UNDERSTANDING OF TIME RELATIONS BY FIVE-YEAR-OLD, SIX-YEAR-OLD, AND SEVEN-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN OF HIGH IQ.

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T H IS D IS S E R T A T IO N H A S BEEN M IC R O F IL M E D E X A C T L Y AS R E C E IV E D .

UNDERSTANDING OF TIME RELATIONS BY FIVE, SIX, b AND SEVEN YEAR OLD CHILDREN OF HIGH I . Q.

MURIEL FARRELL

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The w r i t e r acknow ledges h e r in d e b te d n e s s to P r o f e s s o r A lic e V. K e lih e r , P r o f e s s o r Lou L aB ra n t and P r o f e s s o r C h a r le s S k in n e r, o f h e r D i s s e r t a t i o n Com m ittee f o r g u id a n c e and en co u rag em en t in th e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s s tu d y . The w r i t e r i s in d e b te d t o The H u n ter C o lle g e E lem entary S chool S t a f f , th e T e a c h e rs , P a r e n ts and C h ild r e n f o r e x c e l l e n t c o o p e ra tio n , and e s p e c i a l l y to P r o f e s s o r F lo re n c e Brumbaugh, P r i n c i p a l , M arg aret M aybury, C a th e rin e C arn ey , D o ro th ea H ughes, E l iz a b e th B arry , and M a rg a re t Rooney o f th e te a c h in g s t a f f , and P ro v id e n c e Gambaro, r e g i s ­ te r e d p s y c h o lo g is t. To many o f my c o lle a g u e s o f H u n ter C o lle g e , and e s p e c i a ll y to P r o f e s s o r s R o s a lin e S . Langsam an d R uth L e r n e r , D r. F ran ces D oherty and Dr. Frank W ilson a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d f o r s u g g e s tio n s and c r i t i c i s m s . To Mr. V ic to r S im icke o f The C ity C o lle g e o f New York in d e b te d n e s s f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a d v ic e i s ack now ledged. A p p r e c ia tio n i s e x p re sse d to M iss E l s i e Hug o f th e S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n o f New York U n iv e r s ity f o r many s u g g e s tio n s . To my m o th e r, M a rg a re t H u tch in so n F a r r e l l t h e r e i s acknow ledged a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e f o r assu m in g many r o u t i n e s t h a t made t h i s stu d y p o s s ib le . M.F.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

C h ap ter I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE................................................................................... S ta te m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m ............................................................................. S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e P ro b lem . . ...........................................................

1 1 3

.......................................................

5

III

PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES................................................................................... P ro c e d u re s i n C o l l e c t i n g and O rg a n iz in g D a ta ................................ The S u b je c ts o f th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n ....................... The T e s t in g P ro g ra m .................................................................................. M ethods and T e c h n iq u e s U s e d ..................................................................... T re a tm e n t o f F a c t u a l A n s w e r s ........................................................... A s s o c ia tio n o f P a r t s I and I I o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .................. T re a tm e n t o f Cue A n s w e r s .................................................................... A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l Use o f C u e s ............................................. T re a tm e n t o f th e T a i l s o f t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n ...........................

10 10 10 19 21 21 22 22 23 23

IV

THE TIME-QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................................... R eq u irem en ts o f Q u e s tio n n a ir e f o r C h ild r e n .................................... S e l e c t i o n cf Q u e s tio n s f o r Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ......................................... Sample o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ............................................................................. V a l i d i t y o f Q u e s tio n s Used in Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ................................ P r e - t e s t o f Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ......................................................................... P ro c e d u re i n G iv in g Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ...................................................... The A n s w e r s .........................................................................................................

2k 2k

II

V

HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM.

THE DATA AND THEIR INTERPRETATION................................................................ F a c t u a l Q u e s tio n D a t a .................................................................................. C h r o n o lo g ic a l Age G roups and S c o r e s .................................... C r i t i c i s m o f th e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ...................................................... S ex Groups and S c o r e s ............................................................................. M en tal Age G roups and S c o r e s ........................................................... C o r r e la tio n b e tw e e n P a r t s I and I I o f Q u e s tio n n a ire . . . . P e rc e n ta g e o f C h ild r e n A nsw ering I n d i v i d u a l Q u e stio n s . . . M ales and F e m a le s , C o r r e c t A n s w e r s ............................................. M ales and F e m a le s , I n c o r r e c t A n s w e r s ......................................... Summary, C o r r e c t and I n c o r r e c t A nsw ers, M ales and F em ales .......................... C h r o n o lo g ic a l Age G ro u p s, C o r r e c t A nsw ers. ....................... C h r o n o lo g ic a l Age G ro u p s, I n c o r r e c t A nsw ers........................... Summary, C o r r e c t and I n c o r r e c t A nsw ers, C h r o n o lo g ic a l AgeG ro u p s......................... M e n ta l Age G ro u p s , C o r r e c t A n s w e r s ............................................. M e n ta l Age G ro u p s, I n c o r r e c t A n s w e r s ......................................... Summary, C o r r e c t and I n c o r r e c t A nsw ers, M en tal Age G ro u p s.................................... Cue Answer D a t a ................................................................................................ E x p la n a tio n o f Cue A n s w e r s ................................................................ Number an d Name o f C a t e g o r ie s ........................................................... ii

26 27

33 37 37 1+0 1+3 1+3 1+3 1+7 1+7 1+8 51 52 52 56 59 60 68 71 73 78 81 83 83 83

Frequenoy o f Cue f o r M ales and F e m a le s ..................................... 86 C orreot A n s w e r s ......................................... 86 In c o r r e c t Answers . ............................. 89 Sum m ary........................................................... 101 Frequenoy o f Cue f o r C h r o n o lo g ica l AgeGroups.......................... 103 103 C o rrect A n s w e r s ......................................... InoorreC t Answers .................................. 106 119 Sum m ary........................................................... Frequency o f Cue f o r M ental Age G r o u p s ..................................... 122 C orrect A n s w e r s ......................................... 122 I n c o r r e c t Answers. . . .......................... 126 Sum mary........................................................... 145 Number o f Cues Used by I n d iv id u a l C h i ld r e n .................... 147 Comparison o f S co res a t T a il-e n d s o f D i s t r i b u t i o n ........... 149 Types o f Cues Used f o r H ig h est and Lowest S cores . . . . 149 Number o f Cues Used f o r H ig h est and Lowest S c o r e s. . . . 155 VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................ 156 G eneral Summary and C o n clu sio n s . .................................................. 156 C o n trib u tio n o f t h i s S tu d y. ....................................................... 161 Further R esearch S u g g e ste d .................................................................. 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................

164

APPENDIX.................................................................................. 166 Time Q u e s tio n n a ir e ..................................................................................... 166 L e tte r t o P a r e n t s ..................................................................................... 172 Ranking o f Cues f o r M.A. G r o u p s ............................................................ 173 Radio Q u estio n D a ta ....................................................................................... 176

LIST OF TABLES

T ab le I II III IV V VI VII V III IX X XI XII X III XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX

Page C .A ., and I.Q . o f C h ro n o lo g ica l Age Groups........................................ 13 C .A ., I .Q ., M .A., o f Males and Fem ales................................................ 14 C .A ., I .Q ., M .A., o f M ental Age Groups - T o ta l T est . . . . 16 17 C .A ., I .Q ., M .A., o f M ental Age Groups, Part 1 ............................. C .A ., I . Q . , M .A ., o f M ental Age Groups, P art I I .......................... 18 T o ta l S co res f o r A ll G r o u p s ......................................................................... 44 S oores f o r Part I f o r A ll Groups.............................................. 45 49 S co res f o r Part I I f o r A ll G r o u p s ............................................ P ercen ta g e o f C hildren Answering Each Q u estion C o r r e c tly . . 54 P ercen tage o f C h ild ren Answering Each Q u estion I n o o r r e c t ly . 57 Use o f Cues by Three Age Groups f o r Q u estion 2 4 ......................... 65 Frequency o f Cue f o r C orrect Answers, Part I , 87 M ales and F em ales........................... Frequenoy o f Cue f o r C orrect Answers, Part I I , M ales and Fem ales............................................... 88 Frequency o f Cue f o r C orreot Answers, T o ta l T e s t , Males and F em ales............................................... 93 Frequency o f Cue f o r I n c o r r e c t Answers, P art I , M ales and F em ales............................................... 90 Frequency o f Cue f o r In o o rrect Answers, P art I I , M ales and F em ales............................................... 91 Frequency o f Cue f o r In c o r r e c t Answers, T o ta l T est M ales and F em ales............................................... 95 Frequency o f Cue, C orrect and In c o r r e c t Answers, Part I , Males and F em ales............................................... 97 Frequency o f Cue, C o rrect and In c o r r e c t Answers, P art I I , 99 M ales and F em ales............................................... Frequency o f Cue, C orrect and In c o r r e c t A nsw ers, T o ta l T e s t, Males and Fem ales.................................................... 100 Frequency o f C ue, C orrect Answers, P art I , C h r o n o lo g ica l Age G r o u p s .................................................................. 104 Frequency o f Cue, C orrect Answers, P art I I , C h r o n o lo g ica l . Age G r o u p s ..................................................................105 Frequency o f Cue, In co rreo t Answers, P art I , C h ro n o lo g ica l Age Groups ............................ 107 Frequency o f Cue, I n c o r r e c t Answers, P art I I , C h ro n o lo g ica l Age G r o u p s ..................................108 Frequency o f Cue, C orreot Answers, T o ta l T e s t ,. . . C h ro n o lo g ica l Age Groups ............................ 112 Frequency o f Cue, I n c o r r e c t Answers, T o ta l T e s t , C h ro n o lo g ica l Age G r o u p s ..................................113 Frequency o f Cue, C orrect and I n c o r r e c t A nsw ers, P art I , C h ro n o lo g ica l Age Groups ............................ 115 Frequency o f Cue, C o rrect and In o o rrect Answers, Part I I , C h ro n ological Age Groups ............................ 116 Frequenoy o f Cue, C orrect and In co rreo t Answers, T o ta l T e s t, C h ron ologioal Age G r o u p s ..................................117

