited. Lim, T.T. 1995. Shear strength characteristics and rainfall­ induced rnatric suction changes in a residual soil slope. MEng Thesis. Nanyang Technological University, Singa­ pore. Melinda, F. 1998. Shear strength of a compacted residual soil from unsaturated direct shear tests. MEng Thesis. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Muraleetharan, K.K. and Granger, K.K. 1999. The use of miniature pore pressure transducers in measuring rnatric

Figure 4. Results for shearing-infiltration triaxial test under 50 kPa net confining pressure and 50 kPa rnatric suction (a) de­ viator stress versus axial strain (b) axial strain and base or mid­ height rnatric suctions versus elapsed time (c) volumetric or water volume change strains versus elapsed time.

During shearing, the decrease of water volume change strain (= percentage of water volume change relative to the initial total specimen volume) shows that the pore-water was squeezed out from the specimen. However, during creep monitoring, the pore-water volume was unchanged as shown by the water volume change strain. This was also observed in the direct shear test.

591

suction in unsaturated soils", Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 22, No.3, pp. 226- 234. Ong, B.H. 1998. Shear strength and volume change of unsatu­ rated residual soil. MEng Thesis. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Ridley, A.M. & Burland, J.B. 1993. A new instrument for the measurement of soil moisture suction. Geotechnique 43. No.2: 321-324. Toll, D.G. 1999. A Data Acquisition and Control System for Geotechnical Testing. Computing Developments in Civil and Structural Engineering (edited by B. Kumar and B.H. V. Topping). Edinburgh: Civil-Comp Press, p.p 237 ­ 242.

592

9

Volume change

9.1 Collapse

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Collapsibility of Egyptian loess soil E M.Abdrabbo, R.M.El Hansy & K.M. Hamed

Structural Engineering Department, Faculty ofEngineering, Alexandria University, Egypt

ABSTRACT: The work presented is dealing with experimental research project on the response of circular footing resting on collapsible soil. A special apparatus was prepared in laboratory to measure the collapse settlement of a footing model under the effect of several parameters. Most of the previous researches are dealing with the inundation of collapsible soil starting from the top surface, which represents the case of rainwater, or similar. In this research the inundation starts from bottom of the soil toward the surface which is representing the case of the breakage of sewage pipes and/or rise of ground water table. The used system for inundation enabled to study the effect of dry soil thickness beneath the footing on the value of collapse settlement. The effects of load ratio, initial dry unit weight and the molding moisture content are also studied. Sand cushion is placed beneath the footing as a stabilization method to improve the response of footing and to minimize the collapse potential of soil upon wetting. Comparison between the measured and the predicted collapse settlement using the collapse predictive model developed by Basma & Tuncer (1992) are made. Mahmoud 1988). The authors found that the angle of shearing resistance measured from shear box apparatus, decreases as the molding water content increases, meanwhile the cohesion increases with the increase of the molding water content up to the value of water content corresponding to optimum dry density, then decreases again. The authors also, found that the western desert soil exhibits collapse potential at initial void ratio bigger than 0.45. Unstable collapsible soils have relative density ranging from 0.1 to 0.9, but for many stable soils they have relative density of 0.70 ( Dudley 1970). But, it is misconception when thinking that all soils of low density will exhibit tendency to collapse (Jennings & Knight 1975). The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Gibbs & Bara 1967) demonstrated that if the soil exists in void ratio higher than that would exist at the liquid limit, the addition of water would result in collapse settlement. The post-soaked (Lie/Lip) values are independent of initial void ratio, but the pre-soaked values are dependent (Mahmoud & Abdrabbo 1992). The factors affecting the collapse potential of collapsible soil were reported by Abdrabbo & Mahmoud (1988), Mahmoud & Abdrabbo (1992), Houston et al. (1988) and Dudley (1970). Many researchers reported serious damages that occurred to different types of structures due to collapse settlement (Capps & Hejj 1968) and (Rollins & Rogers 1994). Houston et al. (1988)

1 INTODUCTION The collapsible soils are covering vast areas of several countries. Particularly in Egypt, they are widely spread throughout the Egyptian western desert, especially at Sidi-Baranee, New El-Ameria city, El-Boustan, Borg El-Arab city, the 6th of October city, etc. Some collapsible soils are deposited in such a way that they exist in a loose honeycomb-type structure at a relatively low density. At their natural low moisture content they possess high apparent strength, but are susceptible to a large reduction in void ratio upon wetting. Some other collapsible soils are generally composed of uniform, silt-sized particles, which were loosely deposited, and are bonded together with relatively small fraction of clay forming the typical loess structure. Normally, loess has high shearing resistance and withstands high stresses without great settlement, when natural moisture content is low. However, upon wetting, the clay bond tends to soften and cause collapse of the loess structure inducing large settlement under low level of stresses. Therefore, it is dangerous to construct on these soils without improving their characteristics. In Egypt, the formation is very dense; SPT values in the range of 250/300mm blows were recorded. Extensive work on Egyptian western desert collapsible soil was carried out (Abdrabbo & 595

modified the procedure of double oedometer test developed by Jennings & Knight (1975) to estimate the magnitude of collapse settlement by conducting only one oedometer test. Many researchers made comparison between the output results of implementing the double and single oedometer tests in calculating the collapse settlement of a foundation; general agreement was found (Ismael 1988), (Lawton et al. 1992) and (Basma & Tuncer 1992). Houston et al. (1995) introduced an in-situ collapse test, which is called down-hole collapse test. The test results were used to develop stress­ strain relationship of soil. Basma & Tuncer (1992) developed the following equation to predict the collapse potential (So) as,

sc = 48.496 + 0.102 c.- 0.457 wi- 3.53 +2.8ln P w

yd

(1)

where c. =coefficient of uniformity of the soil; wi = initial moisture content,%; "fd = dry unit weight in kN/m3 ; and P w= pressure at wetting in kN/m2 • 2 TESTING EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS A soil bin, used to contain the soil, was made of transparent plastic (perspex) plates; 345 mm side length, 400 mm height and 10 mm thickness connected together using a mixture of perspex powder and chloroform and tied together using steel ties at two levels as shown in Figure 1. The base of the bin was made of a square perspex plate; 365 mm side length and 20 mm thickness. The soil bin was placed on a square steel plate; 340 mm side length, 12mm thickness, which rests on two steel rings; 300 mm diameter, 450 mm height filled with compacted sand. The two rings were placed inside a cylindrical steel rigid container; 750 mm diameter and 600 mm height filled with compacted sand, in order to insure the stability of soil bin during running the test. A calibrated proving ring, 49 N accuracy, recorded the load applied using a frictionless lever and guiding system. The displacement of the footing was recorded by two dial gauges; 0.01 mm accuracy fixed rigidly to reference beams using magnetic bases. During loading tests, the difference between readings of the two dial gauges, were kept to be within 1 % of the mean value, to accept the test results. The model footing 100 mm in diameter was machined from a steel plate 10 mm thickness. The loads transferred from the lever to the footing, were checked by the principles of static using the lever arm ratio. No appreciable difference what so ever were deserved between the calculated and the measured values. A circular water tank of 200 mm diameter was used to supply the soil bin with water through four plastic pipes. The water was controlled

using four water valves, each of 1Omm diameter, made from brass, and connected to the bottom side of soil bin symmetrically at equal distance. The collapsible soil was obtained from New Borg El-Arab city, 60 km to the west of Alexandria city. The soil was dried in an electrical oven at 110 °C for 24 hours then, sieved on 0.425 mm B.S. sieve, the passing material was used. The main characteristics of the soil are shown in Table 1. The laboratory tests on soil are carried out in accordance with ASTM. The soil bin, Figure 2 was placed and centered at its position with respect to the loading system. Fine gravel layer; 50 mm thickness acts as a filter, was placed and compacted to reach a dry unit weight of 17.56 kN/m3 and then, covered with a sheet of felt to separate between collapsible soil deposit and the filter layer. The collapsible soil was prepared in six layers, each 50 mm thickness. The weight of dry soil was determined for each layer and compacted to achieve the desired predetermined dry unit weight. After placing and forming the soil, the footing was placed accurately on the top of soil surface and loaded incrementally up to a predetermined percentage of the failure load. The load was kept constant, and the water allowed to flow to the soil via the four water valves. After water had reached the required level, the water valves were turned off. The water level in the water tank was held constant during the inundation process. The rise of water through the soil was recorded with time, if possible, before and after turning off the water valves. The collapse settlement due to wetting was also, recorded with time during this stage. The load was held constant for 24 hours until full collapse settlement takes place. The vertical load was then increased incrementally using the same procedure before soil inundation up to failure. For each load increment, the settlement of the footing was measured up to the rate of settlement becomes less than 0.005 mm I 20 min for three successive readings. A reference­ loading test was conducted on similar soil having zero water content, but without inundation to determine the ultimate load (P,) of footing-soil system. The ultimate load was defined as the load corresponding to abrupt change in the slope of the in presented relationship; load-settlement logarithmic drawing. Table 1. Main characteristics of collapsible soil 76% % passing no 200 sieve 0.008mm Effective diameter, D 10 ,, 5.5 Uniformity coefficient, C • 2.23 Coefficient of curvature, C , Liquid limit, W1 30% 21% Plastic limit, W• 9% Plasticity index, I• 2.59 Specific gravity, G, 16.87kN/m3 Maximum dry unit weight, y dmax 21% Optimum moisture content, wnm

596

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597

Suction rise h

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3 TESTING PROGRAMME

0.40

A testing program was designed to investigate the effect of the thickness of the inundated collapsible soil (h), the load ratio (PIP .J, the molding moisture content (Wu, the dry unit weight of soil ( yd ) and other many factors (Hamed 1998 ). The effect of the thickness of collapsible soil replaced by compacted sand, sand cushion, as a method of collapsible soil stabilization was also investigated. A comparison between the measured values of collapse settlement from footing model, and the predicted values using the collapse predictive model developed by Basma & Tuncer, (Equation 1), was conducted.

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4 TESTING RESULTS 4.1 Effect ofthe inundation thickness Fourteen plate loading tests were performed to study the effect of the inundation thickness (h), Figure 2, on the collapse settlement. These tests were carried out at an initial dry unit weight (yd ) of 11.87 kN/m3 and at three load ratios of 0.25, 0.50 and 0.75. The load ratio was defined as the load (p) at which the soil is inundated divided by the ultimate load (P.J obtained from the reference loading test. From these tests, it was found that, the collapse settlement (Sc) increases with the increase of the thickness of the inundated collapsible soil (h), that is to say, as the thickness of dry soil beneath the footing decreases. Figure 3 shows the relationship between (SjB) and ~/B). This figure confirmed that, for load ratios 0.25 and 0.50 the collapse settlement of the footing is insignificant when the depth of the dry soil under the footing is nearly equal to 2.5 B. It is worthnoted from the figure that as the load ratio increased the collapse settlement increased, as long as, ~IB is less than 1.0. Beyond this limit the collapse settlement becomes independent ofload ratio (plp.J.This can be attributed to the insignificance of the imposed stresses at depths beyond the limiting depth. At load ratio of 0.75, high values of collapse settlement were developed which could not be measured, when inundation depth, h, was more than 100 mm which correspond to ~/Bless than 1.50. The rise of water through the soil and the corresponding collapse settlement due to wetting were recorded. The relationship between Otw /B) and (SIB) during the inundation process was plotted as shown in Figure 4. These tests were carried out on dry soil having initial dry unit weight of 11.87 kN/m3 and at three load ratios 0.25, 0.50 and 0.75. It is clear from the figure that the

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Figure 1: Grading curves for the fill types tested the behaviour of partially saturated soils. Although many direct and indirect methods of suction measurement are available, in practice it can be difficult to measure suctions. Several methods for the measurement of suction in the laboratory have been used to characterise the variation of suction with moisture content and dry density. A new variant of the filter paper technique (Chandler and Gutierez, 1986) has been developed in order to provide a simple and cost-effective means of measuring suction in re-compacted samples. Samples 60mm high were compacted into a 100mm diameter mould at the required density and moisture content. One or two pieces of filter paper were weighted onto the top of the sample using a steel plate and the whole mould was covered in cling film and wax. The samples were allowed 10 days to come to equilibrium before breaking open the moulds. The moisture content of the filter paper can be related to the suction present in the sample. Suctions have also been measured using a large pressure plate device (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993) capable of testing 150mm diameter samples and using measurements of the electrical resistance of gypsum blocks buried in large recompacted samples. Similar values for suction have been obtained by each method. For example a variation in suction of 10-25kPa was found in tests on the colliery spoil using the three methods for moisture contents of 11­ 12%. Suctions were measured in sand fill samples using the filter paper method only. Some degree of

scatter was found in the results of all the suction tests on the fill materials. 4 SUCTION AND COMPACTION Laboratory compaction tests and contours of suction interpreted from the test results for the three fill types are presented and discussed in the light of the properties which are likely to govern the soil response to the impact process and the subsequent performance of the fill. The contours are only plotted over the limited range of dry density and moisture content covered by the suction tests; tests at dry densities higher than those achieved by the 4.5kg rammer test were not carried out. The measurements of suction for the boulder clay fill are plotted on a dry density-moisture content plot in Figure 2. Suction is principally a function of moisture content except at low air voids. This is consistent with testing on a compacted silt by Gens et al (1995). Load tests at constant moisture content and high air voids can therefore be assumed to be constant suction tests. It can be seen that the suction in the samples increased rapidly as the moisture content fell below 10%. Above 10% moisture content the suction decreased more slowly with increase in moisture content and had some dependence on dry density. Load tests at low air voids will need careful interpretation since changes in suction occur during compression.

614

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615

A plot of suction-moisture content-dry density is shown in Figure 3 for the granular colliery spoil. Suctions of around SOkPa were present in fill samples close to the natural water content of 8%. There was little evidence of dependence of suction on dry density, except at low air voids. In this respect the colliery spoil was similar to the boulder clay although the boulder clay contained 40% more fines by weight. Suction measurements on clay fills by Olsen and Langfelder (1965) indicated that there was little dependence of suction on dry density and that the magnitude of suction could be related to the specific surface area of the clay minerals. One of the clays had similar plasticity to the boulder clay and the suctions were similar. Tests by Acer and Nyeretse (1992) showed that the suction present in clay and sand mixtures compacted at optimum moisture content increased with increasing fines content and that this was particularly noticeable for samples with 0-20% clay fraction and for high activity clays. Dineen et al (1999) also found that suction was principally a function of moisture content for a bentonite enriched sand. Suction tests were also carried out on a uniformly graded sand with no fines content. The measurements (Figure 4) indicated that very low suctions were present in samples at greater than 2% moisture content, but at moisture contents close to

zero the suction in the samples rose to very high values. Within the range of accuracy of the test there was no evidence of dependence of suction on dry density, in common with the other fill types. The compaction results for the boulder clay plotted on Figure 2 show a significant decrease in the effectiveness of the compaction occurred as the moisture content fell below 10% and the suction in the boulder clay samples increased rapidly. With the moisture content above 10% the suction decreased slowly with increase in moisture content and the effectiveness of the compaction was little affected by change in suction. Compaction tests on the granular colliery spoil using the BS 1377 2.5kg rammer test indicated a maximum dry density at 7% and a minimum dry density at between 2 and 3% moisture content. At moisture contents below this the dry density achieved by the 2.5kg rammer test increased with decreasing moisture content. In this respect there was some similarity with the behaviour of the sand. Although there may be very high suctions at very low moisture contents in granular soils, the lack of fines means that the suctions have little effect on the compaction process. The increased energy input during compaction with the 4.5kg rammer did not produce a similar increase in density at very low moisture contents as gross disturbance took place. In compaction tests on the sand fill there was a large range of moisture content over which there was

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\0..2=28%, Pdl=l3 .5 kN/m3), and wet of optimum (roJ=38%, Pdl=l3.5 kN/m3). The predicted and measured heave of the footing and the soil surface are presented in Figure 4. The predicted heave of the model footing, for the three states of compaction, is higher than the actual (measured) heave. The pre­ dicted heave of the soil surface, however, is lower than the actual heaves. It can, also, be said that the over-prediction offooting heave is not constant over the range of the tested moisture content (Figure 5). The heave reduction factor R1 ranges from 0.93 for the case of dry of optimum to 0.64 for the case of wet of optimum. Therefore, the dryer the soil the better the prediction by the direct method. The over­ prediction offooting heave by the direct method can not be attributed to sample disturbance, since the direct method under-predicted heave values of the soil surface. The prediction sensitivity to the pre-wetting moisture content is inherited in the approach of the direct method. The volumetric strain due to swelling (in the direct method or any other method based on the one dimensional heave condition) is manifested totally in the vertical direction, since it is based on the one-dimensional oedometer test. The loaded area in a footing problem is finite and the condition of no lateral strain (one-dimensional condition) is no longer valid. Thus, for a finite loaded area (as the case of plane strain condition) the volumetric strain due to swelling is manifested vertically as well as laterally. Consequently, the direct method over­ predicts footing heave, since the volumetric strain due to swelling is partly vertical, while the direct method considers it to be totally vertical. 624

9 CONCLUSIONS

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An experimental study was conducted on model footing resting on compacted expansive soil. The following conclusions were drawn from the study: 1. Swelling percentages versus applied pressure (logarithmic scale) yields a straight-line relationship . 2. The direct method of heave prediction is based on the one-dimensional oedometer; therefore, it overestimates heave value when applied for cases of multidimensional swell such as plane strain con­ dition. 3. The heave reduction factor Rris not constant and is highly influenced by the soil structure and the pre-wetting moisture content (Figure 5). 4. A value of0.8- 0.9 is recommended for the heave reduction factor Rr for soils on the dry side. And a value of 0.6 - 0. 7 is recommended for the heave reduction factor Rrfor soils on the wet side. 5. The upper limit ofthe heave reduction factor Rr is recommended for footings with partial satura­ tion. The lower limit ofthe heave reduction factor Rr is recommended for footings with full saturation

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Distance from footing edge in mm

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the footing and soil surfilce

The variability ofthe heave reduction factor over the pre-wetting moisture content range can be attributed to the variability of the effective stress due to changes in the moisture content. The vertical and lateral proportion of the volumetric strain due to swelling, at a point within the soil mass, depends on the vertical and lateral pressures as well as the swell potential at that point. Vertical effective pressure (a'v) is composed ofthe effective overburden pres­ sure (y'z) plus the vertical pressure due to footing load (ave). The lateral effective pressure (alf) is com­ posed oflateral component ofthe effective overbur­ den (Koy'z) and a lateral pressure due to the footing load (alf). When the soil is on the dry side the effective stress is high (due to high negative pore water pressure) in comparison to a soil on the wet side. Since the lateral pressure for a soil on the wet side is less than for a soil on the dry side; therefore, the lateral manifestation ofthe volumetric strain due to swelling increases as the pre-wetting moisture content increases. Consequently, as lateral swell increases heave over-prediction increases too.

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.. ;..

Abdullah, W. S., Jundi, M. and Nabulsi, F., 1999, "Influence of lateral swell on the accuracy of the methods of heave prediction" Submitted for publication. Alonso, E. E., Gens, A and Hight, D. W., 1987 "Special problem soils" General Report - Ses­ sion 5, Proc. rJh European Conf Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dublin, vol. 2, pp. 1087-1146. Dalmatov, B. I., 1991. Soil Mechanics, Foundations and Footings, A A Balkema Pub!., Rotterdam. Jennings, J. E., and Knight, K., 1957, "The predic­ tion of Total Heave from the Double Oedometer Test", Transaction ofthe South African Institu­ tion of Civil Engineers, Vol. 7, No. 9, pp.13 -19. Jennings, and Knight, K., 1975. "A guide to con­ struction on or with materials exhibiting addi­ tional settlement due to "collapse" of grain structure, Proc. 6th Reg. Conf for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dur­ ban, South Africa, vol. 1, pp. 99-105. Jennings, J. E., 1969, ''The prediction of Amount and Rate ofHeave Likely to be Experienced in Engineering Construction on Expansive Soils", Proceeding of the Second International Re­ search and Engineering Conference on Expan­ sive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, Texas, pp. 99- 109.

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REFERENCES

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R'=0.9752

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100

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625

Lambe, T. W., 1958, "The engineering behavior of compacted clays," Journal ofthe Soil Mechan­ ics and Foundations Div., ASCE, Paper 1655. Lambe, T. W., 1962, "Soil Stabilization," chapter 4, Foundation Engineering, G. A. Leonards (ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York. Popescu, M. F., 1992 ''Engineering Problems Asso­ ciated with Expansive and Collapsible Soils Be­ havior'', Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Dallas, Texas (USA), pp. 25-46, August 3-5, 1992. Seed, H. B., and Chan, C. K., 1959, "Structure and strength characteristics of compacted clays," Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Div., ASCE, vo1.85, no. SM5. Sullivan, R. A., and McClelland, B., 1969, "Pre­ dicting Heave of Buildings on Unsaturated Clay", Second International Research and Engi­ neering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, pp. 404-420. U. S. Army Corps ofEngineers, Foundations in E ­ pansive Soils, Department ofthe Army, Techni­ cal Manual TM 5-818-7, Washington, DC, I September 1983. Zeitlen, J. G., 1969, "Some approaches to founda­ tion design for structures in an expansive soil area", Proceedings of the 2nd International Re­ search and Engineering Conference on Expan­ sive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University. pp 148 -155.

