True Believers and the Great Replacement: Understanding Anomie and Alienation [1 ed.] 1032428007, 9781032428000

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Figures and Tables
Foreword
Prologue to Section 1
1. Anomie and True Believers
2. Dysfunctional and Functional Responses
3. Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement
Epilogue to Section 1
Prologue to Section 2
4. European True Believers and Xenophobia
5. American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia
Epilogue to Section 2: Examples from Europe and North America
Prologue to Section 3: Reactions and Tensions
6. Critical Race Theory: From Rhetoric to Dialogue
7. The Cancel Culture Movement
Epilogue to Section 3
Prologue to Section 4
8. For What It’s Worth: Missteps that Multiply Problems
9. Getting What You Need: Keeping an Eye on the Prize
Epilogue to Section 4
Prologue to Section 5
10. Dialectics without a Synthesis: The Challenge of Finding Common Ground
11. Beyond the U-Shaped Curve: A Continuum of Moral and Ethical Thought
12. Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Lens of Psychology
Epilogue to Section 5
A Summary and Final Word
Index

Citation preview

Classical and Contemporary Social Theory

TRUE BELIEVERS AND THE GREAT REPLACEMENT UNDERSTANDING ANOMIE AND ALIENATION Alf H. Walle

True Believers and the Great Replacement

True Believers and the Great Replacement explores the responses of segments of Western cultures who fear that changes in the racial, religious, and ethnic makeup of society threaten their way of life. The Great Replacement Theory (that suggests that the traditional character of Western society is being undermined by outsiders) is discussed.  Analyzed with reference to the Critical Race Theory and the “Cancel Culture” movement, the author examines the anxieties and reactions of those who feel alienated by a world of rapid and disorienting change. Drawing upon the thought of Eric Hoffer and Emile Durkheim, these responses are discussed in terms of the concepts of anomie and the true believer in innovative and effective ways. Based on this analysis, strategic responses are suggested. The volume will appeal to scholars and practitioners involved with issues of race and ethnicity, business, and social and cultural analyses.  Alf H. Walle is a consultant focusing upon business anthropology and a longtime college professor of business, psychology, and tribal management.  He is the author of Indigenous and Ethnic Empowerment, Entrepreneurship and Culture and Economic Development and Mental Illness.

Classical and Contemporary Social Theory

Classical and Contemporary Social Theory publishes rigorous scholarly work that re-discovers the relevance of social theory for contemporary times, demonstrating the enduring importance of theory for modern social issues. The series covers social theory in a broad sense, inviting contributions on both “classical” and modern theory, thus encompassing sociology, without being confined to a single discipline. As such, work from across the social sciences is welcome, provided that volumes address the social context of particular issues, subjects, or figures and offer new understandings of social reality and the contribution of a theorist or school to our understanding of it. The series considers significant new appraisals of established thinkers or schools, comparative works, or contributions that discuss a particular social issue or phenomenon in relation to the work of specific theorists or theoretical approaches. Contributions are welcome that assess broad strands of thought within certain schools or across the work of a number of thinkers, but always with an eye toward contributing to contemporary understandings of social issues and contexts. Series Editor Stjepan G. Mestrovic, Texas A&M University, USA Titles in this series A Sociology of Seeking: Portents of Belief Kieran Flanagan True Believers and the Great Replacement: Understanding Anomie and Alienation Alf Walle For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/sociology/series/ASHSER1383

True Believers and the Great Replacement

Understanding Anomie and Alienation Alf H. Walle

First published 2023 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Alf H. Walle The right of Alf H. Walle to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 9781032428000 (hbk) ISBN: 9781032428017 (pbk) ISBN: 9781003364368 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368 Typeset in Times New Roman by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Contents

List of Figures and Tablesvii Forewordviii Prologue to Section 1

1

1 Anomie and True Believers

3

2 Dysfunctional and Functional Responses

16

3 Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement

29

Epilogue to Section 1

44

Prologue to Section 2

45

4 European True Believers and Xenophobia

47

5 American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia

63

Epilogue to Section 2: Examples from Europe and North America

76

Prologue to Section 3: Reactions and Tensions

77

6 Critical Race Theory: From Rhetoric to Dialogue

79

7 The Cancel Culture Movement

96

Epilogue to Section 3

114

Prologue to Section 4

115

8 For What It’s Worth: Missteps that Multiply Problems

117

9 Getting What You Need: Keeping an Eye on the Prize

139

vi  Contents

Epilogue to Section 4

159

Prologue to Section 5

160

10 Dialectics without a Synthesis: The Challenge of Finding Common Ground161 11 Beyond the U-Shaped Curve: A Continuum of Moral and Ethical Thought174 12 Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Lens of Psychology196 Epilogue to Section 5

211

A Summary and Final Word

213

Index

220

List of Figures and Tables

Figures 1.1 Robert K. Merton’s Deviance Typology8 10.1 Bell-Shaped Curve168 10.2 U-Shaped Curve169

Tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 3.1 4.1 6.1 6.2 7.1 8.1 9.1 10.1 10.2 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 12.3

Responses to Anomie8 The Hoffer Model11 Anomie and True Believers13 The Boxer Rebellion and the Ghost Dance Compared21 Negative and Positive Adjustments26 The Three-Factor Model40 Three-Factor Analysis of European Examples59 Classic Marxism and Conventional Feminism Compared86 Critical Race Theory: An Overview91 Cancel Culture Techniques108 Triggers of Hurtful Communication132 Problems and Solutions151 Leslie White’s Marxist/Materialistic Paradigm165 Bell-Shaped and U-Shaped Curves Compared169 The Kohlberg Moral and Ethical Paradigm179 Applying the Kohlberg Model190 Emic Analysis of Racism and Xenophobia202 Etic Analysis of Racism and Xenophobia204 Kolhberg, Pike, and Harris206

Foreword

The 1960s was a turbulent era in the United States, but for many it was a time of optimism. After decades of protest and struggling, major successes were found in the area of civil rights. Emboldened by these achievements, other major movements arose, including the anti-war movement, the rise of contempoary feminism, various struggles involving sexuality and sexual orientation, and a call for indigenous rights. Singer/Songwriter Bob Dylan caught the spirit of that era when he wrote “the present now will later be past. The [old] order is rapidly fadin’…For the times they are a-changin’” (Dylan 1965). The prevailing conventional wisdom of that era was that although many people still clung to racist, xenophobic, and other reactionary beliefs and practices, those who did so were anachronisms destined to fade as the older generations died off. The end result that most progressives envisioned was a more diverse, pluristic, and tolerant nation and world. This future looked bright and within reach. The battle appeared to have been won even if a few stragglers from the past remained. Things have not worked out that way. The old beliefs and those who hold them are more tenacious and powerful than anticipated by the optimistic and naïve youth of the 1960s. As time has gone on, tensions have returned and expanded. Those with racist and xenophobic tendencies can no longer be dismissed as pathetic vestigal remains conveniently destined for inevitable and rapid extinction. In Europe, America, and around the world, a renaissance of racism and xenophobia has emerged. It appears to be expanding. In the United States, for example, most people once believed that racism primarily involved the Southeastern region of the country where slavery once prevailed. Today, it appears that racial tensions are much more widespread. Is the country becoming more racist? Or are forces that were once hidden or ignored gaining the attention they deserve? In either case, overt tensions are rising and causing significant social upheavals. To model this situation, two well-known concepts are used to lay a foundation. The first is “Anomie”: the theory that rapid, profound, and unmitigated change can trigger responses that tend to be emotional, irrational,

Foreword ix and often counterproductive. Thus, anomie explores ways in which people are impacted by pressures, conditions, and environments. Many of these outcomes are negative and regretable. The second is the concept of the “True Believer”, a term used to identify people who embrace causes without reservation or question, lose their individuality in the process, and respond accordingly. The key orientation of this book is that due to anomie caused by rapidly changing and unmitigated conditions, a cadre of true believers has arisen that uncritically embraces xenophobic and racist orientations. One specific response to these conditions has come to be called the Great Replacement Theory: the assertion that demographic changes are causing long-established cultural, racial, and ethnic groups to be downgraded to the status of displaced minorities in their own homeland. Examples from both Europe and the United States showcase the power of such beliefs. In addition, the influence of paradigms and techniques, such as Critical Race Theory and the Cancel Culture Movement, demonstrates the tensions that currently exist involving racism and xenophobia. Having pointed to some of the challenges and pitfalls currently being experienced, ideas regarding how to deal with the situation are offered. In order to reduce tensions, developing ways to defuse hostility is essential. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg presents a continuum of moral and ethical frames of reference ranging from personal hedonistic response to universal views and priorities. Such a model is able to acknowledge that rivals and opponents possess moral and ethical frameworks even though they clash with what others believe. By embracing this point of view, a less enflamed way of discussing differences might be possible. In addition, it is useful to recognize two bacic ways of viewing people and their actions. One perspective stems from the point of view of the social actor. Doing so tends to be culturally relativistic. The alternative focuses upon the community of obsevers and how they evaluate what is empirically observed. This approach seeks greater objectivity and a more universal perspective. These “emic” and “etic” techniques are valauable and have a role to play when dealing with racism and xenophobia. Both locally and worldwide, the current sitiuation regarding racism and xenophibia is hurtful, divesive, and needs to be addressed. Greater understanding on both sides is needed. It is hoped that what is presented below will offer useful suggestions for a much needed dialogue.

REFERENCE Dylan, Bob (1965). “The Times They Are a Changin’”. Song released as a single and within the Album The Times They Are a Changin’.

Prologue to Section 1

Section 1 offers a theoretical overview or paradigm that forms a foundation for later discussions. Most basically, it builds upon the sociological theory of anomie, developed by Emil Durkheim and Robert Merton, that addresses the confusion and alienation many people experience when subjected to rapid, disruptive, and unmitigated change. Having analyzed this phenomenon, Eric Hoffer’s concept of the true believer is introduced to deal with devotees of mass movements who uncritically accept a cause and do so without a question. An understanding of anomie and the true believer concept (and their symbiotic relationship) provides a theoretic framework that is more fully explored in the chapters that follow. True believers who respond to anomie exhibit a varied track record with some succeeding, while others fail. To acknowledge the full range of effectiveness and ineffectiveness, the examples of the Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion document how maladapted true believers can contribute to loss and suffering. The contributions of Iroquois (American Indian nation) leader and prophet Handsome Lake, in contrast, provide positive examples of progress and success. Emerging as a positive force during an era of profound crises faced by the Iroquois, Handsome Lake and his movement helped his culture to revitalize and survive. Although the followers of Handsome Lake might be depicted as true believers who were impacted by anomie, their influence helped preserve the Iroquois culture during a period of stress and transition. These examples demonstrate that the reactions to anomie by true believers can be either positive or negative. This realization sets the stage to discuss a contemporary mass movement that is impacting the world, especially the West. It is the Great Replacement theory that asserts that demographic fluctuations are displacing peoples who have lived in their homelands for many generations. According to this paradigm, the resulting changes, alienating and hurtful to the traditional peoples of a country or region, need to be challenged and reversed. Embracing this chain of thought, many people throughout the world have come to similar conclusions. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-1

2  Prologue to Section 1 In Chapter 3, this theory, developed by Renaud Camus, is introduced with reference to anomie and the true believers concept. Viewed with reference to Romantic Nationalism, it celebrates and champions local cultures, arguing that the traditional heritage should be nurtured and preserved, so countries and regions can maintain their historic character. In recent years, many true believers who embrace such views have demonstrated xenophobic and racist orientations. Discussing the Great Replacement theory with reference to anomie and the true believer model provides a useful means of dealing with this provocative phenomenon.

1

Anomie and True Believers

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understanding the concept of anomie, developed by Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton, as a paradigm for modeling reactions triggered by alienation and discomfort caused by rapid and unmitigated change. 2. Appreciating Eric Hoffer’s concept of the “true believer” as a useful method for assessing the reactions of stakeholders who, feeling stress and pressure, embrace a cause as a means of coping with their situation. 3. Conceptualizing how anomie and the true believer paradigm can be merged in a manner that usefully models political actions, social tensions, and strife. 4. Perceiving how the synthesis of the concepts of anomie and the true believer can usefully and robustly explore a variety of responses involving social change and concomitant social and/or psychological adjustments. 5. Grasping the policy implications of such an approach.

INTRODUCTION During the 19th century, a wide range of social groups (especially rural communities) experienced tension and stress triggered by rapid, unpredictable, and unmitigated change. During that era, social scientists, such as Emile Durkheim, became concerned that emerging trends (especially urbanization and wage labor) provided a strong catalyst for social disunity and psychological dysfunction. Durkheim refers to the resulting alienation and social confusion as “anomie”. Writing approximately 50 years later, sociologist Robert Merton expanded Durkheim’s theory by observing that specific people react to anomie in a variety of distinctive ways; some responses are positive and fruitful, while others encourage counterproductive responses with hurtful consequences. In the era when Merton’s career was at its height, a self-educated “workingman” turned social psychologist and moral philosopher named Eric Hoffer published The True Believer (1951), a classic account of how disenfranchised people respond to the circumstances they face. Depicting a type of DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-2

4  Anomie and True Believers person Hoffer labels as “true believers”, he describes devotees who accept what they are told without question. Hoffer goes on to conclude that such people embrace and populate a wide variety of “mass movements”, including radical political actions, religious cults, nationalistic campaigns, and so forth. Although specific examples exhibit significant differences, Hoffer saw similarities when he observed that they are “pioneered by men of words, materialized by fanatics, and consolidated by men of actions” (1951; 134). And through it all, an army of true believers goes along for the ride, substituting dogma for thought. By merging the concepts of anomie and the true believer, a valuable technique for dealing with social and political strife emerges that is capable of dealing with reactions that arise due to alienation and/or displacement triggered by rapid and disruptive change. In this monograph, these two concepts are linked in ways that possess both theoretic and applied significance.

THE CONCEPT OF ANOMIE Anomie is a theory that deals with alienation and social disruption typically triggered by rapid and uncontrolled change. The definitive analysis of the subject was conducted by French sociologist/anthropologist Emile Durkheim in the later part of the 19th century (and era coinciding with the rise of the Industrial Revolution in Europe) when many hinterland people were forced to dramatically alter or abandon their way of life. Under such conditions, hurtful consequences, affecting both individuals and communities, often resulted. Building upon such examples, Durkheim envisioned anomie as a breakdown in social values, a weakening of the bonds between people, and confusion regarding the norms of society. These conditions typically arise due to rapid, unprecedented, and unmitigated change. Durkheim discusses this concept in his works such as Suicide (1951/originally 1897) and the Division of Labour in Society (1997/originally 1893) and suggests that anomie can trigger alienation leading to social and psychological dysfunctions. Many scholars speak of a condition of “normlessness” when describing anomie to indicate a weakening of and an ambiguity regarding the rules of society, the conventions of social interaction, as well as the eroding of traditional moral principles. Under these conditions, people can easily be socially and psychologically cast adrift with hurtful consequences. The writings of Charles Dickens provide a glimpse into these trends. In his acclaimed novel Oliver Twist (1837–1838), for example, Dickens describes blighted urban environments emerging in the 19th century that were typified by the crime, poverty, unhappiness, and dysfunction that arose as society was breaking down due to rapid social, demographic, and economic transformations. Although Dickens’ writing predates Durkheim’s theory, what he describes is clearly consistent with anomie.

Anomie and True Believers 5 Paralleling social critics, such as Dickens, other intellectuals, including William Morris (Coote 1995) and the Arts and Crafts Movement (Blakesley 2006), made similar complaints and combined them with social policy recommendations. According to these influential tastemakers and reformers, the problems of the world are caused by the trauma wrought by industrialization and urbanization. The proposed remedies involved reversing these trends. Morris, for example, made a sustained and conscious effort to restructure how people lived, interacted, and worked in a quest to replicate and recapture how life might have been within a supposed Medieval utopia where people interacted in close intimate contact, experienced an unspoiled environment, while engaging in meaningful work instead of mind-numbing repetition in an inhuman factory setting. By dismantling and reversing the harsh and impersonal elements of the Industrial Revolution and replacing urbanization with an attractive and comforting rustic life, Morris envisioned a better world (see, e.g., Morris’ Utopian novel News from Nowhere 1890) where such a future is depicted. In essence, Morris intuitively and naively suggested that the anomie caused by urbanization and industrialization could be reversed by eliminating the normlessness of the modern world by replicating hinterland life. Within this intellectual environment, Emile Durkheim developed his theory of anomie that emphasizes tensions of alienation triggered by rapid and unmitigated social change, including urbanization (see Walle 2020, Chapter 1 for additional details). Durkheim begins his analysis by contrasting alternative ways of life using his “Mechanical” vs. “Organic” dichotomy (Walle 2020; 9–10). Mechanical cultures are rural, traditional, and close-knit. People know each other on a personal level and enjoy a positive and predictable rhythm of life. Most people in such an environment have much in common, understand each other, and interact in intimate ways. Durkheim envisions mechanical life as the province of hinterland people who had not yet been significantly impacted by the modern and industrialized world. In many ways, this lifestyle resembles (or at least parallels) the rustic Utopian ideal of society as imagined and recommended by William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement. Organic cultures, in contrast, are increasingly specialized and complex. Rural life is replaced or tempered by a tendency toward urbanization. Instead of people producing most of what they need and consume, wage labor and specialization emerge as the norm. Because specific subgroups become distinctive and specialized, the unity of the community fades, the intuitive understanding that connects people is weakened, and empathy between individuals and subgroups is reduced. Anomie and normlessness arise. Durkheim was concerned about the negative impacts people face as they make the transition from a mechanical to an organic way of life. He equates the pain, confusion, and alienation that often result with a rise in anomie.

6  Anomie and True Believers According to Durkheim, the path to anomie tends to follow certain steps. First, significant and disruptive social, cultural, and/or economic change occurs. These trends cause people to be confused, alienated, and less able to cope in an adequate and appropriate manner. During this phase, the rules, expectations, and mores of society have a tendency to break down. As the process progresses, people begin to lose the ability to interact with each other in predictable and productive ways. Misunderstanding and confusion arise. The resulting tensions create social ambiguity that is potentially capable of triggering social and psychological dysfunctions. (See Walle 2020, Chapter 1 for more details.) Although Durkheim wrote in the 19th century, many people (even in highly developed countries) continue to respond in such a manner. Thus, Toffler (1970) published Future Shock that argues that industrialized societies (such as the United States) are experiencing profound and rapid social, cultural, technological, and demographic transformations that overwhelm people, rendering them unable to adequately cope with the challenges they encounter. Many of the examples Toffler provides parallel the plight of 19th-century hinterland people that Durkheim describes as they experienced the transition from an intimate mechanical to an impersonal organic way of life. And just as Durkheim focused upon social problems triggered by change, Toffler echoes such observations when he suggests that many social problems are artifacts of future shock (anomie?). Thus, although Durkheim concentrates upon rural people moving from the country to the city, the same sort of responses occurs when people face other changes such as rapid social, cultural, demographic, and/or technological transformations. Although Durkheim’s contributions are significant, he failed to develop an adequate means of identifying various ways in which specific people respond to the conditions that give rise to anomie. This gap was filled by the work of Robert Merton. Merton was a social structuralist who believed that the “culture” or “society” (however defined or delineated) provides a structure for life, action, and thought that is almost universally embraced by its members. When this sort of paradigm is carried too far, unfortunately, it can depict people as little more than puppets who reflect the influences of a dominant and largely static culture. In order for the structuralist model to robustly reflect observed reality, however, the issues of social change and deviance from the cultural norm must be addressed. Merton used a revised and enhanced version of Durkheim’s theory of anomie to do so. Although Merton’s theories are complex and have been reworked by others, most basically, his model states that anomie exists when people cannot (1) achieve socially sanctioned goals in (2) socially acceptable ways. Those experiencing such a “double bind” have several options from which to choose. Since Merton was a structuralist, he believed that most people want to adhere to the established social norms and they are “programed” (socialized) to do so. Merton also believes that most responses (deviant or not) embrace at least a degree of stability and adherence to prevailing or

Anomie and True Believers 7 traditional standards. On many occasions, for example, an individual or group (1) acts in ways that preserve some aspects of their heritage (2) while sacrificing or abandoning others. Merton juxtaposes a range of alternatives using a typology of responses that deals with the degree to which the individual (1) accepts or rejects the goals of society while (2) accepting or rejecting the socially acceptable means of achieving these goals. Specifically, Merton envisions five distinct responses to anomie, including (1) Conformity, (2) Innovation, (3) Ritualization, (4) Retreatism, and (5) Rebellion (Merton 1938). They can be described as follows: Conformity: People continue to embrace the established goals of society and seek to achieve them in the traditional, socially acceptable manner. Conformists respond as they did before the pressures causing anomie exerted a significant influence. Conformity is a conservative response that preserves the traditional relationships between people. It can, however, inhibit the ability to adjust to new conditions. Innovation: People continue to seek the goals of society although they use new or deviant methods to achieve them that might not be socially acceptable. Mainstream sociologists and subfields such as Strain Theory often characterize innovation as illegal, clandestine, and/or antisocial responses, but this is not always true; innovators, for example, might embrace productive, but initially unsanctioned, strategies that ultimately contribute to positive personal and cultural adaptation. Innovation and entrepreneurship, for example, might fall into this category. Ritualization: People follow the norms of society but lose track of the goals to be achieved, resulting in response by rote using tradition as a guide. Unfortunately, costs vs. benefits of doing so are not addressed and the lack of strategic perspectives might generate hurtful results. Retreatism: People reject both the cultural goals and the institutionalized methods for achieving them. Although people reject the status quo, no alternative is embraced. The resulting void can lead to counterproductive behavior, such as substance abuse. While “under the influence”, for example, people might be distracted from their plight but fail to respond in an effective manner. Rebellion: People (1) reject both the goals that society provides and the traditional means of achieving them, while (2) simultaneously embracing substitute goals and methods. Under such circumstances, the break with the structures of society is profound and complex. This, in a nutshell, is the core of Merton’s expansion of Durkheim’s theory of anomie. For additional details, see Walle (2020, Chapter 2). These options are positioned and compared in graphic form 1 in Figure 1.1. These categories are described and compared in Table 1.1. In his adaptation of anomie, therefore, Merton emphasizes that the structural model acknowledges a range of responses from reactionary to

8  Anomie and True Believers

Figure 1.1  Robert K. Merton’s Deviance Typology

Table 1.1  Responses to Anomie Response

Description

Analysis

Conformity

Culture and traditions are preserved. People continue to be influenced by their heritage and the past.

Connection to an idealized past is maintained. Strategic response to change is minimal.

Innovation

Although the goals of society remain intact, people embrace new methods for satisfying their ambitions.

Although the goals of society remain, flexibility emerges regarding how to achieve them.

Ritualization

People follow traditions by rote even though doing so has a minimal ad hoc value.

Strategic responses to new conditions are insignificant.

Retreatism

People withdraw from or abandon the old ways, but new alternatives are not embraced.

People are cut off from their heritage. Dysfunctional responses are likely.

Rebellion

New goals and new codes of behavior are embraced.

Both the traditional goals and the strategies that are used to achieve them are replaced.

DISCUSSION When people confront change and anomie, a variety of responses exist. Some options embrace reactionary tendencies, while others are more attuned to change.

Anomie and True Believers 9 change-oriented. In particular, conformity and ritualization tend to be highly connected to tradition and the past. Those who embrace such priorities are likely to have a strong connection to the status quo and resist and/or be fearful of new ways of thinking and acting. Other reactions, such as innovation and rebellion, in contrast, respond to change in more progressive or change-oriented ways. These alternatives are more prone to reject tradition and confront (or even contradict) more reactionary options. Merton’s adaptation of Durkheim’s concept of anomie (especially his treatment of reactionary responses) lays the groundwork for considering the implications of Eric Hoffer’s true believer model and its ability to deal with how people respond to rapid and uncontrolled changes.

ERIC HOFFER AND TRUE BELIEVERS Eric Hoffer came from a working-class background and performed physical labor (including working as a longshoreman in San Francisco) for many years. Not from a scholarly family, he was self-educated in ways that combined sophisticated thinking with insights gained from “the school of hard knocks”. Hoffer is best remembered for his analysis of a type of person that he dubs the “true believer” who embraces dogmatic views without question. Feelings of individual powerlessness and hopelessness are often a catalyst for such thinking. Such individuals, the conditions they face, and the reactions they exhibit are analyzed in Hoffer’s The True Believer (1951) where he explores the environmental, social, and psychological influences upon mass movements and the followers who embrace them. Hoffer, specifically, depicts true believers as fanatics who strongly identify with the cause they embrace and adhere to it without question (1951; 10). Having introduced true believers and the causes they support, Hoffer explores why certain people are attracted to such movements. Although specific beliefs and experiences exert an influence, he emphasizes that broader psychological forces are also at work. In this regard, Hoffer observes that from a structural perspective, a wide range of mass movements exhibit significant similarities even when they champion different (and even opposite) goals. Thus, the devotees of various causes often display psychological similarities even when their motives, goals, and/or core beliefs are very different. Mass Movements Hoffer states that mass movements begin with a widespread desire for change held by people who sense that they have (1) lost the ability to control their destiny and (2) lack faith in the status quo to rectify the situation. Convinced that their situation is dire and getting worse, these people conclude that the current state of affairs cannot be equitably reformed using conventional remedies, and that more drastic measures are required. Thus, circumstances

10  Anomie and True Believers channel potential true believers to participate in movements, surrender their personal feelings, and embrace the will of the group and its leaders. Although Hoffer recognizes that skilled and attractive leaders are vital, he emphasizes that such people do not rise out of a vacuum and that the tensions and demands they advocate already exist (even if in an elementary and unstructured ways). Thus, charismatic advocates play a significant role, but the tensions, concerns, and demands precede them. True Believers According to Hoffer, those who have recently fallen upon hard times for reasons seemingly beyond their control are prime candidates to evolve into true believers. Recalling supposedly (or actually) better times, such disenfranchised people view their situation with resentment and are likely to blame others for the unfortunate circumstances they face. A classic (and perhaps overused) example of this possibility is the rise of Nazi Germany that resulted in a mass of true believers taking control of the country after suffering defeat in World War I. For a classic account of these events and the catalysts triggering them, see Erich Fromm Escape from Freedom (1941). Hoffer contrasts such newly disenfranchised individuals with those who are from groups that have long suffered and, lacking a memory of better times, are more likely to accept their plight without question or opposition. In addition, those in the throes of desperate poverty or hopelessness tend to focus on dayto-day survival to such a degree that broader concerns are ignored (1951; 26–7). Responses Individual goals or opinions are unimportant for mass movements; true believers must adjust accordingly. Devotees tend to respond in a manner that today is often referred to as “Tribal” in nature (62). Important aspects of the true believer’s life increasingly reflect and reinforce the cause, the mores of the group, and the pronouncements of the revered leaders. Hoffer goes so far as to equate these actions with the “primitive state of being” (1951; 63): an overt reference to tribalism. A key tactic used by the leaders who deal with true believers is a constant barrage of spectacles, events, and so forth that rivet attention toward the “tribe”, the challenges it faces, and the goals being advanced. Activities (such as parades, provocative gesturing, and various stunts) continually saturate the minds of the true believers with calls to action and encouragements for solidarity. Invariably, the stated goal emphasized by such promotional activities involves the transition to a better state of affairs. The current situation tends to be depicted as intolerable although the past is typically portrayed as glorious and/or a bright future is predicted if the cause achieves its goals. Failure, in contrast, is predicted to have horrific consequences. Although this brief abstracting does not do full justice to Hoffer’s model, it does provide a useful taste. It can be portrayed in Table 1.2.

Anomie and True Believers 11 Table 1.2  The Hoffer Model Issue

Discussion

Mass Movements

A widespread desire for change exists. Leaders and devotees conclude that conditions are bad and getting worse. A supposedly viable remedy is suggested.

True Believers

Economic reversals, social tensions, or other unwanted conditions are experienced. People remember or are aware of supposedly better times preceding the current situation. Devotees seek a positive alternative suggested by a leader.

Responses

True believers embrace their movement and, in the process, surrender their individuality. Leaders aggressively promote the cause. Devotees anticipate a bright future if the cause achieves its goals and a horrific future if it fails.

DISCUSSION The Hoffer model combines attention toward specific events that trigger mass movements with more general perspectives from social psychology that explore more universal human responses. Thus, true believers are both the product of specific events and more universal tendencies of social psychology and human nature.

In conclusion, Hoffer deals with social movements triggered by some sort of stress typically associated with traumatic change. Specifically, he deals with true believers who respond to these circumstances in a number of rigid and dogmatic ways. These reactions reflect the convergence of specific events with psychological tendencies.

ANOMIE AND TRUE BELIEVERS Anomie, as discussed above, deals with the conditions of change and disruption that cause people to become alienated and disoriented. These feelings are capable of triggering a variety of responses, some productive others counterproductive. In many ways, the conditions leading to anomie can be usefully discussed with reference to what Eric Hoffer describes as triggers that encourage the emergence of true believers. By combining or merging the concepts of anomie and true believers, a useful model for understanding contemporary political and social unrest in Europe and the United States can be developed. One way to do so involves analyzing the five responses to anomie presented by Merton with reference to the concept of true believers and how they can be predicted to respond to it. By doing so, a more robust understanding of these mass movements and those involved with them can be developed. Conformity: Some people continue to embrace the conventional and traditional ways of thinking and action in thoughtful and strategic ways in spite of change, alienation, and anomie. Doing so is consistent with a conformist response to anomie. True believers who respond in such

12  Anomie and True Believers a manner can be expected to be reactionary, although they will tend to be deliberate and somewhat thoughtful, in their orientations, choices, and actions. Such people can be expected to feel threatened by change and the social and psychological disruption it causes. Uncomfortable with the transformations in their lives, conformists are likely to embrace the traditions of the past and, as a result, be attracted to causes and options that seemingly reflect their heritage. Innovation: Innovators continue to embrace the goals or traditions of the social group but they are willing to adopt new methods or techniques in order to adjust to emerging circumstances. As a result, these people are not as dogmatic as conformists. Innovators, furthermore, possess a greater degree of flexibility when dealing with the tensions caused by a rapid change. Ritualization: Ritualists are similar to conformists in their beliefs and in the degree to which they revere their heritage and/or idealize the past. Ritualists, however, are distinctive because they tend to choose a course of action by rote and do so with little strategic thought or action. Thus, ritualists embrace reactionary choices primarily as an end in itself. As a result, these people are less likely to be transformed into true believers because they fail to believe that their actions can exert a positive influence and, as a result, they tend to be passive. A gray area exists between conformists and ritualists, and due to the circumstances faced, members of one group may blend with or be transformed into the other. Leaders of mass movements need to be aware of this group of stakeholders and seek out others who have a greater propensity to emerge as true believers. Retreatism: In terms of beliefs and priorities, retreatists (unlike innovators and ritualists) have lost a connection to their heritage. They, however, have not yet embraced a new alternative. Such individuals have a potential to evolve into true believers because their values, structures, and beliefs are in limbo and no replacement has yet emerged. This emotional void can provide a vital opportunity for leaders of mass movements to transform these people into true believers. Rebellion: Rebels have already rejected their heritage and traditions as well as having chosen or embraced new options for achieving these new goals. In some cases, rebels might be true believers who have already embraced a new cause. If so, they have already embraced a rival movement. When working with such people, a two-fold process is necessary: (1) countering existing beliefs while (2) grooming these people to embrace a new cause. These groups are compared in Table 1.3. The concept of anomie deals with the impacts of change and alienation upon people. Under such conditions, a variety of responses is possible; Robert Merton provides one way of conceptualizing these options. Eric Hoffer’s concept of the true believer can be usefully envisioned from within the context of anomie and the ways in which people can respond to it as portrayed by Merton.

Anomie and True Believers 13 Table 1.3  Anomie and True Believers Response

Description

Analysis

Conformity

People are motivated and influenced by traditional thought and action.

A Bastian for true believers who idealize the past and reject the present and/or future.

Innovation

New means of achieving established goals are embraced.

Viable options for creating a positive future are envisioned.

Ritualization

Conventional actions and beliefs are pursued in a rote and counterproductive manner.

Suffering reversals and disappointments, people are primed to become true believers.

Retreatism

People abandon their heritage but new alternatives are not embraced.

Demoralized and passive, people are less likely to become active true believers.

Rebellion

New goals and methods of achievement are embraced.

Might be recently recruited true believers. Might embrace potentially competing views making recruitment difficult.

DISCUSSION By combining the concepts of anomie and the true believer, a useful perspective regarding how and why people respond to mass movements emerges.

CONCLUDING STATEMENT By combining the concepts of anomie and the true believer, a model for dealing with the impacts of change and stress emerges. To more fully document the potentials of such pressures and the events they trigger, the next chapter focuses upon a number of historical case studies that depict true believers who experienced anomie and asserted themselves as true believers. Although the results of such efforts are often negative, a potential for positive responses exists. In any event, responses to anomie often lead to the emergence of true believers. After this historic examination, Chapter 3 examines Renaud Camus’ Great Replacement Theory that argues that the white populations and cultures of Europe and North America are in a process of being replaced by people of color and/or of Islamic descent. Those who hold such views are depicted as contemporary stakeholders who can be examined and interpreted using the anomie/true believer model. This initial cluster of chapters provides the foundation for this monograph.

RELEVANT TERMS Anomie  Feelings of displacement alienation, etc., typically caused by rapid and unmitigated change. Arts and Crafts Movement  A 19th-century social movement dedicated to enhancing life by providing an alternative to the Industrial Revolution.

14  Anomie and True Believers Conformity  According to Robert Merton, a response to anomie that involves maintaining existing traditions. Dickens, Charles  Critic of urbanization and the Industrial Revolution. Noted 19th-century English novelist. Durkheim, Emile  French sociologist who developed the concept of anomie. Escape From Freedom  Book by Erich Fromm that deals with the rise of Nazi Germany. Fromm, Erich  Social psychologist who wrote Escape from Freedom. Future Shock  Book by Alvin Toffler that deals with the disorientation caused by change. Hoffer, Eric  Author of The True Believer who analyzed mass movements and those impacted by them. Innovation  According to Robert Merton, a response to anomie that involves maintaining the goals of society by accepting new methods for achieving them. Mass Movements  Impersonal popular uprisings discussed by Eric Hoffer. Mechanical Culture  According to Emil Durkheim, a rural and intimate culture not yet significantly transformed by urbanization and the modern world. Merton, Robert  Sociologist who enhanced Durkheim’s model of anomie by describing a variety of responses people can make when subjected to it. Morris, William  Leader of the Arts and Crafts Movement who advocated alternatives to the Industrial Revolution in 19th-century Britain. News From Nowhere  Utopian Novel by William Morris that advocates a rustic way of life reflective of Medieval times. Oliver Twist  Novel by Charles Dickens that exposes the social problems caused by urbanization in 19th-century Britain. Organic Culture  According to Emil Durkheim, a complex urban culture that tends to alienate rural and hinterland folk. Rebellion  According to Robert Merton, a response to anomie that involves rejecting tradition as well as embracing an alternative to it. Retreatism  According to Robert Merton, a response to anomie that involves rejecting tradition while not embracing an alternative to it. Ritualization  According to Robert Merton, a response to anomie that involves embracing traditions by rote without a strategic orientation. Toffler, Alvin  Author of Future Shock True Believer  Book by Eric Hoffer on mass movements: according to Eric Hoffer, a person who embraces mass movements without question.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Explain the concept of anomie as developed by Emile Durkheim. Analyze with reference to William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement. Compare and contrast mechanical and organic cultures. Why is this dichotomy important?

Anomie and True Believers 15 2. How and why did Robert Merton expand the theory of anomie? How does his work provide a greater understanding of how people respond to rapid and unmitigated change? Merton was a structuralist; how does this impact his work? Merton discusses five categories of response to anomie and discusses why this expansion of the theory of anomie is important. 3. What is the concept of the true believer as discussed by Eric Hoffer? How are true believers distinctive and why are these characteristics important both theoretically and from a practitioner or public policy perspective? What alternatives to responding as a true believer exist? Do you believe that true believers are an important and influential segment of society? Why or why not? 4. What was the goal of merging the concepts of anomie and the true believer? Do you believe that doing so provides a useful lens for dealing with rapid and unmitigated social change coupled with social psychological responses? How does this hybrid model facilitate analyzing a wider range of responses on their own terms? 5. Do you believe that understanding how people are impacted by anomie is useful when exploring the current tensions within contemporary society? Why or why not? Can social policies benefit from examining the relationship between unmitigated change and stress? Discuss.

REFERENCES Blakesley, Rosalind P. (2006). The Arts and Crafts Movement. (New York: Phaidon). Coote, Stephen (1995). William Morris: His Life and Work. (New York: Smithmark). Dickens, Charles (1837–1838). Oliver Twist; or, The Parish Boy’s Progress (originally published in serial form). (London: Bentley’s Miscellany). Durkheim, Emile (1951). Suicide: A Study in Sociology (originally 1897). Translated by John A. Spaulding and George Simpson, Edited with an introduction by George Simpson. (New York: The Free Press). Durkheim, Emile (1997). The Division of Labour in Society, (originally 1893). Translated by W. D. Halls, intro. Lewis A. Coser. (New York: Free Press), 39, 60, 108. Fromm, Erich (1941). Escape from Freedom. (New York: Farrar & Rinehart). Hoffer, Eric (1951). The True Believer: Thoughts on The Nature of Mass Movements. (New York: Harper and Row). Merton, Robert (1938) “Social Structure and Anomie” American Sociological Review 3(5), 672–82 Morris, William (1890). New from Nowhere. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966). Toffler, Alvin (1970). Future Shock. (New York: Random House). Walle, Alf H. (2020). Economic Development and Mental Illness: Anticipating and Mitigating Destructive Change. (New York: Routledge).

2

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Envisioning the anomie/true believer model as a paradigm for interpreting historic events involving disruptive change. 2. Using the approach to examine historic examples of dysfunctional responses to anomie by true believers. 3. Understanding that under some circumstances, true believers respond to anomie in positive ways. 4. Perceiving how this model has a significant explanatory value regarding mass movements. 5. Recognizing the strategic and policy making implications of the approach.

INTRODUCTION In Chapter 1, a model was developed that portrayed how the social and psychological disruption triggered by anomie can exert powerful effects upon individuals and social groups. That method, built upon Emile Durkheim’s concept of anomie, emphasizes the impacts of unmitigated change and how they can lead to alienation and social confusion. Building upon the legacy of Emile Durkheim, American sociologist Robert Merton expanded the theory of anomie by developing a five-component typology that depicts various ways in which people can respond to such pressures. Going beyond the Merton formulation, a more robust model emerges by combining the perception of anomie with Eric Hoffer’s conceptualization of the true believer. By doing so, (1) the effects of anomie upon certain types of people are considered (2) with reference to a variety of social problems and responses that are capable of influencing individuals and society. In this chapter, historic events involving true believers experiencing anomie demonstrate the value of simultaneously considering the ramifications of significant change, social disruption, and their consequences. The Ghost Dance, for example, was a movement of 19th-century North America that DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-3

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses 17 coincided with the utter defeat of the plains Indians. Facing desperate conditions, many Native Americans embraced irrational and counterproductive strategies that the cult leader promised would undo the tremendous losses experienced by these people and the catastrophic reversals that had recently been suffered. The Ghost Dance phenomena are not unique. In late 19th-century China, for example, the followers of the Boxer Rebellion harbored fantastic beliefs that closely parallel those held by the disenfranchised followers of the Ghost Dance. These similarities exist even though there was no contact or cultural diffusion between the two groups. Revealingly, both the Ghost Dancers and the Boxers were true believers who, suffering from anomie, participated in ill-fated uprisings. Although the impact of anomie upon true believers is often unfortunate and counterproductive, this is not universally true. Positive and productive responses are also possible. An example of this potential is the career and influence of Handsome Lake, an American Indian prophet of Iroquois descent who responded to hurtful change and anomie with responses that had a positive impact upon the true believers he inspired. In Handsome Lake’s case, in contrast to the Ghost Dancers and the Boxers, the mass movement he launched exerted a positive influence that helped the defeated Iroquois reverse their decline in ways that contributed to a positive revitalization of the culture and society. By looking at these historic examples using the anomie/true believers model, the value of this approach is demonstrated.

THE GHOST DANCE As is widely known, the last half of the 19th century traumatically impacted many American Indian societies, especially those living in the Great Plains. During that pivotal era, railroads crisscrossed the land, bringing a horde of white settlers who were determined to start anew and, in the process, transform uncharted territory into “civilized” towns and farms. Vast, communally owned lands that had long been the province of nomadic people were homesteaded by outsiders who brought their laws, sedentary ways of life, and traditions of private property with them. In the process, the buffalo herds were decimated and this irreplaceable asset of the plains Indians was no more. The Indians found themselves boxed in and denied the essentials of their traditional economic and social life. To free up land for the newcomers, the United States government made an increasingly determined effort to reduce the amount of territory controlled by the indigenous peoples. Conflicts arose when the Native people were deprived of more than they were willing to give. The Indian Wars flamed up and dragged on year after year with the odds of an indigenous victory continually shrinking as emerging demographic trends worked against them. In

18  Dysfunctional and Functional Responses defeat, the survivors were herded into reservations, denied their way of life, and deprived of their traditional methods of earning a living. It was a time of great alienation, confusion, and sorrow. Without question, these events provide a classic example of extreme and disabling anomie. People, who a few years earlier had enjoyed an unfettered way of life and the freedom to roam at will, were denied their heritage, forbidden to travel as they wished, and saw their ranks decimated by war and disease. The defeat, suffering, and humiliation were unprecedented, rapid, and undercut the essentials of life. Bombarded by such events and the anomie triggered by them, many of these people responded in bizarre ways. One such examples is the Ghost Dance (Kehoe 1989; Mooney 1896), an influential religious movement among various Native American groups during the late 19th century. The most prominent leader of this cult was a visionary named Wovoka who intertwined aspects of local traditions with a new religion. Wovoka is typical of leaders who inspire true believers; although charismatic and powerful, he gained his clout because of the pressures of anomie facing his people and the desperation that resulted from it. Some of Wovoka’s recommendations involved living in an increasingly moral, harmonious, and productive manner. These contributions are positive aspects of the movement. Other predictions and recommendations advanced by the Ghost Dance movement, unfortunately, were counterproductive and hurtful. Wovoka, for example, taught that if a certain dance was properly performed, the dead ancestors would come back to life, herds of buffalo would return, the white intruders would go away, and the old way of life would be restored. None of these predictions, of course, reflected reality. Acting according to such inaccurate predictions, furthermore, proved to be tragically counterproductive. The true believers who embraced the cult, furthermore, were convinced that Wovoka could perform miracles; as a result, he asked his followers to abandon rational thought and believe in supernatural marvels. Those who embraced Wovoka and his teachings emerged as long-suffering true believers who accepted at face value whatever their leader said and recommended. According to the Merton typology of anomie, these people tended to act in ways that reflect Conformity and/or Ritualization. In doing so, they failed to adjust to prevailing conditions and followed a path that led to further dysfunction and loss. Although Wovoka introduced some worthwhile reforms, his basic message emphasized an overly nostalgic embrace of the past that promised the return of bygone era with little reference to current realities. In some ways, doing so parallels the Conformist response to anomie that involves adhering to and maintaining the existing traditions of society. Conformists, however, tend to do so with reference to strategies that have a chance of being productive and effective. The Ghost Dance cult, in contrast, did not provide a reasonable expectation of positive results. As a result, an evaluation based on the Conformity model is probably not the best way to evaluate such actions.

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses 19 In Ritualism, in contrast, the essence of the culture and the society is preserved and revered in a relatively mindless manner that is not based on rational analysis or response. Thus, adhering to the past emerges as an end in itself, not as a strategy that promises a reasonable expectation of success. The Ghost Dancers, for example, held the irrational belief that their actions would be magically successful; such thinking was based on fantasy, not logic. As a result, the Ghost Dancers appear as true believers responding to adversity in ways that reflect the Ritualistic response to anomie. This is true even though ritualists often fail to respond in strategic ways. The Ghost Dance movement became increasingly counterproductive and dangerous when some of these true believers became convinced that if they wore special “ghost shirts” they could not be killed by the guns of the white man. Based on this belief, the true believers reasoned that victory was magically assured if they acted properly, gained supernatural protection earned by doing so, and took back what was rightfully theirs. Ultimately, true believers, convinced of their invincibility, helped trigger the Wounded Knee incident of 1890, the last major massacre of the Indian Wars. Thus, the Ghost Dance can be viewed as an example of anomie and true believer-ship that set the stage for tragic outcomes. The cult encouraged people to embrace the past, ignore reality, and act in counterproductive ways that sometimes blurred into suicide. Under such conditions, the actual circumstances faced were not addressed in any meaningful manner, causing the situation to deteriorate even further. Revealingly, some American Indian societies were not significantly influenced by the Ghost Dance. Thus, Kehoe (1989) maintains that the cult had a little impact upon the Navajo because, among other differences, they did not face as much stress and alienation as the plains Indians. As a result, a powerful cadre of true believers never emerged among this people. In the case of the Navajo, therefore, the required critical mass required for true believers to emerge was not reached.

THE BOXER REBELLION The Boxer Rebellion occurred around the turn of the 20th century in Northern China during an era when the interventions of Japan and the European empires were causing profound disruptions in China as outsiders gouged economic concessions and demanded destabilizing privileges. For thousands of years, China had been a powerful civilization. Because of technological breakthroughs, military advances, and the economic strategies of the West, however, by the late 19th-century China was no longer able to protect itself. As a result, the excesses of the Western empires caused the Qing Dynasty to become increasingly weakened and vulnerable. This unfortunate state of affairs was an extension of the defeats endured during the First (1839–1842) and the Second

20  Dysfunctional and Functional Responses Opium War (1856–1860) that resulted in the Western empires carving out specific “spheres of influence” for themselves with little regard to the needs and wants of China and its people. During this period, the Boxers (originally enemies of the ruling Qing Dynasty) supported the Chinese rulers as preferable to the outside intruders. The cult was located in Shandong Province and officially known as the “Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists”. Because its members performed martial arts exhibitions for training purposes, religious rituals, and as a recruitment stunt, Westerners called them “the Boxers”. Devotees of the movement were concerned because life in China was getting worse and the opportunities available to the local people had diminished. The Boxers opposed both foreigners who conducted business in China and the Christian missionaries who, the Boxers concluded, were undercutting the Chinese way of life. Alarmed by economic exploitation, the arrival of Christian missionaries, and alienating change, the Boxers sought to reverse these trends. The mistreatment of China by outsiders and the increasingly dire conditions the country faced prompted the Boxers to rebel (Esherick 1988; Preston 2001). Adherents of the cult believed that eliminating the oppressors was possible because if members completed a ritualistic form of “shadow boxing” and performed other rites they would become invincible and could not be killed. Emboldened by such beliefs, the Boxers rose up and after initial successes, many were killed because, of course, they were not immune to bullets. Like the Ghost Dance, the Boxer Rebellion is generally viewed as a failed effort by desperate people who sought to restore a way of life that had been undermined by change and foreign intervention. In short, the Boxers were experiencing anomie, alienation, sorrow, and confusion born of rapid change and losses that had been triggered by outside intervention. The Boxers felt a responsibility to support their country and their heritage by opposing the conditions and the foreigners who were generating these hurtful changes. Paralleling the true believers who participated in the Ghost Dance, the Boxers harbored an irrational belief that divine or supernatural intervention was destined to insure victory over the hated and dreaded interlopers. The Boxers also believed that if enough of their fellows fell into a trance, powerful spirits, loyal to China, would reawaken. If so, these immortals could be recruited into a supernatural army of phantom warriors who would insure success against the foreign devils. According to the beliefs of the Boxers, ritualized exercises, magical incantations, the swallowing of sacred charms, and so forth would make the movement’s true believers invulnerable to their enemies and immune to the weapons of their opponents. Such a belief closely parallels a key piece of dogma embraced by the Ghost Dancers. Interpreted with reference to the anomie/true believer model, the influx of outsiders invading China during the late 19th century triggered profound,

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses 21 alienating, and confusing transformations. A significant increase in anomie during this period encouraged the growth of the Boxers. As with the Ghost Dancers, the Boxers abandoned rational judgment in favor of blind faith in beliefs that were incredible and implausible. In both cases, true believers facing monumental challenges relied upon unproven, magical, and supernatural interventions that promised success and salvation. These parallels can be depicted in Table 2.1. This comparison is important because since China and the Great Plains of North American are thousands of miles apart, the similarities between the Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion did not result from contact and cultural diffusion. Alternative explanations must be considered. The most compelling explanation points to the fact that not only are the end behaviors similar, the conditions preceding them are equally parallel. In both cases, rapid, unwanted, and disruptive social changes created anomie, alienation, and social confusion. In both cases, furthermore, the people were unprepared for these events and suffered as a result. Subjected to these similar pressures, the responses are comparable. Similar pressures primed people to react in almost identical ways. These two examples and the parallels between them provide a taste of a wide array of phenomena known as Millennial Movements that are often Table 2.1  The Boxer Rebellion and the Ghost Dance Compared Issue

Boxer Rebellion

Ghost Dance

Anomie

Due to the intrusions of the colonial empires, China suffered from rapid and hurtful changes, resulting in anomie.

Due to white settlers in the American West, the indigenous people experienced rapid and unmitigated changes resulting in anomie.

True Believers

The Boxers were a group of alienated people who sought to reverse the course of rapid change in China.

Ghost Dancers sought to recapture life at it had been before the mass influx of outsiders and the loss of their way of life

Responses

Boxers believed that magical and supernatural forces would help them drive the foreign empires and missionaries out of China and restore the good life.

Ghost Dancers believed that magical and supernatural forces would return the herds of buffalo, drive out the white invaders, restore the previous way of life, etc.

DISCUSSION Not only are the Boxers and the Ghost Dancers similar, they reacted to pressures and conditions that are closely parallel. Both groups experienced anomie. Both groups faced similar challenges. Both groups saw a leadership arise that offered answers and solutions that were accepted by desperate true believers.

22  Dysfunctional and Functional Responses associated with social uprisings, including the so-called Cargo Cults in which indigenous people attempted to magically attract ships and planes in order to receive their cargos (see Worsley 1957). Such movements typically insist that the current state of affairs is unacceptable, must change, and that a profound transformation is inevitable to usher in beneficial change (see Worsley 1957). Desroche (1969; 31–2)  observes that millenarian movements typically exhibit three distinct phases. (1) Initially, the leaders of the movement find that powerful forces are opposing them, (2) followed by an uprising that supports the oppressed leaders, (3) with the tensions being resolved when the movement supposedly succeeds. A coming utopian age is often anticipated. The Ghost Dance, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Cargo Cults examples emphasize that a strong potential exists for people to make counterproductive and dangerous decisions when they are subjected to hurtful and unprecedented disruptions that undercut their culture, heritage, and traditional way of life. In reality, however, it is also possible for causes or movements, fueled by true believers, to generate positive, long-lasting effects. To explore the full potentials of such movements, beneficial potentials need to be recognized. One beneficial and productive movement involves Handsome Lake, an American Indian prophet of Iroquois descent, who began a mass movement (including a new religion) that has well served his people for over 200 years.

HANDSOME LAKE AND TRUE BELIEVERS The Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion represent negative reactions to anomie by true believers. Handsome Lake and his movement, in contrast, are positive alternatives. A prophet and leader of his people, Handsome Lake lived in upstate New York near what is now Buffalo in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He is the founder of the Longhouse religion that is based upon the heritage of the Iroquois merged with other cultural and spiritual elements, including some from Christianity. Today, the religion survives; some Iroquois embrace the faith, while others follow other beliefs. In its early years, however, the movement had a wide influence that impacted a broad range of tribal members. (See Walle 2004 for more details.) The Iroquois of New York State (United States) and the Province of Ontario (Canada) were long a powerful force. During the 18th century, for example, the Iroquois Nation gained wealth and power by allying themselves with the British. A period of decline set in, however, after most Iroquois sided with the British during the American Revolution (1776– 1883). Realizing that the British valued the region merely for trading purposes while victorious colonial settlers and farmers would probably seek

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses 23 to acquire Iroquois land, most Iroquois opposed the rebellion. Their decision was costly: [During the war, the Iroquois homeland] was devastated by the John Sullivan [United States military commander] expedition in 1778, which in a three-pronged offensive managed to burn the houses and the crops in almost every major Iroquois town … By the end of the war, despite their military successes, the Iroquois population had been cut approximately in half. (Wallace 1969) After the American Revolution was successful, the Iroquois found themselves defeated in war, decimated by disease, stripped of much of their land, and besieged by more efficient economic rivals. Experiencing rapid, destabilizing, and unmitigated changes, dysfunctional behavior (including alcoholism and antisocial behavior) became commonplace. Anthony F. C. Wallace (anthropologist and Iroquois specialist) points to the widespread dysfunction that arose among the Iroquois, including violence, uncontrolled weeping and pining, fear of peers (as evidenced by accusations of witchcraft), social disunity, and widespread alcoholism. Clinical depression was commonplace; Wallace observes that when people were sober, they were likely to be suicidal (1969; 196–201). With the culture and its people in total disarray, the Iroquois, as a viable culture, appeared to be headed toward extinction. This situation is a classic example of full-blown anomie. Rapid change with hurtful ramifications had caught the people by surprise. These changes were both traumatic and unmitigated. The Iroquois people lacked the tools and the perspectives needed to respond in a productive manner. Their typical response to this anomie appears to be been Retreatism during which people abandon their heritage, but no alternative is embraced. Mirroring these conditions and the counterproductive responses of most Iroquois during those times, Handsome Lake, a once respected indigenous leader, had fallen into hopeless alcoholism. People assumed his productive life was over. In 1799, “Handsome Lake collapsed [and] appeared to have died, but actually he was in a trance state and was experiencing the first of a series of visions in which messengers of the Creator instructed him in his own and his people’s religious obligations” (Wallace 1969; 445). After recuperating, Handsome Lake dedicated himself to sobriety and the restoration of Iroquois culture and society. During the latter period of his life, he became a prophet and founder of the Longhouse religion. Although Handsome Lake encouraged his people to embrace their heritage as Iroquois, he also advocated adjusting the culture to meet the demands of a new reality. In those days, elements of traditional Iroquois culture prevented a productive adaptation to new conditions. Iroquois men, for example, viewed farming as an unmanly and shameful profession that

24  Dysfunctional and Functional Responses was only fit for women. When white settlers migrated into Iroquois territory, however, Western methods of farming (that included men performing their share of the work) proved to be more efficient and productive. The success of these outsiders further undercut the Iroquois economy. Under these circumstances, Handsome Lake encouraged Iroquois men to take up farming and he urged them to perceive agriculture as a legitimate profession, not a source of disgrace, shame, or embarrassment. To demonstrate this change, Handsome Lake had his brother, a well-respected Iroquois, adopt the name “Cornplanter”. Doing so promoted agriculture as a manly profession in a way that helped the Iroquois rebound economically. This adjustment of Iroquois life to prevailing circumstances is an example of what Robert Merton describes as an Innovative response to anomie in which the goals of society remain intact although people embrace new methods for achieving them. By restructuring traditional sex roles and adapting them to an emerging economic reality, the Iroquois were better able to adjust to the unavoidable transformations they faced and do so in a proactive manner. Handsome Lake, furthermore, sought to reduce the disruptive and dysfunctional responses that had infected his people. Drinking alcoholic beverages, in particular, was banned, along with promiscuous sexual behavior, the practice of witchcraft, and other troublesome habits that were undercutting Iroquois society and weakening its people. Handsome Lake’s teachings were well received and they positively influenced a wide range of Iroquois. Following the dictates of their prophet, the people reformulated their priorities and their lives in significant and far-reaching ways. Similar to the followers of the Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion, those who followed Handsome Lake responded in ways that resemble the actions and choices of true believers. The difference is that the advice and demands of Handsome Lake were positive, productive, and led to a stabilization of the culture and an appropriate restructuring of Iroquois life. From the perspective of anomie, the actions of Handsome Lake indicate that he intuitively understood that many Iroquois were responding to hurtful change in ways that resemble Retreatism; the people had abandoned the old ways but had not replaced them with positive alternatives. Largely through Handsome Lake’s example and message, the Iroquois reversed their downward spiral of decline and re-emerged as a vital and viable culture that continues as a positive force to this day. The Iroquois did so by replacing Retreatism with Innovation. When this happened, relevant and distinctive traditions of society were retained coupled with increased and appropriate flexibility regarding how to achieve their goals. A movement of true believers emerged that helped reformulate Iroquois culture in productive and functional ways. In part because of Handsome Lake’s example, intervention, and the cultural transitions he encouraged, Iroquois culture survives. This example emphasizes that although some responses to anomie by true believers are hurtful, positive responses are also possible.

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses 25

A RANGE OF OPTIONS Thus, anomie and the responses of true believers can take multiple paths, and exert a range of effects on a continuum ranging from dysfunctional to functional. On some occasions, these responses are hurtful and counterproductive. In other situations, positive results might emerge. As discussed above, Desroche (1969) argues (paraphrased and adjusted here) that the types of movements described in this chapter tend to contain or exhibit three distinct phases (1) powerful opposing forces are confronted, (2) support emerges, and (3) the tensions are resolved in ways that might have beneficial or hurtful consequences. These phases will be discussed. Opposition: In the early phases of a new movement, an aspiring leader recognizes that powerful forces are opposing the will of the people and/or reducing their options. The emerging leader tends to respond to the resulting changes and the anomie it generates. Thus, the Ghost Dancers found that the Westward expansion of the United States destroyed their way of life, the Boxers saw that China was being transformed by opportunistic outsiders, while the Iroquois experienced both political and economic declines as their situation deteriorated. The emerging leaders of all three movements sought to address such issues. Support: When aspiring leaders were successful in inspiring and recruiting followers, support for their movement grew. As the number of followers becomes significant, a force with significant power and influence arose. The resulting cadre tended to closely adhere to the leader and support the dogma of the movement. Such devotees typically responded as true believers who embraced their movement without question. This acceptance and support can be seen in the Ghost Dance, the Boxer Rebellion, and the career/influence of Handsome Lake. Resolution: Being tested within the context of social, political, and economic life, the cause and its messages, strategies, and predictions are evaluated with reference to their results and effectiveness. The unrealistic and disastrous predictions of the Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion resulted in these movements losing credibility and support. Although “die hard” supporters might have remained as true believers, recruiting new members became increasingly difficult. Because Handsome Lake helped the Iroquois transcend the Retreatism that beset the culture, his movement continues to exert a positive influence. Some general aspects of Handsome Lake’s message appear to have become embraced within Iroquois culture in general. More specific aspects of his teachings continue to be embraced by those who continue to follow the Longhouse religion. Thus, people can respond to movements that reflect the anomie/true believer model in ways that are either positive or negative. Such variations are portrayed in Table 2.2. People respond to anomie as true believers in a variety of ways. Some are counterproductive and hurtful, while others are positive and make significant contributions.

26  Dysfunctional and Functional Responses Table 2.2  Negative and Positive Adjustments Issue

Negative

Positive

Opposition

Hurtful pressures result in aspiring leaders advocating strategies or adjustments that do not adequately cope with challenges.

Aspiring leaders who are subjected to hurtful pressures develop or encourage fruitful means of responding.

Uprising

Followers who embrace counterproductive visions fail to act or think in a strategically viable manner.

Devotees embrace the recommendations and predictions of the leader in a manner that leads to positive adjustments.

Resolution

Hurtful outcomes become obvious. The movement weakens, members leave, and recruitment becomes difficult.

Positive and productive responses are recognized. As a result, they exert a lasting influence upon people and the culture.

DISCUSSION Although many movements involve true believers responding to anomie, some are hurtful, while others exert a positive influence. The Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion are negative examples. Handsome Lake provides a positive and productive example.