lv

XXX

o f Cue, C orrect Answers, Part I , Mental Age G r o u p s ........................................... XXXI Frequency o f Cue, Correot Answers, P art I I , Mental Age G r o u p ^ .......................................... XXXII Frequency o f Cue, In o o rrect Answers, a r t I , M ental Age G r o u p s .......................................... XXXIII Frequency o f Cue, In o o rrect Answers, P art I I , Mental Age G r o u p s ........................................... XXXIV Frequency o f Cue, Correot Answers, T o ta l T e s t , ............................ Mental Age Groups XXXV Frequency o f Cue, In co rreo t Answers, T o ta l T e s t , M ental Age G r o u p s .......................................... XXXVI Frequenoy o f Cue, C orrect and In o o rrect A nsw ers, P art I , Mental Age G r o u p s ........................................... XXXVII Frequency o f Cue, C orreot and In o o rrect A nsw ers, Part I I , Mental Age G r o u p s .......................................... XXXVIII Frequency o f Cue, C orrect and In c o r r e c t A nsw ers, T o ta l T e s t, Mental Age G r o u p s ........................................... XXXIX Comparison o f Number o f Cues Used by I n d iv id u a l C hildren . XL Comparison o f S cores a t T a il-e n d s o f D i s t r ib u t io n .................... XLI Comparison o f Number o f Cues Used in H ig h e st and Lowest S co res fo r C orreot Answers . . XLII Comparison o f Number o f Cues Used in H ig h e st and Lowest S cores f o r I n c o r r e o t Answers . XLIII Comparison o f T o ta l Cues Used in Ten H ig h e st S c o r e s w ith Ten Lowest S c o r e s ................................. XLIV Comparison o f Number o f Cues Used in Ten H ig h e st S cores and th e Ten Lowest S c o r e s ........................ F requ en cy

123 124 127 128 134 136 139 141 144 148 150 151 152 153 154

FIGURES F ig u re 1

53

v

1

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE Statem ent o f th e Problem The purpose o f the p resen t r e se a r c h i s t o fin d by means o f a q u e s tio n typ e t e s t th e u n derstanding o f tim e r e l a t io n s by f i v e , s i x and seven year o ld c h ild r e n o f high I .Q ., and t o d is o o v e r any r e la t io n s h ip th a t may e x i s t betw een understanding o f tim e r e l a t i o n s and 1) c h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e, 2 ) m ental a g e, o r 3) s e x . D e f in it io n o f Terms 1.

"Understanding: ■ 1 . ( h i s t . ) th e m en tal power, fa o u lty or f u n c t io n ,

whereby th e meaning o f phenomena or p r o p o s itio n s i s apprehended by th e in d iv id u a l as d is tin g u is h e d (by Locke and o th e r s ) from i n t u i t i v e or pure reason in g ;

2.

a lo o s e s y n . f o r ap p reh en sion o f m eaning.

(Syn. (2 )

com prehension which a p p lie s to a p p reh en sio n o f s p e c i f i c s it u a t io n s , w hereas understan d in g em phasizes th e ty p e o f m en tal p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d .)" ^ 2.

"Time: z 1 . ( p s y c h o l.) th e m easurable a s p e c t o f d u ration ;

o b je c tiv e b a s is o f the c h a r a c t e r is t ic o r a t t r ib u t e o f d u ra tio n ;

2. 3.

th e th a t

which d is t in g u is h e s e v e n ts w ith r e fe r e n c e to t h e i r occu rin g now, b e fo r e , o r a f t e r , and t h e i r b eg in n in g and end;

4 . (m us.) grouping o f s u c c e s s iv e

rhythmic b e a ts or p u lse s in t o eq u a l m easu re.

((Tim e ( 1 ,2 ) i s measured by

any d e v ic e i n which a p o in te r o r o th e r p a rt moves uniform ly i n refe ren ce t o a s c a le (ohronoscope, tim e c l o c k ) , o r a r ec o rd er r e g is t e r s on a u n ifo rm ly moving ch a rt (ch ro n o g ra p h .))1^

1. 2.

H. C. Warren, D ic tio n a r y o f P sy c h o lo g y , Houghton, M if f lin , N .Y .; 1934, P. 2 8 5 . Ib id ; p . 2 7 8 ,

2

3.

" R e la tio n : = 1 . any oon n eotion or m utual in flu e n o e betw een two

o r more d a ta ;

2.

t h a t which can be observed o r co n ceiv ed t o hold good as

between two data a lth o u g h n o t in e i t h e r datum tak en a lo n e , e . g . ; d if f e r e n c e , cause - e f f e o t . " ! N ote:

"Time R elation " i n t h i s stu d y r e fe r s to th o se i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s or

c o n n e c tio n s understood by th e c h ild in referen ce to tim e o cc u r e n c e s.

T h is

study om its q u e s tio n s whioh ask f o r d e f in it io n s o r e x p la n a tio n s o f tim e e x p r e s s io n s such a s , " lon g ago," "earlier," " la t e r ."

R ather, th e r e i s th e

aim in t h i s study to a sk q u e s tio n s th a t require answers g iv in g more m easurable t im e - r e la t io n .

Meaning depends upon th e c h i l d ' s knowing how one th in g sta n d s

t o a n o th er, e . g . ;

"What day in th e week i s t h is ? " req u ir es a r e fe r e n c e on

th e p art o f the c h il d t o th e o th e r days in the w eek. 4.

H igh I .Q . in t h i s study r e f e r s to the I .Q . o f 140 o r above as found

by th e B in et-S im on I n t e lli g e n c e T e st." D e lim ita tio n o f th e I n v e s t ig a t io n The d e f i n i t i o n in r e fe r e n c e to music as found in W arren's P sy o h o lo g lo a l D ic tio n a r y 2 w i l l n o t be co n sid ered in t h i s s tu d y .

Only th e f i r s t th ree a sp e o ts

o f tim e as d e fin e d in th e P s y c h o lo g ic a l D ictio n a ry w i l l be u sed as a b a s is fo r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

No o th e r d e f in it i o n s o f t im e , such as m e ta p h y sic a l, from

o th e r d ic t i o n a r ie s w i l l be o o n sid e r e d . The Nature o f Time For t h i s stu d y i t i s n e c e ssa r y to r e f l e c t on th e nature o f tim e . i s an a b s t r a c t io n .

Time

The oonoept o f tim e i s d eveloped through in d ir e c t

p ero ep tu a l e x p e r ie n c e s .

By t h i s i s meant th a t a c h ild has a number o f

e x p e r ie n c e s , o fte n u n r e la te d i n th em selv es, t h a t have th e oommon f a c t o r o f

1. * 2.

I b id ; p . 229 R evised S ta n fo r d -B in e t I n t e llig e n c e S o a le . o o p y rig h t 19 3 7 , by Lewis M. Terman and Maude A. M e r r ill7 Forms L and M. op . o l t .

3

t im e .

From th e s e ex p erien ces the c h ild e x t r a c t s th e tim e elem en ts w ith

w hioh he g r a d u a lly d evelops h is co n cep ts o r u n d erstan d in g o f tim e . By way o f o o n tr a s t, th e o h ild i n d e v e lo p in g th e co n cep t o r meaning o f "hot" has th e advantage o f d ir e c t sen so r y im p r e s s io n .

By a s s o c ia t io n

w ith hot s t o v e s , r a d ia to r s , sun, p l a t e s , e t o . , th e o h ild can more im m ediately and d e f i n i t e l y d ev elo p the ooncept o r meaning o f "hot" .

On th e o th er hand

tim e i s n o t p erce iv ed d ir e c t ly in t h i s w ay.** When ora c o n s id e r s th a t the ed u ca tio n o f c h ild r e n i s more m eaningful through o o n o rete and sen se appeal than th rou gh a b s tr a c t a p p e a l, th e d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s ex p erien ced by the c h ild i n com prehending tim e are e v id e n t . S ig n ific a n c e o f t h i s I n v e s t ig a t io n The s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t i o n may be found i n th e h y p o th e tic a l tw o -fo ld a p p lic a t io n s o f i t s fin d in g s ; f i r s t t o th e f i e l d o f ed u oation f o r th e h igh I .Q . o h ild r e n , and, seoond, t o th e w hole problem o f tim e understand­ in g fo r a l l o h ild r e n . In regard t o c h ild r e n o f h igh I .Q ., th e s e have been g a in in g more a tte n ­ t i o n in l i n e w ith th e trend o f p resen t e d u c a tio n t o g iv e "each o h ild an ed u ca tio n w hich w i],l be in harmony w ith h is n a t iv e c a p a c i t i e s ." 1

More

s p e c i f i c a l l y th e fin d in g s can p o s s ib ly apply to t h i s group i n ; A.

**

1•

C h ild developm ent wherein th e m eaning o f tim e i s u se d . The number o f problems t h a t a r is e i n r e fe r e n c e to a c h i l d ' s la c k o f understanding o f tim e are to o numerous t o c i t e . There are many o o o a sio n s a t home, i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , so h o o l and o th e r e x p e r ie n c e s in whioh c h ild r e n are ir r e g u la r . The f in d in g s i n t h i s i n v e s t i ­ g a t io n may serve as gu id es f o r th o s e w orking w ith suoh problem s r e s u lt in g from th e u n c e r ta in com prehension o f t im e .