626

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Vertical swelling of expansive soils under fully and partially lateral restraint conditions M.A.Al-Shamrani & A.I.Al-Mhaidib

Department ofCivil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation in which the feasibility of using a stress path triaxial cell for evaluating the vertical swell of expansive soils under multi-dimensional loading conditions was examined. Series of triaxial swell tests were conducted, and the influence of confinement and initial water content on the predicted vertical swell was evaluated. The results of these tests were compared with the volume changes observed for samples tested under identical initial conditions in the oedometer. The vertical swell linearly decreased with increasing confining pressure and initial water content. The percentages of ultimate vertical swell obtained from triaxial swell tests were considerably lower than the corresponding values measured in the oedometer tests. Besides, the rate of decrease in the vertical swell with increasing ap­ plied pressure is higher for the oedometer tests.

l INTRODUCTION

2

Increased awareness of the structural damages associated with expansive soils has led to more attention being focused on different aspects of their characteristics and behavior. Among the various aspects associated with building on expansive soils, a reliable estimate of the anticipated heave represents the most important factor influencing the selection of treatment alternatives to minimize volume change, or preparation of a foundation design to accommodate the anticipated volume change. The majority of volume change testing of expansive soils has been performed under one-dimensional loading conditions in the oedometer. However, due to differences between laboratory test constraints and field conditions the amount of volume changes measured in various oedometer-testing methods may differ dramatically from heaves actually realized in the field. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation in which the feasibility of using a hydraulic triaxial stress path apparatus for evaluating the vertical swell of expansive soils under multi­ dimensional loading conditions is examined. Series of triaxial swell tests are conducted, and the influence of confinement and initial water content on the predicted vertical swell is evaluated. The results of these tests are also compared with the volume changes observed for samples tested under identical loading and initial conditions in the oedometer.

2.1 Material and sample preparation

EXPERDMENTALPROG~

The soil samples for this study were brought from the town of Al-Ghatt, 270 km northwest ofRiyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia. The region experiences some ofthe largest differential ground movements in Saudi Arabia. Soil samples were obtained from a test pit at a depth of about three meters. The expansive formation at the site is a gray-green to yellowish weathered clayey shale. The pit was excavated in an area where many residential buildings, sidewalks, and pavements had been severely damaged due to differential heave of the underlying soft rock shales. Laboratory testing on extracted samples included routine classification and mechanical property tests. The liquid and plastic limits are 60 and 30, respectively, and the soil has a specific gravity of 2.8. The natural moisture content is about 22%, which is far below the plastic limit and hence relatively high values for swell parameters are expected. The soil contains 28% silt-size particles (0.075-0.002 mm) and 72% clay-size particles (< 0.002 mm). It is classified as a CH soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The index properties of the tested shales put it into the "high' to "very high" categories of four ofthe most commonly methods of determining a soil's intrinsic expansiveness (Holtz and Gibbs, 1956; Seed et al., 1962; VanDer Merwe, 1964; Dakshanamurthy

627

and Raman, 1973). The relatively high expansion in these deposits was primarily attributed to the destruction of capillary stresses resulting from extreme desiccation, coupled with the destruction in the stratified soil structure through water infiltration (Dhowian et a!., 1990). In addition, the natural moisture contents were well below the plastic limit of the soil, resulting in a considerable water deficiency and high water intake potential. In order to minimize variations in test data remolded samples were used in the testing program. To ensure uniformity of testing, the block samples were dried, pulverized into a powder in batches and screened through sieve No. 40. The batches were thoroughly mixed to obtain a uniform bulk sample. Individual samples were oven-dried for about 24 hours and then thoroughly mixed to the chosen molding moisture content. They were then stored in air-tight plastic bags and sealed in plastic wraps to avoid loss in moisture content, and were allowed to cure at room temperature for 24 hours to allow uniform distribution of moisture content. The 38 mm-diameter, 76 mm-long specimens for the triaxial tests were statically compacted in a vertically-split compaction mold. The soil was compacted in three layers of about 25-mm thickness to maximize uniformity. Static compaction furnishes the most uniform and repeatable samples (Booth, 1976), hence it was chosen over other compaction methods such as impact compaction and kneading. The use of a split mold ensures that the density ofthe sample will not be altered, as would be the case if it extruded from the mold.

After the specimen was removed from the mold and enclosed into a single watertight rubber membrane, it was mounted on the base ofthe triaxial cell. The base platen was lightly coated with a film of thin grease prior to attaching the membrane. The specimen was seated against a saturated porous stone, and a second similar porous stone was placed on the top of the sample. The membrane was then sealed to the top loading cap and the bottom platen with 0-ring seals. Then, valves 2 and 4, illustrated in Figure I, were opened, and the perspex cell was filled with de-aired tap water flowing through valve 2. Then valve I was opened and the chamber pressure was incrementally increased until the loading ram, along with the sample, began to move upward. The chamber pressure required to move the ram upward is easily determined by knowing the combined weight of the loading ram and the specimen. A self-compensating mercury control (Bishop and Henkel, 1962) was used for applying both the lateral and the chamber pressure.

2.2 Testing procedure The triaxial tests were carried out in a hydraulic triaxial stress path cell ofthe type reported by Bishop and Wesley (I975). A schematic diagram of the testing system is shown in Figure I. Unlike the conventional triaxial cell, the stress path cell is self­ contained, portable, and requires no loading frame. Instead, the axial load is applied to the sample by pressurizing the lower chamber at the bottom ofthe cell. The piston pushes up a loading ram, at the top end ofwhich is the pedestal on which the soil sample is mounted. The sample is pushed upward against a stationary submersible load cell. This is a salient feature of the stress path cell that makes it possible to measure the vertical swell. In the conventional triaxial apparatus it has only been possible to measure the total volumetric swell ofthe tested soil sample. Vertical displacement is measured with a dial gauge and/or a displacement transducer mounted on the top of the cell and deflected by two vertical extension rods which pass through clearance holes in the cell base and connected to the loading ram.

628

Figure 1. Schematic layout of the Bishop-Wesley triaxial stress path cell.

The upward movement of the loading ram slowly continued until the top loading cap touched the sta­ tionary load cell, which recorded the load. Utmost care was taken with the alignment of the top loading cap with the load cell. It was important that the loading cap gently touches the load cell so that the sample will not be subjected to axial compression. In the meantime, it was essential to ensure a full contact between the top loading cap and the load cell so that the entire vertical swell will be detected and meas­ ured by the dial gauges shown in Figure 1. If a space is left between the top loading cap and the load cell the specimen will expand upward, and this expansion will not be detected by the dial gauges. Therefore, to maintain contact between the top loading cap and the load cell a nominal axial pressure of about 2 kPa was applied to the sample.

because of their low permeability. Ruwaih (1987) found the permeability of various natural shale formations in Saudi Arabia, including the one considered in this study, to range from 1o-9 to 1o- 12 em/sec.

After deciding the desired confining pressure for the given test, the chamber pressure was determined accordingly. With valves 1, 2 and 4 closed, the chamber and lateral pressures were increased to the desired values. Their values were monitored by pressure transducers connected to electronic readout devices. After reaching the specified values for the chamber and lateral pressures, initial dial gauge readings were taken and valves 1 and 2 were simultaneously opened. The specimen was allowed to consolidate under the applied isotropic confining pressure for a period of about 24 hours before it was given free access to water. Initial dial gauge readings were taken, and water was introduced to the bottom of the sample by opening valve 3, which is connected to a 50-ml single-tube drainage burette. Readings were taken until the change in vertical swell under the applied confinement was negligible at which the test was terminated. The sample was then removed from the cell, weighed, and three slices were taken from the bottom, middle, and top ofthe specimen and used to find the final water contents.

8

~6 Qi

e3:n

""fj4

.,

'E

>

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•....

2

0

•

0 0

5000

10000

25 kPa 50kPa 100 kPa 200 kPa

15000

20000

25000

Time (min)

Figure 2. Vertical swell under different confining pressures.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Effect ofConfinement The percentage of swell is dependent on the level of applied confining pressure. The first set of triaxial swell tests was conducted to examine the effect of confinement on the amount of vertical swell. A series of four tests was performed on samples compacted at an initial water content of 14% and dry density of 18 kN/m3, under a range of confining pressure (viz. 25, 50, 100, and 200 kPa). The percentage of vertical swell versus time is shown in Figure 2. The percentage of vertical swell is defined as the ratio of the increase in height ofthe sample to its initial height before it was given free access to water. As expected, the percentage of vertical swell decreases as the confining pressure increases. The increase in confining pressure from 25 to 200 kPa caused a reduction in the percentage of vertical swell from 8% to about 3.9%. Furthermore, following the commencement of the tests, the rate of expansion was relatively low especially for high confining pressure. This may be attributed to the slow rate of water sorption, and that some time was needed to pass before water starts to seep through the sample. The amount of vertical swell that occurs within a given period of time partially depends on the quantity of water that enters the soil. This in turns is influenced by the confinement. Under low confining pressures, water easily penetrates into the samples, whereas the entry of water is restricted by relatively high magnitude of confinement. Besides, saturation of the shale formations usually takes a very long time

629

It may also be noted from Figure 2 that during the early stage of the tests, confinement had less effect on the amount of vertical swell for relatively low confining pressures. Thus, up to a certain value of applied confining pressure, the magnitude of the pressure may have less effect on the vertical swell versus time relationship. This is in agreement with the results reported by Abduljauwad and AJ­ Sulaimani (1993).

3.2 Effect ofInitial Water Content In order to assess the effect of initial water content on the amount of vertical swell, a series of triaxial swell tests was conducted on soil specimens that were prepared at different initial water contents. Owing to the relatively long period oftime required for a single test (about 15 days), the number of performed tests was limited to five specimens all having the same dry density of 18 kN/mJ The first two tests were performed under a confining pressure of 25 kPa on two soil samples that were prepared at initial water content of 14% and 22%, respectively. Two other samples were also prepared at the same two values of initial water contents but subjected to a confining pressure of 100 kPa. It can be seen from Figure 3 and Figure 4 that, irrespective of the magnitude of the confining pressure, the initial moisture content had a significant effect on the magnitude of the vertical swell ofthe tested soil. Moreover, the influence of initial water content is relatively higher for higher confinement. When the initial water content decreased from 22% to 14%, the ultimate vertical swell increased by

about 300% and 400% for the confining pressures of 25 kPa and 100 kPa, respectively. 10,------------------------------,

8

"#­ ~ 6

tested in the oedometer apparatus, swell stabilizes at a moisture content close to the plastic limit ofthe tested soils. The relationship between the vertical swell and the initial moisture content may not, therefore, be unique but rather dependent on the loading conditions ofthe swell tests.

!oi!i!!.!.llilil.!!lr.QQO!!lol. o roi = 14% • roi=22%

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0 0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Time, min

Figure 3. Vertical swell versus time for different initial water contents (confining pressure = 25 kPa) 8,------------------------------,

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Initial Water Content, roi, %

Figure 5. Relationship between initial water content and vertical swell (confining pressure= 25 kPa)

6 Q)

;;:

~4

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3.3 Influence ofLoading and Wetting Conditions

o roi = 14% eroi=22%

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2

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5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Time, min

Figure 4. Vertical swell versus time for different initial water contents (confining pressure = 100 kPa)

To establish the relationship between swell and initial water content, the fifth specimen was prepared at an initial water content of 18% and tested under a confining pressure of 25 kPa. Figure 5 shows the expected trend of decrease in the ultimate vertical swell with the increase in the initial water content. The gradual reduction of ultimate swell with respect to initial water content implies that there should be an equilibrium position at which this value becomes almost stable. By extrapolating the linear relationship of Figure 5, the intersection with the abscissa indicates the initial moisture content at which the soil will experience no vertical swell. This value may be termed the "null moisture content, " can be found to be about 24% for the tested clayey shale. This value is quite below the plastic limit of 30%. Previous investigations (Dhowian et al., 1990; Edil and Alanazy, 1992) have shown that for soil samples

630

To study the vertical swell under different loading conditions, two series of swell tests were conducted. Four confining pressures (viz. 35, 70, 140, and 210 kPa) were used in this set of swell tests. The first set of tests was performed in the oedometer, whereas the second series of tests was conducted in the stress path triaxial apparatus and subjected to the conventional triaxial state of stress. The samples for all tests ofthe two series were prepared at 22% initial water content and 18-kN/m3 dry density. Testing and preparation of soil samples for the triaxial swell tests follow the same procedure described previously. The swell overburden method was used and tests were conducted according to ASTM D4546-85. The 70 mm-diameter, 19 mm-thick oedometer specimens were statically compacted in two layers in the consolidation ring, which was enclosed in a special compaction mold. The sample was then transferred to a standard rear loading oedometer and subjected to a seating pressure of 7 kPa for a period of 5 minutes. Then, the deformation dial gauge was adjusted for the initial zero reading, and after 5 minutes the specified vertical pressure was applied to the specimen. Five minutes after applying the vertical pressure, water was introduced to the specimen and the swell test commenced. The expansion of the specimen was measured until the change was negligible, at which time the test was terminated and the final water content was measured.

1980; Hamberg and Nelson, 1985; Dhowian et al., 1990) that the ultimate swell condition occurs at water contents close to the plastic limit. However, the results of FigureS indicate that this assumption may be erroneous especially for the case of high confinement under isotropic swelling condition.

Typical vanat10n of the percentage of vertical swell with elapsed time is shown in Figure 6 for the applied pressure of 35. As expected, the vertical swells obtained from oedometer are considerably larger than the triaxial test measurements. Similar patterns have also been observed for the triaxial and oedometer tests of the other three values of applied pressure (i.e., 70, 140, and 210 kPa). The percentage of vertical swells measured in the oedometer and the stress path equipment are plotted against the logarithm of applied pressures in Figure 7. The data from both the triaxial and oedometer tests are fitted to a straight line. It is noticed, however, that the rate of decrease in the vertical swell with increasing applied pressure is higher for the oedometer tests.

12

a;

~

10

100 Confining Pressure, kPa

8

1000

Iii

., 0

'E

>

Figure 7. Relationship between applied pressure and ultimate vertical swell measured in or.dometer and triaxial swell tests.

4

36,-----------------------------, 10

100 1000 Time, min

10000

100000

o Oedometer • Triaxial (Bottom)

*~ 32

• T.riaxial (Middle) •

Triaxial (Top)

~0

Figure 6. Percentages of vertical swell obtained from oedometer and triaxial swell tests (confining pressure~ 35 kPa).

()

i2! ~

The values of the final water contents versus the applied pressures are shown in Figure 8. It is observed that, the final water content varies along the length of the 76 mm-long triaxial test samples. The variation, however, depends on the level of applied pressure. For low confinement (35 kPa) the difference between the values of the final water contents at the top and the bottom ofthe sample is about 4.5%, whereas it is only 2% for the confining pressure of 21 0 kPa. It can also be noted that, regardless of the value of the applied pressure, the final water contents for samples tested in the oedometer are higher than the corresponding values for samples tested in the stress path cell. In other words, the moisture deficiency or moisture intake potential, which is the difference between final and initial moisture contents, is higher for oedometer tests. This observation supported the suggestion made by Erol et al. (1987) that not only a lateral restraint factor but also a moisture factor should be considered in the analysis of predicted heave when using the results of oedometer tests. Another conclusion to be drawn from Figure 8 concerns a proposition made by some investigators (Weston,

28

u:: 24

0

40

80

120

160

200

240

Applied Pressure, kPa

Figure 8. Final water contents of triaxial and oedometer sam­ ples at different confining pressures.

4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The experimental study presented in this paper included the performance of several series of swell tests under conventional isotropic state of triaxial stress. The influence of confinement and initial moisture content on the measured vertical swell was investigated. The results of the triaxial swell tests were compared with the volume change measured in specimens tested under one-dimensional loading

631

conditions in the oedometer. The following conclusions are drawn: I. The vertical swell linearly decreases with increasing confining pressure and initial water content. However, the influence ofthe change in initial water content on soil expansion slightly depends on the magnitude of the applied confining pressure. 2. The percentages of vertical swell obtained from triaxial swell tests were considerably lower than the corresponding values measured in the oedometer swell tests. 3. The final water contents for specimens tested in the triaxial apparatus are quite below the plastic limit. The discrepancy between the plastic limit and the final water content increased with increasing confining pressure. Moreover, the moisture deficiency or moisture intake potential, which is the difference between final and initial moisture contents, was higher for oedometer tests. Therefore, as has already been suggested by a number of researchers, not only a lateral restraint factor but also a moisture factor should be considered in the analyses of predicted heave when using the results of oedometer tests. REFERENCES Abduljauwad, S. N. & G. J. AI-Sulaimani 1993. Determination of swell potential of AI-Qatif clay. Geotechnical Testing J., ASTM, 16(4): 469-484. Bishop, A. W. & D. J. Henkel 1962. The measurement ofsoil properties in the triaxial test. 2nd Ed., Edward Arnold, London. Bishop, A.W. & L. D. Wesley 1975. A hydraulic triaxial appa­ ratus for controlled stress path testing. Geotechnique. 25: 657-670. Booth, A. R. 1976. Compaction and preparation of soil speci­ mens for oedometer testing. soil specimen preparation for laboratory testing. ASTM. STP599. 216-228. Dakshanamurthy, V. & V. Raman 1973. A simple method of identifying expansive soil. Soils and Foundations. 13(1): 97-104. Dhowian, A.W., A. 0. Erol & A. Youssef 1990. Evaluation of expansive soils and foundation methodology in the King­ dom of Saudi Arabia. Final Report, KACST, AT-5-88. Edil, T. B. & A. S. Alanazy 1992. Lateral swelling pressures. Proc. 7th Int. Conf on expansive soils, Dallas, Texas, 227­ 232. Erol, A. 0., A. W. Dhowian & A. Youssef 1987.Assessment of oedometer methods for heave prediction. Proc. 6'h Int. Conf on expansive soils. New Delhi, India, 99-103. Hamberg, D. J. & J. D. Nelson 1985. Prediction of floor slab heave. Proc. of 51h Int. Conf on expansive soils, Adelaide, Australia, 13 7-140. Holtz, W. G. & H. J. Gibbs 1956. Engineering properties of e ­ pansive clays. Proc., ASCE, Vol. 80, Separate No. 516, 1­ 28.

632

Ruwiah, I. A. 1987. Experiences with expansive soils in Saudi Arabia. Proc. 6'h Int. Conf on expansive soils, New Delhi, India, 317-322. Seed, H. B., R. J. Woodward & Lundgren, R. 1962. Prediction of swelling potential for compacted clays. J. ofthe Soil Me­ chanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, 88(3):53-87. Van Der Merwe, D. H. 1964. The prediction of heave from the plasticity index and percentage clay fraction of soils. Civil Engineers in South Africa, 6(6): 103-107. Weston, D. J. 1980.Expansive roadbed treatment from Southern Africa. Proc. 4'h Int. Conf on Expansive Soils, Denver, CO, 1:339-360.

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Influence of structure and stress history on the drying behaviour of clays ECafaro, ECotecchia & C. Cherubini Technical University ofBari,/taly

ABSTRACT: An investigation of the influence of stress history and structure on the state-path followed by clays during drying has been carried out. The paper discusses the results of tests concerning the drying behaviour of both a natural stiff illitic clay and the same clay reconstituted in the laboratory. The main differences found between the behaviour of reconstituted samples with different stress histories concern both the air entry value and the specific volume at the shrinkage limit. Moreover also the structure seems to influence the desaturation process, as observed on the natural clays. The study of the drying state-paths experienced by these two clays, when reconstituted in the labo­ ratory, has aimed at identifying the basic effects of both particle size distribution (sorting) and stress history (applied in the laboratory) on the desatura­ tion and shrinkage behaviour of the clay. In particu­ lar, the drying tests were carried out on reconstituted normally consolidated samples of both the grey and the yellow clay (Gnc and Ync), which are of differ­ ent sorting (Figure 1), and on an overconsolidated sample of the reconstituted grey clay (Goc), similar to Gnc in sorting. Moreover, drying tests were car­ ried out also on four samples of natural clay (Ga, Gd, Yb, Yc), in order to examine the additional ef­ fects of the natural structure on the clay drying be­ haviour.