IMPLICATIONS The anomie/true believer model provides a method for analyzing how people respond to rapid, unmitigated, and transformational changes. By examining a sample of historic examples, their differences and similarities were compared. In all three cases, the people were bombarded with massive and disruptive changes involving individuals, society, and economic life. Because these transformations exerted negative effects, anomie arose resulting in stress and alienation. In all these examples, a common response involved a significant segment of the population acting in ways that are consistent with true believers. When doing so, devotees came to fully embrace the leaders and their movements and do so without question. Such responses occurred even in situations where people were encouraged to accept dubious assertions, such as the claim that devotees were immune to bullets and could not be killed. In some of these cases (the Ghost Dance and the Boxer Rebellion), the results of anomie and true belief were hurtful and negative. In other cases (such as the example of Handsome Lake and his movement), the outcomes were constructive and positive. Although they are unique and, perhaps, dated in some ways, such historic accounts can provide useful clues regarding the contemporary scene and the future. By being aware of such possibilities, a foundation for examining other examples of anomie and true believer-ship emerges.

Dysfunctional and Functional Responses 27 One such belief system, Renaud Camus’ Great Replacement Theory, has spawned a major mass movement in Europe and exerted a significant influence upon the United States). In Chapter 3, this provocative paradigm and its implications are discussed with reference to the anomie/true believe theory.

RELEVANT TERMS Boxers  A group of true believers in China at the turn of the 20th century. Officially known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists. Boxer Rebellion  An uprising in China by a mass movement known as the Boxers who believed that they could magically drive the colonial empires out of China. Cargo Cult  The belief by some indigenous people that they can lure ships and planes to bring them valuable cargos. Deroche, Henri  Developed a model of Millenarianism Movements. Ghost Dance  A true believer movement among the American Indians that predicted the old way of life would magically return. Handsome Lake  An Iroquois prophet of the late 18th/early 19th centuries. Founder of the Longhouse Religion. Indian Wars  A long series of wars fought after the American Civil War west of the Mississippi. Longhouse Religion  A religion established by Iroquois prophet Handsome Lake. The religion survives to this day. Millenarianism  Movement that asserts that much is wrong with the world, but these problems can be remedied, typically in a magical manner. Opium Wars  Wars of the Western empires against China in the middle of the 19th century that forced China to make economic concessions. Phase of Opposition  A component of a revised Deroche model that deals with leaders (or aspiring leaders) who oppose hurtful impacts and influences. Phase of Resolution  A component of a revised Deroche model that results in a phase of adjustment that might be positive or negative. Phase of Support  A component of a revised Deroche model in which the leader or aspiring leader gains support and recognition. Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists  Official name of the Boxers. Spheres of Influence  Concessions China was forced to grant to the colonial empires in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Wallace, Anthony  Anthropologist with a special expertise regarding the Iroquois and Handsome Lake.

REFERENCES Desroche, Henri (1969). Dieux d’hommes. Dictionnaire des messianismes et millénarismes de l’ère chrétienne. (Paris: Berg International). Esherick, Joseph (1988). The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. (Berkeley: University of California Press).

28  Dysfunctional and Functional Responses Kehoe, Alice Beck (1989). “Death or Renewal?” The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization. (Washington: Thompson Publishing). Mooney, James. (1896). The Ghost Dance Religion and Wounded Knee. (New York: Dover Publications). Preston, Diana. (2001). The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China’s War on Foreigners that Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. (New York: Berkley Books). Wallace, Anthony F. C. (1969). The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. (New York: Random House). Walle, Alf H. (2004). The Path of Handsome Lake: A Model of Recovery for Native People. (Charlotte: Information Age Publishers). Worsley, Peter (1957). The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of “Cargo” Cults in Melanesia. (London: MacGibbon & Kee).

3

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understanding Romantic Nationalism, that flourished in the 19th century and beyond, with reference to its relevance today. 2. Considering Renaud Camus, his Great Replacement Theory, and their place in the current dialogue regarding race, religion, and ethnicity. 3. Discussing the Great Replacement Theory with reference to anomie and the true believer model. 4. Analyzing the Great Replacement Theory with reference to the true believer framework. 5. Perceiving a three-component model that combines the Great Replacement Theory, anomie, and the true believer concept in ways that deal with the current alienation and dysfunction facing many estranged stakeholders.

INTRODUCTION In recent decades, political and social tensions in Europe, North America, and elsewhere have arisen as conservative, racially sensitive, and “nationalistic” segments of the population embrace fears of the future. These concerns have accelerated social unrest and fueled political turmoil. In Europe, these trends appear to have resulted from the immigration of ethnic and religious outsiders into countries that had long been largely culturally homogeneous. As the British Empire was stripped away after World War II, for example, many residents of the former colonies migrated to Great Britain, changing the country’s demographic structure. Other countries, including Germany, enjoyed post-war economic growth requiring guest workers from other countries, especially Turkey. In France, immigrants from North Africa have proved to be disruptive. Similar examples are sprinkled throughout Europe. Because of tensions and unrest, in the Middle East, a flood of culturally distinctive refugees has settled throughout Europe creating further tensions. Problems have arisen (1) when many DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-4

30  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement Europeans have become hostile to these newcomers, (2) just as these outsiders have often lashed back, sometimes using terrorist tactics to do so. We will have to wait and see if the Ukraine crisis of 2022 contributes to these tensions. In the United States, a wide range of issues that were not totally resolved during the civil rights era of the 1960s coupled with troubles on the southern border are creating controversies that sometimes leads to violence. Rapid demographic changes are also building concern among those who view these trends as a timebomb that is slowly transforming the traditional majority of these countries into a disenfranchised minority in their “own land”. These fears are building resistance and opposition to distinctive “outsiders”. Critics of racist and xenophobic responses discount these concerns. In the United States, for example, a popular cliché depicts cultural diversity as a strength and as the foundation of American civilization (which is true). Focusing on such observations, however, ignores long-standing tensions that often exist between distinctive groups and the instability these differences can cause. Although diversity can be praised, it can also create tensions that need to be acknowledged. Romantic Nationalism (a contrasting paradigm of society and politics), for example, celebrates the benefits of social uniformity and cultural consistency. Arguing that strength and equity stem from homogeneity, an implied corollary of such thinking asserts that when the glue of unity is lacking, tensions, inequity, and instability are likely to rise. This perspective, emerging in the 19th century, has long exerted a strong influence on both thought and action. Some countries such as (Norway, Poland, and Turkey among many others) were greatly influenced by such thinking. Poland, specifically, has been celebrated because after a long period of being absorbed by other empires, the Polish nation regained its status as a country because the Polish people, as a distinct group, maintained its identity and reasserted itself. “Thus, due to the partition of Poland by Prussia and Russia in the 18th century, Poland ‘ceased to exist’ as a political institution for 123 years. Poland …, however, remained intact and remerged as a sovereign state in the 20th century” (Walle 2019a). Other people, such as the Kurds of the Middle East, are currently attempting to gain nationhood in a similar way (Eppel 2016). A strong appreciation of cultural identity inspired Renand Camus to develop his Great Replacement Theory that laments that an unregulated immigration of outsiders is likely to cause indigenous Europeans to be diluted and displaced. Overtly or covertly, Camus’ work blends with Romantic Nationalism. To a large extent, furthermore, the rising clout of the Great Replacement Theory and its Romantic Nationalist implications are artifacts of anomie because the decline of cultural homogeneity has created fears, discomfort, and alienation that are catalysts for such responses. Anomie, furthermore,

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 31 appears to be influencing a significant group of stakeholders to embrace ideas that are consistent with the responses of true believers. By recognizing these patterns, a three-component model of ethnic, racial, and religious tensions emerges with (1) conditions leading to anomie, (2) the actors being true believers, and (3) the logic and justification being based upon the Great Replacement Theory (and parallel movements such as Qanon in the United States): responses that can be viewed as emotional responses to uncomfortable changes.

ROMANTIC NATIONALISM In the late 18th century, the Enlightenment, a philosophical movement that celebrated rational thought and asserted that universal answers and strategies could be applied to cultural and social life, dominated (Love 2008). During this era, emotional responses were not emphasized and the value of distinctive or unique responses by specific peoples was discounted. The benefits of this approach are significant and many of its sentiments live on in our current, scientific age. A good example of applying Enlightenment perspectives and standards to social engineering is provided by Emperor Napoleon of France. After gaining power, Napoleon asked a panel of respected lawyers and jurists to create a legal code that was rational, consistent, objective, efficient, and fair to all. Once the task was completed, he installed his “Napoleonic Code” in the territories he conquered. It remains as the legal foundation in many places today (including the state of Louisiana in the United States that has a strong French heritage). Of all his achievements, Napoleon was most proud of this contribution, stating “My true glory is not to have won 40 battles … what will live forever is my Civil Code” (Wanniski 1998; 184). In spite of Napoleon’s noble intentions, complaints arose. Detractors insisted that the laws that specific people live by are more than an objective, rational, consistent, and universal set of obligations, rights, and methods of enforcement. Legal frameworks also reflect the culture and the people that created them. If outside legal systems are forced upon people, these critics complained, such alien edicts are likely to conflict with their heritage and traditions. Speaking about Catalonia (a culturally distinct region on the border of France and Spain), for example, Enric Prat de la Riba (1998) observes that people “spoke of law as a live entity, which is spontaneously produced by national consciousness … They said that law and language were both manifestations of the same national spirit …”. Responses such as this are hallmarks of the Romantic Movement that transcend a focus upon rational and universal cultural characteristics in ways that emphasize mankind’s emotional nature coupled with an eye toward the profound differences to be found when comparing different peoples and cultures.

32  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement British poets, such as William Wordsworth (Bate 2020), for example, sought to capture the essence and emotions of traditional British culture by writing in a style that was reminiscent of rustic and unschooled peasants who were praised as the guardians and transmitters of a unique and precious cultural heritage. The Romantics celebrated this hinterland folk precisely because it had not been corrupted by rational and universal influences. The Romantics maintained that these humble cultural remnants preserved the essence of the people, undiluted and in full force. By insisting that such unassuming people possessed profound grassroots wisdom, Wordsworth (and the Romantic Movement in general) championed the unique and emotional aspects of particular peoples and their heritage. The Enlightenment’s emphasis upon the rational and universal was, thereby, countered with an emphasis upon the importance of what is unique and emotional. Eventually, the Romantic Movement began to take on political overtones. For centuries, the strategies of kings and rulers involved stripping subjugated peoples of their distinctiveness. Because of Romantic sentiments, however, many people gained an enhanced sense of their ethnic identity and its importance. Once these concepts took hold, they swept through Europe and the Middle East (Walle 2019a, 2019b). In some cases, people reaffirmed their traditions in positive ways. A dark side of this potential, however, is reflected in a rash of “ethnic cleansing” incidents that took place as nations and regions sought to create demographic profiles that were increasingly homogeneous (Walle 2019a, 2019b). An influential rash of uprisings occurred in 1848 (Dieter 2000) when widespread rebellions, influenced by Romantic Nationalism, challenged the established power structures throughout Europe. Although these upheavals were squelched, the tensions they represented did not disappear and eventually triggered the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife (the overt event that prompted the start of World War I). This influence upon Romantic Nationalism remains. Thus, in 2022, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine has Romantic Nationalist implications. The Russians justified their intervention by asserting that the Ukrainians are actually Russian (or close to it) and by claiming that certain Russianspeaking regions of Ukraine should be declared independent republics. The Ukrainians, in contrast, affirm that they are distinctive people that should not be molested by outsiders. The implications of Romantic Nationalism also impacted social engineering in the United States in the 19th century and beyond. During the post-Civil War era, rapid growth took place in the United States. Millions of foreigners immigrated to fuel the growth of the “Gilded Age” to use a term coined by Mark Twain (Twain and Dudley 1873). In the late 19th century, a wide variety of races, ethnic groups, and members of diverse religions migrated to the United States, changing the country’s demographic structure to the dismay of many “more established” people.

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 33 Eventually, the mainstream population and its decision makers, dominated by white Protestants, began to worry about the demographic shifts that were taking place; as a result, barriers arose to limit the immigration of some races, nationalities, and religions. Thus, controls on Chinese immigration were enacted into law as early as the 1880s. In the years that followed, quotas regarding various nationalities were developed to ensure that most immigrants were of Western European origins. In 1921, for example, a law was passed that set quotas based on nationality. This was followed by the establishment of a quota system in 1924 that became permanent in 1929 (see Daniels 1997). Simultaneously, forceful efforts were made to erode the cultures of indigenous peoples so that the Indians of future generations would possess mainstream American world views and cultural orientations. This was a goal of the Boarding School system that removed young indigenous children from their communities and families so they could be inculcated with mainstream orientations, expectations, work skills, and values (Adams 2020). According to the Dawes Act (1887), furthermore, Native people who were willing to move off their reservations were given farmland and became eligible for the United States citizenship. Such efforts, of course, were intended to create a greater degree of cultural and social homogeneity nation-wide by weakening the established traditions of the American Indians. The goal of these efforts was to increase the nation’s cultural homogeneity in spite of its historic diversity in the belief that doing so had positive implications. Although many Americans celebrate cultural diversity as a precious strength, a basic goal of the United States long emphasized creating homogeneity by systematically restricting cultural and ethnic variations. Thus, Romantic Nationalism celebrates the distinctive and emotional aspects of a nation’s unique people. The attraction of this perspective has never been totally eclipsed. Indeed, Renaud Camus’ Great Replacement Theory can best be viewed from this context.

RENAUD CAMUS AND THE GREAT REPLACEMENT THEORY From an early age, Renaud Camus was well connected within the French intellectual scene of the 1960s and beyond. His well-known book Tricks, for example, was forwarded by Roland Barthes, an iconic French intellectual of the era. Camus matured in an age when structuralism, poststructuralism, deconstructionism, and so forth emerged as powerful intellectual trends originating in France as well as social and political movements that were exported to the rest of the world. Camus benefited from this intellectual pedigree. In addition to being an award-winning author, Camus also has a background as a gay man who has exerted significant efforts promoting gay rights. No doubt, these experiences helped Camus understand the conflicts

34  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement involving other distinctive groups of stakeholders in ways that sharpened his social and political perspectives. Insights such as these seem to have enhanced the toolkit of a man who went on to develop the Great Replacement Theory that deals with the tensions and conflicts between competing factions who are divided by race, religion, and ethnicity. As many other leading French intellectuals, Camus has been active in politics, initially gravitating toward socialism. In 2012, after developing his Great Replacement Theory, Camus launched his own political party that advocated deporting those who were racially or ethnically distinct, forcing them from France and exiling them to another supposed “homeland” (Onishi (2019). In 2019, Camus was running for parliament when he learned that a fellow member of his political party showed overt signs of having sympathies toward Nazism. As a result, Camus withdrew his candidacy before the election stating that was the opposite of what he stood for and believed (McAuley 2019). Although many disagree with Camus’ perspectives and recommendations, he is an imposing figure and a significant intellectual force to be taken seriously. The Great Replacement Theory In 1847, American author American author Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published his poetic saga Evangeline that tells the story of a woman who is separated from her fiancé when the British expelled the Acadian people, a French ethnic group who lived in what is now Nova Scotia, during the middle of the 18th century. This episode of ethnic cleansing made room for English speaking settlers who acquired lands that had been cleared, developed, and were ready to be enjoyed, occupied, and farmed by newcomers. Many of these ethnic French were banished to what is now Louisiana in the United States where the name Acadian has evolved into Cajan. Among other achievements, Longfellow’s poem drew attention to the early contributions of the French in that section of Canada that had been largely forgotten and purged from the histories of the region. The poem tells the tragic story of how Evangeline spends year after year searching for her lover only to find him on a death bed in the hospital where she works as a nurse. At least, he dies in her arm. Evangeline is the tale of a great replacement in which a French people are cast off, alienated, and grief stricken after losing their homes and their lands. When Renaud Camus was interpreting the events that came to be called the Great Replacement (in English), it “came to [him] in a more or less unconscious reference to the Grand Dérangement of the Acadians in the 18th century” (Finkielkraut 2017). Thus, when developing his paradigm of ethnic replacement, Camus was reminded of an historic atrocity of ethnic cleansing that impacted a helpless community of ethnic French

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 35 in North America who were driven from their homeland and replaced by newcomers with no previous connection to the land. Camus Great Replacement Theory (2010, 2011), updated to 21st-century circumstances, argues that the French people who have inhabited their land for hundreds or thousands of years are being replaced, pushed out, or diluted by outsiders who possess different racial, religious, and ethnic backgrounds. The mechanism for doing so does not involve military or physical force but takes the form of demographic transitions that are wrought by immigration coupled with differences in the birth rate. Versions of this theory have been warmly embraced by many white supremacists, right-wing extremists, and “nationalists” in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere. Most scholars, however, state that the theory is overblown at best and dangerously flawed at worst. In any event, the Great Replacement Theory has made a significant impact upon the world and deserves to be recognized accordingly. Consider, for example, the horrific grocery store shooting in Buffalo, New York that killed ten people on May 14, 2022. The shooter, Payton Gendron, a white supremacist, posted a manifesto on line that made direct reference to the Great Replacement Theory (Connelly and Celona 2022). “Ideas from the ‘great replacement theory’ filled a racist … [manifesto] posted online by the white 18-year-old accused of targeting Black people in … [the Buffalo] rampage” (Collins 2022). Camus recalls that he first became aware of this trend of replacement when he was hired to edit a tourism guide that required him to visit a number of small French towns and communities. During his travels and fieldwork, he “suddenly realized that in very old villages … the population had totally changed … this is when I began to write [in a manner reflective of the Great Replacement Theory]” (Sexton 2016). In a nutshell, Camus’ Great Replacement Theory asserts that (1) various forces are changing the demographic structure of France, (2) leading to power shifts, (3) that potentially transform the indigenous population of France into a minority (or even outcasts) within their own land. Camus envisions a wide range of problems and sorrows arising as this process takes hold. In France, the groups he views as “invaders” tend to be Islamic and/or from North Africa. Those from other regions who embrace Camus’ model fear that outsiders are shifting the balance of power and transforming the ethos of society. Some versions of the Great Replacement Theory envision clandestine groups of elites influencing and encouraging this transition. When such beliefs are held, the Great Replacement Theory embraces conspiracy implications. Many opponents, pointing to such assertions, write off the Great Replacement Theory as a low-brow threat of minor importance. Such dismissals should be resisted because a case for a great replacement can be made without the assertion of covert, sinister, and secret interventions.

36  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement In recent years, the Great Replacement Theory has gained wide popularity among many people in and beyond France who are alienated, stressed, or displaced by cultural, economic, demographic, and/or social trends. Part of the attractiveness of Camus’ logic, no doubt, is the fact that many people feel increasingly out of step in a rapidly changing and evolving world. The growing popularity of the replacement premise, furthermore, can probably be traced to the fact that, like other influential paradigms, it can be quickly articulated and easily understood by almost anyone. This is true even through it deals with complex and multifaceted phenomena. Turning the Tables I first saw the gritty war film the Battle of Algiers (1966) as a young graduate student many years ago. Shot to resemble a newsreel, it tells the story of the Algerian struggle for independence during the middle 1950s. The film was made only four years after the conflict ended, with France losing and Algeria emerging as an independent nation. As a result of this political realignment, a flood ethnic French Algerians migrated to mainland France in a traumatic exile. These tensions were especially heated because in the 19th and 20th centuries, thousands upon thousands of French immigrants had settled in this region of North African on the assurance that it was a part of France. Areas where the majority of immigrants lived had been granted the status of being a “Department” of France with the indigenous people losing ground due to the massive influx of French immigrants. In essence, this situation closely resembles Camus’ Great Replacement Theory except instead of the French being replaced by outsiders, the French were the invaders who displaced the indigenous people, taking the best land and resources for themselves. In time, the indigenous people rose up, reasserted control, and drove the French out. The Algerians refused to be replaced, just as Renaud Camus’ Great Replacement Theory recommends. Such events were traumatic to the French Algerians and to the French nation, in general. Imagine, for example, how people in the United States would feel if a rebellion of indigenous Hawaiian Islanders or Alaska Natives was able to throw off American rule and exile the white communities that had been established there for generations. That was the fate of the French Algerians. In spite of the challenges facing France and the trauma experienced by the French Algerians, French philosopher and activist Jean Paul Sartre (a leader of the intellectual circle that influenced Renaud Camus) was a vocal advocate for the indigenous Algeria even though his support led to harsh criticism by pro-French opponents. In essence, Sartre’s defense of the Algerian uprising is little different from Camus’ call for the French people to resist being replaced in their own land.

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 37 Although Sartre’s call to resist replacement has been viewed as liberal and progressive, Camus’ similar pronouncements are often labeled as reactionary and racist. Over time, applications of the Great Replacement Theory have expanded in Europe, North America, and throughout the world. Such ideas have often been embraced by reactionary white supremacists who embrace the Great Replacement Theory as an apology for racism and xenophobia.

ANOMIE AND THE GREAT REPLACEMENT THEORY Although well-articulated and similar in some ways to progressive views, including those of Jean Paul Sartre, Renaud Camus’ Great Replacement Theory has fanned the flames of extremism. This is true even though the author provides complex and multifaceted discussions and although he has previously promoted the rights of minorities, such as gays and lesbians. The standard critique of Camus overstates his case in hyperbolic ways. Such a description is inflated and overstated because the view of a static and unchanging France, unmolested by outsiders for thousands of years, is clearly fantasy. Although the country is currently facing challenges, including demographic change, France (as other countries) has previously dealt with other significant inroads and obstacles while maintaining its identity. Camus, however, is concerned that the French heritage might not be able to withstand what he feels are unprecedented attacks wrought by the current state of affairs. The core of Camus’ premise is that outsiders and intruders are destined to alienate the French people and transform the nature of the country. In other words, Camus feels that the current immigration and demographic shifts, if unchecked, will unravel the French heritage causing widespread and alienating anomie and social unrest. The work of Robert Merton, however, points out that people can respond to anomie in a variety of ways. Although some French people might be hurtfully impacted by anomie due to immigration and demographic shifts, such a fate is not necessarily universal or inevitable. Thus, when Emil Durkheim wrote of anomie in the late 19th century, he discussed profound changes that triggered alienation and anomie. The French people, however, were able to adjust, and French culture survived that onslaught (as well as the horrors of two world wars coupled with the loss of its empire). In any event, those who embrace the Great Replacement Theory (and use it to justify opposing intruding outsiders) tend to embrace what Robert Merton refers to as Conformist and Ritualistic responses. As discussed above, Conformers continue to embrace their traditions and act in accordance with them in spite of significant changes that are occurring. They do so because they continue to view such actions as viable even if challenges arise. Ritualists, less nimble, embrace their heritage by rote and for its own sake, even when doing so will probably not be effective.

38  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement Others respond to anomie in more proactive ways such as those who embrace Merton’s innovative and rebellious responses to anomie. In innovation, the values and goals of society remain intact although the methods of achieving them evolve. In rebellion, new goals and methods are worked into the fabric of society. Such strategies and efforts can more effectively cope with evolving conditions in ways that adapt and preserve the cultural heritage. In the field of anthropology and folklore, for example, a recognition exists that all cultures and societies are constantly evolving. Both Aboriginal tribes and industrialized nations are constantly adjusting to the circumstances faced. Such fine tuning is normal and inevitable. Thus, typical American Indians do not ride horses bareback, dress in buckskin, and carry bows and arrows. Most wear store bought clothes, hunt with shotguns, and drive cars or trucks. Many Native cultures remain vital and intact precisely because they have adapted as required. Societies that transform themselves in relevant ways are less likely to suffer from anomie even if significant challenges and tensions remain. Those who fail to adapt, however, are likely to suffer grievously (see the work of Napoleon 1994). This observation applies to the French people, members of other semi-industrialized countries, small tribes in the hinterland, and other communities.

TRUE BELIEVERS AND THE GREAT REPLACEMENT THEORY When specific individuals and groups experience anomie and have few mechanisms for resolving the alienation and displacement they experience, their responses can become ineffective, emotional, and desperate. As indicated above, those who resemble what Robert Merton refers to as Conformers and Ritualists fail to adjust to evolving circumstances in constructive and proactive ways. Those responding in such a manner can easily follow a path leading to further hopelessness and despair because their choices are unlikely to adequately and appropriately respond to the challenges faced. Where such circumstances exist, ineffective responses and emotional lashing out can result. As discussed earlier, true believers tend to be unhappy about the current state of affairs. Not only that, as Eric Hoffer states, these disenfranchised and alienated segments of the population believe that the past was significantly better than the current reality that must be endured. Based on the prevailing situations that are faced and the perspectives that are embraced, true believers are likely to conclude that their lives and well-being are sinking in an ever-lowering spiral. Apparently, in contemporary France, a significant number of people are experiencing feelings of desperation and alienation leading to an acceptance

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 39 of the Great Replacement Theory. Those that do so are likely to feel a sense of (1) losing their historic positions within society (2) due to the influx of outsiders. The Great Replacement Theory offers an easily understood and intuitively reasonable paradigm that (1) articulates the problems facing these people, (2) explains how these challenges developed, (3) as well as proposes solutions regarding how to deal with what is presented as an existential crisis or threat. Such characteristics can make Camus’ perspectives inviting to those suffering from anomie. As a result, Camus has emerged as a charismatic leader of conservatives, reactionaries, and white supremacists. True believers need an easily understood, broad-based explanation for the perceived challenges that are faced. The Great Replacement Theory fills that void. Thus, people who find themselves experiencing the pain of anomie are likely to find comfort and direction by embracing the Great Replacement Theory in a true believer sort of way.

A THREE-FACTOR MODEL Combining these elements: (1) the Great Replacement Theory, (2) anomie, and (3) true believer responses, a three-factor theory emerges that can be used to model the current rash of reactionaries, xenophobes, and white supremacists that have arisen in the West. The Great Replacement Theory provides an easily understood explanation of the problems many people experience due to demographic changes. Such individuals and groups are likely to suffer from anomie and respond accordingly. They can easily emerge as true believers who embrace rationales that explain their plight in easily understood ways while providing a “blueprint” for correcting the problems perceived. By combining these three components, a paradigm for dealing with the current unrest can be developed that is based upon well-established social theories. It argues that the Great Replacement Theory has emerged in an era of significant and confusing demographic and social shifts. Those attracted to such ideas are likely to experience anomie, alienation, and/or hopelessness. Under these conditions, such people can become candidates to be transformed into true believers who accept the Great Replacement Theory because it (1) explains their predicament and (2) offers solutions or strategies for dealing with the dilemmas faced. Combining these characteristics gives rise to what can be called the three-factor model that outlines these relationships and responses. An outline of these relationship is presented in Table 3.1. This three-factor model provides a means of perceiving how and why true believers emerge as a significant force. It can explain observed phenomena and provide suggestions regarding how to cope with such people.

40  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement Table 3.1  The Three-Factor Model Issue

Description

Analysis

Great Replacement

Theory argues that demographic changes are transforming people into aliens in their own homeland.

The theory paints a grim picture if these demographic changes and their impacts are not reversed or mitigated.

Anomie

Due to emerging transformations, some people feel alienated and hopeless due to changes that are currently beyond their control.

Various responses to anomie exist. Those who are attracted to the Great Replacement Theory often embrace options that emphasize cultural stability instead of adjustment.

True Believers

Followers of mass movements who fully embrace the theories presented and adhere to the edicts of their leaders.

Seeking remedies, some individuals embrace solutions presented by charismatic leaders, and do so without reservation.

DISCUSSION These factors provide a way to analyze various effects of the Great Replacement Theory. Although Camus dealt with France, many other people in the West and elsewhere have responded in parallel ways. As a result, they potentially emerge as true believers suffering from anomie who embrace the Great Replacement Theory.

DISCUSION AND IMPLICATIONS In these first three chapters, a chain of thought was developed regarding the origin and functioning of mass movements and how those who embrace them think and respond. Such perspectives are much needed in an era when diverse groups, threatened and alienated, are responding in ways that significantly impact cultures, social life, and national policies. In many ways, the Great Replacement Theory parallels Romantic Nationalism that celebrates the basic underlying essence of cultures of nations and calls for its preservation. The Great Replacement Theory further embraces such perspectives by suggesting that when the health and stability of foundational groups and traditions are threatened (by factors including demographic changes and immigration), defensive responses must be made. To deal with the xenophobic tendencies that many advocates of the Great Replacement Theory embrace, an understanding of anomie and true believers is useful. By keeping such orientations in mind, more effective dialogues with those who champion the Great Replacement Theory can be developed.

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 41

RELEVANT TERMS Archduke Ferdinand  Member of European royalty whose assassination sparked the beginning of World War I. Battle of Algiers  A famous war movie that depicts the Algerian uprising against France during the 1950s in a sympathetic manner. Boarding School System  Educational initiative for American Indians that sought to transform the younger generation into “mainstream” Americans. Dawes Act  Law regarding the American Indians that, among other things, offered the Indians land and citizenship if they moved off their reservations. 1848  A year when Europe was in turmoil, with calls for revolution. Although the status quo was able to reassert itself, the seeds of change and Romantic Nationalism had been sown. Enlightenment  An intellectual movement, dominant in the 18th century, that emphasized rationality and universality. Evangeline  Poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that deals the replacement of the French in Nova Scotia by English settlers and fictional incidents that were triggered by those actions. French Algerians  19th- and 20th-century French immigrants to Algeria who were assured that that the portions of Algeria where they settled had become a part of France. Gilded Age  The post-Civil War era in the United States typified by economic growth and mass immigration. Invisible Hand  According to Adam Smith, the way people inevitably act to better their situations. Typically discussed from an economic perspective, but can be applied to deal with other circumstances. Kurds  A Middle Eastern ethnic group that is a minority in numerous nations, and longs to have a country of its own. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth  Famous 19th-century American poet who wrote Evangeline. Napoleon  French leader responsible for the Napoleonic Code and its introduction into a number of countries. Napoleonic Code  A rational and universal set of laws that some criticized because they did not take cultural distinctiveness into account. Poland  A country that was reborn after a long period of being absorbed by other empires because the Polish people maintained their identity. Often cited as a classic example of Romantic Nationalism. Quota System  United States Laws passed in the1920s that sought to preserve the demographic structure of the United States as primarily white and protestant. Romantic Movement  A reaction against the Age of Enlightenment that emphasizes distinctiveness and emotions instead of rational and universal thought and actions. Romantic Nationalism  An application of Romantic Principles to politics in ways that celebrates and nurtures ethnic and cultural distinctiveness.

42  Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement Sartre, Jean Paul  Important French philosopher who championed the indigenous Algerians who opposed French colonialism. Sartre’s perspectives exhibit similarities to Camus’ Great Replacement Theory. Smith, Adam  Classic economic theorist who wrote The Wealth of Nations. Three Factor Model  A combination of the concepts of anomie, true believers, and the Great Replacement Theory in a manner that deals with current political and social tensions in the West. Wadsworth, William  An important English poet and member of the Romantic Movement who believed hinterland folk possesses a profound national legacy that should be preserved and emulated. Wealth of Nations  Classic economics book by Adam Smith that discusses the Invisible Hand.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the main elements of the Romantic Movement. How is it distinct from the Enlightenment? Discuss the Napoleonic Code as a product of the Enlightenment. How might Romantics reject this objective and rational legal system? 2. What are the basic tenets of the Great Replacement Theory? Does it fit better with the Enlightenment or the Romantic Movement? Why does the Great Replacement Theory focus upon change and disruption? What is your opinion of the Great Replacement Theory? 3. Do you believe that the Great Replacement Theory would be likely to appeal to those who are suffering from anomie? Why or why not? The discussion in the chapter said that the people who responded to anomie in certain ways would be more likely to embrace the Great Replacement Theory. Do you agree with this assertion? Why or why not? 4. Do you feel that those who embrace the Great Replacement Theory are likely to become true believers? Why or why not? 5. Discuss the three-factor theory. What are the three factors and how do they fit together? What contributions (if any) do you feel it is poised to make in the quest to understand cultural tension, xenophobia, and intolerance?

REFERENCES Adams, David Wallace (2020). Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928. Second Edition. (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press). Bate, Jonathon (2020). Radical Wordsworth: The Poet Who Changed the World. (New Haven: Yale University Press). Camus, Renaud (2010). De l’In-nocence. Abécédaire. (Neuilly-sur-Seine: Reinharc)). Camus, Renaud (2011). Le Grand Remplacement. (Neuilly-sur-Seine: Reinharc).

Anomie, True Believers, and Replacement 43 Collins, Ben (2022). The Buffalo Supermarket Shooting Suspect Posted an Apparent Manifesto Reportedly Citing ‘Great Replacement Theory’. NBC News. (August 9). Connelly, Eileen and Celona, Larry (2022) Buffalo Shooter Payton Gendron Posted White Supremacist Manifesto. New York Post. (May 14) (nypost.com). Daniels, Roger (1997). Not Like Us: Immigrants and Minorities in America, 1890-1924. (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee). de la Riba, Enric Prat (1998). La nacionalitat catalana. Fourth Edition. (Barcelona: Edicions 62), 46. Quoted from Jacobson, Stephen (2002) “Law and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe: The Case of Catalonia in Comparative Perspective” Law and History Review (summer). Eppel, Michael. (2016). A People without a State: The Kurds from the Rise of Islam to the Dawn of Nationalism. (Austin: University of Texas Press)). Finkielkraut, Alain (2017). “Le grand déménagement du monde.” France Culture (Audio) (in French). (June 24). Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1847 )Evangaline (Boston:Tictnor and Company). Love, Ronald S. (2008). The Enlightenment. (Greenwood, Connecticut: Greenwood Press). McAuley, James (2019). “How Gay Icon Renaud Camus Became the Ideologue of White Supremacy.” The Nation. (July 1–8). Napoleon, Harold (1994). Yuuyaraq: The Way of the Human Being. (Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Knowledge Network). Onishi, Norimitsu (2019). “The Man Behind a Toxic Slogan Promoting White Supremacy.” The New York Times. (September 20). Sexton, David (2016). “Non!.” The Spectator. (November). Walle, Alf H. (2019a). “Cultural Tensions in the Late Ottoman Empire: A Romantic Nationalism Model.” Middle Eastern Journal of Management. 6: 1. Walle, Alf H. (2019b). “Romantic Nationalism in the Post-Ottoman Era: A Continued Struggle of Tension and Unrest.” Journal of Middle Eastern Management. 6: 2. Wanniski, Jude (1998). The Way the World Works. (Washington: Regnery Gateway). Wilson, W. (1918). President Wilson’s Address to Congress, Analyzing German and Austrian Peace Utterance.

Epilogue to Section 1

Section 1 provides a theoretical foundation that will be expanded upon throughout this analysis. The discussion begins with an analysis of the concept of anomie, a concept that refers to the confusion and alienation that often accompany significant and unmitigated changes that people are not equipped to confront. Such experiences can trigger a variety of responses, both positive and negative. Anomie and its impacts often trigger responses such as mass movements that are capable of attracting true believers who totally embrace the teachings of the cause and its leaders. These responses can exert either positive or negative responses. These observations led to a discussion of the Great Replacement Theory associated with Renaud Camus that suggests that demographic changes in France will potentially make the traditional “French” population a minority in their own homeland because the character of the country is being irrevocably altered. Camus argues that this potential must be opposed. In Europe, North America, and throughout the world, many conservative, xenophobic people, and nativists have embraced their own versions of Camus’ message and done so as true believers. A means of conceptualizing such responses is provided by a three-factor theory in which (1) anomie triggered by change (2) leads to true believer responses by (3) those who embrace the Great Replacement Theory. This orientation provides the foundation for further discussions.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-5

Prologue to Section 2

The first section of this book presented a general and theoretic foundation to consider when dealing with specific issues involving racist and xenophobic tendencies in Europe and the United States. Specifically, the concepts of anomie (alienation and displacement) and true believership (uncritical allegiance to a cause) were discussed. This analysis led to a conversation regarding the Great Replacement Theory and how it has exerted a significant impact upon European thought. This background information provides a context for Chapter 4 that deals with Europe and Chapter 5 that focuses upon the United States. Three representative examples from Europe are discussed. Although the British Empire ruled many peoples, these cultures had little contact within Britain itself. This relative isolation began to change with the influx of foreign immigrants after World War II. Initially, the Skinhead Movement in Britain began as a lifestyle and fashion statement among working-class British youth. Over time, however, it came to be known as an aggressive xenophobic hate group that often targeted Asian immigrants. This evolution can be understood in economic terms because animosity grew as immigrants increasingly competed with the working-class British for jobs, residences, and so forth. In Germany, a neo-Nazi movement has emerged, building in part upon the legacy of the past and encouraged by ethnic and racial tensions created by the emergence of a significant Turkish minority. Although many Germans are accepting of these outsiders, others are not. In any event, a weakening of the traditional homogeneity in German society is creating strains that are often expressed via xenophobic outbursts. Since the middle of the 19th century, France has had a special relationship with North Africa and for a period, France annexed sections of Algeria as a part of France. After a traumatic revolution, however, Algiers broke free of France in the 1960s. The two countries and its peoples continue to have intimate relations although tensions exist. In addition, a large number of North African refugees reside in France (a legacy of the Algerian Revolution); they often do so in uncomfortable situations. Under such circumstances, DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-6

46  Prologue to Section 2 a number of terrorist attacks perpetrated by those of Algerian or Middle Eastern descent have occurred in France. In the United States, some of these same pressures exist although they have been molded by the unique history of that country. First, many in the United States place a high priority on personal freedom. Second, the United States has interacted with those who are “different” in ways that are more intimate than the typical European experience (even when the relationships were hostile or inequitable). Examples of this closer contact include more face-to-face contact with (1) indigenous peoples, (2) the institution of slavery and how it created a largely unassimilated underclass, and (3) the cultural diversity created by the migrations of the late 19th century. These issues are compounded by illegal immigration from the Southern Border and issues regarding contemporary refugees from both Central American countries and elsewhere. Although the United States is distinct, in many ways it shares concerns and dilemmas that are experienced by Europeans. As a result, responses that are analogous to the Great Replacement exist in the United States.

4

European True Believers and Xenophobia

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understanding how segments of European culture have evolved into nativist, racist, and/or xenophobic true believers. 2. Viewing the British Skinheads as a working-class movement, originally tolerant of others, that came to embrace racist, nativist, and xenophobic true believers. 3. Envisioning Germany’s Turkish guest worker program and the rise of the neo-Nazi movement from a true believer perspective. 4. Charting the rise of true believer nativism and xenophobia in France. 5. Generalizing these examples and their causes to better understand the process by which specific groups became nativist, racist, and xenophobic true believers.

INTRODUCTION In earlier discussions, the phenomenon of anomie was described as a response that arises when social, technological, environmental, and/or economic changes trigger confusion, alienation, sorrow, etc., resulting in social disruption and psychological stress. Such responses potentially provide a fertile environment for the emergence of true believers (individuals who embrace or champion a particular cause without question, reservation, or compromise). Powerful and charismatic leaders typically take control or serve as figureheads even though the emerging movements they champion typically rise from the grassroots. Having discussed anomie and true believers from a theoretic perspective, specific examples (demonstrating both positive and negative implications) were juxtaposed and compared. This background led to a discussion of the “Great Replacement Theory” that envisions a future where nations with a Western heritage are overrun by outsiders who dilute and ultimately destroy the local demographic and cultural milieu causing long-established peoples to DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-7

48  European True Believers and Xenophobia become aliens in their own land. Fears regarding this possibility are triggering a rise in racist, nativist, and xenophobia movements in Europe that is embraced by true believers. In this chapter, such trends are analyzed, with reference to Romantic Nationalism that was discussed in the last chapter. These perspectives are expanded with reference to the fact that national, cultural, or ethnic pride can simultaneously exist side by side with suspicions, fears, and a dread of those who are different. This orientation is used to model a variety of movements in Europe that encourage nativism, racism, and xenophobia, including (1) the British Skinheads, (2) the response to guest workers in Germany coupled with neo-Nazism, and (3) the rise of ethnic tensions in France. The current Middle Eastern refugee crisis has amplified these trends. After examining these phenomena separately, a concluding discussion deals with implications, similarities, and parallels.

AN EMPHASIS UPON THE FOLK As discussed above (in Chapter 3), the Age of Enlightenment (culminating in the 18th century) emphasized rational thought causing other forms of thinking, feeling, and acting to be discounted. Eventually, an opposition to this paradigm arose that emphasized that advocated the emotional and unique aspects of specific cultures. As early as the mid-18th century, Johann Gottfried Herder (Barnard 2004) celebrated mankind’s emotional nature and the distinctiveness of specific people, heritages, and traditions. By doing so, the dominance of the Enlightenment was challenged. Herder emphasized that cultures, ethnic groups, and the like are best viewed with reference to their unique emotional and cultural heritage, insisting that specific folk (or “volk”) possess their own idiosyncratic traditions, customs, languages, laws, and so forth. Herder argues that distinctive social and cultural groups possess a unique “volkgeist” or “spirit of the people”. This concept was more fully developed by Frederick Hegel (who, in turn, greatly influences the prevailing conception of culture employed by today’s social scientists). Hegel viewed a nation as a cultural tradition that existed as an overarching and largely homogeneous collective entity. Challenging the dominance of the Age of Enlightenment, Herder and Hegel helped develop the tools needed to view specific peoples with reference to their unique emotional nature and how a specific cultural heritage can provide emotional and psychological support for those who are members of a particular tradition. In doing so, rustic peasants were celebrated as the guardians and transmitters of their unique and precious cultural legacies. By doing so, the Enlightenment’s emphasis upon rational thought was undercut in favor of emphasizing the unique and emotional (instead of rational and universal) aspects of life. Eventually, this artistic and intellectual movement took on political overtones.

European True Believers and Xenophobia 49 The Romantic Movement exerted a great influence on 19th-century Europe. Throughout the continent, rulers and empires had long attempted to integrate distinct peoples into their realms. As the Romantic Movement emphasized the cultural heritage, people gained an interest for their heritage and traditions. As discussed in the last chapter, this sort of response is known as Romantic Nationalism. Norway, for example, dominated for centuries by Denmark (and later Sweden), was long viewed as an uncouth hinterland and its people were strongly pressured to abandon their distinctiveness. Eventually, in a spirit of cultural revival, 19th-century Norway reaffirmed its heritage and traditions. The Norwegians even revived a version of their traditional language (New Norse) that had been facing imminent extinction. Today, it survives and continues to serve as a national language (Vikør 2015). Cultural reaffirmations such as this have occurred in many other places, especially Poland, a country that ceased to exist as a political entity for over a hundred years but was reborn after World War I because political and military maneuverers were unable to destroy or eclipse the essence of the country and its people. Focusing upon local and ethnic pride, however, has the potential to view others as lessor, leading to prejudice and chauvinism. Such feelings can also cause some people to fear change and transformations that potentially dilute their heritage. As will be discussed, such potentials appear to have emerged in Western Europe after World War II. Representative examples from Britain, Germany, and France provide non-exhaustive examples of this trend.

THE BRITISH SKINHEADS Although Britain and the allies won World War II, it suffered greatly due to devastating bombing raids by the German air force coupled with a massive loss of human life. These problems, however, were just the beginning. Weakened by destruction and conflict, the massive British Empire collapsed soon after the war ended. With the loss of the Suez Canal in 1956, the Empire’s days as a leading international force came to an end. France and Israel attempted to help Britain maintain control of this last jewel of a bygone era, but when the United States strongly objected to Britain’s military takeover of the waterway, Egypt was allowed to assume control. Without an empire backing it up, Britain was significantly weakened. Domestically, furthermore, a chronic shortage of labor emerged due to wartime casualties; to fill the gap, immigrants were recruited from various colonies and former colonies causing an influx of foreigners that created an unprecedented degree of cultural pluralism. Ultimately, these newcomers emerged as competitors for unskilled jobs that had traditionally been performed by British working-class laborers. It was within this environment that the Skinheads emerged.

50  European True Believers and Xenophobia With closely cropped hair or shaved heads, the Skinheads emerged from the traditional British working classes, flaunting their identity with rough work clothes and Dr. Marten boots (that became a trademark). Initially, the Skinheads positioned themselves as a conservative and working-class alternative to the Mods, a fashionable British subculture that was popular with affluent and sophisticated British youth, typically those from the middle classes. Thus, early tensions and rivalries involving the Skinheads had more to do with fellow Brits and their respective lifestyles than with immigrants. In the early days, furthermore, the Skinheads lacked a strong ethnic or racist agenda and identity. Indeed, many black Jamaicans embraced the Skinhead lifestyle. Effecting an “outsider” persona, many Skinheads, incorporated the image of an underclass. Building upon this portrayal, the movement came to identify itself with disenfranchised groups of newcomers as well as borrowing music, culinary habits, and aspects of popular culture from marginalized foreigners, such as Jamaican immigrants and Afro-American musicians. Skinheads, furthermore, tended to live in low-rent districts where Jamaicans also made their homes. In addition, the two groups were drawn together due to similar employment opportunities. During this period, the Skinheads exhibited tolerance and embraced cultural pluralism. Initially emerging merely as a lifestyle, it wasn’t long before that the Skinhead movement began to embrace economic and political overtones that exhibited nativist, racist, and xenophobic tendencies (even though some members of the subculture maintained more pluralistic attitudes). As early as the late 1960s, for example, some Skinheads began to systemically target people of southeast Asian descent for random beatings often administered just for the fun of it. Eventually, such attacks developed into a recognizable pattern that came to be called “Paki [Pakistani] Bashing” (Marshall 1996; 45–7). Fictional reference to anti-Asian prejudice is portrayed in the British TV series the Chinese Detective (2001–2) that features detective John Ho who is Oriental biologically but speaks with a strong Cockney accent that connects him with the British working class. Although the show does not dwell upon Skinhead abuses, the episodes often reveal racism and prejudice both within the police force and among the general public; Ho must respond to racism and xenophobia that comes from both friend and foe. As the Skinhead trend evolved, racism, nativism, and xenophobia became more pronounced. Such sentiments were encouraged when on April 20, 1968, Enoch Powell, a member of Parliament, gave what has been called his “Rivers of Blood” speech that provided a chilling warning regarding the dangers posed by allowing non-white foreigners to immigrate into Britain. Especially critical of Southern Asians. Powell states in part “We must be mad, literally mad, as a nation to be permitting the annual inflow of some 50,000 … immigrant[s]. It is like watching a nation busily engaged in heaping up its own funeral pyre” (Powell 1968).

European True Believers and Xenophobia 51 As time went on, tensions grew. In July 1981, hundreds of Skinheads ventured to the Southhall section of London to attend a concert of Oi! Music (a form of British punk-rock that catered to alienated working-class people such as Skinheads). The event was located in a residential section with a large South Asian population. As the evening progressed, a number of Skinheads attacked Asian-owned stores in the vicinity. Outraged, hundreds of Asians counterattacked, eventually burning the bar that was hosting the event. After the riot (that traumatized the entire country), the Skinheads became associated, in many people’s minds, with rightwing extremism (Brown 2004). Since then, the Skinheads have tended to be associated (in the public mind) with racism, nativism, and neo-Nazi movements. The Skinhead movement, therefore, began as a lifestyle that was positioned as a working-class alternative to rival Brits, such as the Mods, who emphasized fashion, style, sophistication, and higher social status. During this early phase, the Skinheads emulated various disenfranchised groups, such as the Jamaicans, as part of their marginalized or outsider image. As time went on, the growing number of foreigners entering Britain began to compete with working-class Skinheads for jobs as well as for places to live. As these pressures arose, many Skinheads began to exhibit nativistic, racist, and xenophobic tendencies. Today, most people associate the Skinheads with nativism, racism, and xenophobia. Change brought anomie and a loss of opportunities. When this happened, true believers emerged who opposed outsiders. The discussion above, of course, does not do justice to a complex movement with many perspectives and implications. As a result, much has been left out and various streams of thought are unaddressed. Nevertheless, a pattern of intolerance exists within the context of dizzying social change coupled with economic fears and rivalries. A further significance of the Skinheads is that after emerging and evolving within Britain, the movement, its posturing, and attitudes have diffused internationally to other European countries and elsewhere, such as Australia and the United States. Where anomie and economic hardship emerge due to immigration, responses similar to or connected with the Skinhead movement potentially arise.

GERMAN GUEST WORKERS AND NEO-NAZISM In Britain, the Skinheads movement began as a lifestyle that embraced cultural pluralism and accepted immigrants and people of color. Eventually, however, many Skinheads became intolerant, nativist, racist, and xenophobic true believers. This process appears to be linked to economic tensions, increased personal and economic hardships, and the fact that outsiders emerged as rivals and competitors.

52  European True Believers and Xenophobia Adversarial relationships arising due to precarious social and economic situations are nothing new. One of the truisms of 20th-century history is that the severe terms of surrender Germany were forced to accept after World War I, coupled with the hefty reparation demands, was devastating to the country and its people. The resulting economic collapse and the hyper-inflation it experienced (especially in the 1920s) were understandably resented by the German people. Most historians conclude that these adverse economic conditions created an environment that encouraged the Nazi takeover of the Weimar Republic that had been established after Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated. As is well known, furthermore, the Nazi regime advocated extreme examples of nativism, intolerance, racism, and xenophobia, making such attitudes key principles of domestic and international policy. The movement inevitably attracted true believers who never challenged their leaders and embraced the party line without reservation. The justifications for German territorial expansion before World War II is clearly akin to the implications of Romantic Nationalism raised to true believer levels. Thus, Germany demanded that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia must be ceded to Germany because demographically the population was dominated by ethnic Germans who, after the breakup of Austria-Hungry, were reduced to a minority in a country dominated by Czechs and Slovaks. At the Conference of Munich on September 29, 1938, Britain and France allowed Germany to take control of the region for this reason. The justification for such action reflected the principle of ethnic unity. Not all of Germany’s actions, of course, were motivated by visions of the brotherly unification of ethnic Germans with their mother country. As discussed above, a hyperbolic love of one’s culture has the potential to encourage a hatred and rejection of others. As is well known, a shocking policy of intolerance and xenophobia emerged as the dark alter-ego of German nationalism that was uncritically embraced by Nazi true believers. The Nazi attempt to systematically exterminate the Jewish population of Europe is the classic example of such policies. After World War II, most of the German people were ashamed that such activities had been enthusiastically pursued by Nazi true believers. West Germany, as well as present-day unified Germany, has systematically taken proactive steps to condemn such actions and discourage future uprisings reminiscent of them. As late as the 2020s, those who participated in the Nazi genocides (now in their 90s) were being ferreted out and tried for crimes dating back to the early 1940s (Francis and Mateus 2021). Although German atrocities were condemned and harshly punished, after World War II, the victorious allies remembered how the hardships after World War I provided a fertile ground for hostile true believers to arise, leading to Nazi dominance. As a result, economic support (such as

European True Believers and Xenophobia 53 the Marshall Plan) and other rebuilding efforts were dedicated to helping former combatants regain economic security and prosperity. The ultimate goal was to reduce the rise of future true believers capable of disrupting Europe and the world. To a large extent, this goal was achieved. As economic recovery took hold in Germany and as the means of productive were repaired, rebuilt, and replaced, a shortage of labor (that parallels the situation that faced post-war Britain) emerged. Just as Britain attracted workers from its colonies and former colonies, Germany sought recruits from other European countries, but primarily Turkey, to relieve its labor shortage. The result was a large influx of guest workers of Middle Eastern descent, who followed the Islamic faith, and embraced traditions and lifestyles that were very different from the ethnic German heritage. I remember staying in Germany in the early 1980s spending most of my time in industrial cities such as Cologne and Dusseldorf. I was visiting a German graduate student friend and his roommates who lived in a typical graduate student residence … an aging apartment in a low-rent district. While I had expected to spend a couple of weeks in the “real” Germany, I found myself in a Turkish ghetto, with a sprinkling of Germans, such as students, who could only afford the cheapest of housing. This part of town was distinctively ethnic and not to be confused with the rest of Germany. People spoke an alien tongue and the air was full of the smell of cumin and other spices favored by Middle Easterners. In other districts, the Turks were hardly noticeable, but here, on their own turf, they dominated. Ultimately, these newcomers had a role in transforming Germany by diluting the cultural homogeneity that had long existed. Initially, guest workers, such as Turks, could stay in Germany for relatively short periods. These temporary appointments were a nuisance to employers who complained that just as workers were becoming efficient at their tasks, they were sent home and raw recruits had to be trained to replace them. As an accommodation to the industrial sector, the length of time guest workers could remain in Germany was increased. As a result, the number of Turks swelled to the millions with many residing in Germany for extended periods with some being born there. Eventually, the immigration laws were further relaxed and some people of Turkish descent gained a path to citizenship. Today, ethnic Turks are a significant and well-established minority within Germany and a permanent part of the cultural landscape. Many ethnic Germans, furthermore, have developed an interest in Turkish culture. Food often has the ability to create a bond between different peoples. Not surprisingly, ethnic food stalls and Turkish restaurants have sprung up throughout Germany. The popular culture of Germany, furthermore, demonstrates an interest in the Turkish way of life and showcases a tolerance for it. Turkish for Beginners, for example, is a TV series

54  European True Believers and Xenophobia produced from 2006 to 2008 that involves an ethnic German single mother with a teenage daughter who, after becoming romantically involved, ends up living with a Turkish widower and his two teenage children. The result is a situation comedy, much loved by many Germans, that showcases an ethnically diverse blended family. Years after the TV show ceased production, a feature film with the same name and basic premise was released in 2012 that portrayed an ethnic German woman with feminist tendencies marooned on a desert island with a young sex-crazed Turkish man. These examples of popular culture demonstrate that many ethnic Germans have an interest in Turkish culture and can imagine an ethnically mixed relationship. Old ideas and ideologies, however, die hard. In the early 1990s for example, I met a woman at a conference who taught at the University of Leipzig (that during the Soviet era was known as Karl Marx University). Starting with small talk, I said something like, “I see you are from East Germany” but because of the recent reunification I corrected myself to say “I mean the new combined Germany”. Her quick response was “You were right the first time. I’m from East Germany”. While not equating the Nazi regime with East Germany, that response is revealing. People who make a great investment in one system and embrace a particular way of thinking do not easily discard these beliefs and orientations when the winds of change create powerful transformations. Just as some East Germans remained loyal to their old and defunct regime, those raised as Nazis who were taught to laud racial and cultural purity (and other aspects of Nazi dogma) are also likely to maintain such views and pass them on to the next generations even in defeat. Indeed, although Germany lost World War II, vestiges of the Nazi regime and its ideology have survived in politics and in the minds of a significant segment of the population. Many of those who embrace such perspectives do so as true believers. The Action Front of National Socialists that emerged in West Germany in 1977, for example, was a neo-Nazi organization founded in 1977 by Michael Kühnen in Hamburg, Germany. He affirmed, “we are a revolutionary party dedicated to restoring the values of the Third Reich” (McGowan 2002; 198). Seeking to link his movement to the former Nazi regime, Kühnen cultivated relationships with Nazis of the World War II era such as members of veterans’ organizations. The movement quickly adopted aggressive and violent tactics, gaining a reputation for provocative action, including clashing with police in 1978 when staging a “Justice for Hitler” rally. For a few years, Kühnen was imprisoned and during his absence the activities of the organization waned, although once he was freed things heated up again. Eventually, the group was banned but remerged time and time again under different banners until the leader died in 1991.

European True Believers and Xenophobia 55 The Action Front of National Socialists is merely one representative neoNazi group. Up to and including the present time, a wide array of reactionary pro-Nazi groups has been active in Germany. Embracing the Nazi ideology and traditions in a true believer fashion, these groups tend to be nativist, racist/intolerant, and xenophobic. Eventually, neo-Nazis and other similar groups in Germany began to vent their anger and alienation toward the Turks. An early incident occurred in 1992 when two Turkish girls and their grandmother were killed in attacks that injured nine other Turks (Anonymous 2012). Facing such oppression and danger, the Turks have not stood idly by and, on occasion, the German police stepped in to protect German extremists from Turkish vengeance (Anonymous 1993). In any event, extremist thoughts and actions among neo-Nazis and their fellow travelers are not unusual. Although many Germans exhibit tolerance for outsiders and immigrants, others do not. In a report published in the Guardian entitled “I live among the neo-Nazis in eastern Germany. And it’s terrifying”, the author points to the wide support that exists especially in the eastern part of the country that was once East Germany (Anonymous nd). In recent years, tensions regarding non-ethnic Germans have accelerated due to the fact that warfare and population displacements in the Middle East have created a large number of Islamic refugees that are culturally distinct from people of German descent. To its credit, Germany has accepted its fair share of these displaced persons, but doing so concerns various nativist and reactionary elements of society.

LONG-TERM TENSIONS IN FRANCE Historically, Britain had relatively little experience with cultural diversity on its shores although the legacy of the colonial era exposed its military and foreign civil service to the cultural diversity of its colonies. This homogeneity was further solidified by policies dating back to the 17th and 18th centuries that had been designed to ensure the dominance of the Church of England by forcing the Pilgrims and Puritans to leave the country, demanding that Catholics to migrate to Maryland (now part the United States) and other divergent protestants, such as Presbyterians, to migrate to Northern Ireland and eventually resettle in North America, especially Appalachia. Germany (and the small principalities that long existed there until the country was unified of the 19 th century) historically exhibited relatively little cultural variation even though some Germanic people left the Catholic Church during the Reformation, while others did not. The Jewish minority was distinctive, but it had been a part of the cultural and economic landscape for many centuries. As a result, the German

56  European True Believers and Xenophobia people had relatively little experience dealing with the arrival of new groups of outsiders. Thus, Britain and Germany lacked significant experience dealing with cultural diversity within its borders. This was not true with France, a country that has experienced long-term relationships with foreigners, especially North African peoples who embrace Islam. Throughout the 19th century, France was closely intertwined with North Africa, especially Algiers and Morocco, resulting in a significant pattern of migration and cultural exchanges in both directions. In the 1830s, France began the conquest of Algeria that resulted in the country becoming a French colony. The full process of colonialization took many years with some regions embracing French rule and culture while others resisted. Nevertheless, due to its close proximity to France (a short voyage across the Mediterranean), the two became more intimately intertwined than was typical with France’s more far-flung colonies. Over the years, many ethnic French migrated to Algeria and, ultimately, sections of Algeria with a large ethnic French population were accepted as being a part of France. These ethnic French viewing themselves and their land accordingly. During these periods, tensions might have simmered between the ethnic French and the indigenous Algerians although many Muslim Algerians fought with France during World War II. After the war, however, a strong resentment of French rule emerged culminating in the Algerian Revolution that pitted France and the ethnic French of Algeria against indigenous revolutionaries. It was a bloody and violent confrontation with vicious atrocities being committed on both sides. Throughout the conflict, a number of prominent French intellectuals and philosophers, such as Jean Paul Sartre, sided with the rebels; in the process such cultural leaders gained the animosity of those who supported the French cause. After a long and ugly conflict, the indigenous rebels won and France granted Algeria its independence. After Algeria won its independence, a period of cooperation arose because Algeria needed the financial, technical, and administrative expertise French possessed, while France sought the economic advantages that Algeria (and the Algerians) could provide. Since many indigenous Algerians speak French, furthermore, they were poised to fill the gaps when manpower shortages emerge in France. Algerian recruits have continued to fill this role. As a result, the French have experience dealing with a large influx of culturally distinct immigrants, especially those of North African descent who follow the Muslim faith. To understand the full impact of the conflict upon France, the “Pied Noir” (Ethnic French who resided in Algeria) needs to be discussed. After Algerian independence, most people of French descent were forced to leave Algeria relocating to Corsica or mainland France (or migrating elsewhere, including Australia and the United States). Between 1962 and 1964, 800,000

European True Believers and Xenophobia 57 ethnic French left Algeria. Those who settled in France often experienced difficulties because many French disliked the newcomers due to complaints that the indigenous Algerians and Muslims had been mistreated during the era of French rule. Nevertheless, some influential French intellectuals who embraced tolerance and cultural understanding (such as philosophers Jacques Derrida and Albert Camus) are members of this group. In particular, Albert Camus (no relation to Renaud Camus) envisioned a social and economic environment free of prejudice and intolerance, advocating a “new Mediterranean Culture” that he envisioned as a multi-ethnic embracing of the indigenous Algerian people and their Muslim heritage. Albert Camus juxtaposed this prejudice-free and pluralistic alternative with what he called “Latiny”, a mindset that elevated French culture and favored people of European descent: a position popular among many Pieds-Noirs. However, the plight of the Harkis (Muslims and indigenous Algerians, who fought sided with the French during the revolution) has never been resolved. Once the revolution was over and Algeria was the victor, many Harkis were killed in reprisals by revolutionizes seeking revenge. As a result, a large number settled in France; unfortunately, to this day, they have not been fully assimilated and live like refugees. The Algerian nation that emerged after the revolution, furthermore, will not allow Harkis and their descendants to return to their ancestorial homeland. Being treated in such a manner has built resentment and fanned discontent. Starting in 2015 in conjunction with the current Middle Eastern refugee crisis, France accepted its share of asylum seekers. Nevertheless, acts of terrorism against France, such as the massive and well-organized Paris Attack of November 2015 have disrupted the nation and triggered opposition. Although this event was conducted by Muslim extremists of North African and Middle Eastern descent, most of the participants were born and raised in France or Belgium (Anonymous 2016). After these attacks, the support for right-wing political organizations grew along with their demands for stricter policies regarding asylum seekers (Chrisafis 2015). As Bleich (2016) observes, Muslim extremists have often signaled out France for their terrorist campaigns because of the long history of hurtful contact, including the history of France in Algeria. Indeed, over the years, the French have experienced repeated incidents of violence coming from those of North African descent who follow the Muslim faith (Anonymous 2020). Complaints regarding the French treatment of Muslim Algerians continues. In 2021, for example, France reduced the number of visas to be issued to North Africans because of Algeria’s policies of not accepting Algerians being deported from France. In the heated exchanges that followed, Algeria accused France of genocide dating back to the Algerian Revolution of the 1960s (Anonymous 2021). Apparently, actions taken many years ago have not been forgotten.