S u gg ested refe ren ce on t h is p o in t; N .Y .; H aroourt, 1925, p. 15 8 .

Mary S t u r t , The Psychology o f Time,

is SBjaatuwi ss&bz.

4 B.

Curriculum p lan n in g w h erein tim e r e la t io n s are assumed or d eveloped in a r e a s o f e d u c a tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e s . Under­ sta n d in g o f tim e r e l a t i o n s i s o f t e n presupposed in ex p erien ces in v o lv in g s o ie n c e , h is t o r y , geography, l i t e r a t u r e . The f in d in g s in th e p resen t in v e s t ig a t io n would c o n trib u te t o knowing how muoh o f a b a s is may be exp ected o f o h ild r e n o f s e le c t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e , ag e, e t c . in approaohing e d u c a tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e s .

In regard to th e seoond a p p lic a t io n o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n s ' f in d in g s , /

i . e . , to th e whole problem o f tim e u n d erstan d in g by a l l c h ild r e n , th e r e i s th e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t t h is s tu d y , a lth o u g h lim it e d t o th e h igh I.Q . w i l l serv e as a guide f o r fu tu re s t u d ie s as w e ll as a com parison w ith p revious s t u d ie s . The s te p s undertaken i n t h i s study w i l l be presen ted as fo llo w s : p revious research on the problem , th e procedure and tech n iq u e in v o lv e d , th e p r e se n ta tio n o f d a ta , th e r e s u l t s and in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f r e s u lt s o f th e in v e s t ig a t i o n , th e c o n c lu s io n s o f th e r e s e a r c h , and su g g e stio n s f o r fu r th e r resea rch growing ou t o f t h i s s tu d y .

CHAPTER I I PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON THE PROBLEM A su rv ey o f th e c o n tr ib u tio n s i n l i t e r a t u r e shows a com plete absenoe o f researo h on th e u n derstan d in g o f tim e r e l a t io n s o f f i v e , s i x and seven y e a r o ld o h ild r e n o f h ig h I .Q .

A number o f r e la te d s t u d ie s have been made.

A lthough a l l o f th e s t u d ie s have in v e s t ig a t e d tim e w ith c h ild r e n , only th o se c o n c lu s io n s t h a t seem in g ly a f f e c t o r illu m in a te th e p resen t stu d y are em phasized i n th e fo llo w in g summ aries.

F u rth er, th e summaries o f

p rev io u s resea r o h may be grouped in to th o se s t u d ie s t h a t t r e a t o f o h ild r e n o v e r sev en y e a r s o f a g e , th o se th a t t r e a t o f o h ild r e n below and above seven y e a r s , and f i n a l l y th o se s t u d ie s th a t in v e s t ig a t e tim e w ith o h ild r e n under sev en y e a r s o f a g e . The s t u d ie s oonoerning o h ild r e n o v er sev en y e a r s o f age a re summarized a s f o ll o w s : Oakden and S tu r t stu d ie d c h ild r e n 's oon cep t o f h i s t o r i c a l ch ro n o lo g y. Among th e c o n c lu s io n s w ere:

( l ) "P assing beyond th e ord in ary tim e-w ords

t o an u n d ersta n d in g o f chronology and th e arrangem ent o f h i s t o r i c a l epochs i s a m a tter o f some d i f f i c u l t y ; "

(S) "Marks o f tim e are c l o s e l y connected

w ith a c t i v i t i e s o r oon orete experiences."'*' E a rl Barnes rep orted on c h ild r e n 's se n se o f tim e . c h ild r e n o f e i g h t through fo u rteen y e a r s o f a g e .

1.

The study covered

C on clu sio n s in o lu d e d ,

E.C . Oakden and Mary "The Development o f Time i n O h ild ren ." B r i t . J . P s y o h o l., 19 2 2 , 12, 3 0 9 -3 3 6 .

6

"From th e se s l i g h t s t u d ie s i t i s s a f e to say th a t c h ild r e n 's sen se o f tim e , w hether used to r e g u la te l i f e i n sh o r t p e r io d s , or to d ir e c t th in k in g in lo n g e r p e r io d s, i s very im p erfeo t." -1Bandura^ i s rep o rte d t o have made a stu d y in referen ce to th e co n o ep t o f tim e among s e v e n ty -s e v e n c h ild r e n .o f sev en t o n in e years o f a g e.

The

fin d in g s rev ea led t h a t "the o h ild r e n are p rim a rily in t e r e s t e d in th e p re­ s e n t , they have no c l e a r con oep t o f th e p a s t , o f the le n g th o f th e y e a r , o f th e le n g th o f human l i f e , o f when n ig h t and day b e g in .

D iffe r e n c e s i n th e

un derstan d in g o f th e con oep t o f tim e are shown between the younger and o ld e r o h ild r e n , but in g e n e r a l a l l th e c h ild r e n ev a lu a te tim e r e la t io n s h ip s i n terms o f co n cre te e x p e r ie n c e s ,” P is t o r conduoted two s t u d ie s in r e fe r e n c e t o c h ild r e n 's co n o ep ts o f tim e .

H is f i r s t stu d y 3 concerned i t s e l f c h i e f l y w ith the co m p o sitio n o f

tim e t e s t s .

These were p i c t o r i a l in n a tu r e .

item s in th e S o o ia l S tu d ie s C ourse.

The m a te r ia l was based on

S o o ia l, in d u s t r ia l, p o l i t i c a l , and

m ilit a r y h isto r y was th e b a s is f o r th e p ic t u r e s and q u e s tio n s . P is t o r 's ^ seoond s tu d y , based on a b a tte r y o f tim e conoept t e s t s d e v ise d in th e f i r s t s tu d y , was w ith two groups o f s ix t h grade p u p ils . The curriculum o f th e s e two groups o f p u p ils had been planned so th a t dur­ in g th e fo u rth and f i f t h grad es o f s o o i a l s t u d ie s each group was ta u g h t by a d if f e r e n t m ethod.

One method fo llo w e d th e t r a d it i o n a l , sep a ra ted

c o u r se s in geography and h is t o r y ; th e o th e r method was cen tered on geograp h y,

1.

E a rl B arnes, " C h ild ren 's Sense o f Time” , H at. Education A s s o c ia t io n . A ddresses and P r o c e e d in g s, 19 1 8 , V o l. LVI, pp. 3 35-358. 2 . L. Bandura, " P o szy o ie cza su u d z ie c i u wieku od 7 do 9 l a t ” (The con oep t o f tim e among o h ild r e n 7 to 9 y e a r s o ld ) , Kwart, Psych. , 19 3 6 , 8 , 151-184 as rep o rte d i n The P s y c h o lo g ic a l A b s tr a c ts . 19 3 7 , V o l. X, p . 160, No. 1525 3 . F. P is t o r , "Measuring th e Time Conoepts o f C h ild r e n ,” o f Educ. R esearoh . Deo. 1939, pp. 2 9 3 -3 0 0 4 . F. P is t o r , "How Time C onoepts are Aoquired by C hildren," Eduo. Method, 20: 1 0 7 -1 1 2 , 19 4 0 .

7

w ith h is t o r y used t o e x p la in some t o p io s .

The c o n c lu s io n s are summarized

a s f o llo w s : . . . . th e r e s u l t s show th a t t r a in in g in h is t o r y and ch ron ology had no e f f e o t on the a c q u is it io n o f tim e co n cep ts o f c h ild r e n between the m ental ages o f 10 and 1 3 , where suoh t r a in in g was g iv en i n grad es fo u r , f i v e , and s i x . Because i t i s im p o ssib le to i s o l a t e o u t -o f - s o h o o l in f lu e n c e s , i t oannot be sa id t h a t th e tim e con cep ts were acquired only through m a tu ra tio n . The f a c t o r o f m atu ration ra th er than t h a t o f d ir e c t e d le a r n in g seems to be th e more im portant one.-* The s t u d ie s co n cern in g ch ild r e n whose a g es ranged below and above seven y e a r s o f age are summarized as fo llo w s : Brom berg made a study o f tim e by th e in te r v ie w m ethod.

The co n clu ­

s io n s in d ic a t e d t h a t an a p p recia tio n o f tim e does n o t ooour u n t i l f iv e o r s i x y e a r s , and th en d ev elo p s slo w ly u i t i l about t e n o r tw e lv e . g Friedman q u e stio n e d c h ild r e n o f k in d erg a rten and primary l e v e l .

He

found t h a t though th e c h i l d ' s co n cep tio n o f a " sh o rt tim e ago" i s muoh c l e a r e r than a " lo n g tim e ago" i t i s s t i l l vague t o a s i x t h grade c h ild . Friedman found t h a t a o h ild p ero eiv es id e a s th a t a r e n e a r e r to him in tim e , t h a t s e x d if f e r e n c e s were n e g li b l e , and th a t co n cep ts a re more r e la te d to grade m a tu rity than in t e l lig e n c e q u o tie n t. H arrison ^ rep orted a study to determ ine the n a tu re and developm ent o f c o n c e p ts o f tim e among o h ild re n in the k in d e r g a r te n , f i r s t , seoond and t h ir d g r a d e s. in t e r v i e w s .

F i f t y common term s were u se d .

There were 160 in d iv id u a l

The in v e s t ig a t o r concluded th a t co n cep ts o f tim e d ev elo p in

c l o s e r agreem ent w ith " in n er maturation" a s in d io a te d by m ental m a tu r ity , th an w ith t r a in in g and e x p e r ie n c e , as in d io a te d by o h r o n o lo g ic a l age and g ra d e.