1 INTRODUCTION Several recent studies have been concerned with the influence of drying-wetting processes on the me­ chanical behaviour of clays, starting from the idea that the development of suction and capillary stresses can represent an important factor of the stress history of soils and influence their mechanical response (Fredlund & Rahardjo 1993). Following this approach, Cafaro (1998) and Cafaro et al. (1998, 2000) have shown that weathering resulting from drying processes can cause changes in the clay state and structure, which can be of similar size to the changes resulting from external loading. The authors show that drying-wetting cycles, occurred in recent Quaternary within a stiff blue Pleistocene clay (Montemesola Clay, Southern Italy), have caused permanent reduction in the clay specific volume and changes in its structure, being structure the combi­ nation of both fabric and bonding (Cotecchia & Chandler 1997). Viceversa, the clay stress history and structure influence the way the clay responds to drying, e.g. the drying state-path. The present paper discusses the influence of the stress history and structure of clays, either reconstituted or natural, on their drying behaviour. The drying behaviour has been investigated for both the natural blue Montemesola clays and the same reconstituted in the laboratory. Specifically the natural clays, which are illitic and overconsolidated, occur in situ as grey and unweathered (G) at depths larger than 30m below ground level, and as yellow and weathered (Y) at shallower depths. The particle size distribution curves of both the grey and the yellow clays are shown in Figure 1.

100 90 ~ 80 gp 70 ·;;; [(j 60 50 ""'~ 40 E ., 30 .,g 20 ""' 10 0 0.0001 ~

G­

y ---­

0.001

0.1 0.01 grain size (mm)

Figure I. Particle size distribution curves of the Monte­ mesoIa clays, GandY.

633

2 TESTING PROCEDURE The parameters of use to describe the state-path of a clay during drying generally are specific vol­ ume, v, degree of saturation, S(%), water content, w(%), and suction, Pk· (Toll 1988, Ridley 1993). In the following, the drying state-paths will be de­ scribed, for the clay samples previously mentioned, by means of measurements of specific volume, de­ gree of saturation and suction, taken at given time intervals during the drying tests. These tests were carried out very slowly in the laboratory (in almost I 0 months, starting from com­ plete clay saturation), following the procedure sug­ gested by Ridley (1993), which makes use of appro­ priately sealed perspex devices to place filter paper disks in-contact with both the top and bottom of the sample and to slow down the drying process. The volume changes were measured every 2 or 3 weeks by immersing the sample into mercury and by meas­ uring the volume of the mercury being displaced. Suction was measured by means of the filter paper (in-contact) method (Chandler & Gutierrez 1986) and represents a matrix suction, at least until cavita­ tion occurs. The filter paper calibration employed to deduce the suction values is that reported by Chan­ dler et al. (1992) for filter paper Whatman n.42. 2500

a

3 RESULTS OF THE DRYING TESTS ON THE RECONSTITUTED CLAY

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The applicability of the filter paper method to measure the suction of the stiff clays being tested was checked by comparing 13 filter paper measure­ ments, carried out on a clay block sample of 7000 cm3 , with the suction measured on the same clay (block sample of350 cm3) by means of the Imperial College tensiometer (Ridley 1993) (Figure 2). It ap­ pears that the average suction value resulting from the filter paper measurements (Figure 2a), 1692 kPa, is very close to the suction value measured with the tensiometer (Figure 2b). This value pertains to the in situ unweathered clay (G), whereas the suction in the weathered clay (Y) was measured to be more than 3000kPa. In the following the clay drying behaviour will be examined in the degree of saturation versus suction graph, where is possible to identify the suction value at which the first air enters the sample, and in the specific volume versus suction and the specific vol­ ume versus degree ofsaturation graphs, where both the minimum specific volume reached with drying and the corresponding suction value can be estab­ lished. The minimum value of specific volume will be indicated as the "specific volume at the shrinkage limit", not in conformity with the standard definition of shrinkage limit.

120

minutes

Figure 2. Suction measurements on the same clay sample by using two different methods (a: filter paper test; b: tensiometer I.C.).

634

The normally consolidated reconstituted clay samples Gnc and Ync had been one-dimensionally normally consolidated from slurry up to 230 kPa vertical effective stress, cr' v (Ko=0.55; p'=160kPa), before drying. The overconsolidated reconstituted sample Goc, instead, had been loaded to cr'.=1100 kPa, before being unloaded to cr'.=50 kPa (OCR=22). Since the suction level sustainable by a pore be­ fore cavitation is a function of its radius (Klausner 1991), the specific volume of a soil is one of the main factors affecting the soil desaturation process. Specific volume of a reconstituted clay depends on both soil composition and stress history, so both of these factors affect indirectly the drying behaviour of a soil. In particular different sortings lead to dif­ ferent packings of the particles and so to different average pore sizes and pore-size distributions for a given consolidation stress state. In the following the effects of sorting and stress history on the drying be­ haviour of the reconstituted clay will be examined separately. Figure 3 shows the three plots: v versus Pk (a), S versus Pk (b) and S versus v (c), which describe the drying behaviour of the normally consolidated sam­ ples Gnc and Ync, of similar stress history but dif­ ferent sorting. The suction values of the samples soon after one-dimensional consolidation were

200

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Figure 3. Drying tests on sample Gnc and Ync (a: v-pk, b: S-pk, c: S-v planes).

Figure 4. Drying tests on sample Gnc and Goc (a: V-Pk, b: S-pk, c: S-v planes).

138kPa and 140kPa respectively. These values are close to the consolidation mean effective stress ap­ plied to both the samples, p'=160kPa. The drying curves in the v-pk plane (Figure 3a) should be close to the Virgin Desaturation Lines, VDL (Toll 1988), of the two normally consolidated samples. It can be seen that sorting affects both the desaturation be­ haviour (Figures 3b and 3c) and the shrinkage be­ haviour of the soil (Figures 3a and 3c). Indeed the

data seem to indicate that, for the same stress his­ tory, the higher sorting of Ync makes desaturation start at lower specific volumes and higher suctions. In Figure 4 the effects of stress history on the drying behaviour of the reconstituted grey clay are shown. For the overconsolidated sample (Goc), which has a gross yield vertical stress of 11 00 kPa in one-dimensional compression, cavitation starts at suction values between 1100 kPa and 1300 kPa,

635

when the specific volume is about 1.65, whereas for the sample normally consolidated up to 230 kPa vertical effective stress, cavitation starts at a suction value of 950 kPa, when the specific volume is 1.75. Differences are found also between the specific vol­ umes at the shrinkage limit, that are 1.62 for sample Gnc and 1.55 for sample Goc. It follows that lower specific volumes due to overconsolidation at the start of the drying process involve larger suctions at cavitation and lower specific volumes at the shrink­ age limit than for samples which start drying at higher specific volumes. Unlike the normally consolidated samples, for the overconsolidated one a volumetric collapse occurs within a limited range of Pk values, which relates to a well defined segment of the drying curve in the v­ Pk plane (Figure 4a). This has also been observed by Ridley (1993) with overconsolidated kaolin and by Cotecchia (1996) with other natural overconsoli­ dated clay samples. This curve segment corresponds to the maximum gradient of specific volume de­ crease with increasing suction during drying and to the start of desaturation, i.e. degrees of saturation about 96-99% (Figure 4b). Moreover, for sample Goc the range of specific volumes within this curve segment is found to correspond to the range of spe­ cific volumes at which gross-yield develops in iso­ tropic compression. We propose to define the v-pk state in the centre of the above mentioned curve segment as a "pseudo-gross yield state", because it corresponds to the development of important perma­ nent strains and structure degradation for the soil during drying (Cafaro et a!. 2000). The specific vol­ ume decrease with desaturation beyond pseudo­ gross yield is limited due to the mechanism of stress transmission for capillarity, as discussed by Burland & Ridley (1996). It is possible to observe directly the correspon­ dence between the gross yield state in isotropic compression and the pseudo-gross yield state of the same sample during drying by plotting its isotropic compression curve and v-pk drying curve in a single plane, putting on the abscisse both the p' and the Pk values, although this comparison is rigorously valid only before cavitation occurs, when Pk may be as­ sumed to equal p'. Indeed for a saturated material there is theoretical equivalence between the loading effects of a negative pore pressure and those of an isotropic effective pressure due to external loading. The joint observation, in the same v-p',pk plane (Brady 1988, Esposito 1995), of the drying curve and of the Isotropic Normal Compression Line, INCL (Burland 1990) of sample Goc is possible in Figure 5. For the same sample the One-dimensional Normal Compression Line (K0NCL) is also plotted in the figure. It appears that pseudo-gross yield oc­ curs as the drying curve intersects the Isotropic Normal Compression Line of the clay, at the same

specific volume as that of the sample when was pre­ consolidated (on the KoNCL) before drying. 2

1.9 1.8

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INCL I

p,Jlc(kPa) Figure 5. Drying, isotropic compression and one­ dimensional compression curves of sample Goc.

In conclusion, isotropic gross yield appears to control both the strain behaviour and the desatura­ tion of an overconsolidated clay during drying. For a one-dimensionally normally consolidated clay, al­ though before drying starts the v-p'::pk state plots along the KoNCL, soon after the v-pk state shifts to­ wards the INCL. In this respect, also the normally consolidated samples will exhibit, at the start of drying, a light apparent overconsolidation, as conse­ quence of the shift from the KoNCL to the INCL (Figure 3a). 4 RESULTS OF THE DRYING TESTS ON THE NATURAL CLAYS A pseudo-gross yield state is recognized also along the state-paths in the v-pk plane of the natural overconsolidated clay samples during drying. Figure 6 shows the state-path followed by sample Gd dur­ ing drying as well as the one-dimensional compres­ sion curve of a similar sample. The two curves seem to confirm that pseudo-gross yield occurs about the same specific volume as that of the clay at gross yield in one-dimensional compression. Since gross yield for the natural clay is controlled by the natural structure, this is seen to influence the strain behav­ iour of the clay during drying and the start of desatu­ ration, that starts just before pseudo-gross yield. For the clay here considered the current structure is not only the result of stress history, but also of structure modifications essentially due to diagenetic proc­ esses. The air entry occurs pre- pseudo gross yield, and so earlier for the natural clay than for the recon­ stituted clay during the drying process, since in all

636

the four tests on natural clay the curve segment on the drying curve where the gradient in specific vol­ ume decrease is maximum corresponds to degrees of saturation between 85% and 90%. 1.70 - - "'"TTTTTrr---r--,-TTlTTln-"--,--rrn""TTTl 1.65 f--+-t-H-t++H--+-+-t-++Htt-+-t++Hffi 1.60

v

~x ...

,.-.lrt-t±ttt-..-+-+++ttttl 1----+-+-H-t+fH~.:':.l.~-.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.7

0::: ·u

Two main sets of experiments were carried out on the soil samples. In the first set, the mean net stress was increased and then decreased at constant suc­ tion. In the second set, the suction was increased and then decreased keeping the mean net stress constant. At the end of the unloading stage, the samples were sheared under drained conditions. The results of the loading and unloading tests at constant suctions ofO, 50, 100,200 and 300 kPa are shown in Figure 1. Analysis of the results shows that the value of K is nearly constant for different values of suction (K =0.013). Figure 2 shows the volume change of the soil re­ sulting from the variation of suction at constant val­ ues mean net stress. In the first test (Figure 2a) the value of suction has been increased continuously from 50 to 300 kPa while in the second test (Figure 2b) the suction has been decreased from 300 to 100 kPa. The mean net stress was kept at a constant value of 20 kPa for both tests. The value of K, is obtained from the results (K,=0.0008). There is evidence that an increase in suction over conditions not previously reached by a partially

10

~ 100 Mean net pressure P'(kPa)

I

1000

(d)s =50 kPa

CD

E

.2

~

u !E u

8. Ill

::1 1.5 10

~

100 Mean Net A"essure(kPa)

I

1000

(e)s=OkPa

Figure 1. Volume change of the soil in loading and unloading tests at constant values of suction.

653

saturated soil induces irrecoverable volumetric strain (Alonso, et al. 1987). This concept is very similar to that of pre-consolidation pressure for soils. Therefore, following the same procedure as for determination of pre-consolidation pressure, the maximum suction to which the soil has been sub­ jected during its stress history, (in this paper shown by the symbol sc) can be obtained. For the soil tested , the value of sc was obtained from Figure 2a as 190 kPa. Figure 3 shows the critical state lines obtained from drained shear tests on the samples at three dif­ ferent suction values ofO, 200 and 300 kPa. The average gradient of the critical state line (M) for the saturated case is 1.2. It is interesting to note that the critical state lines are very close for the suc­ tion values of 200 and 300 kPa. This indicates that as suction increases, the shear strength of unsatu­ rated soils tends to a limiting value. From the analysis of the experimental data a func­ tionf(s) was proposed in the form:

1000,------------------------.

~ 400

1.7 - - - rreas ured

1.69 ­

- - - predicted

~ 1.68

8_

1000

rn 1.67 + - - - - - - - - - -------1 300 400 500 600

(a) increasing suction (p=50 kPa)

'------------ -

~ 1.732 1.734 J

.g 1.73 11 .728

"

100

Suction (kPa)

_,,

., 1.69

-\----~,......,..,---........~~·

10

Mean net stress (kPa)

----·- ------ ­ (a) s= 300 kPa

I

'

__)

0

~ 1.728 +------~,...---------1

g

___________

Figure 4 shows a comparison of the results for the estimated and measured elastic volumetric strains for different tests. The results show that equation (5) with the function f(s) defined by equation (8) gives very good estimates of the actual elastic deforma­ tions. Following the procedure proposed by Karube (1988), and using equation (7), the values ofj(s) cor­ responding to suctions of 0, 200 and 300 can be ob­ tained from Figure 3. The best fit lines shown in Figure 3 correspond to equation (7), withf(s) values of 119 and 123 kPa at suctions of 200 and 300 kPa respectively. The corresponding values of f(s) pre­ dicted from equation (8) at the same suctions are 152 and 181 kPa respectively. Comparison of the results shows that the analyti­ cal expression given by equation (8) does not seem to provide a satisfactory prediction for the critical state conditions of the soil. It is probable that one or more parameters should be introduced in equation (8) to account for the critical state of soils .

1.732 ~ 1.73

100

~:=~~

Figure 3. Critical state lines for different suctions

., 1.734 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Suction (kPa)

~

~

'-------__ ..

This function together with the equation (5) was used to estimate the elastic volumetric strains for the samples. The only parameter in equation (8) is sc which can be obtained from triaxial tests by in­ creasing the suction at constant mean net stress.

10

200

0 ~------T-------T-----~ 600 0 200 p (kPa) 400

(8)

i

~

800 c.. 600 "'

E

.g 1.68 ­

__

---rreas ured

>

1000

, __ .,

___ predicted

0

.,

~ 1.67 Q_

(b) decreasing suction (p=50 kPa)

rn1 _~ ~----~----,...-----~ 300

350

400

450

500

Mean net stress (kPa)

Figure 2. Volume change of the soil due to variation of suction at constant net stress.

(b) s =200 kPa

654

550

600

., 1.665

§ 1.66.

g u

at least for silty soils. Adaptation of this equation to extend its range of application up to the critical state requires further investigation.

~-

cted

1.655

""l1.65. (/)1.645

300

200

100

600

500

400

Wean net stress (kPa)

(c) s =100 k.Pa

.,

1.57

E ::J 0 >

--measured

1.56

__ predicted

u

~

·u "" 1.55

I~

1.54 400

300

500

600

700

800

Wean net stress (kPa)

(d) s =50 k.Pa

CD

E ::J

1.74

g

1.735

"".,

1.73

u

"il

0.

(/)

-rreasured _predicted

1.725 100

150

200

250

300

350

Suction (kPa)

(f) Suction varied at constant p Figure 4. Comparison of the predicted and measured elastic volumetric strains

4. CONCLUSION The influence of suction on elastic volume change and critical state of unsaturated soils has been inves­ tigated by undertaking a number of triaxial tests. A comprehensive set of triaxial tests has been car­ ried out on a low-plasticity silt and the results have been used to examine the theoretical expressions given in the literature for the effect of suction on elastic volume change and shear strength of unsatu­ rated soils. A modification to a theoretical relation­ ship has been proposed which gives a very good prediction for elastic volume change. Validation of a theoretical relationship requires a large amount of experimental data for various types of soil under different loading conditions. However, the proposed functionf(s) in equation (5) seems to predict elastic volumetric strains with good accuracy

REFERENCE Alonso,E.E, Gens, A. and Hight, D.W.(l987). General Report: Problem soils. 9th. ECMFE, Dublin, Vol. 3 ,pp. 1087-1146. Alonso, E.E. , Gens, A. and Josa, A. (1990). A constitutive model for partly saturated soil. Geotechnique Vol. 40 ,No.3, pp. 405-430. Escario, V. and Saez, J. (1986). The shear strength of partly saturated soils. Technical Note, Geo­ technique Vol. 36, No.3. Pp. 453-456. Fredlund, .G. and Morgenstern, N.R. (1977). Stress state variables for unsaturated soils. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering, Proc.ASCE, Vol. 103, No. GTS, pp. 447-465. Hil~ J. W. ( 1956). An investigation of pore pressure m compacted cohesive soils.Technical Memo­ randum No. 654, Bureau ofReclamation, USDI, Denver, Colorado, USA. Jennings, J.E. and Burland, J.B. (1962). Limitation to the use of effective stresses in partly saturated soils. Geotechnique, Vol. 12, No.2, pp. 125-144. Karube, D. (1988). New concept of effective stress in unsaturated soil and its proving test. Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soil and Rock. (eds. R.T.Denaghe, R.C. chaney and M.L. Silver), ASTM STP977, pp. 539-552. Lloret, A. and Alonso, E.E. (1985). State surface for partially saturated soils. 11th. /CSMFE Sa Fran­ ' sisco, pp. 557-562. Matyas, E.L and Radhakrishna, H.S. (1968). Vol ume change characteristics of partially saturated soils. Geotechnique, Vol. 18, No.4, pp432-448. Wheeler, S.J. and Sivakumar, V. (1995). An elasto­ plastic critical state framework for unsaturated soils. Geotechnique, Vol. 45, No.l.pp. 35-53. Wheeler, S.J. and Karube, D. (1996). State of the art report on constitutive modelling. Pro. ]81 Conf Unsaturated Soils, Paris, Vol. 3. Wheeler, S.J. (1997). Modelling elastic volume change of unsaturated soil, Proceedings of the 14th Int. Corif. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engi­ neering, Hamburg, 1997, pp. 427-430.

655

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

The influence of fabric and mineralogy on the expansivity of an Australian residual clay soil S.Fityus & D.W.Smith

Department ofCivil, Surveying and Environmental Engineering, The University ofNewcastle, Callaghan, N. .S: W., Australia

ABSTRACT: Preliminary results of a study of a residual clay profile developed in a temperate climate are pres­ ented. The study focuses on the mineralogy of the soil profile and its relationship to the expansive potential of the clay soils it contains. The soil mineralogy is quantitatively and semi-quantitatively assessed on the basis of two sets of xray diffraction results, which indicate a consistent dominance of randomly interstratified illite and smectite min­ erals throughout the profile. The soil mineralogy is compared with the expansive potential of the clay soils with respect to depth, assessed in terms of a measured shrink swell index, which is found to decrease consistently with depth. This reduction in expansive potential in a soil profile of consistent mineralogy is attributed to a consistent change in the fabric of the soil with increasing depth, which is due to an associated gradual decrease in the degree of weathering. The high proportion of smectite clay minerals in these soils explains why significant expansive soil movements are observed in an area where the influence of climate and the depth of clay soil only extend to the rela­ tively shallow depth of 1.7m.