58  European True Believers and Xenophobia France is where the Great Replacement Theory emerged. And this is where true believers first embraced it.

THE CURRENT SITUATION The foregoing discussion covers a wide range of topics and events in a limited manner. The goal has not been to present a full history, but to recall certain representative examples regarding ethnic contact and nationalistic tendencies. To do so, specific responses of three European countries were examined. Although the responses of each country are distinctive, parallels exist. In Britain, a history of cultural homogeneity long existed. Due to a postWorld War II labor shortage, an influx of labors from the outside caused an unprecedented degree cultural pluralism to emerge. As a result, a workingclass group, known as the Skinheads, developed racist, ethnocentric, and xenophobic tendencies that were especially targeted toward Asians. Also facing a post-war labor shortage, Germany allowed guest workers (mostly from Turkey) to enter Germany, initially on a short-term basis. Today, the Turks have become a significant and entrenched ethnic minority that is changing the character of Germany. Many Germans accept and are comfortable with this minority. Responding to circumstances and/or building upon remnants of the Nazi heritage, others are strongly opposed to such outsiders. This division has created tensions in Germany. From the middle of the 19th-century forward, France has had an intimate contact with North Africa and cultures with a Middle Eastern flavor who practice the Muslim faith. Because many North Africans speak French, they have often served as employees when labor shortages arise. After Algeria won its war of independence, many French Algerians and indigenous Algerians who favored the French relocated to France only to face discrimination and live as unassimilated refugees. As time has gone on, a pattern of violence has arisen, often orchestrated by people of North African descent who practice the Muslim faith, even though many were born in Europe. More recently, these tensions have been amplified by the influx of refugees from the Middle East. This cauldron of tension, unfortunately, has provided a fertile ground for the rise of extremist groups consisting of indigenous Europeans who pit themselves against outsiders. In Chapter 3, a three-factor model was presented that evaluated responses with reference to the (1) Great Replacement Theory, (2) the influence of anomie, upon (3) true believers. The examples of Britain, Germany, and France, which are discussed and reviewed in this chapter, are analyzed in Table 4.1. By understanding these European examples from within the context of the three-factor theory, a better understanding of nativist, xenophobic, and true believer responses can be appreciated. These examples set the stage to discuss distinct, but parallel, responses that have occurred in the United States.

European True Believers and Xenophobia 59 Table 4.1  Three-Factor Analysis of European Examples Replacement

Anomie

True believers

Britain: Beginning as a lifestyle and fashion fad, over time many Skinheads began to wonder if their role in British society was being undercut by outsiders.

The changing ethnic landscape in Britain has created confusion and alienation that reflects anomie that results from demographic change.

Developing a reputation as aggressive opponents of immigrants, the Skinheads acted in ways that are consistent with xenophobic true believers.

Germany: The evolution The Turkish guest worker Regarding the opposition of Turkish guest workers program has resulted in of “outsiders” Germany into a permanent ethnic significant social change has a history of true group is welcomed by that some people find believers. Remnants of some while feared by disrupting and alienating this legacy and new others who are concerned in ways reflective of recruits respond to about their social anomie. prevailing circumstances. position and culture. France: The relationship between France and Algeria has resulted in fears of replacement in both countries.

The French invading Algeria caused anomie in North Africa. Algerians from Algeria are creating anomie in France.

Algerian revolutionaries were true believers. Followers of the Great Replacement Theory are also true believers.

DISCUSSION Although Britain, Germany, and France exhibit significant differences, they all reflect the three-factor model that (1) emphasizes responses reflective of the Great Replacement Theory, (2) tends to involve the influence of anomie upon, (3) true believers who possess xenophobic tendencies.

RELEVANT TERMS Action Front of National Socialists  Representative neo-Nazi group in Germany. Founded by Michael Kühnen in 1977. Algerian Revolution; 1954–1962  An uprising of indigenous Algerians against France that resulted in the establishment of Algeria as an independent nation. Camus, Albert  Noted French philosopher of French-Algerian descent. Not to be confused with Renaud Camus who developed the Great Replacement Theory. Derrida, Jacques  Famous French philosopher and critic of FrenchAlgerian descent. Dr. Marten’s Boots  A brand of work boots long worn by Skinheads as part of their “uniform”. 1848  The year of massive uprisings throughout Europe typically encouraged by Romantic Nationalist yearnings. Enlightenment  An intellectual movement culminating in the 18th century that focused upon scientific inquiry, rational thought, and universal principles.

60  European True Believers and Xenophobia Genocide (Jewish)  A campaign by the Nazi regime of Germany to eliminate the Jewish people of Europe. Guest Worker program (Germany)  After World War II, Germany allowed guest workers to enter the country, initially for a limited period of time. Led to the rise of the established and permanent Turkish minority in Germany. Harkis  Indigenous Algerians who sided with France during the revolution and were exiled to France and elsewhere after the Algerian Revolution was successful. Hegel, Frederick  German philosopher of the 19th century who, along with Johaan Gottfried Herder, popularized the concept of Volkgeist that is closely related to modern views of culture held be social scientists. Herder, Johann Gottfried  A German intellectual of the 18th century who was a catalyst for the emergence of the Romantic Movement. Kühnen, Michael  Founder of Action Front of National Socialists, a representative neo-Nazi group of Germany. Latinty  According to Albert Camus, a focus upon European culture and the assertion that it is superior to North African Culture. Mods  A cultural movement in Britain in the 1960s that emphasized a style and fashion and was popular with middle-class youth. Napoleonic Code  A rational and universal legal code identified with Napoleon. Some complain that it fails to take the local culture into account. New Mediterranean Culture  Envisioned by Albert Camus as an enlightened and non-ethnocentric way of life that fused diverse cultural traditions. New Norse  A updating of the traditional indigenous Norwegian language that became the official language of Norway and it still spoken. Paki Bashing  The act of beating up Pakistani immigrants in Britain largely for fun. Popular among some Skinheads. Pier Noir  Ethnic French expelled from Algeria after the Revolution. Often disliked by fellow French for mistreating Algerians during the colonial period. Powell, Enoch  Conservative British politician who gave the “Rivers of Blood” Speech. Rivers of Blood Speech  A speech given by Enoch Powell in 1968 that was highly critical of policies that allowed significant numbers of immigrants to enter Britain. Romantic Movement  A reaction against the rational and universal Enlightenment. Emphasized cultural specifics and mankind’s emotional character. Romantic Nationalism  Applying Romantic principles to politics in ways that champion the cultural heritage of people and often encourage policies that reflect and reinforce the people’s culture, heritage, and traditions. Southhall Riot  A riot involving Skinheads and Asians that took place in Britain in 1981. Sartre, Jean Paul  French Existential philosopher who favored the indigenous Algerians during the Algerian Revolution.

European True Believers and Xenophobia 61 Skinheads  A working-class lifestyle that initially countered the Mods, but over time developed racist, ethnocentric, and xenophobic tendencies. Sudetenland  A region of Czechoslovakia with a large German ethnic population that Hitler acquired in1938 with the blessing of Britain and France. Turkish for Beginners  A popular German TV show and Movie dealing with mixed German and Turkish romantic relationships. Turkish minority  After World War II, a large influx of guest workers came to Germany resulting in a large and established minority population that is changing Germany. Volkgeist  “The spirit of the people”. A focus upon the cultural heritage of people and its importance. Wordsworth, William  A British poet identified with the emergence of the Romantic Movement.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the basic orientations of the Enlightenment? How did the Romantic Movement counter these perspectives? How did the Romantism draw attention to cultural distinctiveness and its value? Explain how such ideas developed into a political orientation. 2. Who were the Mods? How can the Skinhead movement be seen as a counter to the Mods? How and why did the Skinheads initially emulate outsiders? How and why did the Skinhead movement develop nativistic, ethnic, and xenophobic tendencies? 3. Discuss the evolution of the Turkish guest worker program in Germany. How did the resulting Turkish minority transform Germany? Discuss the neo-Nazi movements of Germany in relation to the Turkish minority. How is the current Middle Eastern refugee emergency program impacting Germany? 4. Discuss the French relationship with Algeria. How did the ethnic French of Algeria tend to relate to France and to Algeria? Analyze the Algerian Revolutions and its influence within France. Discuss with reference to the violent upheavals of ethnic Middle Easterners extremists against France. 5. How are the experiences of Britain and Germany different from those of France? Juxtapose and compare the emergence of nativist, racist, and xenophobic true believers in these three countries. Discuss with reference to the recent influx of refugees from the Middle East.

REFERENCES Anonymous (nd). “I Live among the Neo-Nazis in Eastern Germany. And It’s Terrifying.” The Guardian. Accessed March 10, 2021, at www.theguardian.com/ commentisfree/2018/oct/31/neo-nazi-eastern-chemnitz-germany-saxony.

62  European True Believers and Xenophobia Anonymous (1993). “Turks Riot, Set Fires in Germany.” The Washington Post. (June 1). Anonymous (2012). “Neo-Nazi Fire Attack Still Smolders 20 Years on.” Deutsche Welle. (November 22). Anonymous (2016). “Paris Attacks: Who Were the Attackers?” BBC News. (November 13). Archived from the original on April 28, 2016. Anonymous (2020). “A Timeline of Extremist Attacks in France in Recent Years.” The Associated Press. Retrieved October 10, 2021. https://abcnews. go.com/International/wireStory/timeline-extremist-attacks-france-recentyears-73904981. Anonymous (2021). “Algeria Accuses France of Genocide, Recalls Ambassador Amid Visa Spat.” Haaretz. (October 3). Barnard, Frederick M. (2004). Herder on Nationality, Humanity, and History. (Montreal: McGill Queens University Press). Bleich, Erik (2016) “France Has Had More than Its Share of Terrorist Attacks. These 3 Factors Explain Why.” Monkey Cage. (July 18). Retrieved August 10, 2021. Monkey Cage (themonkeycage.org). Brown, Timothy S. (2004). “Subcultures, Pop Music and Politics: Skinheads and ‘Nazi Rock’ in England and Germany.” Journal of Social History. 38(1): 157–78. Chrisafis, Angelique (2015). “Marine Le Pen’s Front National Makes Political Gains after Paris Attacks.” The Guardian. (December 1). Francis, Ellen and Mateus, Sofia (2021). “A 96-Year-Old Former Nazi Camp Secretary Was Supposed to Stand Trial. She Tried to Flee Instead.” Washington Post. (October 5). Marshall, George (1996). Skinhead Nation. (North Grafton, MA: ST Publishing). Mason, Emma. (2010). The Cambridge Introduction to William Wordsworth. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). McGowan, Lee (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. (London: Pearson Education). Powell, Enoch (1968). “So-called Rivers of Blood Speech.” (Conservative Political Center, Birmingham, England, April 20). Vikør, Lars S. (2015). “Norwegian: Bokmål vs. Nynorsk.” Språkrådet. sprakradet.no.

5

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understanding how Americans have long valued self-reliance and personal freedom, viewing themselves and their civilization according to such yardsticks in ways that are not necessarily racist and xenophobic. 2. Appreciating how racism and xenophobia in the United States, stunted but not eradicated during civil rights era, are resurfacing and being embraced by a segment of true believers who possess regional identities. 3. Perceiving how the current immigrant and refugee crises (coupled with racial tensions) have encouraged combining (1) an inflated emphasis upon personal freedom with (2) racism and xenophobia. 4. Comparing and contrasting these reactions with those of Europe. 5. Considering how these diverse trends are converging in ways that solidify a variety of racist and xenophobic true believers into a larger and more unified movement that gains power through synergism.

INTRODUCTION The people of the United States (AKA “America”) have historically exhibited racial and ethnic tensions regarding Afro-Americans, American Indians, and other groups. Religious and ethnic minorities have also faced discrimination and adversity. Such prejudicial responses have long existed even through racism and xenophobia are not universal characteristics of all Americans. American racism, locally and nationally, dates back at least to (1) the slave era and (2) conflicts with indigenous peoples. Both had a significant role in shaping American civilization. American settlers, for example, long competed on the frontier with indigenous people and colonial rivals from Europe. Slaves, furthermore, were long deployed as the primary means of fueling domestic agrarian industries (tobacco and cotton production) of regional and national significance. Patterns of immigration added to the complexity. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-8

64  American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia In this chapter, the distinctiveness of the American experience is discussed. A concluding comparison juxtaposes emerging trends in America and Europe.

THE FRONTIER THESIS, “ORGANIZATION MEN”, AND FREEDOM While driving through East Germany to visit West Berlin in the early 1980s, I stopped at a “duty free” shop (similar to those found in airports) to get cheap, tax-free liquor as a gift for my host. The entrance to the store was decorated with a cigarette poster featuring “the Marlboro Man”: a horseman astride his mount that was long an icon for the brand. I commented to my companion that I hardly expected to be welcomed to communist East Germany by an American cowboy. Soon after, a young East German girl, a clerk in the store, came up and urged me not to draw attention to the poster. She went on to admit that she was planning to steal it. When I asked her why, she stated that it would be hung in her bedroom, noting, “Look at him. Look at the land. There’s not a fence in sight”. This response came from a young woman who was only too aware of the Berlin Wall: a stout barrier that, in those days, shut off East Germany from the rest of the world. America has long been viewed as a land of freedom. That was true in the East Germany of the 1980s and is also true among generations of Americans who jealously cherish their liberty, define themselves accordingly, and pledge to fiercely defend it. As a result, many Americans balk or rebel if they sense that their freedom is being challenged. Such people do not view the growing regimentation of the modern world as an inevitable side-effect of social complexity; instead, such constraints are lamented as a loss of personal liberty that was originally God-given and/ or won with the blood of patriots. These reactions roughly parallel those described by Freud (1930) in his Civilization and its Discontents, a classic musing about the psychological and emotional trauma caused by intruding social constraints that limit what people can do. In important ways, these perspectives reflect sentiments that in the 1890s were codified in Frederick Jackson Turner’s Frontier Thesis of American History that celebrates the lessons learned confronting an untamed land, the personal freedom that emerged from these experiences, and their positive impact upon American civilization. In “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893), Turner celebrates how competing in a harsh land gave rise to an imposing civilization that transcended the Old World that had become overcivilized and, as a result, weakened. He argues “To the frontier the American intellect owes its striking characteristics. That coarseness of strength with … inquisitiveness, that practical, inventive turn of mind” (Turner 1893). Writing in the 1890s, Turner recognized that the frontier was “closed” but predicted

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia 65 that having learned the lessons of the strenuous life, Americans had inherited a permanent competitive edge. Leaders of the era, including President Theodore Roosevelt of Rough Rider fame, agreed with such a pronouncement (Slotkin 1981). In recent years, some critics have complained that because Turner tends to focus upon white Europeans his vision has racist overtones (Washington 1993). In any event, this classic depiction of the American experience showcases mostly white adventurers taming the West and evolving into supermen in the process. This scenario, widely accepted for generations, emerged as a popular origin myth of America as well as provided a code to live by and criteria to use when evaluating one’s self and others. Eventually, the luster of the Frontier Thesis began to fade. One example of this shift is provided in William H. Whyte’s classic assessment of American industry The Organization Man (1956). Whyte envisions a world with little place for rugged individualists, such as those championed by Turner even though such a persona continued to serve as an attractive role model. Whyte emphasizes that such traits and skills have little practical application in a business world typified by mega-corporations that were increasingly bureaucratic. Thus, a post-individualistic age has beset America. Whyte goes on to suggest that the individualists who function in large organizations can choose from two equally unattractive options (1) acting according to their ingrained code of freedom and self-reliance and failing, or (2) compromising and debasing themselves in order to succeed. Apparently, Whyte’s argument suggests, rapid change in America is creating anomie because those who continue to live by the code of the frontier face hardship and marginalization. The implications of combining Turner’s and Whyte’s observations are clear. First, Turner argues that America and Americans initially gained a competitive edge by embracing freedom and independence. Writing decades after Turner, Whyte observes that the ability to function in such a manner has atrophied and those who do not adjust are likely to suffer. Under such circumstances, those loyal to the rugged individualism celebrated by Turner are destined to fail. Success, in contrast, will come to those who compromise themselves.

THE CULT OF FREEDOM AND ITS LEGACY A key point that Whyte makes is that although rugged individualism is no longer a productive strategy, many people continue to embrace it. As a result, underachievement and disappointment can easily result. This is exactly the type of experience that can lead to anomie that, in turn, potentially triggers true believer responses. Some people lash out when confronted with such obstacles. In a horrific and extreme example, Timothy McVeigh bombed the Oklahoma City federal building in 1995 in retaliation for what he felt was overreach by the federal government. Although McVeigh’s responses were excessive and horrible, his

66  American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia actions are merely the most efficient example of recent domestic terrorist attacks. Many people, it seems, are experiencing anomie and lashing out because they feel that they are being displaced from their world. As cultural and social analysts routinely argue, examples of entertainment (such as novels, movies, and TV shows) reflect what concerns specific target audiences. Thus, successful examples of popular culture (such as movies and TV shows) provide clues regarding the feelings, opinions, and dilemmas of audiences (Walle 1997). Consider, for example, movies and TV series that deal with zombie apocalypses. A basic premise of such shows is that after catastrophes and governmental breakdowns, pockets of survivors learn to fend for themselves and survive under hostile conditions. A classic example is The Walking Dead (2010–2022) that aired on the American Movie Classics cable TV channel from 2010 to 2022 and has spun off a number of additional series. For most of the series, former law enforcement officer, Rick Grimes, leads his community in the battle against zombies. In the process the skills of individualism and self-reliance are rekindled. The popularity of the series demonstrates that a significant target audience is concerned with themes related to social disruption, governmental breakdown, and the need reassert fading traits such as self-reliance and down-home common sense. Other examples of popular culture deal with situations where rouge governments misuse their power such as Mel Gibson’s Conspiracy Theory (1997): the story of a fanatic who, we eventually learn, was “reprogramed” by clandestine governmental forces. When his memories begin to return, the “deep state” attempts to silence him. In Enemy of the State (1998) a politician is killed because he will not support the enhanced governmental surveillance of private citizens. In 7 Days in May (1964) a powerful army general attempts a political coup during the height of the Cold War. On occasion, conspiracy theories are dealt with using black humor, such as Wag the Dog (1997) that portrays directing attention away from a presidential candidate’s sexual indiscretions by convincing the American public that a war is in progress. And who can forget the dark humor in Dr. Strangelove (1964) that concerns a deranged Air Force commander (General Jack D. Ripper) whose paranoia results in World War III? All of these examples are consistent with and reflect the attitudes of people who experience anomie because they believe America is changing in ways that restrict their freedom. For generations, the myth of the frontier provided Americans with the belief that they possessed special abilities (American exceptionalism) because of their country of origin. Increasingly that view is challenged. As we saw, for example, William H. Whyte points to the eclipse of the rugged individualism as a powerful and productive force. Many people, however, continue to embrace the frontier “origin myth” of America and use it as a yardstick of strategic prowess and personal evaluation. Under these conditions, anomie (and the lashing out triggered by it) are distinct possibilities.

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia 67

MELTING POTS, SALAD BOWLS, AND XENOPHOBIA The Frontier Thesis focuses primarily upon how the challenges of an untamed frontier invigorated wave after wave of settlers moving ever Westward during a relentless 400-year advance. Frederick Jackson Turner envisions this process creating a new and largely homogeneous civilization possessing unprecedented vitality. The honing of individualism, and the resulting self-reliance are central to Turner’s vision. Even today, as suggested above, a significant segment of the American population appears to maintain this world view. America, however, has other origin myths: “The Melting Pot Hypothesis” envisions all Americans blending into an increasingly homogeneous population through the merging of diverse contributions made by a wide variety of cultural and ethnic groups. In America, this model is associated with Zangwill (1908) and his early 20th-century play The Melting Pot: a melodramatic love story about a couple of mixed Christian and Jewish descent confronting prejudice in ways that anticipate the rise of a new and less bigoted way of life (Kraus 1999; Szuberla 1995). Just as Theodore Roosevelt was drawn to the Frontier Thesis, he praised Zangwill’s play (Szuberla 1995). After gaining a foothold from Zangwill’s work, the Melting Pot theory gained credence as a depiction of America that embraces some sort of utopian racial, cultural, and/or religious intermingling. According to the Melting Pot paradigm, the crucial influence upon American civilization is social and/or cultural contact with others, not the challenges of confronting an unforgiving environment. Focusing upon distinctive survivals is sometimes called the Salad Bowl model (Kolb 2009) that envisions diverse cultures, religions, and ethnic groups maintaining themselves even if significant assimilation takes place. Just as tomatoes, celery, radishes, and olives contribute to the collective salad, each component of society maintains its own identity. When viewed from a positive perspective, doing so is viewed as a means of adding complexity, depth, and variation to the American way of life. Although it is possible to envision how a salad bowl environment might reduce prejudice and build tolerance by bringing different people together in positive ways, the opposite outcome is also possible. The Great Replacement Theory (discussed above), for example, asserts that a Salad Bowl demographic of distinctive cultural, ethnic, and racial groups in Europe has not generated tolerance and mutual respect and, in contrast, is fanning the flames of fear, prejudice, and xenophobia. There is nothing new or unusual about such observations even if they are unfortunate, pessimistic, and distasteful. Throughout the world, ethnocentrism and xenophobia are commonplace, especially when different ways of life push against each other in competition. Harsh Ethnic Cleansing has often occurred under such circumstances. Such a negative potential of a Salad Bowl demographic

68  American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia structure can also be applied to the United States where the continued distinctiveness of various peoples can (and has) led to hurtful consequences. Indeed, the negative potential of a Salad Bowl milieu can be used to portray a wide range of American responses when racial, ethnic, and religious differences remain intact. A thumbnail history of such situations can be quickly recited. The inequities and hardships endured by the indigenous peoples of North America, for example, are well known and contain appalling examples of both biological and cultural genocides. The original European settlers, who were victims of discrimination and hate in Europe, were forced to venture to an untamed land (as the Pilgrims did to escape religious persecution, and perhaps cultural assimilation in Holland). Once in North America, many of those who had been persecuted (especially the Puritans) became equally intolerant of others. Even Maryland, a colony founded to provide a home for displaced English Catholics saw their own homeland enact legislation that discriminated against the faith. Rhode Island, in positive contrast, provided a laudable haven of toleration for dissenters and the unwanted, such as Jewish immigrants. Pennsylvania, furthermore, was founded by Quakers who also favored the acceptance of others. The institution of slavery, of course, created a social and economic underclass that possessed limited rights compared to others. Unlike the stoic philosophers of ancient Rome who viewed slaves as people forced into servitude due to bad luck (such as being captured in war), in America the case was made that people of African descent were inherently destined for slavery due to their race. Justifications for this pecking order derived from Biblical “proof texts”, include an interpretation of the story of Ham, a son of Noah who made fun of his father and, as a punishment, God demanded that he and his descendants should forever serve Noah’s other sons and their offspring. According to a widely held justification for slavery (recited to me as a child in East Tennessee during the 1950s), Ham was the first Negro and, therefore, his descendants (including Afro-Americans) are commanded by God to serve the other races. After the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan emerged as a reactionary force determined to preserve the essence if not the legal foundation of slavery (which over time was transformed into servitude). Although the Klan was outlawed and dismantled by the Federal Government, white dominance reemerged and the former slaves and their children were stripped of most of the progress that had been made. Other ethnic groups have been stigmatized. In the 1820s, legions of Irish Catholic laborers arrived in New York State to help build the Erie Canal and were met with prejudice even while providing skilled services that, otherwise, were unavailable. The original Irish immigrants to North America, however, were Protestants who settled in Pennsylvania and Appalachia largely in the 18th century. Initially referring to themselves as Irish, they eventually adopted

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia 69 the identity of Scotch-Irish to avoid being confused with the defamed Irish Catholic newcomers. To this day, these Scotch-Irish have remained as a proud and identifiable ethnic group even if others sometimes refer to them using the pejorative term “hillbilly”. Although facing a degree of prejudice and bias, they have made significant contributions to American life (such as their rich musical traditions). During the post-Civil War period of economic growth and mass immigration, people from a variety of backgrounds flooded into the United States. Initially, only a few groups (such as the Chinese) faced significant obstacles, but as the demographic makeup of the country began to change many “established” Americans began to fear that the diversity caused by largely unregulated immigration was transforming the country in ways they felt were unacceptable. During this period, the large influx of Catholics was a significant concern to many people. Eventually, restrictive laws were passed, most significantly, the National Origins Formula (in effect from 1921 to 1965) that established immigration quotes based upon national origin, although exceptions were sometimes made, such as allowing displaced Jews after World War II to immigrate (see Jacobson 1998). These tensions grew to a boiling point in the 1920s with a new nativistic movement (active throughout the country) resurrected the post-Civil War Ku Klux Klan, and adopted its regalia and methods, such as cross burnings. My mother, born in 1921 and raised in rural Michigan (Big Rapids), for example, told me that as a young girl she remembered seeing burning crosses and other Klan activities, in the small, college town where she was raised. My mother went on to say that the events were terrifying and led to nightmares even though she and her family were not Catholic or singled out as unwanted. Largely inspired by what was viewed as the Catholic threat, this revived Klan emerged as a “large tent” organization able to accommodate those who were opposed to almost any group that was not white and Protestant. Today, the stigma against many ethnic and religious groups has lessened although others continue to face discrimination and a second-class status. As usual, the Jews experienced prejudice, but the persecution they faced in America was not as bad as in Europe, leading to a large influx of Jews (many from Poland, Eastern Europe, and Russia). Prejudice against Asians, long present on the West Coast, grew during World War II when fears arose that Japanese Americans might emerge as a clandestine “fifth column” opposing the American war effort. The post-World War II era saw the rise of a massive and well-organized civil rights movement spearheaded by the NAACP that in the 1960s met with significant success. To counter these activists, a third version of the Ku Klux Klan emerged that still exists causing many civil rights advocates to complain that the benefits promised have not materialized. The tendency to withhold rights and freedom from groups such as AfroAmericans, of course, has always been far from universal. Millions of

70  American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia progressive white people have long embraced tolerant, pluralistic, and unbiased perspectives and have done so for many generations. Thus, during the era of slavery, powerful forces from throughout white America participated in the struggle for abolition (including acclaimed intellectuals such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, the Transcendentalist movement, and a well-established anti-slavery campaign). The 1960s civil rights movement, furthermore, was fueled by the efforts of innumerable white advocates and allies, including popular culture icons such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez. A number of white activists died as a result of their participation in the struggle. Many other put themselves in “harm’s way”. Thus, a salad bowl environment (which comprised various segments that are not totally assimilated) can invite tensions, ethnocentrism, and xenophobia among some segments of the population. Such tendencies dovetail with the tenets of Romantic Nationalism that insist that social and cultural homogeneity are key aspects of a well-functioning country or social structure. Although the power of such sentiments has waxed and waned over the years, they have never totally gone away and today they survive, ready to resurface when conditions are ripe for resurgence. Currently, various tensions regarding ethnic, racial, and religious differences are creating such an environment.

REFUGEES AND DEMOGRAPHICS If the preference for cultural and social homogeneity (such as that advocated by Romantic Nationalism) is merged with the cult of freedom, a combination that possesses xenophobia potentially arises. Such a melding can easily occur in sparsely populated regions where people typically have less contact with those who are “different” coupled with a lifestyle that is less structured and typified by a stronger emphasis upon individual freedom. Where these characteristics exist in tandem, a potential for racial and ethnic tension is enhanced. Such tendencies can be expected to swell where racial and ethnic divisions, pressures, and inequities have a long history, such as the Southeastern region of the United States which is largely rural and where slavery once existed. In other rural regions, including parts of the Northwest where anti-governmental feeling and survivalist tendencies are strong, such sentiments appear to be merging with the xenophobic attitudes even though the Northwest is seldom thought of as a Bastian of prejudice. In addition to purely domestic issues, international pressures and events potentially contribute to a growth of xenophobia. Increasingly, illegal entry into the United States from the southern border is being recognized as a significant problem, leading many Americans to complain about illegal migration. Such fears and concerns fan the flames of xenophobia.

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia 71 As we all know, concerns regarding the Southern border have raised anxieties for many years. Historically, however, a tendency existed to look the other way because a porous border provides significant benefits to the economy of the United States. Although illegal entry has long been officially frowned upon, for example, during the harvest season, farmers have had no choice except to utilize short term help from Mexico. Many Mexicans, in turn, have become dependent upon this symbiotic relationship that provided them with an opportunity to earn cash money. After sneaking into the country, many migratory workers would travel from place-to-place as the crops matured, staying at a specific location for a week or two before moving on. Many rode from job to job in dilapidated former school busses owned by labor brokers. These illegal immigrants (historically called “wetbacks” because popular lore asserts that they probably swam across the Rio Grande River to gain entry into the United States) venture from farm to farm providing harvesting services. Many locals tended to look at these interlopers with suspicion. I remember, as a young child, my mother warning me to steer clear of such people when they arrived in late summer to pick cucumbers to feed the local pickle factory. Even more problematic to many Americans is a concern that as the demographic structure of the United States evolves, the nature and character of the country might be transformed in ways that many conservative Americans dread. Projections of such a national transformation have long been made both by (1) those who fear such a restructuring and by (2) others who celebrate the potential for such a transformation. Those who fear this possibility have much in common with Europeans who accept the Great Replacement Theory. On occasion, rhetoric reminiscent of European xenophobia has emerged in America. At the Charlottesville “Unite the Right” rally in August 2017, for example, a gathering of racist and xenophobic groups chanted “you will not replace us” and “Jews will not replace us” in a manner reflective of Europeans who embrace the Great Replacement Theory. The Nazi slogan “blood and soil” that has been revived in the 21st century by European xenophobic protesters was also used by Americans. More recently, a number of international developments have emerged that further fuel the illegal alien and refugee crises in ways that increase tension and the xenophobia that arises in tandem with it. Throughout Central America (in countries such as Guatemala and Honduras), rampant poverty and crime have created a situation where many people see no alternative except to attempt to enter the United States (one way or another). As a result, a major humanitarian crisis has emerged. Adding to the complexity of the immigration situation is the influx of refugees from other regions, including the Middle East, Afghanistan, and, more recently, Ukraine. To make the situation of these newcomers even more complicated is the fact that many Americans believe that these refugees are threats to the United States.

72  American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia

SYNGERISM AND EXTREMISM Americans tend to value freedom and, perhaps, define themselves with reference to it. Today, an array of true believers envision that an array of governmental controls and regulations are unjustly denying many Americans their legitimate freedom. Some of these fears (such as the rumor that COVID-19 shots might contain tracking devices designed to control people and reveal their movements) appear to be irrational paranoia. Typically, such complaints are linked to theories that the “deep state” is usurping more and more control, and doing so for its own purposes to the detriment of the freedom once enjoyed by the American people. Many Americans also conclude that the loss of freedom they, supposedly, are experiencing is linked to outsiders, intruders, and other Americans who are distinctive in some way for racist, religious, or ethnic reasons. Those with prejudice against others, furthermore tend to feel that they should have the freedom to avoid those people by, for example, being permitted to deny them goods and services that they otherwise would provide. When the government challenges such thinking, the charge is made that freedom is being lost due to governmental overreach. Such thinking combines a love of freedom with prejudice and xenophobia in ways that justify intolerance. Such strategies evolve as Americans merge their home-grown concerns with rationales such as the Great Replacement Theory. Thus, the Charlottesville Unite the Right rally of 2017 combined a local issue (the fate of a statue honoring Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his favorite horse Traveler) with European slogans and Great Replacement Theory rhetoric. Such nativist initiatives combine European thinking with an American emphasis upon freedom regarding local xenophobic tendencies. In recent decades, the freedom to hurtfully impact others in prejudicial ways has been somewhat repressed by law and by public opinion. Apparently, however, these controls are ceasing to be as effective as they once were. For decades, liberals and progressives often concluded that xenophobic tendencies were vestigial remains from the past and dying out. In reality, such sentiments quietly survived. Today, a revival of such thought and action has emerged as a powerful and growing force.

A CONCLUDING STATEMENT Americans love freedom. According to the Frontier Thesis, furthermore, the quest for freedom fought while confronting a rugged and unforgiving wilderness gave rise to a distinctive American civilization. If the Frontier Thesis is accurate or not, many Americans think of themselves with reference to it and are attracted to its vision of America and their heritage. Although a love of freedom is not inherently xenophobic, the two can be combined in synergistic ways. These tendencies are easily fueled by historic tensions between racial, cultural, and religious groups. Thus, such feelings

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia 73 of prejudice and xenophobia regarding Afro-Americans are relatively overt among whites in the Southeastern United States, a largely rural area and the region where slavery once existed. Xenophobia in America, of course, expands beyond the Southeast (as demonstrated by the revival of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s that largely, but not exclusively, targeted Midwestern Catholics). This is true even though a wide range of progressive Americans have always championed tolerance and equity. The tendency toward xenophobia is growing due to a variety of tense relationships, including incidents involving (1) a resurgence of racism, (2) increased illegal immigrations across the southern border, and (3) the arrival of refugees from areas such the Middle East and Afghanistan. These trends are merging with enflamed rhetoric originating in Europe such as that associated with the Great Replacement Theory. Freedom can be viewed from both a macro and a micro perspective. Those advocating tolerance and equality tend to adopt a macro approach that seeks universal justice for all, while the xenophobic alternatives typically embrace a more micro perspective that defends an ability to act in extreme ways using the cult of freedom as a justification.

RELEVANT TERMS Abolitionist Movement  Pre-Civil War opposition to slavery in the United States. Baez, Joan  Famous folk singer and advocate for the civil rights movement. “Blood and Soil”  Nazi slogan revived by the Great Replacement Theory movement and chanted at the Charlottesville, Virginia Unite the Right rally in 2017. Charlottesville, Virginia  City where the Unite the Right rally took place in 2017. Civil Rights Era  A movement that advocated for civil rights centered in the Southeastern United States culminating with significant successes in the 1960s, although additional efforts are being made today. Civilization and its Discontents (1930)  Book by Sigmund Freud that deals with the fact that tensions arise due to the restrictions put on people by society. Dylan, Bob  Famous folk singer and advocate for the civil rights movement. Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803–1882)  American intellectual and Transcendental leader who opposed slavery. Freud, Sigmund  Noted psychoanalyst who wrote Civilization and its Discontents. Frontier Thesis  An interpretation of American history developed by Frederick Jackson Turner that argues that the challenges of the frontier during Westward expansion led to the creation of a distinctive American civilization. Ham  A son of Biblical character Noah who was punished for making fun of his father by being forced to serve his brothers. One justification for

74  American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia Afro-American slavery asserts that Ham was the first Negro and God commended his descendants to serve the other races. Irish  Catholic Irish who first came to America in the early 19th century and were met with discrimination. “Jews will not replace us/You will not replace us”  Slogan used by the Great Replacement Theory movement in Europe and chanted at the Charlottesville Unite the Right movement in 2017. Ku Klux Klan  Extremist organization after the Civil War designed that sought to reestablish life as it had been before the war. Dismantled by the Federal Government. Ku Klux Klan (version 2)  A new organization largely anti-Catholic but broad enough to oppose a wide variety of groups that were not Protestant and white. Ku Klux Klan (version 3)  A revival of the Klan that opposed the civil right movement of the 1960s and continues in various forms to this day. Lee, Robert E.  Confederate General. A goal of the Charlottesville Unite the Right Rally was to protect a status honoring Lee and his favorite horse, Traveler. McVeigh, Timothy  The 1995 Oklahoma City Bomber. Migrant Workers  Traveling field hands, many being illegal Mexican immigrants, who harvest crops. Their participation has long been essential to the farming industry. National Origins Formula  A mathematical model designed to maintain the demographic structure of the United States. In effect from 1921 to 1965. Oklahoma City Bombing  An act of terror conducted by Timothy McVeigh that protested what McVeigh believed to be unjustified federal intrusions. Pennsylvania  A colony settled by members of the Quaker faith who were tolerant of other religions. Pilgrims  A protestant group similar to the Puritans that sailed on the Mayflower and settled in the Plymouth Plantation in Massachusetts in 1620 after a stay in Holland. Puritans  A conservative Protestant sect in England that migrated to Massachusetts in the 1630s. Rhode Island  A colony and state typified by tolerance and religious freedom. Salad Bowl theory  A paradigm that asserts that American civilization is typified by a variety of distinct parts that, like components in a salad, maintain their identity and unique flavor. Scotch-Irish Protestant Irish who migrated to Pennsylvania and Appalachia in the 18th century. Southern Border  The border of the United States and Mexico. Over the years, much illegal migration has taken place there. Stoic Philosophy  Ancient Greek/Roman philosophy that taught that slaves were people who merely had bad luck (such as being captured in war) and were not inherently inferior. The Melting Pot (1908)  A play by Israel Zangwill that suggests that assimilation and co-mingling of distinctive peoples is destined to reduce prejudice and create a homogenous culture.

American Freedom, Salad Bowls, and Xenophobia 75 The Organization Man  A book by William H. Whyte (1956) that argues that a group mentality in big business is replacing individualism. Transcendentalists  A liberal movement centered in new England in the first half of the 19th century that, among other actions, opposed slavery. Turner, Frederick Jackson (1861–1932)  American Historian who created the Frontier Thesis of American history. Unite the Right Rally  A right-wing political rally that got out of control that was held in Charlottesville, Virginia in 2017. Whyte, William H. (1917–1999)  Business observer who wrote The Organization Man. Zangwill, Israel (1864–1926)  Author of play The Melting pot. Zombie Apocalypse  A genre of popular culture that depicts the breakdown of the government and the need of personal self-reliance.

REFERENCES Conspiracy Theory (1997). Feature Film Directed by Richard Donner. Dr. Strangelove (1964). Feature film directed by Stanley Kubrick. Enemy of the State (1998). Feature Film directed by Tony Scott. Freud, Sigmund (1930). Civilization and Its Discontents. (New York: Penguin, 2002). Jacobson, Matthew Frye (1998). Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Kolb, Eva (2009). The Evolution of New York City’s Multiculturalism: Melting Pot or Salad Bowl. (Books on Demand). Kraus, Joe (1999). “How The Melting Pot Stirred America: The Reception of Zangwill’s Play and Theater’s Role in the American Assimilation Experience.” MELUS. 24(3): Varieties of Ethnic Criticism. (Autumn, 1999), 3–19. Slotkin, Richard (1981). “Nostalgia and Progress: Theodore Roosevelt’s Myth of the Frontier.” American Quarterly. 33(5): Special Issue: American Culture and the American Frontier (Winter 1981), 608–37. Szuberla, Guy (1995). “Zangwill’s The Melting Pot Plays Chicago.” MELUS. 20(3): History and Memory. (Autumn, 1995), 3–20. The Walking Dead (2010–2022). TV series originally broadcast on American Movie Classics cable network. Turner, Frederick Jackson (1893) The Significance of the Frontier in American History (Meeting of the American Historical Society held in Chicago, Illinois) Wag the Dog (1997). Feature film directed by Barry Levinson. Walle, Alf H. (1997). “Hack Writers V. Belle Letters: The Strategic Implications of Literary Achievement.” Journal of Popular Culture. 30: 3. Washington, Margaret (1993). “African American History and the Frontier Thesis.” Journal of the Early Republic. 13(2 Summer): 230–241. Whyte, William H. (1956). The Organization Man. (New York: Simon and Schuster). Zangwill, Israel (1908). The Melting Pot. Electronic version available at e-book, Gutenberg Project. (Washington, D.C.: Columbia Theatre [Premiered on October 5, 2008]).

Epilogue to Section 2 Examples from Europe and North America

In Europe, various examples of contact between different social groups have occurred. The British long controlled a massive colonial empire, but domestic contact with outsiders was limited. This situation changed after World War II, resulting in xenophobic feelings among some members of the population, especially the working class. In Germany, the post-war Turkish guest worker program created a permanent ethnic and religiously divergent minority that has become a permanent feature of German society. The Turkish issue, combining with the contemporary refugee crisis, has become a source of tension. In France, close relations with North Africans coupled with the trauma of the Algerian Revolution led to both intimacy and tension. The Great Replacement Theory is a product of the French experience. In the United States, the relationships with indigenous peoples and other distinctive races and ethnic groups have been more intimate and long-term than in Europe, even though tensions have often arisen in hurtful and even violent ways. In addition, the American focus on personal freedom emphasizes orientations that can be merged with a xenophobic belief that avoiding others (even in disruptive ways) is a personal right. Although some Americans envision the Melting Pot paradigm as reflective of friendly co-existence, the Salad Bowl model (and its emphasis upon the survival of distinctive characteristics of specific groups in spite of assimilation) is consistent with the possibility of hostility and xenophobia (as has been observed in Europe). This potential should not be forgotten. The differences between the responses of Europe and the United States to cultural, racial, and religious differences are recognized. Nevertheless, a pattern of borrowing ideas and concepts from one another exists.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-9

Prologue to Section 3 Reactions and Tensions

The opening chapters of this book present a theoretic overview, beginning with a discussion of anomie, alienation, and unmitigated change. These concepts were combined with Eric Hoffer’s vision of the “true believer” (those who, reacting to circumstances, embrace a cause or point of view without question or reservation). Questions arose regarding how such responses can lead to dysfunction, tension, and unrest. Section 1 concluded with an analysis of the Great Replacement Theory that developed in France (and has diffused worldwide); it suggests that in the developed West, newly arrived ethnic, racial, and religious minorities have the potential to create social and demographic changes that transform the traditional populations into minorities and aliens within their own land. Having developed this chain of thought, Section 2 dealt with examples and their implications from Europe and the United States. In Section 3, theories and tools of social activism are discussed. Two representative examples include Critical Race Theory and the Cancel Culture movement. Critical Race Theory explores how legal, social, and economic realities in the United States can work against the best interests of minorities, especially Afro-Americans while providing Caucasians with “white privilege”. Evolving from Critical Theory (a dialectical form of analysis going back to the 1930s), Critical Race Theory envisions the existence of two rival forces competing for assets and advantages in what amounts to a zero-sum game. Because the paradigm assumes that conflict plays a central role in cultural transformations, it is not well suited for dealing with norms, cooperation, compassion, and so forth. Such unguarded and hyperbolic orientations can be oversimplistic and problematic. Nevertheless, hyperbolic criticisms, at times, have their benefits within a process of debate and analysis. Thus, Critical Race Theory can serve as a useful rhetorical devise when evaluating and debating options, even though it, operating in isolation, does not provide a complete and accurate analysis. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-10

78  Prologue to Section 3 Chapter 7 deals with what has been called the Cancel Culture movement. While Critical Race Theory deals with an academic theory, the Cancel Culture movement provides action-oriented methods and techniques. Its basic goal is to limit the power and respect of those who are opposed. These tools can be viewed as generic and can be used by those who are involved in both sides of a debate. Those who are aware of and awake to the inequalities and problems of life and society can be referred to as “woke”. Originally used by Afro-American, the term has recently gained more mainstream usage. While liberals use it as a compliment, for conservatives, it has become a pejorative that refers to being overly politically correct.

6

Critical Race Theory From Rhetoric to Dialogue

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understanding Critical Theory, as it was developed by the Frankfort School, with reference to the assumptions and orientations it embraces that are distinctive and controversial. 2. Recognizing the typical chain of thought that a variety of Critical Theory paradigms use when dealing with a range of situations. 3. Analyzing Critical Race Theory with reference to similarities that exist in various other methods of interpretation based upon Critical Theory, such as Marxist and Feminist theories. 4. Envisioning Critical Race Theory as a useful and legitimate mode of argumentation and analysis, but not as a final answer. 5. Appreciating ways to use Critical Race Theory in positive and productive ways that build bridges instead of walls.

INTRODUTION Critical Race Theory has emerged as a powerful tool for analyzing racism, ethnic prejudice, and xenophobia, and is often used to model situations and responses that exist in the United States. Narrowly envisioned, this analytic tool involves scholarly investigations regarding the legal system and how its laws, policies, and regulations can create a foundation for white superiority and white privilege. A broader way of envisioning the method is to view it as an extension of Critical Theory, an analytic tool that emerged in the 1930s in order to deal with social inequity and its implications. This discussion focuses upon the broader view. Critical Theory provides analyses and critiques that expand beyond a passive and amoral analysis of society in order to examine the full implications of the status quo (including unjustified exploitation and inequity. Building upon this intellectual tradition, Critical Race Theory examines the intolerance, oppression, and exploitation that spring from racial prejudice, xenophobia, and the hurtful social, legal, and economic side effects that stem from intolerance and inequitable strategies of asset allocation. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-11

80  Critical Race Theory Although Critical Race Theory has made profound contributions in modeling race relations, a naïve and unguarded application of this approach can lead to counterproductive oversimplifications and blind spots that work against racial harmony and understanding. Certain of its provocative tendencies, however, can be useful when countering rival theories, such as views of history and society that ignore or discount the hurtful legacy of racism. Discussing this paradigm with reference to Frederick Hegel’s method of dialectical argumentation, for example, conventional or status quo beliefs regarding race can be viewed as the Thesis. The rival perspective that emerges, in direct opposition, is the Antithesis that confronts and challenges the dominant orientation. The fruitful merging of these conflicting positions is the Synthesis (usually seen as an imperfect blending or compromise that, nevertheless, emerges as one step closer to “reality” or “the truth”). At this point, the synthesis can emerge as a new thesis and the process of social and intellectual refinement can begin again. Progress is often seen as occurring because of this pattern of tension, debate, conflict, and resolution. Viewed in this way, the specific pronouncements of Critical Race Theory should not be viewed as completely “correct”, but as one side of an argument that tends to make hyperbolic overstatements when challenging rival positions. Moving from dialectical methods of argumentation to the theoretical underpinnings of Critical Race Theory, a first consideration involves the tensions between rival groups of stakeholders. Looking at such issues, it is easy to embrace a “zero-sum game” perspective that asserts that one group inevitably advances itself by taking away, weakening, withholding, or appropriating valuable assets from its rivals (see Von Neumann 2007). This emphasis, unfortunately, is inconsistent with models that emphasize harmony, cooperation, and collaboration. As a result, it is useful for those who underestimate or explain away the positive contributions that white people have made in the quest for racial equality. Overlooking these contributions, of course, is a major distortion of reality. The basic paradigm of Critical Race Theory is made up of three components. First, a tension between competing stakeholders is proposed to inevitably exist. This rivalry is believed to revolve around the quest to control valuable assets. As a result of this struggle, an ideology has emerged that advances the cause of the dominant white oppressors. Second, because people are socialized by their culture or society of origin, they tend to (overtly or covertly) embrace this ideology. On many occasions, for example, members of oppressed groups such as Afro-Americans have also been socialized to believe that they are inferior or unworthy. Steps need to be taken to reverse these artifacts of brainwashing that cause them to embrace the concept of white supremacy. However, because of socialization, many white people who consciously believe that they are not racist covertly harbor racist views and are involuntarily influenced by them.

Critical Race Theory 81 Even if a small percentage of people might not have not internalized the racist perspectives of the dominant racist ideology, the institutions of society are also seen to revolve around racist perspectives and direct the actions of people accordingly. Critical Race Theory depicts the racially charged environment of the contemporary United States with reference to such perspectives. In this discussion, Critical Race Theory is depicted as a valuable tool regarding dialogues involving racism and exploitation, but not a final answer. To make this case, the strengths and limitations of the model are discussed followed by an analysis of how it has developed in the United States. Concluding assessments analyze the positive role Critical Race Theory is poised to play and, conversely, provide warnings regarding how it can create intellectual stumbling blocks.

CRITICAL THEORY In the first half of the 20th century, the classic structural/functional paradigm of sociology and anthropology dominated. Focusing upon the interrelationships and cooperation between various aspects of culture, the structuralism of that era was not designed to deal with normative, moral, or ethical issues. It was also ill-equipped to deal with social tension and social change. Eventually, critics complained about social structuralism’s amoral tendencies and warned that such thinking could emerge as a de facto or inadvertent justification for repressive systems that were bigoted, exploitative, and/or morally blind. Conventional structural analysis, for example, could suggest that (1) a dominant culture is an invaluable asset that must be nurtured and maintained, (2) norms that support the culture (including those involving economics, sex, and race) need to be embraced as stabilizing devices, (3) to support the foundations of human life. Based on such logic, the case could be made that whatever stabilizes and strengthens the culture and its component parts is in the best interest of society, even if questionable side effects and/or collateral damage arise. A notable and representative critique of such logic is found in Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963). Long before Friedan, however, others had provided similar assessments. The pivotal breakthrough in this regard is Max Horkheimer’s essay “Traditional and Critical Theory” (1937), an early statement of what has come to be known as Critical Theory. Horkheimer initially discusses what he describes as “Traditional Theory” that is depicted as a product of the hard sciences that are designed to exert greater control over the world. He depicts this paradigm or modus operandi as an artifact of the status quo because it seeks to enhance and stabilize the world as it presently exists. This bulwark of conventional strategic analysis can be juxtaposed with what he calls “Critical Theory” that expands beyond the status quo and is

82  Critical Race Theory “dominated at every turn by a concern for reasonable conditions of life” (1937; 199). In short, Horkheimer depicts Traditional Theory as a passive slave to the dominant social system as it presently exists, while Critical Theory is an alternative that analyzes and critiques what currently exists in order to change and improve the world. This tool for criticizing society in order to improve it came to be called “Critical Theory”. Critical Theory emerged as a central focus of the Frankfort School that developed in Germany in the years following World War I. After the Nazi takeover in the 1930s, the leadership of the Frankfort School left Germany with many key participants settling in New York City. The United States proved to be a fertile ground for expanding the influence of Critical Theory and over the years it exerted a strong influence upon American humanists, literary scholars, social scientists, and activists. In particular, Critical Theory made a significant impact during the turbulent 1960s and in later thinking that stems from that era. I remember, for example, the popularity of Herbert Marcuse’s One Dimensional Man (1964) during my graduate student days (1960s–1970s). Almost nostalgically, Marcuse pointed to the tensions and rivalries between the social classes that had existed in the 19th century, complaining that in later times, differences were being resolved, relaxed, and tempered. As a result of the relatively tranquil and passive era, Marcuse lamented that many people have begun to overlook inequities that, under other circumstances, would have been glaring catalysts urging people toward positive change. Even worse according to Marcuse is his assertion that the advanced industrial societies of the developed world have created false needs that intertwine people with the status quo and its priorities. Such linkages, he complains, further weaken the quest for social equity and cultural transformation. Hence, mankind was becoming one-dimensional. Erich Fromm, another acclaimed Critical Theorist, was popular with the graduate student crowd of the countercultural era (1960s). Although his The Art of Loving (1956) gained an immense following in and out of the classroom, his most significant contribution was the World War II era Escape from Freedom (1941) that provided insights regarding the rise of Nazis in Germany along with warnings to all who live in an increasingly impersonal urban and industrial world. One of Fromm’s key objectives involves analyzing why people are willing to abandon their freedom, relinquish their individuality, and turn them over to demagogues with questionable motives (as many Germans did when Hitler rose to power). Providing an analysis that combines psychology and sociology (in Fromm’s Chapter 3), he begins by painting a picture of the Feudal age as an era when social rules were fixed and strict but at least people possessed a sense of security and purpose. With the coming of the capitalist system and the industrial revolution, in contrast, Fromm argues that people gained freedom but lost the comfort and security they had enjoyed in earlier times. Note how similar this is to the work of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts

Critical Race Theory 83 movement discussed above. Fromm’s chain of thought, incidentally, also parallels Emil Durkheim and his treatment of anomie (see Walle 2020, Chapter 1). By pointing to these triggers of tension, Escape from Freedom also parallels how Eric Hoffer, writing a decade later, depicts true believers. Ideas such as these have exerted a profound influence upon both Western scholars and social activists who are concerned with equitable social arrangements. Critical Theory seeks to facilitate positive change in a manner that is an alternative to merely thinking about how societies currently function; by doing so, it encourages and anticipates productive and equitable social transformations.

THE BASIC PARADIGM OF CRITICAL THEORY In addition to seeking positive and equitable change, Critical Theory stems from classic Marxist (or, perhaps, Hegelian) perspectives, such as dialectical analysis, merged in some ways with social psychology. As a result of this intellectual legacy, it focuses upon the tensions between rival stakeholders in an inevitable competition for power and the control of valuable assets. An artifact of this paradigm is a focus upon conflict, and a deemphasis of cooperation and collaboration. Due to this confrontational orientation, (1) the goal of winning vs. losing is emphasized and measured (2) with reference to gaining assets by wrestling them away from somebody else against their will. Building upon such an intellectual foundation, Critical Theory focuses upon confrontation and forceful acquisition, not peaceful and cooperative transformations. Critical Theory views ideologies as paramount because the dominant stakeholder class can use them to justify and maintain the status quo. Thus, people are socialized with reference to belief structures that favor the powerful, so people (including the oppressed) will accept the status quo and not question the current state of affairs or their place in society. Building upon this framework, Critical Theory does not look at the existing social structures in passive and neutral ways. As an alternative, Critical Theorists evaluate patterns of power, asset control, and their justifications using moral, normative, and ethical perspectives. In doing so, a method for perceiving human conflicts emerges. It provides a specific example of doing so. To explore how this general system of analysis works, we will compare two specific examples: (1) classic Marxist analysis and (2) a generalized Feminist paradigm that stems from Critical Theory. Having done so, Critical Race Theory will be discussed with these examples in mind.

CLASSIC MARXIST ANALYSIS In Classic Marxist Theory, a tension is seen to exist or potentially exist between the capitalist (or elitist) class and the proletariat (the collective group of workers who aside from the labor they provide lack the means of production).

84  Critical Race Theory According to Classic Marxist Theory, these two groups are participants in a bitter conflict over control of the assets of society and/or the fruits of these assets. In general, the capitalists seek to minimize what they must share with the proletariat in a quest to gain or control additional assets. The proletariat, in contrast and opposition to such appropriations, seeks a greater share by attempting to take assets and privileges away from the capitalists. A key capitalist strategy involves developing and maintaining ideologies that provide a justification for protecting the privileges enjoyed by the elite. When such ploys are successful, the proletariat are induced to accept their place in the world, and not challenge the status quo or the privileges enjoyed by the elite. Karl Marx, for example, depicted religion as an “Opium of the Masses” because, by promising members of the proletariat a better life in the next world, people were encouraged to be more obedient when here on earth. Thus, such promises and anticipations became a weapon for blunting the objections of the underprivileged who were forced to endure hardships. In other words, religion emerged as a mechanism of social control that serves the elite at the expense of the majority. These ideologies tend to be expressed or articulated in a variety of contexts. They are taught in school, reinforced in jokes and humor, and showcased in cultural products, such as the mass media. Because these ideologies reinforce the agendas of the capitalists or the elites, the proletariat and the downtrodden are groomed to accept and embrace the status quo. Another tool the capitalists use to maintain an advantageous system is to create, influence, and/or control institutions (including laws, economic relationships, various forms of obligation, and so forth) that reinforce, maintain, and strengthen their position. To effect change, Marxists believe that the proletariat must cut through this complex web of ideology and power in search of alternatives that are relevant to the needs and perspectives of the proletariat. In this regard, Marxists often warn that elitist ideologies are psychological weapons used to control people. Continuing this chain of thought, Marxists argue that the proletariat needs to reject elitist and capitalist ideologies in order to understand what is happening and to achieve their own goals. Feminist Theory To a large extent, feminist theory embraces a similar model although it has been adapted for its own purposes and circumstances. Similar to classic Marxist analysis, classic feminist theory focuses upon conflicts between (1) an oppressed group of stakeholders (women) and (2) their oppressors who are portrayed as a largely homogeneous cadre of males who seek to maintain power by limiting the options, opportunities, and assets available to females. This so-called patriarchy is believed to be dedicated to preserving and enhancing its power and assets (maleness and the arbitrary benefits associated with it) by subjugating women in ways that limit their authority, tightly define the contributions

Critical Race Theory 85 they can make, and restrict the roles they are able to embrace. Thus, just as Marxist analysis depicts the capitalists as a homogeneous block of stakeholders seeking to control the proletariat, Feminist theory asserts that a homogenous and self-serving patriarchy of male supremacists or chauvinists is working in concert to maintain their dominance over women. Although the contributions of men to the feminist cause might be mentioned or acknowledged in passing, such participation is seldom emphasized and tends to be marginalized. Feminists go on to suggest that this patriarchy is reinforced when male-oriented ideologies are internalized during the socialization process. These beliefs are emphasized in multiple ways through religion, advocating certain conventions of behavior, celebrating “proper” role models, encouraging “acceptable” aspirations for females, and so forth. As with the proletariat, many women have internalized the ideologies of the patriarchy and, in effect, become their own oppressors. To overcome these tendencies, feminists often seek to provide women with the opportunity to rethink and reject the ideologies of the patriarchy and, thereby, become liberated from them. In addition, feminists often warn that the patriarchy controls many of the institutions of society while manipulating them in ways that contribute to maintaining the male-dominated status quo. Examples include the legal system, male-oriented professional networks, religion, invisible glass ceilings that covertly limit opportunities, to mention a few. In short, paralleling the Marxist call to action, the typical feminist model (1) points to a unified, homogeneous, and well-integrated group of powerful stakeholders who seek to dominate women, (2) suggests that people, including women, are influenced by internalized male ideologies, and (3) argues that the institutions that serve the needs of the patriarchy need to be countered and dismantled. These two paradigms are compared in Table 6.1. In both of these examples, rival forces are believed to confront each other in a zero-sum game in which one group benefits when the other loses. As a result, neither model deals in meaningful ways with cooperation, collaboration, or positive compromise. Discussions focus upon the role of internalized ideologies and how they can be replaced or mitigated. Examining the role of the various institutions of society and how they can contribute to the power struggles between rival groups adds to these perspectives. Although such perspectives are well-constructed and enhanced with interlocking chains of thought, problems emerge when underlying assumptions are challenged. In reality, for example, the oppressing stakeholder groups are not necessarily as uniform, standardized, and influential as the models suggest. In addition, positive and equitable cooperation and collaboration between the various segments of society are not uncommon. Nevertheless, Critical Theory (and reasoning stemming from it) tends to assume that large homogeneous groups inevitably act in organized and cooperative ways to achieve partisan goals in coordinated ways. This assertion, of course, is an unguarded assumption open to challenge.