1. 2. 3. 4.

I b i d , pp. 1 1 1 -1 1 2 . W. Bromberg, "The Meaning o f Time fo r O h ild ren ," Amer. J . O r th o p sy o h ia ti, 1 9 3 8 , 8 , 1 4 2 -1 4 7 . K. 0 . Friedm an, "Time Conoepts o f Elem entary S ch o o l C h ild ren " , Elem. S oh o o l J o u r n a l. 1944, 4 4 , 337-342. M. L u o ille H a rriso n , "The Nature and Developm ent ofC onoepts o f Time Among C h ild ren ," The Elem. Sohool J o u r n a l. 1 9 3 4 , 3 4 , 5 0 7 -5 1 4 .

8 Robello-1- i s rep o rted t o have o a r r ie d out a study on th e " n o tio n o f tim e."

A s e r i e s o f tw e n ty -e ig h t q u e s tio n s on d if f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f tim e

was g iv en t o e ig h t groups o f f i f t y o h ild r e n each ( h a lf b o y s, h a l f g i r l s ) between th e ages o f th r e e and t e n .

The fin d in g s rev ea led a s l i g h t d i f ­

fe re n c e in a c q u is it io n o f some tim e ex p r e ssio n s in boys and g i r l s up t o s i x yea rs o f a g e .

F u rth er c o n c lu s io n s w ere, "Time d iv is i o n s and r e la t io n s

o f tim e and space are a cq u ired l a t e . " The s t u d ie s co n cer n in g o h ild r e n under seven y ea rs o f age a re summarized as fo llo w s : Baldwin and S te c h e r asked fo r ty -o n e q u e stio n s c o n o e m in g s h o r t and lo n g tim e in t e r v a ls o f c h ild r e n from tw e n ty -e ig h t to s e v e n ty -fo u r months ( 2 - 1 /3 yea rs to 6 y e a r s ) .

C o n clu sio n s in clu d ed ," A t fo u r , f iv e and s i x y ea rs th e

q u e stio n s d e a lin g w ith s h o r t e r tim e in t e r v a ls show a s l i g h t l y h ig h e r percentage o f answers them th o s e d e a lin g w ith lo n g e r in te r v a ls ." ® Hornung® attem p ted t o determ ine what id e a s o h ild re n o f t h r e e , f o u r , and f iv e years had co n cer n in g t im e .

She found th a t id e a s o f tim e w ere r e la te d

to age and m en tal a g e . Ames^ conducted a stu d y i n r e fe r e n c e t o th e se n se o f tim e i n c h ild r e n . T his was d iv id e d in t o two p a r t s . c h ild r e n o f 18 t o 48 m onths.

The co n clu sio n s o f th e f i r s t p a rt con oem ed

The d a ta were com piled by r e c o r d in g v erb a l

ex p r e ssio n s o f tim e and by a sk in g a s e r ie s o f q u e s tio n s .

1. 2. c 3. ] 4. *

The seoond *

S . R o b e llo , " P esq uiza sob re a nocao de tempo" (Study on th e n o tio n o f tim e ); B o l. Educ. Pernambuco, 1934 , 4 , 1 3 4 -1 8 2 , as rep o rted i n th e P s y c h o lo g ic a l A b s tr a c ts , 19 3 7 , V o l. IX , P. 458, No. 466. B. T.Baldwin and L orle S te o h e r , The Psychology o f th e P r e sc h o o l C h ild , A pp leton , N .Y .; 1 9 2 4 , pp. 1 6 4 -1 6 9 . M. Homung, "The Developm ent o f U nderstanding o f Time i n P re sc h o o l C h ild ren ," M a sters’ T h e s is , 1 9 3 7 , Un. o f Nebraska. Louise B. Ames, "The Developm ent o f th e Sense o f Time i n th e Young C h ild ," The J o u rn a l o f G en etlo P sy ch o lo g y , 1946 , 68 , 9 7 -1 2 5 . The Ames Study i s in c lu d e d in th e summaries o f Group Throe becau se o f th e emphasis on th e young o h ild even though an e ig h t y e a r - o ld group was in c lu d e d .

9

part o f th e stu d y In volved a sk in g f i v e , s i x , se v e n and e ig h t y e a r old s a s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s . In r e p o r tin g th e fin d in g s Ames s a id , " A n alysis o f th e s e d a ta in ­ d ic a t e s c o n s is t e n t tren d s in th e developm ent o f th e tim e se n se in young c h ild r e n .

The more common co n o ep ts o f tim e seem to oome i n a t th e same

r e l a t iv e age f o r most c h ild r e n , and in a r a th e r d e f i n i t e o r d e r . The

d if f e r e n c e s between the p r e se n t stu d y and th e o th e r s are to be

found p rim a rily i n th e s e le c t e d h ig h I .Q . group, th e s p e o if io s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s a p p a ren tly n ot used by o t h e r s , and th e in c lu s io n o f th e reasons o r cu es g iv e n by th e o h ild a s b a s is fo r t h e u n d erstan d in g o f th e tim e r e la tio n s . In a d d it io n , th e a n a ly s is o f th e c u e s (r e a so n s) g iv en by th e o h ild a s h is b a s is f o r understanding tim e in t h i s in v e s t ig a t i o n o f f e r s r e s u lts whbh may le a d to in te r p r e ta tio n s whioh c o u ld n o t be drawn from previous re se a r o h .

1 . I b id

CHAPTER t i l PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES P ro c e d u re s in C o l l e c t i n g a n d O r g a n iz in g D a ta The S u b je c ts o f th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n The s u b je c ts o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w ere g ro u p s o f c h i ld r e n i n th e H u n te r C o lle g e E lem en tary S c h o o l i n New York C i t y . s c h o o l and th e I . Q. a v e r a g e s 150.

T h ere a r e 450 c h i l d r e n i n th e

The s c h o o l i s P .S . 600 o f th e New Y ork

C ity p u b lic s c h o o l s y s te m ; i t i s th e o n ly i n s t i t u t i o n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s o rg a n iz e d f o r th e t e a c h in g an d s tu d y o f th e g i f t e d .^ - I t i s lo c a te d in a wing o f th e H u n ter C o lle g e B u il d in g a t P a r k A venue; and i s used a l s o a s a d e m o n stra tio n and p r a c t i c e s c h o o l f o r th e t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g s tu d e n t s o f th e C o lle g e .

2

S e v e n ty -e ig h t c h i l d r e n w ere g iv e n th e tim e - q u e s tio n n a ir e f o r t h i s s tu d y .

Because o f i l l n e s s an d le a v in g th e s c h o o l th e d a ta on t h r e e of th e

c h ild r e n were i n s u f f i c i e n t an d c o u ld n o t be u s e d .

Thus 75 c h i l d r e n w ere

s tu d ie d i n th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . From th e 75 c h i l d r e n t h r e e g ro u p s w ere s e l e c t e d . th r e e l e v e l s of c h r o n o lo g i c a l a g e .

One group in c lu d e d

A n o th er in c lu d e d th e two sex g ro u p s .

t h i r d group in c lu d e d s e v e r a l d i v i s i o n s o f m e n ta l age l e v e l s .

The

A l l th r e e g ro u p s

a r e d e s c rib e d in d e t a i l l a t e r . Any one group com pared w ith any o th e r group was e q u a te d f o r I .Q .

For

exam ple, th e a v e ra g e I .Q . o f th e m ale group d id n o t show any s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e from t h a t o f th e fe m a le group when th e se x g ro u p s w ere com pared w ith each o th e r i n e v e ry a s p e c t o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

T h u s, th e I .Q . was

com parable w ith in t h e c h r o n o lo g i c a l age l e v e l s , betw een th e s e x e s , and w i t h i n th e m e n ta l age g ro u p s . 1 . "G enius S c h o o l," L i f e . C h ic a g o , 1 1 1 .; V o l. 2 k , No. 12, 1948, P* 113* 2 . "For th e High I . Q . ' s , " New Y ork T im es, F eb . 10, 1948.

11

In o rd er t o t e s t to se e i f th ere were any s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e I . Q. average w ith in groups to be compared, th e o r i t i o a l r a t io o f t - s c o r e was u s e d .

The t - s o o r e i s used w ith sm a ll groups in whioh th e r e i s no assump­

t io n o f n o rm a lity o f d is t r ib u t io n .

For th e o r i t i o a l r a t io i n t h is study the

t-soore'*' form ula used was; t ,

F is h e r 's Table o f t2 was used to determ ine w hether th e d if f e r e n c e i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e ( in th e sen se t h a t i t i s due t o f a c t o r s o th e r than o h a n o e). For th e o r i t i o a l r a t io above th e standard error** o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een means was c a lc u la te d w ith th e form ula:

A l l 75 o h ild r e n were r e - t e s t e d f o r I , Q. w ith th e R evised Binet-Sim on I n t e l l i g e n c e S o a ie* by th e p s y c h o lo g is t on the H unter Elem entary Sohool s t a f f a t th e tim e o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n . The th r e e o h r o n o lo g io a l age groups c o n s is t e d o f th e f i v e y ea r o ld s , the s i x y e a r o ld s and th e sev en y ea r o ld s .

The c h r o n o lo g ic a l age o f each o h ild was

based on th e d a te when th e tim e -q u e stio n n a ir e u sed in t h i s stu d y was g iven to th e o h ild .

D ata f o r c h r o n o lo g ic a l ages were tak en from th e s c h o o l rec o rd s.

The f i v e y ea r o ld group was made up o f c h ild r e n whose age in clu d ed fo u r y e a r s , te n months through f iv e y e a r s , n in e m onths.