1. INTRODUCTION

Residual soil profiles develop from the in situ weather­ ing of rock. They have particular characteristics which are specific to their origin, and which differ from those of soil deposits of other origins, such as alluvial, loes­ sial and colluvial soils (Wesley, 1990). Rocks exposed at the earth's surface may weather to form residual soils of a clayey nature, although the mineralogy and dis­ tribution of clays within residual soil profiles will vary widely depending on parent rock type, climatic condi­ tions and other factors (Velde, 1995; Blight, 1997)). Residual soils usually occur in areas of elevated topo­ graphy; that is, some height above sea level. As areas underlain by residual soils are generally less prone to serious flooding, they are often preferred as sites for human settlement. The properties of residual soils are thus of considerable interest, in that they affect the per­ formance of the structures they support, and hence the everyday lives of countless numbers of people. An important characteristic of residual clay soils is that they are usually only partially saturated, at least at shallow levels, and the degree of saturation can vary greatly under climatic influences. Where clays contain significant proportions of expansive clay minerals, such as sodium montmorillonite, they may respond to seasonal moisture changes by shrinking and swelling (Nelson and Miller 1992). The degree to which they

657

shrink and swell depends on many factors, including the depth of clay soil present and the severity of the climate For example, Dhowian (1990) reports that ground sur­ face movements of up to 160mm are observed in a deep residual profile derived from shales in the arid climate of Saudi Arabia. Efficient and effective foundation designs on expan­ sive clay soils require accurate estimates of likely ground movements. An understanding of the relation­ ship between expansive potential and soil fabric is thus crucial. The aim of the work presented here was to examine the characteristics of a particular residual clay soil pro­ file which is indicative of those underlying many of the populated areas of eastern Australia. The soil profile chosen for this study is considered important in that it realises substantial expansive movements in response to seasonal ground moisture changes, despite the exist­ ence of rock structure at shallow depths, and despite a relatively shallow depth ofseasonal moisture influence. 2. SITE DETAILS. The soil profile selected as the basis of this study is the Maryland soil profile from the Maryland Reactive Soils field site near Newcastle in Australia. Detailed descrip­ tions of the Maryland site can be found in Allman. Smith and Sloan (1994) and Allman, Delaney. and

Smith (1998). Only details relevant to the present dis­ cussion will be presented here. The expansive soils field monitoring site at Maryland, is on a gently sloping hillside, with a healthy cover ofgrass and occasional large trees. The region has a temperate, near coastal climate with an annual rainfall typically between 1000 and 1200mm per year. The residual clays on the site are derived from car­ bonaceous siltstone parent rocks, with a small tuffa­ ceous component. They lie between about 250mm of relatively non-expansive topsoil and weathered rock at about 1.7m. The Maryland expansive soil profile is de­ scribed in Figure 1. It is evident from Figure 1 that the fabric of the soil varies significantly with depth. Directly beneath the topsoil, the residual clay is of a uniform orange colour with no apparent structure, apart from desiccation cracking when in a dry state. With increasing depth, it becomes mottled, before becoming pale grey and ex­ hibiting some relict rock structure, and then ultimately becoming weathered rock. The distinct colour changes from orange to grey with increasing depth indicate that more oxidising conditions prevail at shallow depths. This suggests that the degree of weathering might re­ flect a degree of chemical alteration throughout the pro­ file. The expansive potential of soils within the profile is not evident from soil profile observations. Over the past 6 years, significant ground surface movements have been recorded at the field site. Ground movements of4 7mm have been measured at the surface level control marker, with the average maximum move­ 0.0

sandy silty CLAY, dark brown (topsoil)

3. EXPANSIVE POTENTIAL. The expansive potential of the clay soils with respect to depth was assessed in two ways. Firstly, it was meas­ ured directly by the shrink-swell testing of undisturbed cores (AS 1289.7.1.1-1992). Secondly, it was assessed indirectly, by measurement of the relative surface area of the soil particles using methylene blue dye adsorption (Fityus, Smith and Jen­ nar, 2000). The results are presented in Figure 2. 0.00

topsoil

-0.25-----

X

•

-0.50 orange-brown clay

•

X X

-0.75

•

X X

-1.00 fn1ottled iron staining '-""1.251-----­

S

i v

grey-brown -1.50 silty clay llrock structure)

0

becoming -1.0 mottled pale broWii/giey Wftfi some-red-orange" - ­ staining and ironstone gravels

si!% CLAY, M-H pl'!sticity, pale grey-brown -1.5 Wit some Iron stammg (some residual rock structure)

1

2

X X X

3

• •

• • • • •

X

-1.75 ____ _

grey silty clay X

_2 _00 (EW siltstone)

CLAY, high plasticity, pale orange-brown

-0.5

4

5

6

methylene blue value e

shrink swell index X

(millilitres of lOg/1 solution per gram of soil)

(percent strain per pF of suction change)

7

Figure 2. Assessment of expansiveness with depth.

E

From Figure 2, it is evident that the potential for physical shrinkage, as assessed by the shrink-swell index, decreases with depth, whereas the potential for dye adsorption does not. The decreasing trend in the physically measured shrink swell index is corroborated by a similar trend in the physically measured volume change index, as presented in (Fityus and Smith, 1998).

SILTY CLAY/ EXTREMELY WEATHERED -a_g-2.0 SILTSTONE brown grey, laminated

-2.5

ment for all site surface level markers being 58mm, and a range of movements of between 43 and 75mm (Pity­ us, 1999). The active depth is observed to be around 1.7m (Fityus and Delaney, 2000).

HIGHLY WEATHERED SILTSTONE light and dark grey laminations

-3.0

4. MINERALOGY. The mineralogy of the Maryland residual soils has been assessed by both quantitative and semi-quantitative xray diffraction testing. The results are presented in Table 1.

-3.5

Figure 1 The Maryland expansive soil profile.

658

Table 1. Mineralogy of the Maryland clay soil profile using quantitative and semi-quantitative xray diffraction techniques. Sub 2 micron fraction

Whole soil sample kaolinite Depth (m) 0.15 0.45

remaining clay

quartz

muscovite and clay micas

feldspars (mostly plagioclase)

haematite and goethite

(not differentiated)

anatase

kaolinite

randomly interlayered smectite and illite

smectite+ minor interlayered illite

Tr-A

D

­

Tr

D

SD

-

Tr

Tr-A

Tr

12%

42%

38%

4%

697

angular line, and this line represents the upper bound for the relationship between A and L. Some data seem to fall close and below the line representing hexagonal pattern. Theoretically, the hexagonal pattern should provide the lower bound for the rela­ tionship between A and L. In an actual cracking pattern, there are mixtures of patterns containing cells that feature a distribution of number of sides in a cell. As the number of sides in cells of a pattern increases, the points representing the relationship between A and L will shift from triangular line towards hexagonal line. For instance, if a pattern contains mostly cells having five sides, then that result would plot between the square and hexagonal lines. As can be seen from Figure 8, this explanation agrees with the experimental evidence, which indicated that the majority of the cells had four and five sides. It is, however, possible to get values slightly under the hexagonal lower bound re­ lationship when the pattern contains cells having more than six sides or when the sides of cracks are curved. However, the experimental evidence indi­ cates that the occurrence of cells containing more than six sides is not common.

of energy because it has the lowest crack length per unit cell volume (The cell volume can be approxi­ mated by Ad). This may be a reason why soil con­ taining high strain energy tends to crack in hexago­ nal pattern when subjected to high desiccation rates. It seems, however, that it is difficult to generate a perfect hexagonal cracking pattern in the laboratory. This difficulty may be associated with the depend­ ency of this cracking pattern on material anisotropy and inhomogeneity, stress non-uniformity and the boundary shape. The current paper elucidates some important as­ pects of the desiccation cracking process, specifi­ cally related to the desiccation of thin soil layers. Nevertheless, significantly more research is needed to further the understanding. In future, consistent explanations and quantitative relationships for these experimental findings need to be searched. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The first author wishes to thank Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne for facilitating Outside Study Leave during which this study was under­ taken. The support by Natural Sciences and Engi­ neering Research Council of Canada is gratefully acknowledged.

5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Essential points of the preceding presentation can be considered as: (i) The dependence of cracking water content on the desiccation rate; (2) Apparent uniqueness of the relationship between A and soil thickness d for a given soil condition and base mate­ zi.al; (3) The dependence of the relationship between A and d on base material and soil density; (4) The development of different cracking patterns predomi­ nantly depending on desiccation rate and soil thick­ ness; and (5) The variation of A according to a log­ normal distribution. As far as the first point is considered, Corte and Higashi (1960) were able to explain this behaviour on the basis that the probability of cracking may be proportional to the tensile stress generated in the soil at a particular water content and to the time duration soil experiences at this water content. This explana­ tion results in increase in tensile stress at cracking {or decrease in cracking water content) with the in­ crease of desiccation rate. Alternatively, this phe­ nomenon may be explained by arguing that soil ma­ terial properties (e.g. tensile strength) may be dependent on the desiccation rate. The Points (2), (3), (4) and (5) highlight the me­ chanics of desiccation cracking. The authors believe that explanations to these experimental findings may be found by considering the balance of energy com­ ponents, which include energy used by cracks during their propagation and the strain energy released due to cracking. It can be seen from Equation 1 that the hexagonal pattern provides the most efficient release

REFERENCES Bezant, P.Z. and Cedolin, L. (1991). Stability of structures, Oxford University Press. Corte, A. and Higashi, A. (1960). Experimental research on desiccation cracks in soil. U.S. Army Snow Ice and Perma­ frost Research Establishment, Research Report No. 66, Corps of Engineers, Wilmette, Illinois, U.S.A. Fredlund, D.G. and Morgemstem, N.R. (1976). Constitutive relations for volume change in unsaturated soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 13, No.3, pp. 261-276. Kodikara, J., Barbour, S.L. and Fredlund, D.G. 1998. Clay structure development during wet/dry cycles, Research Re­ port, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada. Kodikara, J., Barbour, S.L. and Fredlund, D.G. 1999. Discus­ sion: "An idealized framework for the analysis of cohesive soils undergoing desiccation" by J-M Konrad and R. Ayad, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 34, pp. 1112-1114. Konrad, J-M. and Ayad, R. (1997a). An idealized framework for the analysis of cohesive soils undergoing desiccation, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 34, pp. 477-488. Lachenbruch, A.H. 1961. Depth and spacing of tension cracks, Journal of Geophysical Research. 66.(12): 4273-4292. Lau, J.T.K. 1987. Desiccation cracking of clay soils, MSc The­ sis, Department of Civil Engineering. University of Sas­ katchewan, Canada. Morris, P.H., Graham, J. and Williams, D.J. 1992. Cracking in drying soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 29: 263-277. Wilson, G.W., Fredlund, D.G. and Barbour, S.L. (1990). Cou­ pled soil-atmosphere modelling for soil evaporation, Cana­ dian Geotechnical Journal, 31-2, 151-161.

698

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Analysis of swelling pressure for an expansive soil using the resistance concept K.Mawire

Department ofCivil Engineering, University ofZimbabwe, Zimbabwe

K.Senneset

Department ofGeotechnical Engineering, Norwegian University ofScience and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

ABSTRACT: The different stages of mobilisation of swelling pressure with time, for an instantaneously flooded soil sample, are analysed using the resistance concept. The laboratory data was obtained by flooding a partially saturated soil sample under completely confined conditions in a slit-ring oedometer. No external load was applied during the test, in order to study the soil response to suction reduction only. Both vertical and horizontal components of swelling pressure were simultaneously measured with the passage of time. The raw data was plotted to obtain dimensionless resistance numbers for the different stages. The dimensionless num­ bers are characteristic to the soil, for the given method of suction reduction. The simplicity and rationality in­ herent in the resistance concept makes it a very powerful and yet easy tool to use in characterising soil be­ haviour. This apparent success in characterising expansive soil behaviour makes the resistance concept a possible consistent framework that unifies saturated and unsaturated soil behaviour. 1 INTRODUCTION The behaviour of unsaturated expansive soils has been the subject of much research activities in the last thirty-five years. A lot of effort was directed towards predicting the swelling pressure and heave, in a bid to solve practical problems related to engi­ neering on expansive soils. At least forty different predictive methods are reported in the literature (Pellisier, 1991). These have met with different de­ grees of success, depending on their level of ration­ ality. Sridharan et al (1986) and Snethen (1980) re­ viewed some of the different procedures used to determine swelling pressure. However, Mawire and Senneset (1998) pointed the shortcomings associated with all the methods. They noted that the test proce­ dures hitherto, i.e. those that require application of an external load, introduced mechanical effects of the external load to the swelling process, a phe­ nomenon that is essentially a result of physical­ chemical interaction at the platelet level. In addi­ tion, it is not possible to separate the effects of suc­ tion reduction from those of the applied loads, on the soil behaviour. Thus, such procedures best simulate the soil-structure interaction effects of external loads. They then proposed a rational approach for measuring swelling pressure, without the interfer­ ence of external loads. However, they did not pres­ ent a method of analysis of the results. This paper deals with the analysis of such data.

The resistance concept, originally introduced into soil mechanics by Terzaghi (1925) and revisited by Janbu (1963,1998), is used here for the first time to analyse expansive soil behaviour. It is noted that the concept has been successfully used in consolida­ tion settlement analysis (Janbu, 1963; 1967) and other brunches of engineering and applied science. Janbu (1967,1998) that, for engineering purposes, one can adequately cover the variations in com­ pressibility of different types of soil from rock to soft clay, by means of one relatively simple resis­ tance-based formula. In the 25 1h Rankine Lecture, Janbu (1985) presents resistance as a unifying con­ cept in soil modelling. The apparent success of the resistance concept in characterising expansive soil behaviour makes it a possible consistent framework that unifies saturated and unsaturated soil behaviour. The concept is presented in terms of stress-strain relationship before it is applied in the analysis swel­ ling pressure behaviour. 2 THE RESISTANCE CONCEPT 2.1 Definition Any medium in a state of equilibrium tends to re­ sist a forced change to its equilibrium condition. Such a resistance by a medium or part of it can be determined by measuring the incremental (internal) response to a given incremental (external) action.

699

external action . Resistance=------­ internal response

2.3 Application to expansive soils swelling under completely confined conditions In the case of confined unsaturated expansive soils with no externally applied load, suction reduction is the action and the developing swelling pressure is the response. Suction is a measure of the in situ 'ef­ fective' stress and its reduction is a form of 'effec­ tive' stress increase. Suction was reduced to zero by flooding the soil sample by inundation with water. The finite time associated with the initial flow of water during the flooding process is significantly small compared with the time taken to mobilise maximum swelling pressure. Thus flooding can be considered as 'instantaneous', making suction re­ duction a stepwise increase in effective stress. The resistance number associated with swelling pressure as the internal response has the dimensions ofkPa· 1. The resistance number is made dimension­ less by normalising it with the atmospheric pressure.

Resistance is the first derivative or tangent to the action-response curve. It can be linear or non-linear without a change of the definition. For soils, the re­ sponse is mostly non-linear. Usually effective stress change or time is the external action (given) while strain is the measured internal response. Figure 1 shows the graphical definition of the resistance con­ cept, with time as the external action.

EXTI:fiNAL ACTION

'.INTERNAL_· :RESPONSE

:~~@~~~§{}~~: 3 RESULTS 3.1 Soil data The data analysed in this paper is that presented by Mawire et al. (1998). Undisturbed samples were taken from a site within the University of Zimbabwe campus in Harare. The soil data is tabulated in table 1 below and the swelling pressure results are in Fig­ ure2.

Figure I. Definition of the resistance concept (after Janbu, 1998)

2.2 Time resistance, R By taking time as the action and strain as the reac­ tion, time resistance, R is defined by equation 1. dt =R

dE

Table I: Soil data Soil type Sampling method Sampling depth In situ unit weight Grain density , G, Liquid Limit, LL Plasticity Index, PI Linear shrinkage, LS Silt fraction Clay fraction Water content at test Saturation water content

(1)

In this equation, t is the time (min.) and e is the strain (dimensionless). Beyond a given time to, Janbu (1963) noted that the time resistance varies linearly with time indicating the creep stage, such that dR - = r = constant dt

Black cotton soil Block sampling

!.Om 16.48 kN/m3 2.58 kg/m3 65% 45% 19% 28% 40% 12% 38%

500

(2) :

:!!. I!

.

This dimensionless constant, r is called the resis­ tance number, and is the main parameter required to predict soil creep or secondary consolidation settle­ ment. The resistance number is characteristic of the soil and its magnitude reflects the level of soil resis­ tance mobilised. A small resistance number means high soil resistance, and big resistance number means low soil resistance.

400

;

300

:

200

,§

"ii

~ 100

20

40

60

80

Tlmo,t [hr[

Figure 2. Swelling pressure-time plot (after Mawire eta!, 1998)

700

stage (A-B), the decrease in soil resistance is great­ est when there is no swelling pressure to resist it. So the developing swelling pressure has to overcome the softening effect before it asserts its resistance. This explains the low rate of increase in resistance (r = 0.5). There is a marked increase in soil resistance at time t = 700 minutes, (r = 2). This is associated with the swelling pressure that is developing as a much faster rate than the soil is softening. Sufficient time has elapsed for the water to effectively pene­ trate and cause a release of the swelling pressure.

3.2 Resistance numbers Variation of time resistance with time for the vertical and horizontal swelling pressure are plotted in figures 3 and 4, respectively. The normalised re­ sistance numbers, which are the slopes of the curves, respectively, are summarised in table 2. Table 2

Summary of input data

Stage

Vertical pressure

A-B

0

B-C C-D

0.5 2.0

to (min) 200 500 300

Horizontal pressure to (min)

0 0.4 1.2

100 170 730

12

r = 1OOdR: for stage B-C dt r = 1 00(4.2-1.7) = 0.5 (700-200)

10

'ii 8

4 ANALYSIS

D

Q.

~

The general shapes of the two curves in figures 3 and 4 are the same. The orders of magnitude of the corresponding resistance numbers are the same. The analysis can therefore be made with reference to one graph (figure 3), without loss of generality. Figure 3 shows three distinct stages associated with develop­ ment of swelling pressure with time. There is physi­ cal significance of the change in the soil resistance. The early stage (A-B) of the swelling process is independent of time, having a constant time resis­ tance (r = 0). The swelling pressure developed in the early stage is largely dependent on the increase in water content and its interaction with the surfaces of the clay minerals. A finite amount of time is re­ quired for water to penetrate the clay minerals, for the time-related swelling pressure to develop and dominate that of water increase. Increase in water concentration in the soil skeleton plays a more dominant role than that which is penetrating the clay minerals. The early stage (A-B) of the swelling process is independent of time, having a constant time resis­ tance (r = 0). The swelling pressure developed in the early stage is largely dependent on the increase in water content and its interaction with the surfaces of the clay minerals. A finite amount of time is re­ quired for water to penetrate the clay minerals, for the time-related swelling pressure to develop and dominate that of water increase. Increase in water concentration in the soil skeleton plays a more dominant role than that which is penetrating the clay minerals. Thereafter, the time resistance increases with time at an increasing rate in two stages (r = 0.5) and (r = 2) respectively. The increase in time resistance is due to soil softening. The soil initially had a high re­ sistance associated with the high suction value. With time, the rigid soil structure crumbles as the water penetrates the clay particles. The softening process can be said to take place in two stages. In the first

701

c

6

It:

4

1

c

2 B

0

0

200

800 600 400 Timet [min]

1000

1200

Figure 3. Time resistance, R for vertical swelling pressure

200

400

600

800

1000

Timet [mlnJ

Figure 4. Time resistance, R for horizontal swelling pressure

5 CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions can be drawn from the preceding analysis and similar analysis on results of 18 samples tested. 1. The resistance concept has been successfully used to study the effect of time on the devel­ opment of swelling pressure.

2. The resistance number can be used to de­ scribe the swelling pressure-time relationship. It is characteristic of the soil type and is con­ stant over specific ranges of initial water content 3. Swelling pressure can not be referred to in terms of 'primary' and 'secondary' values in the sense of consolidation settlement. The contribution by the time-related component far exceeds that of water content increase, which is a measure of suction or in situ 'ef­ fective stress'. 4. It is proposed that swelling pressure be re­ ferred to as having the water content­ dependent and time-dependent components. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge the support of the De­ partment of Geotechnical Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim in this research work. The research is part of a col­ laborative programme between the University of Zimbabwe and Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). The research is funded by the Norwegian Council of Universities' Committee for Development Research and Education (NUFU). REFERENCES Habib, S.A., Kato, T. and Karube, D., 1992. One Dimensional swell behaviour of unsaturated soil, Proceedings of the th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Dallas: 222­ 226. Janbu,N. 1963. Soil compressibility as determined by oedometer and triaxial test. Proceedings of the European Conference, val. I. Wiesbaden. Janbu,N. 1967. Settlement calculation based on the tangent modulus concept, Three guest lectures at Moscow State University. Bulletin No. 2 of Soil Mechanics and Founda­ tion Engineering, Department of Geotechnical Engineering, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway. Janbu, N. 1969. The resistance concept applied to deformations of soils. Bulletin No. 3 of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Department of Geotechnical Engineering, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway. Janbu, N. 1985. 25th Rankine Lecture, Geotechnique 35, No.3, pp 241-281 Janbu, N. 1998. Sediment deformations, a classical approach to stress-strain-time behaviour of granular media as developed at NTH over a 50-year period. Bulletin No. 35 3 ofSoil Me­ chanics and Foundation Engineering, Department of Geo­ technical Engineering, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway. Mawire K and Senneset, K., (1998)~ "Mobilised swelling pres­ sures of an expansive soil", 121 African Regional Confer­ ence of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Durban, South Africa, in Octo­ ber 1999. Pellissier, J.P., 1991. Heave prediction: State of the art. Divi­ sion ofBuilding Research for South African Road Research Board, Interim report IR 88/039/6.

702

Sayed, A., Habib, S.A. and Karube, D., 1993. Swelling pres­ sure behaviour under controlled suction. Geotechnical Testing Journal, Technical note. Schreiner, H.D. & Burland, J.B., 1991. A comparison of the three swell-test procedures. Geotechnics in the African En­ vironment.