86  Critical Race Theory Table 6.1  Classic Marxism and Conventional Feminism Compared Paradigm

Marxism

Feminism

Rivals

Capitalists vs. proletariat The capitalist class seeks to maximize its power over assets and the benefits that derive from them. The proletariat is an oppressed group that seeks to advance itself by taking assets from the capitalists.

Patriarchy vs. women The patriarchy is a unified group of males who seek to preserve their power over women. Women constitute a rival group that seeks to advance its goals by reducing the power of the patriarchy.

Internalization The proletariat has been socialized with ideologies that reinforce the status quo leading to a passive acceptance of capitalist dominance. People need to be aware of other options.

The socialization process provides women with established roles and expectations that limit their options and blunt their ambitions. Such thinking serves the patriarchy. This pattern needs to be confronted and replaced.

Institutions

The legal framework and other institutions, including religion, often channel women in specific directions in ways that limit their options. In addition, some institutions provide inequitable advantages to men.

Various institutions, including laws, traditions, religion, expectations, and so forth favor and justify the capitalists. These frameworks need to be dismantled and mitigated.

DISCUSSION Classic Marxism and conventional feminism are similar. Parallel characteristics include the following: (1) Rival forces are seen to be in conflict. (2) The ideologies of the oppressors are viewed as typically internalized by the oppressed and in need of rebuttal. (3) A wide range of social and cultural institutions are viewed as reinforcing and bolstering the dominant oppressors. By acknowledging, confronting, and mitigating these characteristics, progress is anticipated.

Critical Theory is a powerful tool that has long been of value in discussing how various groups confront each other in the quest to control assets and the fruits of these assets. The model starts by envisioning two relatively homogeneous groups of stakeholders in competition with each other in a zero-sum game. In many situations, the dominant force will justify its position using ideologies that the people, including the oppressed, have internalized. The oppressed need to transcend their belief in such ideologies in order to act in their own self-interest. In addition, dominant forces often control a wide range of institutions that support the status quo and those who benefit from it. These institutions need to be exposed for what they are and transformed in ways that reduce oppression. Having explored Critical Theory and discussed two examples of how it operates, these observations will be kept in mind when examining Critical Race Theory.

Critical Race Theory 87

CRITICAL RACE THEORY The same basic chain of thought that exists in Marxist and Feminist theories is the intellectual foundation for Critical Race Theory. It also proposes the existence of a large homogeneous group of stakeholders (typically presented as virtually the entire white population) that seeks, in an organized and systematic manner, to maintain power and assets through the inequitable treatment of people of color. A generic view of Critical Race Theory will be discussed although variants have developed to deal with the specific situations faced by Afro-Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, Asians, and so forth. Due to its emphasis upon tensions that exist between rivals, Critical Theory does not easily factor in the cooperation and collaboration of rival stakeholders in ways that contribute to the common good. Critical Race Theory, likewise, pays minimal attention to the help and support that specific white people contribute to people of color. By failing to recognize these well-documented contributions, the typical portrayals of race relations that it presents are compromised and incomplete. Although some white people might affirm that they are not racist, proponents of Critical Race Theorists are usually quick to point out that these whites have been raised and socialized in a racist environment and, therefore, they silently and covertly carry racist habits and legacies with them if they know it or not. Many people of color, socialized in a racist world, also embrace the ideology of their oppressors. If particular white people make a convincing case that they are not racist, advocates of Critical Race Theory remind them that they live in a world full of racist institutions and, as a result, they are inevitably participants in it. Building upon this foundation, a strategy is recommended that, resembling a zero-sum game, involves people of color stripping the whites of the assets they have inequitably acquired, so people of color can win equality. In other words, the people of color win when those who champion white privilege lose. Each of these components of thought will be discussed. White Privilege Those who embrace Critical Race Theory invariably emphasize that White people tend to enjoy a series of unearned benefits that are typically referred to as “white privilege”. Although the terminology and scope of these phenomena might vary from theorist to theorist, few would debate the premise that some sort of advantages exist. In addition, proponents of Critical Race Theory typically go one step further to assert that white people, essentially a collective group working in concert, place such a high value upon “white privilege” that they take active and affirmative steps to protect and enhance it. This orientation deemphasizes the significance of cooperation and collaboration between people of color and sympathetic whites.

88  Critical Race Theory This is the theme of Cheryl Harris’ classic analysis “Whiteness as Property” (1993) where she argues that being a white American is a profoundly important asset that is analogous to owning property. Such arguments tend to suggest that white people, as a unified group, are invariably interested in maintaining the value of this asset and the advantages associated with it. A popular premise, therefore, maintains that since white privilege is a valuable asset, those who benefit from it will do whatever it takes to maintain its clout. Although this logic would hold if the assumptions were correct, this model does not accurately reflect reality even if some white people respond in such a self-serving manner. The abolitionist movement that functioned prior to the United States Civil War, for example, was dominated by white opponents of slavery who advocated for the rights of AfroAmericans. When the slaves were toiling in the Southern plantations unable to advance their cause, untold thousands of white agitators clamored for their freedom and equality. Legions of soldiers were attracted to the Union army during the Civil War, furthermore, because they were inspired to free the slaves. These whites risked their lives (and many died) because they opposed slavery. During the civil rights era of the 1950s–1960s, white people from the north took the trek south to stand side by side with their Afro-American partners in a quest to end segregation and guarantee civil rights, including access to the ballot box. Due to their involvement in this struggle, some whites paid the ultimate price. These well-known facts tend to be ignored or downplayed by those who advance Critical Race Theory because that system of thought focuses upon tensions between rivals, not cooperation and goodwill. Internalization To a large extent, people are products of their environment and upbringing. Thus, from early in life individuals are molded and socialized to embrace and reflect the heritage they are taught. A belief in the power of the socialization process is a fundamental premise of the social and psychological sciences. The argument can be made that in the United States some form of white supremacy has long existed. Thus, from early childhood, people are introduced to racist views. This is true of both white people and those of color. Given this fact, it logically follows that people who are raised in a racist environment will be susceptible to consciously or unconsciously embracing racist beliefs. Karen Pyke, in recent years, has renewed the observation that many people of color have been indoctrinated to believe that that they are inferior or lesser than white people and/or they are taught to judge themselves with reference to white standards. This, she affirms, is a legacy that must be confronted; by doing so, it becomes possible to “expose the hidden injuries of racism and the subtle mechanisms that sustain white privilege” (2010; 551). Although Pyke has addressed such concerns from within the context of the contemporary United States, such thinking has a long history. In the 1950s,

Critical Race Theory 89 for example, Franz Fanon’s Black Skins, White Masks (1957) eloquently presents this point. Black people, Fanon observed can never become white, and if they seek to do so they set themselves up for inevitable failure and psychological distress. Thus, people of color need to think and act in terms of who they are, not with reference to somebody else. Doing so, Fanon affirms, is the key to social progress as well as a recipe for good mental health. Overcoming the racist baggage introduced by the socialization process is a good first step in that direction. Somewhat related to Fanon’s concerns is the observation that among people of color, the particular shade of skin color has significant ramifications. Thus, light-skinned blacks have often been more highly regarding than their darker counterparts. Given the fact that many people have a genetic makeup of more than one race raises the possibility that a racial identity as white can be arbitrary and is not always rigidly defined. In addition, some white people who believe that they are not prejudiced might actually possess racist thinking and attitudes because were inculcated with such ideas at an early age. This potential and its implications need to be recognized and addressed. However, people are not complete prisoners of their childhood and the socialization processes to which they were exposed. People continue to refine and revise their thinking throughout their lives. In the first half of the 20th century when structural analysis dominated the social sciences, the emphasis was upon the culture and how it molded the individual. But the limitations of such perspectives eventually became apparent. As we saw (above) with the discussion of Betty Friedan’s work, alternative and less deterministic theories are needed. Today’s state of the art social theories, stemming from more individualist models (such as existentialism and its offshoots) are far better equipped to acknowledge the ability of individuals to make their own judgments and break free from the iron grip of their heritage. These aspects of modern social theory should not be forgotten. By drawing attention to the internalization of racist ideas, Critical Race Theory points to silent and covert aspects of culture and society that can inhibit attempts to dismantle racist superstructures that continue to influence America. Some of these insidious tendencies are seen to exist within the oppressed themselves and inhibit them from rising above their second-class status. Whites who believe that they are not racist, furthermore, might maintain beliefs that justify or condone racism. These potentials need to be recognized. But as modern social theory suggests, this is not inevitable. Institutionalization Although racial prejudice is unfortunate and distasteful, it alone does not work against the best interests of minority groups. As long as the prejudiced keep their ideas to themselves and don’t let it impact their behavior, the damage of racism will be slight. In reality, however, racists (like everybody else) are likely to act in ways that reflect their thinking and beliefs.

90  Critical Race Theory As a result, prejudice often influences legal structures, enforcement systems, health care strategies, educational deployments, the policies of financial institutions, and so forth. When this happens, those who face the brunt of prejudice can be disserved or underserved. Such inequities are typically referred to as “institutional” or “systematic racism” in which prejudicial thinking, attitudes, and actions are nested within society, often in subtle but influential ways. The term can be traced back to the civil rights era of the 1960s, and was mentioned in Stokely Carmichael’s and Charles Hamilton’s Black Power: The Politics of Liberation (1967). Institutional or systematic racism (and their synergistic and interlocking tendencies) can be difficult to dislodge because they are often ingrained into the fabric of social life. Many of these obstacles are formidable and overt. Others are more subtle. In a situation that resembles the fate of “death by a thousand little wounds”, a wide range of institutions might condone or support multiple inequities that individually are insignificant, but combine in powerful and hurtful ways. In recent years, the term “microaggressions” has been used to describe small injustices and disrespectful actions that reinforce racist attitudes (Sue 2010). Such offenses, intentional or not, possess hurtful racist implications, and (at a minimum) set up emotional barriers between people. Thus, institutional racism is distinguished from mere prejudice because it refers to a wide range of racist strategies, policies, and frameworks of action that influence economic, political, and social relationships. Even people who are not racist might participate in institutional racism simply by functioning within a racist world. Some institutions that work against people of color, however, are not necessarily racist in nature. Thus, if a bank requires a certain level of income before granting a loan, many Afro-Americans might not be eligible because they work in low-paying jobs. This policy would not be inherently racist although, indirectly, the situations forcing some people to accept low-­ paying jobs might be traced to racist issues. In any event, Critical Theory, in general, and Critical Race Theory, in particular, tend to embrace a zero-sum game method of analysis that envisions progress being made by taking something away from someone else. When such a perspective is embraced, dealing with cooperation and collaboration with others becomes difficult. This inability emerges as one of the significant limitations of Critical Race Theory. Thus, Critical Race Theory is a paradigm that focuses upon conflict between the races over assets and/or the benefits that derive from these assets. It, furthermore, suggests that white people, as a cohort group, tend to work in concert to protect these assets. Critical Race Theorists routinely argue that the justification for white privilege is embodied in ideological beliefs that defend and perpetuate racism. These beliefs are introduced to people as part of the socialization process. Both whites and people of color are exposed to racist ideologies.

Critical Race Theory 91 Table 6.2  Critical Race Theory: An Overview Issue

Analysis

White Privilege

White privilege is an unearned All whites tend to benefit from white privilege, but not asset white people possess. all seek it. Whites should not Whites are often depicted as be viewed as a homogeneous a homogenous stakeholder group with a common group that seeks to preserve purpose or agenda. this valuable asset.

Internalization

Due to the socialization process, ideologies with racist tendencies are embraced that characterize people of color as less than their white counterparts.

Institutionalization A wide range of institutions work in ways that support and reinforce white privilege and unfairly provides whites with social and economic advantages.

Critique

Both whites and people of color can be influenced by ideologies. Rival ideologies, however. and their power might wax and wane over time. Some examples of institutional response are racist. Others are not. Some policies that disproportionately hurt people of color might not be inherently racist.

DISSUSION Critical Race Theory is a powerful paradigm that emphasizes tensions between rival groups and the tendency for people to resolve their differences with reliance upon a “zero-sum game” orientation that depicts progress in terms of defeating someone else. Key components of Critical Race Theory include (1) the concept of white privilege, (2) an emphasis upon the socialization process and how it causes racist beliefs to be internalized, coupled with (3) an evaluation of institutions and how they can strengthen racism and support white privilege.

Even those who do not embrace the ideology of racism live in a society that possesses a wide range of racist institutions. Thus, Critical Race Theorists suggest that simply by participating in a racist world, a person’s actions can emerge as inadvertently racist if they know it or not and if they like it or not. These components of Critical Race Theory are abstracted in Table 6.2. Thus, Critical Race Theory is a paradigm for analyzing race relations that emphasizes the conflict between rival stakeholders. Because of this framework, Critical Race Theory is ill-suited to deal with cooperation and collaboration. However, it is designed to examine phenomena typified by tensions, inequity, and rivalries.

THE DIALECTICAL METHOD AND CRITICAL RACE THEORY As argued above, Critical Race Theory tends to overstate important aspects of race relations while systematically ignoring other issues of significance. Thus, it emphasizes tensions between rival groups (and the exploitation that

92  Critical Race Theory can stem from it); when this happens, other more cooperative and collaborative relationships are easily ignored. Critical Race Theorists, furthermore, tend to lump all whites into a unified and homogeneous stakeholder group in ways that underestimate the backing provided by white people who support people of color, and the fact that many white people are opponents of white privilege. As a result of such deemphasis or omission, the case can legitimately be made that many examples of Critical Race Theory are oversimplified at best and incorrect at worst. Although it might be possible for sophisticated versions of Critical Race Theory to mitigate such limitations, many vernacular or grassroots applications of the theory do not. Nevertheless, Critical Race Theory can serve a useful function by aggressively presenting a particular point of view and doing so in a manner that counters rival opinions that, equally limited, embrace the opposite position. Earlier in this discussion, the dialectical method was described as the clash of rival ideas that potentially leads to a synthesis or compromise view that more accurately reflects reality. During this process of intellectual refinement, both sides present and champion views that are strategically overstated. I like to compare this process to the negotiations of buying a used car. The owner of the car might describe it as a “cream puff” and assert it is a bargain at $4,000. The potential buyer responds by complaining that it is a “rust bucket” and offers $2,000. After half an hour of bickering and haggling a deal is struck at $3,000, which, in reality, is the true value. Thus, neither the original assessment of $4,000 nor the initial bid of $2,000 reflects truth. Each position, in contrast, emerges as a starting point that eventually leads to a synthesis that is a more workable and equitable reflection of reality. In a similar manner, a classic view of America depicts the nation as the land of the free and the Bastian of personal opportunity. This stereotype, of course, does not completely reflect reality, especially in regard to people of color. In a dialectical response to this myth of America, Critical Race Theory offers a polemical and equally lopsided rebuttal. Hopefully, a workable and more accurate synthesis can emerge. If this happens, a new generation of dialectical reasoning can build upon this progress and a further refining of our culture can begin.

A FINAL ASSESSMENT Critical Race Theory depicts white privilege as an asset that white people, as a unified group of stakeholders, seek to defend in systematic and uniform ways. In addition, Critical Race Theory asserts that the concepts, ideas, and ideologies used to justify white privilege are emphasized during the socialization process. Critical Race Theory further argues that even if some individuals have not internalized such ideas, the institutions of society tend to be racist and,

Critical Race Theory 93 therefore, people participate in racism if they want to or not and if they know it or not. If viewed in isolation, Critical Race Theory can be accused of possessing limited accuracy. Occurring within a dialectical context, however, it can usefully rebut alternative points of view. By doing so, greater understanding can result. Thus, Critical Race Theory has a legitimate role helping forge more precise visions of society through a process of refinement. This is true even when its claims and assessments are overstated in hyperbolic ways. In the final analysis, therefore, Critical Race Theory can be a valuable tool even when its suggestions and assertions are not technically “correct”. By keeping this in mind, Critical Race Theory can contribute to a healing and enlightening dialogue.

RELEVANT TERMS Antithesis  According to the dialectical method, the rebuttal of the thesis. Black Skins White Masks  Book by Franz Fanon that urges people of color to accept themselves for who they are and not judge themselves by other standards. Capitalists  The owner of the means of production. In Marxist theory, elites who are rivals of the proletariat. Critical Theory  A technique developed by the Frankfort School that goes beyond analyzing how social systems function in order to consider moral and normative implications. Critical Race Theory  A version of Critical Theory that emphasizes race relations. It is concerned with positive change although it embraces some limitations and blind spots. Dialectical Method  A form of debate and analysis that juxtaposes a thesis (conventional view), with an alternative view (the antithesis), in ways that lead to a more correct and robust reconciliation (the synthesis). Escape from Freedom  Book by Critical Theorist Erich Fromm that deals with the process by which the German people adjusted to the Nazi takeover. Fanon, Franz  A black activist who was concerned with the psychological trauma facing people of color in a white-dominated world. Author of Black Skins White Masks. Feminist Mystique  Classic feminist book by Betty Friedan. Suggests that structural theories can be used to justify the status quo in inequitable ways. Feminist Theory  Analytic system intended to better the position of women. Feminists often embrace a model closely akin to Critical Theory. Frankfurt School  A method of social analysis somewhat influenced by Marxist theory that was founded in Germany. After the Nazi takeover of Germany, many leaders settled in New York. It has had considerable influence in the United States since that time.

94  Critical Race Theory Friedan, Betty  Author of The Feminist Mystique. Fromm, Erich  Member of the Frankfort School/Critical Theory Group. Wrote Escape from Freedom. Harris, Cheryl  Wrote “Whiteness as Property”. Horkheimer, Max  Leader of the Frankfort School and author of “Traditional and Critical Theory” (1937). Institutionalization  A situation where the institutions of society work against the best interests of a particular stakeholder group in inequitable ways. Internalization  A phase of the socialization process when people embrace ideas and respond to them by rote even if they go against their best interests. Marcuse, Herbert  A member of the Frankfort School/Critical Theory group who focused upon how the complexities of modern life are deemphasizing the importance of basic change. Wrote One Dimensional Man. Marxist Theory  A theory of economic pressures and tensions between different stakeholder groups that resembles a zero-sum game. One Dimensional Man  Book by Herman Marcuse that emphasizes that the complexity of modern life is homogenizing people and reducing the tensions that, otherwise, could trigger needed reforms. Patriarchy  According to many feminists, the unified stakeholder group of men that works in concert to maintain their position of privilege over women. Proletariat  Workers who do not control the means of production, except for their labor. They are often at odds with the capitalist class that owns the other means of production. Synthesis  According to dialectical theory, the reconciliation of the thesis and antithesis into a more accurate representation of reality. Once established, it can emerge as a new thesis and the process can begin again. Thesis  According to dialectical theory, the original position that is challenged by the antithesis. “Traditional vs. Critical Theory”  A 1937 article by Max Horkheimer, that states that traditional theories are designed to maintain the status quo while Critical Theory attempt to point to and encourage needed change. White Privilege  According to Critical Race Theory, unearned rights white people possess simply because they are white. “Whiteness as Property”  Article by Cheryl Harris that suggests that whiteness is a valuable asset that white people want to protect and enhance. Zero-Sum Game  A competition in which gains are made by taking from someone else.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is Critical Theory and how is it distinctive? Discuss with reference to Max Horkheimer’s article “Traditional and Critical Theory”. Due to Marxist influences, Critical Theory emphasizes tension between rival stakeholders. Is this an important characteristic? Does it need to be transcended? Why or why not?

Critical Race Theory 95 2. Compare standard Marxist and Feminist theories that reflect Critical Theory. What similarities exist? Does Marxist analysis emphasis some relationships or influences while deemphasizing others? If so, is this important? 3. Is Critical Race Theory similar in structure to standard Marxist and Feminist theories that reflects Critical Theory? Why or why not? What is the key chain of thought in Critical Race Theory? Discuss with reference to the concepts of white privilege, internalization, and institutionalization. Are any unguarded assumptions potentially made when embracing this paradigm? 4. Discuss Critical Race Theory with reference to the dialectical method of argumentation. Does the dialectical method insist on being “correct”? Why or why not? The chapter suggests that Critical Race Theory is a method, not an answer. What is meant by this? Do you agree? 5. Do you believe that Critical Race Theory can be used in ways that build bridges and not walls? Why or why not?

REFERENCES Carmichael, Stokley and Hamilton, Charles V. (1967). Black Power: Politics of Liberation. (New York: Vintage). Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968). Socialisation and Society. (Boston: Little Brown and Company)). Fanon, Franz (1957). Black Skins, White Masks. (New York: Grove). Freidman, Milton (1970). “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Enhance Its Profits”.” New York Times. 32(13): 122–26. (September 13). Friedan, Betty (1963). The Feminine Mystique. (New York: W. W. Norton). Fromm, Erick (1941). Escape from Freedom. (New York: Farrar and Rinehart). Fromm, Erick (1956). The Art of Loving. (New York: Harper and Brothers). Harris, Cheryl I. (1993). “Whiteness as Property.” Harvard Law Review. 106(8): 1707–91. Horkheimer, Max (1937). “Tradition and Critical Theory” in Max Horkheimer (1972) Critical Theory: Selected Essays (New York: Continuum). Kohlberg, Lawrence (1981). Essays on Moral Development, Vol. I: The Philosophy of Moral Development. (San Francisco: Harper & Row). Marcuse, Herbert (1964). One Dimensional Man. (Boston: Beacon). Pyke, Karen (2010). “What Is Internalized Racial Oppression and Why Don’t We Study It: Acknowledging Racism’s Hidden Injuries” Sociological Perspectives. 53(4): 551–72. Sue, Derald Wing (2010). Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation. (New York: Wiley). Von Neumann, John (2007). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. 60th Anniversary Edition. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Walle, Alf H. (2020). Economic Development and Mental Illness: Anticipating and Mitigating Disruptive Change. (London and New York: Routledge).

7

The Cancel Culture Movement

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Becoming aware of the history of the Cancel Culture movement and parallel actions. Understanding its basic goals and tactics. 2. Considering representative variants of the Cancel Culture movement, including (1) economic punishments, (2) countering the power of specific and current rivals, and (3) broader attacks on social or political icons. 3. Viewing the Cancel Culture movement from the perspectives of liberal and progressive activism. 4. Analyzing the Cancel Culture movement from the perspectives of social and political conservatives. 5. Discuss the use of Cancel Culture techniques and Wokeness with reference to partisan politics and strategic toolkits used in debate and confrontation.

INTRODUCTION For thousands of years, an important social and political technique has involved defaming, isolating, or drawing attention away from those who are opposed or perceived to be a threat. Extreme examples actually purge enemies from the historical record. The fate of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten is a classic example. Because he was a monotheist, Akhenaten dethroned the pantheon of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, angering many conservatives and the powerful priestly class. After he died, a backlash quickly arose and all references to the pharaoh, his existence, and the contributions he made were eliminated, as much as possible, from Egyptian records and history. In other words, Akhenaten’s detractors canceled him and his legacy. Over the centuries, many other influential people have suffered in parallel ways even if the memory of them survives. Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, for example, sought to usurp power from the Catholic Church by asserting the right to appoint important church officials. In retaliation, Pope Georgy VII excommunicated Henry and went on to decree that Christians (including powerful and ambitious nobles) no longer had to obey the emperor. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-12

The Cancel Culture Movement 97 These actions were such a threat to Henry’s reign that in 1077 he was forced to beg forgiveness in a most humiliating manner. Thus, the Pope canceled Henry’s authority as a secular leader. Only when Henry publicly renounced his offending thinking and actions did the “canceling” end with Henry being returned to good graces. Thus, although the term “Cancel Culture” is of recent origin, its strategies, tactics, and goals have been well understood for thousands of years. In attempts to defend important aspects of society, culture, and life, those employing the techniques of Cancel Culture initiate some sort of ostracism, banishment, or defaming in order to weaken and punish opponents and/ or to warn others against promoting or showcasing perspectives that are opposed. High-profile examples include the boycotting or shunning of well-known individuals, organizations, or companies that are associated with behaviors or beliefs that are deemed unacceptable; these campaigns are often well orchestrated or involve multiple factions acting in concert to weaken the influence of particular individuals, movements, or agents of changes that are opposed, dreaded, or feared. My brother was a strict social conservative appalled by the counterculture movement of the 1960s, especially the “San Francisco scene” and its advocacy of relaxed sexual morals and habits. Back during that era, when the two of us were talking about the Bay Area band Jefferson Airplane, he indicated that he could never support the group because of the lifestyle it represented, pointing out that many other people felt the same way and were responding in a similar fashion. Although in those days the term “Cancel Culture” had not been coined, my brother’s actions are clearly parallel to it: withholding recognition and economic benefits from those who are opposed for social or political reasons. My brother’s behavior, akin to the Cancel Culture movement, sought to weaken the influence of opponents who, it is relevant to remember, were role models championing a lifestyle that he opposed. Just as conservatives have long acted in such a manner, many progressives respond in similar fashion. Back in the 1970s, for example, Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers sought to unionize farm workers employed by Gallo Wine Company in a highly contested campaign against the Teamsters (a union that Gallo preferred to work with). As a result of these tensions, many people with activist tendencies began to boycott Gallo Wine products and punish those who failed to do so. I was in college at the time and those who came to graduate student parties with a bottle of Gallo Wine would find themselves ignored and rejected. If the bottle was left unattended, the owner would probably find that cigarette butts had been dropped inside it. More recently, the fast-food chain Chick-Fil-A has gained notoriety for opposing the interests of the LGBTQ community. As a result of this stance, a boycott of Chick-Fil-A by the LGTBQ community and its friends has emerged. These techniques closely parallel those of my conservative brother and the progressive advocates of the United Farm Workers. Thus,

98  The Cancel Culture Movement while conservatives seek to retain a long-standing status quo, liberals work to stifle and punish what they feel is reactionary. Nevertheless, both groups employ a similar toolkit. In this chapter, the Cancel Culture movement (broadly viewed) is analyzed in ways, including how its techniques can be used by partisans who often resemble true believers. Additional strategic and tactical discussions explore how the method can help both progressives and conservatives to advance their causes.

CANCELING: AN OVERVIEW As indicated above, Cancel Culture tactics seek to discredit or weaken adversaries by undercutting their standing in the community. Those being subjected to such campaigns face hurtful social, psychological, reputational, and/or economic attacks. The motives include silencing those who offend, redirecting their behavior, and/or limiting their influence. Thus, adversaries are attacked to lessen their clout. Members of the Amish religion who seriously violate the norms of their community, for example, become vulnerable to possible shunning (or to use the Amish term “meidung”). Those who are singled out in this way are afforded only limited contact with other members of the Amish community resulting in social isolation. The goal is to transform the thinking and the actions of deviating individuals so they will conform to Amish norms. When they do so, the sanctions are lifted (Kraybill et al. 2010). Similar tactics, of course, are commonly used within many contexts ranging from children at play, to union members singing “What side are you on, boys, what side are you on?”, to systematic harassment strategies largely conducted on the internet and social media that are typically referred to as Cancel Culture. The modern term “Cancel Culture” and many of its techniques, however, are of recent origin because they are products of the modern, technological era that is intimately intertwined with the evolution of electronic communication, such as the internet. According to conventional wisdom and urban legend, the origins of the Cancel Culture movement are associated with a negative response to an episode of the cable television show (The Colbert Report) that aired on the Comedy Central cable TV channel from 2005 to 2014. The program, as the reader might recall, was a parody of right-wing political pundits such as those with programs on the conservative cable channel Fox News. The formula involved the portrayal of a fictional conservative anchorman who was depicted as arrogant, uninformed, and status conscious. Inevitably, his observations and conclusions were laughably ignorant in ways that provided a perspective on current events. On one occasion, the show examined anti-Asian prejudice. Although the exchange was an obvious example of political satire, Korean-American activist Suey Park felt that the depictions went too far and called for the show to be cancelled (Park and Eunsong

The Cancel Culture Movement 99 2014). According to some observers, the Cancel Culture movement can be traced back to this series of events. A wide range of emerging tensions in American society, no doubt, also fanned the flames. Other possible influences derive from what has come to be labeled the Call Out movement in which critics or detractors “call out” (i. e. criticize) someone or an organization for actions that are condemned. The term Call Out ideally refers to interpersonal confrontations “occurring between individuals [typically] on social media … [thus] someone does something wrong, people tell them, and they avoid doing it again … [In reality] it can be extremely divisive” (Matel 2019). Localized examples of Calling Out involve teenagers jockeying for position within their social group by shaming or belittling their peers. The venue of communication typically used is the internet with its chat groups and other resources. Such actions can occur as a form of juvenile bullying. The basic techniques, however, can be employed on a larger (even national) scale by those who seek to mold opinions or weaken the position of notable figures, causes, or perspectives. Cancel Culture and Call Out responses possess similar characteristics although some observers contend that Calling Out usually involves complaining about specific unacceptable actions, while canceling involves a more general damaging or undercutting of offenders and their reputations. Because the dominant modes of communication used in Call Out and Cancel Culture campaigns are the internet and social media, they can develop at breakneck speed making timely defensive tactics difficult. As a result, such crusades (which potentially lapse into personal attacks) can be very powerful especially because the internet is largely unregulated; as a result, false or overstated accusations can easily develop a life of their own. Unfortunately, if the complaints are in error, adequately correcting the record or tempering the impact can be difficult or impossible. In any event, “Calling Out” and “Cancelling” are similar and both benefit from the electronic media that provides a rapid and cheap means of communication. In this discussion, however, a broader vision of Cancel Culture that expands beyond the internet is employed to facilitate comparing and linking today’s examples with parallels from earlier times. Looking at events, trends, and campaigns, a number of variants of Cancel Culture come to mind. A non-exhaustive listing of three specific varieties includes (1) economic punishments, (2) undercutting opponents, and (3) attacking icons. Each will be briefly discussed even though some of the examples discussed predate the internet. Economic Punishments A powerful technique associated with the Cancel Culture movement involves some sort of economic retaliation. Doing so can weaken the power of those effected, punish them with a loss of income or revenue, as well as warning other potential “offenders” that they might suffer in a similar way.

100  The Cancel Culture Movement The Chick-Fil-A restaurant boycott mentioned above is a good example of this approach. Many other representatives of this approach exist. In the 1940s, Pete Seeger and his singing groups the Almanac Singers and the Weavers were popular throughout America even though Seeger was an advocate of leftist politics. After the War, Seeger’s political leanings attracted the attention of the House Anti-American Activities Committee and the wrath Senator Joe McCarthy. As a result, for many years, Seeger was blacklisted and prevented from fully pursuing his profession (singing and entertaining). Seeger, incidentally, came from a family that is willing to stick to its beliefs even if doing so leads to hurtful consequences. Thus, Seeger’s father lost his job because during World War I, he was an outspoken advocate of pacifism. A resilient individual, Seeger was able to weather attempts to cancel his career and influence; eventually, he re-emerged as a figure of international importance, revered as a cultural treasure. Screenwriter Carl Foreman faced somewhat similar obstacles. He had been a powerful force in the motion picture industry before Joe McCarthy succeeded in getting him blacklisted for political reasons. Unable to gain Hollywood assignments for many years as a result of this economic vengeance, Foreman was forced to leave the country and/or use a pen name in order to work at a reduced rate. The Foreman example is especially notable because one of his films, High Noon, uses the Western movie genre to symbolically depict what it is like to be abandoned by former friends and colleagues after being attacked in McCarthy’s Cancel Culture campaign. The plot of the film involves much loved Marshal Will Cane (a representation of Foreman) who resigns to pursue new opportunities. Before leaving town however, we learn that outlaw Frank Miller (Senator Joe McCarthy) and his gang will soon arrive on a mission to kill Cane. Initially, Cane is confident that the friends will rally to his side. When it becomes obvious to the towns that people (Hollywood) will experience negative economic ramifications if they support Cane, however, he is abandoned and forced to fight alone with only the help of his wife. Thus, High Noon is an allegory that portrays the economic, personal, and psychological implications of a Cancel Culture style of attack. The career of the band/female singing group the Dixie Chicks (now known as the Chicks) provides a more recent example of the economic ramifications of a Cancel Culture type of retaliation. Formed as a Bluegrass band in the late 1980s, the group was successful and acquired a significant mainstream audience. Its popularity as a non-controversial group continued until 2003 and the decision by President George W. Bush to invade Iraq. While performing in London, England comments were made on stage that the band was opposed to such military adventuring and that its members were ashamed of their country because of the administration’s choice to intervene militarily. When the general public was made aware of these comments, a massive withdrawal of support for the group erupted (Campbell 2003), including the decision by many radio stations to refuse to broadcast

The Cancel Culture Movement 101 the band’s music. Due to the anger and controversy that arose due to these events, the proceeds from the band’s upcoming tours and album were significantly reduced. This response can be viewed as an economic punishment inflicted by a Cancel Culture campaign. No doubt, other groups were aware of these responses and understood that they could also be singled out for punishment if their behavior angered audiences. Just as the Dixie Chicks suffered by angering conservatives, Hobby Lobby is a corporation owned by socially, religiously, and politically conservative investors. It has been sanctioned and boycotted by liberals and progressives because the corporation is a vocal opponent of opposing the LGBTQ community and for condemning abortion. Thus, inflicting economic punishments can serve as a powerful tool for both conservatives and progressives who embrace Cancel Culture tactics in attempts to quiet or weaken those who hold opposing views. Undercutting Opponents Besides silencing opponents with threats of economic punishment (or actually economic retaliation), another tactic involves undercutting the reputation, influence, and power of opponents in campaigns that seek to reduce or defuse their clout. This is exactly what Tyler O’Neil (senior editor of conservative new outlet PJ Media) suggests when he asserts that the Southern Poverty Law Center “brands mainstream conservative organizations [as] ‘hate groups,’ listing them along with the KKK” (O’Neil 2021). Although this monograph has no opinion regarding the accuracy of O’Neil’s assertions, his comments remind us that those seeking to mold public attitudes and perceptions are aware that (1) character assassination and (2) guilt by association can be used as techniques of social control. The complaints lodged against billionaire and philanthropist George Soros is an example of conservative pundits using such techniques to undercut the standing of a generous liberal activist. Soros was born in Europe and although of Jewish descent, his family was not an active participant in the faith. During World War II, Soros (a mere child at the time) came under German rule when Hungary was occupied. As a result of Nazi policies regarding the Jews, young Soros found himself in a precarious situation. In response to this threat, his father arranged for the boy to pose as a member of a Christian family that was collaborating with the Germans. The ploy was successful and Soros hid in plain sight until the end of the war. As the years went by, Soros acquired an education and gained the business savvy needed to create a multi-billionaire dollar fortune. In addition, he emerged into a strong advocate of liberal and progressive initiatives who provides generous assistance to the causes he supports. As a result of these activist accomplishments (involving many billions of dollars in donations), political and social conservatives have come to resent and fear him.

102  The Cancel Culture Movement Soros’ generosity and activism have inspired a number of conspiracy theories (typically products of right-wing commentators). Bondarenko (2017), for example, observes that, “For two decades, some have seen Soros as a kind of puppet master secretly controlling the global economy and politics”. Although such views were originally located on the fringe, The New York Times reports that by 2018 such ideas gained traction as they migrated to more mainstream sources of news and opinions. Emerging as a favorite rallying cry, conservative opinion leaders such as Breitbart News routinely blame Soros for various liberal or progressive agendas they oppose (Aaronovitch 2017). Eventually, Fox News amplified these complaints largely through the efforts of Bill O’Reilly who called Soros an “extremist” who is “off-the-charts dangerous” (Aaronovitch 2017). These representative examples could be expanded if space permitted. In any event, Soros is a nationally recognized patron and advocate of liberal and progressive policies and causes; those who oppose his agendas routinely vilify him, oppose what he stands for, while questioning his motives and character. Doing so is an attempt to cancel his influence through personal attacks on the man, not his actions. Undercutting social and cultural institutions that transmit knowledge and attitudes to future generations, can be even more significant than attacks on individuals. Consider the boarding school network that the United States long used in its campaign to transform the character and nature of American Indian cultures, societies, and nations (Adams 2020). The strategy involved forcing Indian children to attend boarding schools far from significant cultural influences, family ties, and traditional communities. Operating in the later part of the 19th century and for much of the 20th century, impressionable youngsters were relocated where indoctrination would face no opposition. Although an important goal of this program was to impart mainstream knowledge and job skills, another more basic motive was to weaken the power of traditional tribes, societies, and traditions. In other words, the boarding schools were directly involved in undercutting local leaders and institutions in ways that reduced their standing among the next generation. Key tactics involved (1) isolating students from their heritage and the normal socialization process, (2) shaming students if they exhibited a preference for their heritage, and (3) introducing “mainstream” religious beliefs and attitudes as a positive and preferable alternative to age-old beliefs and traditions. The tactics of the boarding schools could be harsh. Students who were caught speaking their Native language, for example, risked having their mouths washed out with soap. Artifacts of their traditional heritage were destroyed, often in a public rite of passage conducted by the staff. The goal was to undermine the students’ loyalty to their heritage while transferring their allegiance to the United States and modern civilization. Those who followed the old ways were marginalized, shunned, and punished, while those who showed signs of acculturation were praised and rewarded.

The Cancel Culture Movement 103 The ultimate goal was to return these students to their Native communities as the next generation of role models, leaders, and decision makers. To whatever extent this campaign of psychological manipulation and social engineering was successful, American Indian cultures and societies would, over time, be transformed in ways that reflect the priorities of the government and the essence of mainstream American society. This strategy was based upon the two-pronged strategy of (1) undercutting established power, authority, and respect (2) in order to remake American Indian cultures. The essence of this strategy is crystalized in a slogan by Richard H. Pratt “Kill the Indian, Save the Man” (Pratt 1892). This saying is an obvious improvement to alternatives such as “A Good Indian is a Dead Indian”, even though that orientation recommends cultural genocide instead of physical death. Pratt believed that American Indians as individual people had worth and potential … thus the “man” should survive. Pratt, however, also believed that Indian cultures were inferior and an impediment to progress … thus, the “Indian” in people (their cultural heritage) should be eliminated or killed while saving the noble people who were being held back by an obsolete way of life. The method he showcased and advocated involved using an aggressive form of education and indoctrination. The Boarding School Movement, in general, followed this model. Even if the American Indians are no longer signaled out for such treatment today, a focus upon education remains. Many conservatives, for example, complain that the contemporary higher education network in the United States tends to be overly slanted toward liberal and progressive perspectives. As a result, activist faculty members are believed to manipulate impressionable students who are cut off from parental influence for the first time and easily indoctrinated. Thus, conservatives often complain that liberal college professors routinely subject the younger generation to techniques of mind control that are reminiscent of the American Indian boarding school era. Regarding such an assertion, the conservative website Conservapedia (nd) reports, “Indoctrination is especially prevalent on college and university campuses … While it is common knowledge that many degree … [programs] are full of indoctrination … less widely known is that indoctrination exists pretty much across the board … Progressives have for generations viewed the college campus the best place for them to affect social change and re-make America from a place of Liberty into a society that cannot function without big government in every aspect of everyone’s life”. While conservatives tend to lament that higher education is a tool used by liberals and progressives to indoctrinate students, public education often receives an opposite assessment. Thus, liberal and progressives routinely complain that conservative school boards encourage the perpetuation of traditional beliefs and even unscientific musings and do so in uncritical and unbalanced ways. Liberals and progressives, furthermore, complain that states with large populations, such as Texas, buy so many textbooks that they are able to

104  The Cancel Culture Movement leverage these sales in ways that significantly impact the way in which certain sensitive topics are discussed in textbooks that are marketed nationwide. “Ever since the 1960s, the selection of schoolbooks in Texas has been a target for the religious right, which worried that schoolchildren were being indoctrinated in godless secularism, and political conservatives who felt that their kids were being given way too much propaganda” (Collins 2012). More recently, conservative states have attempted to control how public-­ school educators deal with hot button issues such as race relations. “Critical race theory, an academic concept about systemic racism, has become a target of Republican legislators in states across the country. At least six states have introduced bills that aim to place limitations on lessons about race and inequality being taught in American schools” (Alfonseca 2021). In any event, countering or undercutting the power and reach of opponents is a classic technique of the Cancel Culture movement. It can be used both by conservatives and by liberals to control conversations in order to mold and control people. Attacking Icons Another way in which the cancel culture movement seeks to achieve its goals involves devaluing or discrediting icons that reinforce beliefs, actions, or attitudes that are opposed. High-profile examples of this trend involve sports teams that possess names and mascots that are racially suggestive. Thus, both the Cleveland Indians baseball team and the Washington Redskins football team have abandoned their long-held identities and mascots because critics complained that they were disrespectful to the indigenous people of North America. For decades, a high-profile campaign pressured the Redskins to choose a new name because many felt the word is a racial slur on a par with “nigger”. Advocates for the team, in direct contrast, rejected the assertion that the name is a pejorative, arguing, to the contrary, that it draws attention to the bravery and grit long exhibited by Native tribes. In any event, over time the support for a name change became a dominant force. In 2020, the horrific killing of George Floyd (an Afro-American) by a white police officer, created an outrage against all things racist; in that environment, massive economic pressures prompted the owners of the team to agree to remove it (Kim and Sterling 2020). The name and mascot controversy, however, is not the only example of the Redskins generating animosity by acting in ways that fueled racist controversy. In the 1940s, the National Football League was segregated and Afro-Americans who wanted to turn pro were forced to sign with the West Coast professional leagues. Eventually, the color barrier broke down and the NFL was integrated. For years, the lone holdout was the Redskins that overtly cultivated notoriety as the last all-white team.

The Cancel Culture Movement 105 Indeed, a key Redskin marketing strategy celebrated the team’s whiteness. By doing so, it overtly appealed to the racial pride of Caucasian football fans, especially those from the southeast where tensions between the races were especially strong (Park 2013; Smith 2012). In spite of a barrage of complaints, Redskin’s owner George Preston Marshall continued fielding an all-white team. The feud eventually ended because the federal government owned the stadium where the Redskins played its home games. In the early 1960s, with President John F. Kennedy’s approval, Secretary of the Interior Stuart Udall told Marshall that if the team was not integrated, the Redskins would not be allowed to play in the federally owned venue. The impasse was broken and the racial barrier ended. By doing so, an icon that celebrated racial segregation was finally eliminated. In recent years, of course, a wide variety of other products have been purged of racially distinctive spokes-figures, including Aunt Jemima pancake products and Uncle Ben’s rice. The owners of these brands, no doubt, felt they (1) would be at risk if they continued to practice marketing strategies that possessed racist implications and, in contrast, (2) they could earn positive publicity by abandoned such spokes-figures before being forced to do so. As Alf Walle has pointed out (2001), choosing a corporate strategy that either supports causes or does not can be complicated and risky. This is because people often become hotly involved with the issues they support, and often treat them almost like secular religions. If the wrong decision is made or if the timing is off, the organization might suffer by being caught up in a Cancel Culture retaliation. When offering recommendations, Walle builds upon the work of Blumer (1971) and his model of a life cycle of causes. In the early phases, causes tend to be controversial and possess few supporters. Over time, however, many gain wide support and might eventually be embraced by almost everyone. A number of intermediate steps between these two ends of the continuum exist. Causes and responses to them need to be evaluated accordingly. Walle recommends being aware of this multi-step process when considering strategic responses to causes. “First, what particular … niche does … [the organization] want to impress and influence? Second, in what stage of its own unique life cycle is the particular cause?” By addressing such variables, coherent strategies regarding causes can be developed that respond both to organizational needs and to the environment in which decisions and actions take place. As supporting a cause becomes mainstream, adhering to it in appearances as well as in essence can become essential. Thus, the danger of refusing to eliminate racially charged appearance can be essential if thoughts and actions are actually racist or not. Consider the word “niggardly”, for example, which means “stingy” and is supposedly related to an old Viking word. Niggardly, therefore, has no racist implications because it does not derive from the same source as “nigger”. On a number of occasions, however, those

106  The Cancel Culture Movement using the word “niggardly” have been punished even when they did nothing wrong. Although the word is not racist, it is easily interpreted as an icon of intolerance, prejudice, and racism and treated accordingly. Perhaps the most glaring example of punishing the innocent involves the defunct Sambo’s restaurant chain. During the middle of the 20th century, Sambo’s was a network of casual dining restaurants with many franchises located throughout the United States. The name Sambo’s, unfortunately, brings to mind the racist caricature of “Little Black Sambo”, much despised by advocates of civil rights and racial equality. This antagonism persists even though the character was created by a British author (Bannerman 1899) who was writing children’s books about India. In the 1950s, completely independent of Bannerman’s fiction, Sam Battistone Sr. and Newell Bohnett opened a restaurant; when deciding what to call it, the partners combined portions of their names to come up with Sambo’s. Thus, there were no racist implications. After customers told the partners about Bannerman’s writing and its connection with India, the restaurant interiors, menues, and such began to depict a young Indian boy and his pet tiger (as suggested by Banderman’ stories). Successful, the Sambo’s chain grew to 1,100 locations. As time went by, however, the public began to complain about the racist implications of the name. The owners, however, refused to give in to demands for change because they knew the name was not racist. Standing firm, their response was to place a greater emphasis upon India in their promotions in order to defuse the assertions of racism made by Afro-Americans and their allies. This strategy failed, and in the early 1980s, the company declared bankrupty, and the Sambo’s brand ceased to operate except for the original location that ultimately changed its name in 2020 as a result of tensions caused by the death of George Floyd. Although Sambo’s might have had other marketing and administrative problems (Metz 1981), its rise and fall is an example of the catastrophic consequences of not being adequately aware of the public’s opposition to something that could be construed to be racist. Ultimately, Sambos paid the ultimate price by failing to adequately respond to complaints of racism (if these criticisms were justified or not). In the public mind, Sambos became associated with racism and was doomed, but innocent. Although Sambo’s was unable to do so, on occasion, charges of racism have been successfully challenged. A classic example of this possibility began when West-Coast-based musician Neil Young (of Canadian origin) released two songs “Southern Man” (1970) and “Alabama” (1972). Both were written in the wake of the civil rights era with the racist oppressions and atrosities of those times clearly in mind. “Southern Man” (from the 1970 Gold Rush album) made scathing and overly generalized criticisms about the Southeast and its legacies of slavery and segregration. In part, the lyrics of “Southern Man” include: “ … I heard screamin’ and bullwhips cracking. How Long? How long?”

The Cancel Culture Movement 107 These sentiments were followed up two years later with the song “Alabama” that appeared in Young’s album Harvest where Young sings “Swing low Alabama … You got the weight on your shoulders, That’s breaking your back”. In these songs, Young was “preaching to the converted” since his core audience tended to young, liberal advocates of civil rights who resided on the West Coast, or at least were not natives of the Southeast. Few listeners initially objected to his inflamatory portrayls. The Southern Rock group Lynyrd Skynard however, was willing to “take up the gauntlet” and respond with a musical rebuttal. According to Ronnie van Zant, the lead singer “We thought Neil was shooting all the ducks in order to kill one or two [bad ones]” (Dupree 1974). With this bone to pick, van Zant wrote the lyrics to “Sweet Home Alabama” which has gone on to become a Rock and Roll classic that continues to earn airtime on radio even today. Hardly avoiding controversy, the song specifically calls out Young by name complaining “Well, I heard Mister Young sing about her. Well, I heard ol’ Neil put her down”. As the song continues, Young is reminded that even the parts of America he loves have spawned injustice and misdeeds by pointedly asking, “Watergate does not bother me. Does your conscience bother you?” After all, Young was residing in California, the home of corrupt president Richard Nixon who was to be brought down by the Watergate controversy. Thus, van Zant seemingly accuses Young for acting in ways that resemble the “pot calling the kettle black”. Perhaps the most important (although often misunderstood) lyrics of the song tell us “In Birmingham, they love the governor (boo boo boo). Now we all did what we could do”. Here, van Zant overtly observes that he (and presumably many other young and progressive Southerners) were disapproving of (booing) segregationist Alabama governor George Wallace and his defense of segregation. Unfortunately, some listeners failed to understand the actual point the song is making. Nevertheless, Al Kooper who produced the album Second Helping (where “Sweet Home Alabama” was initially released), affirms “‘We tried to get Wallace out of there’ is how I always thought of it” (Ballinger 2002). Even Neil Young has come to accept the van Zant point of view when he concedes “My own song ‘Alabama’ richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record [Sweet Home Alabama]” (Young 2012; 417). Thus, the Cancel Culture movement has a variety of tools. Three have been discussed, including (1) economic punishments, (2) undercutting opponents, and (3) attacking icons. They are compared and contrasted in Table 7.1. In conclusion, the Cancel Culture movement seeks to limit the power, authority, reputation, reach, etc., of opponents by undermining their credibility in some manner. It can do so by inflicting economic damage, eroding the reputation of opponents, and/or attacking icons that are associated with positions that are rejected or attacked.

108  The Cancel Culture Movement Table 7.1  Cancel Culture Techniques Issue

Analysis

Economic Punishments

Economic punishment (or its threat) can weaken the influence of opponents and/or their ability to challenge a cause. It can also encourage others to avoid responding in overt or forceful ways.

Undercutting Opponents

Notable people tend to serve as role models. Those who oppose what they represent can benefit by weakening their reputation and clout.

Attacking Icons

Icons possess an overt or covert power to mold public opinion. Reducing their influence can benefit those who embrace and advance rival positions.

DISCUSSION The Cancel Culture movement seeks to reduce the impact, clout, and reputation of those who are opposed. Three representative tactics of the Cancel Culture movement were discussed. Others obviously exist. They are unified by the desire to quiet the opposition or reduce its influence.

Progressives who move in such a direction are often viewed as possessing a degree of “wokeness”, that is being awake to and aware of the problems of this world. A brief discussion of this term and its usage by both liberals and conservatives is useful.

THE WOKE MOVEMENT In order to adequately perceive what they want to cancel, it is important for people to develop opinions and perspectives that are informed and appropriate. Increasingly, the term “woke” is used in that context. Deriving from Afro-American usage, the term refers to people who have “woken up” to reality and act accordingly. Thus, to be woke is to be aware and awake especially in regard to injustice or oppression. The word woke has been around for a long time and debate rages regarding its origin. Some observers indicate that blues legend Leadbelly (1885–1949) who was “discovered” and managed by legendary folklorists John and Alan Lomax used the term (Matheis 2018). And, quite early, it was adopted by white intellectuals in New York City such as members of the Beat Generation as observed by Afro-American writer William Melvin Kelly in his “If You’re Woke You Dig It” (1962). In recent years, the term has emerged as a commonly used adjective to describe advocates of progressive social and political perspectives. Stripped to the core, “woke” refers to being aware and awake regarding racism, sexism, gender issues, sexual oppression and other forms of inequality or injustice. Expanding beyond the racial issues of concern to Afro-Americans, current usage has expanded to acknowledge all unfairness, bigotry, domination, and so forth. As a result, the term has crossed over into general

The Cancel Culture Movement 109 and mainstream usage, instead of being almost exclusively associated with Afro-Americans. How people relate to the term, however, largely depends upon their political and social beliefs and orientations. People who feel that the status quo is oppressive and needs to be transformed tend to applaud those who demonstrate “wokeness” in their thought and actions. As a result, being woke equates with being a good and informed citizen who is acting in ways that are humane, fair, and unbiased. Conservatives who often face the brunt of liberal and progressive criticism, in contrast, often use woke to depict opponents as being unfairly critical and engaging in overly “politically correct” posturing and doing so in unreasonable ways.

CONCLUSION In Chapter 6, Critical Race Theory was discussed as a useful but socially and politically charged concept and mode of thinking. The same is true of the Cancel Culture movement that has been considered in this chapter. Cancel Culture is a form of censorship or social control seeks to silence opponents or at least destabilize their power or authority within the context of a social forum. Thus, it can be used to discredit those who embrace opposing views. Cancel culture techniques can also be deployed as an example of the old “ad hominin” fallacy of argumentation that attacks the individual in a preemptive way that undercuts their credibility so their opinions will be devalued and discredited. A wide variety of true believers ranging from conservative to progressive, use such tactics in an attempt to minimize the power and impact of their opponents. Although the term Cancel Culture is of recent origin, its basic methods go back thousands of years. Specific techniques include but are not limited to (1) economic punishments, (2) weakening opponents, and (3) attacking icons.

RELEVANT TERMS Akhenaten  An Egyptian Pharaoh who rebelled against the prevailing religion of his times. After death, he was written out of Egyptian History. Attacking Icons  A Cancel Culture technique that seeks to degrade cultural icons that are deemed offensive. Aunt Jemima  An Afro-American spokes-figure for a brand of Pancake products that was retired because of racist stereotypes. Beat Generation  A counter-cultural movement largely composed of white, urban intellectuals who embraced the term “woke” as early as the 1960s. Blacklist  A campaign associated with Senator Joe McCarthy that was designed to deny employment opportunities to people who appeared to be un-American.

110  The Cancel Culture Movement Blumer, Herbert  Developed a theory of the life cycle of causes. Boarding Schools  Schools that American Indian children were forced to attend. A goal of the schools was to render the indigenous heritage passé. Call Out Culture  Those who criticize others, largely on the social media and internet by objecting to specific traits or behavior that is deemed unacceptable. Cancel Culture  Systematically reducing, eliminating, or canceling the authority and respect enjoyed by opponents. In modern times, the internet and social media have emerged as key tools of this process. Chavez, Cesar  Leader of the United Farm Workers who sought to unionize migrant workers who worked for companies such as Gallo Wine. Chick-Fil-A  A fast-food chain that has angered some liberals and progressive people by advocating socially conservative agendas. Cleveland Indians  The former name of a professional baseball franchise that was retired because of racist implications. Conservative Bias in Public Education  Various critics are concerned that some states and school boards exert inappropriate influences upon textbook choice and on the content of nationally published textbooks. Dixie Chicks  A band and singing group that was subjected to a Cancel Culture retaliation after being critical of the Iraq invasion in the 1980s. Economic Punishment  A technique of the Cancel Culture movement that seeks to reduce the income of opponents (or threatens to do so). Floyd, George  Afro-American man whose death at the hands of police generated a national outcry. Foreman, Carl  Hollywood scriptwriter who was a victim of Senator Joe McCarthy’s blacklist. Wrote High Noon. Gallo Wine  A company opposed to Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers. Henry IV  An emperor whose authority was canceled when he refused to obey the Pope. High Noon  A Western movie written by Carl Foreman that is actually an allegory regarding the horrors of being blacklisted. Hobby Lobby  A retail Chain that aggressively advocates conservative social and religious agendas and, as a result, has been boycotted by liberals and progressives. Liberal Bias in Higher Education  The assertion by conservatives that most colleges and universities possess a liberal bias. Many faculty members are alleged to be activists who consciously use the classroom to indoctrinate students. Lynyrd Skynyrd  Southern Rock Band that defended the South with the song “Sweet Home Alabama”. McCarthy, Joe  Conservative Senator who feared communist infiltration and encouraged the blacklisting of those he suspected were un-American.

The Cancel Culture Movement 111 Niggardly  A word meaning stingy that is often falsely assumed to be related to nigger resulting in possible retaliation directed toward those who use it. Pratt, Richard R.  Director of Carlisle American Indians Boarding School who coined the Slogan “Kill the Indian, Save the Man”. Sambo’s  A restaurant chain named after its owners and without a racist reference. The confusing name led to censure due to apparent (but false) racist implications. Seger, Pete  A famous entertainer and social activist who was blacklisted because of his liberal and economic views. Shunning  Systematically isolating people as a means of social control. Used by the Amish. Sweet Home Alabama  A song by Lynyrd Skynyrd that responds to Neil Young’s attacks of the South by presenting a more balanced view. Undercutting Opponents  A technique of Cancel Culture that seeks to reduce the credibility and reputation of those who are opposed. Wallace, George  Segregationist governor of Alabama who is called out in the song “Sweet Home Alabama” by Lynyrd Skynyrd. Washington Redskins  A professional football team that (1) embraced the racist marketing strategy of boasting that it was all-white and then (2) refused to change its name to a less racist alternative until it had no other choice. Woke  Refers to be “woken up” to oppression and possessing an awareness of such conditions in ways that invite positive and constructive responses. Young, Neil  Singer who inspired Lynyrd Skynyrd to write “Sweet Home Alabama”. In later years, Young has admitted that Lynyrd Skynyrd was correct.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What does the term Cancel Culture mean? What does Call Out Culture mean? Compare and contrast. Can these techniques be used by conservatives, liberals, or both? How can they be used by true believers facing anomie? Discuss. 2. Discuss the strategy of using economic punishments as a tool of Cancel Culture. Compare the examples of Carl Foreman and ChickFil-A. Present an example of your own choosing that deals with using economic pressures in campaigns of Cancel Culture or threats to do so. 3. Discuss undercutting opponents as a tool of Cancel Culture. Discuss strategies of undercutting individuals such as George Soros. Discuss examples of undercutting that involve institutions and components of society. Provide and discuss an example of your choice that deals with undercutting of some type.

112  The Cancel Culture Movement 4. What are icons and why are they powerful. How can Cancel Culture strategies benefit from attacking icons? Use the Sambos and niggardly example to deal with possible damage facing those who are innocent. Using an example of your own choosing, discuss the power of using icons within a Cancel Culture context. 5. What is “Wokeness”. Is it an old or a new term? How do progressives and liberals view the term and what are the strategic implications? How do social and political conservatives view the term and what are the strategic implications?

REFERENCES Aaronovitch, David (2017). “Extremists Find Their Time Has Come at Last.” The Times. (March 2). Adams, David Wallace (2020). Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928. Second edition. (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press). Alfonseca, Kiara (2021). “Critical Race Theory in the Classroom: Understanding the Debate Some States Are Placing Limitations on Racial Inequality Education in Schools.” ABC News Prime. (May 18). Ballinger, Lee (2002 [1999]). Lynyrd Skynyrd: An Oral History. (Los Angeles: XT377 Publishing). Bannerman, Helen (1899). The Story of Little Black Sambo. (London: Grant Richards). Blumer, Herbert (1971). “Social Problems as Collective Behavior.” Social Problems. 18: 298–308. Bondarenko, Veronika (2017). “George Soros Is a Favorite Target of the Right — Here’s How That Happened.” Business Insider. (May 20). Campbell, Duncan (2003). “Dixie Sluts’ Fight on with Naked Defiance.” The Guardian. (April 25). Collins, Gail (2012). “How Texas Inflicts Bad Textbooks on Us” The New York Review. (June 21). Conservapedia (nd). “Liberal Indoctrination” Conservapedia. (on line site) accessed 1/3/22. https://www.conservapedia.com/Liberal_indoctrination Dupree, Tom (1974). “Lynyrd Skynyrd in Sweet Home Atlanta.” Rolling Stone. (October 24). Kelly, William Melvin (1962). “If You’re Woke You Dig It.” The New York Times. (May 20, 1962 Section SM p 45). Kim, Allen and Sterling, Wayne (2020). “Washington’s Football Team to Call Itself Washington Football Team Until It Settles on a New Name.” CNN.com. (July 2). Kraybill, Donald B., Nolt, Steven M. and Weaver-Zercher, David (2010). The Amish Way: Patient Faith in a Perilous World. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass). Matel, Adrienne (2019). “Call-Out Culture: How to Get It Right (and Wrong).” The Guardian. (November 1), 15. Matheis, Frank (2018). “Outrage Channeled in Verse.” Living Blues. 49(4): 15. Metz, Robert (1981). “Market Place; Mistakes at Sambo’s.” The New York Times. (November 27). O’Neil, Tyler (2021). “The All-Out Assault on Conservative Thought Has Just Begun.” PJ Media. (January 9, 9:15 AM).