The s i x yea r old

group o o n s is te d o f th o se whose ages ranged from f iv e y e a r s , te n months

1. 2. f.

E . F . L in d q u is t, S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly sis in E d u c a tio n a l R esearch , HoughtonU i f f l i n , N .Y .; 19 4 0 , p . 57 I b i d , p . 53 R evised S ta n fo r d -B in e t I n t e llig e n c e S c a le , c o p y r ig h t 19 3 7 , by Lewis M. Terman and Maud A. M e r r ill, Forms L. and M.

12

( in c l u s iv e ) through s i x y e a r s , n in e m onths.

The seven y ea r o ld group was

composed o f th o se whose a g es ranged from s ix y e a r s , ten months ( in o lu s iv e ) through sev en y e a r s , n in e m onths.

(See Table I . )

The th ree

c h r o n o lo g ic a l age groups as d e fin e d in

o o n s is te d o f :

tw en ty-tw o o h ild r e n w ith a mean age o f

average o f I.Q . o f 1 4 7 .4 ; o f tw e n t y -f iv e c h ild r e n

th e paragraph above 5.49 y ea rs and an

w ith a mean age o f 6 .4 4

yea rs and an average I .Q . o f 1 4 6 .9 ; and tw en ty -fo u r o h ild re n w ith a mean age o f 6 .9 7 9 ( 7 .0 ) y ea rs and an average I.Q . o f 146.5

(See Table I . )

The d if f e r e n c e betw een th e mean age o f th e f iv e y ea r o ld s ( 5 .4 9 ) and th e s i x y ea r o ld s ( 6 .4 4 ) was e le v e n months; th e d iffe r e n c e between th e mean age o f th e s i x year o ld s ( 6 .4 4 ) and th e seven y ea r o ld s (6 .9 7 9 ) was sev en m onths.

The d if f e r e n c e betw een th e f i v e y e a r o ld s (5 .4 9 ) and th e sev en

y ea r o ld s (6 .9 7 9 ) was 18 m onths. There were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e I.Q 's o f th e th r e e c h r o n o lo g ic a l age gro u p s.

(See Table I . )

Of th e two sex groups th e r e were 32 m ales and 37 fe m a le s. had an average

The m ales

I .Q . o f 1 4 7 .5 and th e fem ales an average o f 1 4 6 .9 .

were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e I . Q . ' s .

There

(See Table I I . )

In th e male group th e mean C.A. was 75.125 months (6 .3 y e a r s ) and in the fem ale group 7 5 .6 5 months (6 .3 y e a r s) w ith no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th ese a g e s .

(See Table I I . )

In th e male group th e M. A. in y ea rs was 9 .2 6 and in th e fem ale group 9 .2 7 w ith no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e s e a g e s .

(See Table I I . )

The m ental a ges o f a l l c h ild r e n f o r t h i s study were computed by th e in v e s t ig a t o r from th e I . Q . ' s found by r e - t e s t i n g , and th e C .A .s based on the s c h o o l r e c o r d s. The m ental age d iv is i o n s were segmented by a d if f e r e n t method from th a t used in th e C.

A. d i v i s i o n s .

No s a t is f a c t o r y groupings o f m ental a g es co u ld

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f a n s w e r s : Thes e Q u e s t i o n s have b e e n d e s i g n e d so t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l g i v e a n s w e rs t h a t show h i s m e a n in g o f t i m e , r a t h e r t h a n a n s w e r s t h a t r e q u i r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t i m e - m e a s u r e m e n t t e r m s he may have memorized* . m em o riz ati o n o r v e r b a l i z a ­ t i o n m i g h t be t h e b a s i s o f an answ er i f a c h i l d w e r e a s k e d t o t e l l how l o n g a m i n u t e , an h o u r , e t c . , w e r e . P r o c e d u r e . i n f i l l i n g Questionnaire: P e r s o n a l d a t a : A l l d a t a i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c h i l d ' s name, a g e , e t c , w i l l be c o l l e c t e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r from th e s c h o o l r e c o r d s . Q uestion in g ; The c h i l d w i l l be t a k e n from, h i s g r o u p o r c l a s s f o r t h e p e rio d n e c e s s a ry f o r ask in g the q u e s tio n s . The c h i l d i s t o be t o l d t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n knowing how much a l l t h e c h i l d r e n i n h i s gr ou p know a b o u t t i m e . Ke i s t o be t o l d t h a t t h i s i s n e t a t e s t , b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w i s h e s t o w r i t e a s t o r y a b o u t w h a t c h i l d r e n s a y a b o u t t im e* *

♦The i n v e s t i g a t o r ha s worked w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h e H u n t e r C o l l e g e E l e m e n t a r y Sc h o o l b e f o r e . She has found them i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t u d i e s and experim ents. The a bo ve e x p l a n a t i o n i s u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t , mlore m a t u r e words may be u s e d w i t h o l d e r c h i l d r e n .

28 Q u e s t i o n n a i r e I n R e f e r e n c e To C h i l d ’s C o g n i t i o n o f Time R e l a t i o n s

Date

C h i l d ' s name

Age to d ay

Date o f b i r t h I . Q,

Date o f E n t r a n c e t o K. E* Sch ool

Class

Group a c t i v i t y now

L e n g t h o f s c h o o l day

Time s c h o o l c l o s e s

Time s c h o o l day b e g i n s '

H, E. Sc h o o l opened t h i s

I.

t e r m on

Date: Binet-Simou T est

___

M e n ta l Age

_____

Q u e s t io n s i n r e f e r e n c e t o meaning o f p r e s e n t t i m e p e r i o d s w i t h cu e s a s e x p l a i ned by t h e c h i l d : 1.

lVhat day i n t h e week i s t o d a y ? a ns w e r _______

C h i l d 's answer

^

______________ .

Actual

.

l a . How do you know t h a t ( day ) i s t o d a y ?

2.

What day i n t h e month i s t o d a y ?

C h i l d ' s answer

.

Actual

-i

a ns w e r 2 a . How do you know t h a t (day) i s t o d a y ?

3.

Ifll a t da y w i l l

tomorrow b e ?

Actual

C h i l d ’ s answer

a n s w e r ________________________. 3 a . How do you know t h a t ( day ) w i l l be tomor row ?

4.

What day was y e s t e r d a y ?

Actual

C h i l d ' s a n s w e r __

a n s w e r _____________________ . 4a . How do you know t h a t ( day ) was y e s t e r d a y ?

5.

What day w i l l t h e day a f t e r t o m o r ro w b e ? A c t u a l answer

.

C h i l d ’s answer

29 5a . How do yo u know t h a t ( d a y ) w i l l b e t h e day a f t e r to morrow?

6.

vThat day was t h e day b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y ? A c t u a l answer

C h i l d ’s a n s w e r

.

6 a , How do you know t h a t ( d a y ) was t h e da y b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y ?

7.

A'hat month i s t h i s ?

C h i l d ' s a n s w e r _____

answe r

.

Actual

.

7a. How do you know t h a t (mo nt h) i s t h i s month?

S. What s e a s o n of th e y e a r i s

this?

an sw er

is

•

A c t u a l a n sw er

(year)?

I s i t mo rning o r a f t e r n o o n now?

C h i l d ' s ans wer

A c t u a l answer

.

1 0 a . How do ,'ou know t h a t i t i s

II.

Actual

(season)?

C h i l d ' s a n s w e r _______

9a . Hew do you know t h a t t h i s

10.

.

.

.. How do you know t h a t i t i s

9. What y e a r i s t h i s ?

C h i l d ’s a n s w e r

( m o r n in g o r a f t e r n o o n ) ?

Q u e s t i o n s i n r e f e r e n c e t o e s t i m a t i o n o f t i m e d u r a t i o n b e t w e e n and d u r i n g f a m i l i a r events* o c currences, 11.* How o ld a r e you?

etc* * w i t h cue_s_ a s e x p l a i n e d by c h i l d !

C h i l d ' s a n s w e r __________ •

1 1 a . How do you know t h a t you a r e

12 .

(age) ?

How o l d w i l l you be on y o u r n e x t b i r t h d a y ? A c t u a l answer

A c t u a l a n sw er

.

C h i l d ’ s answer

30 1 2 a . How do you know you w i l l be ( t h a t o l d ) ?

13 .

How l o n g i s i t u n t i l y o u r n e x t b i r t h d a y ?

Child 's answer

A c t u a l a ns we r ___________________ . 1 3 a . How do you know t h a t i t

14.

How o l d am I ?

is ( t h a t tim e) u n t i l your next b irth d ay ?

Actual answer

C h i l d 's answer

1 4 a . What makes yo u t h i n k I am ( a g e g i v e n ) ?

15.

How o l d i s m o t h e r ?

1 5 a . How do you know t h a t m ot he r i s

16.

How o l d i s daddy?

A c t u a l answe r

C h i l d 's answer (age)?

•

C h ild 's answer

1 6a . How do you know t h a t daddy i s

A ctual answer

(age)?

1 7 . How o l d i s y o u r b e s t f r i e n d i n y o u r c l a s s ?

C h i l d ' s answe r ______________

A c t u a l a ns we r ______________________ . 17a.

How do you

know he ( o r s h e )

is(age)?

1 8. "When w i l l T h a n k s g i v i n g ( o r C h r i s t m a s ) b e ? A c t u a l a ns we r ________ 18a,

19 .

How do you.

C h i l d 's answer _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

.

know t h a t T h a n k s g i v i n g ( o r C h r i s t m a s ) w i l l be ( t i m e g i v e n ) ?

How l o n g i s i t u n t i l T h a n k s g i v i n g ( o r C h r i s t m a s ) ? __________________.