Snethen, D.R., 1980. Characterisation of expansive soils using soils suction data, Proceedings of the 41h International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver: 54-75. Sridharan, A., Rao, A.S., and Sivapullaiah, P.V., 1986. Swel­ ling pressure of clays. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 9(4): 23-33. Terzaghi,K. 1925. "Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage". Deuticke, Leipzig und Wien, pp109 Yong, R.N., Sadana, M.L., and Gohl, W.B., 1984. A particle interaction model for assessment of swelling of an expansive soil. Proceedings of the 51h International Conference on Expansive Soils, Adelaide: 4-12.

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Clay stiffness and reactivity derived from clay mineralogy K.G.Mills

School ofEngineering, University ofSouth Australia, Adelaide, .S:A, Australia

ABSTRACT: Volume change in reactive clay soils is usually related to soil moisture status using the soil suction as a key state variable, Such relationships as are used are experimental and empirical. However, clay physics may be used to identify the individual roles of solute and matric suction, and provide a background theory to better inform the study of the stiffuess and swelling in these reactive soils. The paper applies os­ motic swell pressure theory to help predict the behaviour of clay soils comprising mixtures of clay types and inert material. It explicitly identifies the role of solute suction. 1 INTRODUCTION In foundation engineering on reactive soils, there has long been a need to estimate volume change as a re­ sponse to moisture availability. The methods in use generally account for reactivity empirically. Never­ theless, by considering the physico-chemical prop­ erties of clays, the role of clay mineralogy and soil suction in determining soil stiffuess and volume change can be clarified. This paper describes a semi­ theoretic model for reactivity in soils that may find use in other mathematical soil models. It derives from the PhD dissertation of Mills (1998) 2 EXISTING APPROACHES Commonly, soil swell is related to the field stress state and moisture content range, with various meth­ ods being used to quantify the swell. In Australian practice, Australian Standard AS 2870 (1990), the change in wetness state is specified by an increment of soil moisture suction. However, the use of "suction" in engineering is bedeviled by the complexity in measuring and even defining it. Conventionally, total suction, J.L, is the sum of matric suction J.lm and solute suction, f.1s . Ar­ guably, matric suction is akin to a physical pore pressure, and it is the effect of solute suction that is less predictable. Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993) Sec 3.6 Role of Osmotic Suction, note when solute suc­ tion needs explicit consideration, and when it may be neglected. Ridley and Wray (1995) commented that few authors in the First International Conference

Unsaturated Soils, addressed solute suction and dis­ tinguished between total suction and its components. The theoretic treatises by Mitchell (1976) and Yong et al (1992) show the role of suction. They point up the factors that may influence swell. Much recent work seeking to understand the complete stress strain response of unsaturated soils, has shown the importance of pore space distribution. Generally the pore size distribution in a clay soil is seen to be bi-modal. (Delage et al 1995). For soils compacted dry, there are large voids between aggre­ gates of clay (peds), and finer voids within the clay aggregates or domains themselves. When the soil is wetted, the clay domains themselves may swell, but with the application of stress they will be distorted and the larger pores will collapse in part. Alonso (1990) included pore collapse in a critical state model, with the state boundary surface being a func­ tion of suction. These writers presumed that the smaller voids are the seat of reactivity, causing clay domains to swell. When the domains swell, the larger inter-domain voids likewise swell. The re­ sulting constitutive relationship includes suction ex­ plicitly, and will track the shrink/swell behaviour of soils, and also collapse and overconsolidation. In such modelling, parameters have a physical relevance as far as possible rather than being just a curve-fitting exercise. The work on particle size dis­ tributions outlined above places this paper in con­ text. It examines aspects of soil suction and may ul­ timately inform the formulation of these more encompassing models.

703

3 OSMOTIC PRESSURES WELL MODEL

reactive clays, provided the other forces are sepa­ rately considered. Swell pressure on inundation from Equation 4 relates directly to matric suction release. Pile (1980) in oedometer tests, found of swell pressure almost independent of any solute in the solution used for inundation. This implies the immediate relief of ma­ tric suction, with any solute effects being delayed.

The theory below though simplified, quantifies the effect of solute suction, in terms of soil water chem­ istry and clay type. 3.1 Classical DVLO Theory for Clay Swelling

Interaction between clay particles was examined in the DVLO theory (Iwata et al1988), so named from the physicists Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey and Overbeek. They investigated the forces between clay particles from two sources:- van der Waals attrac­ tions, and electrostatic fields. The repulsions be­ tween particles in a face-to-face configuration, are the predominate force of the latter type. The volume change behaviour of idealised clay can be predicted. The theory is certainly valid for sodium montmoril­ lonites, but only trends in behaviour can be predicted with other clays (Mitchell1976). For a clay domain surrounded by water, cations are preferentially attracted into the space between the clay platelets. Thus the van't Hoff equation for osmotic pressure, II, may be used to find the inter­ particle repulsion (Bolt 1956):-. II = R T L(Ci mid-plane - Ci free solution) where Ci are the molar concentration of the ion spe­ cies. For homo-ionic dilute solutions, with II re­ placed by the interparticle swelling pressure, P s :­ cc co P =R Tc (-+--2) (1) s o Co Cc where Cc and c0 are the cation concentrations mid­ way between platelets and in the soil water respec­ tively. cc may be found from the solution of

v~( x + PseA~)=2~E 0

=

4 FORMULATION OF A QUASI-THEORETIC MODEL FOR STIFFNESS AND SWELLING

4.1 Preamble

Given the concept of osmotic swell pressure, the swelling behaviour over a full range of solute condi­ tions, can be calculated from conventional volume change test results on one soil specimen, by applying Bolt's theory to predict the osmotic pressure changes as a perturbation on the observed test results. At any given particle spacing, short range forces other than the osmotic ones are assumed constant. If several different pure clays are used in the base test, a com­ pound hypothetical model results that can simulate a real soil. It is semi-quantitative, and partially theo­ retical rather than empirical. Its main features are:­ • Separate contributions are retained from the different clay minerals in a soil. • Salt content is treated as a separate phase In soil mechanics terms, a new "e-log P" curve is derived. The volume change response to solute suction is explicitly predicted. It is presupposed that the "source" e-log P curve is a unique swelling curve, and that structural hysteresis can be ignored.

(2)

1Ql6 m/mole a where v is the cation valence, p constant related to temperature and dielectric con­ stant, e the soil's void ratio, Ps the particle density, As the specific surface of the soil solids; x0 is 4/vpr, ( r is the surface charge in equivalents per unit area), 1/v, 2/v, and 4/v 10"4 J.llll for kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite respectively. The frac­ tion,

=

____!_A, is the interparticle spacing. E is the complete Ps s elliptic integral of the first kind with argument c0 /cc

4.2 Application ofthe model to Pure Clays

To set up the model, experimental data on compres­ sion testing by Olson and Mesri (1970) were used. It is convenient to separately identify Ps the compo­ nent of total stress that arises from osmotic swelling. For saturated soil with zero matric suction 11m. ( j oedometer = ( j . + P, ' (j. being the portion of effective stress excluding osmotic repulsion. For some new condition at the same void ratio, a oedometer new =(j * + ~ new

= {(j oedometer -

~ ) source + P, new

3.2 Usage ofOsmotic Pressure Theory

and for non-zero matric suction,

In most natural clay soils, other effects overwhelm the interactions prescribed by the DVLO theory. Probably as a result, engineers do not use clay min­ eralogy and soil water chemistry explicitly to fmd soil swell. However, osmotic theory leads to useful relationships between solute suction and swelling in

( j Toto/

new= ( ( j oedometer-

P,) source+ P, new+ I.Um I

(3)

(4)

The data comprise the swelling or rebound coef­ ficient for consolidation testing for pure clays with several salt types and concentrations. To extend the range of the "source" curve, an empirical function 704

was adopted which would tend asymptotically to a small limiting e for very large P. The function used was (5) log(e-eminimum) =a log(P)m + b where a and b are fitted constants, m was taken as 3. p is the summed term, u effective = u + l's The minimum e corresponds to some minimum particle separation within the clay domains plus an allowance for the inter-domain pores. The equation gives an e that becomes increasing large at small pressures. Hence the tests chosen for source curves were for low concentration sodium salts, so the clay is continuously dispersing. 4.3 Adaptation to Soils ofMixed Composition Soils may contain several clay minerals plus inert material. In calculations for such soils, this study as­ sumes that the pressure exerted by the different clays, would by physical reasoning, have to be similar for each component. At reasonable clay contents, as in a clayey soil with significant moisture reactivity, the soil moisture is mainly associated with the clay phase. Also any inert phase will exists in a matrix of moist clay. For these conditions the void ratios and moisture con­ tents of the clay and the soil mixture are related by:­ emixture = eclay by clay content, and (6) Wmixture = Wclay by clay content Provided that the densities of the clay and the silt/sand are nearly equal, then the "clay content" in Equation 6 will be the mass fraction of soil that is clay. It is also true that the compressibility will arise mainly from the clay component. If it is assumed, as is reasonable, that the osmotic swell pressure is the dominant stress component for the clays, then from Paragraph 3.1, (x0 +

PseA~) will be the

same for

each clay mineral. An effective or average x0 and As can be de­ fined and thus the theory may be readily extended to handle mixtures of different clay types. Considering only the clay phase, (7) Aggregate clay void ratio, e = ~ Pi ei C1 = ( Xo+ Ps

eA~) for each clay type I

(8)

where the Pi are the fractional proportions of each clay type, and C1 is a constant for a particular stress state, applying to all the clay types. Substituting for ei from the second of these equations in the first, (omitting the subscript i for brevity) e ~PXoPsAs (9) + C1 = ~PPsAs

Mixture x0 = Mixture As =

~PXoAs

~ p As

~

, and

p As

(11)

The base source curve is a simple weighted av­ erage curve for the constituent clays. 4.4 Adaptation to Soils with Packing Voids The DVLO theory presumes a concentration of ions in the soil water. This is not the inter-layer water. It is rather the water surrounding the clay in void spaces in the soil fabric. Bolt employed the term dead voids for these packing voids. Dead voids may arise in pure clays due to terracing in the lattice. Yong et al (1992) suggest that the "dead" vol­ ume may be taken as the voids pertaining at the shrinkage limit. This is used below, but with an al­ lowance for some residual hydration of the clay. They also expected the dead voids to expand with swell in the clay domains. The dead voids can be in­ cluded in the phase relationships. If V is the total volume of a specimen of saturated soil, then (11) V=V,+Vcv+Vdv+V;, where the subscripts refer to clay particles, clay voids, dead voids, and inert grains respectively. Consistent definitions of clay and dead void ratios are (taking density as constant again):­

V

V

ed = ....1!.. v, vc c= __£!:..and

e

(12)

e = x(ec + ed)

= x(ec + ed.(1 + ec)) whence ec

=

~ -e X

do and ed

=

ix­ ec

(13) 1 + edo In this expression, X is the clay content, and the total dead void space is presumed to expand in pro­ portion to the change in volume of the clay and the clay voids. A new parameter edo is introduced, de­ fined as the dead void volume at the limit when e goes (mathematically) to zero. Physically, the mini~ mum ec is non-zero due to the limit set to the mini­ mum particle separation. It is reasoned that · the inert material and the "clay'' and its voids transmit swelling stress. If the stress is assumed proportional to the area on a cross­ section in the clay - clay voids - dead voids system, (1+e )Y. (1+e )Y.

P.-P. S

~PPsAs

If Ps is constant or reasonably so, the effective parameters for the clay mixture are

705

=

S-c/ay

c

(1 + ec + ed )Y,

-P.

-

S-c/ay

c

(1 + e/

lX

r

(14)

where Ps-clay is the stress within the clay and its in­ trinsic voids, and P, is the nominal stress over the whole external surface. Estimates of the dead void parameter edo are given in Table 1. The shrinkage limits are taken from the ranges given in Whit­ low(1995), other clay properties from Table 2. Table I Estimates of Dead Voids Parameter Dead Shrinkage Void ratio InterClay edo Limit (SL} at SL. lamella voids at (5) type SL voids at % SL 12.' 0.1 0.12 Mont­ 0.22 0.34 morillo­ nite 0.4 0.41 0.03 0.44 16. 5 Illite 26. 0 0.7 0.70 Kaolin 0.005 0.70 Assumes the soil is still saturated as it approaches SL

For an inter lamellar spacing d of lx10..',.un. e = p, d A,

Concentration values for salts in the soil water require consistent interpretation, since mobile salt only occurs in the dead voids. When concentrations are defined as an average over the total water con­ tent, they must be corrected for use in computation both for the clay regime and solute suction. The cor­ rection factor is:­ ec + ed /e or alternatively e/e X (15) jed led Minimum separations in all but the driest of soils still involve some hydration. (Handy and Tur­ gut 1987). For Montmorillonite with perfect packing at the shrinkage limit, the minimum inter-lamellar spacing would be 1.6x104 . As dead voids are non­ zero, a value of 1x104 J.liil was adopted. (There are instances where this assumption should be refined.) The model may be applied in a stress analysis. Iteration is needed for some tasks, and Poisson's ra­ tio must be assumed, 0.3 being used by the author. Young's modulus can be calculated from the void ratio change for a small change to confining stress.

(a)1o 8

-Na dilute, fitted curve +--"-....-'-,.-----+----+---_ ·Na concentrated, computed curve

~6 g4

I I

• · • Na dilute, experiment

"0

2 0

10

100

10000

1000 Pressure (kPa)

(b)5

0

"'I!!

Na dilute, fitted

curve

-

4

1----+-----'..----t---- -Ca dilute, computed

3

1-----+--~-t---

g 2 . . . ==.. . . .,.­

"0

~

0

10

100

curve

-ca concentrated,

computed curve

-- Ca dilute, experiment - ·Ca concentrated, experiment

10000

1000 Pressure (kPa)

(c)

-lila dilute, fitted

j'

2 1--"' = 26°

---o--- Yishun

---o--- Mandai

4.0 3.5

Infiltration at Crest for 1Om Slope Standing at 27°

~ 3.0

1--- 0 hrs - - 0.5 hrs -+-1.0 hrs ---2.0 hrs ....._ 4.0 hrs ---Hydrostatic I Pore-water pressure, Uw , (k:Pa) -80

s !

-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

80

..

.!! 2.5 (/)

0

2.0

u

1.5

0

..

u..

1.0 2.0

1.0

0.5

3.0

0.0

c 4.0

0

5.0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Slope Angle (deg)

(a)

(b)

Figure 7. Preliminary Assessment of field sites using 10 m Preliminary Assessment Chart. Transient pore-water pressure distribu­ tions (a) used to calculate respective factors of safety (b).

4 PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT CHARTS

(Section 2). The values used in the parametric study

slope represent typical values for residual soils in

Singapore.

The results from the parametric study can be used to perform a preliminary assessment of slope stability for field slopes that have similar parameter values as the ones used in the parametric study. By combining the slope stability results with re­ spect to slope height, summary charts can be gener­ ated as shown in Figure 7. This chart shows the pore-water pressure profiles and respective factors of safety for a 10 m slope. Similar charts were also developed for the 20 and 40 m slopes but are not shown here. Because similar pore-water pressure profiles de­ veloped for each of the various slope angles, only the profiles from the 27° slopes were used in these charts. An additional line has been plotted on the pore-water pressure profiles to show the hydrostatic pore-water pressure profile. The factor of safety re­ sults from all four slope angles form a factor of safety line for one specific transient pore-water pres­ sure distribution. The factor of safety line for the transient pore-water pressure distribution at 0 hours in Figure 7(a) is the uppermost line in Figure 7(b). The preliminary assessment of a field slope can be carried out using the following four steps. Pre­ liminary assessments of two research sites, Yishun and Mandai, are shown here to illustrate the use of the chart.

Step 2: Select appropriate set of charts.

If the charts are deemed to be suitable for the field

slope, select the appropriate set of preliminary as­

sessment charts. For the assessment of the research

sites, the 10 m assessment chart was selected.

Step 3: Determine the worst case pore-water pres­

sure distribution.

The worst case pore-water pressure conditions for

the Yishun and Mandai sites were determined from

field measurements. The worst case field pore-water

pressure profile for the Yishun site was a slight

positive pore-water pressure build up. It is not as

large a build up as the 4.0 hour profile in the 10 m

assessment chart, but it is more than the 1.0 hour

profile. It most closely matches the 2.0 hour as­

sessment profile. The worst case pore-water pres­

sure profile for the Mandai site most closely matches

the 4.0 hour profile in the assessment charts.

Step 1: Check field slope parameters.

Check to ensure that the field slope has similar pa­

rameters as outlined for the parametric study slope

787

Step 4: Estimate the factor of safety.

To estimate the factor of safety, take the angle of

each slope and move vertically till you intersect the

appropriate factor of safety line for the worst case

pore-water pressures. Then move horizontally to

estimate the factor of safety as shown in Figure 7.

The factor of safety for the Yishun site is estimated

at approximately 2.1. The factor of safety at the

Mandai site is estimated to be approximately 1.3.

This parametric study was performed as a portion of an extensive research project on rainfall-induced slope failures (NSTB 17/6/16). Through the re­ search project, a detailed slope stability analysis was performed to determined the factor of safety for each site. The factor of safety calculated for the worst case pore-water pressure profile at the Yishun site was 2.0. The preliminary assessment of 2.1 agrees satisfactorily with the detailed stability assessment. The factor of safety calculated for the worst case pore-water pressure profile at the Mandai site was 1.4, which also agrees well with the preliminary as­ sessment chart result of 1.3. 5 CONCLUSIONS These results show that the preliminary assess­ ment charts can provide a satisfactory estimate of the stability of a slope with respect to rainfall­ induced slope failures. If the results of the prelimi­ nary assessment indicate that the slope is at risk of failure (approx. equal to 1.0), then it would be ad­ visable to perform a detailed stability assessment. These charts are intended to be used only for the preliminary determination of the stability of a slope and are meant to provide the user with an estimate of slope stability. They should not be used independ­ ently to produce a final slope design. The charts are only applicable for field slopes with similar pa­ rameters to those defined in Section 2. Additional preliminary assessment charts can be generated for slopes of different soil types by ex­ panding the parametric study described in Section 2. By inputting different types of slope, soil, and cli­ matic and hydrologic parameters, other slope condi­ tions can be studied and summarised. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank Dr. D.G. Toll for his contributions. Funding for this research was provided by the research grant, NSTB 17/6116: Rainfall-Induced Slope Failures. REFERENCES GEO-SLOPE, 1998a. SEEP/W v4.0. GEO-SLOPE International Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. GEO­ GEO-SLOPE, 1998b. SLOPEIW v4.0. SLOPE International Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

788

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds} © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Three-dimensional back analysis of unsaturated soil strength parameters J.C.Jiang, T.Yamagami & K.Ueno

Department ofCivil Engineering, The University ofTokushima, Japan

ABSTRACT: A three-dimensional (3-D) analysis method is proposed to back-calculate unsaturated soil shear strength from a slope failure. The Fredlund strength criterion, with three parameters (c', ~·.~b), is incorporated with a 3-D simplified Janbu method for formulation of the factor of safety. The 3-D back analysis procedure for determination of the three strength parameters is described by combining the 3-D Janbu factor of safety equation with two essential conditions that take full advantage of the information of a failure surface in a un­ saturated slope. Application of the procedure to a hypothetical 3-D slope failure indicates that a unique and reliable solution of (c', ~·.~b) can be obtained. Finally, a comparison of2-D and 3-D back analyses is made to show the importance of performing a 3-D analysis in back calculating the unsaturated shear strength.

I INTRODUCTION Back analyses of slope failures have become a useful tool to evaluate soil shear strengths especially for remedial measures of landslide slopes. Existing back analyses for obtaining strength parameters have been performed for slope failures under saturated condi­ tions (e.g. Nyugen, 1984; Yamagami & Ueta, 1992, 1994). As most natural and manmade slopes are in unsaturated zones, it is necessary to incorporate the effect of suction due to unsaturation on soil strength in analyses of slope failures. A 2-D analytic method was presented (Jiang, Yamagami & Ueta, 1999) to back-calculate unsaturated strength parameters from a circular slope failure. This method was also ex­ tended to accommodate noncircular failure surfaces in unsaturated slopes (Jiang, Yamagami & Ueta, 2000). A 3-D analysis was recommended for back calcu­ lating strength parameters (e.g. Leshchinsky & Huang, 1992; Yamagami & Ueta, 1994), since the 2­ D simplification of an actual 3-D slope failure may lead to significant overestimation of back calculated strengths (and thus unsafe design). The Yamagami and Ueta's (1994) 3-D back analysis for a saturated slope failure showed that ignoring 3-D effects result­ ed in an increase of calculated values of both c and¢ by as much as 30%. In the present paper, a 3-D analytic method is pre­ sented to determine unsaturated soil strength para­ meters from back calculation of a 3-D slope failure. The method is based on two essential conditions that

take full advantage of the information provided by a failed surface. The 3-D simplified Janbu method (Ugai, 1988) is first incorporated with the Fredlund strength criterion for formulation. Then, a back ana­ lysis procedure for determination of three strength parameters (c', ~·. ~b) is described by combining the 3-D Janbu factor of safety equation with the above­ mentioned two conditions. Finally, this paper provi­ des a comparison of 2-D and 3-D analyses to show the importance of using a 3-D analysis in back cal­ culating the unsaturated shear strengths. 2 BASIC CONCEPT OF BACK ANALYSIS 2.1 Two essential conditions for back analysis

For simplicity, we assume the slope in question to be homogeneous in strength. In other words, c', ~· and ~b are back calculated as an average of the strength parameters along a 3-D failure surface. Two essential conditions suggested for back analysis of strength parameters (Yamagami & Ueta, 1992, 1994), as shown in the following, are also employed in the present study. I) Strength parameters to be determined must satis­ fy a condition where the factor of safety, F 0, of the failure surface is equal to 1.0; II) Strength parameters to be determined must satis­ fy a condition where the factor of safety of the failure surface is the smallest among trial slip surfaces in the vicinity of the failure surface.