The Cancel Culture Movement 113 Park, Alex (2013). “That Time Nazis Marched to “Keep Redskins White.” Mother Jones. (November 7). Park, Suey and Eunsong, Kim (2014). “We Want to #Cancel Colbert.” Time Magazine. (March 28). Pratt, Richard H. (1892). “The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites,” in Americanizing the American Indians: Writings by the “Friends of the Indian” 1880– 1900. Edited by Paul Purcha. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), 260–71. Smith, Thomas G. (2012). JFK and the Integration of the Washington Redskins. (Boston: Beacon Press). Walle, Alf H. (2001). Rethinking Marketing Qualitative Strategies and Exotic Visions. (Westport: Quorum). Young, Neil (2012). Waging Heavy Peace: A Hippie Dream. (London: Penguin Books).

Epilogue to Section 3

Because of racist and xenophobic feelings, significant tensions exist within European societies and the United States. In this section, representative techniques of rhetoric and argumentation involving these conflicts were analyzed. In Chapter 6, discussions centered around Critical Race Theory that adapts Critical Theory in ways that address race relations. According to Max Horkheimer, the Critical tradition of analysis (that dates back to the 1930s) seeks to get beyond social analysis that is merely descriptive in order to address ethnical, moral, and normative issues. As with other dialectical models, Critical Race Theory focuses upon the tensions between rival groups. Emphasizing concepts such as “white privilege”, the case is made that most white people covertly or overtly seek to maintain the advantages it provides. The principles of internalization and institutionalism are often discussed in this regard. The model, however, fails to recognize the significant support for equal rights that is exhibited by many white people. Nevertheless, Critical Race Theory provides a useful way to analyze and discuss inequities related to race. In Chapter 7, Cancel culture and Call Out culture were discussed. These techniques often involve the use of damning rhetoric to criticize opponents and undercut their power. In the heat of partisan oratory, such tactics are commonly employed by both liberals and conservatives. Although potentially effective when preaching to the converted, they risk generating animosity among those being critiqued. The basic strategy of Cancel culture techniques is to weaken or undercut a position by attacking what is associated with it. Three techniques for doing so include economic punishments, undercutting opponents, and attacking icons. In addition, the term Woke provides a way to depict those who are aware of injustice and seek to remedy such unfairness. Thus, liberals use the term “woke” to depict people who “wake up” to the realities of life and act accordingly. While liberals use Woke as a point of honor, conservatives use it as a pejorative to depict political correctness.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-13

Prologue to Section 4

In Section 3, controversial theories were discussed that involve social change and political activism, especially with regard to race, ethnicity, and xenophobia. Chapter 6 examined Critical Race Theory, a polemical school of thought used to identify and address systematic and institutionalized racism. Although a useful model, the observation was made that it can easily become hyperbolic. In Chapter 7, the so-called Cancel Culture movement was discussed along with the observation that conservative people often complain about campaigns to destroy or vilify legitimate and positive aspects of their heritage. Their opponents, in contrast, insist that their goals involve pointing to and/or advocating for positive change. In Section 4, these discussions are further built upon in ways that are less theoretical and more pragmatic. Thus, attention is directed toward showing appropriate sensitivity to those who hold different points of view and to evaluate these people in their entirety, not merely with reference to areas of significant disagreement. Developing these abilities, orientations, and perspectives is essential if useful and productive dialogues are to develop. Chapter 8, “For What It’s Worth: Missteps that Multiple Problems”, initially warns of the dangers of merely preaching to the converted in fruitless ways. The discussions go on to showcase a variety of rhetorical techniques that potentially increase tensions between people and/or inhibit productive dialogues. Critics of racism and xenophobia need to avoid lapsing into styles of communication that possess a potential to careen into unnecessary hostility and disrespect because doing so can impede meaningful dialogue. In Chapter 9, “Getting What You Need: Keeping an Eye on the Prize”, the point is made that many people are simultaneously a part of the problem and a part of the solution. Thus, although someone might appear to be an adversary, certain aspects of their norms and beliefs might be positive and can be built upon. To showcase this reality, a number of historic examples are reviewed. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-14

116  Prologue to Section 4 These observations lead to a further discussion regarding the dialectical method that envisions the possibility of constructive dialogues and concomitant change that can result from it. Such progress is especially likely when people are met with positive and respectful evaluations and critiques. Hopefully, the observations in these two chapters will encourage meaningful and productive interchanges between those holding rival positions regarding sensitive issues.

8

For What It’s Worth Missteps that Multiply Problems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Becoming aware of the dangers of preaching to the converted. 2. Appreciating how barriers to productive communication can arise. 3. Exploring a wide variety of rhetorical habits capable of generating hostility and misunderstanding. 4. Learning to anticipate probable tensions and misunderstandings and how to prevent them. 5. Evaluating techniques of communicating in terms of unintended hurtful implications.

INTRODUCTION One of the keystone songs of the 1960s, its countercultural flavor, and the eras ethos of protest was written by Stephen Stills, performed by Buffalo Springfield, and known as “For What It’s Worth” (Stills 1966). Far from championing a particular cause, the song complains that the contentious and counterproductive tactics of both dissents and rebuttals to them can tear people and the country asunder. Stills’ laments that true believers on both sides of issues were talking only to themselves and not to others. Its lyrics remain as fresh and relevant today as when first sung many years ago. We are told, “There’s a battle line being drawn; nobody’s right if everybody’s wrong. [Rivals] mostly say ‘hooray for our side’ … [The] cycle needs to be broken”. How true it is. As a young man away at college, my experiences reflected such sentiments. I gained a keen awareness (probably stronger than most) of what Stills was singing about because I am the child of Northern parents who, following the job market, migrated to the south. The upbringing provided by my parents gave me an abhorrence of segregation, racism, and the violent tactics used to maintain them. In those ways, I was no different from innumerable Northern baby boomers who during that era listened to the songs DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-15

118  For What It’s Worth of Peter, Paul, and Mary, Phil Ochs, Tom Paxton, Joan Baez, Buffy SainteMarie, and Bob Dylan. Finding myself on a mid-1960s college campus, complete with folk singers, beat generation-styled coffee houses, and a budding countercultural attitude, I was in basic agreement with my cohorts who clamored for an end to “the old South” (and its way of life that, in those days, continued to hang on despite escalating outcries from enraged and mobilized civil rights advocates). When evaluating those who held racist views, however, I found myself at odds with my peers. Having lived below the Mason-Dixon line during my formative years, I was friends with many racists and segregationists who, I realized, were good people in spite of inheriting bad ideas regarding civil rights, a belief in racial inequality, and related matters. Although their upbringing gave them views that I rejected, I also knew that my childhood friends had redeeming characteristics. They might have been hurtful true believers in some ways, but they were more than that. Time and again, I expressed that reality. In the heat of the conflict, however, most of the aspiring reformers I associated with lumped all segregation-minded Southerners into one homogeneous and horrendous category that, as a group, were written off as inherently evil. When I defended the people of my childhood, I was ostracized by those I had thought were my new friends. I concluded that these “enlightened” crusaders were, in their own way, just as bigoted as the Southerners they condemned. They, also, were true believers. This was true even though they were on the “right side”. The years went by and tempers cooled. For a while. Although the progress was far from complete, the old wounds of the past seemed to have healed or, at least, had started to scab over. I was optimistic. Injuries remained, but the poison of infection appeared to be weakening. This lull, unfortunately, was a calm before the storm. Today, tensions and divisions have returned with a vengeance. No one group of people or set of beliefs can be blamed for the current state of affairs. Today, as 50 or 60 years ago, hostile and pointed rhetoric (from true believers on both sides) drowns out meaningful dialogue. When inflammatory rhetoric dominates, the quest toward mutual understanding and progress fades. In this chapter, techniques of rhetoric and argumentation that potentially emerge as counterproductive are analyzed and critiqued. Perhaps by understanding such potential missteps, hurtful miscommunication can be avoided. These observations are followed by Chapter 9 that suggests that on many occasions, people who are a “part of the problem” can simultaneously possess positive characteristics that provide a common ground to build upon. Thus, they can emerge as more than mere true believing opponents. When this is true, the possibility of building bridges of understanding and collaboration potentially exists.

For What It’s Worth 119

PREACHING TO THE CONVERTED Preaching to the converted is a sterile and intellectually empty activity that emphasizes distinctions, inhibits meaningful dialogues, lumps people into rival camps, emphasizes contrasts between ideologies, while failing to reduce tensions. In a nutshell, it involves true believers talking to themselves and nobody else. Sadly, fruitless exercises of this sort are common, probably because partisans are comforted when they hear their beliefs being repeated over and over again in ways that face no competition. In the past, rivals in the United States Congress enjoyed a friendly drink together after a rough afternoon of debate and confrontation. Today, in contrast, Congress has degenerated into rival camps where those holding different views emerge as enemies, not colleagues. Common ground and mutual respect have largely been lost. In such circumstances, the possibility of cooperation and reconciliation fades, replaced by a “zero-sum game” mentality where “achievement” or “success” is viewed in terms of defeating enemies as completely as possible and stripping them of what they value. Various theories can explain such reactions. Maybe the balance of power is so much in doubt that the pleasantries of amiable exchange have been suspended. Or perhaps, people become hostile when they envision grave losses or, however, feel outrage when reform does not come quickly enough. And those who study the mass media are likely to point to the constant din of partisan Cable TV channels, intrusive social media, the proliferation of internet propaganda (from both the left and right), and the public’s response to them. Perhaps all of these variables combine in a synergistic manner that magnifies hurtful trends. In the 1964 presidential election campaign, Barry Goldwater used the slogan “Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice” (Goldwater 1964). In other words, he encouraged people to become true believers as long as they followed a noble cause. Although Goldwater lost the election in a landslide, his vision is credited with spawning the modern-day conservative movement in American politics (and, by extension, rival responses to it). This trend has led to the current environment of extreme rhetoric on both sides that stifles meaningful and productive dialogue. The tensions that existed during the 1960s civil rights movement, furthermore, have returned along with the rhetorical strategy of vilifying those with divergent views. Thus, preaching to the converted, in its many forms, creates tensions that work against collaboration, cooperation, and a resolution of differences.

ROADBLOCKS TO UNDERSTANDING In this chapter, an array of counterproductive habits is discussed and analyzed, including (1) To the Victor Belongs the Spoils, (2) Elevating Conventional over Cultural History, (3) Evaluating Yesterday Using Today, (4) Misinterpreting History, (5) Destroying Icons, (6) Ignoring Historical

120  For What It’s Worth Contexts, (7) Ad Hominem Dismissals vs. Empathy, (8) “Look Like Me” Rhetoric, (9) Demographic Gloating, and (10) Misinterpreting Innocent Behavior. To the Victor Belongs the Spoils After the 2020 United States presidential election and the victory of Joe Biden, key supporters of his campaign began demanding tangible and partisan benefits. Doing so went far beyond insisting upon the advancement of generic agendas endorsed by liberals and progressives. Voters of color, especially black women, were pointed to as a hyper-loyal voting block that pushed Biden over the top. The time has come, the demands argued, for these “king-makers” to receive their just rewards. Although “quid quo pro” responses are common in politics, various demands (broadcast in venues such as Cable TV news networks) exhibited little subtly, inhibition, and restraint. Their boldness reminded me of the old dictate “to the victor belongs the spoils”. Such rhetoric might merely have sprung from the enthusiasm and euphoria of victory. Unfortunately, such sentiments can clash with the proper functioning of a democracy. In the 1820s, for example, President Andrew Jackson ruled according to what William L. Marcy of New York State (1786–1857) referred to as the “Spoils System”. Jackson doled out patronage and privilege to reward his supporters while disregarding the needs of others (and, perhaps, even punishing them). Thus, the white settlers of the Southeast who supported Jackson coveted the lands of the Cherokee Indians, especially after gold was discovered. When the smoke cleared, (1) whites took over Cherokee territory (2) after Jackson forced the tribe to endure the infamous Trail of Tears and relocate west of the Mississippi River (Carson 2008). Power grabs by Jackson and his use of the Spoils System led to the creation of the Whig political Party that sought to reduce Jackson’s clout. By seeking to limit the power of the central government, the Whigs developed policies that catered to the needs of the Northern industrialists who feared that Jackson’s populist views were undercutting their business strategies. Seeking to weaken the central government, the Whigs favored granting more power to the states, a policy that also benefited southern slaveholders. Once this collaboration of strange bedfellows (Northern manufacturers and Southern slave holders) was established, it took many years for the Whigs to collapse and be replaced with the Republican Party that opposed slavery and struggled to put an end to it. Hopefully, contemporary actions that parallel Jackson’s Spoils System will not trigger a backlash against today’s progressive views. Elevating Conventional over Cultural History At least two types of history exist. What some might call “conventional history” examines great events and the elite minorities that trigger seminal changes. I have heard that this variant referred to “generals and battles”

For What It’s Worth 121 history because it concentrates upon epic incidents and bigger than life heroic figures. In this vein, 19th-century historian Thomas Carlyle (1841) concluded that the history of mankind is nothing but the biography of “great men”. Many contemporary historians, in contrast, are more concerned with understanding average people and their everyday lives instead of a small veneer of elites. This broader emphasis has led to the rise of cultural history (Arcangeli 2011) that Yale University defines as dealing with “the notions (sometimes unwritten) of the less privileged and less educated. These are reflected in the products of deliberately artistic culture, but also include the objects and experiences of everyday life, such as clothing or cuisine. ‘Culture’ can also imply everyday attitudes, values, assumptions and prejudices, and the rituals and practices that express them, from magical beliefs to gender roles and racial hierarchies” (Yale University nd). This focus upon the lives, actions, thoughts, and feelings of a representative cross section of the population has emerged as particularly important and relevant to those who are concerned with the situations faced by minorities, disadvantaged demographic groups, and how they struggled or coped with the situations they were forced to confront and endure. Instead of concentrating almost exclusively upon the elite residents and guests at George Washington’s Mount Vernon or Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello, for example, today’s interpreters simultaneously seek to recreate the lives of the slaves and other “common people” who shared these spaces with the privileged. An example is the “Slavery at Monticello Tour” that is provided by those who manage and interpret the Monticello historic site (Monticello nd). By offering this tour, a more balanced view of the past emerges. Thus, conventional and cultural histories deal with distinct aspects of life and the experiences of distinct demographic segments. With this reality in mind, it is useful to evaluate events, such as the American Civil War,1 from both historical perspectives. Conventional analyses of the war tend to examine the opinions and statements of the elites (such as Alexander Stephens, the Vice President of the Confederate States). Looking at his well-known “Cornerstone Speech” of March 21, 1861, the war and Southern support for it appear to hinge around the issue of slavery (Cleveland 1886; 717–29). Indeed, Stephens forcefully states, “African slavery as it exists amongst us … This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution”. Stephens goes on to assert that the races are not equal and that a situation where blacks are subservient to whites is the natural order and should be acknowledged and preserved. Such sentiments, of course, have been debunked and are most distasteful.

1 I recognize that in the North the term “Civil War” is preferred, while in the south the “War Between the States” is often used. To save space, the term Civil War will dominate.

122  For What It’s Worth Looking at Stephens’ oratory and other elitist musings that parallel it (such as various writings of John C. Calhoun), the case can be made that the Civil War/War Between the States was fought over slavery and little else. This case is routinely made today by many people of color and their allies. When attention strays from the elites, however, other interpretations emerge. Much of the South was populated by small farmers who were not slaveholders and who were little impacted by the institution of slavery. Although slavery existed throughout the Southern states, it had less of an impact in the Appalachian regions with its Scotch-Irish heritage that lacked the “aristocratic” southern planter tradition. The question arises, “How did these small farmers who typically did not own slaves relate to the war?” One clue is provided by the fears generated by John Brown’s attack of Harpers Ferry in 1859 (Horwitz 2011). Brown was hoping his raid would be the catalyst for a great slave uprising against the south over the issue of slavery. Brown, of course, had long been an agitator who invoked terror, encouraged violence, and brought death to those who favored slavery in places such as “Bleeding Kansas” (Rawley 1969). Due to the aggression, violence, and murderous activities of abolitionists such as John Brown and his sons (and counter initiatives by rival pro-slavery groups), a reign of terror had gripped the Kansas-Missouri border. Many common people in the southeast dreaded that such a fate was probably in store for them. As such, Brown and extremists of his ilk were feared in the South as a very real threat to life and peace. Even after he was executed as a punishment for his raid, the looming memory of Brown’s murderous fanaticism coupled with the Republican victory in the 1860 election (that elevated Abraham Lincoln to the presidency) left many Southerners with the belief that a full-blown war was inevitable. Indeed, succession occurred and war came. How do you think small Southern farmers without slaves reacted to such threats and events? Whatever their opinions regarding slavery might have been, those facing such a crisis would have been primarily committed to protecting hearth and home. Sure enough, many became caught up in the fight. Once the conflict was in full swing, no doubt, the urge to protect family and community dominated the thought and action of local people who found themselves threatened by the advance of invading enemies. I doubt that these dirt farmers would have been inspired to sacrifice their lives in order to serve rich plantation owners by defending the institution of slavery. But they would defend their homes. Today, there is a realization that most soldiers who fought for Germany during World War II were doing so to protect their families and their country, not to support the Nazi regime and its atrocities. As a result, these honorable German combatants are entitled to the same respect as all others who act in such a noble fashion. Why do so many Americans fail to offer the same respect to Confederate veterans? The time has come to give equal and positive recognition to average rebel soldiers and what they really fought to protect. Such recognition becomes

For What It’s Worth 123 possible when the lens of cultural history is employed in ways that emphasize the common people, not the elite. But those who cling to a conventional historic mentality rivet upon the elites and their special interests. When this paradigm dominates, a one-sided view of the war emerges that fixates upon slavery and little else. Ironically, emphasizing the elites and their priorities is the opposite of what most liberals and progressives usually stress (as we saw in the interpretations at Monticello that acknowledge the lives of slaves and working people, not just the elite). Evaluating Yesterday Using Today One of the great fallacies of argumentation is to judge the people of the past using today’s standards. A popular chain of thought, for example, depicts the leaders and generals of the Confederate States as “traitors” and dismiss them as such (Rocess 2019; Tapper 2020). This assertion uses a chain of thoughts such as (1) the Confederate leaders rejected their country, the United States, and fought against it, (2) such actions are traitorous, (3) therefore, those who participated in such deeds are traitors, and (4) they can be dismissed and vilified as such. According to contemporary perspectives, this is a legitimate verdict because today’s conventional views conclude that citizens of the United States are supposed to view themselves primarily as “Americans”; other loyalties (to a state, region, religion, etc.) are entitled to only a secondary allegiance. Thus, when John F. Kennedy, a Catholic, was running for president, he strongly emphasized that he was, first and foremost, an American and that his primary loyalties as president would lie with the United States, not his religion (Kennedy 1960). Before the Civil War, however, this hierarchy was not a settled issue. The first half of the 19th century saw significant disagreement regarding loyalty to the federal vs. the specific state of residence. On many occasions, people in both the North and the South were locally, not nationally/federally oriented. The conflict between Andrew Jackson and the Whig’s emphasis upon local vs. centralized authority has already been discussed. Others notable incidents include the late 18th-century Whisky Rebellion (Baldwin 1939), Michigan and Ohio’s “war” over the “Toledo Strip” in the 1830s (Faber 2008), South Carolina’s Nullification Act of the 1830s (Freehling 1965) that asserted the ability of the state to ignore “illegal” federal laws. During the first half of the 19th century (and up until the end of the Civil War), many people felt the states possessed more authority and deserved more allegiance than the federal government. These feelings, furthermore, went beyond rationales for protecting slavery. Many honorable and non-treasonous people believed that their first loyalty was to their state, not to the centralized nation. Robert E. Lee, the most famous of the Confederate generals, for example, was offered a leadership role in the Union army after a number of states (including Virginia) succeeded from the United States to form the

124  For What It’s Worth Confederacy in 1861. Lee responded, “I look upon secession as anarchy. If I owned the four million of slaves in the South, I would sacrifice them all to the Union; but how can I draw my sword upon Virginia, my native state?” (Goodwin 2005; 350). In spite of being a slaveholder, furthermore, Lee observed, “In this enlightened age, there are few I believe, but what will acknowledge, that slavery as an institution, is a moral & political evil” (Thomas 1997; 173). Although Lee’s straddling and indecisiveness regarding the slavery issue is problematic, at least he had begun to think about it. Thus, Robert E. Lee was recruited by the United States to head its army but he refused because his loyalties lay with Virginia, not the federal government. Indeed, if Lee had accepted the opportunity to fight against Virginia in his own mind, he would have become a traitor. As a result of this loyalty to his home state of Virginia, he spent the next four years as a Confederate commander, not to protect slavery but to defend his home (the state he could not draw his sword upon). This is but one example that demonstrates the fallacy of evaluating the past with reference to principles, beliefs, and priorities that exist today. Not only is doing so flawed logic; it misjudges the people of the past. Misinterpreting History An old cliché often heard today reminds us that those who are not aware of history are destined to repeat it. In addition to being aware of history, holding accurate and correct views is vital. Sadly, this is often not the case because rhetorical outbursts often portray past events in terms of partisan narratives. One glaring case in point is the manner in which the United States Constitution states how slaves were to be counted during the United States censuses. As is commonly known, slaves were only evaluated as three fifths of a white person for census purposes. Thus, Article 1 of the Constitution states that the population “shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons … three fifths of all other Persons [i.e. AfroAmerican Slaves]”. I have lost track of the number of times that I have heard complaints that such a codicil in the Constitution is proof that that white people devalued Afro-Americans to such a degree that their significance was calculated as only 60% of that of a white person. Based on this assertion, the impassioned case has often been made that the document upon which our government is based possesses this glaring reference to racial inequality and bigotry. An eloquent presentation of this general perspective is provided in Imani Perry’s South to America: A Journey Below the Mason-Dixon to Understand the Soul of a Nation (2022). In direct contrast to such interpretations, the three fifths rule actually took power away from the slave states by reducing the population numbers that were used to assign seats in the House of Representatives.

For What It’s Worth 125 Because that count was lowered by the three fifths rule, the slave states had less representation in congress than, otherwise would have been the case. Thus, the rule worked in favor of Afro-Americans and abolitionists because it reduced the clout of the slave holders within the federal government. Escaped slave and famed abolitionist Fredrick Douglas clearly recognized this reality when he observed that the Three Fifth rule “is a downright disability laid upon the slaveholding States; one which deprives those States of two-fifths of their … representation [in the House of Representatives] … Therefore, instead of encouraging slavery, the Constitution encourages freedom by giving an increase of ‘two-fifths’ of political power to free over slave States” (Douglas 1860). Those who assert that the three fifths rule is based on white chauvinism are encouraged to look at the facts, especially with reference to Douglas’ observations. By doing so, they can avoid making such obvious mistakes that invalidate their rhetoric and undercut their chains of thought. This is but one example of not fully understanding the full implications of the issues being examined. Destroying Icons My mother was raised in Big Rapids Michigan, a small town in the central part of the state. In front of Big Rapids’ Mecosta County courthouse, a statue of a Union soldier has long stood straight and tall in honor of those who made the ultimate sacrifice during the Civil War. In the decades after the war ended, hundreds of such memorials sprung up throughout the country in both the North and the South. Each paid homage to veterans and acknowledged their sacrifices. Today, partisan detractors suggest that the Southern statues are intended to present a racist message, are artifacts of bigotry, tools of terrorism, and their original erection coincides with the growing strength of Jim Crow politics in the early 20th century. As such, they are viewed as weapons of white supremacy and white privilege used to intimidate Southern Blacks. Building upon such assertions, a growing campaign has arisen to defame and discard the Southern memorials. Similar monuments that honor Union soldiers are allowed to stand without objection. In view of these different treatments, it is easy to see why many Southerners are dismayed by such a double standard. Perhaps, some Southern memorials are especially reflective of racism or white privilege and, as a result, deserve censure. One example is the larger-than-life statute of John C. Calhoun, a noted apologist for slavery, that long stood in Marion Square in Charleston, South Carolina (the city where firing on Fort Sumpter began the Civil War). It was removed during June 2020 with many people celebrating the action. In view of Calhoun’s forceful advocacy of slavery, such a fate was probably inevitable.

126  For What It’s Worth Specific statues, furthermore, might be so identified with hurtful conflict that the only viable choice is to retire them. Protecting a statue of Robert E. Lee in Charlottesville, Virginia, for example, was the overt reason for the infamous Unite the Right Rally of August 2017 (Fausset and Feuer 2017) that showcased ugly bigotry and ultimately led to a murder (by vehicular homicide) when James Alex Fields slammed his car into Heather D. Heyer, a peaceful counter-protestor (Bromwich and Blinder 2017). This killing, furthermore, is not a lone event. On May 14, 2022, Payton Gendron, a white supremacist from Binghamton, New York area, drove several hours to the predominant black section of Buffalo New York in order to open fire in a crowded grocery store killing ten people. “Ideas from the ‘great replacement theory’ filled a racist … [manifesto] posted online by the white 18-year-old accused of targeting Black people in Saturday’s rampage” (Bauder 2022). Given these events and the statue’s entanglement with them, it is understandable that removing the statue was in the public interest. It came down on July 10, 2021. This action, however, is not necessarily a repudiation of General Lee. The statue’s intimate connection with the racist rally and its violence left such a taint that few other alternatives existed. Although inflamed examples such as this can occasionally be found, the average small-town statues in both the North and the South merely honor veterans; they are not inherently racist. Their laudable role of honoring the noble dead should be recognized as legitimate. Or to ensure parity, maybe all statues (both in the North and in the South) should be taken down because they can create discomfort by reminding us of the era of slavery. When statues are to be retired what should be done with them? In many cases they have been put in storage and treated with dignity. But this is not always the case. The statue of Robert E. Lee that long stood in Richmond, Virginia, for example, is being sent to the Black History Museum and Cultural Center of Virginia. The Statue of Robert E. Lee that played a role in the 2017 Unite the Right rally has been given to Jefferson School African American Heritage Center to be melted down and recast in an image more to their liking (Shivaram 2021). Thus, icons that have meaning and value to one group are being destroyed or held hostage by those holding opposing views. This is hardly a way to foster reconciliation. No doubt transforming such a memorial into a political trophy by those who hate it is the height of disrespect (and is probably intended as such). Disregarding the feelings of others in this aggravating and hostile way will inevitably inhibit constructive dialogues with others who hold diverging opinions. Doing so works against the positive change that needs to be cultivated. As discussed above, a major ideology arising in Western Europe and the United States is the Great Replacement Theory. Many adherents fear that their heritage is vulnerable and that they are likely to emerge as outsiders

For What It’s Worth 127 in their own land. During the Unite the Right Rally at Charlottesville, Virginia, participants shouted Great Replacement Theory slogans while simultaneously protesting to preserve a statue of Robert E. Lee. Enflamed by the mere threat of its removal, how do you think they feel when they hear it is to be ceremoniously melted down and recast into a rival memorial? Is creating this tension and fanning the flames of division worth the price? Ignoring Historical Context? Throughout history, the development of scholarship, research, and evolving knowledge have caused people to rethink old ideas and replace them with alternatives that are more appropriate. The knowledge we have today has built up step by step as old beliefs give way to more accurate representatives of reality. It is an ongoing and never-ending process; perfection will never be achieved. People once believed that the world is flat. For thousands of years, people were convinced that the sun moved around the earth. Today, we know better. Progress has been made. Nevertheless, for many years, people held beliefs regarding the earth that are now debunked. The same observation can be made regarding those who hold (or have held) various discredited theories regarding race. Until very recently, honorable and informed people were taught that the various races possess different levels of intelligence, social development, cultural prowess, and so forth. In some circles, such views are still believed. This thinking stems from a web of interlocking sources of information, authority figures, systems of belief, and other contributing factors. Although such ideas are wrong and offensive, racist paradigms are not inevitably the products of self-serving oppressors who seek to justify for their evil ways. People believe what they are taught. The Age of Enlightenment that culminated in the 18th century, for example, emphasized and celebrated what was viewed as rational thought; it also dismissed beliefs that did not measure up to this criterion. Those with other perspectives (including French peasants and indigenous peoples) were written off as superstitious and ignorant. In the 19th century, Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution provided a paradigm that led to the vogue of Social Darwinism that views various peoples and races from an evolutionary perspective. Invariably, industrialized whites were placed on the top of the human hierarchy. Although oppressors (such as slave holders and colonial empires) no doubt, used such ideas to justify their domination and exploitation, this intellectual tradition expands beyond and is broader than such self-serving applications. Thus, the Great French writer Emil Zola wrote a whole series of novels that linked specific types of behavior to genetics in a manner that dovetails with racism. Zola, however, was hardly a bigot and was an advocate for and defender of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish military officer wrongly accused of treason.

128  For What It’s Worth On many occasions, the acceptance of theories such as white superiority and its implications cannot be explained solely with reference to bigotry and self-serving intellectual justifications. Just like those who once believed the world is flat, many who embrace(d) flawed ideas regarding race were merely reflecting the prevailing beliefs of their time and place. Doing so is not inherently immorally or ethically dubious although these conclusions are incorrect and hurtful. People holding such ideas were/are products of the knowledge (or lack of knowledge) that available to them. Certainly, opportunists sometimes used such ideas in self-serving and manipulative ways; they should be judged accordingly. But many others merely embrace the intellectual limitations of their time and place. Thus, when evaluating people and their ideas, the historic and social contexts need to be considered. Doing so is not an apology for incorrect thinking even though it explains why some people believe(d) what they do/did. Over time, of course, new and more progressive thinking tends to emerge. Great strides, for example, have been made by scholarly disciplines (such as anthropology) that demonstrate humanity is one big family and that the mental and psychological differences between racial groups are not significant or relevant. On many occasions, psychologists, social scientists, and activists collaborate to provide more accurate views of humanity. Today’s evidence, for example, demonstrates that no “master race” or other superior segment of humanity exists. Theories of white supremacy and racism, of course, are incorrect and offensive. This sort of error needs to be discredited in a most forceful manner. When doing so, however, it is not necessary or useful to damn all who have held such views, although, of course, critiquing these beliefs is important. Ad Hominem Dismissals vs. Empathy As a white male in his 70s, I am appalled that so many people use the term “Old White Men” as a pejorative to represent some kind of social, cultural, and/or political rigidness or backwardness. Such characterizations abound even though many of today’s old white men were involved in the civil rights crusade, participated in the countercultural movement, advocated the rise of contemporary feminism, paved the way for gender equality, advocated for gay rights, and so forth. Thus, many old white men possess enlightened pedigrees. Nevertheless, such complaints and characterizations abound. One of the harshest comes from Elizabeth Broadbent (2018) in her essay “Dear Entitled Old Racist White Men, We Are Sick of You” where she states “it’s time old entitled white men in America learned their place … This is no longer a country for entitled, asshole old men who think the world owes them something by virtue of their age and skin color”. Broadbent continues her diatribe by observing “you’re old. Your time is fading … you angry old men … You know we’re coming with our pitchforks and our torches”.

For What It’s Worth 129 This is an extreme example of using the old “ad hominem” fallacy of argumentation that preempts dealing with issues of substance by unfairly attacking a person in irrelevant ways instead of challenging specific beliefs, reasoning, or point of view. A common assertion, showcased by Broadbent, is that old white men have such an investment (psychologically, socially, culturally, and/or economically) in the status quo that their agendas are inherently suspected. More generous and toned-down uses of this complaint merely lament that such old whites are likely to lack the ability to adjust to changing times and circumstances. Such versions are kinder but still employ the Ad Hominem fallacy of argumentation. Such blanket verdicts are prejudicial, unfair, and barriers to meaningful dialogue. Rejecting a person’s point of view based on their observable characteristics instead of their logic, opinions, actions, etc., is prejudicial and anti-intellectual. Nevertheless, I have seen the ideas and observations of old white men (including myself) preemptively discredited using such assessments. Dismissing the opinions or others simply because they are “old white men”, “young activists”, “rednecks”, and so forth, furthermore, halts meaningful dialogue in its tracks and inhibits mutual understanding. We should all work together to stamp out such fallacies of argumentation. Although some people might lack an ability to “place themselves in someone else’s shoes”, human beings possess the ability to develop empathy (i. e. understanding what another person is feeling or experiencing and, perhaps, imagine what they are going through). Although the insights gained by empathy might be imperfect or incomplete, human beings, as a species, possess this ability. Without it, much meaningful communication would be impossible. Although, in some situations, the capacity for empathy might have atrophied, it is an invaluable human characteristic that should be nurtured. We all lose if its range is reduced. Those who ignore empathy and its ability to generate understanding conclude that meaningful dialogue between different groups is impossible and, as a result, divisions and misunderstandings between people (and peoples) are inevitable. I chose to put my faith in empathy and hope for the best. “Look Like Me” Arguments One of the mantras spouted by people of color who demand equity and parity involves the desire to see people that “look like me” in a variety of positive contexts. It is true that confidence and optimum grows when members of disadvantaged groups see peers that look like them achieve and succeed. Such positive reinforcement can be a catalyst for progress. When children of color see members of their community in responsible and productive roles, such as a female Afro-American supreme court justice, they are more likely to envision bright futures and, thereby, avoid sinking into fatalism and the underachievement that often accompanies it.

130  For What It’s Worth Although these results are positive and laudable, the case can be made that such visions, if stated carelessly or shouted too loudly, can have negative ramifications. Thus, the call for people to “look like me” does not overtly emphasize fairness (except, perhaps, in a “payback” or reparations context) and can lead members of other groups to anticipate unfair personal losses. In an era of the Great Replacement Theory, speaking in ways that can cause significant segments of the population to anticipate loss and alienation can have hurtful ramifications that need to be recognized and mitigated. Demographic Gloating Many people of color are optimistic because changing demographic trends appear to be working in their long-term favor. No doubt, it is comforting for people who have long been oppressed to envision a near-future when a minority status will no longer work against them Within a fairly short time, the white population of the United States will be less than 50% (although they will still be the largest single demographic group). This fact raises hopes among non-whites that these demographic changes will translate into equality and opportunity. Due to these projections, I have heard a number of people of color envision how conditions will change once these changes take effect. I have even witnessed some rather indelicate musing from an extremist fringe about a “payback time” to be experienced by whites. Returning to the fact that many people are influenced by the Great Replacement Theory, this sort of demographic gloating is exactly the type of response that is likely to build fear and forceful counter reactions. Misinterpreting Innocent Behavior An unfortunate feature of having faced hostility, bigotry, or oppression in the past is the tendency for abused people to misinterpret innocent behavior as some kind of a slight or microaggression. If this happens, dark or hidden motives and implications might be wrongly projected onto people’s words, mannerisms, actions, or inactions. These assumed slights can go on to poison relationships. When I was living and working in Washington, DC, for example, my circle of friends included a Jewish woman who worked for a lobbyist organization that served the interests of Israel. She had the habit of dropping little tidbits and “talking points” regarding Israel’s accomplishments into the conversation. One day she started speaking about the Hebrew language and told us that after the establishment of Israel the language was returned to common usage after centuries of being inactive or dormant. My friend went on to state that this was the only example in the world where something like this had ever happened.

For What It’s Worth 131 I quickly challenged her by stating that due to the influence of Romantic Nationalism in Norway, Norwegians reconstituted the old Nordic language that had become virtually extinct and reintroduced to the Norwegian people as “New Norse” in the late 1920s. The language caught on and is still in use. I told my friend that this example of linguistic revitalization predated the revival of Hebrew. The woman looked at me and said, “I had never thought that you were an anti-Semite”. Sometime later, I brought her documentary proof regarding New Norse and pointed out that revealing an historic fact is not being anti-Semitic. To her credit, she was embarrassed and apologized. This experience, however reminded me that people can be very sensitive when they or their people have been victims of previous prejudice and abuse even when no harm was intended or implied. Another more recent example of tensions regarding Jewishness involves actress and comedian Whoppi Goldberg’s comments during a January 31, 2022 talk show segment. Discussing the holocaust, Goldberg observed that this systematic massacre of the Jews was not about race, but was an example of the broader issue of “man’s inhumanity to man”. In her comments, Goldberg did not seek to lessen the gravity of the atrocities committed, deny that they existed, or draw attention away from Jewish suffering. Goldberg, furthermore, was right; the holocaust was not about race. According to psychology, anthropology, and the other social sciences, race is about genetics. Culture, in contrast is about what people have learned within a social context, what they have been taught, their heritage/traditions and so forth. Religion is one example of a learned cultural heritage. The common distinction between the two is typically phrased as “nature vs. nurture”. In her pamphlet published during World War II that was designed to educate average people regarding race, legendary anthropologist Ruth Benedict observed “Jews are people who practice the Jewish religion. They are of all races” (Benedict and Weltfish 1943). Perhaps, Adolf Hitler imagined the existence of a master race (and others as lessor). And perhaps he wrongly envisioned the Jews as a race. This does not make it so and we should not honor Hitler by embracing his flawed perspectives. Nevertheless, the Holocaust awakens raw emotions and understandably so. As a result of unscientific emotional reactions, unfortunately, Goldberg was suspended from her job for 10 days. This punishment is not about a mistake made by Goldberg, but reflects the emotions of others and the inequity that can emerge from it. Back when Fran Sinatra and his side-kicks (the “Rat Pack”) were popular celebrities, there was a riddle that went “What is black, Jewish, and has one eye”. The answer was Sammy Davis Jr. (a Rat Pack Member who, indeed, was black, Jewish and had lost an eye). The joke demonstrates that Jews are not a specific race. Sometimes, however, this reality is forgotten.

132  For What It’s Worth Discussion When people have faced oppression and exploitation, they are likely to be sensitive and some might overreact to the point of reverse prejudice. I have sometimes (but not always) experienced such reactions. As a white man working as a professor of Tribal Management above the Arctic Circle, for example, I was occasionally met with suspicion and distrust. Thus, my race has added to the complexity of dealing with people who had been exploited or mistreated in the past. Potential pitfalls that hinder strong and vital communication have been discussed. In many situations, misunderstanding and unnecessary tensions develop because of the way people express their ideas. Since the goal of communication is to foster positive and productive understanding, relevant critiques were presented. They are compared and juxtaposed in Table 8.1. Table 8.1  Triggers of Hurtful Communication Issue

Analysis

Spoils System

Providing illegitimate favoritism to supporters.

Conventional, not Cultural History

Focus on the elite. Ignoring feelings and situation of “common people”.

Evaluating Yesterday using Today

Inappropriately judging the past using today’s standards.

Misinterpreting History

Making mistakes due to a misunderstanding of the situation.

Destroying Icons

Icons have value to people. Destroying them can have consequences.

Ignoring Historical Contexts

Behavior takes place within contexts that should be recognized.

Demographic Gloating

Portraying/Interpreting progress in terms of someone else’s losses.

Ad Hominem Dismissals

Attacking people, not their ideas. Lacking empathy.

“Look Like Me” Rhetoric

Focusing upon one’s self instead of broader issues.

Misinterpreting Behavior

Condemning actions that are not fully understood.

DISCUSSION Arguments and chains of thought should be designed to convince others and change their thinking and actions. Unfortunately, a number of commonly used rhetorical techniques that are used to advance equality and confront racism and xenophobia are counterproductive. An array of examples has been discussed as representative of thinking and argumentation that needs to be sharpened.

For What It’s Worth 133 When people defend topics that that they feel strongly about, the possibility of abandoning logical and objective forms of argumentation sometimes occurs. Although such intellectual fallacies and misstatements might seem to be acceptable when preaching to the converted, they cannot be expected to convince others or sway their opinions. Just the opposite, when arguments are unfair and flawed, the opposition is likely to gain an even stronger resolve to maintain their rival positions. With this reality in mind, a representative array of weak and counterproductive forms of argumentation were discussed. The reason for doing so has not been to bolster or justify those who defend prejudice and xenophobia. Just the opposite. It is hoped that by becoming aware of intellectual traps that can lead to failed communication, those who champion racial equality can sharpen their rhetorical skills.

CONCLUSION Styles of communication that possess hurtful implications have been discussed. In the song “For What It’s Worth” Steven Stills observed “ … people speaking their minds are getting’ so much resistance”. In today’s world, overcoming true believer tendencies through the use of honest and meaningful dialogue is of the utmost importance. Success should not be measured in terms of defeating someone else even if, on occasion, conflicts inevitably develop. Success, in contrast, involves conversations and interactions that lead to mutual respect and understanding. I am reminded of the differences between the mainstream legal system of the United States vs. the workings of Native American courts. Typical courts at all levels of government tend to be adversarial in nature and, therefore, encourage conflict that generates resentment and antagonism. The focus is upon “right vs. wrong” and “good vs. bad”. Evaluation is based upon victory vs. loss. Many people have come to feel that this sort of system is inevitable and natural. Perhaps the dominance of the adversarial paradigm contributes to and reinforces the high degree of tension that exists regarding the current crisis involving civil rights and racial tension. When in Alaska (working as a professor of Tribal Management and as a substance abuse counselor specializing in Alaska Native clients), I had the opportunity to see a number of tribal courts in action. Their emphasis was not upon rigid judgments; the goal was more centered upon resolving strained situations in mutually acceptable ways. Because these courts were not adversarial in nature, they were better able to gain the cooperation of all impacted parties and reconcile issues in a manner that everyone could willingly embrace. I wish that those involved in the current conflicts regarding race and civil rights would discard whatever adversarial postures they harbor so issues could be addressed in more cooperative and mutually beneficial ways. If this happened, tensions would have a better chance of being reduced.

134  For What It’s Worth As suggested above, one positive step in that direction involves being aware of methods of communication that amplify tensions and misunderstanding. This is especially true in an age of Great Replacement true believers who experience alienation, anomie, and the fear of impending loss and doom; such feelings can easily lead to adversarial tensions. Forms of communication that reduce (or, at least, do not intensify) these fears and reactions are badly needed. With this in mind, the lyrics of Bob Dylan’s (1963) song “A Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall” can be read in terms of miscommunication. Dylan acknowledges the clouds of silence and miscommunication when he sings “I hear ten thousand whisprin’ and nobody listening”. He goes on to lament that “I saw ten thousand talkers whose tongues were all broken”. Such conditions reflect the current situation where true believer tendencies on both sides inhibit understanding and meaningful communication between rival groups. Dylan, for example, tells music critics that the phrase “Pellets of Poison” in the lyrics refers to all the lies that can be heard on the mass media or read in newspapers (Cott 2006; 7–9). Observing that this situation needs to be addressed, Dylan pledges that “I’ll know my song well before I start singing”. Thus, he reminds us of the importance of understanding exactly what needs to be communicated and developing effective methods for doing so.

RELEVANT TERMS Age of Enlightenment  Intellectual movement culminating the 18th century that emphasized rational thought and universal solutions. As Hominem Dismissals  Critiquing an opponent in personal ways so their arguments and their logic does not have to be rebutted. Bleeding Kansas  A reference to the violence on the Kansas/Missouri Border region regarding slavery that took place during the 1850s. Brown, John  Violent abolitionist agitator who led the Harpers Ferry Raid. Carlyle, Thomas  British historian who emphasized the profound influence of a few great and heroic individuals. Civil War  Conflict between the United States and the Confederate States (1861–1865). Conventional History  History that focused on key events and important people, not common citizens and everyday life. Cultural History  History that focuses upon the everyday life of a broad cross-section of the population, not merely the elite. Darwin, Charles  Biologist who developed and popularized the theory of evolution. Demographic Gloating  Emphasizing, in polemical ways, how changing demographic patterns are destined to alter the power structure of the United States.

For What It’s Worth 135 Destroying Icons  The tendency to eliminate, often in high-profile ways, reminders of the past that are objectionable in spite of opposition from those who revere them. Douglas, Frederick  Noted escaped slave and abolitionist orator and writer. Empathy  The ability to understand and appreciate what other people are feeling and experiencing. Evaluating Yesterday Using Today  The tendency to intuitively imagine how other people thought and acted using present standards as a basis for evaluation. Goldwater, Barry  Republican candidate for president in 1964. Said “Extremism in the pursuit of liberty is no vice”. Greatly influenced the contemporary conservative movement. Harpers Ferry  The site of John Brown’s anti-slavery raid in Virginia that brought fear to the south. Ignoring Historical Contexts  A tendency to ignore the circumstances of the past and evaluate people and events without an appropriate breadth of knowledge. Jackson, Andrew  A president of the United States who expanded presidential power and used the Spoils System. His excesses led many politicians to embrace more of a states’ rights position. Lee, Robert E.  Military leader who refused to fight against his home state, Virginia and became a Confederate General. “Look Like Me” Rhetoric  Envisioning a world where people of color emerge in a wide variety of positive social, political, and economic contexts. If phrased in too forceful a way, doing so might imply to others that the goal is to eliminate them and/or their place in society. Misinterpreting History  Drawing conclusions that are simplistic or wrong because an adequate understanding of history is lacking. Misinterpreting Innocent Behavior  Due to a variety of factors and influences, the possibility exists for the innocent actions of people to be interpreted as microaggressions or indications of racism or xenophobia. Nullification Act  A South Carolina law of the 1830s that stated that illegal federal laws did not have to be obeyed in the state. Led to a major political crisis between South Carolina and President Andrew Jackson. Preaching to the converted  Rhetoric that reinforces what allies already believe but might alienate others. Social Darwinism  Applying the theory of evolution within a cultural or racial context. Discredited today. Spoils System  Andrew Jackson’s strategies of showing favoritism to his friends and supporters. Three Fifths Clause  The rule regarding the census that was used during the slavery era. For census purposes a slave counted as three fifths of a white person. This rule reduced the power of the slave states in the United States Government because the seats in the House of Representatives are allocated

136  For What It’s Worth based on population. Nevertheless, some people believe the rule is indicative of racist thought and white chauvinism. Toledo War  A tense confrontation between Ohio and Michigan over which state should control an area of land known as the “Toledo Strip”. To the victor belongs the spoils  A policy of Andrew Jackson to reward his friends and supporters. Trail of Tears  The ethnic cleansing actions of Andrew Jackson who forced the Cherokee Indians to relocate west of the Mississippi. Traitors  Those who abandon their loyalties and identities (such as taking up arms against their homeland). Before the Civil War many people believed that first loyalties were to their state. Thus, in their minds they were not traitors when defending their state by siding with the Confederacy. Unite the Right Rally  A violent white supremist rally held in Charlottesville, Virginia in 2017. War Memorials  After the Civil War, memorials were erected in both the North and the South. Demands have been made to remove those in the South because they are asserted to be racist tools of intimidation. Parallel calls for removal of Northern memorials have not occurred even though they can also be viewed as reminders of the conflict. Whigs  A political party that reacted to Andrew Jackson’s assertion of strong administrative power. Led to a coalition of Northern industrialists and Southern slave holders. Whisky Rebellion  A late 18th-century revolt against the United States by Pennsylvania whisky producers that was an early test of federal power and authority. Zola, Emil  Famous 19th French author who wrote an acclaimed series of novels in spite of the fact that they imply racist overtones and implications by asserting that genetic triggers led to certain types of behavior. Zola, however, was not a man of prejudice and defended Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew accused to treason.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is “Preaching to the Converted”? Do you feel that doing so is a productive mode of communication and expression? What limitations, if any, might it possess? Does it encourage a meaningful dialogue with rivals? Why or why not? 2. How can styles of rhetoric and communication set up barriers to meaningful dialogues? Using examples suggested by the chapter, discuss two situations of your choice that could result in barriers being erected. How can more fruitful discussions be encouraged? 3. Today, racism and xenophobia are increasingly viewed as improper ways of thinking and acting. Does this mean that those who hold these ideas are bad people? Discuss. How can a meaningful and

For What It’s Worth 137 respectful dialogue with people be developed? Why do “zero-sum game” orientations sometimes develop? Is this the most effective method of evaluation? Discuss. 4. Analyze ways in which styles of argumentation and debate can inhibit meaningful dialogues and discussions. Relate your answer to Steven Stills lyrics from “For What It’s Worth” that depicts much polemical dialogue to be “mostly say[ing] ‘hooray for our side’”. Do drawbacks to such communication exist? Discuss. 5. Discuss the hurtful ramifications of rhetorical techniques that fail to treat people with empathy and respect. In the heat of the moment, do those who champion specific causes sometimes exhibit disrespect of their rivals? Discuss productive ways of responding to those whose opinions and actions are strongly opposed.

REFERENCES Arcangeli, Alessandro (2011). Cultural History: A Concise Introduction. (London: Routledge). Baldwin, Leland D. (1939). Whiskey Rebels: The Story of a Frontier Uprising. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh). Bauder, David (2022). “EXPLAINER: White ‘replacement theory’ Fuels Racist Attacks.” (May 16, 1:27 AM). Associated Press posting viewed on Yahoo EXPLAINER: White ‘replacement theory’ fuels racist attacks (yahoo.com). Benedict, Ruth and Weltfish, Gene (1943). The Races of Mankind. (New York: Public Affairs Committee). Broadbent, Elizabeth (2018) “Dear Entitled Old Racist White Men, We Are Sick of You” Scarrymommy.com (October 22). No Country for Old White Men and Good Riddance – (scarymommy.com). Bromwich, Jonah and Blinder, Alan (2017). “What We Know about James Alex Fields Jr., Driver Charged in Charlottesville Killing”. The New York Times. (August 13). Archived from the original on August 13. Carlyle, Thomas (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History. (London: James Fraser). Carson, James (2008). “Ethnic Cleansing, Memory, and the Origins of the Old South.” Southern Cultures. 14(4): 6–31. Cleveland, Henry (1886). Alexander H. Stephens, in Public and Private: With Letters and Speeches, before, during, and since the War (Philadelphia: National Publishing Company). Cott, Jonathan (ed.) (2006). Dylan on Dylan: The Essential Interviews. (London: Hodder & Stoughton). Douglas, Fredrick (1860). Speech presented in Glasgow, Scotland, March 26. Dylan, Bob (1963). “A Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall.” The Freewheelin’ Bob Dylan (Columbia Records). Faber, Don (2008). The Toledo War: The First Michigan–Ohio Rivalry. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press). Fausset, Richard and Feuer, Alan (2017). The New York Times. (August 13). Archived from the original on August 16, 2017.

138  For What It’s Worth Freehling, William W. (1965). Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Crisis in South Carolina 1816-1836. (New York: Harper and Row). Goldwater, Barry (1964). Speech given at 1964 Republican National Convention held in San Francisco, California. Goodwin, Doris Kearns (2005). Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln. (New York: Simon and Schuster). Horwitz, Tony (2011). Midnight Rising: John Brown and the Raid That Sparked the Civil War. (New York: Henry Holt and Company). Kennedy, John F. (1960). Speech presented in Houston, Texas to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association, a group of Protestant ministers. (September 12). Monticello Historic Site (nd). “Slavery at Monticello Tour”. A description provided on the Monticello website: Slavery at Monticello Tour | Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello visited January 28, 2022. Perry, Imani (2022). South to America: A Journey Below the Mason-Dixon to Understand the Soul of a Nation. (New York: Ecco Press). Rawley, James A. (1969). Race & Politics: “Bleeding Kansas” and the Coming of the Civil War. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company). Rocess, Glenn (2019). “Confederates weren’t Patriots, They were Traitors” Our Human Family Website: Confederates Weren’t Patriots, They Were Traitors | by Glenn Rocess | Our Human Family | Medium July 11, 2019). Shivaram, Deepa (2021). “Richmond’s Robert E. Lee statue will move to the city’s Black History Museum” KRWG Public Media. (December 30). Web address Richmond’s Robert E. Lee statue will move to the city’s Black History Museum | KRWG. Stelloh, Tim, DiCasimirro, Gemma and Wong, Wilson (2022). “ABC suspends ‘The View’s host Whoopi Goldberg for saying Holocaust ‘not about race’” NBC News (February 1, 10:07 PM EST/Updated February 2, 11:37 AM EST) (nbcnews.com). Stills, Steven (1966). “For What It’s Worth.” Released December 23, 1966, by Atco Records. Tapper, Jake (2020). “CNN Tapper: ‘Stop Honoring Traitors And Terrorists’ Who Had Careers as Confederate Commanders” Forbes. (Jun 14, 05:02 pm). (forbes. com) visited January 28, 2022. Thomas, Emory (1997). Robert E. Lee. (New York: W. W. Norton). Yale University (nd). [Description of] Cultural History. www.Cultural History | Department of History (yale.edu). Retrieved December 12, 2020.

9

Getting What You Need Keeping an Eye on the Prize

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Learning to keep your “eye on the prize” by focusing upon appropriate and feasible goals. 2. Developing an ability to evaluate people and causes that are simultaneously a part of the problem and a part of the solution. 3. Cultivating an ability to look at people and events from an historical perspective, on the one hand, while not justifying or overlooking their inadequacies, on the other. 4. Becoming realistic regarding what can be achieved by judging people and situations according to the tradeoffs of progress vs. setbacks that are associated with them. 5. Focusing upon being pragmatic and forward-looking by evaluating rivals and situations with an eye toward progress.

INTRODUCTION John Lomax, and his children (Alan Lomax and Bess Lomax Hawes) are a legendary family of American folklorists famous for their work during the heroic age of fieldwork in the early 20th century and thereafter. In an era (1930s) when the methods for recording sound were primitive, Alan crisscrossed the backroads of Appalachia with a record producing contraption in the trunk of his car complete with a microphone attached to a long cable that could be snaked into a house or taken to a front porch. Using this method, Alan recorded a wealth of songs and lore for the Library of Congress. We all owe a tremendous debt to the Lomax family for preserving and interpreting this remarkable heritage for future generations. John and Alan attributed both white and Afro-American influences to a hymn known as “Gospel Plow” (Lomax and Alan 1949; 44–5). Not fossilized by being written down, folksongs and their lyrics often evolve over time; in this case, the name shifted first to “Keep Your Eye on the Plow” and eventually to “Keep Your Eye on the Prize” as the lyrics were adjusted to fit the time, the place, and the challenges faced. Odetta, who Dr. Martin Luther King DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-16

140  Getting What You Need once referred to as the Queen of American folk music, recorded a version at Carnegie Hall in 1960. Following Odetta’s rendition, “Keep Your Eye on the Prize” has been widely performed by singers ranging from Pete Seger, to Bob Dylan, to Bruce Springsteen. During the height of the civil rights movement, “Keep Your Eye on the Prize” emerged as one of those hymns turned protest songs that provided encouragement to participants who faced danger and discouragement. Inspiring the activists of that era, the song urges the listener to ignore the hardships and setbacks of the moment by anticipating the progress to come (the prize). Eventually, the song’s title became a slogan used by Dr. Martin Luther King to inspire those facing hurtful challenges, and hostile retaliations. But change often comes in spits and spurts. “You can’t always get what you want, but if you try some time, you might just get what you need”. These words are from a 1969 Rolling Stones song that originally referred to aspects of the youth culture of Great Britain that, like its counterpart in the United States, combined hedonism, freedom, the spontaneity of youth, coupled with the quest for social progress. The stanzas of “You Can’t Always Get What You Want” deal, in disheartening ways, with debauched living, protest, confrontation, and drug addiction. And yet, the refrain provides a flicker of hope because we are constantly reminded that if people try, they might be able to get what they need. This “strive and succeed” message can comfort any people who face obstacles. Just as liberals and progressives might find the lyrics uplifting, conservative politician Donald Trump, also used the song during his presidential campaign, much to the chagrin of Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, and the rest of the band. “Gimmie Shelter”, another track on Let it Bleed (the album where “You Can’t Always Get What You Want” appears) complains about the evils of violence, war, shooting, and rape. But the last verse holds out hope by assuring “I tell you love … is just a kiss away”. The unified message of these three songs is that if people keep their eye on the prize, they might get what they need by treating each other with love. This optimistic and forward-looking compilation offers encouragement as people work through crises and setbacks in pursuit of progress and justice. By keeping this in mind, those beset by conflicts can avoid “throwing down the gauntlet” of counterproductive confrontation, as they work toward mutual understanding, and seek viable compromises. Following this path can be complex because specific people, laws, and institutions might contribute positive contributions while simultaneously hindering or undercutting improvement.

ACKNOWLEDGING COMPLEXITY Intolerance and bigotry exert a strong influence throughout the world, in general, and in Europe and North America, in specific. A common (although debatable) claim is that all (or almost all) people are infected by prejudice, racism, and the xenophobic tendencies that stem from them. Thus, Critical

Getting What You Need 141 Race Theory (as discussed in Chapter 7 above) typically argues that white privilege and racial bigotry are institutionalized within society and have been internalized within individuals during the socialization process. As a result of such conclusions, virtually all aspects of life and all members of society are assumed to be tainted. Although this premise can be challenged, such assertions are powerful and influential. Under such conditions, how should different people be evaluated when the strength and breadth of prejudice fluctuates within different regions, individuals, and eras. Because Critical Race Theory largely stems from the Frankfort School, it employs a version of the dialectical method as developed by 19th-century German philosopher Frederick Hegel. As a result, Hegel’s contributions will be further addressed. As discussed in Chapter 6 (above), Hegel argues that knowledge and understanding are nurtured when rival ideas compete with one another in a manner that leads to blending, generalization, and compromise. Because both sides of an argument tend to be incomplete or imperfect, intellectual confrontation leads to refinement and the establishment of new “state of the art” understanding, on the one hand, that is still imperfect or incomplete, on the other. At this point, this dialectical process can begin all over again in an ongoing cycle of intellectual and social progress. Viewing the evolution of knowledge and norms from within such a context, Hegel’s model assumes that conceptions of truth and justice are not rigid and static. As perspectives and norms evolve and are refined, systems of thought that dominate at one point in history are inevitably rebutted. “Thus, schools of thought can best be viewed as rungs on an intellectual ladder that climbs toward perfection, not as rival systems in mortal combat with one another” (Walle 2002; 28). Such de facto collaboration can exist even when adversaries are consciously at odds with each other as they push toward greater understanding through their rivalry. Sometimes reactionary and progressive beliefs exist in the same individual. Consider, for example, the conclusions that some abolitionists made regarding escaped slave and abolitionist spokesperson Frederick Douglas. Early in his career, suspicions regarding Douglas arose because people concluded that “He spoke too well. … Since he did not talk, look, or act like a slave (in the eyes of Northern audiences), Douglas was denounced as an imposter” (Matlack 1979; 16). These doubts regarding Douglas’ skills and abilities can raise suspicions that a lurking remnant of white supremacy existed within these abolitionists who were simultaneously calling for an end of slavery. This raises the question “how should such people be evaluated”? The dialectical model is able to acknowledge that the beliefs people hold reflect the time and the place where they arose. Such an evaluation does not apologize for beliefs that we now recognize as flawed, but it does provide a context. In evaluations of this type, the fact that people are, to a degree, products of their heritage is not held against them, especially when their thoughts and

142  Getting What You Need actions are moving in a positive direction as part of, for example, a dialectical process. Because thought and knowledge are constantly evolving, evaluating people at a snapshot in time is simplistic. The crucial issue is the flow of change as humanity moves forward, step by step, in a positive direction or pursues a moral or intellectual retreat.