1 9 a . How do you know i t i s

Actual answer

C h i l d 's answer _ _ _ _ _ _ t

( l e n g t h of t i m e ) u n t i l T h a n k s g i v i n g ( o r C h r i s t m a s ) ?

31 2 0 , At what t i m e do you l e a v e f o r s c h o o l i n t h e mo rn in g ?

C h i l d ' s answ er

A c t u a l a n s w e r _______________________ • 2 0 a . How do y o u know when i t i s tim e t o l e a v e i o r s c h o o l ?

21 . At what t im e do you a r r i v e i n s c h o o l i n t h e m o rn in g ? . 2 1 a . How do you know i t

22 .

is

C h i l d ' s answer

A ctual answer

_.

( t h a t tim e)?

At what t i m e do you go home from s c h o o l ?

C h i l d * s answe r

A ctu al answer

•

2 2 a . How do yo u know i t i s ti m e t o go home from s c h o o l ?

23 .

How lo n g a r e you i n s c h o o l from t h e t i m e y o u a r r i v e u n t i l you go home? C h i l d ’s answer

2 3 a , How do ,rou know i t

• is

A c t u a l answ er

( th a t long)?

24 , At what t i m e do you have d i n n e r ( o r s u p p e r ) ? A c t u a l a ns we r _____________________

C h i l d ' s answer

.

2 4 a . How do you know t h a t i t i s tim e t o have d i n n e r

(or supper)?

2 5b. Do you l i s t e n t o t h e r a d i o a t home? 2 5c. What i s y o u r f a v o r i t e r a d i o pr o g ra m ? 2 5, At what t i m e doe s i t 2 5 a . How do you know i t

go on t h e r a d i o ? i s t i m e t o l i s t e n t o y o u r f a v o r i t e r a d i o program?

2 6 , At what t i m e do you go t o b e d ? a ns w e r 2 6 a . How do yo u know t h a t i t

C h i l d 's answer

________ ♦ i s t i m e t o go t o bed?

,

Actual

32

2 7 . At wh at ti m e do y o u y e t up i n t h e m o rn i n g ?

A ctual answer 2 7 a . How do you know t h a t i t

C h i l d ’ s a n sw er

. i s t i n e t o g e t up i n t h e morni ng?

2 8 . How lo n g do y o u s l e e p d u r i n g t h e n i g h t ?

C h i l d ’s answer

A c t u a l a n s w e r _________ 2 8 a . How do you know t h a t you s l e e p t h a t l o n g ?

•

33

answer th e oomplex tim e q u e s t io n s .

For exam ple, f o r th e answer to q u e s tio n

2 3 , "How lo n g are you i n s c h o o l from th e tim e you a r r iv e u n t i l you go home?", a c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e answ ers to q u e s tio n s 21 and 22 i s r e q u ir ed , i . e . ,

"At

what tim e do you a r r iv e i n s c h o o l in th e morrifag?” and "At what tim e do you go home from sch ool?"

V a lid ity o f Q u estio n s Used i n Q u estio n n a ire In c o n s id e r in g v a l i d i t y o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s e v e r a l cheoks were u sed : 1.

O ther s t u d ie s i n th e f i e l d .

2.

Opinion o f te a c h e r s and a u t h o r i t i e s .

3.

Checking th e q u e s t io n s ' tim e words w ith a s y lla b u s , and th r e e word l i s t s .

Exam ination o f th e s t u d ie s done by o th e r in v e s t ig a t o r s showed th a t th e most common approaoh to c h il d r e n 's tim e s e n s e , c o n cep t, and u n derstan d in g was through q u e s t io n s . In th e m a tter o f s e l e c t i n g tim e words o r e x p r e ssio n s f o r th e q u e s tio n s u sed , o th e r i n v e s t ig a t o r s s e le c t e d m a te r ia l in a number o f w ays. v e s t ig a t o r s e le o t e d m a te r ia l from s o o i a l s t u d ie s (Pistor-*-).

One i n ­

A nother, f o r

part o f a s tu d y , s e le o t e d words and e x p r e s s io n s p r e v io u s ly used by th e o h ild r e n (H om ung^).

O thers used m a te r ia l ap p aren tly s e le o t e d from e x p r e s s io n s

or q u e s tio n s a r b i t r a r i l y ch osen by th e in v e s t ig a t o r s (B arnes^, Friedm an^). Two

s t u d ie s made w ith young o h ild r e n were p a r t ic u la r ly a n alyzed fo r

type o f q u e s tio n s u sed and b a s is

o f s e l e c t i o n . Horaung5 stu d ie d nursery

1 . F . P i s t o r , "Measuring th e Time C onoepts o f C hild ren " , J o u rn a l o f E d u ca tio n a l R esearoh, D eo. 1 9 3 9 , pp. 2 9 3 -3 0 0 . 2 . M. H om ung, "The Developm ent o f th e Sense o f Time in P re sc h o o l C hild ren " , M asters T h e sis 19 3 7 , U n iv e r s ity o f N ebraska. 3 . E a rl B a rn es, " C h ild ren 's Sense o f Time", N a tio n a l E ducation A s s o c ia t io n . A ddresses and P r o c e e d in g s, 19 1 8 , V o l. LVI, pp. 3 3 5 -3 3 8 . 4 . K. C. Friedm an, "Time C onoepts o f E lem entary S ch ool Children" Elem entary S oh ool J o u r n a l, 19 4 4 , 4 5 , 3 3 7 -3 4 2 . 5 . M. H om ung, "The Developm ent o f th e Sense o f Time in P resch o o l C h ild ren " , M asters T h e s is , 1 9 3 7 , U n iv e r s ity o f N ebraska.

34 s o h o o l o h ild r e n .

A lthough one t e s t was oom piled from words used spon­

ta n e o u sly by c h ild r e n , a n o th er t e s t was ap p aren tly made up o f q u e s tio n s p e r ta in in g t o d a ily r o u tin e s and tim e s it u a t io n s based on th e i n v e s t i ­ g a t o r ’ s judgm ent. In th e stu d y by Ames^ two methods o f s e le c t in g m a te r ia l f o r a n a ly s is were u s e d .

The f i r s t method was o b se r v a tio n o f th e n u rsery group under

stu d y w h ile th e c h ild r e n were engaged in spontaneous p la y .

The seoond

method was th e use o f two s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s asked o f two s e le o t e d groups o f c h ild r e n . Under th e seoond m ethod, some o f th e q u e stio n s i n th e f i r s t s e r i e s in c lu d e d , "H0w o ld are you?" home?"

"What day i s today?"

"When d oes daddy come

The seoond s e r i e s (asked o f o ld e r o h ild re n ) in c lu d e d some o f th e

same q u e s tio n s and o t h e r s , suoh a s , "Can you name th e m onths?", "How many m inutes i n an hour?" There i s no in d ic a t io n in th e Ames stud y th a t th e q u e s tio n s f o r both s e r i e s were s e le o t e d by any tech n iq u e o th e r than th e judgment o f th e i n ­ v e s t ig a t o r . A fte r stu d y o f th e above name l i t e r a t u r e , t e n t a t iv e q u e s tio n s f o r th e p r e se n t stu d y were a r b it r a r ily s e t up by the i n v e s t ig a t o r .

These q u e s tio n s

were th en su b m itted t o th e f o llo w in g t e s t s . 1.

The q u e s tio n s were su bm itted f o r c r it ic is m t o fo u r te a c h e r s o f

young c h ild r e n (two k in d e r g a r tn e r s , one f ir s t - g r a d e t e a o h e r , end one seco n d grade t e a c h e r ) , and to two e x p e r ts* i n th e f i e l d o f e a r ly ch ild h o o d e d u c a tio n .

1 . L. B. Ames, "The Developm ent o f th e Sense o f Time i n th e Young C h ild " , J o u rn a l o f G en etic P sy ch o lo g y , 19 4 6 , 6 8 , 9 7 -1 2 5 . *

The i n v e s t ig a t o r i s in d eb ted to D r. Louise B . Ames o f th e C h ild Developm ent I n s t i t u t e a t Y ale U n iv e r s ity f o r v a lu a b le o r i t i c is m s o f th e t e n t a t iv e q u e s tio n n a ir e , and t o P r o fe sso r A lic e V. K e lih e r o f New York U n iv e r s it y f o r s u g g e s tio n s f o r the f i n a l q u e s tio n n a ir e .

35 2.

Time words i n th e q u e stio n n a ir e were ohecked f o r a p p r o p r ia te ­

n e ss a g a in s t a New York C ity S y lla b u s , two word l i s t s f o r young c h ild r e n , and an a d u lt frequenoy word l i s t (The T each er's Word Book1 ) .

The l a s t

was in c lu d e d beoause i t was assumed th a t i f the words were u sed fr e q u e n tly by a d u lts th e o h ild r e n had had op p ortu nity f o r h ea rin g them. The r e s u lt s o f th e ch eck in g were as fo llo w s: The New York C ity Board o f E ducation " Syllabus f o r K in d ergarten and K in d ergarten E x te n sio n ”2 was examined f o r r e fe r e n c e s to tim e words and e x p r e s s io n s .

A lthough w r itte n f o r a f l e x i b l e program, r e fe r e n c e s were made

to th e k in d erg a rten u se o f : s u c c e s s io n o f th e days in th e week s u c c e s s io n o f th e sea so n s names o f th e days in th e week names o f th e months d a te on the ca le n d a r R eferen ces were made t o k in d erg a rten e x te n sio n use o f : days o f th e week t e l l i n g tim e from c lo c k s The G ates Reading Vocabulary

•2

was ohecked, a l s o , t o se e how fr e q u e n tly

used were th e tim e words* on th e primary grade l e v e l .