789

2.2 3-D simplified Janbu method with the Fredlund strength criterion

to be zero. The factor of safety, F0, of a slip surface at failure is usually equal to 1.0. Substituting the known value of F=Fo (=1.0) into Eq.[2], we have:

The 3-D simplified Janbu method proposed by Ugai (1988) is employed in this study. Fig. I illustrates the forces acting on a typical column in which Q is the r~sultant of all the intercolumn forces acting on the stdes of the column. In Ugai's method, Q is decom­ posed to a component Q1 parallel to the x-axis and a component Q2 inclined by jJ=tan" 1 ('lltanayz) with re­ spect to the y-axis ('11 is an unknown constant), as shown in Fig. I. It has been shown that sufficiently accurate results can be obtained by using '11=0 when the slope angle is not larger than 60° (Ugai, 1988; Yamagami & Jiang, 1997). For simplicity, the con­ stant of '11=0 is employed in the present work. The Fredlund failure criterion (Fredlund, 1979) for unsaturated soil can be expressed by "J

=c' + (un -ua)tan~' + (ua -uw)tan~b

Fo =

LWtanaxz [3] in which W, Uw, axz and ma are evaluated based on the information of the failure surface. Eq.[3l indicates the relationship among c', tan~' and tan~ , representing a 3-D surface, egf, in c'-an~'­ tan~b space (see Fig.2). This surface will be called the "relation surface" hereafter. Note that the c'-tan~b relationship is linear when tan~' in Eq.[3] remains a constant value. In Fig.2, maximum values of the strength parameters, c'max, tan~'max and tan~bmax, limit possil:ile ranges of variation of c', tan~' and tan~b· The c'max, tan~'max and tan~bmax values can be calcu­ lated from Eq.[3] respectively by assigning the other two parameters a value of zero. It has been shown (Jiang, Yamagami & Ueta, 1999, 2000) that when the value of a parameter out of (c', ~·. ~6) is known through experimental or em­ pirical means, the other two parameters can be ob­ tained uniquely from a 2-D slip surface using Yama­ gami and Ueta's back analysis (1992). In the next section, we will first explain that this is also valid for a 3-D failure surface in an unsaturated slope. Then, a procedure, which is able to back calculate the three unsaturated strength parameters simultaneously, is presented.

[I]

where Ua - pore air pressure, Uw - pore water pres­ sure, (O'n-ua) - net normal stress state variable on a failure surface, (ua-Uw) - matric suction, c', ~·. ~b ­ strength parameters. The value of Ua is usually taken to be zero for comparatively shallow slip surfaces. Using the strength criterion Eq.[l ], instead of the Mohr-Coulomb model, the 3-D factor of safety can be derived from the horizontal force equilibrium equation. The derivation of this expression is quite similar to the procedure presented by Ugai (1988), and only the final equation is shown here (Eq.[2]).

F=

Lkc' -uw tan~b)~~y+Wtan~'}!(ma cosaxz)

Lkc' -uw tan~b)~~y+Wtan~'}!(ma cosaxJ LWtanaxz [2]

where

2.3 Application ofYamagami and Veta's method In this section, a similar procedure to the 3-D back analysis (Yamagami & Ueta, 1994) is applied to back calculation problems in which one of (c', ~·.~b) is given. Since one parameter is given, say ~· =~'o is assumed to be known here for convenience. Substi­ tuting ~·= ~·o into Eq.[3] and re-arranging the terms ofthe equation, the following can be obtained:

ma = (l+tan 2 axz +tan 2 ayz)- 112 +sinaxz tan~' IF Note that Ua is not included in Eq.[2] as it is taken

c'

Relation surface efg

Fig.2 c'-tan~'-tan ~b relationship

Fig. I Forces acting on a column 790

J

L(c'-uwtan¢b)~8.y=IW(Fotanaxz-

cannot be beyond the ranges AB and DE, respec­ tively. When the above procedure is performed with respect to a number of trial slip surfaces chosen abo­ ve and below the failure surface separately, the range of variation of c' (or tan$b) can be restricted to an extremely narrow zone which can be regarded to be an approximate solution of the required c' 0 (or tan$b0), as shown in Fig.5. As done in Yamagami and Ueta's method (1994), the above back analysis procedure can be carried out more efficiently and systematically by using A.-c' and A.-tan$b relationships (Fig.6). Note that A. is a speci-

tan¢' rna cosaxz [4] This equation indicates the relationship between c' and tan$b, which can be represented by a straight line PQ on the relation surface, as shown in Fig.2. In the present case, condition I) means that strength pa­ rameters (c' 0 , tan$bo) to be identified must satisfy the c'-tan$b relationship of Eq.[4]. In other words, are­ quired solution of the parameters (c', tan$b) corre­ sponds to a point on the line PQ in Fig.2. In order to consider condition II), two trial slip surfaces are chosen above and below a general 3-D failure surface, respectively, as illustrated in Fig.3. The method (Yamagami & Ueta, 1994) for generat­ ing 3-D trial slip surfaces is also employed here. The factor of safety of a trial slip surface, F. may be ex­ pressed as: rna cosa xz

F,

F, Fre' curve

L kc' -uw tan¢b)~8.y+W tan¢~}t(ma cosa.,.J LWtanaxz

[5] where the overlined symbols are evaluated from the trial slip surface in question. It has been shown that when (c', tan$b) vary along the line PQ in Fig.2, the F ,-c' and F,-tan$b relation­ ships for a 3-D trial slip surface above the failure surface (such as ao'd in Fig.3) can be represented as illustrated in Fig.4. Now, we consider the condition II) which requires that the factors of safety, F,, of tri­ al slip surfaces should be greater than Fo (=1.0). This signifies that values of the required c'0 and tan$b 0

F,

c'

tan$b

L---L--..,.....,~

c' max

tanbmax

Fig.4 Restriction of ranges of variation of(c', tan$b)

(a) Fre' curve

(a) 3D view a

'---'----'---'--'----''--'--...._... tan$b (b) Frtan$b curve tan$bmax

Fig.5 Back analysis ~rocedure

based on F,-c' and F.-tan$ relationships

(b) abed section +A. d

c' c'o (a) A. -c' curve Fig.6 An efficient and systematic solution procedure based on A.-c' and A.-tan$b relationships L..L..L..J..-'7--L-"---'--•

Fig. 3 3D failure surface and trial slip surfaces 791

fled positive constant used in Fig.3 to generate trial slip surfaces. The abscissas of points • ore in Fig.6 correspond to the abscissas of the points of intersec­ tion of Frc' or Frtantllb curves with the line of FFFo shown in Fig.5 separately. While the above procedure for back analysis of (c', tantjlb) is described by assigning a tjl'0 value to tjl', when c' or tantjlb is given as a known value, a similar back calculation can also be carried out to determine (tantjl', tantjlb) or (c', tantjl'), respectively.

40r-------------------~

32

8 10

20

30

x-axis (m) Plan view

40

so

24

e';;;' 16

2.4 Verification An illustrative slope failure in a symmetrical and convex slope in plan view, as shown in Fig.7, is pre­ sented here to verify the effectiveness of the back analysis procedure described in the preceding sec­ tion. By specifying c'=12.74kPa, tjl'=l0°, tjlb=6° and y=18.82kN/m3, the 3-D critical slip surface and the associated minimum factor of safety, as shown in Fig.7, were obtained from a search procedure com­ bining Eq.[2] with dynamic programming (Yama­ gami & Jiang, 1997). Thus, the back analysis is to be conducted on condition that the critical slip surface, the associated minimum factor of safety (Fmin= 1.087) and any one of (c', tjl', tjlb) are known, but the others are not. By assigning a known value to one of (c', tjl', tjlb), computational procedures for back calculating the other cyvo parameters were carried out using the effi­ cient and systematic approach shown in Fig.6. When tjl'=tjl'o=10° was given as a solution of tjl', the values of (c'=l3.03kPa, tjlb= 5.4°) were obtained (see Fig.8). In addition, (tjl'=lO.l 0 , tjlb=5.7°) and (c'=12.54kPa, tjl'= 10.1 °) were back calculated respectively by giving c'=c'o=l2.74kPa and tjlb= tllbo= 6.0°. It can be seen from these results that in each case the back calcu­ lated strength parameters agree with the correct (known) values quite well. Stability analyses for the slope shown in Fig.7(a) were performed using the back-calculated strength parameters. As a result, the critical slip surface and

">(

«
I> k : During this stage, all the rainfall infiltrates into the soil, and the soil moisture level near the soil surface increases. Line B of curve BC in Figure 1 illustrates this case.

I> fP > k : The infiltration rate is at its ca­ pacity and decreases subsequently. Runoff is being generated. This is the case shown by curve C and also curve D in Figure 1. When rainwater infiltrates into the soil, the redis­ tribution of soil moisture will result in three differ­ ent zones of soil mass: (1) infiltration zone, (2) tran­ sition zone, and (3) non-infiltration zone. Lumb ( 1975) simplified these three zones into a wetting front and a non-wetting front. The depth of wetting front can be expressed as (1):

(3)

h = (Dt)os +

kt n(s 1 -s;)

(2)

q

(1)

Where parameter t is the rain duration, D is the dif­ fusivity parameter, n is the soil porosity, k is the saturated conductivity, s 1 represents the degree of saturation in the wetting front, and s; is the degree of saturation before rainfall.

Figure 2. Field and laboratory stress paths (redrawn from Brand, 1981).

802

3 ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS Based on the characteristics of unsaturated soil and considering the influence of matric suction, slope stability analyses were carried out for the Linkou lateritic terrace. In the following, the engineering properties of soils obtained from laboratory and field tests previously reported in the literature are used.

H

3.1 Analytical method

H : height ofslope

Fredlund et al. (1981) proposed the General Limit Equilibrium method (i.e. GLE method) which could consider the matric suction effects on the soil shear strength. The conventional limit equilibrium slope stability method has been demonstrated to be special cases of the GLE method. This approach considers the matric suction term as part of the apparent cohe­ sion (C). Therefore, the effective cohesion of the soil (c') used in the traditional analysis could be added with the matric suction term, as given in (3).

(} :angle of slope

C

= c' + (u,- uJtan¢h

Figure 3. Slope profile in the dry season.

When the rainfall take place, a wetting front may be developed due to the infiltration of rainwater into the slope surface, as shown in Figure 4. The thick­ ness of the wetting front will be discussed in the next section.

(3)

Where C = apparent cohesion of the soil, c'= effec­ tive cohesion, and (u. -llw) = matric suction. ¢h is the angle indicating the rate of increasing shear strength relative to the matric suction. This approach has the advantage that the shear strength equation retains it conventional form. It is therefore possible to utilize a computer program written for saturated soils to solve the unsaturated soil problems. In this study, the well-known computer program "PC STAB5M" was used. 3.2 Assumptions and slope profiles Slope stability analyses were conducted based on the following assumptions: (1) soil is homogenous-and isotropic, (2) soil creep effect is neglected, (3) the influence on soil engineering property by surface vegetation is neglected, (4) the seepage force is not considered, and (5) ground water table is located in deep gravel stratum. The assumed slope profile for the dry season is shown in Figure 3. The area of matric suction was divided into several zones, which were parallel with each other. Numbers in each zone represent the magnitude of matric suction in that area. The angle of these zones is assumed to be 45 degree with re­ spect to the horizontal plane. The values of matric suction measured in the Linkou terrace by using the filter paper method ranged from about 10 to 200 kPa (Liu, 1990). The magnitude of matric suction is as­ sumed to decrease from 300 kPa of the top zone to 50 kPa of the bottom zone. The differential matric suction value was 50 kPa between two neighboring zones. Each zone is of 1 meter thick.

H

I

/

h : wetting front thickness

I I _______________ J I

Figure 4. Slope profile in the rainy season.

3.3 Thickness ofthe wetting front

Recall the infiltration behavior described in section 2.1, only when the rainfall intensity is larger than the soil permeability the degree of soil saturation could increase. The infiltration front would then form near the ground surface and move gradually into the soil. The thickness of the wetting front can be calculated by (2). The rain intensity must be greater than 36 mml hr (the coefficient of soil permeability of the studied lateritic soil) in order to form the wetting front, if no run-off is considered. Assuming a return period of 50 years for the analysis and using the rain intensity­ duration-frequency curve (Fig.5) from the Linkou rainfall data, the corresponding effective duration is determined to be 7.3 hours when the rain intensity is 36 mmlhr. Other parameters Sr, Si, n, and k are de­ termined as 1.0, 0.7, 0.495, 0.001 em/sec (36 mm/ hr), Respectively. Substituting these parameters into (2), the maximum thickness of the wetting front h is 1.77 m. However, according to the site condition, 803

the run-off coefficient is 0.5. In such case, the rain­ fall intensity needs to be increased to 72mm!hr to form the wetting front. The duration corresponding to a rain fall intensity of 72 mm/hr is 2.5 hours. Then the thickness of wetting front became 1.2 m. In this study, the maximum thickness of wetting front is conservatively assumed to be 2 meters.

Table I. Triaxial shear strength parameters of Linkou residual soil. Test Type

Parameters

CID

c'=0.2kglcm2 , ¢' = 30° c=I.3kglcm2 , t/J = 24° c=0.2kglcm2, t/J = 0°

uuu

suu

*CID- Isotropic Consolidated Drained Test UUU= Unsaturated Unconsolidated Undrained Test SUU= Saturated Unconsolidated Undrained Test

200

~

s

I :50 represent a return period of 50 years

I

150

150

Dry Season

-~

~ 100

100

.§

10

Total Stress method

Unsaturated Parameters

C,t/J'

1 Replace wetting front Rainyi Season withSUU parameters

50

0.1

Effective Stress method

1 Replace wetting front with

c',t/l

Replace wetting front with SUU parameters

100

Rain Duration(hr) Figure 5. Rainfall data of the Linkou region (replotted from the data obtained from the Water Resource Planing Commission).

Figure 6. Soil parameters used in the slope stability analyses.

4 ANALYTICAL RESULTS

3.4 Soil parameters Various triaxial shear strength parameters were summarized in Table 1 for the Linkou residual soil. Two sets of analyses were performed based on dif­ ferent combinations of these parameters. They are: (1) the effective stress method, and (2) the total stress method. Specific shear strength parameters used for each method are given in Figure 6. For the effective stress method, apparent cohe­ sion Cis the summation of effective cohesion c' and the matric suction term ((u. -uJtan¢h) in the dry season. The effective strength parameters c' and ¢' are determined from CID tests in this situation. Due to insufficient experimental data at present, q:lh was reasonably assumed to be 15°, 25° , 35° in the analyses. When rainfall occurs, the wetting front will de­ velop due to the infiltration of rainwater into the soil. As a result, the matric suction may decrease to zero in the wetting front. Thus the shear strength of the wetting front can be replaced by the saturated ef­ fective stress parameters (c' and ¢'). Based on the proposed stress path by Brand (1981) as has been described in section 2.2 for the rainy season, SUU parameters can be used as an alternative. For the total stress method, shear strength parameters determined from UUU tests were used for the dry season situation. For the rainy season, SUU parameters were used to simulate the reduced shear strength of the wetting front.

804

Both the analytical results using the effective stress method and the total stess method will be discussed below. Slope stability analyses using the effective stress method were conducted for various hypotheti­ cal cases by varying three variables. These variables include slope height (H), slope angle (e), and fric­ tion angle of the matric suction term (t/Jh ). Values used in the analysis are shown in Table 2. For each analytical case, five scenarios were analyzed: (1) dry season, (2) rainy season with a wetting front of 1 meter thick and using c' and ¢' for the wetting front, (3) rainy season with a wetting front of 1 me­ ter thick and using SUU parameters for the wetting front, (4) rainy season with a wetting front thickness of2 meter and using c' and ¢' for the wetting front, and (5) rainy season with a wetting front thickness of 2 meter and using SUU parameters for the wet­ ting front. The results are summarized as follows: (1)

The results for constant slope height (H) of 20m but with different slope angle ( ()) and q:lh are shown in Figure 7. The factor of safety apparently decreases with the increase of the slope angle regardless the value of t/J hfor every scenario.

(2)

The results for constant slope angle ( ()) of 75° but with different slope height (H) and q:lh are shown in Figure 8. It is obvious that the factor of safety decreases with the in­ crease of the slope height. When the slope

--l!r­ -{}-

Ill)·

-8-

!Uir(CID~rn)--®-

~

-A-



~Dry

-8-Rmr(aD~J--9-- Rain(SUU.I m)

J.O

£1,0 !'.l

g_ 0,0 +--------~ -25--i" >-0

~



0

10

-a

0 0.0

~

­

1.0

"'

g.

0.0

0

Vi ~

+ - - ---------1 ¢IF IS"

0

~

q

~ ·~-------~~ !!_ ~~2S"

H-20m

20

~li=20m



••

u

Roir(aD.Im)

-7(-

!Uir(SUU~)

--s-

0 ~ 1.0

Cll

'"

'" ...,

~o ·~-------~~ ¢1FI~ ~

u

9

20

2>'

~

~

0

0.0

!Uir(SUU.Im)

25.0

soo 9

75.0

H ~2 0m .

"

H(~)

"

"

0,0

r

~

B

0 2.0

b

[2]

where, c' = effective cohesion cr = total stress u. = pore air pressure Uw = pore water pressure 4>' =effective angle of friction (u.-uw) = matric suction 4> b =gradient with respect to changes in (u.-uw) when (cr -u.) is held constant.

Sm =WF {c' + (cr -u.) tanc!> + (u.-uw) tanc!> b

}

[3]

Where Sm = the shear force mobilised on the base of each slice. F = the safety factor ~ = the sliding surface of the slice. and safety, which were difficult with manual data recording. The data acquisition system was supported by a solar powered set and specifically designed for low power consumption with continuos logging.. The logging intervals were achieved by prescribing the appropriate interval during the set-up process. Two time intervals were adopted in this study, i.e., 30 minutes interval and 10 minutes. The system was set in such that when rapid changes in suction value the 10 minutes interval will be utilised, or else, the 30 minutes interval was used. The recorded data were downloaded from the data logger direct to a portable notebook computer through an RS232 interface. An automatic logging tipping bucket rain gauge was installed at the study site. The rain gauge records rainfall events on a real time basis. The clock of the data logger for the tensiometers and moisture blocks and the rain gauge recorder are synchronised. Figure 2 shows the schematic arrangement of the instrumentation at the study site. The infiltration characteristics of the soil were deduced by using a sprinkler system installed at the site. A V- Notch fixed with a flow meter was used to measure the surface run-off in a control section in the study (refer to Figure 3 ). In addition, an infiltrometer P-88 was used to obtain the infiltration capacity at the site with the sprinkler system test results. To investigate the water flow characteristics and suction variation in details, small tip tensiometers (refer to Figure 4.0) were also installed during the sprinkling process.

The factor of safety for slope stability analysis using method of slices can be derived using shear strength equation [2] above. The shear force mobilised at the base of slice can be written as:­ 3 INSTRUMENTATION 20 numbers of tensiometer and 20 numbers of moisture block and a rain gauge were installed on the slope to monitor the changes of matric suction with respect to rainfall. The tensiometers and moisture blocks were installed at different depth of, O.Sm, 1m, 3m and 4m. An automatic data acquisition system was designed to record the output from tensiometers and moisture blocks. Automatic data acquisition system solves the problems of reliability, accessibility 808

Figure 2.

Instrumentation Layout of the study Site.

Figure 3. Field Infiltration Sprinkler System

Figure 5.

Sensors Layout For Each Berm.

Typical Layout of Tensiometers For Figure 6. Sprinkler Model

'Walu Vtat Sc rew

The accuracy of the moisture block when the suction is below 1 bar is not as good as tensiometer. Both the tensiometer and moisture block were installed at the same depth for comparison and cross checking purposes.