PART OF THE PROBLEM OR PART OF THE SOLUTION There was a saying back during the countercultural days of the 1960s that states “You’re either part of the problem or part of the solution”. This dichotomy can be embraced by true believers when making simplistic evaluations. Returning to the example of Frederick Douglas (mentioned above), evidence exists that a number of abolitionists apparently doubted that Douglas, a black man, was their equal. Thus, they were part of the problem. Instead of writing these abolitionists off as white supremacist bigots, however, an alternative view observes that they were simultaneously a part of the solution by moving their thinking in a positive direction (by opposing slavery) even though they needed to achieve additional growth and understanding. Remember, progress usually takes the form of a continuum of mini-steps that combine toward advancement instead of resembling a simple “on-off switch” with no intermediate phases. Keep in mind that Frederick Hegel’s dialectical method assumes that true perfection is never reached; people only strive toward it. In harmony with such perspectives, abolitionists with racist views had moved a rung up the ladder of understanding. Doing so facilitated future advances although their thinking was still far from perfect. Consider, in contrast, the racists of today who, as true believers, doggedly cling to the ideas of the past in spite of strong evidence to the contrary. Instead of moving in the “right direction”, they are preserving archaic aspects of the status quo or, even worse, pushing back in the wrong direction. Their spot in history if very different from that of misinformed abolitionists with racist ideas who, nonetheless, were moving forward. Because of its focus regarding the evolution of ideas and their transition, dialectical perspectives can be useful when deciding if people are part of the problem, part of the solution, or simultaneously both part of the problem and the solution. By embracing this evolutionary perspective, we can keep our eye on the prize even if we can’t immediately get what we want.

EXAMPLES AND COUNTER EXAMPLES Thus, according to the dialectical method (that undergirds Critical Race Theory) the struggle for progress is ongoing although perfection is never reached. As a result, social actors exist at a particular time and place and

Getting What You Need 143 their views need to be evaluated within that context. By doing so, people, their ideas, and their contributions (positive, negative, or a combination of both) can be more fully and accurately evaluated. To demonstrate the value of this approach, a number of noted individuals and their efforts are discussed. Most of the examples are concerned with issues of race although some deal with other aspects in the struggle for equity, such as those involving the LGBTQ community. In particular, (1) John Brown, (2) Thomas Jefferson, (3) John C. Calhoun (4) Abraham Lincoln, (5) Woodrow Wilson (6) Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell, and (7) A face in the crowd will be discussed. The goal is to provide a fuller and more relevant understanding of progress and how it evolves. John Brown John Brown was an ardent abolitionist who worked tirelessly to end slavery. He can best be viewed as a true believing fanatic even if he championed a worthwhile cause. Brown was there in Bleeding Kansas, stirring up violence and dissent as he attacked the pro-slavers, and he was executed in 1859 after his raid at Harpers Ferry (a violent assault on the South that he hoped would erupt as the catalyst igniting a slave rebellion). After his death, a popular song written by abolitionist preacher William Weston Patton affirms, “John Brown’s body lies a’mouldering in his grave his soul goes marching on. Glory, Glory hallelujah”. The hymn served as a favorite marching song among Union troops during the Civil War. By opposing slavery, Brown made significant contributions as a champion of racial equality, social equity, and self-determinism. However, he sought to achieve his goals through violence, intimidation, and bloodshed. Indeed, many believe his actions in Bleeding Kansas and at Harper’s Ferry set the trajectory that inevitably led to the Civil War. Had cooler heads prevailed in the pre-war years (instead of extremists, such as John Brown), could the war have been prevented? Who knows? Thus, John Brown’s contribution is mixed. On the one hand, he opposed racism and the exploitation of Afro-Americans. On the other hand, he was a violent and murderous agitator whose actions directly led to a horrible and bloody war. Thomas Jefferson A product of the Age of Enlightenment and an excellent example and advocate of its principles, Thomas Jefferson worked tirelessly to perfect human thought and institutions. His thinking led to the Declaration of Independence with its flowery language about human equality and freedom. Such sentiments are, essentially, in line with the attitudes of self-determinism and equity that exist in the United States today. In many ways, Jefferson and his ideas are part of the solutions we continue to seek.

144  Getting What You Need Jefferson, furthermore, states that he had misgivings about the institution of slavery (Cohen 1969) even though he owned a considerable number of slaves. Is this an example of hypocrisy? Or was his thinking in a dialectical state of flux? Arguments can be made either way. In recent years, of course, the relationship of Jefferson and Sally Hemings has come to the forefront. Hemings was a slave who, in all likelihood, had a long-term sexual relationship with Jefferson that produced a number of children. Although speculation about such a relationship has existed since the early 19th century, in 1997 Annette Gordon-Reed published Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy. Its publication has inspired others to further investigate the relationship of Jefferson and Heming (including genetic testing that suggests that Jefferson probably fathered Hemings children). Very little is actually known about their relationship. Eye Candy (obviously a pen name), in a particularly hostile critique asserts that “Thomas Jefferson was her master, her owner, and her rapist” (Candy 2017). We, however, do not have any knowledge of whatever bond they shared although a power imbalance between the two obviously existed. As a result, we can only speculate regarding how they related to one another in the bedroom and elsewhere. Conjecture regarding Jefferson and Hemings has emerged as something of a cottage industry among writers and cultural observers. Recent novels that feature Hemings as a character include America’s First Daughter (Dray and Kamoie 2016) and Thomas Jefferson Dreams of Sally Hemings (O’Connor 2016). Both imagine what Hemings and her life might have been like, even though the evidence is scant … almost non-existent. I will not further muddy the waters with my own speculations. Lacking more precise documentation, a lone clue is provided by James T. Cullender who reported in 1802 that Jefferson had a “concubine” named Sally (Monticello nd). It should be noted in this regard that the term concubine does merely refer to a conveniently available sexual partner. “Concubine” refers to a woman who has an established and formal relationship with a man but one that is short of marriage. In many situations, people have been unable to marry because of differences in social class, ethnicity, or religion. Under such circumstances, accepting the woman as a concubine was often an option (Smith 2008; 467). Members of the royalty, for example, were frequently unable to marry the companion they loved. One remedy was to keep the “significant other” as a concubine either outside of or in addition to marriage. These relationships were typically well-known and accepted within the couple’s social circle. Perhaps a Duke or Count, caught in a loveless marriage of royal convenience, would spend his everyday life with the concubine he truly cared about. When children were born out of wedlock, the high-ranking father would provide for them, although they were not officially recognized as heirs. James Smithson, who provided the money to start the Smithsonian Institution, appears to have been the product of such a union.

Getting What You Need 145 Unless hitherto unknown documentation emerges, we will never know the full nature of the relationship between Jefferson and Hemings. Nevertheless, the existing evidence is consistent with a true concubine relationship: (1) a long-term relationship (2) between people with significant differences in social ranking (3) who could not marry. In addition, (4) Jefferson apparently took care of (and freed) the children who were products of their relationship. A contemporary account, furthermore, overtly states that a concubine relationship existed, implying that Hemings was more than a mere sex slave. Because of complexity and inconsistency, fully understanding how Jefferson felt about and dealt with freedom, slavery, and equality is difficult. He overtly embraced ideas that advocated freedom as well as anticipating a rational and just world. Jefferson, furthermore, was concerned with slavery and the problems related to it even though he was simultaneously a slaveholder. The long-term sexual relationship with one of his slaves creates further ambiguity. Given this complexity, it appears Jefferson was both a part of the problem and a part of the solution. How the pros and cons are balanced is a matter of personal judgment. John C. Calhoun John C. Calhoun was a true believer in regard to his support of slavery and although he died in 1850, Southerners bent on succession from the Union a decade later looked to him as an inspiration. While other advocates of slavery might have softened their stances or apologized by depicting the institution as a “necessary evil” or vestigial remain, Calhoun praised it as beneficial to all by observing that when two different races are brought together “slaveholding … is, instead of an evil, a good—a positive good” (Calhoun 1837). Because of his influence defending racism and slavery, reminders of Calhoun are currently being purged from public places, including renaming John C. Calhoun Honors College to Clemson University Honor College. This is especially significant since the Clemson Campus is on the site of Calhoun’s personal plantation where he owned and utilized many slaves. Given Calhoun’s blatant racist views and his defense of slavery, it intuitively appears that he would have few positive contributions to offer people today. Ironically, the opposite is true; when defending the slave-holding South against abolitionist Northerners, Calhoun developed political theories that emphasized the rights of minorities and those suffering from the intrusions and the manipulations of powerful outsiders. He provides these tools even though, as historian Richard Hofstadter (1948) notes, Calhoun was not “concerned with minority rights as they are chiefly of interest to the modern liberal mind … least of all [the rights] of ethnic minorities”. Calhoun, nevertheless, developed the concept of the “concurrent majority” that defends the legitimate rights of minorities even when outvoted by a majority

146  Getting What You Need that seeks to have its way with them. Calhoun’s rationale is useful to any minority that is challenged by an opposing majority, including racial minorities. During his life, Calhoun feared that a powerful majority (the industrialized North) sought an unfair advantage at the expense of the smaller and weaker South. To temper such impacts, Calhoun insisted that minorities must possess an ability to maintain their way of life, even when the majority is hostile to or at odds with it. Calhoun justifies his position by complaining that under simple majority rule it becomes “more easy for one portion of the community to pervert its powers to oppress and plunder the other” (1851; 273). This, of course, is exactly the complaint that is made today by many indigenous societies, ethnic groups, and rural populations. Calhoun’s basic point is that the numerical superiority (or economic and/ or military power) of a majority alone does not give it the right to control the way of life of a minority. As Walle (2019) has pointed out in his Indigenous and Ethnic Empowerment, various minorities can use Calhoun’s theory of the concurrent majority to affirm and protect rights that pure majority rule might otherwise outlaw or undermine. Much of what Calhoun did is racist, elitist, and the antithesis of modern thinking. As a result, perceiving his positive contributions can be difficult. In spite of his views regarding slavery and race, however, Calhoun’s general political theories can contribute to liberty, freedom, and the ideals we cherish today. This is true even though Calhoun used these political principles to defend and bolster an oppressive and racist system. His example reminds us that people are complex and that their contributions are multi-faceted. Those who keep their eye on the prize need to remember this irony. Abraham Lincoln In the public eye, Abraham Lincoln is often viewed as a leader whose views regarding race are reflective of our times. In some ways, this is true; in other ways, it is not. Lincoln, for example, is highly regarded for issuing the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. His edict, as is commonly known, however, only granted freedom to slaves in the Confederate states where Lincoln had no de facto authority. Ironically, Lincoln did not offer emancipation in the slave states that remained in the Union. He could have freed those slaves but he did not. During the war, Lincoln’s attitudes regarding slavery appears to be secondary to his goal of ending the conflict and restoring the Union. Thus, in a letter to Horace Greeley, he states, “If I could save the union without freeing any slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that” (Lincoln 1862). A few years before the war, Lincoln had emerged as a figure of national stature due to a series of debates he had with Stephen Douglas when

Getting What You Need 147 they were rival candidates for a seat in the United States Senate from the state of Illinois. In addition to their content, the debates showcased how a convergence of technological developments (including the railroads, the telegraph, and the invention of shorthand) resulted in verbatim transcriptions being available nationwide almost immediately). As a result, full and detailed accounts of these debates were rapidly and simultaneously available throughout the country. The speed of dissemination of the debates and their impact on public opinion transformed politics and the news industry. Although losing to Douglas in the senate race, the debates gave Lincoln a notoriety that catapulted him to the White House. If the debates had been held only a year or so earlier, Lincoln would not have gained the massive following he did because these technological developments would not have been in place, but he was in the right place at the right time. Although defeated by Douglas in 1858, in a rematch two years later Lincoln was victorious against Douglas in the 1860 presidential election. During the debates, the issue of white supremacy inevitably arose. Lincoln was candid regarding his views, observing: I have no purpose to introduce political and social equality between the white and the black races. There is a physical difference between the two, which, in my judgment, will probably forever forbid their living together upon the footing of perfect equality, and inasmuch as it becomes a necessity that there must be a difference, I … am in favor of the race to which I belong having the superior position. (Lincoln 1858) Thus, Lincoln overtly embraced white supremacist views. Such racist attitudes, of course, were widely held by many (if not most) white people during that era and, as discussed above, even abolitionists were not immune from such chauvinism. Pointing out this aspect of Lincoln’s thinking recognizes that he was a product of his time and place (as we all are). In spite of his racist attitudes, Lincoln continues: … but I hold that, notwithstanding all this, there is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights enumerated in the Declaration of Independence, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness … [the Negro] is not my equal in many respects … But in the right to eat the bread … which his own hand earns, he is my equal. (Lincoln 1858) As president, Lincoln set in motion events that ultimately freed the slaves, although he did not grant them freedom. He embraced a form of white supremacy while tempering it with a call for legal and economic equality, including an insistence that blacks are entitled to the fruits of their efforts and the rights promised in the Declaration of Independence.

148  Getting What You Need Looked at in all his complexity, Abraham Lincoln and his attitudes can best be viewed as being part of the problem and a part of the solution. In the final analysis, he helped move the United States away from racism and slavery, but he didn’t complete the job of recognizing full equality. Woodrow Wilson In 1916 (during World War I), the British and the French signed the Sykes–Picot Agreement (Fromkin 1989; 286–8), a secret pact regarding how they would divide up the Middle East in the event that Germany and its ally, the Ottoman/ Turkish Empire, were defeated. The self-serving deal was kept secret (until divulged by Russia after its revolution) and, of course, it was not initially shared with the non-Turkish ethnic groups of the empire who the British were enlisting as allies. In the well-known case of Lawrence of Arabia, for example, the Arabs were told that if victory came, they would be granted their own Arab homeland; as a result, they became allies of Lawrence and the British. But the British and the French had no intention of implementing such equitable policies and after the war they divided up the region in a “land grab” according to their needs with little regard to local preferences. Because the British and French got their way, various ethnic groups, such as the Kurds, were denied a homeland and found themselves reduced to the status of minorities in a number of countries dominated by others. Many observers believe that the current tensions in the Middle East, including issues involving the Kurds (Laçiner and Bal 2004) and their uprisings, are a direct result of how the colonial powers divided up the “spoils” after the war. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States was a vocal opponent of these opportunistic schemes. He, for example, authored his “fourteen points” that provided moral and practical guidelines to facilitate an equitable post-war environment (Snell 1954). Articulating his 14 points in a speech on January 8, 1918, Wilson’s “Point 5” advocates ethnic and cultural self-determinism, while “Point 12” envisioned a Turkey, shed of its empire, emerging as a sovereign country, while other segments of the defunct empire would become autonomous countries. The United States, however, soon entered an era of isolationism causing Wilson and the United States to lose clout in international affairs. As a result, Britain and France had their way in the Middle East. Since that time, the Middle East has been a hotbed of hostility, tension, and violence. Wilson’s vision of self-determinism for ethnically diverse people, can certainly be viewed as a part of the solution to the ethnic and racial tensions that, internationally, continue to exist today. Although enlightened in these regards, Wilson was also strongly racist. He was a Southerner who revered the Confederacy. His parents were supporters of slavery and, as a scholar, Wilson was an apologist for slavery, and the post war “redemption movement” that saw a reassertion of many pre-war conditions of the south coupled with the denial of civil rights to Afro-Americans (Benbow 2010). As president, Wilson advocated and

Getting What You Need 149 implemented federal policies that were hurtful to Afro-Americans, including re-segregating the federal civil service. Wilson’s racism is so well-known that a belabored documentation is not required here. In recent years, Wilson’s beliefs and actions have been found to be so offensive that affiliated organizations have renounced him, Thus, “The Princeton University Board of Trustees voted … to rename the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs … [The school states] “We have taken this extraordinary step because we believe that Wilson’s racist thinking and policies make him an inappropriate namesake for a school whose scholars, students, and alumni must be firmly committed to combating the scourge of racism in all its forms”” (Croft 2020). Once again, we have a case where an historic leader is simultaneously a part of the problem and a part of the solution. This observation is made as a simple fact, not as an attempt to justify or rehabilitate Wilson. The goal here is merely to emphasize the difficulty of evaluating complex people and their full contributions in a changing world. Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell The quest for equality and parity, of course, does not just involve race. Sexual orientations also need to be considered. When running for president, Bill Clinton promised to create a way of members of the LGBTQ community to serve in the United States military. Operationalizing such a goal was difficult, however, because policies already existed that mandated the discharge of non-heterosexual members of the armed forces. Clinton’s remedy was the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy that was in effect from 1993 to 2011 (Feder 2013). While forbidding members of the military to “demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts”, it permitted such people to serve as long as they kept their preferences to themselves. Thus, members of the LGBTQ community were advised to keep quiet about their orientations; others, in tandem, were forbidden to ask questions that might result in non-heterosexuals being identified and disciplined. By limiting their candidness in such a manner, non-heterosexuals would be able to serve as long as they did not draw attention to their orientations. As can be readily appreciated, such a policy can simultaneously be both a blessing and a curse. On the one hand, a method to serve in the military became available; that was Clinton’s goal. On the other hand, significant conditions were attached to doing so, including the need for people to hide who they were in order to serve (and keep their job). In addition, such people were at risk because if others learned of their orientation and reported it, they could be drummed out of the service. Although the policy was intended as a progressive alternative to discrimination, critics such as the Human Rights Campaign have complained that “The rule was discrimination in its purest form and prevented service members from being openly queer without threat of being discharged” (Human

150  Getting What You Need Rights Campaign nd). By 2008, furthermore, over 12,000 members of the armed forces had been removed when they did not adequately hide their orientations (Tikkanen nd). In 2010, a lawsuit by the Log Cabin Republicans (a pro-gay organization associated with the Republican Party) challenged the constitutionality of Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell by observing that it violates the free speech and due process (Garcia 2010). Thus, a policy that was originally envisioned as liberating and progressive exhibited reactionary potentials that worked against the very achievements that were being sought. Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell was superseded in 2010 under the leadership of President Obama with a new law that allows non-heterosexual people to serve in the military (Wilgoren and Backon 2010). During the Trump administration, these rights were challenged but they remained intact. On balance, was Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell a part of the problem or a part of the solution? The answer depends upon the perspectives of specific individuals making evaluations. Certainly, it was originally envisioned as a progressive way to open the military to all who wanted to serve. However, Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell did not eliminate oppression, discrimination, or bias and it prevented people from living an open and honest life. Such characteristics indicate it was part of the problem. Given this complexity, multiple evaluations are possible. Perhaps Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell can best be viewed as a stop-gap temporary measure beset with significant limitations and hurtful side effects. Faces in the Crowd Progress often begins with baby steps made by people who hold prejudicial views that are racist, xenophobic, and/or anti-LGBTQ. The opinions and beliefs of such people will probably not quickly and completely change. Rapid and absolute transitions should not be expected. After all, people inherit a wealth of beliefs from their family, social class, religion, region of origin, and so forth. Such entrenched views are hard to completely transform. And yet, many of these people sense their views are limited or imperfect. As such, they are candidates to consider new perspectives, even if embracing them can only be accomplished slowly, haltingly, incompletely, and with suspicion, and reservations. When the views of such people change, even if only slightly, the achievement should be celebrated, not minimized or overlooked. Often advocates and activists are hotheaded and demand rapid change. As a result, they are likely to be hostile and condescending when the speed of progress is deemed to be too slow. Antagonistic reactions, unfortunately, can easily slow future progress and, perhaps, encourage a reassertion of reactionary views. Celebrating small achievements can create a foundation for further progress. Unfortunately, from the civil rights era of the 1960s to the present, I have seen people insulted and treated in humiliating ways because others felt that their transitions were not fast enough.

Getting What You Need 151 Truly keeping an eye on the prize involves having realistic expectations and embracing a long-term view. This, according to the dialectical method, is how change typically takes place. Activists and advocates need to remember the strategic benefits of being humane, respectful, and realistic. By responding in such a manner, we might not get what we want immediately, but we just might get what we need. Such observations do not advocate or encourage delay; they do reflect reality. Conclusion The people and the causes discussed above are simultaneously part of the problem and a part of the solution. They and their contributions are abstracted in Table 9.1. Table 9.1  Problems and Solutions Example

Problem

Solution

John Brown

A strong advocate of violence.

Champion of Afro-American rights.

Thomas Jefferson

Slaveholder. Long-term sexual relationship with a slave that might have been exploitative.

Member of Enlightenment, advocate of freedom and human rights. Ambivalent regarding slavery.

John C. Calhoun

Militant advocate of slavery. Depicted slavery as mutually beneficial.

Developed political theories that defend rights of minorities such as the indigenous.

Abraham Lincoln

Overtly embraced white supremacist views.

Believed Afro-Americans should have all rights enjoyed by other Americans.

Woodrow Wilson

Strongly racist. Implemented federal policies that limited opportunities of Afro-Americans.

Was a strong advocate of selfdeterminism for those who were disenfranchised by the colonial powers.

Don’t Ask Don’t Tell

LGBTQ people in military A means was created for LGBTQ had to remain in closet. people to serve in the military. Faced discharge if orientation Awkwardly sought parity for became known. LBBTQ people.

Face in the Crowd

Some people continue to be Some prejudiced people are slowly prejudiced in spite of growing revising their views and establishing enlightened tendencies. a foundation for future growth.

DISCUSSION Issues of race, sexual orientation, and so forth are complicated Those who advocate specific beliefs often act and think in ways that are contradictory. As a result, their contributions are subject of a variety of evaluations. Nonetheless, progress is often made by those who simultaneously hold both reactionary and progressive views. This reality needs to be recognized.

152  Getting What You Need Change is possible but it is often slow. This is because individuals and groups are often simultaneously part of the problem and part of the solution. This reality should be anticipated; thinking and strategies should be developed accordingly.

AN IMPOSSIBLE DREAM? In the Heat of the Night (1965) is a novel by Dudley Ball that was made into a motion picture (1967) starring Ron Setiger and Sidney Poitier. A decade later, the premise of the story inspired a long running TV series (1988–1995) with the same name starring Carroll O’Connor and Howard Rollins. The novel and the movie portray a bigoted southern Sheriff, (Bill Gillespie) and a black homicide detective (Virgil Tibbs) being forced to work together to solve a murder in a small Mississippi town. Although a procedural detective story, the main tension and impact involves Black professionalism confronting Southern racism coupled with the counter-prejudice of Tibbs. Initially incompatible, by the story’s end, these two main characters have revised their initial stereotyped assessments of each other. In their final farewell at the story’s end, we sense the onetime antagonists might not be friends, but they have developed a mutual respect for each other and one that is more than mere tolerance. In a world infused with misunderstanding, racism, and bigotry, such a depiction is most encouraging because it covertly expresses the hope that the present scourge of intolerance might slowly fade as people get to know each other. In the TV series, the issue of racism, coupled with urban vs. rural tensions, continues. Initially, Tibbs and the whites he works with exhibit hostility and unease. Bubba, one of the deputies, initially shows indications of being a dyed in the wool racist, but he and Tibbs develop a workable relationship and eventually become friends. Various members of the local community, however, continue to be intolerant, but these issues tend to be resolved in an environment of creeping rapport. Some tension, however, remains. These transitions are essentially dialectical in nature as different forces and attitudes face off in conflict against each other. Racism and small-town intolerance emerge as a thesis or starting point. These views are confronted with an antithesis represented by greater acceptance and equality. When these two forces clash, the result is a forward-leaning synthesis, imperfect but a step in the right direction. Thus, in the original story, progress is made, but the issue of racism and counter racism is not completely resolved. Continuing throughout the TV series, a number of different thesis/antithesis/synthesis transitions are portrayed with progress moving ever upward, even if only slightly. Is this an impossible dream? Or is it a fictional portrayal of a dialectical process that is plausible and indicative of a bright future. I guess we will have to wait and see.

Getting What You Need 153

GIVING DIALECTICS A CHANCE In Chapter 8, hurtful forms of communication were acknowledged that can weaken or eliminate productive dialogues regarding controversial issues. Doing so was intended to acknowledge counterproductive strategies of communication and recognize the importance of transcending them. Specific examples (among others) include misinterpreting history, destroying icons in a gratuitous manner, and unjustifiable Ad Hominem dismissals of people. In this chapter, the discussion expanded by noting that many people who harbor hurtful and reactionary views simultaneously embrace other more progressive and positive principles and beliefs. Such examples can be subjected to multiple interpretations ranging from (1) centering on limitations to (2) lauding positive characteristics. In the examples discussed, the seeds of more enlightened views exist even though significant biases and prejudices remain. Individuals and movements such as these have the potential to either reassert reactionary ideas or continue to evolve in more enlightened ways. As discussed above, positive transitions can be modeled using the dialectical method as devised and advocated by Frederick Hegel. According to Hegel, people with status quo ideas believe in what is known as a Thesis. Hegel presupposes that this original idea inevitably possesses limitations. People who embrace racist and xenophobic views, for example, hold a thesis (belief system) that needs to be improved. Invariable, the thesis is countered by a rival set of ideas known as the antithesis. If advocates of the antithesis treat their intellectual rivals with courtesy (even in disagreement), such tolerance can create an ambience where meaningful dialogue has a chance of being established. If such a positive exchange takes place, a new state of the art that Hegel labels the Synthesis has a chance of emerging. When tensions are too strong, however, this dialectical process is likely to break down or not develop, creating a tendency for people to settle into rival camps that prevents the dialectical process from functioning. The possibility of this sort of “tribalism” needs to be resisted. If tensions are kept under control, true progress (represented by the dialectical process being completed) has the potential to emerge.

A LAST BATTLE In the early 21st century, I was teaching in Northwest South Carolina at Erskine College in the town of Due West. A neighboring community is named Abbeville. A picturesque little town with vintage homes and an old opera house, it served as the on-site location for Julia Roberts’ movie Sleeping with the Enemy (Roberts 1991). Besides serving as the backdrop for a blockbuster feature film, Abbeville has the distinction of being involved with both the very beginning and the

154  Getting What You Need very end of the Civil War. On November 22, 1860, Abbeville was the site of the first meeting to demand that South Carolina leave the Union. In May 1865, the Confederacy was suffering through its final days. Because Richmond, the capitol, had fallen, President Jefferson Davis retreated to Abbeville and conducted the last business of the dying country at the BurtStark mansion (that has been restored and is open to the public as an historic site). With the war over, President Davis became a wanted man without a country. Local lore claims that a band of Confederate veterans regrouped to provide an escort to safety, a task that led to a skirmish that took place after the war was over. This so-called final armed encounter between the North and South has been called the Battle of Abbeville. Attending a reenactment in 2005, rival armies of Confederate and Union soldiers were attacking each other in mock battle. Vintage cannons and wagons added to the ambience. Encampments of tents with men in uniform, along with women “camp followers” in vintage attire, offered visitors a taste of 19th-century army life. Nobody was left out; a few Afro-Americans on horseback wore Union uniforms to represent the famous Buffalo Soldiers. Although black soldiers fought in the Civil War, the Buffalo Soldiers came later and served in the Indian Wars. That was OK; nobody spoiled their fun by pointing to reality. Their historic accuracy unchallenged, the Buffalo Soldiers rode up and down the hills in search of an elusive Jefferson Davis. “Who won the battle”, I asked somebody who appeared in charge. He didn’t know but told me, “Since it’s a two-day affair we always have the Yankees win on Saturday while the Rebels take the day on Sunday”. It was a small hometown affair both blessed and plagued by naivete and inaccuracy. To their credit, very different people worked together, showed mutual respect, and got along in a venue where I had doubted such rapport could exist. Even with cannon’s blaring and the Confederate Stars and Bars (battle flag) waving proudly, it was a day of celebration and mutual comradery, not tension or confrontation. I wonder if a similar ambience could be recreated in today’s world of rising tensions. The tolerance and mutual respect I saw should be a role model for us all. Perhaps that is the prize we should keep our eyes on. If we follow it, we might just get what we need to fuel a dialectical process that helps resolve differences that have gone on for too long.

RELEVANT TERMS Abolitionists  Activists who opposed slavery before the Civil War. Battle of Abbeville  An alleged post-Civil War effort to get Confederate President Jefferson Davis to safety using regrouped Confederate veterans that supposedly began at Abbeville, South Carolina. Bloody Kansas  1850s tension over slavery along the Kansas/Missouri border. The fear that such violence might extend to the Southern slave states

Getting What You Need 155 created fears in the region. Bloody Kansas contributed to the tension leading to the Civil War. Brown, John  A mid-19th-century abolitionist agitator associated with Bloody Kansas and his raid on Harpers Ferry. Brown and his actions fanned the flames leading to the Civil War. Calhoun, John C.  A political theorist who argued that slavery was a positive good for all impacted parties. Calhoun, however, also developed concepts, such as the Concurrent Majority, that sought to protect minorities for over-domination by powerful majorities or outsiders. Concubine  A woman involved with a man in a way that is less than marriage but not merely a casual sexual relationship. Women who cannot marry a man due to issues of social class sometimes act as concubines. Concurrent Majority  A theory advanced by John C. Calhoun that states that minorities should be protected from the agendas of majorities that seek to control and manipulate them. Although Calhoun used his theories to protect slavery, indigenous people and other minorities can use Calhoun’s reasoning to advantage. Dialectical Method  Viewing change in terms of a beginning state (the thesis), being challenged (by an antithesis), and resolved by a compromise or adjustment known as a synthesis. Associated with German philosopher Frederick Hegel, the dialectical method influenced The Frankfort School, Critical Theory, and Critical Race Theory. Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell;  A military policy from 1993 to 2011 that directed LGBTQ members of the armed forces to keep quiet about their orientation and for others not to ask. Envisioned as a progressive way to allow LGBTQ people to serve, it was also oppressive and reactionary because it forced people to hide who they were and be vulnerable to discharge from the armed services if their orientations were revealed. Douglas, Frederick  Escaped slave who became an acclaimed activist for abolition. Some abolitionists thought he was so articulate he could not be an escaped slave. Is this an example of white supremacy among abolitionists? Emancipation Proclamation  In 1863, Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves in the Confederate States where he had no de facto control while allowing slavery to continue in states that did not join the Confederacy. Harpers Ferry Raid  In 1859, John Brown raided and captured the United States arsenal at Harpers ferry, Virginia. The event caused nationwide tensions regarding slavery and instilled fears of looming violence in the South. It was a major event leading to war. Hemings, Sally  A slave of Thomas Jefferson who was simultaneously his long-term sexual partner. Her existence adds complexity to Jefferson and our ability to understand him. In the Heat of the Night  A novel/feature film/TV series that showcased how whites and blacks in close contact might develop a greater understanding of each other causing racial tensions to relax.

156  Getting What You Need Jefferson, Thomas  American political theorist and the third president of the United States. Although progressive in many Ways, Jefferson was a slave holder and had a long-term sexual relationship with one of his slaves. “Keep your Eye on the Prize”  A hymn that became a civil rights protest song in the 1960s with the title becoming a slogan used to encourage activists. Kurds  Middle Eastern culture/ethnic group that is currently a minority in a number of countries and is struggling to establish a nation of its own. Lincoln, Abraham  The president of the United States during the Civil War. As president, Lincoln’s main concern was preserving the union. Although holding overt white supremist views, he believed Afro-Americans should enjoy full rights, such as those guaranteed by the Declaration of Independence. Lincoln Douglas Debates  A series of political debates between Abraham Lincoln and Steven Douglas. Lincoln lost the election, but gained national attention and 2 years later defeated Douglas in the 1860 presidential election. Ottoman Empire  A Middle Eastern Empire that was an ally of Germany in World War I. After defeat, the empire was divided by the victorious colonial powers of Britain and France. Part of the problem or part of the solution  A 1960s slogan regarding how to evaluate people and their circumstances. In reality, many people, conditions, and events are simultaneously part of the problem and part of the solution. This complicates evaluations. Redemption Movement  A post-Civil War process by which the old power structures of the South reasserted themselves after the era of Reconstruction. Sykes-Picot Agreement  A secret agreement between the colonial empires of Britain and France regarding how to divide the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Contrary to this agreement, false promises were made to various ethnic groups stating that if they helped defeat the Ottomans, they would be rewarded with countries of their own. Twelve Points  A policy by Woodrow Wilson that sought to create self-­ determinism in regions such as the Middle East after World War I. Because the United States entered an isolationist phase after the war, Wilson lacked the international clout to demand such an arrangement and the colonial powers of Britain and France had their way when dividing up the Middle East. Wilson, Woodrow  President during and immediately after World War I. Some of his policies (such as demanding self-determinism) are very progressive. He however, was extremely racist.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why is “keeping your eye on the prize” important? How does this orientation reflect and contribute to progress? Discuss in terms of the need to embrace a continuum of small achievable goals? What are the drawbacks of being too ambitious too soon?

Getting What You Need 157 2. Analyze the phenomena of being part of the problem and part of the solution. Give two relevant examples not mentioned in the chapter. Discuss alternative means of evaluating such people, institutions, or actions in terms of being a part of the problem and/or part of the solution. How does the fact that the same phenomena can be both part of the problem and part of the solution impact evaluations and strategies? 3. Why is looking at people and policies in historic or cultural perspective important? How can such perspectives provide useful insights for those who wish to be agents of positive change? Give an example of your choice. Can such perspectives be misused or over used? Give an example of your choice. 4. Using an example of your choice, evaluate people, movements, and actions with reference to the tradeoffs of costs and benefits. What are the potential benefits of such an orientation? What are the potential drawbacks? 5. Why is the dialectical method developed by Frederick Hegel useful when evaluating people, movements, and actions? Is this method static or evolutionary in nature? To what extent does dialectical analysis reflect other orientations such as “part of the problem or part of the solution” and “keep your eye on the prize”. Present an example of your own regarding Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis in order to discuss this method and its implications.

REFERENCES Benbow, Mark E. (2010). “Birth of a Quotation: Woodrow Wilson and ‘Like Writing History with Lightning.” The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. 9(4): 509–33. Calhoun, John C. (1837). “Speech on the Reception of Abolition Petitions. (February 6). See John Calhoun on Slavery as a Positive Good | Online Library of Liberty (libertyfund.org). Calhoun, John C. (1851). A Disquisition on Government. (Charleston, South Carolina: Walker and James) Candy, Eye (2017). “Thomas Jefferson Raped Sally Hemings: She Wasn’t His ‘Mistress’” AFROPUNK. (February 28). Cohen, William (1969). “Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery.” Journal of American History. 56(3) (pp. 503–526). Croft, Jay (2020). “Princeton University to remove Woodrow Wilson’s name from public policy school and residential college” CNN. (Updated Sat June 27, 3:49 PM ET). Princeton University to remove Woodrow Wilson’s name from buildings – CNN. Dray, Stephnie and Kamoie, Laura (2016). America’s First Daughter. (New York: William Morrow). Feder, Jody (2013). “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell: a Legal Analysis” (U.S. Congressional Research Service). (R40795; August 6). Fromkin, David (1989). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East. (New York: Owl). Garcia, Michelle (2010). “Key DADT Repeal Advocate Testifies.” (July 22). Advocate.com. assessed on February 9, 2022.

158  Getting What You Need Gordon-Reed, Annette (1997). Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press). Hofstadter, Richard (1948). “The Marx of the Master Class.” The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It. (New York: A. A. Knopf). Human Rights Campaign (nd). “Repeal of “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell” Repeal of “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” – HRC assessed February 9, 2022. Laçiner, Bal and Bal, Ihsan (2004). “The Ideological and Historical Roots of Kurdist Movements in Turkey: Ethnicity Demography, Politics.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 10(3): 473–504. Lincoln, Abraham (1858). “First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas.” (Ottawa, Illinois, August 21). Lincoln, Abraham (1862). “Letter to Horace Greeley.” (August 22). Abraham Lincoln’s Letter to Horace Greeley (abrahamlincolnonline.org). Lomax, John and Alan, Loman (1949). Our Singing Country (1949), A Second Volume of American Ballads and Folk Songs. (New York: The Macmillan Company), 44–5. Matlack, James (1979). “The Autobiographies of Frederick Douglass.” Phylon. 40(1): 15–28. Monticello (nd). “Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings” https://www.monticello.org/ thomas-jefferson/jefferson-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-abrief-account/?source=post_page. Retrieved February 8, 2022. O’Connor, Stephen (2016). Thomas Jefferson Dreams of Sally Hemings. (New York: Viking Press). Roberts, Julia (1991). Sleeping with the Enemy. (A feature film produced by 20th Century Fox.) Smith, Bonnie (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Snell, John L. (1954). “Wilson on Germany and the Fourteen Points.” Journal of Modern History. 26(4): 364–9. Tikkanen, Amy (nd). “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell United States policy” Encyclopedia Britannia accessed February 9, 2022. Walle, Alf H. (2002). Exotic Visions in Marketing Theory and Practice. (Westport, Connecticut: Quorum). Walle, Alf H. (2019). Indigenous and Ethnic Empowerment. (London and New York: Routledge). Wilgoren, Debbi and Backon, Perry Jr. (2010). “Obama to Sign DADT Repeal Before Big, Emotional Crowd.” The Washington Post. (December 22).

Epilogue to Section 4

Section 4 emphasizes the importance of dealing with people in fruitful and respectful ways instead of creating or perpetuating hurtful tensions or divisions that inhibit or derail meaningful dialogue. Although preaching to the converted can be comforting to friends and allies, it can alienate others. When a true meeting of the minds is sought, controversial postures and gratuitous confrontations should be avoided. Chapters 8 and 9 provide discussions in this regard. In Chapter 8, an array of hurtful styles of communication were discussed. In an era when the emphasis should involve drawing people together, methods and tactics should be avoided if they tend to alienate in avoidable ways. By being aware of such counterproductive potentials, attempts to advance positive and productive changes can be more effective. People are complex and multifaceted. Chapter 9 reminds us that on many occasions, specific individuals and groups can simultaneously be part of the problem and part of the solution. Those who evaluate such people need to avoid “throwing out the baby with the bathwater” by totally rejecting or alienating such individuals. Instead of rejecting the whole person because of some disagreements, efforts should be made to build upon areas of agreement. This can be accomplished by being aware of Frederick Hegel’s dialectical method that envisions an imperfect world in which progress can take place if people holding rival views reconcile their differences and push progress one step further. Once this new means of reasoning becomes established, the process can begin again in an every-upward spiral.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-17

Prologue to Section 5

In Section 4, a number of challenges and opportunities were discussed regarding how to deal with issues of racism and xenophobia. The shortcomings of preaching to the converted were mentioned. As an alternative, the habit of “keeping your eye on the prize” was recommended to remind people of their primary goals. Techniques of effective communication when dealing with those who embrace opposite views were emphasized. In Chapter 10, the dialectical method is discussed as a means of setting the stage for cooperation and better mutual understanding. It works best when a Bell-Shaped Curve situation exists with a majority of people holding middle-range views that are prone to change. Currently with reference to racism and xenophobia, however, large segments embrace views that are in extreme opposition. As a result of this U-Shaped distribution, there are less people in the middle who are inclined to change their minds. This situation can create a hostile and static stalemate. A possible way of dealing with this situation is provided by the work of psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg and his continuum of moral and ethical thoughts. By employing a version of this model, a path to mutual understanding can be envisioned. To enhance the quest toward understanding, Chapter 12 introduces the Emic and Etic dichotomy as two distinct ways of viewing how people think and respond. Emic interpretations view beliefs and actions from the perspective of the social actor. Thus, it is culturally relativistic. Etic, in contrast, involves “objective” outsiders evaluating thought and behavior based upon empirical evidence evaluated using criteria that are relevant to the observer. By employing the Kohlberg-inspired approach in concert with the Emic and Etic methods, a more productive means of dealing with racist and xenophobic tensions might be possible.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-18

10 Dialectics without a Synthesis The Challenge of Finding Common Ground

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Gaining perspectives regarding current efforts to understand racism and xenophobia in America along with historic examples from the past. 2. Understanding Karl Marx both as a political agitator and as a serious scholar. 3. Appreciating the relevance of the dialectical method, the assumptions its users make, and the perspectives it emphasizes. 4. Evaluating different ways of envisioning how people respond to challenges with reference to the Bell-Shaped and the U-Shaped Curve models. 5. Discussing the current situation where a dialectical system might be unable to facilitate a meaningful synthesis.

INTRODUCTION For many years, a wide cross section of people, both white and of color, have been concerned with racism, ethnic prejudice, and xenophobia. Historic examples include abolitionists and a range of supporters advocating civil rights for all. A wide range of worthwhile ideas have been embraced, although the complaint has been made that the history of the Afro-American experience has not been adequately shared with the general public (or even within the Afro-American community itself). The case can be made that the resulting gaps have resulted in significant segments of the population embracing narrow-minded or uninformed views regarding race. As a result, true believer racist views might not be adequately challenged. Afro-Americans and their advocates, furthermore, are likely to exhibit their own true believer inclinations that can inhibit dialogues that are needed to foster meaningful and productive progress. Contemporary attempts to provide adequate historical contexts are ongoing. Recent examples include the New York Times “1619 Project” (2019) and the book length treatment of Afro-American history inspired by it: An Origin Story: The 1619 Project created by Nikole Hannah-Jones (2021). DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-19

162  Dialectics without a Synthesis To demonstrate that black achievement has been ignored, she quotes legendary Afro-American leader W. E. B. DuBois, who observed, “All of this [significant achievements by black Africans] I had never heard [of] and I came then and afterwards to realize how the silence and neglect of science can let truth utterly disappear or even be unconsciously distorted” (quoted by Hannah-Jones 2021; xxxiii, from DuBois 1939; vii). DuBois, of course, was an intellectual heavyweight and the first AfroAmerican to earn a PhD from Harvard. In 1899, DuBois published The Philadelphia Negro, an early sociological analysis to employ the statistical method as an investigative tool. The study concluded that the so-called negro problem was caused by the racial prejudice of whites, coupled with inequitable economic opportunities, and a lack of decent living conditions. DuBois was also a political activist who was involved with the founding of the NAACP. Hannah-Jones mentions, with little fanfare, that DuBois received this information regarding black African achievements from Franz Boas, a white anthropologist (originally from Germany) who taught at Columbia University. Boas’ tireless crusades against racism opposed the “unilineal cultural evolution” paradigm popularized by 19th-century scholars such as Edmund Tylor (1871) and Lewis Henry Morgan (1877) that were social-­ Darwinist in spirit and depicted cultures as evolving ever upward with European civilization at the top with various retarded or lesser cultures below it. Boas, furthermore, fought against the so-called scientific racism, a pseudoscience that sought to correlate patterns of thought and behavior with observable physical characteristics, many of which are identified with race (Gossett 1997). It has been said, that “It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history” (Gossett 1997; 418). Boas’ students, including Ruth Benedict, also worked to build understanding and debunk racist ideas. She is the author of Patterns of Culture (1934), an acclaimed cultural analysis that helped popularize a cultural relativistic perspective that evaluates others on their terms, not ours. Just as Boas reasoned with other scholars, Benedict provided counsel to average uneducated people. To achieve this goal, Benedict and coauthor Gene Weltfish wrote a short pamphlet entitled The Races of Mankind (1943) during World War II. It was intended to help members of the American military overcome their prejudice. Written in everyday language (not academic lingo) and illustrated with cartoons reminiscent of comic books, the case against racist beliefs was presented in “down-home” ways that almost anybody could understand. After the war, a short, animated cartoon inspired by the pamphlet entitled “The Brotherhood of Mankind” (Cannon 1946) was produced by the United Auto Workers and used to counter prejudice within increasingly integrated factories and workplaces. In the Races of Mankind, Benedict and Weltfish observe, “Everywhere in the world, men and women used the standard of their own people to judge others and thought that people who differed from this standard looked

Dialectics without a Synthesis 163 funny or ugly” (1943; 6). Having made this observation, they debunk a wide array of racist beliefs, including the supposed link between races with intelligence. The pamphlet’s final paragraph could be published today without alteration: “With America’s great traditions of democracy, the United States should clean its own house and get ready for a better 21st century …” (1943; 31). Unfortunately, efforts to extinguish racism and xenophobia have not been as effective as they could have been; prejudice and xenophobia remain. Within such contexts, prejudice will be discussed along with strategies for combatting it. In doing so, the dialectic method will be used to demonstrate how thinking can evolve and how a new consensus can be reached. Unfortunately, harmony, compromise, and accord are not always easily achieved. This situation and the obstacles it can create are addressed.

DIALECTICAL IMPLIATIONS In earlier chapters, Frederick Hegel’s dialectical method (and its Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis process) has been discussed. That analysis is continued here. Hegel was an idealist which means that he was primarily concerned with the ideas that people hold and the influence of these thoughts. Idealists typically assert that the realm of thought and ideas is superior, more important, or more influential than the material world. Thus, a strict idealist might observe that imagining a perfect circle is possible mentally, but continue by observing that if someone tries to produce one (create a perfect material or physical representation of the idea), the product will inevitably be deficient or flawed, even if only to a tiny extent. Thus, a case can be made that the physical world is a defective representation or copy of ideas and thoughts. A similar projection can be made regarding imperfect relationships that fail to live up to their idealized versions. (Such oversimplified examples, of course, do not depict idealism in all its complexity, of course, although they provide a taste regarding some of the issues addressed). Karl Marx, greatly influenced by Hegel, applies the Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis model to the material (physical) world instead of merely the realm of thought and ideas. This difference is significant. Being a materialist, Marx believed that the material/physical world (that includes its economic aspects) dominates. Thus, thoughts and what stems from them are reflections of the physical world. Expressed with reference to today’s scientific jargon, Marx believed that the material world, functioning as a “primary variable”, influences “secondary variables”, including human social relationships, attitudes, traditions, and so forth. This paradigm is so well known that only one classic example offered by Marx will be discussed. Classic Marxism argues that during the Medieval era, a particular socio-economic system (Feudalism) dominated. Thus, Feudalism can be viewed as a beginning point or Thesis. As economic opportunities, physical conditions, and other materialistic variables evolved over time, this socio-economic arrangement was rendered passé or non-workable.

164  Dialectics without a Synthesis (See Marx and Engels 1848, First Section.) In response, an (overt or covert) search began for alternatives (Antitheses). Eventually, a new “Synthesis” emerged that ref lected the new materialistic conditions; it was capitalistic in nature. At this point, classic Marxists conclude that as conditions continue to evolve, the currently dominant capitalistic system will be subjected to another round of the Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis process of transformation. Eventually, according to Marx, capitalism will fade, giving rise to socialism and communism. According to this paradigm, the primary variable is the material world. It is viewed as influencing and transforming secondary variables such as human thought, relationships, institutions, traditions, and so forth. When evaluating Marx’s full influence, however, keep in mind that he was simultaneously two intellectual forces in one. Politically, Marx was a professional political agitator dedicated to the overthrow of the capitalistic system. In this role, Marx was a partisan advocate for his cause and not averse to using any useful tactic (including provocative rhetoric) to advance his goals. The second Karl Marx is the influential scholar and social theorist who emphasizes the influence of economic pressures upon human life, culture, and society. When operating in this role, Marx is a well-respected intellectual who emphasizes to role of material and economic influences upon individuals and society. A social scientific and non-political Marxist model is presented by American anthropologist Leslie White. Although perhaps dated in some ways, White’s work presents an easily understood demonstration regarding Marxist materialism employed in a non-partisan, objective, apolitical, and social scientific way. White’s classic monograph: Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization (1949) argues that cultures and societies are, most basically, energy-harnessing devices that provide people with what they need to survive. Such a model, of course, is materialistic in nature and White overtly expresses a debt to Marx. Embracing this materialist orientation, White points to three distinct, but interrelated, aspects of culture: (1) infrastructure, (2) structure, and (3) superstructure and interprets these components in materialistic ways. White’s formulation is an expansion of the “Base” vs. “Superstructure” model of traditional Marxist thought (Marx 1859). “Infrastructure” Includes significant economic/energy generating methods of the culture and society, such as the means of production. Thus, this materialistic component can be viewed as a “primary variable” that is largely independent while influencing various “dependent variables” in a cause-effect manner. (For a discussion of independent and dependent variables, see Walle 2015; 9–10.) The “structure” component includes social relationships (such as class distinctions and political arrangements). Structure is viewed both as a

Dialectics without a Synthesis 165 dependent variable (influenced by the infrastructure) and as an independent variable that impacts what lies below it. Both the infrastructure and the structure impact the “superstructure” that includes cultural components such as ideology, religion, kinship systems, and so forth. Although in the short term, these dependent/independent relationships may not completely hold true (as demonstrated by Max Weber’s analysis of the Protestant ethic and the rise of capitalism 2002), in the long flow of history White argues that they tend to operate in this manner. According to this model, culture and social life are largely dependent variables that reflect and support the material world. As a scholarly model, it has no political or other axes to grind (even if individual scholars or activists do). It is a non-partisan theory of universal cultural evolution that is materialistic in nature. White’s materialistic model is portrayed in Table 10.1. Keeping such apolitical characteristics in mind is important because those who are hostile to Critical Race Theory point to the fact that it is inspired by the Frankfurt School (Held 1980) that is intertwined with Marxism. On multiple occasions, Critical Race Theory’s relationship to Marxist analysis has been emphasized in a frivolous attempt to discredit it (see, e.g., Balint 2022). But, as we have seen, Marx was simultaneously a radical political agitator and a serious and objective scholar. By keeping the work of scholars such as Leslie White in mind (who apply Marxist principles in ways that tend to be apolitical), the full breadth of Marxian analysis can be more fully appreciated. Table 10.1  Leslie White’s Marxist/Materialistic Paradigm Component

Description

Analysis

Infrastructure

The significant and dominant economic/energy generating method.

Primary variable that exerts a strong influence upon other aspects of society and culture.

Structure

The cultural and social relationships that are needed for the infrastructure to work.

A secondary variable in relation to the infrastructure but a primary variable in relation to the superstructure.

Superstructure

Beliefs, ideology, morals, traditions, etc., that reinforce the infrastructure and the relationships the structure requires.

A secondary variable to both the infrastructure and the structure, it evolves, develops and functions accordingly.

DISCUSSION Although in the short term, the relationships between these variables might not reflect the model presented above, the model assumes that in the long term, such relationships tend to hold. In presenting the model, White develops a Marxist/ materialist paradigm that is non-partisan and does not foresee specific and inevitable outcomes (such as an inevitable evolution toward socialism and communism).

166  Dialectics without a Synthesis I remember going to a conference back in the late 1980s just as the Soviet Union was breaking up. I was at a cocktail party reception attended by a wise old economics professor who taught at an East German University. In a chauvinistic tone, many of the capitalistic-centered scholars in attendance couldn’t resist teasing him by asserting that his intellectual footing was being pull out from under him like a rug by the demise of the mighty communist regime. Instead of being intimidated, the besieged Marxist “suggested that the decline of Marxism in politics had, at long last, freed it from the shackles of partisanship and created a situation were all thinkers … can more clearly perceive what Marx has to offer” (Walle 2002; 43). For the dialectical model to work, however, the ability for some sort of meaningful dialogue (and an environment friendly to it) needs to exist. Otherwise, a meeting of the minds will be inhibited if not impossible.

LIMITS OF THE DIALECTICAL PROCESS As discussed above, the dialectical method describes a process by which evolving ideas, innovative institutions, and new horizons of human relationships take shape and gain recognition. This process involves adjusting, reforming, updating, etc., what already exists by responding to the challenges presented by rivals. For this transformational and dialectical process to function effectively, however, the possibility of some sort of meaningful dialogue between rival groups needs to exist. In other words, for the dialectical process to operate effectively, people with different views need to act in a cooperative or collaborative fashion as their rival ideas evolve and are refined. Thus, Hegel depicts the Thesis as a starting point that is countered by a rival Antithesis that challenges it. A refinement resulting from this exchange is known as the Synthesis. Racial relationships in the United States can be viewed from this perspective. At one point in time, the existing Thesis accepted slavery in one region of the country. Advocates justified this system, in part, with the conjecture that those of African descent were not as intelligent or capable as white people. A belief in significant racial differences, incidentally, was shared by many abolitionists (and even Abraham Lincoln) although such people tended to believe that blacks were human enough to deserve freedom, opportunity, and dignity. Because tensions were so high during the antebellum period, few meaningful dialectical transformations took place until the post-Civil War era. After the South was defeated, a powerful and forceful Antithesis emerged (that included the requirements of the Era of Reconstruction, the passage of constitutional amendments protecting civil rights, etc.) This Antithesis challenged and sought to dismantle the pre-war Thesis that justified limited rights for blacks (including slavery). As the postwar years went by and as the federal oversight of the era of Reconstruction faded, a new Synthesis emerged that was not as oppressive as the antebellum Thesis, but not as

Dialectics without a Synthesis 167 progressive as what was envisioned by the Antithesis. Indeed, over time, many rights that had been won by Afro-Americans were whittled away. By the mid-20th century, Afro-Americans were increasingly unhappy with this Synthesis that by this time had become the status quo: a new Thesis. Another round of dialectical transformation was ready to emerge. During the civil rights era (1950s–1960s), this existing Thesis (the status quo) was confronted with a new Antithesis that demanded full social and civil rights, the end of segregation, the recognition of equality, full civil rights, and so forth. The situation was eventually resolved with a new Synthesis that provided advances, on the one hand, but did not eliminate all problems, on the other. Currently, a new dialectical process is in the works. It places a greater emphasis upon combatting prejudice and mistreatment on a national scale not merely the south. Other racial and minority groups are being lumped into the category “of color”. More attention is being paid to issues such as economic considerations, law enforcement, and so forth. At the current time, this dialectical process has not been completed and no new Synthesis has emerged. These examples demonstrate the dialectical process in action and how its components can interlock in a pattern of constant change. On some occasions, however, the conditions needed for a meaning dialogue do not exist. Thus, before the Civil War, meaningful dialectical dialogues were few because an environment conducive to the merging rival ideas was not present. And from the end of Reconstruction until the civil rights movement of the mid-20th century, meaningful dialectical discussions did not take place even though Afro-American leaders were laying the ground work for them to emerge at a later date. Thus, to a large degree, the ability of the dialectical method to work is based upon the possibility of meaningful interchange, collaboration, or mutual transformation. Without this foundation, the impediments to progress are significant. By comparing two different patterns of response (that will be referred to as the Bell-Shaped vs. the U-Shaped Curve), implications regarding the ability for meaningful change will be discussed.

BELL-SHAPED VS. U-SHAPED CURVES In the field of statistics, the “Bell Shaped Curve” (formally known as a “normal distribution”) is a familiar concept. It is particularly useful when portraying a situation where something being measured is most numerous in the middle range and where examples that diverge from the average taper off in both directions. Consider the height of men. A few men are very short and a few are very tall. Slightly larger percentages are tall or short. The majority of people lie somewhere in the middle. If charted on a graph, a normal distribution resembles a bell (hence the term “Bell-Shaped Curve”). A typical representation of a Bell-Shaped Curve is presented in Figure 10.1.

168  Dialectics without a Synthesis

Figure 10.1  Bell-Shaped Curve

Relating this type of distribution to the current discussion, people on the political extremes (completely racist/xenophobic vs. completely egalitarian/ non prejudice) are portrayed as a fairly small percentage of the total population while those in the middle appear to dominate. Where this type of situation exists, a fairly small shift in public belief or opinion can have a significant impact. This is because a large percentage of people will fall into the “slightly” racist, xenophobic camp, while another large segment will be “slightly egalitarian and non-prejudiced”. Because these “middle-ground” people have opinions that are not very strong in either direction, they are susceptible to change. As a result, members of this significant segment can more easily flow back and forth depending on circumstances or, merely the logic they are confronted with. The implication of this observation is that where a Bell-Shaped Curve situation exists, it will be easier for either side to recruit a significant number of new advocates because a large number of these middle range people are viable candidates for transition to a new point of view. Conversely, the potential to lose support is also present. Change, for example, can occur in which a number of those in the large middle range alter their opinions just enough to tip the balance in a new direction leading to social change or a reactionary resurgence. Under certain circumstances, however, the Bell-Shaped Curve might not portray reality. An alternative model is the U-Shaped Curve where the tendency is for people to embrace either of two extreme positions. Under such conditions, those whose opinions lie in the middle might constitute a small (and possibly irrelevant) segment of the population. A graphic representation of a U-Shaped Curve is presented in Figure 10.2. Regarding racism and xenophobia, a U-Shaped Curve appears to exist with two strong and entrenched positions exist in direct opposition to each other. One position is racist, xenophobic, and reactionary; the other powerful segment possesses views that embrace equality, non-prejudice, and progressiveness. Both are well-established, powerful, and resistant to change. Those in the middle with a mindset capable of change constitute a smaller and less influential segment. Unlike the Bell-Shaped Curve alternative, no

Dialectics without a Synthesis 169

Figure 10.2  U-Shaped Curve

easy reconciliation appears on the horizon because few people are inclined to change their positions. This situation is likely to remain for an extended period and not rapidly evolve because neither segment shows signs of evolving in each other’s direction. As a result, a form of intellectual “trench warfare” and its futility can be expected. Where this occurs, progress will be slow because there is no significant segment willing to compromise in ways that tip the scales in one direction or the other. These different models are portrayed in Table 10.2. Table 10.2  Bell-Shaped and U-Shaped Curves Compared Issue

Bell-Shaped Curve

U-Shaped Curve

Powerful Segments

One powerful segment tails Two distinct and powerful off in opposite ways. Those segments exist. Those in with strong views are small the middle constitute a minorities. relatively small minority.

Cluster of strength

The location of strength is in the middle.

Two centers of strength exist at the extremes.

Propensity for Change

The balance of power lies in the middle which is a majority. Thus, the propensity for change is high.

Two groups with strong opposite opinions exist. Each is strongly partisan. As a result, the propensity for change is low.

Propensity for Stability

Because a large and Because two large relatively fluid middle opposing forces with ground exists, the tendency strong opinions exist, the for stability is relatively inclination for stability is low. relatively high.

DISCUSSION The current situation appears to indicate that a U-Shaped Curve distribution exists instead of the Bell-Curve alternative. This condition suggests that, in the immediate future, two well entrenched rivals can be expected to remain as active forces.

170  Dialectics without a Synthesis Perhaps, the tension reflected by the U-Shaped Curve is captured by Tom Petty (1989)’s famous anthem “I Won’t Back Down”. The lyrics, in part, tell us “Well I know what’s right … You can stand me up at the gates of hell, but I won’t back down”. While admirable and inspirational, such sentiments don’t leave much of room for compromise. Nonetheless, its combative tone appeals to (and been used by) politicians as diverse as George W. Bush, Hillary Clinton, and Barack Obama. Tom Petty’s family, furthermore, issued a cease-and-desist order to Donald Trump ordering him to refrain from using it (Bake 2020). And not to be outdone, Joe Biden and Kamala Harris played it at their 2020 victory rally in Wilmington, Delaware. It is interesting to note that the Beach Boys (California surfing band of the 1960s and beyond) had their own song named “Don’t Back Down” (1964). It was all about sex-crazed guys taking surfing risks in order to impress young females. The lyrics say in part, “You gotta be a little nuts, Don’t back down … show ‘em now who’s got guts”. Tom wasn’t concerned with such petty things and neither were Bush, Clinton, Obama, Trump, Biden, and Harris. Thus, the ethos of a U-Shaped Curve situation appears to strongly influence both conservatives and liberals. Under these conditions, rivals, each possessing a “don’t back down” tendency, compete with each other as they shrink away from compromise. This situation has led to a stalemate in which the dialectical process, such as that encouraged by a Bell-Shaped Curve situation, cannot effectively operate.

DIALECTICS WITHOUT A SYNTHESIS As discussed, Frederick Hegel’s dialectical theory envisions a situation where rival forces compete, clash, and merge in ways that lead to compromise, change, and progress. Expanding Hegel’s idealist model, Karl Marx used the dialectical method to deal with materialistic transformations. The resulting paradigm has proved useful both to scholars who are analyzing change and to practitioners who are working to influence it. The dialectical method, however, can be more or less useful depending upon the nature of the environment and the process of change that is taking place within it. This reality was emphasized by comparing the implications of the Bell-Shaped and the U-Shaped Curves. In the Bell-Shaped Curve, change can be more readily accomplished because there is a large middle ground that is better able to compromise. As a result, change is more likely. Under these conditions, the dialectical process is able to function in an effective manner. That is not true, however, in the case of the U-Shaped Curve. Here, strong and entrenched opposite positions are embraced by powerful and significant segments of the population. However, there are fewer people with middle range view whose minds, opinions, and viewpoints can easily shift a notch or so in one direction or the other. As a result, two rival camps with widely differing opinions are pitted against each. Such a distribution can easily result in ongoing and hostile tension, stagnation, and inertia.