On th e e n t ir e q u e s tio n ­

n a ir e a l l tim e words were found i n th e f i r s t o r seoond f i v e hundred most fr e q u e n tly used words w ith the ex c e p tio n o f "month” , " sea so n ” , "during",

1 . Edward L. T horndike, The T eaoher's Word Book, T eaohers C o l l e g e ., Columbia U n iv e r s it y , N. Y ., 19 2 7 , pp. 1 2 7 -1 3 4 . 2 . Board o f E d u ca tio n , C ity o f New York, N, Y ., 1 9 2 4 , (T h is stu d y was s t a r te d b e fo r e th e reo en t s y l l a b i f o r the e a r ly ch ildh ood l e v e l s were p u b lis h e d .) 3 . A. G a te s, A Reading Vooabulary fo r th e Prim&i; G ra d es, Teaohers C o lleg e Columbia U n iv e r s it y , N. Y ., 1935.

36 " a r r iv e " .

Of t h e s e , th e f i r s t th ree were in o lu d ed i n th e t h ir d group

o f m ost fr e q u e n tly u sed w ords.

"Arrive" was n ot on th e l i s t a t a l l .

However, i t was h ig h enough ( in th e seoond fiv e-h u n d red group) on th e Thorndike 1 l i s t m entioned below to seem s u it a b le , and i n th e l a t e r ad­ m in is t r a t io n o f th e q u e stio n n a ir e no d i f f i c u l t y was found i n i t s use w ith th e o h ild r e n s tu d ie d . T h orn d ik e's T ea ch er's Word Book^ was ohecked t o se e i f th e tim e words u sed in th e q u e s tio n s were fr e q u e n tly usedby a d u lt s .

A l l tim e words

on th e q u e s tio n n a ir e were found in e it h e r th e f i r s t o r seoond fiv e-h u n d red group w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f " birthday".

T h is was found i n th e th ir d f i v e -

hundred group. The s tu d y , "A Study o f th e Vocabulary o f C h ild ren B efo re E n terin g th e F i r s t Grade"® was examined t o s e e frequency o f u se o f tim e words as exp ressed sp o n ta n eo u sly by k in d erg a rten c h ild r e n .

With th e e x o e p tio n o f sev en w ords,

a l l were found i n th e f i r s t five-h u n d red m ost fr e q u e n tly u sed w ords.

Of the

sev en e x c e p t io n s , "week", "month", "afternoon" and " u n til" were in th e second fiv e -h u n d r e d group. th ir d th ou sa n d .

"Season" was found in th e f i r s t one hundred words o f the

However, "arrive" and "during" were n o t on t h i s l i s t .

" A rrive" , n e v e r - t h e - l e s s , as m entioned above, was h ig h enough on th e Thorndike '1 l i s t (seco n d five-h u n d red group) to seem s u i t a b l e .

1 . Edward L. T h orndike, The T eaoh er's Word Book. T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s it y , N. Y ., 1927, pp. 1 2 7 -1 3 4 . 2 . Edward L. T h orndike, The T eaoh er's Word Book, Teaohers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s it y , N .Y ., 1927, pp. 3 2 7 -1 3 4 . 3 . C h ild Study Committee, I n te r n a tio n a l K ind ergarten U nion, W ashington, D. C ., "A Study o f the Vocabulary o f C hildren E n te r in g F i r s t Grade", 1 9 2 8 . There were 2 ,5 9 6 words on th e t o t a l l i s t o f t h i s s tu d y .

37 "During" was found in th e th ir d fiv e-h u n d red group o f th e G ates Beading V ocabulary-1- and was o f lower freq u en cy than th e o th er time w ords. how ever, h ig h enough frequency on th e T horndike 2 l i s t group) to be r e t a in e d .

I t h ad ,

( f i r s t fiv e-h u n d red

As w ith " a r r iv e " , no d i f f i c u l t y was d isc o v e r e d when

th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was a d m in istered . PEE-TEST OF QUESTIONNAIRE When th e q u e stio n n a ir e was com p leted , th e in v e s t ig a t o r t r ie d i t ou t on th r e e f i v e year o ld s o f high I .Q .; and one n in e yea r o ld o f good I.Q . i n order t o s e e th e c h ild r e n 's resp on ses and r e a c t io n s . Procedure in G ivin g Q u estion n aire The in v e s t ig a t o r s gave the q u e s tio n n a ir e to each c h ild .

The sev en -y ea r

o ld s were t e s t e d f i r s t , the s ix - y e a r - o ld s n e x t , and th e t h ir d , and th e f i v e y e a r -o ld s l a s t . The te a c h e r s o f the groups knew o f the in v e s t ig a t i o n .

They a ls o knew

a t what p erio d in th e day th e c h ild r e n would be withdrawn f o r q u e s tio n in g . However, th ere was no agreement a s t o which c h ild would be withdrawn.

When

th e in v e s t ig a t o r went to a groupte room th e te a c h e r u s u a lly look ed ov er h er group and c a lle d a c h ild who was th e m ost a c c e s s ib l e a t th a t moment.

(An

a ttem p t was made t o s e l e c t a boy and th en a g i r l so t h a t one se x would n o t outnumber th e o th er to a marked e x t e n t .)

T h is s e l e c t i o n went on u n t i l a t

l e a s t tw e n ty -fiv e c h ild r e n o f one group were exam ined.

In th e y o u n g est group

th r e e more than tw e n ty -fiv e were examined b eca u se o f ab sen ce of some f o r r e ­ t e s t i n g o f I . Q . , which was n e c e ssa r y f o r t h i s stu d y . A lthough an e f f o r t was made t o s e l e c t th e c h ild r e n o f one a g e - le v e l from th e same room, i t was n e c e s s a r y t o draw upon th e n e x t-d o o r group o f s im ila r a g e - l e v e l f o r the f i v e and s ix - y e a r - o ld grou p s.

1 . G a te s , o p . c i t . 2 . Edward L. T h orndike, The T ea ch er 's Word B ook , T eachers C o lle g e , Columbia U n iv e r s it y , N .Y ., 1 9 2 7 , PP* 1 27-13^ .

38

A fte r a o h ild was c a lle d by h i s t e a c h e r , the i n v e s t ig a t o r spoke to him and asked him i f he would l i k e t o h e lp th e i n v e s t i g a t o r by answer­ in g some q u e s tio n s .

Eaoh c h ild agreed t o le a v e th e room.*

The c h ild

went w ith th e in v e s t ig a t o r to a q u ie t o f f i c e on th e same f l o o r as th e c h i l d ' s cla ssro o m .

On the way, th e in v e s t ig a t o r t o l d th e c h ild she was

w r it in g a s to r y about what o h ild r e n knew o f tim e .

When th e o f f i c e was

reached th e in v e s t ig a t o r con tin u ed t e l l i n g th e c h ild th a t th e sto r y was f o r grow n-ups, th a t th e grown-ups o a lle d i t a "study".

The c h ild was

a ls o t o ld th a t the c h i l d ' s m other, f a t h e r , o r te a c h e r would n o t know what he s a id ; n e it h e r would h is name be u sed . n ot a t e s t w ith a grade on i t .

I t was made c l e a r th a t t h i s was

Sometimes c h ild r e n q u erie d fu r th e r on th e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t was a sc o r e f o r t h e i r r e c o r d s.

They were re-a ssu red

th a t i t would n ot be in clu d ed in t h e i r r e c o r d s. The c h ild was th en asked i f he th ou gh t he would l i k e to answer the q u e s tio n s .

In each ca se th e c h ild was w i l l i n g .

The c h ild was asked to

s i t down in a d esig n a ted c h a ir n e x t to th e i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s d esk . Some o f th e item s th a t appeared on th e f i r s t page o f th e q u estio n n a ire were f i l l e d in w ith th e c h i l d ' s a s s i s t a n c e , i . e . , h is name, and th e group a c t i v i t y th a t he had l e f t . th e s o h o o l r ec o rd s.

L ater i n th e term o th e r item s were f i l l e d i n from

The day and d a te on w hioh the c h ild answered th e q u es­

t io n n a ir e were f i l l e d in im m ed iately a f t e r th e c h ild f in is h e d answ ering the q u e s tio n s , but t h is was so done t h a t th e o h ild was n o t aware o f i t . A fte r th e p r e lim in a r ie s , the o h ild was asked i f he were read y. f i r s t q u e stio n was asked o r a l ly .

The

As th e o h ild r e p lie d , th e in v e s t ig a t o r

recorded th e c h i l d ' s answers in th e blank spaoed provided in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e .

* These o h ild r e n were in a s c h o o l u sed to ta k in g part in s t u d i e s . t e s t s , exp erim en ts, e t o e te r a . t h e i r room f o r o th er a c t i v i t i e s ,

f o r th e " gifted " c h i l d . They were They were very much in t e r e s t e d in The in v e s t ig a t o r had o fte n been in so she was f a m ilia r t o them.

39

I f th e answer t o th e f a c t u a l was o b v io u s ly c o r r e c t , a very sm a ll oheok ( ^ ) was put in space a lo n g sid e th e words “A ctu a l Answer".

I f th e answer was

o b v io u sly wrong, a sm a ll minus s ig n ( — ) was p laced a lo n g s id e the words in s t e a d . A ll q u e stio n s were p resen ted and recorded i n t h i s manner. n o t be ohecked u n t i l v e r if ie d l a t e r .

Some oould

Moreover i f a c h ild was an o ld e r c h ild

who cou ld se e and read over th e d e sk , a l l ch eo k in g was done a f t e r th e c h ild had returned to h is room.