Figure 4. Small tip tensiometer 4 MATRIC SUCTION MEASUREMENT In this study, matric suction of the soil was measured using jet-fill tensiometer and moisture block (Soil Moisture Corporation U.S.A). Moisture blocks were used because tensiometer can only measure matric suction below 1 bar of negative pressure while moisture block can measure more than 4 bar. The matric suction obtained from the tensiometer is the difference between the gauge reading and the head of the water in the stamp. The longer the tensiometer, the lower the suction it can measure. In this study the tensiometer were installed perpendicular to the slope surface to reduce the head of water (refer to Figure 5). Figure 5 shows the layout of the tensiometers for the sprinkler model at the study site. S 1 to S7 in Figure 6 represent the position of the small tip tensiometers.

5 INSTALLATION OF INSTRUMENT SENSORS In this study, normal coring tools could not be used because the soil is brittle and hard. A special in-house designed motorised auger was fabricated for the installation purposes. The motorised auger consists of two motors with 'h and '.4 horse power. The quarter horse power motor was fitted at the top of the machine to push the auger into the slope as the half horse power motor was used to rotate the auger. Both the motors were controlled with a speed controller. During installation, four sand bags were placed at the base of the augering machine and the speed of the motors were properly controlled to prevent the auger machine from being lifted up when drilling through hard layers.

809

The auger used in this study was designed to suit the soil condition at the study site. The most suitable distance between the flights was determined to be 25mm in order to ease the process of augering. Due to the difficulty in fabricating longer auger, 2 or 3 lengths ofshort extension flights auger were used. After the hole had been augered, a special tool was used to remove the residual from the hole. Precaution was taken to ensure good contact with the soil is necessary in order for the tensiometer and moisture block to function properly. Moisture blocks were inserted into the bored hole using a fabricated tool in the form of a long rod with a modified tip. The soils were tamped firmly after placing the blocks and bentonite is placed at the surface of the hole in order to prevent the hole from becoming a water passage. All the wire leads were inserted into a poly-pipe and are buried in a shallow trench in the ground. The wires were connected to the data logger situated at the midway between the berms. The adverse tropical climate and vandalism were major concerns in the installation. A lockable steel security cage grouted to the slope surface protects the installed tensiometers and moisture blocks. The data acquisition system was contained in a lockable steel hut. All the transducers for the tensiometers were protected from sunlight by wrapping them with a double layered foam rubber on the inside and aluminium foil on the out side. 6 DISCUSSION Suction Variation With Rainfall

Figure 7 shows a typical suction vanat10n with rainfall (one-month duration) for one of the berm. It clearly shows that as the depth increases, the matric suction reduces. During the time interval of 14000 to 24000 minutes, there were no rainfall and and the four tensiometers experiences higher matric suction. When the rain starts to fall, matric suction does not reduce immediately. Due to the infiltration of rain water into the ground, after rainfall the matric suction reduce slowly for all depths. From Figure 7 , In the time interval of 0 to 13000 minutes, suction for 3.0m depth tensiometer gives very low suction values. This is mainly due to the rainwater, which has infiltrated during the earlier rainfall periods. From the field infiltration test, the water infiltration rate is 2.31 x!0-6m/s. The Rainfall intensity at the site can be as high as ., 1.13 x 104 m/s. From Figure 7 , it is clearly shown that during heavy rainstorm. the suction drops very fast and also recovers fast. One of the reasons is that the rainwater infiltrate into the slope through quartz veins in the soil.

810

Suction and Rainfall vs. Time (Berm 1 From Top)

30 25 c: ~ 20 g iii 15 IIIQ.

. - - - - - ­- ­- - -­ ---.­ +--­- ­­ ~ - '\-""'>""-.P,="',.f­

+-- - t - - -- - --'-llLLI!Cjfllf

:S ~ 10 t-'--==:J· ~

5 +-~~=--~c-~~~~~

0 ~9"""'=-~;..:..---~· ~ --~~~~~-~~~~~WM~

0

10002._ 20IXD DXXl 4lCJX)

Time (minutes)

~

Figure 7. Typical suction variation with rainfall for one-month duration. Rain Simulation Test Results

Figure 8 shows the typical suction variation at benn 4 from the top slope during the sprinkling process. Four series of test were carried out with various types of surface cover and conditions. During the rainfall simulation process, continuous intense sprinkling was carried out for 120 minutes and concurrently suction changes were monitored. Monitoring of suction was continued even after the sprinkling to a time where the suction stabilize. The suction reading for small tip tensiometers S2, S3 , S6 and S7 in all graphs in Figure 8 increases when the sprinkling process starts. This might be due to the effect of water flowing on slope that creates slight negative pressure at shallow depth of the slope. The increment is more significant for small tip tensiometers installed at the lower level of the slope because the water runoff velocity is higher at the slope toe. For 120 minutes of sprinkling no significant changes in matric suction at depth i.e., beyond 2.0 meter from the slope surface. This is mainly due to very low infiltration rate of the soil ,6.07 x 10"3 mm/s. From Figure 8 , shows all four condition of test, with the matric suction recovered slightly after the sprinkling process. The tests with grass as surface cover shows a greater and quicker increment m suction due to the effects ofthe grass roots 7 CONCLUSIONS The automatic data logging system for monitoring tensiometers, moisture blocks and other devices has been detailed. The desired attributes of the system have been reasonably achieved and the advantages of fully electrical installation were credited to its flexibility and continuity of data obtained. Installation

15 10 5

~

0

~

-5

j

....

I'-----

~~

method, mmumse soil disturbance contribute to accurate data from the instruments. Generally as the depth increases, matric suction reduces. But, in some circumstances, due to the flux condition, this can be the other way round. Heavy rainfall intensity may not cause instability to slope but prolong rainfall can be significant. Geological features like quartz vein could be significant in slope instability because it increases the rainwater infiltration. Surface covers of slope also contribute to matric suction variation during rainfall. Bare surface causes higher reduction in matric suction during rainfall..

-+-S1

~

.

~~~~

...._., ~·2

20

~

1 -10

----5· ---55 -+-58 -+-57

-o.sm

-1.0m

~

-15 -20 Til... (Min)

a) Slope covered with grass with erosion protection geotextile 10

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT -+-51 -+-52

~

"""

Acknowledgement is due to Road Section of Public Work Department, Malaysia for providing part of the research grant. The authors also wish to acknowledge Mr. Lee Yik Seong and Mr. Theva Kumar s/o Kanan for assisting in the field sprinkling study.

...._5,

----x:;

'"

20

---55 -+-57

-o.sm

~

-+-2.0m

-10

-15

Time(mln)

REFERENCES

b) Slope covered with grass and erosion geotextile but was cut to 1 inch height

Abdullah, Affendi M.L. & Ali Faisal, "Field Instrumentation for Slope Stability in Residual Soil ". GEOTROPIKA 92' Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Bishop, A.W. and Blight, G.E. (1967) "Effective stress evaluation for unsaturated soils" Jour. Soil Mech. & Found. Engg. Div., ASCE 93 (SM2), pp. 125- 148. Fredlund D.G. "Appropriate concepts and tecnology for unsaturated soils". Second Canadian Geotechnical Colloquim, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, No. 16, 1979, pp 121-139. Rahardjo.H, Loi, J., and Fredlund, D.G., "Typical matric suction measurements in the laboratory and in the field using thermal conductivity sensors", presented at Indian Geotechnical Conference (IGC-89), Vol.l, Visakhhapatnam, December 1989. Low T.H., Faisal Hj. Ali. "Water infiltration on slopes" World Engineering. Congress, Kuala Lumpur, 1999. Low T.H., Faisal Hj. Ali, Saravanan.M."Field suction variation with rainfall on cut slope in weathered sedimentary residual soil", Slope Stability Engineering IS-Shikoku'99, Japan

-+-51

'4 ~

"'--...,

'

'\:~ ~

~·2

.......... _.,_.,

--6-53

',..,....,.-:_;;_;,;

--+-SO -+-51 -0.51'11 -1.0m

-10

.......-2.0m

-15 -20 llme(mln)

c)Slope covered with erosion protection geotextile

~----------------------,

~~~~~------------~

'·0~~~~~~~~----~ ~

~L-------------------~ Time (min)

d) Bare slope surface Figure 8. test

Results of suction variation for sprinkler

811

Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds} © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Modelling variables to predict landslides in the south west flank of the Cameroon volcanic line, Cameroon, West Africa E. E. Nama Institute ofEnvironmental Systems, Salford University, UK

ABSTRACT: The high rates of crustal movement and frequent seismic events mean that neotectonic terrains are subject to extensive development of natural hazards. Such terrains in tropical areas like the west flank of the volcanic province of Cameroon is subject to high annual precipitation levels (5000-9000 mm). The effect ofprecipitation on local soil texture increases the rate of landscape change. Modelling the irregular shape of the volcanic region is not a simple problem, and the possibility of ever knowing the true elevation at every point is excluded. This paper examines surface elevation models based on samples of elevations. Two competing structures have been used to represent terrain in this study: Lattices and Triangular Irregular Networks (TINs). GIS, based on digital elevation models, offers the potential to be able to map lineament density, slope angles and facets and permit the modelling of a variety of stability crite­ ria to predict surface processes such as slope failure. 1 INTRODUCTION The occurrence of vertical crustal movements and frequent seismic events in the Mount Cameroon re­ gion mean that this region, as with many neotectonic terrains, is subject to the extensive development of natural hazards. This earthquake prone terrain is subject to high annual precipitation levels, greatly increasing the rate of landscape change and the de­ velopment of natural hazards. Thus, there is an ur­ gent need in this region to evaluate the geomorphol­ ogy of the terrain to be able to delineate hazards with a view towards a predictive model. This paper describes the use of GIS derived data in collabora­ tion with volcanic soil and precipitation data in de­ tecting slope susceptibility to landslides on the slopes of Mount Cameroon (Fig. 1). The Mount Cameroon region represents the site of an important population concentration in south west Cameroon as a result of the rich volcanic soils sustaining rubber, palm oil, banana and tea planta­ tions. Hence, there is a need to derive a cost­ effective, efficient and environmentally sensitive model to detect landslide susceptibility.

Fig. 1 The Mount Cameroon region is the wettest part of the region with almost 9000 mm of total annual rainfall in almost 200 rainy days (Cameroon Development Corporation, 1999). The intensity of rainfall and rainy days reduce further north and east. On average the number of total an-

2 CLIMATE AND SOILS The study area is affected by the equatorial climate regime with two distinct seasons. The Western flank 813

nual sunshine hours per day is 1,270.2 in Debund­ scha, 1200.8 in Idenau, 1521.5 in Limbe and 1120 in Buea (Cameroon Development Corporation, 1999). The mean monthly maximum and minimum tem­ peratures for Buea are 23° C and 17.2° C and Limbe 27° C and 21 o C. The soils of the coastal lands of Cameroon west of Douala are the result of weathering, transportation and deposition from the steeper slopes of the region. Large scale volcanic activities, sedimentary coastal and fluvial deposition, differential rainfall patterns and temperatures, erosion and the process of gradual uplifting, have all contributed to the pedologic vari­ ety of the area. The area has a good drainage system and permeability of the soils range from moderate to rapid. 3 PHYSICAL SETTING The tectonic and geological setting of Mount Cam­ eroon is complex (Geze, 1943). It is a member of an alignment of volcanoes stretching from islands of the Atlantic ocean (Pagalu, Sao Tome, Principe and Bioko) to the main land (Mounts Cameroon, Ma­ nengouba, Bamboutos and Oku), this alignment is known as the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL) (Ateba and Ntepe, 1997). On its northern extension, the CVL is divided into two parts, one trending northwards to Bui plateau, the other westward to Chad through the Foumban shear zone and the Adamawa plateau. Mount Cameroon is a strato­ volcano with its summit at 4100 m and it has erupted six times this century (1909, two in 1922, 1954, 1959, 1982, 1999) (Deruelle et a!. 1987; Nama, 1999). It is made up of three series ofbasaltic lavas: the black, white and medium series (Geze, 1953). Many faults have been recognised in this region es­ pecially near the vents of the 1999 volcanic erup­ tions (Nama, 1999). The south east and the sununit areas are the most seismically active locations in the region with the south west flank of the mountain being the most volcanically active part. 4 METHOD Digital elevation modelling (DEM) as a GIS tech­ nique in generating 3-D terrain models of the Mount Cameroon region has been important in the detection of lineaments. The underlying concept is that the model will reflect the nature of the terrain for tec­ tonic identification and isolation. Essentially, the method relies on identifying morpho-tectonic vari­ ables and overlaying the data set for each of these variables to detect proximity of factors for landslide susceptibility analysis. The impact of precipitation 814

and soils in this region are evaluated with the model to detect areas most prone to landslide failure in the slopes of the south west flank of Mount Cameroon. A Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) topology for the study area was created by manually digitising a 1 : 50 000 topographic map which approximated the terrain surface by a set of triangular facets. Most TIN models assume planar triangular facets for the purpose of simpler interpolation in applications such as contours (Lee 1991). The purpose of using a TIN method in this study is to convert the dense vector data to a TIN model in such a way that the surface defined is as close to the DEM surface as possible. The tolerance level of the data during transformation determines to a large extent the accuracy of the out­ put model. Ideally, it is preferable to have as small a tolerance as possible and to maintain as small as possible a data set. However, it was noted that smaller tolerance resulted in larger sizes of extracted TIN and vice versa. To maximise the output repre­ sentation of the data, a moderate tolerance was used. The lattice method was also used in representing the terrain in 3-D. The data input comprised contour lines in vector format which were dynamically rasterised into floating point topology using TIN­ LATTICE (ESRI 1991) with a resolution of 60 m and a 20 m spacing. The TIN database from Arc/Info was converted to a raster structure, through TIN-to-grid linear algorithms (Fig. 2). Since such a structure transformation may degrade the quality of the elevation models, contour lines were first calcu­ lated from both the Arc/Info TIN data and the de­ rived lattice. By overlaying the two contour sets, only very small discrepancies resulted. Hence, the TIN-to-grid conversion did not significantly alter the information content of the original TIN structure Ideally, a cell resolution of 10 m would have been perfect to adequately represent more accurately the terrain surface (DEM). However, the choice of a 51.082 m cell resolution was determined by the ca­ pacity of the computer workstation; hence the best possible digital terrain surface representation. Car­ rara eta!. (1997) revealed that a similar method of interpolation was undertaken with the same results in Calabria, southern Italy while comparing tech­ niques for generating digital terrain models from contour lines. The TIN and Lattice models were used for mor­ phological hydrologic modelling to examine the distribution of runoff in the catchment. The drainage network reflecting basement lineaments was digit­ ised. The surface DEM mapping has been applied in this study as an alternative derivative for the detec­ tion of brittle tectonic structures such as fractures,

faults, large-scale fractures and fracture zones. The scale of the mapped fractures are commonly denoted as lineaments (O'Leary et a!. 1976). This method as in remote sensing entailed a subjective visual identi­ fication of lineaments extracted manually on a trans­ parent overlay of the Lattice model. Lineaments in a DEM are defined by a drop in elevation for a short distance (Wladis 1999) therefore, they have been de­ scribed by a certain frequency in this region in terms of their representation in a digital elevation model. The concept for transformation of a DEM into a shaded relief image first explained by Batson et a!. (1975), was implemented in this study. Three di­ mensional renditions of the DEM were produced in which different visual effects were achieved by varying the values of surface/sun orientation (215°), sun-elevation angle (30°) and vertical exaggeration (800 m) to obtain the best brightness information of the shaded-relief to identify and map lineaments (Fig. 3). 5 RESULTS By using the DEM to visually detect and manually digitise lineaments, a total of 529 lineaments were identified which did not reflect the entire lineament density of the region. However, using drainage net­ work as a basis for lineament detection in this region proved more successful as a total of 573 lineaments were identified forming 51 .9% of the total linea­ ments in the region. This result suggests that river network more readily reveals lineaments. The density of detected lineaments in this region vary with total precipitation distribution of the re­ gion (Fig. 3). A total of 1102 lineaments were de­ tected and mapped from the DEM. Soil samples collected from four sites in this re­ gion show a variety of constituents with various grain size characteristics (Table I).

Fig. 2 Tin-Lattice terrain model of the study area

% Silt % % % Sample % Gravel locaClay Coarse Sand silt tion 53.01 8.70 0.21 0.81 90.91 Site I 92.57 61.26 4.40 2.73 0.27 Site 2 25.42 16.88 25 .19 29.09 28.84 Site 3 64.21 75 .19 15.72 19.42 0.65 Site4 Table 1 Soil samples and percentage of constituents from four sites in the study area

N

The effects of precipitation and infiltration on clay fine silt, coarse silt, sand and gravel are shown in the landslide susceptibility model in Figure 4.

~

Fig. 3 Total digitised linean1ents from DEM and drainage network of the study area

815

Digitised contours

Infiltration (and

absorption)

through black

volcanic soils

Weathering and reduction of shear strength Fig. 4 Landslide susceptibility model In this model the importance of soil texture and the excellent drainage conditions of the volcanic soils of Cameroon during rainfall increases the effects of erosion and weathering along the lines of disconti­ nuities in the structure. This 'overloading effect' en­ hanced by the absorption capacity of clay in the soils increases the pore pressure and eventually reduces the strength of slopes especially where lineament density is high. 6 DISCUSSION 6.1 Systematic spatial variability of lineament den­ sity and volcanic soils It is hypothesized that the location, direction and density of lineaments significantly influence the sta­ bility of slopes in the study area. Two forms of in­ fluence are postulated: (1) direct influence, which assumes that slope failure has been partially or wholly caused by one or more lineaments (2) indi­ rect influences, which assumes lineaments affect the orientation and length of slopes and channels, and which in turn affect the relative susceptibility to slope failure. Fracture traces or lineaments are likely to stimu­ late slope failures for several reasons. First, they form discontinuities of low strength, which interact with gravitational forces wherever local relief and dissection permit. Second, they tend to concentrate infiltration water, giving rise to localised increases in pore pressure. Third, faulting may create lithological junctions that bring permeable and im­ permeable materials into contact and increase the conditions for a rise in pore water pressure. Fourth, different vertical movements associated with fault­ ing may create scarps and subsided blocks which

816

erosional forces may degrade. Fifth, fracture traces are likely to be attacked selectively and preferen­ tially by the agents of erosion. The distribution of lineaments show a strong concentration in the south west and south where the concentration of sand per 100 em have ± 85% sand and ± 15% clay suggesting high infiltration capa­ bilities of the volcanic soils leading to subsequent weathering of the basaltic rocks and the collapse of susceptible slopes in the region. In this neotectonic terrain, the slopes in the south west and south are steep and are exposed to very high annual total pre­ cipitation which means they form the most suscepti­ ble slopes in the region. This assertion was con­ firmed from morphometric findings during a field trip to the region which clearly showed that more than 48 %of these slopes are greater than 15°. Although soil depth is a function of clay soil moisture retention capacity, the micro-variation that occurs in this region nonetheless make some slopes more prone to increased stress than others. 7 CONCLUSION Although the slopes of Mount Cameroon have, in the past, received little attention it is clear that the recent volcanic activities are drawing more attention to specific earth science studies. This paper has in­ troduced a GIS perspective by detecting landslide susceptibility, which is hoped will increase the awareness of the hazard in this region. The spatial variability of lineaments and soil grain size percentage in the south west flank of the mountain have implications for environmental plan­ ning and risk assessment studies. Observed linea­ ment density derived from digital elevation model­ ling and annual rainfall data of the region suggest that the south west and south slopes of Mount Cam­ eroon are the most susceptible to landsliding. REFERENCES Ateba, B. & Ntepe, N. 1997. Post-eruptive seismic activity of Mount Cameroon (Cameroon), West Africa: a statistical analysis. Journal of Volcanol­ ogy and Geothermal Research, 79,25-45. Batson, R.M. 1975. Computer generated shaded re­ lief images. Journal ofResearch U.S. Geological Survey, 3, 4, 401-408. Cameroon Development Corporation, 1999. Group oil palm, tea and banana estate rainfall data. Carrara, A. Bitelli, G. & Carla, R. 1997. Compari­ son of techniques for generating digital terrain models from contour lines. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 11, 5, 451­ 473.

Geze, B. 1943 Geographie physique et geologique du Cameroun Occidental. Memoire du Museum National d'Histoire, Paris, XV11, pp-12 Nama, E.E. 1999. The relationships between earth­ quakes, structure and landslides on the slopes of Mount Cameroon using GIS and remote sensing. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Salford, UK. O'Leary, D.W. Friedman, J.D. & Pohn, H.A. 1976. Lineaments, linear, lineations: Some proposed new standards for old terms. Geological Society of American Bulletin, 87, 1463-1469. Wladis, D. 1999. Automatic lineament detection using digital elevation models with second de­ rivative filters. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 65, 4, 453-458.