Dialectics without a Synthesis 171 The current distribution regarding race and xenophobia in Europe and North America appears to be best modeled by a U-Shaped Curve paradigm. As a result, tensions are high, rival forces are polarized, both groups are highly motivated, and in accordance with Tom Petty’s song they won’t back down. This situation creates an environment where the dialectical process does not function in ways that lead to a new and workable synthesis because powerful rival forces prevent the foundation for compromise and a new synthesis. What is needed is a process of rekindling discussions in ways that begin a new and workable dialogue. If this occurs, a new process of building understanding might emerge. In the next chapter, a continuum of moral and ethical thought, inspired by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, will explore this issue. This will be followed by a final chapter in which the Emic and Etic dichotomy is used to depict how people view their thoughts and actions, juxtaposed with the opinions of outside observers.

RELEVANT TERMS Ancient Society  Book published by Lewis Henry Morgan in 1877 that emphasizes the unilineal evolution of culture. Bell-Shaped Curve  A statistical situation where most examples are in the center. Variations taper off in both directions. Capitalism  A system of economics typified by investors owning and controlling the means of production. Marx believed capitalism replaced Feudalism, but is destined to be replaced by socialism and communism. Civil Rights Era  A period associated with the 1950s and 1960s that sought to end segregation and discrimination primarily in the American South. DuBois, W. E. B.  Noted Afro-American scholar and activist. Published The Philadelphia Negro in 1899. Helped found the NAACP. Feudalism  An economic and political system that Karl Marx suggests gave way to capitalism due to the dialectical process. Hannah-Jones, Nikole  Scholar involved with the 1619 project. Hegel, Frederick  An idealist German Philosopher who advocated the Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis model of argumentation, change, and evolution. Marx, Karl  Simultaneously a political agitator and a serious scholar, Marx presents an economic (or materialist) view of society, humanity, and culture. Morgan, Lewis Henry  Pioneering American anthropologist who employed a theory of unilineal evolution. Published Ancient Society in 1877. Patterns of Culture  A book by Ruth Benedict published in 1934 that emphasizes cultural relativity. Primary Variable  A dominant phenomenon that influences a secondary variable. Primitive Culture  A book by Edward Tylor published in 1871 that presents a unilineal view of human and cultural evolution.

172  Dialectics without a Synthesis Reconstruction  An era after the American Civil War that saw significant attempts to provide additional rights and privileges to Afro-Americans. Scientific Racism  The debunked theory that physical characteristics provide clues regarding behavior and intelligence. Secondary Variable  A variable that is impacted or influenced by primary variables. 1619  The year the first Africans were enslaved within a British colony. A highly praised New York Times special section and a book edited by Nicole Hannah-Jones center around this event. Structure  According to Leslie White, the institutions and relationships that allow the infrastructure to operate. Superstructure  According to Leslie White, the ideological, normative, belief systems, etc., that supports, reinforces, and justify the Infrastructure and Structure. The Philadelphia Negro  A book published by W. E. B. DuBois in 1899 that argues the “negro problem” was caused by discrimination, few decent housing options, and a lack of opportunities. The Races of Mankind  A Pamphlet by Ruth Benedict and Gene Weltfish published in 1943 that was designed to help uneducated people overcome racist inclinations. Tylor, Edward  Pioneering anthropologist who wrote Primitive Culture 1871 that presents a unilineal theory of cultural evolution. U-Shaped Curve  Two opposing centers of power exist with those in the middle between them being significantly weaker. White, Leslie  An American anthropologist who developed a Marxist paradigm of culture and society that is apolitical.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Is adequate knowledge available regarding Afro-American history (and other minority groups)? Discuss the 1619 Project as a means of addressing any imbalance you believe exists. How did Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict each speak to different segments of the population? Discuss The Races of Mankind as a tool of change. 2. Discuss Karl Marx as a political agitator. Discuss Karl Marx as a serious and objective scholar. Do these two distinct roles complicate understanding him? Discuss the theories of Leslie White as an apolitical version of Marxist analysis. Do you think Marx’s primary importance is as a political agitator or as a scholar? 3. Discuss the dialectical method both as an idealist and as a materialist system of analysis. How are they different and how are they the same? Discuss the relevance of the dialectical method in regard to evolving thoughts regarding race and xenophobia. 4. Compare the Bell-Shaped and the U-Shaped Curves. Do you believe one model is more receptive to significant change than the other. Why

Dialectics without a Synthesis 173 or why not? What conditions appear to be currently prevalent regarding race and xenophobia in America and Europe? What are the implications of your answer to this question? 5. How would you depict the current racial and xenophobic tension in the United States and in Europe? What can be done to address these issues? Are you an optimist or pessimist? What suggestions do you have?

REFERENCES Bake, Cole (2020). “Tom Petty’s Family Send Cease-and-Desist Letter to Trump for Song Use.” HotNewHipHop. (June 21). Balint, Anton (2022). “Critical Theory Is a Form of Marist Reeducation.” (March 13). LIBERTY FIRST. Beach Boys (1964). “Don’t Back Down” (a song on the Beach Boys album All Summer Long released by Capitol Records). Benedict, Ruth (1934). Patterns of Culture. (New York: Houghton-Mifflin). Benedict, Ruth and Gene, Weltfish (1943). The Races of Mankind. (New York: Public Affairs Committee). Cannon, Robert (1946). The Brotherhood of Mankind (United Auto Workers). Animated cartoon based on The Races of Mankind by Ruth Benedict and Gene Weltfish. DuBois, W. E. B. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press). DuBois, W. E. B. (1939). Black Folk Then and Now: An Essay in the History and Sociology of the Negro Race. (New York: Henry Holt). Gossett, Thomas (1997) [1963]. Race: The History of an Idea in America. (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press), 418 Hannah-Jones, Nikole (2021). An Origin Story: The 1619 Project (New York: New York Times Company). Held, David (1980). Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. (Berkley: University of California Press). Marx, Karl (1859). “Preface,” in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, no date originally 1859). Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich (1848). The Communist Manifesto. (San Diego: Book Lovers Classics 2021). Morgan, Lewis Henry (1877). Ancient Society. (London: MacMillan). Petty, Tom (1989). “I Won’t Back Down.” (Song on Tom Petty’s record album Don’t Back Down released by MCA). The New York Times (2019). The 1619 Project. The New York Times. (August 14). Tylor, Edward (1871). Primitive Culture, 2 volumes. (London: John Murray). Walle, Alf H. (2002). Exotic Visions in Marketing Theory and Practice. (Westport: Connecticut Quorum). Walle, Alf H. (2015). Qualitative Research in Business: A Practical Overview. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars). Weber, Max (2002). The Protestant Ethic and “The Spirit of Capitalism” (Penguin Books), translated by Peter Baehr and Gordon C. Wells. (New York: Penguin). White, Leslie (1949). The Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

11 Beyond the U-Shaped Curve A Continuum of Moral and Ethical Thought

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Outlining an array of the moral and ethical responses to racism and xenophobia. 2. Understanding that the work of Lawrence Kohlberg provides a method for comparing and evaluating a range or continuum of moral and ethical perspectives. 3. Applying the Kohlberg model to situations involving racism and xenophobia. 4. Adapting the U-Shaped Curve model to situations involving a Kohlbergstyled interpretation of responses to racism and xenophobia. 5. Envisioning how this model can be used to encourage mutual understanding.

INTRODUCTION In the last chapter, the observation was made that a meeting of the minds is difficult when competing forces embrace sharply contrasting views. This is especially evident when true believers hold divergent moral and ethical visions regarding racism, xenophobia, and human rights. As discussed in the last chapter, these tensions often exist in a manner that is consistent with a U-Shaped Curve involving strong rival segments that are in polar opposition to each other. Such a tendency exists today and shows few tendencies of diminishing. Such rigidness can make the process of change, compromise, and reconciliation difficult. Attitudes involving racism and xenophobia are learned during the socialization process and possess significant moral and ethical implications. Not innate, these mindsets can become so engrained that they appear to be natural or even instinctual. This can be especially true in the case of true believers who tend to strongly embrace the conventional beliefs of their groups and leaders. Challenging or transforming such deep-seated, but learned, views can be difficult. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-20

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 175 Psychological models offer alternative methods for examining human response in ways that transcend culture and society and deal with general aspects of humanity, not merely specific tendencies. (This is true even though subdisciplines, such as social psychology, deal with the intersection of psychology and the social sciences.) By incorporating psychological perspectives, a broader and richer understanding of racial and ethnic relationships (both positive and negative) can develop. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theories deal with the development of moral and ethical structures from a psychological perspective. Using his work as a starting point, suggestions are made regarding moral and ethical thought involving racism and xenophobia. The analysis begins with discussions of specific moral and ethical considerations involving racism and xenophobia. This is followed by an introduction to Kohlberg’s theories with attention to how they can be adapted to deal with racism and xenophobia. Having done so, discussions regarding these feelings and how to juxtapose and evaluate them are presented.

MORAL AND ETHICAL FOUNDATIONS Thinking that involves racism and xenophobia exhibits significant ethical and moral implications. American abolitionists who opposed slavery in the 19th century affirmed that freedom and self-determinism are sacred and that all people should enjoy these basic rights. Advocates of slavery and segregation, in contrast, believed that significant differences between the races justified distinctive treatments and separation. Both sides defended their actions on ethical and moral grounds. Consider Harriett Beecher Stowe’s abolitionist novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) where the title character is portrayed as a strong, heroic role model whose actions are celebrated as pinnacles of morality and ethics. In recent generations, however, “Uncle Tom” has lost his luster and the term has commonly come to represent the unflattering stereotype of submissive AfroAmericans who knuckle under and willingly accept a subservient role below white people. In reality, such a characterization is the complete opposite of Stowe’s portrayal. Throughout Stowe’s novel, Uncle Tom is clearly depicted as a strong, moral, and decent man of faith who is juxtaposed with Simon Legree, the evil slave driver. Foils of each other, Legree represents unmitigated wickedness while Uncle Tom is a moral man. Although fate has resulted in the old slave living a life of degrading servitude, he is clearly superior to Legree. Far from being docile or passive (as today’s “Uncle Tom” characterizations commonly portray), Stowe depicts a strong willed and moral actor who is beaten to death after encouraging Cassy, Legree’s unwilling sex slave, to escape to freedom and then refuses to tell the wicked slave driver where she is hiding (see Spingarn 2019).

176  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve Stowe emphasizes that the moral and ethical context of slavery needs to be recognized and addressed. Coming from a family of abolitionist preachers, it is hardly a surprise that the moral structure she celebrates derives from the Christian Church. Sure enough, Uncle Tom is portrayed as a pious and devout Christian. And Stowe’s moral and ethical argument against slavery is built upon this foundation. Stowe’s strong and moral argument against slavery (that continues to be applauded today) can be juxtaposed with the position of Alexander Stephens, the Vice President of the Confederate States that is presented in his “Cornerstone Speech” of March 21, 1861. As Stowe before him, Stephens discusses slavery from a moral or ethical perspective; his views, however, contradict Stowe when he observes: “the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery, subordination to the superior race, is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government [the Confederate States], is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth”. Although today, Stephens’ position (and others like it) is recognized as both incorrect and morally wrong, Stephens clearly presented his argument in moral and ethical terms. This is true even though his arguments are now rejected and condemned. (As the old adage goes, “Hindsight is 20-20”). The opposing stances held by Stowe and Stephens provide a glaring example of the U-Shaped Curve tendencies that were discussed in the last chapter. The writings of Joel Chandler Harris and his many Uncle Remus tales (Harris 1955, originally late 19th century) provide another example of ethics and morals that are based on the realities of slavery and oppression. The Uncle Remus character does so by subtly suggesting ways for slaves to cope with the oppression and demands of their white overlords. Harris, as you might recall, was a journalist for the Atlanta Constitution, who conducted informal folklore research among Afro-Americans in the years immediately following the Civil War. Based upon the stories and tales he collected, Harris published his findings in numerous popular books that were written in a dialect that captured the Afro-American mode of speaking in the 19th century. His writing is in the Local Color genre of the era, and can be compared to other examples such as the Sut Lovingood Tales (1867) by George Washington Harris (no relation to Joel Chandler Harris) who also wrote in dialect. Harris depicts Uncle Remus (a composite figure representing the archetypical Afro-American storyteller) spinning his tales to a young white boy who is fascinated by the old man and his fables that appear to be influenced by an African heritage that predates the American experience, coupled with the realities of enslavement and marginalization. Uncle Remus’ favorite role model is Brer (Brother) Rabbit who is physically weak but clever and resourceful: a classic trickster figure. His opponents, such as Brer Fox and Brer Bear, are stronger than Brer Rabbit but not as smart. Over and over again, Brer Rabbit succeeds and survives by using his wits when confronted with forces that cannot be overtly challenged.

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 177 The tale of Brer Rabbit and the Briar Patch is a classic example. The story starts with Brer Fox catching Brer Rabbit. In response, the rabbit begs Brer Fox not to throw him in the Briar Patch, feigning fear and dread regarding such a fate. Because the rabbit continues to beg for any other alternative such as being cooked or drowned, the fox ultimately can’t resist the urge to give the rabbit what he fears and dreads the most; into the briar patch the rabbit is hurled. Once free, Brer Rabbit taunts Brer Fox by revealing that the Briar Patch is his home and that he has been delivered to safety and freedom. In these stories, thinly veiled strategic advice is given to the AfroAmerican underclass regarding how to effectively deal with their white masters who have physical and legal power over them. Although the slaves, like Brer Rabbit, are in a weak position, they can use their wits to overcome their oppressors. Thus, acting as a trickster is presented as a moral, ethical, and effective way of responding to subjugation and captivity. In addition to such trickery, many minority groups facing domination and a lack of equal opportunity have turned to the church for leadership and assistance. That was true of many immigrant groups coming to the United States in last half of the 19th century. This tendency has also been a powerful force effecting the Afro-American community; the church has played (and continues to play) a significant role in advancing the rights of its community and lending a moral and ethical foundation to the quest. Any number of observers (both within and outside of the Afro-American community) point to the powerful role of the church in providing comfort, strategies of action, as well as a moral and ethical compass (Evans 2008; Gates 2021). It is not a coincidence that the Dr. Martin Luther King was a man of the cloth and the pastor of Ebeneezer Baptist Church in Atlanta. As discussed above, Afro-American responses to an underclass status (both during slavery and beyond) inevitably hinge upon ethical and moral foundations. The same is true of those who hold/held opposite positions. The specific examples provided above are representative and far from exhaustive; space prevents a more universal discussion.

KOHLBERG’S ETHICAL AND MORAL PARADIGM Jean Piaget is a seminal figure in the study of cognitive development. Although much of his work has been revised and his research methods have been criticized, he continues to be acknowledged for emphasizing that throughout life the human mind proceeds through a number of distinct and predictable phases of development. Thus, a young brain and its cognitive processes are distinct from people who are mature (Ormrod 2012). Lawrence Kohlberg, influenced by Piaget’s stages of human development model, advanced the theory that moral and ethical thought also develops in phases and operates in ways that have a universal structure. Kohlberg envisions three separate steps in the process of moral development with each being

178  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve divided into two segments (Garz 2009). Initially, ethics and morals reflect egotistical considerations. Eventually, they graduate to more complex patterns of thought and evaluation. Eventually, broader and universal issues emerge. In reality, however, on some occasions, individual people or social groups might remain at a “lower” level as moral and ethical development slows, stalls, or is maintained at a certain level due to beliefs, priorities, or other considerations. Kohlberg’s first level is what he calls Preconventional because the person is reacting to rather basic ad hoc circumstances with little reliance upon complex thought processes. The first component involves avoiding punishment or pain. Thus, moral and ethical action is equated with what will reduce personal pain or unhappiness. While the first component deals with avoiding pain, the second centers around gaining pleasure. In both cases, what is moral and ethical is evaluated in terms of what the person will receive in return and can be roughly related to promoting hedonism. These levels are somewhat reminiscent of the lower range of Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (i.e. physiological and safety needs). The second level is the Conventional. Its first component deals with conformity and adherence to the prevailing mores of society. Thus, obeying laws and rules is viewed as moral and ethical. This is followed by a focus upon submitting to authority and maintaining the social order. These phases correspond roughly with the middle range in Maslow’s hierarchy such as belongingness needs. These two levels set the stage for what Kohlberg calls Postconventional moral and ethical thought. Society’s laws and rules are no longer viewed as being carved in granite and unable to evolve or change. Kohlberg envisions something akin to a social contract that can (and should) evolve as conditions change or as knowledge and understanding evolve. In the final stage, people begin to perceive universal moral or ethical principles and act in regard to such higher visions. The Postconventional stage can be roughly identified with the Maslow’s higher needs. As many other useful theories, Kohlberg’s work has been criticized. Like Piaget, the sample of informants Kohlberg used were relatively small in number and some critics warn of sampling errors that might have led to false conclusions. Kohlberg’s informants, for example, tended to be male. This has raised concern that perhaps men and women are different and, therefore, his findings are overly generalized. Kohlberg’s theory, furthermore, is based on rational thought. Are moral and ethical responses more complex than that? In spite of legitimate critiques, Kohlberg presents a useful way to deal with moral and ethical structures. His work is discussed here for this reason. These phases are compared and juxtaposed in Table 11.1. The Kohlberg model analyzes how people embrace and are influenced by specific moral and ethical structures. These mental constructs are distinct even if they evolve over time. People who embrace rival views are not necessarily immoral or amoral, they might merely adhere to a different moral and ethical system.

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 179 Table 11.1  The Kohlberg Moral and Ethical Paradigm Phase

Description

Preconventional 1

Whatever avoids pain is People envision morals in response moral. to avoiding pain and punishment. Whatever does so is viewed as moral and ethical.

Analysis

Preconventional 2

Whatever results in pleasure is moral.

What is moral and ethical is what results in personal pleasure.

Conventional 1

Obeying laws and rules is moral.

Laws and rules are considered sacred and maintaining them is moral and ethical.

Conventional 2

Maintaining the social order is moral.

A social order exists. Reenforcing and maintaining it is moral and ethical.

Postconventional 1

Morals involve social contracts.

Situations effect morals. They can change over time due to evolving conditions.

Postconventional 2

Universal moral principles envisioned.

Universal standards of morality and ethics exist that need to be recognized.

DISCUSSION Preconventional phases are basic, hedonistic and require little contemplation. Conventional phases involve rote thought regarding certain assumptions that people accept and to which they respond. Postconventional phases expand beyond rote mental process culminating in the search for universal principles.

Such a reality can make change more difficult. If people merely lack a “compass” to direct their thought and actions, transforming their minds might be a simple one-step process of filling a moral and ethical void. In many cases, in contrast, opponents and rivals embrace an existing moral and ethical system or structure. Under such circumstances, transforming the way people think and act will require a more complex two-step process. First, the existing ethical and moral structure must be challenged and dismantled. Once this intellectual demolition has taken place, introducing a new vision might become possible. Having presented this model, it will be applied to a number of real-life cases.

APPLYING THE KOHLBERG MODEL The Kohlberg model inspires a method for envisioning a range or continuum of moral and ethical structures. Doing so provides a starting point that, while possessing limitations, offers useful applications for dealing with ethical and moral implications involving racism and xenophobia.

180  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve To demonstrate such uses, a variety of discussions regarding the six components of Kohlberg’s typology are discussed. Preconventional 1: Avoiding Pain One of the classic explanations of racism is that the white underclass of the United States, demoralized and ashamed, has a psychological need to feel superior to somebody. By ranking themselves as higher than AfroAmericans, such people have a means of mitigating the psychological pain that can result from underachievement and feelings of failure or inferiority. Thus, prejudice against others can provide a means of deflecting psychological pain caused by a lack-luster life and thoughts of low personal worth (see, e.g., MacGillis 2016). Envisioning the stigmatized group as even lower can provide a psychological defense mechanism. Typically, such feelings are phrased in moral or ethical terms (such as depicting the target of prejudice as an immoral or inferior faction to be avoided). Under such circumstances, racial prejudice and xenophobia against outsiders can provide a pecking order that depicts white underachievers as superior to another significant demographic group. “Pop Psychology” or not, such a theory has often been used when discussing the prejudice exhibited by the white underclass. The first component in the Kohlberg model deals with the reduction of pain. White underachievers are apt to experience feelings of psychological pain or discomfort due to their reduced circumstances. Methods that reduce this pain fit the criteria of what Kohlberg described as Preconventional Category 1. Preconventional 2: Gaining Pleasure The history of the United States has seen wave after wave of immigrants. In the 1820s, the Irish arrived to help build the Erie Canal. Many stayed on after its completion and formed a pool of cheap labor. As is commonly known, these newcomers faced prejudice and discrimination due to religious differences and because they competed for jobs with other people who resented the competition. For decades, the Irish were depicted as morally and ethically deficient people who should be avoided. Thus, in the old dichotomy “Lace Curtain vs. Shanty Irish”, one group was portrayed as “uppity” in inappropriate ways, while the other was envisioned as shiftless and immoral. Both groups, in their own ways, were found to be lacking. In the later part of the 19th and early 20th centuries, many Italians came to America and took their turn as cheap laborers who displaced those who were considered to be more established and “respectable”. During this period, the prejudice against Italians was significant. As time went on, various other peoples faced the same fate. Besides everything else they were forced to tolerate; the Poles became the butt of prejudicial humor (Polish Jokes) that depicts them as particularly stupid.

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 181 In these examples, and others that parallel them, more established people who had come to expect stable employment and a descent income were placed in precarious situations by whatever groups was currently arriving at Ellis Island and willing to work cheaply. Under these circumstances, wave after wave of newcomers found themselves defamed, plagued by prejudice, and victims of discrimination because they were economic threats. Over time, however, most of these groups became assimilated and were accepted as mainstream Americans (even if minor tensions or rivalries remain). Up until the early 20th century, most Afro-Americans resided in the Southeastern region of the United States and did not compete for jobs in other parts of the country. World War I, however, led to a labor shortage and Afro-Americans began the trek north to the nation’s industrial centers. One famous route, of course, is Highway 61 (U. S. 61) that extends from the Mississippi Delta to Chicago and beyond. Also known as the “Blues Highway” because it travels through the region of the Mississippi Delta, home of the famous Delta Blues, Highway 61 served as a major corridor for Afro-Americans traveling north in search of work in the North. During World War I and throughout the prosperous 1920s, as music lovers know, Highway 61 and other routes North (Harrison 1991) led to Chicago, Detroit, and other industrial cities. Eventually, the labor shortage ended and a job shortage crept in. The Great Depression made the situation even worse. When hard times arrived, Afro-Americans saw a significant decrease in the discretionary cash available to buy non-essentials. Since music is not indispensable for life, noted musicians, such as blues man Skip James, were forced to give up their recording careers and return to the cotton fields because nobody could afford to buy “Race Records”. Only playing at house parties and juke joints for many years, late in life James returned to fame during the Folk Revival of the 1960s, appearing, for example, at the legendary Newport Folk Festival. During the eras when employment opportunities shrinking, AfroAmericans emerged as the last hired and the first fired. As a result, they were willing to work at reduced rates. When this happened, Afro-American immigrants to the north experienced the same problems as other immigrants to the industrial North such as the Irish, the Italians, and the Poles. They were resented and faced prejudice not only due to their race but because they competed with others for the scarce jobs that were available. The big difference, however, is the fact that unlike many other groups, AfroAmericans have not been able to fully assimilate. According to Kohlberg, gaining and maintaining pleasure can exert a significant influence on moral and ethical responses and assessments. Thus, if a particular group is viewed as a threat to happiness and pleasure (such as contributing to an economic shortfall), they face the possibility of being condemned on moral and ethical grounds even if the charges are “trumped up”.

182  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve Conventional 1: Laws and Rules In the 1850s, Dred Scott, a slave who had lived in a free state for an extended period of time, sued demanding emancipation for himself and his wife. In response, the Supreme Court of the United States issued a decision stating that Afro-Americans could not be citizens of the United States (Chemerinsky 2019). The decision continued by arguing that lacking citizenship, such people could not enjoy the rights enjoyed by citizens (such as suing the government as Scott attempted to do). A decision that outraged many progressive Americans, it has long been viewed as a shameful Supreme Court decree. That assessment is not challenged here. Of interest within the present context is the reasoning of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney. The judge provided a wide-ranging discussion going back to the earliest days of the country in order to demonstrate a strong historic precedent for concluding that Afro-Americans could not be candidates for citizenship. In doing so, Taney justified his ruling by using the principle of “Stare Decisis” (i.e. the policy of standing by preexisting decisions). In other words, Taney looked to the past in order to gain clues regarding what should be done in the future. Thus, existing laws and the precedents supporting them serve as the basis for forging future policies and edicts. The principle of following precedent or Stare Decisis is important, legitimate, and powerful. The resulting consistency, for example, simplifies the law by providing a degree of uniformity or redundancy that would not exist if ad hoc decisions were made in a more arbitrary or random manner. Although benefits of relying on precedent exist, a powerful adherence to the Stare Decisis doctrine can potentially result in other valid, appropriate, and legitimate issues not receiving adequate attention. According to the Kohlberg model, this sort of ethical and moral assessment is merely the third step in a six-stage continuum. Thus, it is not necessarily the final word. Many insightful people, however, point to this principle above others in a wide range of important situations, including Supreme Court justices who routinely employ the principle of Stare Decisis. Such advocates believe that a reliance upon precedent is moral and ethical (and much needed) because doing so provides a firm and consistent foundation upon which the law is based. Conventional 2: Social Order In the early 1960s, Senator Barry Goldwater emerged as a political leader closely identified with the conservative movement. He became both famous and infamous for his slogan “Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice. Moderation in pursuit of justice is no virtue”, a version of which was articulated during his acceptance speech as the Republican candidate for President in 1964. Boiled down to its essentials, Goldwater’s comment celebrates his quest to protect the social order and, as a conservative, do so by reducing governmental

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 183 intervention and authority. Goldwater’s basic strategy involved a weakening of federal controls so the “American spirit” could thrive and be unleashed. Due to this political paradigm, Goldwater was an opponent of the New Deal and other liberal agendas. I have personal experience with those who hold such views. My maternal Grandfather was a highly moral and ethical man who, as a land speculator, experienced severe economic setbacks during the depression. Deeply in debt, he spent decades paying back all of his creditors in full, although many of his peers filed for bankruptcy and walked away from their obligations. Morally, and ethically strong, my Grandfather practiced what he preached. According to my Grandfather, if people are allowed to take the “easy way out” by relying upon outside help or loopholes, America, as we know it, will die. As a result, he (like Goldwater) was an enemy of progressive programs that offer a safety net or a helping hand. When political discussions arose, my Grandfather railed against Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the New Deal, and other social initiatives arguing that they inevitably soften our resolve, undercut our heritage, and weaken our country. I disagree with my Grandfather regarding such issues, but I admire him for living by his strong moral and ethical code. Likewise, during the height of Goldwater’s popularity in the early 1960s I found him and his views to be attractive. And I am not alone; in her autobiography Hillary Clinton, the progressive lioness recalls “I was also an active Young Republican and, later, a Goldwater girl” (2003; 21). In the foreword of Goldwater’s Conscious of a Conservative (1960), he observes, “The people’s welfare depends upon individual self reliance rather than state paternalism”. Reading his book even today, one can get a flavor of how Goldwater presented his message in moral and ethical terms and how he gained a following as a result. Goldwater, far from being a racist, was an advocate of civil rights and an opponent of segregation. He, for example, was personally responsible for desegregating the senate cafeteria (Edwards 1995). He voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and favored the 24th Amendment of the constitution that outlawed leveling a poll tax on those who intended to vote. Goldwater, however, voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 because he believed it would take legitimate rights and authority away from the states (Goldwater 1964; 18). Apparently, Goldwater believed that protecting and reaffirming the existing social order was more significant than expanding civil rights protections for specific minorities. Such a position is not necessarily racist although many opponents of Goldwater concluded that it was. Nevertheless, Goldwater’s stance demonstrates that tensions can arise between (1) campaigns advancing civil rights for all and (2) protecting the social order. In the short term, Goldwater’s championing the social order was detrimental because he lost the 1964 presidential election in a landslide. In the long term, Goldwater provided the foundation for a rebirth of

184  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve conservativism in American Politics. His vote against the 1964 Civil Rights Act, furthermore, help transform the Southeast from “the solid [Democratic] South” to a Republican and conservative stronghold. Thus, Goldwater sought to maintain the social order by advocating less governmental control. Advocates of civil rights in contrast, complain(ed) that the social order that Goldwater celebrated often failed to insure freedom and equality for all. The remedy suggested by progressive opponents of neo-conservativism involves increased federal involvement and controls as a means of insuring rights, freedom, and equal treatment under the law. In the final analysis, both Goldwater/neo-conservatives and their rivals justify(ied) their positions regarding the social order in moral and ethical ways. Postconventional 1: Social Contract According to Kohlberg, the more advanced levels of moral and ethical thought expand beyond ad hoc situations; in doing so, more theoretic or general concerns are addressed. In the first Postconventional level, the focus is upon the tradeoffs people make in order to live their lives and achieve their goals. The underpinning of this component is the “Social Contract” that occurs when members of society collectively give up something of value in order to gain something in return. This process of” give and take” can lead to the establishment of moral and ethical structures or principles. The concept of the social contract, of course, has a long history going back to ancient times. Two relatively recent thinkers who have made a significant contribution to American thought in this regard are Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and John Locke (1632–1704). By briefly examining their contributions, a framework for applying the concept of the social contract with reference to moral and ethical discussions will be presented. Thomas Hobbes’ ideas were formed during the era of the English Civil War (1642–1651) when forces loyal to the monarchy fought those who favored parliamentary rule. King Charles 1 was a firm believer in the “divine right of kings” and he used this principle to assert that his authority came directly from God and not from the English people. In his book Levithan (1651), Hobbes, in contrast, argued that in order to live in a safe and organized society, people chose to place themselves under a monarch (or government) because such an arrangement offers benefits (such as security) that are desirable. Hobbes argued that under these conditions, a social contract emerges in which people submit to authority as a tradeoff that provides attractive advantages. In general, Hobbes believed that people are selfish and nasty brutes and that a horrible chaos would result without a strong leader to control mankind’s selfish interests and urges. Otherwise, life would be a constant battle over power and assets. Although Thomas Hobbes viewed people as evil and selfish creatures, John Locke (1632–1704) believed mankind was basically good and, when in a natural setting, people are free. Locke also argued that complete liberty

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 185 needs to be controlled to protect people from the unregulated actions of others. An old legal adage, for example, states that “My freedom to extend my fist ends at your nose”. Locke believes that without a social contract, people are likely to “hit the nose” (i.e. act in antisocial ways). A social contract, however, is able to limit the excessive exercise of personal rights in an equitable, socially acceptable, and advantageous manner that is mutually beneficial. Doing so provides mechanisms for protecting legitimate freedoms that all people should enjoy (Locke 1747). Thus, Locke believed that liberty is a normal state within nature, where all members of society have the right to pursue their own interests. By accepting a social contract, people appoint rulers who create and enforce regulations for maintaining a safe and lawful society. Under these conditions, individuals enjoy the core freedoms they cherish while not being negatively impacted by the encroachment of others. On some occasions, a particular social contract may function well and be workable; on other occasions, this might not be the case. Consider the Supreme Court decision Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) that for many years was the keystone regarding race relations and civil rights. The process began when a mulatto man named Homer Plessy from New Orleans attempted to ride on an all-white railroad car. He did so to challenge a law that legalized segregated transportation facilities. Eventually, the case reached the Supreme Court. The court’s decision ruled that in spite of the new laws and constitutional amendments of the post war period, distinctions based on race continue to exist. Such a condition existed in spite of the Fourteenth Amendment that protected “life, liberty, and property” and guaranteed “equal protection”. Because of these differences, the court concluded that the policy of providing separate but equal facilities and services is not unconstitutional. Viewed from a social contract perspective, it could be argued that (1) Afro-Americans give up full access to all goods and services (2) in order to gain an assurance that separate, but equal treatment will be provided. This can be viewed as a social contract in which Afro-Americans give up something, but get something in return. At first glance, such a verdict might appear to fair and equitable, but in point of fact, the actual application of such laws did not reflect the promise of truly “separate but equal” treatment because the goods and services provided to whites tended to be of a higher quality or quantity that what was made available to Afro-Americans. Thus, the social contract was inadequately honored. This situation continued for many years. As a footnote, Homer Plessy, whose guilt was maintained by the Supreme Court in 1896, was pardoned by the governor of Louisiana on January 5, 2022 (Burnside 2022). Thus, some sort of social contract arrangement potentially provides a foundation for moral and ethical strategies and treatments. Unfortunately,

186  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve the potential for overt or covert abuse exists. And, as will be discussed below, providing a true “separate but equal” arrangement might not be possible in actual practice. Postconventional 2: A Universal Vision The concept of the social contract deals with tradeoffs that can occur when certain rights or options are relinquished to ensure that other entitlements will be protected and available. Nevertheless, the resulting agreement and its obligations might result in some peoples, such as minorities, facing inequitable treatment. In addition, even if a particular social contract is fair, in actual practice equity and parity might not prevail. Poorly regulated applications of a social contract can lead to moral and ethical failure. Such potentials point to the need for more general principles and universal yardsticks of evaluation. A number of methods exist for providing this foundation. In this discussion, two representative paradigms are briefly and incompletely analyzed: “Natural Law” and “Utilitarianism”. The concept of Natural Law (the assumption that human universals exist and moral and ethical standards should reflect them) goes back at least to the ancient Greek and Roman Stoic philosophers. Specifically, the writings of Cicero, the great Roman writer, provide a lucid orientation (Long 2013). Stripped to its essentials, the concept of Natural Law argues that all people are entitled to certain rights, privileges, protections, and so forth. The need to honor these obligations is viewed as inherent and universal. Thomas Aquinas (1227–1274), the Medieval Christian philosopher, went on to observe that the laws created by people (positive laws) are only valid if they reflect Natural Law and, thereby, protect and reinforce the universal order of things. Thinkers, such as John Locke (Kelly 2007), embraced a strong reliance upon Natural Law and influenced American political theory, including Thomas Jefferson’s phraseology in the Declaration of Independence regarding the right to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” (an expression reminiscent of Natural Law and Locke’s writings). A major problem, however, involves how to decide what those natural laws actually are. This can be a matter of debate even for those who embrace the principle of Natural Law. At one point in history, for example, it was common not to convict a man of murder if he killed his cheating wife and her lover. One justification for leniency goes back to the bible that states “If a man commits adultery with another man’s wife—with the wife of his neighbor—both the adulterer and the adulteress are to be put to death” (Leviticus 20:10). The rationale for such a verdict can also be based on Natural Law because a man protecting his home was long viewed as acting in a “natural” manner and, therefore, such a killing could be viewed as “instinctual” and, thereby,

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 187 beyond the scope of a murder conviction. For a fictional example of this principle see the Jack Nicholson feature film The Two Jakes (1990) where such a rationale is an integral part of the plot. Today, of course, the court might give the man a generous divorce settlement if sexual disloyalty is proven, but religion and Natural Law notwithstanding, killing the cheaters is not permitted. Thus, in different times and in different circumstances, the scope of what is accepted as Natural Law can change. As indicated above, Thomas Jefferson’s reference to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness in the “Declaration of Independence” (United States 1776) is a direct reference to Natural Law as influenced by the teachings of John Locke. Such thinking is further expanded in the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution that says in part that “No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens …; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property … nor deny to any person within … equal protection of the laws”. This Amendment (clearly written in Natural Law terms and with the end of slavery in mind) has emerged as one of the most powerful parts of the Constitution and has been used on numerous occasions to advance and protect human and civil rights. Thus, the concept of Natural Law continues to be a powerful force in the United States and it exerts a significant influence upon the nation’s moral, ethical, and legal frameworks. Utilitarianism (Scare 1996) is a moral and ethical paradigm originally popularized by 19th-century British philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham who emphasized making moral and practical decisions by comparing the amount of pain caused by an action with the total pleasure derived. In its classic and naïve formulation, Utilitarianism selects whatever actions nets the least pain and/or results in the most pleasure. At an intuitive level, such a rough calculation provides a good rule of thumb to consult when considering options. Specific applications, however, can be problematic especially if a small minority is grievously hurt by an action that gives the vast majority a tiny and inconsequential increase in pleasure. As a former professor of tribal management, for example, I had the opportunity to talk to indigenous leaders who strongly opposed oil exploration above the Arctic Circle because doing so would potentially destroy the local people’s way of life. Opponents of development lamented that they would suffer appalling and irreversible harm if the industry entered the region. Using similar logic, many indigenous people from Western Alaska oppose the development of the Pebble [gold and copper] Mine (Fountain 2020) due to fears that the disruption and risks caused by it would potentially threaten the ecological environment and the people who depend upon it when pursuing their subsistence way of life. Advocates for the mine point to the need for the products that could be produced and emphasize the local benefits of economic development. The promoters complain that

188  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve a tiny group of anachronistic people is holding the needs of the entire country hostage. These examples raise questions regarding how to weigh the needs, desires, and priorities of a small minority (a few hundred tribal members) against the demands of the 330,00,000 people who live in the United States. According to a classic Utilitarian evaluation, a rough calculation of pain vs. benefits could result in an approval for such projects. A strong precedent exists for such a decision; in “imminent domain”, for example, such decisions are routinely made when land is condemned against the will of the owner in order to advance what is perceived to be in the public good. Some evaluators (including myself), however, affirm that under some circumstances such judgments can be simplistic and inappropriate because they can force profound pain and suffering upon a helpless and outvoted minority while only providing tiny and trivial advantages to those who receive benefits. This can occur even if an honest calculation is made that indicates that the tradeoff of pleasure vs. pain justifies with project. Techniques have been developed, of course, to deal with the limitations of naïve applications of the utilitarian model. Two such efforts are Act and Rule variants of Utilitarianism. In Act Utilitarianism, the focus is upon the specific act and if it contributes positively or negatively to the pain/ pleasure ratio. In Rule Utilitarianism, in contrast, the focus is upon the rules people are asked to live by and how these rules contribute to pain or pleasure. Consider, for example, the classic dilemma of judging a man who steals a loaf of bread to feed his starving family. When considered with reference to Act Utilitarianism, stealing the bread would save the family from starvation and in the process generate significant pleasure and/or eliminate substantial pain. However, the store might not even notice the bread was gone and, as a result, their suffering would be minimal. Under these conditions, the case can be made that, morally and ethically, stealing the bread was correct even if illegal. Rule Utilitarianism, in contrast, provides an alternative evaluation. If people in need could steal, stealing might become commonplace. If due to stealing the rate of “shrinkage” rises, stores will lose more and more money. If enough money was lost, the stores might be forced to close. If the stores close, a “food desert” might emerge causing the entire community to suffer. The resulting suffering could be greater than the pleasure derived from stealing. Thus, the decree against stealing and stiff penalties is justified according to Rule Utilitarianism because vigorously enforced laws help to preserve a distribution system everybody needs to reduce suffering and increase pleasure. Although devising universal rules and yardsticks of evaluation is an attractive option, formulating universal bench marks that are unanimously

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 189 agreed upon is difficult, if not impossible. Nevertheless, the search for general principles can offer a degree of consistency involving race relations and responses to xenophobia. Consider, for example, Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education (1954) the Supreme Court Decision that applied universal standards and evaluations when overruling the earlier Plessy vs. Ferguson case that justified the “Separate but Equal” doctrine (discussed above). As you will recall, the Plessy vs. Ferguson Supreme Court Case concluded that the possibility exists for the establishment of a social contract in which people of color accept segregation in return for a promise of separate but equal treatment and/or facilities. According to this decision, the court envisioned a situation where a social contract could be forged in ways that maintained segregation without violating the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution that insured equal treatment under the law. In handing down a decision in Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education, the court did not did not actually affirm that the “Separate but Equal” rule was invalid. Instead, it concluded that that a truly separate but equal arrangement is impossible. Because separate but equal is impossible, promising such a benefit is not a legal option. As a result, segregation is not legal because the separate but equal requirement cannot be met. This objection has emerged as a universal principle that can and has been applied in multiple ways. Brown vs. the Topeka Board of Education fulfills the social contract in universal ways by acting in accordance with Natural Law and Utilitarianism. This decision is based in part upon the Fourteenth Amendment that reflects John Locke’s vision of Natural Law with a reference to “life, liberty, and property”. In addition, the decision contains a utilitarian element by devising ways for a significant segment of the population to gain pleasure and/or reduce pain. In summary, Kohlberg provides a range of ways in which a continuum of moral and ethical formulations can be compared and juxtaposed. Although his model suggests the possibility of upward progress (from specific to universal), in some situations, a lower level of evaluation might continue to dominate, including situations where precedent is honored in ways that maintain the existing social order and the consistency of the law. Table 11.2 provides examples of how the Kohlberg continuum can be used with dealing with issues involving racism and xenophobia. Dealing with the full implications of this continuum can be difficult if different people focus upon a variety of components evaluated in ways that conveniently justify their positions. Due to this reality, significant variation can be expected among intelligent people who act and think in good faith.

190  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve Table 11.2  Applying the Kohlberg Model Phase

Description

Analysis

Avoiding Pain

A form of hedonism that provides a shield from what is not wanted.

Morals and ethics associated with what will prevent hurtful consequences are embraced. Strategic and amoral.

Gaining Pleasure

A form of hedonism that seeks what is desired.

Morals and ethics associated with gaining pleasure. Strategic and amoral.

Obeying Rules

Obeying rules to achieve goals is considered to be moral.

Obedience can establish a system that is consistent and better understood.

Law and Order

Maintaining the existing social order is moral and stabilizing.

Protecting and maintaining the social order is a strong priority that can override individual interests.

Social Contracts

Civil rights are social rules.

A give and take perspective provides guidance on moral and equitable choices.

Universal Principles

Employing universal principles as the foundation of laws and regulations.

Specific principles might not be universally accepted. Models such as Natural Law and Utilitarianism are useful.

DISCUSSION According to the Kohlberg continuum, a variety of moral calculations can be made ranging from idiosyncratic hedonism to the quest to apply universal principles. Although a flow of progression and advancement is implied by the model, in some circumstances lower levels might be maintained for specific reasons.

DISCUSSION AND APPLICATIONS Because of the current tensions involving racism and xenophobia, a U-Shaped Curve situation appears to exist in which significant segments exist on each end of the continuum with relatively few in the middle. Methods for dealing with this situation are needed to more effectively deal with this reality. The continuum of moral and ethical foundations developed by Lawrence Kohlberg helps to satisfy that need. The lower end of the continuum tends to deal with idiosyncratic and ad hoc considerations such as avoiding pain and achieving pleasure. Many people who exhibit racism and xenophobia are operating at this level. The higher levels of the continuum, in contrast, deal with more abstract ethical and moral views and/or universal yardsticks of evaluation. In general, this is the realm of those who are less prejudicial and more tolerant. The middle range contains methods and perspectives of evaluation, such as the importance of obeying rules, that can influence the decision-making processes of both groups.

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 191 This continuum provides a method of evaluating others in an environment that can be discussed in rational and objective ways. Ideally, doing so can provide an arena for dialogue that potentially reduces tensions and builds understanding. The particular format presented here seeks to be evenhanded and nonpartisan so meaningful dialogues between rivals can be encouraged. Because true believers exist at both ends of the continuum; their strong feelings and agendas need to be acknowledged, taken into account, and mitigated. I am reminded of Bruce Hornsby classic song “The Way it Is” (1986) that can be envisioned with reference to differences in thinking and acting that can be showcased using Kohlberg’s continuum. The lyrics, in part, observe: “Well, they passed a law in ‘64 to give those who ain’t got a little more but it only goes so far … they say ‘that’s just the way it is’, but don’t you believe them” (Hornsby 1986). Hornsby anticipates that progress and understanding is not beyond our grasp. I hope he is correct.

RELEVANT TERMS Act Utilitarianism  Focusing upon how specific acts can contribute to reducing pain or enhancing pleasure. Afro-American Church  The Afro-American Church, as many other churches of minorities and ethnic groups, has long been a significant force in advancing the rights and well-being of the specific demographic segment it serves. Aquinas, Thomas  Medieval philosopher who argued that manmade laws should reflect and not violate Natural Laws. Brer Rabbit  The favorite role model of Joel Chandler Harris’ Uncle Remus tales deals with how those who are smart, but disadvantaged or weak, can cope with inequities and obstacles. Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education  Supreme Court decision of 1954 that emphasizes that the Separate but Equal remedy is impossible. Overruled Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896). Civil Rights Act of 1964  Landmark Civil Rights law that limited discrimination. Conscious of a Conservative  A book by Barry Goldwater (ghost written by L. Brent Bozell Jr.) that portrayed conservativism in moral and ethical ways. Conventional 1  Kohlberg’s level of moral evaluation that focuses on the law. Conventional 2  Kohlberg’s level of moral evaluation that focuses on the social order. “Cornerstone Speech”  A speech by Alexander Stephens Vice President of the Confederate States that argues that Afro-Americans are inferior to whites and that slavery is a natural condition that should not be avoided.

192  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve Declaration of Independence  A political document of the United States that was influenced by the theories of Natural Law that are associated with John Locke. Dred Scott Decision  A decision that was made with reference to historic precedent that concluded that Afro-Americans are not candidates for the United States citizenship and, therefore, cannot sue the government. Often considered a low point of Supreme Court jurisprudence. Fourteenth Amendment  A post-Civil War amendment to the United States Constitution that following the tenets of Natural Law ensures an array of rights for all Americans. Goldwater, Barry  Conservative United States political leader and theorist who lost the presidential election in 1964, but during his lifetime and beyond exerted a great influence on the neo-conservative movement. Harris, Joel Chandler  Author of a number of books featuring Uncle Remus: a composite of Afro-American story tellers. Highway 61  Highway going from the deep South to Chicago and beyond that was a conduit for Afro-Americans traveling North in search of work. Hobbes, Thomas  Political writer who is associated with the political theory of the social contract that says people give up some freedoms to gain other benefits. Kohlberg, Lawrence  Psychologist influenced by Jean Piaget who developed a continuum of moral and ethical behaviors. Legree, Simon  The immoral slave driver in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin who is a foil for the heroic and moral Uncle Tom. Levithan  A book by Thomas Hobbes that states that governments arise when people surrender some of their individual rights to gain security. Locke, John  An English philosopher who embraced a Natural Law perspective and influenced American political theory, including writers such as Thomas Jefferson. Natural Law  The belief that certain laws or universal foundations for laws are innate, inherent, and should be respected. Neo-Conservativism  A political movement gaining strength after the 1960s often associated with the work of Barry Goldwater. A powerful contemporary force. New Deal  A federal policy associated with President Franklin Roosevelt that sought to advance a progressive agenda. Disliked by many conservatives. Piaget, Jean  A psychologist who proposed a theory of cognitive development that emphasized distinct stages of mental development. Plessy vs. Ferguson  Supreme Court decision (1896) that declared that Separate but Equal treatment was a legal remedy. Overruled by Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education (1954) on the grounds that doing so is impossible. Postconventional 1  Kohlberg’s level of moral evaluation that focuses upon social contracts.

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 193 Postconventional 2  Kohlberg’s level of moral evaluation that focuses on universal characteristics. Preconventional 1  Kohlberg’s level of moral evaluation that focuses on avoiding pain. Preconventional 2  Kohlberg’s level of moral evaluation that focuses on gaining pleasure. Rule Utilitarianism  Focusing upon how specific rules can contribute to reducing pain or enhancing pleasure. Scott, Dred  A slave who sued to gain his freedom. Doing so led to the Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision. Dred Scott lost the case. Second Treatise on Government  A book by John Locke that champions Natural Law and influenced American political thought, including the work of Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence. Solid South  From the end of Reconstruction until the 1960s, the Southeastern United States was solidly Democratic. Today, it tends to be solidly Republican. Stare Decisis  The policy of adhering to precedent in court decisions. Stephens, Alexander  The Vice President of the Confederate States who argued that Afro-Americans are inferior to whites and that slavery is a natural condition. Gave the “Cornerstone Speech” that contains such overtly racist perspectives. Stowe, Harriett Beecher  A writer from a family of abolitionist preachers who wrote the anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Uncle Remus  A composite character developed by Joel Chandler Harris whose tales, involving Brer Rabbit, provide advice on how an underclass can cope with oppression and deal with those who are more powerful. Uncle Tomism  An inaccurate caricature of Uncle Tom as a weak and subservient character. This depiction became a familiar pejorative stereotype during the 1960s civil rights era. Uncle Tom’s Cabin  Book by Harriett Beecher Stowe that condemned slavery for moral and religious reasons. Utilitarianism  A form of moral philosophy that advocates what will generate the most pleasure and/or eliminate the most pain.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Compare the ethical and moral stances of Harriett Beecher Stowe in Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Alexander Stephens in the “Cornerstone Speech”. Can an argument be made that one stance or perspective is more moral than the other? Discuss. Can the case be made that both are moral? Discuss the Brer Rabbit tales of Uncle Remus as (1) a moral and as (2) a practical means of dealing with subjugation and oppression. 2. What is the basic perspective of Lawrence Kohlberg and his continuum of moral and ethical thought? The case was made that in certain cases

194  Beyond the U-Shaped Curve thinking might not progress beyond a certain level for moral and ethical reasons. Discuss. Why is this this potentially important? 3. What is the concept of the social contract? Compare the social contract visions of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Did this concept have an influence upon American political theory? Discuss the influence of the concept. 4. Discuss naïve Utilitarianism and possible objectives. Compare and juxtapose Act and Rule Utilitarianism. How do they attempt to cope with the limitations of naïve utilitarianism? 5. Discuss Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) and the Separate but Equal Doctrine. Discuss Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education (1954) and the rejection of the Separate but Equal Doctrine. How did Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education invalidate Plessy vs. Ferguson without technically contradicting it? Do you agree or disagree with this logic?

REFERENCES Chemerinsky, Erwin (2019). Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies. Sixth edition. (New York: Wolters Kluwer). Clinton, Hillary (2003). Living History. (New York: Scribner). Edwards, Lee (1995). Goldwater: The Man Who Made a Revolution. (Washington: Regency Books). Evans, Curtis J. (2008). The Burden of Black Religion. (New York: Oxford University Press). Fountain, Henry (2020-11-25). “Alaska’s Controversial Pebble Mine Fails to Win Critical Permit, Likely Killing It.” The New York Times. (November 25). Garz, Detlef (2009). Lawrence Kohlberg: An Introduction. (Farmington Hills, MI: Barbara Budrich Pub). Gates, Louis Henry (2021). The Black Church: This Is Our Story, This Is Our Song. (New York: Penguin Press). Goldwater, Barry (1960). Conscious of a Conservative. (Glen Oaks, NY: LG Classics 2014, originally 1960). Goldwater, Barry (1964). “Text of Goldwater Speech on Rights.” The New York Times. (June 29), 18. Harris, George Washington (1867). Sut Lovingood Yarns Spun by a Nat’ral Born Durn’ed Fool For Public Wear. (New York: Dick & Fitzgerald). Harris, Joel Chandler (1955). The Complete Tales of Uncle Remus. Edited and with an introduction by Richard Chase. (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin). Harrison, Alferdteen (1991). Black Exodus: The Great Migration from the American South Editor. (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press). Hobbes, Thomas (1651). Levithan. Revised Edition, Edited by Aloysuis. P. Martinich and Brian Battiste. (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2010, originally 1651). Hornsby, Bruce and the Range (1986). “The Way It Is.” [Album] (RCA Records). Kelly, Paul Joseph (2007). Locke’s Second Treatise of Government: A Reader’s Guide. (New York: Continuum). Locke, John (1747). Second Treatise on Government. (Edinburgh: Andrew Millar). Long, Alex (2013). Plato and the Stoics. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Beyond the U-Shaped Curve 195 MacGillis, Alex (2016). “The Original Underclass”. The Atlantic (September issue). Nicholson, Jack (1990). The Two Jakes. (Feature film released by Jack Nicholson). Ormrod, Jean Ellis (2012). Essentials of Educational Psychology: Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching. (Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.). Scare, Geoffrey (1996). Utilitarianism. (New York: Routledge). Spingarn, Adena (2019). “Uncle Tom: From Martyr to Traitor by Douglas A. Jones.” American Historical Review. 124(4) pp. 1465–1467. Stephens, Alexander (1861). “Cornerstone Speech” Presented on March 21 at Savanah, Georgia. Stowe, Harriett Beecher (1852). Uncle Tom’ Cabin (Boston: John P. Jewett). Supreme Court of the United States (1954). Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education (Washington, D.C. May 17). Tina Burnside, Tina (2022). “Homer Plessy, of Plessy v. Ferguson’s ‘separate but equal’ Ruling, Pardoned by Louisiana.” CNN. (January 5).

12 Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Lens of Psychology

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understanding that analytic techniques suggested by the work of Lawrence Kohlberg possess limitations that invite supplemental techniques of analysis. 2. Appreciating how the Emic method explores culturally relativistic perspectives that view thought and behavior from the point of view of social actors. 3. Understanding how the Etic method seeks to enhance rigor and objectivity by emphasizing scientific techniques and the opinions of observers. 4. Pointing to the need to combine these three approaches in order to promote meaningful dialogues between those holding rival views. 5. Calling for such a combined, multi-dimensional approach to be used with dealing with issues involving racism and xenophobia.

INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, a continuum of morals and ethics, suggested by Lawrence Kohlberg, was discussed that (1) begins with individualistic hedonistic urges with (2) higher levels emphasizing universal moral and ethical principles. Because views on racism and xenophobia are interconnected with moral and ethical considerations, Kohlberg’s work is relevant to this monograph even if it has limitations. Applying the Kohlberg approach is complicated because it can justify multiple interpretations. Thus, court deliberations often seek consistency by emphasizing the principle of Stare Decisis (i.e. adhering to precedence), while in other situations change that transcends the status quo appears to be encouraged. One set of techniques for an expanded vision involves adapting the Emic/Etic dichotomy from anthropology when considering moral and ethical issues. Most basically, “Emics” involves evaluating what people believe, think, and feel from their point of view. “Etics”, in contrast, makes appraisals using methods of analysis and evaluation that outside DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-21

Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology 197 observers agree are objective, empirically verifiable, and appropriate. Some investigators maintain that Etic methods are more universal, objective, scientific, and valid. Expanding the uses of the Emic/Etic dichotomy provides alternative methods for juxtaposing moral and ethical perspectives. Hopefully, by employing the Kohlberg method in tandem with these two methods, a richer and more robust dialogue can emerge. If so, a potential for bridging differences can potentially emerge.

GAPS IN THE KOHLBERG MODEL As discussed in the last chapter, a benefit of the Kohlberg paradigm is that it envisions a continuum or range of moral and ethical tendencies. By embracing such an approach, a number of benchmarks emerge that can identify moral and ethical variations and their implications. The Kohlberg approach does so by embracing an evolutionary or developmental perspective regarding morals and ethics. This continuum was inspired by cognitive psychology, especially Jean Piaget’s belief that the human mind changes and matures over time. Kohlberg’s paradigm, furthermore, can be intuitively applied to situations involving social and cultural transformations that emerge due to circumstances and experience. In spite of its benefits, the Kohlberg model has limitations. The observation was made (in the last chapter) that the emphasis upon the social order or precedence (that exists at the lower end of the continuum) sometimes continues to hold sway over higher levels. This tendency can exist among sophisticated people and is not necessarily an artifact of some sort of moral/ ethical lapse or cultural/social retardation. Although a Kohlberg-inspired perspective can recognize this reality, dealing with these tendencies in appropriate ways can be difficult. While not discarding the Kohlberg orientation, additional techniques for evaluating and comparing different moral and ethical frameworks can be useful.

THE EMIC-ETIC DICHOTOMY The discipline of anthropology often employs subjective, qualitative, and intuitive methods for examining cultures, traditions, belief, and societies. (This is true even though an important quantitative or “scientific” tradition exists within anthropology, including the work of cross-cultural analysts such as George Peter Murdock (1949) and Raoul Narroll (Narroll and Cohen 1970). So strong is this humanistic tradition within anthropology that for many years, a PhD in anthropology was not granted until the candidate developed an ability to “think like an insider” and, thereby, intuitively understand the culture and the people being studied. This approach expands beyond positivistic, “scientific”, and statistical

198  Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology research strategies that are routinely employed by mainstream sociology, and neoclassical economics. As a result, many anthropologists examine the same issues as other social scientists, but do so using methods that are more qualitative, intuitive, and humanistic (see Walle 2015; 102–5). In the 1960s and 1970s, these methodological rivalries led anthropologists to debate the pros and cons of humanistic vs. scientific methods. The seeds of this discussion go back at least to 1954 when linguist Kenneth Pike published Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. In this classic work, Pike asserts that all social research can be characterized in relation to two linguistic terms, “phonetic” and “phonemic”. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics in which scholars, using clearly defined criteria, objectively and scientifically record sounds and then study them in rigorous and replicable ways that can be verified empirically. Phonemics, however, does not concentrate merely upon scientifically observable phenomena (sound patterns), but emphasizes phenomena that exists within the mind of the informant that cannot be observed and empirically verified. A quick example will demonstrate the difference. Phonetically, a person suffering from a severe speech impediment will talk in a unique manner because the empirically verifiable utterances would not fit the statistical norms of typical pronunciation. Phonemically, however, the linguist would realize that although the person’s speech was distorted, other people could still understand what was being said because the underlying structure of the language exists in the minds of both the speaker and the listener. These mental structures, however, are not observable in “scientific” ways (as empirically recordable utterances are). Nevertheless, they are important and deserve recognition. Applying the dichotomy outside of linguistics, Pike generalized phonetics and phonemics into Etics (rigorous, empirically verifiable research) vs. Emics (research that although lacking the rigor of more formal research designs facilitates understanding people and cultures on their own terms). Although Pike (1954) acknowledged that the Emic method led to scientifically unverifiable conclusions, he observed it helps researchers to not only appreciate the language or culture in holistic ways, but also acknowledges the attitudes, motives, interests, responses, conflicts, personality characteristics, and so forth that are typical of the group being examined. Pike went on to observe that a strict adherence to the Etic/scientific approach potentially hinders the ability to deal with whatever cannot be rigorously investigated. As a result, Etic research inevitably ignores a wide range of important issues and considerations. This Emics/Etics dichotomy and its implications initially enjoyed wide popularity among many anthropologists who had long employed an Emiclike approach and found Pike’s reasoning to be an intellectual justification for their work and methods. As a result, Pike was widely lauded as a

Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology 199 convincing and convenient defender of humanistic, artistic, and intuitive styles of analysis. Eventually, however, advocates of scientific rigor led by Marvin Harris, championed the Etic approach. Harris’ The Nature of Cultural Things (1964), a seminal defense of Etic methods, sought to debunk the Emic method by suggesting that because Emic researchers assume what goes on in another person’s mind without verifiable evidence, their musings are not reliable. Harris favored the Etic method because: The empiricist position demands a willingness to pare down one’s primitives [assumptions] to a minimum. In the usual actor-oriented [emic] approach … one is obliged to accept the primitive [assumption] that the actor himself knows the “purpose” or “meaning” of his behavior. In traditional ethnography, it is the actor himself who in affect established … and emphasized some chains [of behavior] at the expense of others. Yet the assumptions implicit in this approach are totally alien to the spirit of science. The actor cannot join the community of observers unless he is capable of stating the operations by which he has been led to the knowledge of his purpose (1964; 91) The Etic approach, however, is geared toward eliminating these methodological shortcomings and “attempts to achieve intersubjectivity regardless of whether the natives’ sense is violated” (Harris 1964; 137). By eliminating unnecessary assumptions, the Etic approach adopts a strategy for gathering and processing evidence that does not rely upon the subjective feelings of the informants. In Harris’ words: Etic statements depend upon phenomenal distinctions judged appropriate by the community of scientific observers. Etic statements cannot be falsified if they do not conform to the actors’ notion of what is significant, real, meaningful, or appropriate. Etic statements are verified when independent observers using similar operations agree that a given event has occurred (1968; 575) Although Harris’ logic is tight, his attempt to create a scientific anthropology undergirded by the Etic approach was largely resisted, resulting in a major intra-disciplinary debate within anthropology that explored the nature of social research and the philosophies underlying it (see Headland et al. 1990). Although space does not permit a more detailed examination of these polemics, they largely reflect the various “science vs. art” debates that commonly take place in many humanistic and social scientific disciplines. The Etic position champions rigorous research even if certain types of questions cannot be adequately addressed when formal methodologies are

200  Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology strictly employed. Advocates of the Emic approach, however, emphasize that researchers must be willing to utilize all available evidence and should not ignore relevant topics of investigation merely because they cannot be researched according to the so-called acceptable scientific guidelines. After an era of polemical exchange, anthropologists eventually recognized that both approaches are meaningful and relevant. Even Marvin Harris, patron of the Etic approach, softened his diatribe and acknowledged the value of both the Emic and Etic techniques, observing it was an error to totally reject the Emic approach (Harris 1980; 42). Harris then goes on to advocate an eclectic alternative, concluding that research that does not acknowledge the value and legitimacy of both types of research is likely to be limited. Although this dichotomy is helpful when envisioning the significance and limitations of specific research methods, it can also be of value when evaluating how people think, including how they respond to ethical and moral issues. An Emic orientation views people within the context of their culture, society, and belief system. Thus, it embraces a degree of cultural relativity. The Etic approach, in contrast, seeks conclusions that an array of “objective” observers agrees upon, even if these conclusions do not jive with the opinions of those being investigated. As Harris (1980) emphasizes, both approaches have a significant role to play in the quest for human understanding.