The im m ediate o r prompt ch eck in g o f item s as the

p resen t day and d a te , saved tim e l a t e r and was an a id in a ccu ra te r a t in g o f th e an sw ers. A fte r tw elv e q u e stio n s were p r e s e n te d , th e c h ild was asked i f he w ished t o s t o p , go back to h is group and f i n i s h a n o th er tim e , or i f he w ished to go on.

Of th e s e v e n ty -e ig h t c h ild r e n in te r v ie w e d

q u e stio n n a ir e i n two s i t t i n g s .

One was a f r a id

on ly two asked to answer the he would m iss h is m ilk , and

th e o th e r was r e s t l e s s . At th e end o f the s e r ie s o f q u e s tio n , th e c h ild was thanked, and th e in v e s t ig a t o r went back w ith him to h is group. A ll stu d ied o h ild r e n were t r e a t e d in th e same manner. were shy and q u ie t , o th ers were t a lk a t iv e and e n t h u s i a s t i c .

Some c h ild r e n B efore th e c h ild

en tere d th e o f f i c e a l l d is t r a o t in g m a te r ia ls were put away, and th e d esk was c le a r e d ex cep t f o r a b l o t t e r .

There were no o a le n d a r s , c lo c k s or o th e r d e v ic e s

f o r in d ic a t in g tim e . The in v e s t ig a t o r had thought o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t a o h ild m ight d is c u s s th e q u e stio n n a ir e w ith an oth er o h i l d .

However, th e thought was d ism issed fo r

th e fo llo w in g rea so n s: 1.

The le n g th o f the q u e s tio n n a ir e f o r a group o f o h ild r e n seven years

and under, would preolude accu ra te memory o f th e q u e s tio n s .

40 2.

The o h ild r e n n ever knew who would

be o a lle d n ex t f o r th e

q u e s tio n n a ir e in te r v ie w . 3.

The o h ild r e n d id n o t know o th e r s would be o a lle d a f t e r them.

4.

The f l e x i b l e a c t i v i t y ourriculum (w ith t r i p t o a u d io -v is u a l

room, nature room, a r t room, o u tsid e t e r r a o e , e t c . ) was such t h a t groups ohanged, and i n t e r e s t in o la s s a c t i v i t y was h ig h , so t h a t a c h ild r e ­ tu r n in g to h is group moved in t o a d if f e r e n t p a tte r n from th a t which he le ft.

The new s it u a t io n was a b so rb in g . 5.

Many q u e s tio n s req u ired answers p e o u lia r to th e c h ild b ein g

q u e s tio n e d . 6.

Only a few , som etim es one o r two c h ild r e n , were q u estio n ed on

one day; so th e i n t e r e s t in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was n o t c o n c e n tr a te d . 7.

B efore q u e s tio n in g to o k p la c e , th e te a c h e r s o f th e o h ild r e n

ex p ressed p o s it iv e o p in io n based on ex p erien ce w ith th e o h ild r e n th a t th e r e would n ot be a tendency to d is c u s s q u e s tio n s . 8.

As th e in v e s t ig a t o r p roceeded, th e r e was n ot th e s l i g h t e s t

in d ic a t io n th a t th e c h ild r e n had heard about th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , o r had heard th e q u e s tio n s . The Answers Although i t would n o t be f e a s ib le to in c lu d e th e 4 ,0 2 5 answers as tak en down verbatim to th e q u e s tio n s in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , a number o f an sw ers, taken a t random from th e th r e e groups a re p resen ted h e r e .

They

are r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sam ples o f th e r e sp o n se s. The f i r s t q u e stio n asked o f th e o h ild was "What day i s today?"

The

o h ild u s u a lly gave th e name o f th e day in th e w eek, suoh a s , "Friday". c h ild was th en ask ed , "How do you know i t i s Friday?" t o t h i s q u e stio n were;

The

Some o f th e answers

41

"Last day in th e w eek, and l a s t day i s alw ays F rid ay". (S ev en -y ea r-o ld ) "Because our c l a s s reco rd s i t ; sa y s "Wednesday." (S ev en -y ea r-o ld ) "Because we have no s c h o o l tomorrow."

( F iv e -y e a r -o ld )

Q uestion 2 w as, "What day in th e month i s today?" "How do you know (day) i s today?"

Q u estion 2a was,

Some o f th e answers to th e se fo llo w .

Q. 2 : "Do you mean th e d ate? I t i s February t w e n ty -s ix th , tw e n ty -s ix th ." (S e v e n -y e a r -o ld ) 2 a : " It i s up th e r e ; on our c l a s s rec o rd , to o ." ("Up there" probably meant o la s s record on blackboard i n c l a s s room). Q. 2 : "I d o n 't know" (F iv e - y e a r - o ld ) 2a: "I would need a o a le n d a r." Q 2 : "April te n t h ." 2 a; "I d o n 't know."

( i t was s ix t e e n t h )

(F iv e -y e a r -o ld )

Q 2 ; " Seventeenth (C o rrect) (F iv e - y e a r - o ld ) 2 a : "Yesterday was s ix t e e n t h - over r a d io , I heard." Q 2 : "Eighteenth" (C o rrect) (S ix - y e a r - o ld ) 2a: "Because y e ste r d a y was s e v e n te e n th ." Q u estio n 4 w as, "What day was y esterd a y ? " know th a t (day) was y esterd a y ? "

Q u estion 4a w as, "How do you

Some o f th e answers to th e se fo llo w :

4: "Thursday" ( S ix - y e a r - o ld ) 4a: "Cause to -d a y i s F rid ay: and Thursday b e fo r e Friday." 4: "Tuesday" (S e v e n -y e a r -o ld ) 4a: "Because we had Assembly y e s te r d a y ." 4; "Sunday" ( F iv e -y e a r -o ld ) 4a: "To me i t ' s th e same way a s I fig u r e ou t th e week." ( in answer to 3a; "How do you know th a t (day 2 w i l l be tomorrow?" he s a id , "I can say the whole week, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, F rid a y , S a tu rd ay." )

Q uestion 11 w as, "How o ld are you," Q u estion 11a was "How do you know you are (th a t age)?" Some o f th e answers to th e s e f o llo w :

42

11: "Five" ( F iv e - y e a r - o ld ) l l a j "Cause I am f i v e : l a s t y ea r I wasfo u r." 11: "Six and th r e e q u a r te r s and one week." (She was s i x years and n ine m onths.) 11a: "Last y ea r I was f i v e , and s i x i s a f t e r f i v e ; the same w ith yea rs as w ith numbers." 11: 11a:

"Six and th ree q u a r te r s ." (He wass i x ande le v e n m onths.) "I j u s t fig u r e i t o u t from 1940."

11: "Seven and a quarter" (He was sev en y ea rs and one m onth.) 11a: "Not e x a c tly sev en and a q u a r te r u n t i l th e t w e n t y -f if t h ; and th e reason I know i s th a t my b irth d a y i s on ( o h ild gave c o r r e c t month) t w e n t y - f if t h ."

Q u estion 24 w as, "At what tim e do you have d in n er (o r supper)?"

Q uestion

24a w as, "How do you know t h a t i t i s tim e to have d in n er (o r supper)?" th e s e answers fo llo w ; 2 4 : "About six " (S e v e n -y e a r -o ld ) 24a; "My nurse c a l l s me; sh e i s a fr ie n d o f m ine." 2 4 : "Seven" ( s ix - y e a r - o l d ) 24a: "My mother c a l l s me i n to e a t." 2 4 : " S ix , s ix - t h ir t y " ( F iv e - y e a r - o ld ) 24 a : "My mommy c a l l s me in ."

Some o f

CHAPTER V THE DATA AMD THEIR INTERPRETATIONS A.

F a ctu a l Q u estio n Data

C h ro n o lo g ica l Age Groups* and S co res There were tw en ty-tw o c h ild r e n in th e f iv e y ea r o ld group, tw e n ty -fiv e c h ild r e n in the s i x y e a r o ld group, and tw en ty -fo u r c h ild r e n in th e sev en y e a r o ld group. The r e s u lt s o f th e th r e e c h r o n o lo g ic a l age groups o f f i v e , s i x , and seven y e a r o ld s on t o t a l q u e s tio n n a ir e * are shown in Table VI. The d if fe r e n c e in th e mean sc o r e f o r th e t o t a l q u e stio n n a ir e i s 6 .7 between the f iv e and s i x y e a r o ld group w hereas th e d iffe r e n c e between th e mean sco re o f th e s i x and sev en y e a r o ld groups i s 0 . 7 .

This

d if fe r e n c e o f 0 .7 was found n o t s i g n i f i c a n t when t e s t e d by th e o r i t i c a l r a t io d escrib ed on page 1 1 .

The d if f e r e n c e between the mean sc o r e s

o f th e f iv e y ea r o ld group and the sev en y e a r o ld group i s 6 . 0 .

This

was s i g n i f i c a n t . There i s a la r g e gap in th e knowledge o f th e tim e f a c t s in v e s t ig a t e d between c h ild r e n o f a mean C.A. o f 5 .5 y e a r s and th e c h ild r e n o f 6 .4 4 y e a r s . There i s no d if f e r e n c e betw een the knowledge o f th e s i x y ea r o ld group and th e seven y ea r o ld group i n t h i s stu d y as in d ic a te d by t o t a l s c o r e s . In s c o r e s f o r P art I (P re se n t tim e) shown i n Table VII th e r e was found a d if f e r e n c e o f 0 . 6 in mean s c o r e s betw een th e s i x and seven y e a r 1

* See page 12 f o r more d e t a ile d d e s c r ip t io n o f th e s e groups.

44

TABLE VI TOTAL SCORES FOR ALL GROUPS