817

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Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong (eds} © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Laboratory experiments on initiation of rainfall-induced slope failure M.Nishigaki & A.Tohari

Department ofEnvironmental Design and Civil Engineering, Okayama University, Japan

ABSTRACT: The results of a study of the process leading to the initiation of rainfall-induced slope failure are presented. The study included measurements of pore-water pressure at failure initiation on a series of soil slope models. The experimental results indicated that the main failure of soil slopes was initiated by develop­ ment of localized unstable area at the toe of the slope models upon the formation of seepage face. The meas­ urements of pore-water pressure showed that the soil at the slope toe was saturated at failure. This clearly demonstrates that rainfall-induced slope failure is a consequence of instability of the slope toe area of the slope induced by water seepage under drained condition. However, the major portion of sliding mass may still be in an unsaturated condition. l INTRODUCTION Rainfall-induced slope failures are one of the most destructive natural disasters, which frequently occur in natural and man-made soil slopes in many areas around the world. Such slope failures have affected human lives and properties. In Japan, rainfall­ induced slope failure has resulted in the loss of 30 lives in a recent occurrence in Hiroshima Prefecture. Recently, some investigations have been carried out to study the condition leading to such slope fail­ ures (Iseda & Tanabashi, 1986; Kato & Sakajo, 1999; Sasaki et a!. 1999; Sakajo & Kato, 1999). While all investigators agree that the slope failure during rainfall occurred due to the rise of ground­ water level, and the increase of positive pore-water pressure is a major causative factor of these types of failures, the actual process leading to failure initia­ tion has not been well understood and documented. The understanding on failure initiation is essential for performing analysis and taking subsequent meas­ ures to predict and to prevent the occurrence of rain­ fall-induced slope failure. The objective of the work presented in this paper was to investigate the process leading to initiation of rainfall-induced slope failures and the critical influ­ ence of seepage on failure initiation. 2

different modes of raising the water level in the ex­ perimental slope were considered in the experi­ ments. In the first experiment, a slow rise of water level was introduced to the slope model from a con­ stant head tank at the rate of 5 em/h. The second experiment considered a condition of rapid water level increase by raising the constant head tank at the rate of 0.63 em/min. In the third experiment, rainfall at intensity 100 mm!h was simulated to induce the rise of water level in the slope model. Prior to the first two experiments, a water level of about 20 em was introduced to produce initial water level across the base of each slope from a constant head tank. 3

APPARATUSES

3.1 Soil Properties In all the experiments, sandy soil was used for con­ struction of the slope models. Soil particles varied from fine sand to coarse sand. The properties of the sandy soil determined by laboratory experiments are summarized in Table l. Table I. Properties of the sandy soil. Density of parD6o/D 10 0 10 ticle, p, (g/cm 3 ) (mm) 2.69 0.175 7.14

EXPER~ENTALPROGRAM

Failure was induced in a number of l m high soil slopes by raising water level within the slopes. Three

EXPER~ENTAL

K, (cm/s)

0.029

Cohesion (kPa) 0.0103

3.2 Slope failure tank The slope failure tank as the basic apparatus and the profile of the slope models are shown schematically 819

in Figure 1. This large metal tank was designed to accommodate 1 m high soil slope that could be brought to failure by seepage of water towards the toe. The dimensions of the slope model were chosen to reduce the effects of side friction limit (width and height ratio of 1.0), and not to confine the nature of slope failure. The slope angle was 45°, which is close to the angle of repose of 50°. The whole struc­ ture was conservatively designed to limit deflection. To generate an impervious boundary at the end of the slope model, a 1 em acrylic board of 25 em height was secured at the down slope end. The prop­ erties of the slope models for each experiment are given in Table 2.

Water was allowed to enter the slope from the constant head tank through a coarse gravel-filled tank with porous sheet outlets to generate lateral in­ flow in the first two experiments. To inhibit direct sliding of the base along the soiVfloor interface, a thin layer of sand was created over the floor after glue was applied on the floor of the tank. Table 2. Properties of experimental slope models. Initial moisture content Exp. No Dry density, Void f?d (g/cm3) ratio 1.434 0.875 I 0.074 2 1.409 0.909 0.066 1.429 0.882 3 0.081

4 mm metal plate

3.3 Pore-water pressure transducers Eight pore-water pressure transducers were installed through the observation window with porous cup submerged about 5 mm into the soil to ensure effec­ tive measurements of the changes of pore-water pressure. Each of the transducers, monitored by mi­ crocomputer-based acquisition system, was logged at approximately 5 s and 60 s intervals during the first experiments and the last two experiments, respec­ tively. Figure 2 shows the configuration of the pres­ sure transducers. Figure I. Slope failure tank.

3.4 Rainfall simulator

An acrylic board of 15 mm thick was installed on the one side of the tank for allowing simple installa­ tion of instrument system and observation of the de­ formation process. Prior to each experiment, blue tracers were injected through the injection holes to visualize the flow lines within the slope profile.

A rainfall simulator was set up above the slope model to introduce the change in pore-water pressure and the failure due to rainfall infiltration in experi­ ment 3. The simulator was designed to produce an effective rainfall intensity of approximately 100 mmlhr. It mainly consisted of the sprayer arms, sprayers and flow meter.

Flowmeter

Rainfall simulator

j

g

J!o

-10 .0~

-1 1.0

~

·12.0 ·ISO

· 130

·110

·90 ·70 ·SO Pore-water pressure (kPa)

·30

· 10

Figure 3. Permeability function for a residual soil from the NTU campus.

The function relating the coefficient of permeabil­ ity to negative pore-water pressures, which is used for this study, was estimated by Seep/W (using Green and Corey's (1971) equation) from the soil­ water characteristic curve. The permeability func­ 838

tion that is presented in Figure 3 was estimated as­ suming a saturated coefficient of permeability of 10"5m/s. The strength parameters that were used in the slope stability analyses were a low cohesion of 1kPa and an angle of friction ~· of 25° (relating to applied stress) and a ~b angle of 24° (relating to suc­ tion). 2.4 Plan ofthe study

The objective of the study was to identify the influ­ ence of the initial conditions in the slope and also the influence of several rainfall sequences on the devel­ opments of the pore-water pressures within a slope. Observations of rainfall induced landslides in Singa­ pore show that major slope failures occur if the daily rainfall exceeds 11 Omm. Minor failures can even take place when the total daily precipitation is below 50mm if there has been a significant amount of ante­ cedent rainfall. :::.cedent rain: lmmlh for 5 hours. every 24 hours. for 5

3 PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS 3.1 Effect ofdifferent distributions ofantecedent rain on the pore-water pressures

I

Scenario 1

nl·

major rain: 60mmlh for 4 hours on the 6th day Scenario 2 rain: Smmlh for 1 hour, every 24 hours, for 5 antecedent days major rain: 60mmlh for 4 hours on the 6th day Scenario 3 antecedent rain: even distribution of 25mm rain for 5 days major rain: 60mmlh for 4 hours on the 6th day

1..

~·

I .1.

Scenario 4

even distribution of 265mm rain for S days and 4 hours

~

~~~ ~

0

24

48

· - - - - ·Scenario l - - - Scenario3

~~

'~ ~ 72

Time (hours)

96

120

The maximum values of the initial suctions near the ground surface that were used were 25, 50 and 75kPa. The initial pore-water pressures in the un­ saturated zone were assumed to be hydrostatic from the water level until they reached the appropriate limiting value (i.e. -25, -50 or -75kPa) and remained constant above that point. This range of initial suctions has been taken to represent the typical range of suctions in Singapore. Field measurements from the instrumented slopes on the NTU campus, have shown that after a long dry period high suctions exceeding the 70kPa have de­ veloped near the ground surface (Lim et al. 1995).

144

·Scenario 2 --Scenario4

Figure 4. Rainfall scenarios used in the parametric study

In this study four rainfall scenarios have been con­ sidered. In all the four cases studied, the same total rainfall was applied but they differed in the intensi­ ties and the draining periods. The first three rainfall scenarios were divided into two periods, a period of antecedent rainfall followed by the major rainfall event. The total rainfall prior to the major event amounted to 25mm and was distributed over a pe­ riod of 5 days. The major event had an intensity of 60mmlh, started on the 6th day and lasted for 4 hours. In the fourth scenario the same total amount of rainfall 265mm, was distributed over the whole 5 days and four hours for comparison. Figure 4 shows the characteristics of all four scenarios. The total duration of each simulation was 336 hours (i.e. 14 days) leaving the slope to drain for 9 additional days after the major rainfall event. For the groundwater, two initial levels were used hw=O and 5m, where hw is the depth of the ground­ water table measured below the toe of the slope.

839

The effect of the antecedent rain and the major rain is important mainly in the unsaturated zone from the ground surface until 7m depth. However, the changes in pore-water pressures are most significant i n the first 3m and below that depth any changes are small. Figure 5 presents pore-water pressure profiles at the crest of the slope for the case where hw=O and initial pore-water pressures were limited to -25kPa. At 0.5m from the surface the pore-water pressures before the major rainfall have increased from -25kPa (initial maximum pore- water pressure) to -22.5kPa in Scenario 1, to -1 7kPa in Scenario 2, to -13kPa for Scenario 3 and to -4.5kPa for Scenario 4 (Fig. Sa). Although the differences between these values are significant, after the major rainfall event these dif­ ferences are largely eliminated for the first three sce­ narios (Fig. 5b). The pore-water pressures increased further to approximately -1kPa for Scenario 1, -0.5kPa for Scenario 2 and 0.5kPa for Scenario 3. In Scenario 4 the pore-water pressures within the first 5m are predicted to be -4kPa. However, in this last case the pore-water pressures reach this value almost two days after the beginning of the simulation. Although at the end of the rain the pore-water pressures near the ground surface do not differ much in all four scenarios, the situation is different at deeper depths. From a depth of 1m and below in Scenarios 1 and 2 the water did not manage to infil­ trate whereas pore-water pressure changes can be seen to 1.5m in Scenario 3 and to 5m in Scenario 4 (Fig. 5b). Figure 6 presents the pore-water pressure profile, 2 days after the end of the rain. This shows the slower rate of wetting at depths greater than 1m. In Scenarios 1 and 2 pore-water pressures have man­ aged to build up in the zone between 2m and 4m while in the other two cases pore-water pressures have built up from that depth and below, especially

in the zone between 4 and 7m. For example, at the end of the major rain in Scenario 3 the pore-water pressures at 4m depth were -22kPa and two days later have built up to -13kPa. In Scenarios 1 and 2 the pore-water pressures at the same depth are re­ spectively -24kPa and -22kPa. (a)

lished wetting front, for Scenario 1 (Fig. 7a) and Scenario 3 (Fig. 7b) for the case of initial pore-water pressures of-25kPa and for water table hw=Om. In Scenarios 1 and 2 the wetting front is about 0.25m deep from the ground surface at the time the major rainfall ends. In the case of Scenario 3 the wetting front moves down as deep as 1.8m. (a)

-2S

-20

-IS

.s

-10

10

Pore-water pressure (kPa)

1.-...-. lniLial ~ Secn.ario 1 -+E- Sccn.ario 2 - + - S

ti

0

ii!

~0.10

Figure 10. Suction development at site-A.

c

·o_o.oo

~-0 . 08

"e

2

~006

"0

c.

-0.10

0

15 30 45 60 rainfall intensity per day (mm)

5-0.04 E

75

g­

~ -0.02

...,...

Figure 8. Drop in suction at site-A.

-~ 0.00 tl

ill 0.02

Although the drop in suction at a particular point may depend on various other factors, such as, number of no-rainfall days, moisture condition, soil type, etc., the results obtained as per the suction

0

~ 10 rainfal l mtensity per day (mm)

Figure 11 . Suction development at site-B.

850

15

As seen on the figures, the development of suction rises with the increase in number of dry days (no rainfall). However, the rise in amount of suction developed is less at deeper points.

5 CONCLUSION Determination of critical rainfall, which is the amount of rainfall that is just sufficient to cause a slope failure, for a particular slope is a key to have an idea about the possibility of failure. Failure of any slope can be predicted with a sufficient time margin if critical amount of rainfall for the slope soil is pre-estimated. However, estimation of the critical rainfall involves some calculations that require establishment of initial conditions such as suction value. So establishment of a relationship between suction and number of no-rainfall days may provide the required initial conditions for the determination of critical rainfall, which then can be used in predicting slope failure due to rainfall. For the purpose in-field suction measurements were conducted, whose results can be summarized at following points. l. Use of two types of suction measuring devices resulted in a higher difference of suction values, especially at shallower points, although the ground as well as soil condition at both the sites were similar. 2. Development of suction takes place more quickly at shallower points than at deeper ones, and the value of suction developed is low at deeper and high at shallower points. It is due to quicker loss of moisture near the ground surface. Similarly, the drop in suction due to rainfall is more at the points near to the ground surface 3. Hourly suction measurement resulted in a time-lag between peak rainfall and drop in suction, which means the probability of failure is high not during but after the peak rainfall; however, if the rainfall continues for a time longer than the time-lag, this statement is no more valid. 4. Drop pattern in suction behaved somewhat linearly with the amount of rainfall on a particular day, and suction development did so with the number of no-rainfall days.

REFERENCES Yagi, N., Yatabe, R. & Yamamoto, K. 1983. Slope failure mechanism due to seepage of rain water. Proceedings of th ARCSMFE, Vo/.1, Pp. 382-386. Haifa. Yatabe, R. 1986. Prediction and mechanism of slope failure in a masado soil mass due to rainfall. Research work.

851

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Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Rahardjo, Toll & Leong {eds) ©2000 Taylor& Francis, ISBN 90 5809 139 2

Author index

Abdrabbo, F.M. 595

Abduljauwad, S.N. 601

Abdullah, W.S. 621

Abe,H.405

Abedin, M.Z. 85, 137

Aboutaha, M.M. 645

Agus, S.S. 365

Ajlouni, M. 621

Al-Mhaidib, A.l. 627

Al-Samahiji, D. 387

Al-Shamrani, M.A. 627

Allman, M.A. 297

Alonso, E.E. 3

Amonkar, N.N. 501

Aoda, T. 91

Aradi, L. 287

Arunakumaren, J. 415

Asano, I. 189

Aung, K.K. 317

Azam, S. 601

Bao,C.G. 15,347,457,843

Barbosa, P.S.de A. 527

Barbour, S.L. 693

Basma, A. 621

Bhandary, N.P. 847

Bhargava, R. 465

Blight, G.E. 33,281, 323

Boot, J.C. 651

Bosco, G. 309

Bulut, R. 263, 269

Cafaro, F. 633

Cai, F. 733

Cameron, D.A. 739

Chateau, X. 95

Chen, S.Y. 217

Cherubini, C. 633

Chiu, C.F. 551

Cortona, L. 831

Cotecchia, F. 633

Czap, Z. 287

Delaney, P. 177

Deshmukh, A.M. 501

Deutscher, M.S. 777,783

d'Onofrio, A. 539

Dormieux, L. 95

Du, Y.J. 639

El Hansy, R.M. 595

El-Garhy, B.M. 223

El-Sohby, M.A. 645

Entwisle, D.C. 675

Estabragh, A.R. 651

Faisal, H.A. 41, 807

Pard, M.Y. 371, 375

Feng,M.275

Firgi, T. 287

Fityus, S. 657

Fredlund, D.G. 53,201, 231,

275,335,381,563,663,693

Fredlund, M.D. 451,663

Fu, D. 763

Fujii, H. 147

Fukui, Y. 163

Gairola, A. 207, 465

Gan, J.K.-M. 381

Gasaluck, W. 171

Gasmo, J.M. 777,783

Geiser, F. 101, 255, 669

Gens, A. 433

Gogolev, M.l. 177

Gong, B.W. 347, 843

Grantham, T. 415

Gregoire-Rimmler, C. 495

Habibagahi, G. 107

853

Hamed, K.M. 595

Han, K.K. 505

Hariprasad, K.S. 207

Harrison, B.A. 281, 323

Hayashi, S. 639

Hobbs, P.R.N. 675

Hoffmann, M. 183

Hossain, M.K. 575

Houston, S.L. 69, 387

Houston, W.N. 387

Hu,Z.Q. 143

Hung, V.Q. 201,231

Hurtado-Maldonado, D. 427

Ichihara, W. 153

Irnre, E. 287

Indarto 727

Inoue,M.421,445

Ishida, T. 393

Javadi, A.A. 651

Jez, J. 757

Jiang, G. 293

Jiang, J.-C. 789

Jitno, H. 681

Johari, A. 107

Jones, L.D. 675

Jungnickel, C.A. 297

Kamiya, K. 399

Karube, D. 329

Kashyap, D. 207

Katebi, S. 107

Kato, S. 113, 329, 509

Kawai, K. 329, 509

Khalili, N. 119

Khan, A. 687

Khanzode, R.M. 335

Kitamura,R.405,409, 795

Kodikara, J.K. 693

Kogho, Y. 189

Kong, L.-W. 341, 515

Kong, S.K. 211

Kos, J. 521

Kung, J.H.S. 801

Laloui, L. 255, 669

Leong,E.C.211,317,357,365,

587, 777, 783

Leroueil, S. 527

Li, X.J. 125

Lim, P.C. 471

Lin, H.D. 801

Ling, N.L. 533

Lloret, A. 433

Low, T.H. 807

Luo, X.H. 131

Lytton,R.L.263,269

Macdonald, R.A. 769

Mancuso, C. 539, 545

Matsuoka, H. 153

Mawire, K. 699

Mazen, S.O. 645

McAlister, D.J. 415

McDougall, J.R. 477

Mills, K.G. 237, 703

Miyamoto, Y. 409

Mofiz, S.A. 575

Mohamed, A.M.O. 483

Mongiovi, L. 303, 309

Morii, T. 147,421,445

Nakagawa, Y. 393

Nama, E.E. 813

Nesnas, K. 243, 249

Ng, C.W.W. 15,347,457, 551

Nikraz, H.R. 687

Nishigaki, M. 819

Nishimura, S. 147

Nishimura, T. 557, 563

Nishiyama, T. 147

Nonami, S. 113

Northmore, K.J. 675

Oldecop, L.A. 3

Ong, B.H. 581

Pacovs.Icy, J. 521

Park, S.-W. 263,269

Perez-Garcia, A. 427

Premalatha, K. 353

Pyrah, I.C. 243, 249, 477

Qiu, J.Y. 293 Rahardjo, H. 211, 317, 357, 365,

505,551,581,587,751,777,

783,837

Rahman, N.Abd. 195

Rajkai, K. 287

Rashid, M.A. 85, 137

Rayadi, B.T. 681

Rifa'i, A. 255

Rohlf, R.A. 607

Romero, E. 433

Sabbagh, A. 709

Sahu, B.K. 715, 745

Sakoh, K. 795

Saravanan,M. 807

Sato, T. 489

Scotto di Santolo, A. 569

Sedumedi, B.K.S. 745

Senneset, K. 699

Seyama, M. 405

Shao, L.T. 825

Sharma, R.S. 721

Shen, Z.J. 143

Shibata, M. 489

Shimada, K. 147

Shimizu, Y. 409

Shuai, F. 275

Skinner, H.D. 613

Slatter, E.E. 297

Smith, D.W. 297, 657

Soemitro, R.A.A. 727

Springman, S.M. 831

Sugii, T.439

Sun, D.A. 153

Suzuki, H. 159

Tagashira, H. 189

Taha, M.R. 575

Takeshita, Y. 421,445

Tan, G. 293

Tan, J.L. 357

Tan, L.-R. 341, 515

Tanahashi, H. 489

Tang, S.K. 777

Taninaka, H. 393

Tarantino, A. 303, 309

Tateyama, K. 163

Telekes, G. 287

Teysseire, P. 831

Thieu, N.T.M. 201

854

Tohari, A. 819

Toll, D.G. 317,533,581,587,

837

Tournebize, J. 495

Tnivnicek, R. 521

Trivedi, M.K. 207

Tsaparas, I. 837

Uemura, M. 439

Ueno,K. 789

Ugai, K. 733

Uno, T. 399

Usui, Y. 489

Vanapalli, S.K. 335

Vassallo, R. 539, 545

Vinale, F. 545

Vulliet, L. 255, 669

Wang, B. 347, 457

Wang,Z. 125,293,843

Wang, Zh.P. 825

Wells, L.G. 607

Wheeler, S.J. 721

Wibawa, B. 751

Wilson, G.W. 451,663

Wojtaski, A.T. 757

Wong, J.C. 587

Wray, W.K. 223

Xu, Y.F. 763

Yagi, K. 445

Yagi, N. 847

Yamada, K. 439

Yamada, M. 795

Yamagami, T. 789

Yamamoto, S. 113

Yang, D.Q. 211

Yao, Y.P. 153

Yatabe, R. 847

Yin, J.Z. 125

Yokota, K. 847

Yoshimura, Y. 509

Youssef, A.A. 223

Zhan, L.T. 457

Zhang, G.J. 763

Zhang, H. 217

Zhang, W. 769