EMIC APPLICATIONS An Emic-inspired consideration of the relationship between racism/xenophobia and moral/ethical structures focuses upon how people subjectively think, feel, and evaluate. Doing so recognizes cultural, societal, and community influences that help to mold attitudes, beliefs, and the interpretations that stem from them. Thus, Emic-styled perspectives view thought and action from the point of view of the social actor. Doing so provides insights into true believers who embrace extreme views. Racism and xenophobia are commonplace and they exist in a wide variety of places, including the United States and Europe. This reality does not justify such feelings, but it does demonstrate that they are commonplace. Such feelings, furthermore, are embraced by a wide variety of people who possess moral and ethical codes that are often at odds with each other. Apparently, such feelings are embedded within cultural, social, and/or reference groups (as well as being influenced by circumstances, including how people are socialized). Such characteristics can be usefully evaluated using an Emic orientation; like the structures of language that exist in a human mind, these phenomena cannot be empirically viewed, although artifacts, such as behavior inspired by them, are observable. One technique for envisioning this tendency is to recognize (as discussed in the last chapter) that people often judge others using their own heritage

Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology 201 or identity as a marker of what is right and proper. Romantic Nationalism can serve that role. As discussed earlier, Romantic Nationalism lauds the heritage of a social group and its priorities. In the 19th century and beyond, many ethnic groups placed an increased emphasis upon their traditions and distinctiveness, rebelling against campaigns of cultural genocide that were intended to weaken or even destroy traditional cultural bonds. In any event, since the 19th-century, Romantic Nationalism has been a powerful force. It emphasizes strengthening and protecting the ethnic heritage. Doing so has long been viewed as moral and ethical. A dark side of zealously honoring an ethnic or racial identity, however, includes the possible emergence of feelings of superiority, chauvinism, and rivalry over others. Exactly when such feelings expand beyond legitimate pride and enter the realm of bigotry and true believer chauvinism is debatable. As discussed above, the Great Replacement Theory tends to fuel hostility between different ethnic groups. Similar to Romantic Nationalists, those who are inspired by the Great Replacement Theory sense that their culture needs to be protected. A significant segment of the populations of both Europeans and Americans respond to such influences. Viewed from an Emic perspective, these tendencies emphasize that preserving the heritage, power, and position of the ethnic, religious, or racial group is moral and ethical. In contrast, however, many members of circumscribed groups seek to expand beyond them in order to blend with the larger world. In American literature and social science, a rich tradition explores the tensions between (1) distinct ethnic identities and (2) a homogeneous “national character” that often dilute or destroy specific heritages. A classic example is Jerry Mangione’s Mount Allegro (1981, originally 1943) that documents, via participant observation, the tension between an Old-World heritage and the allure of the New World. Written about Mangione’s childhood in a Sicilian neighborhood of Rochester, New York during the preWorld War II era, his account explores many of the tensions that have been discussed above. Mangione’s account can be usefully compared with Jewish-American author Philip Roth’s Goodbye Columbus (1959) that also deals with the social and psychological stress that arose when the younger generation of New York Jews (although loyal to their religion and heritage) began to embrace American culture in a way that sluffed off some aspects of their community’s Old-World traditions. Mangione and Roth (and the many other writers who parallel them) chronicle Emic perspectives and how they are challenged. Some people expand their range and vision, while other feel comfortably remaining cloistered in their traditions. Conservatives often view their traditions and heritage as sacred, revered, and in need of protection. Emphasizing the vulnerability of this treasured inheritance, many people are motivated to react against

202  Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology the intrusion or influence of outsiders. This motive can lead to strong emotional support for the “mother culture” and, possibly, a distaste for whatever challenges it. The end result can either be legitimate pride or unjust and hostile reactions against those who are different (as typified by true believers with racist and xenophobic tendencies). As a result, outsiders who are perceived as threats risk being demonized and rejected. The result is a tension between “outsiders” vs. “insiders” that tends to be cloaked in moral and ethical clothing. Under these conditions, hostility can arise against outsiders who come to be viewed as a threat to be opposed. Currently, those who are swayed by the Great Replacement Theory appear to be responding in such a manner. Although they feel that they are being moral and ethical, others accuse them of being unjustifiably fearful, chauvinistic, and xenophobic. These issues are depicted in Table 12.1. Thus, the Emic approach views beliefs and actions using the point of view of the social actor and/or the social group. By embracing this perspective, cultural traditions can be evaluated and understood from an insider point of view. Doing so complements the Etic method that will be discussed below. Table 12.1  Emic Analysis of Racism and Xenophobia Issue

Analysis

Emphasis

Protecting the culture and/or racial purity is viewed as possessing paramount importance. Inroads from outsiders are considered to be a threat. Systemically opposing these hazards is justified on moral and ethical grounds.

Strength

Many social groups celebrate their race and/or cultural heritage. Some people who experience cultural, economic, or personal loss believe a resurgence of their heritage can recapture what is being denied them. Clandestine motives may be attributed to those who inhibit the ability to achieve this goal. These beliefs can lend strength to the movement.

Weakness

Due to the advances of knowledge, cultural understanding, and a belief in the unity of mankind, many justifications for judging others in negative ways are no longer credible. Those who are uninformed, however, might retain these views. Such people tend to be members of an underclass that experiences losses due to change and progress.

Justification

Both Romantic Nationalism and the Great Replacement Theory justify celebrating the local heritage and opposing threats to it. Both do so for reasons that can be presented in moral and ethical terms.

DISCUSSION An Emic (or insider view) of racism and xenophobia has been presented. Although this analysis does not justify such perspectives, it can explain them in a manner that can be tied to moral and ethical criteria or frames of reference. Overenthusiastic embrace can lead to the disparaging assessments regarding outsiders.

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ETIC APPLICATIONS As discussed earlier, the Romantic Movement emphasizes mankind’s emotional nature, especially with reference to specific ethnic, cultural, or social groups. Just as Romanticism centers upon feelings, beliefs, attitudes, etc., that are associated with specific individuals and peoples, Emic perspectives facilitate understanding social actors on their own terms and with reference to their emotions and feelings. In a similar way, the Era of the Enlightenment that dominated the 18th century and it rational and scientific orientation can be viewed as a foundation for the Etic approach. Recall (above) how Marvin Harris emphasized the value of rational thought, empirical methods, and universal perspectives instead of relying upon less scientific and less formal Emic perspectives. Harris’ emphasis upon Etic methods is based upon concerns that Emic evidence does not provide a firm foundation for robust and precise research, analysis, evaluation, and policy making. As Harris explains, the rational approach of the Etic method has value because it builds credibility by seeking to avoid the distortion and confusion that can arise when weak evidence is consulted. Just as the Enlightenment and Romanticism are foils of each other, the same can be said of Emic and Etic. From an Emic point of view, attitudes (such as racist or xenophobic tendencies) can be analyzed with reference to beliefs consciously held by the social group. An Etic examination, in contrast, evaluates the same phenomena relying upon techniques of investigation that all outside observers understand and agree upon. Analysis of this sort transcends subjective Emic views of informants in favor of yardsticks of evaluation that the community of investigators agrees are relevant and important. Such evaluations do not rely upon the subjective feelings of those being evaluated; the observed actions or responses are assessed according to specific criteria that are deemed rigorous and relevant by those conducting the analysis. Even if the Emic underpinnings of behavior are recognized, Etic analysis concentrates upon the criteria and priorities of outsiders and what can be empirically verified. Doing so can inevitably lead to conclusions that are distinct from an Emic style of investigation. Thus, the Etic approach (1) emphasizes methods of analysis that employ empirically verifiable evidence (2) that is evaluated using criteria and modes of analysis that the community of observers agree are accurate, pertinent, and of consequence. Because of this orientation, the value of the subjective views of those being studied is discounted in favor of evidence that is gathered in more formal, rigorous, and controlled ways. Issues involving the Etic approach are abstracted in Table 12.2. Thus, the Etic approach is distinct from and at odds with the Emic. Nevertheless, they can complement each other in insightful and productive ways. Emic methods acknowledge and build upon the point of view of the social group being investigated while the Etic centers around outside

204  Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology Table 12.2  Etic Analysis of Racism and Xenophobia Issue

Analysis

Emphasis

Rigor and credibility can be gained by restricting the type of information that is gathered and consulted during evaluation and analysis. Doing so can provide greater accuracy regarding the analysis of racism and xenophobia.

Strength

Formal techniques, precise methods, and criteria that are clearly defined are better able to provide a rigorous and actionable evaluations.

Weakness

Not all sources of information are consulted. As a result, the analysis might not be as robust and multifaceted as it could have been.

Justification

Creating a solid foundation for evaluation and actionable strategies is a significant goal. Providing an objective and evenhanded view of racism and xenophobia is one example of achieving that goal.

DISCUSSION Issues involving racism and xenophobia can be examined without relying upon the subjective views of those who hold such opinions. As an alternative, objective outside observers using appropriate and rigorous techniques provide the insights needed to evaluate such thinking and behavior.

observers, their orientations, and observations. Both Emic and Etic methods can be used to evaluate moral and ethical considerations although their applications and contributions are distinct. In any event, the Emic and the Etic systems provide two valuable but distinct methods of investigation and analysis. Both have important roles to play when the moral and ethical implications of racism and xenophobia are being evaluated and analyzed.

KOHLBERG, PIKE, AND HARRIS The Kohlberg continuum, coupled with Emic and Etic methods, provides three ways for evaluating and critiquing moral and ethical considerations. Each technique has a valuable contribution to make when dealing with racism and xenophobia. Combined, they balance each other in ways that can encourage discussions that are less emotional, hostile, and tense. Conversations involving racism, xenophobia, and their moral/ethical implications need such breadth. The Kohlberg Continuum The perspectives of Lawrence Kohlberg provide a continuum of morals and ethics that portray stepping stones in a process of individual and/or community growth. The initial stages are self-absorbed and focus upon personal hedonism (gaining pleasure, avoiding pain). The upper end of the

Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology 205 continuum, in contrast, is attuned to more universal views and orientations that expand beyond self-serving ambitions. As a result, a Kohlberg-inspired model can deal with a wide array of options that can be arranged in what is roughly an ascending order beginning with basic, foundational considerations and moving beyond them, potentially in universal and altruistic ways. Applying this continuum or array, however, becomes complicated because some people continue to focus on lower ranges of the continuum (such as the quest for social stability) in ways that are not totally consistent with the model. Nevertheless, the Kohlberg approach demonstrates that some moral and ethical responses reflect individual needs while others address more general standards. The Emic Method The Emic method provides an ideal way to analyze how particular beliefs, attitudes, and tendencies (such as those involving racism and xenophobia) fit into the culture and heritage of a particular social group. What are the social, cultural, economic, etc., factors that overtly contribute to the views that people embrace when they respond? How do such thoughts and emotions reinforce each other? By analyzing how people consciously feel and the influences underlying their thoughts, non-partisan and non-judgmental evaluations have a better chance of emerging. Hopefully, the resulting insights can temper hostile and partisan feelings in ways that reduce the tendency to demonize those who hold contradictory views. The Etic Method The Etic approach provides a technique of analysis and discussion that is rigorous and scientific. Evaluations are made using criteria set forth by outside observers who are not necessarily members of the group being evaluated. By doing so, the attempt is made to be objective. Following this approach, the investigators overtly reveal the criteria that are used to evaluate people and their actions. This makes the process transparent, allowing others to understand how analysis and evaluation were conducted. Having stated various assumptions and the analytic techniques that are used when examining the evidence, empirical research draws conclusions derived from the evidence, not unverifiable projections of what cannot be observed. When doing so, all of the assumptions and criteria for evaluation are clearly stated. By sticking to the established facts analyzed in transparent ways, more meaningful dialogues potentially emerge. The assumptions made in an Etic evaluation, furthermore, are overtly stated and available to be challenged by those who embrace rival positions. By employing all three of these methods in tandem, emotionally laden issues can be addressed in a more evenhanded and less inflammatory manner.

206  Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology Table 12.3  Kolhberg, Pike, and Harris Issue

Kohlberg Model

Pike’s Emics

Harris’ Etics

Orientation

Psychological continuum focuses on morals and ethics with reference to individual and/or cultural development.

Specific cultural views and orientations are emphasized. Perspectives of social actors are considered.

Relies upon scientific analysis, with assumptions clearly stated. Systematic analysis is the goal.

Strength

Providing a developmental and evolutionary emphasis. Views people and cultures from this context.

Moral, ethical issues, Moral and ethical issues such as racism such as racism and and xenophobia xenophobia, are are analyzed in viewed from a “objective” ways subjective and cultural perspective. by “impartial” observers.

Achilles Heal

When following Data provided by precedence, the insiders is of model might not questionable work in hierarchical quality leading to ways. reduced credibility.

Contribution

Demonstrates an array of moral and ethical influences ranging from hedonistic to universal.

Analyzes morals and ethics from the perspectives of the people and culture being investigated.

Because it ignores important sources of qualitative information, robustness is limited. Centers upon state-of-the-art criteria of evaluation as analyzed by “objective” observers.

DISCUSSION A variety of tools exist for use when assessing, evaluating, and comparing moral and ethical issues involved with racism and xenophobia. By looking at beliefs and behaviors in a multifaceted manner facilitates understanding. Using these methods in tandem also offers techniques for discussing moral and ethical differences in less heated and more productive ways.

If all interested parties adhere to such dialogues, greater understanding can result. Adherence to such a protocol does not ensure that conflicts will disappear, but it can emerge as the first steps toward mutual understanding. These options are juxtaposed in Table 12.3. Currently, significant tension exists between people regarding alleged instances of racism and xenophobia. Feelings are so enflamed that meaningful discussions often face an insurmountable impasse. By viewing these tensions in a variety of different but interlocking ways, the potential for

Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology 207 more meaningful and effective dialogue emerges. It is hoped that the examples discussed here suggest useful ways of doing so.

SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS Discussions of racism and xenophobia are partisan and often become heated and emotional; they can easily devolve into an impasse loaded with hostility. When such a collapse occurs, the ability to communicate in meaningful and productive ways atrophies. The current era reflects this unhealthy and nonproductive potential. Clearly, a wider variety of strategies and techniques for establishing meaningful dialogues regarding racism and xenophobia are needed. As discussed above, a Kohlberg-inspired model, coupled with techniques influenced by the Emic and Etic methods, provides three complementary techniques for bridging this divide. Kohlberg The Kohlberg continuum views morals and ethics in terms of a range of options and possibilities. In the beginning phases, the focus is upon individual priorities, especially reducing pain and/or enhancing pleasure. Later concerns dwell on broader issues culminating in universal principles. Such a continuum can nest views of racism and xenophobia within social, cultural, and situational contexts. When addressing the higher components of the continuum, broader and more universal issues can be addressed. Thus, a Kohlberg-inspired framework possesses the ability to view morals and ethics involving racism and xenophobia using a less judgmental framework that can reduce hostilities and tensions. Emic The Emic approach focuses upon the views and beliefs that people embrace. Viewing morals and ethics from within such a perspective has the potential to build understanding regarding why people believe what they do. Because most people are moral and ethical (and view themselves accordingly) the subjective cultural views showcased by an Emic orientation provides a way to recognize an individual’s inherent morality. This is true even if that code is challenged and juxtaposed with other alternatives. Etic The Etic approach emphasizes conducting research in a rigorous and scientific manner. Thus, morality and ethics are analyzed according to criteria established by the investigators and not based on the opinions of social actors. Doing so can be useful when different moral and ethical orientations clash.

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A COMBINED FOCUS To build understanding, people need to get beyond with songwriter Stephen Stills refers to as cheering “Hooray for our side” (Stills 1966). Achieving this goal can be hard, especially when tensions are high and differences are great. Recognizing that most people (including true believers) live by a moral and ethical code is a good starting point. As Kohlberg suggests, however, these codes can take a variety of forms. Emic and Etic perspectives provide distinctive views. The Emic approach embraces the point of view of the social actor. As such, it provides insights into their beliefs and motives. Such insights can facilitate the development of empathy and understanding of those who hold contrasting views. Developing such insights is useful because when reasoning with people, understanding them is vital. The Etic approach, in contrast, adopts criteria of evaluation that outside observers embrace and deem significant. It can provide a more “objective”, scientific, and rational perspective. Racism and xenophobia are powerful forces. Because they are grounded in emotions, however, understanding them can be difficult to those who emphasize logical or rational perspectives. Vilifying those with different views or “calling them out” as immoral, however, is not an effective way to foster understanding and for encouraging positive change. The triumvirate of Kohlberg (moral continuum), Pike (Emics), and Harris (Etics) provides a multi-dimensional way to encourage meaningful conversations that gets beyond counterproductive reactions. The true believers of one faction need to be understood on their own terms. If rival true believers with opposite opinions bombard their counterparts in hostile ways, little progress will emerge. The Emic, cultural relativistic perspective can be useful in opening up productive lines of communication. The Etic method, tempered by the Kohlberg continuum, in turn, provides a way to deal with this reality by providing standards of evaluation that reflect the universal human condition. To expand beyond hostility and misunderstanding, fostering meaningful dialogues is essential. Perhaps by looking at problems and differences in a variety of non-partisan ways, progress can be made. If so, the partisan and counterproductive ranting of rival cadres of true believers might stop. If this din of mutual abuse softens, progress might be made.

RELEVANT TERMS Emic  Examining people, their thoughts, and actions from the point of view of the social actor. Enlightenment  An intellectual movement that focused on rational thought and universal orientations. Dominated the 18th century. Countered by the Romantic Movement.

Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology 209 Etic  Examining people, their thoughts, and actions from the point of view of the community of researchers or observers. Goodbye Columbus (1959)  Fictional work by Phillip Roth that deals with the process of Americanization among New York Jews. Harris, Marvin  Anthropologist who was a champion of the Etic method. Wrote the Nature of Cultural Things (1964). Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior  Book by Kenneth Pike that emphasizes the Emic-Etic dichotomy (1954). Mangione, Jerry  Sociologist who dealt with the process of Americanization among a community of Italian Americans. Wrote Mount Allegro (1943). Mount Allegro  Book by Jerry Mangione that dealt with the process of Americanization within an Italian-American community in Rochester, New York (1943). Murdock, George Peter  Noted cross-cultural anthropologist who wrote Social Structure (1949). Narroll, Raoul  Noted cross cultural anthropologist. Nature of Cultural Things  Book by Marvin Harris that advocates the Etic method (1964). Phonemic  A branch of linguistics that focuses upon the internal functioning of the human mind in regard to language. Phonetic  A branch of linguistics that focuses upon empirical evidence regarding language that can be observed and analyzed. Pike, Kenneth  Linguist and anthropologist who was a champion of the Emic method. Wrote Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior (1954). Romantic Movement  A response to the universal and rational Enlightenment that placed an emphasis upon emotion and cultural uniqueness. Romantic Nationalism  A political movement that counters the Enlightenment and focuses upon the emotional aspects of culture. An application of the Romantic Movement. Roth, Phillip  Novelist who wrote on ethnicity in America. His Goodbye Columbus deals with how the younger generation of New York Jews became increasingly “Americanized” to the distress of their elders. Social Structure  A classic cross-cultural study written by George Peter Murdock (1949).

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Certain limitations were noted in the Kohlberg model. Discuss their significance. What benefits or strengths does a Kohlberg-inspired model possess? What is your overall view of the Kohlberg-inspired model regarding racism and xenophobia? 2. What is the strength of the Emic method? Why has it largely been embraced by anthropologists? Why might an Emic style of analysis

210  Insider Attitudes, Outsiders Views, and Psychology mesh with Romantic analysis and Romantic Nationalism? What is your opinion of the Emic method? 3. What is the strength of the Etic method? What are the primary reasons for rejecting the Emic method in favor of an Etic approach? How and why might it mesh with the orientation of the Enlightenment? What is your opinion of the method? 4. Do you believe the Emic, Etic, and Kohlberg approaches can be unified to create a more ominous approach? What are the pros and cons of doing so? Which method do you feel should dominate such a unified approach? Why? 5. Can such a combined approach be applied in real life situations? What are the positive implications of applying such an approach? What are the limitations? Do you feel such an approach provides a practical way to deal with racist and xenophobic tensions? Why or why not.

REFERENCES Dieter, Dowe (Ed.) (2000). Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform. (New York: Berghahn Books). Harris, Marvin (1964). The Nature of Cultural Things Studies in Anthropology. (New York: Random House). Harris, Marvin (1968). The Rise of Anthropological Theory. (New York: Crowell). Harris, Marvin (1980). Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture. (New York: Vintage). Headland, Thomas N., Pike, Thomas N. and Harris, Kenneth L. (1990). Emics and Etics: The Insider/Outsider Debate. (Thousand Oaks: SAGE). Mangione, Jerre (1981, originally 1943). Mount Allegro: A Memoir of Italian American Life. Introduced by Herbert J. Gans. (New York: Columbia University Press). Murdock, George Peter (1949). Social Structure. (New York: Macmillan). Narroll, Raoul and Cohen, Ronald (1970). A Handbook of Method in Cultural Anthropology. (New York: Columbia Univeristy Press). Pike, Kenneth (1954). Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. (Glendale, CA: Summer Institute of Linguistics). Roth, Phillip (1959). Goodbye Columbus. (New York: Houghton Mifflin). Stills, Stephen (1966). “For What It’s Worth” song by Steven Stills recorded by Buffalo Springfield. Walle, Alf H. (2015). Qualitative Research in Business: A Practical Overview. (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars).

Epilogue to Section 5

In our concluding chapters, an attempt is made to encourage meaningful communication regarding racism and xenophobia and lay the groundwork for meaningful and productive dialogues. For too long, rival groups of true believers have shouted at, not spoken with, each other. These counterproductive bouts need to be transcended. In an attempt to encourage such an interchange, the dialectical method has been offered as a means of creating a framework for cooperation and, hopefully, understanding. This approach has a better chance of success when a Bell-Shaped Curve situation exists where a majority of people embrace moderate views with relatively few people holding extreme positions. When a bell-shaped distribution exists, a fairly small shift in the middle can alter the balance of power; when this situation prevails, small changes can lead to far-reaching consequences. Today, however, a U-Shaped curve exists. A large number of racists and xenophobes exist on the one end of the continuum with an equally powerful cohort of non-prejudiced progressives on the other end. As a result, a relatively small group of moderates are available to change their minds. Under these conditions, the possibility of rapid and significant change is reduced. Nonetheless, techniques that facilitate meaningful discussions are sorely needed. A possible way of dealing with this situation is provided by the work of psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg and his model of moral and ethical thoughts. Viewing morals and ethics on a continuum ranging from personal concerns to universal principles, Kohlberg provides a means of dealing with moral and ethical structures in a manner that avoids value judgments and “finger pointing”. The Emic and Etic models can further expand discussions beyond a Kohlberg approach. Emic interpretations deal with the point of view of social actors evaluated from their perspectives. Thus, if people are racist and xenophobic, an Emic analysis can provide insights regarding why they harbor such feelings. When dealing with people who hold such views, understanding them on their own terms can be invaluable. DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-22

212  Epilogue to Section 5 Etic, in contrast to the Emic, involves “objectively” evaluating thought and action in ways that the observed deem to be appropriate. Although the specific Emic views that people hold are significant and deserve attention, more scientific and rigorous Etic modes of evaluation also have their place because they (1) view people and their actions in ways that are empirically verifiable (2) using criteria of evaluation that the community of observers agrees are relevant and meaningful. Doing so provides an understanding that is distinct from the subjective, Emic approach. By comparing Emic and Etic evaluations, greater insights potentially emerge. By employing a Kohlberg-inspired approach in concert with the Emic and Etic methods, a more productive means of dealing with racist and xenophobic tensions emerges as a possibility.

A Summary and Final Word

Throughout the world, a resurgence of racist and xenophobic tensions is growing. In Europe, long-dominant ethnic groups fear that their heritage, traditions, and niches within society are under attack from newcomers and rival demographic segments. In the United States, trouble has erupted on the southern border coupled with a nation-wide revival of racist tensions. In addition to Europe and North America, other regions, such as the Middle East, have long been hotbeds of cultural, religious, and ethnic animosities. Refugee crises caused by war, famine, and environmental catastrophes increase unrest and mistrust. Hopefully, the discussions in this book will offer useful and actionable perspectives regarding these realities and the challenges they create. A useful starting point began with discussions of two foundational perceptions: (1) the theory of anomie and (2) the concept of the true believer. Anomie refers to situations where unmitigated change takes place so quickly that people are unable to adjust. Under such circumstances, a variety of possible responses emerge; some are healthy and lead to constructive adaptation, while others are hurtful and counterproductive. While anomie involves how people react, the concept of the true believer identifies and describes types of people who embrace the dictates of their leaders (or their gurus) and do so without question or hesitation. Combining these two pivotal ideas provides a useful way to reflect upon those who react to stress and its challenges in dogmatic, emotional, and non-rational ways. On many occasions, these responses are counterproductive. Thus, the Ghost Dance of the American Indians and the Chinese Boxer Rebellion of the 19th century are examples of alienated and displaced people who, experiencing anomie, acted as true believers. In both cases, negative and tragic consequences resulted. On other occasions, in contrast, the results may be largely positive as was the case with the contributions of Handsome Lake, a 19th-century American Indian prophet who offered a new way of life that many of his Iroquois followers embraced in a manner that was initially reflective of true believers. In this case, however, Handsome Lake’s “Longhouse Religion” helped the Iroquois people make beneficial cultural and economic transitions DOI: 10.4324/9781003364368-23

214  A Summary and Final Word by responding to changing conditions in positive and fruitful ways. Even those who are critical of Handsome Lake tend to acknowledge these contributions. Thus, true believers reacting to anomie and cultural stress can respond in a manner that can be either positive or negative. Combined, the concepts of anomie and the true believer provide useful means of envisioning the Great Replacement Theory that predicts that the peoples of Europe are at risk of becoming an estranged and displaced minority in regions and countries where they have long dominated. According to this conjecture, these transformations will occur due to demographic changes, differences in the birth rates of various segments of the population, and projected patterns of immigration. Although envisioned as a “peaceful” transformation not necessarily caused by war or violence, many fear that these potentials can exert hurtful and disruptive consequences. Specifically, the theory projects a world where relentless changes in ethnic composition are destined to marginalize many European peoples in their own homeland. Those who fear this possibility often react as true believers when lashing out in attempts to forestall such a possibility. By combining the concepts of anomie, true believers, and the Great Replacement Theory, a three-component model emerged that can be useful when analyzing specific examples of racism and xenophobia and what causes them. In Britain, the skinheads began as a movement that juxtaposed working-­ class people with sophisticated and middle-class rivals. In the early days of the movement, furthermore, many post-World-War II British immigrants and people of color identified with the movement and joined in. Eventually, however, the marginalized white underclass began to resent and fear the newcomers who were emerging as competitors for jobs, benefits, and living quarters. As a result, many skinheads drifted toward becoming true believing racists and xenophobes. In Germany, Islamic Turkish guest workers were initially recruited to relieve a postwar labor shortage. Over time, the Turks emerged as a permanent ethnic group and religious minority. Some Germans welcome the newcomers, while others are upset and threatened by their presence and influence. Those who oppose the Turks fear that the character of Germany is changing due to their presence and, reacting as true believers, they have helped spawn a neo-Nazi movement. A long-term connection of the French with North Africans has created a synergistic relationship as well as tension. In recent years, some French have become uncomfortable with the degree to which outsiders appear to be transforming the country. This has led to the development and popularity of the Great Replacement Theory (and aggressive actions inspired by it) that seeks to reduce or eliminate these alien influences. Such hostile reactions, in turn, have generated reprisals by rival true believers who embrace the cause of the alien newcomers. Various acts of terrorism are the fruit of such tensions.

A Summary and Final Word 215 Although the United States has its own unique history, it has also been influenced by racism, xenophobia, and the Great Replacement Theory. America has long positioned itself as a Bastian of freedom. Building upon this legacy, many true believers conclude that they should be able to live and treat others in almost any way they want. When denied the ability to do so by governmental regulations and/or social pressures, the potential for racist, xenophobic, and prejudicial outbursts, spearheaded by true believers, increases. Those facing the brunt of such intolerant behavior have been known to react by responding in kind. Currently, tensions are high. On the one hand, those who embrace the Melting Pot Hypothesis believe that today’s diversity will transform the country into a new and homogenized civilization. Others fear that such a transition can result in the loss of their treasured cultural identities. Those who fear or resist this possibility can easily emerge as racists and xenophobic true believers. An alternative possibility, modeled by the Salad Bowl Hypothesis, maintains that various racial and ethnic groups will retain their identities. Stabilization of this sort can exert either positive or negative ramifications. Perhaps, distinct segments will find their place in America and exist in a positive and cooperative manner, even if friendly rivalries remain. An opposite and ugly possibility, however, could be an increased possibility of racial and ethnic division, confrontation, and hurtful outbursts. In any event, xenophobia and racism are disruptive forces in society. To better understand them, a variety of tools have been developed, including Critical Race Theory and the Cancel Culture Movement. First emerging in the 1930s, Critical Theory is one of the classic tools of contemporary social analysis and political/social activism. Expanding from the work of Max Horkheimer, the method goes beyond merely describing society in order to critique and improve it. A basic component of Critical Theory, inspired by the dialectical method, envisions rival forces clashing in ways that potentially lead to beneficial resolutions in an ongoing process of transformation. In the United States, Critical Race Theory builds upon the basic tactics of Critical Theory and refinements, such as those found in Feminist Theory. Critical Race Theory begins by pointing to a long-held tradition of white privilege. Having done so, the assertion is made that since white people benefit from this system, the vast majority of whites support this arrangement because it works in their best interest. To make this claim, however, the model has to dismiss the fact that many white people do not seek the benefits of white privilege and, in contrast, support equal rights for all. In order to explain away the existence and guidance of these “enlightened” whites, proponents of Critical Race Theory often point to the influence of “internalization” and “institutionalization”. Internalization refers to the premise that because people are raised in a racist society, they are socialized accordingly. As a result, a tendency exists for people to covertly and internally embrace racist dogma if they are aware

216  A Summary and Final Word of doing so or not. Pointing to such a process, proponents of Critical Race Theory are able to assert that people unwittingly and unknowingly possess insidious and invisible views that inhibit equality and racial harmony. Some white people, however, contend that they have not internalized the orientations of white supremacy or white privilege. In such cases, proponents of Critical Race Theory suggest that in a racist country, such as the United States, people inevitably participate in racist institutions. Thus, no matter what their beliefs and preferences might be, these whites are, at a minimum, functioning as fellow travelers, stooges, or flunkies who participate in the oppression and bigotry perpetrated by the dominant racist regime. Having made these claims regarding internalization and institutionalization, advocates of Critical Race Theory typically conclude that the vast majority of white people are oppressors and bigots if they know it or not. Such assessments, of course, are not reflected by the facts. Before the Civil War, generations of abolitionists struggled to promote the end of slavery. During the conflict, many thousands of Union soldiers died in the war that ended slavery. During the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, many whites joined the struggle. After the death of President John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Baines Johnson, a white southerner, unexpectedly became a tireless advocate for the civil rights cause and pushed the key legislation through Congress. Today, many whites continue to fight for equality and opportunity for all. The list can go on but the point has been made. Not all white people make rational calculations that center upon self-interest and, as a result, support racism and xenophobia. Critical Race Theorists tend to overstate their case but in doing so they often highlight issues regarding racism and xenophobia that deserve discussion. As a result, the method can be beneficial although it tends to be hyperbolic. “Cancel Culture” is a term that is used to identify a range of strategies designed to weaken the power and influence of those who are opposed. In some cases, doing so might involve the threat to inflict economic harm against those who act in a disapproved manner. Thus, boycotting stores or celebrities that champion certain causes is a familiar tactic. Advocates of civil and ethnic rights often depict the Cancel Culture Movement as a useful tool for facilitating change. Opponents, in contrast, tend to use the term as a pejorative associated with unfair and ill-conceived infringements upon personal liberty and so forth. A key tactic involves undercutting or defaming icons or representations of causes or belief systems that are opposed. Initiatives that seek to remove the statues of Confederate generals are excellent examples of such tactics. Proponents of such actions celebrate the canceling of something that is hurtful (honoring those who defended slavery), while opponents lament the illegitimate destruction of meaningful and worthwhile representations of the country’s history. A good case can be made for both positions.

A Summary and Final Word 217 Many years ago, the term “woke” was coined to describe people who have “woken up” to oppression and opposed it. As a result, this process has a positive connotation. Opponents, in contrast, use the term to describe a mindless and illegitimate undercutting of legitimate thought and action. Thus, terms like “cancel culture” and “woke” have both positive and negative applications. On many occasions, discussions of racism and xenophobia are largely theoretical. As a result, more practitioner-oriented analyses are also needed. To deal with this reality, the existence of various flaws in argumentation is discussed. In addition, they are juxtaposed with more positive and productive alternatives. The common tendency to “preach to the converted” needs to be resisted because it can lead to sloppy thinking and a tendency to phrase issues in ways that unnecessarily inflame those who embrace alternative points of view. When this happens, roadblocks to understanding and cooperation emerge. As a result, logical, factual, and reasonable arguments are potentially sacrificed for the sake of passionate rhetoric and oratory. Although friends and allies may be swayed by such communications, others will notice the logical flaws or inflated claims and react accordingly. Such potentials need to be avoided. When striving to be the most effective, people should never forget what they, most basically, are working to accomplish. Those who fail to maintain this focus risk becoming preoccupied with relatively inconsequential side issues. This is the lesson offered by the old hymn of the civil rights era “Keep Your Eye on the Prize”. When options are evaluated, furthermore, care needs to be taken to determine the degree to which someone or something is a part of the problem and/or a part of the solution. In the era of slavery, for example, many abolitionists did not believe that an Afro-American ex-slave could write as eloquently as Frederick Douglas did. Thus, although these doubters opposed slavery, they apparently accepted the notion that blacks were inferior to whites (regarding, e.g., an inability to create persuasive rhetoric and chains of thought). Thus, abolitionists who had such doubts can be evaluated as part of the problem because of possible racist tendencies. However, they were simultaneously a part of the solution even if their thinking needed additional progress. When evaluating people, such a twofold system of evaluation is often needed. And it should be applied within a relevant social, cultural, and strategic context. Other historic figures, including Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln, also need to be evaluated in such a manner. Parallel examples dealing with sexuality (such as President Bill Clinton and his Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell policy regarding LGBTQ people serving in the military) require a similar evaluation. Thus, Clinton’s approach was a step forward by allowing LGBTQ people to serve while inadvertently emerging as oppressive. Cultures and individuals evolve over time and this reality needs to be recognized. Steps in the right

218  A Summary and Final Word direction, even if flawed and incomplete, need to be recognized as such. Thus, objective and unflinching appraisals need to be combined with evaluations that take history, the environment, and circumstances into account. One of the key issues to be considered when dealing with racism and xenophobia involves choosing effective and productive strategies that encourage and nurture beneficial change. The dialectical method provides a classic technique for doing so. It begins with an opening set of beliefs known as the Thesis. In responding to this thesis, the opposite view, referred to as the Antithesis, is presented in hyperbolic ways. This provocative dichotomy results in debate, compromise, and the embrace of a revised middle ground that is known as the Synthesis. Once this progression is completed, the Synthesis becomes a new Thesis and the process can begin again. As originally advocated by Hegel, this formulation was applied to ideas and thought. According to Marxist theory, furthermore, a version of this model can be used to describe the evolution of economic systems. This model of progression and change can be effective when dealing with situations where the observed phenomena can be depicted with a “Bell Shaped Curve” distribution. In such cases, a few people would be very racist and xenophobic, while a small number would be completely non-prejudiced and egalitarian. The majority of people would have views that fall somewhere in the middle range. Where this is true, shifting opinions in order to establish a new “working majority” might only require a relatively small segment of middle-range people fluctuating their beliefs a notch or two. Once the new synthesis is reached, it can function as a new thesis that could result in further change or trigger a step back in a reactionary manner. Regarding racism and xenophobia in today’s world, in contrast, a U-Shaped Curve appears to exist, not a Bell-Shaped Curve. In such a distribution, a significant segment of racists and xenophobes is opposed by a powerful sector of non-prejudicial advocates on the other end of the continuum. Under such conditions, the number of people holding a middle view might be so low that they would be unable to tip the balance of power in one direction or the other. As a result, a stalemate or impasse exists. If a BellShaped Curve situation exists, movement in one direction or another might be likely to occur. If the curve is U-Shaped, however, a new synthesis will be harder to achieve. Clearly getting beyond this deadlock is needed, but achieving that goal might be difficult. One way to deal with this situation is to look to disciplines such as psychology in search of perspectives regarding morals and ethics that can more effectively deal with racism and xenophobia. The work of Lawrence Kohlberg provides a useful template to build upon. Kohlberg envisions a continuum of moral and ethical orientations that starts with a concern for personal hedonistic benefits that individuals can receive by acting in a particular manner that is deemed moral. At the other end of Kohlberg’s continuum, universal moral principles are emphasized. Thus, although most people are moral, a range of different and even conflicting moralistic frames of reference exist.

A Summary and Final Word 219 Such an orientation can facilitate less polemical discussions because they can place specific beliefs on a continuum in ways that are less judgmental. By acknowledging that all people tend to be moral and ethical, discussions can avoid asserting negative evaluations of others even when the codes that rivals embrace are challenged. A complicating factor, however, is that some aspects of the lower range of the continuum (such as adhering to precedent) can exert a powerful influence that expands beyond how they are depicted in the continuum. Nonetheless, a framework inspired by Kohlberg has the potential to expand discussions and depictions of morals and ethics involving racism and xenophobia in productive and less polemical ways. Although the Kohlberg approach has its merits, it can sidestep questions and decisions that need to be made when evaluating the views of others. Since racism and xenophobia are loaded and sensitive issues, avoiding such blind spots is especially important. The Emic and Etic dichotomy provides useful ways to do so. The Emic method focuses upon how people subjectively think, feel, and evaluate. In other words, it looks at phenomena such as racism and xenophobia from the point of view of the social actor. This is a culturally relativistic method that places thought and behavior within a social context. Doing so recognizes how people’s heritage, traditions, and community contribute to the mindsets, beliefs, and outlooks. It is still possible, of course, to disagree with people even after conducting an Emic analysis. Although differences might remain, such an investigation can build understanding in ways that facilitate more productive discussions. The Etic approach, in contrast, evaluates the same phenomena but instead of viewing social actors on their own terms, it concentrates upon the criteria and the priorities of the observers. Thus, the emphasis is upon (1) rigorous methods of observation and (2) the standards of evaluation that the observers accept as legitimate, appropriate, and meaningful. Building upon these perspectives, positive or negative evaluations can be made. Investigations and evaluations of this sort provide insights that are distinct from Emic views and the culturally relativistic perspectives they showcase. These Emic and Etic perspectives can be merged with Kohlberg’s moral and ethical model. The result is a three-component technique for dealing with racism and xenophobia where a Kohlberg orientation presents a continuum based on psychology, the Emic is culturally relativistic and based on qualitative anthropological methods, while the Etic is more empirical and closely related the norms of the observer and scientific modes of analysis. By employing them in tandem, a more robust and less inflammatory means of analyzing racism and xenophobia can emerge. Hopefully, such a multiple approach will facilitate less hostile and more productive discussions of racism and xenophobia along with their moral and ethical implications.

Index

Notes: Italicised folios refers figures, bold tables and “n” notes. abolitionist movement 88 acknowledging complexity 140–142 Action Front of National Socialists 54, 55 Act Utilitarianism 188 ad hominem dismissals 128–129 Afro-Americans 63, 69, 73, 77, 80, 88, 90, 104, 106, 108–109, 124–125, 148–149, 167, 175, 180–181, 185 Age of Enlightenment 127 Akhenaten 96 “Alabama” (Young) 106, 107 Algerian Revolution 56, 57 Almanac Singers 100 America 63–73; freedom 64–75; legacy and freedom 65–66; Melting Pot Hypothesis 67–70; The Organization Man (Whyte) 64–75; refugees and demographics 70–71; Salad Bowls and xenophobia 67–70; syngerism and extremism 72 American Civil War 121 American Revolution 22 America’s First Daughter (Dray and Kamoie) 144 anomie 3, 18, 59; alienation and 5; Boxer Rebellion and Ghost Dance 21; described 4–9; Great Replacement Theory, and 37–38; responses to 7, 8; three-factor model 40; and true believers 11–12, 13 antithesis 80, 146, 152, 153, 166, 167, 218 Aquinas, Thomas 186 The Art of Loving 82 Arts and Crafts movement 5, 82–83 attacking icons 104–108, 108 Aunt Jemima 105 avoiding pain 180, 190

Baez, Joan 70 Ball, Dudley: In the Heat of the Night 152 Barthes, Roland 33 Battistone, Sam 106 Battle of Abbeville 154 Battle of Algiers 36 Beat Generation 108 Bell-Shaped Curve 167–170, 168, 168, 218 Benedict, Ruth 162; Patterns of Culture 162; The Races of Mankind 162 Bentham, Jeremy 187 Biden, Joe 170 Big Rapids Michigan 125 blacklist 100 Black Power: The Politics of Liberation (Carmichael and Hamilton) 90 Black Skins, White Masks (Fanon) 89 Bleeding Kansas 122, 143 “Blood and Soil” slogan 71 Blumer, Herbert 105 Boarding School System 33, 102 Boas, Franz 162 Bohnett, Newell 106 Bonaparte, Napoleon 31 Bondarenko, Veronika 102 Boxer Rebellion 17, 19–22 Breitbart News 102 Brer Rabbit 176–177 British skinheads 49–51, 214 Broadbent, Elizabeth: “Dear Entitled Old Racist White Men, We Are Sick of You” 128 Brown, John 122, 143, 151 Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education 189 Buffalo Soldiers 154 Bush, George W. 100, 170

Index 221 Calhoun, John C. 122, 125, 145–146, 151 Call Out movement 99 Camus, Albert 57 Camus, Renaud 33–37, 44, 57; Tricks 33 Cancel Culture 96–109, 108, 216; attacking icons 104–108; economic punishments 99–101; undercutting opponents 101–104; woke movement 108–109 Candy, Eye 144 Cane, Will 100 capitalism 164, 165 capitalists 84–85, 86 Cargo Cults 22 Carlyle, Thomas 121 Carmichael, Stokely: Black Power: The Politics of Liberation 90 Charles I 184 Charlottesville, Virginia 71–72 Chavez, Cesar 97 Cherokee Indians 120 Chick-Fil-A 97, 100 Chinese Detective 50 Civilization and its Discontents (Freud) 64 Civil Rights Act of 1964 193 civil rights era 30, 63, 88, 90, 106, 150, 167, 217 Civil War 121n1, 123, 125, 154 Classic Marxism 163 Classic Marxist Theory 83–86 Cleveland Indians 104 Clinton, Bill 149 Clinton, Hillary 170, 183 combined focus 208 concubine 144 concurrent majority 145 conformity 7, 8; true believers and 11–12, 13 Conscious of a Conservative (Goldwater) 193 conservatives 96, 97, 98, 101, 103, 104, 109 Conspiracy Theory (Gibson) 66 Conventional 2 182–184 conventional history 120–123 “Cornerstone Speech” 121, 176 Critical Race Theorists 90 Critical Race Theory 14, 79–93, 104, 165; Classic Marxist Theory 83–86; Critical Theory 81–83; dialectical method and 91–92; institutionalization 89–91; internalization 88–89; paradigm of 83; white privilege 87–88

Critical Theory 81–83 Cullender, James T. 144 cultural history 120–123 Darwin, Charles 127 Davis, Jefferson 154 Davis, Sammy 131 Dawes Act 33 “Dear Entitled Old Racist White Men, We Are Sick of You” (Broadbent) 128 Declaration of Independence 143 de la Riba, Enric Prat 31 demographics: gloating 130; and refugees 70–71 Derrida, Jacques 57 Desroche, Henri 22, 25 destroying icons 125–127 dialectics 91–92, 153, 161–171; Bell Shaped Curve 167–170, 168, 168; implications 163–166; limits of process 166–167; U-Shaped Curve 168, 168–167, 169; without a synthesis 170–171 Dickens, Charles 5; Oliver Twist 4 Division of Labour in Society (Durkheim) 3 Dixie Chicks 100, 101 “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy 149–150, 151 Douglas, Fredrick 125, 141, 142 Douglas, Stephen 146–147 Dray, Stephnie: America’s First Daughter 144 Dreyfus, Alfred 127 DuBois, W. E. B.: The Philadelphia Negro 162 Durkheim, Emile 3, 5–6, 16, 37; Division of Labour in Society 3; Suicide 3 Dylan, Bob 70, 140; “A Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall” 134 dysfunctional and functional responses 16–27; Boxer Rebellion 17, 19–22; Ghost Dance movement 17–19; Handsome Lake 17, 22–24; implications 26–27; range of options 25, 26; true believers 22–24 1848 32 economic punishments 99–101, 108 Emancipation Proclamation 146 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 70 Emic: analysis of racism and xenophobia 202; applications 200–202, 202

222  Index Emic-Etic dichotomy 197–200 Emic method 205, 207 empathy 128–129 Enemy of the State 66 Enlightenment 31, 32, 48 Escape from Freedom (Fromm) 10, 82–83 ethical foundations 174–177 ethnocentrism 67, 70 Etic: analysis of racism and xenophobia 204; applications 203–204, 204; method 205–207 evaluating yesterday using today 123–124 Evangeline (Longfellow) 34 extremism: and syngerism 72 faces in the crowd 150–151, 151 Fanon, Franz: Black Skins, White Masks 89 The Feminine Mystique (Friedan) 81 feminism 86 feminist theory 84–86 Ferdinand, Archduke 32 Feudalism 163 Fields, James Alex 126 First Opium War 19–20 Floyd, George 104, 106 Foreman, Carl: High Noon 100 “For What It’s Worth” 117–134; ad hominem dismissals vs. empathy 128–129; conventional history 120–123; cultural history 120–123; demographic gloating 130; destroying icons 125–127; evaluating yesterday using today 123–124; hurtful communication 132; ignoring historical context 127–128; “look like me” arguments 129–130; misinterpreting history 124–125; misinterpreting innocent behavior 130–131; preaching to the converted 119; roadblocks to understanding 119–131; Spoils System 120 Fox News 98 France 59; long-term tensions in 55–58 Frankfurt School 165 freedom 64–75; and legacy 65–66 French Algerians 36 Freud, Sigmund: Civilization and its Discontents 64 Friedan, Betty 89; The Feminine Mystique 81 Fromm, Erich: Escape from Freedom 10, 82–83

Frontier Thesis of American History (Turner) 64–65, 72 Future Shock (Toffler) 6 gaining pleasure 180–181, 190 Gallo Wine 97 Gendron, Payton 126 genocide 52, 57 Germany 59 Ghost Dance movement 17–19 Ghost Dancers 19 Gibson, Mel: Conspiracy Theory 66 Gilded Age 32 Goldberg, Whoppi 131 Goldwater, Barry 119, 182–183; Conscious of a Conservative 193 Goodbye Columbus (Roth) 201 Gordon-Reed, Annette: Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy 144 “Gospel Plow” (Lomax and Alan) 139 Grand Dérangement 34 Great Britain 59 Great Replacement Theory 33–37, 67, 71, 126, 127, 130; anomie and 37–38; in France 58; three-factor model 40; true believers and 38–39 Greeley, Horace 146 Guest Workers: and neo-Nazism 51–52 Ham 68 Hamilton, Charles: Black Power: The Politics of Liberation 90 Hannah-Jones, Nikole: An Origin Story: The 1619 Project 161–162 “A Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall” (Dylan) 134 Harkis 57 Harpers Ferry raid 122, 143 Harris, Cheryl: “Whiteness as Property” 88 Harris, George Washington 176 Harris, Joel Chandler 176 Harris, Kamala 170 Harris, Marvin 203, 206 Harsh Ethnic Cleansing 67 Harvest (Young) 107 Hawes, Bess Lomax 139 Hegel, Frederick 14, 48, 142, 152, 163, 166, 170; dialectical argumentation 80 Hemings, Jefferson 144 Hemings, Sally 144 Henry IV 96–97 Herder, Johann Gottfried 48

Index 223 Heyer, Heather D. 126 higher education 103 High Noon (Foreman) 100 Highway 61 181 Hitler, Adolf 131 Ho, John 50 Hobbes, Thomas: Levithan 184 Hobby Lobby 101 Hoffer, Eric 4, 12, 16, 38; on mass movements 9–10; model of 11; on responses 10; The True Believer 3, 9–11; on true believers 10; see also true believers Hofstadter, Richard 145 “Hooray for our side” (Stills) 208 Horkheimer, Max 114; “Traditional and Critical Theory” 81–82 Hornsby, Bruce: “The Way it Is” 191 hurtful communication 132 ignoring historical context 127–128 implications 26–27; dialectics 163–166 Indian Wars 17, 19 Indigenous and Ethnic Empowerment (Walle) 146 industrialization 5 Industrial Revolution 5 infrastructure 164–165, 165 innovation 7, 8; true believers and 12, 13 institutionalization 89–91, 91 institutional racism 90 institutions 86 internalization 86, 88–89, 91 In the Heat of the Night (Ball) 152 Irish 68–69 “I Won’t Back Down” (Petty) 170 Jackson, Andrew 120, 123 Jagger, Mick 140 Jefferson, Thomas 121, 143–145, 151, 186 Jefferson Airplane 97 Jews will not replace us/You will not replace us” (slogan) 71 Kamoie, Laura: America’s First Daughter 144 “Keep Your Eye on the Prize” 139–154; Abraham Lincoln 146–148, 151; acknowledging complexity 140–142; dialectics 153; “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy 149–150, 151; faces in the crowd 150–151, 151; In the Heat of the Night (Ball) 152; John Brown 143, 151; John C. Calhoun 145–146,

151; part of the problem or part of the solution 142; Thomas Jefferson 143–145, 151; war/battle 153–154; Woodrow Wilson 148–149, 151 Kehoe, Alice Beck 19 Kelly, William Melvin 108 Kennedy, John F. 105, 123 “Kill the Indian, Save the Man” (Pratt) 103 King, Martin Luther 139–140, 177 Kohlberg, Lawrence 190; continuum of morals and ethics 204–205, 207; ethical and moral paradigm 177–179, 179; model 179–189, 190, 197 Kooper, Al: Second Helping 107 Kühnen, Michael 54 Ku Klux Klan 68, 69 Kurds of the Middle East 30, 148 labor shortage 181 Lake, Handsome 17, 22–24, 213 laws and rules 182, 190 Lee, Robert E. 72, 123–124, 126 legacy and freedom 65–66 Legree, Simon 175 Levithan (Hobbes) 184 LGTBQ community 97, 101, 143, 149 liberals 37, 72, 98, 101, 102–104, 107, 109 Library of Congress 139 Lincoln, Abraham 122, 146–148, 151 Little Black Sambo 106 Locke, John 184–185, 186 Log Cabin Republicans 150 Lomax, Alan 108, 139 Lomax, John 139 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth: Evangeline 34 Longhouse religion 22, 23, 25 “look like me” arguments 129–130 Lynyrd Skynard 107 Marcuse, Herbert: One Dimensional Man 82 Marcy, William L. 120 Marlboro Man 64 Marx, Karl 84, 163, 164, 170 Marxism 86 Marxist Theory see Classic Marxist Theory mass movements 9–10, 11 McCarthy, Joe 100 McVeigh, Timothy 65 The Melting Pot (play) 67 Melting Pot Hypothesis 67–70

224  Index Merton, K. Robert 3, 11, 16, 18, 37; adaptation of Durkheim’s concept of anomie 9; alternatives offered by 7; on culture and society 6; deviance typology of 8; innovative and rebellious responses to anomie 38; responses to anomie 7, 8; as social structuralist 6 microaggressions 90 Middle East 55, 58 millenarianism 22 Miller, Frank 100 misinterpreting history 124–125 misinterpreting innocent behavior 130–131 Mods 50, 51 moral foundations 174–177 Morgan, Lewis Henry 162 Morris, William 82; News from Nowhere 5 Napoleonic Code 31 National Football League 104 nationalism see Romantic Nationalism National Origins Formula 69 Natural Law 186 negative adjustments 26 neo-conservativism 184 neo-Nazi movement 45 neo-Nazism 51–52 New Deal 183 new Mediterranean Culture 57 New Norse 49, 131 News from Nowhere (Morris) 5 The New York Times 102 Nicholson, Jack: The Two Jakes 187 niggardly 105, 106 Nixon, Richard 107 normlessness 4; of modern world 5 Nova Scotia 34 Nullification Act of the 1830s 123 Obama, Barack 170 O’Connor, Carroll 152; Thomas Jefferson Dreams of Sally Hemings 144 Oklahoma City bombing 65 “Old White Men” 128 Oliver Twist (Dickens) 4 One Dimensional Man (Marcuse) 82 O’Neil, Tyler 101 Opium of the Masses 84 opposition, phase of 25; negative and positive adjustments 26 O’Reilly, Bill 102

The Organization Man (Whyte) 64–75 An Origin Story: The 1619 Project (Hannah-Jones) 161–162 Ottoman Empire 148 Paki [Pakistani] Bashing 50 Park, Suey 98 part of the problem or part of the solution 142 patriarchy 84–85 Patterns of Culture (Benedict) 162 Patton, William Weston 143 Pennsylvania 68 Perry, Imani: South to America: A Journey Below the Mason-Dixon to Understand the Soul of a Nation 124 Petty, Tom: “I Won’t Back Down” 170 The Philadelphia Negro (DuBois) 162 phonemic 198 phonetic 198 Piaget, Jean 177 pilgrims 55, 68 Plessy, Homer 185 Plessy vs. Ferguson 185–189 Poitier, Sidney 152 Poland 30 Pope Georgy VII 96–97 positive adjustments 26 Postconventional 1 179 postconventional 2 186–189 Powell, Enoch 50 Pratt, Richard H.: “Kill the Indian, Save the Man” 103 preaching to the converted 119 preconventional 1 179 preconventional 2 179 Presbyterians 55 primary variable 163, 164, 165 proletariat 83–85, 86 Protestants 33 public education 103 Puritans 55, 68 Pyke, Karen 88 Qing Dynasty 19 quota system 33 The Races of Mankind (Weltfish and Benedict) 162 racism: complaints of 106; and counter racism 152; institutional 90; scientific 162; systematic 90; and xenophobia 168, 174, 202, 204, 207 range of options 25, 26

Index 225 rebellion 7, 8; true believers and 12, 13 Reconstruction 166–167 redemption movement 148 Reformation 55 refugees and demographics 70–71 resolution, phase of 25; negative and positive adjustments 26 responses: to anomie 7, 8; Boxer Rebellion and Ghost Dance 21; of Hoffer model 10, 11 retreatism 7, 8; true believers and 12, 13 Rhode Island 68 Richards, Keith 140 Ritualism 19 ritualization 7, 8; true believers and 12, 13 rivals 86 “Rivers of Blood” 50 roadblocks to understanding 119–131 Roberts, Julia: Sleeping with the Enemy 153 Rolling Stones 140 Rollins, Howard 152 Romantic Movement 31–32; cultural heritage 49 Romantic Nationalism 31–33, 70 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano 183 Roosevelt, Theodore 65, 67 Roth, Philip: Goodbye Columbus 201 Salad Bowls model: and xenophobia 67–70 Sambo’s 106 Sartre, Jean Paul 36, 37 Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization (White) 164 scientific racism 162 Scotch-Irish 69 Scott, Dred 182 secondary variables 163–164, 165 Second Helping (Kooper) 107 Second Opium War 19–20 Seger, Pete 100, 140 Setiger, Ron 152 7 Days in May 66 shunning 97, 98 “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (Turner) 64 Skinhead Movement 45 skinheads 49–51, 214 “Slavery at Monticello Tour” 121 Sleeping with the Enemy (Roberts) 153 Smithson, James 144 social contract 184–186, 190

Social Darwinism 127 social groups 3 social order 182–184 social structure 70, 83 Solid South 193 Soros, George 101–102 southern border 30, 46, 70–71, 73 “Southern Man” (Young) 106 Southhall Riot 51 South to America: A Journey Below the Mason-Dixon to Understand the Soul of a Nation (Perry) 124 spheres of influence 20 Spoils System 120 Springsteen, Bruce 140 Stare Decisis 182 Stephens, Alexander 121–122, 176 Stills, Stephen 117; “Hooray for our side” 208 Stills, Steven: “For What It’s Worth” 133 Stoic philosophy 68 Stowe, Harriett Beecher 176; Uncle Tom’s Cabin 175 Strain Theory 7 structure 164–165, 165 Sudetenland 52 Suicide (Durkheim) 3 Sweet Home Alabama 107 Sykes–Picot Agreement 148 syngerism and extremism 72 synthesis 80, 92, 152, 164, 171 systematic racism 90 systemic racism 104 Taney, Roger B. 182 thesis 80, 164 Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (GordonReed) 144 Thomas Jefferson Dreams of Sally Hemings (O’Connor) 144 three-factor analysis 59 three-factor model 39, 40 three fifths clause 124–125 Toffler, Alvin: Future Shock 6 “Toledo Strip” 123 “to the victor belongs the spoils” 120 “Traditional and Critical Theory” (Horkheimer) 81–82 Trail of Tears 120 traitors 123 Transcendentalist movement 70 trench warfare 169

226  Index Tricks (Camus) 33 The True Believer (Hoffer) 3 true believers 4, 11, 22–24, 59; and anomie 11–12, 13; Boxer Rebellion and Ghost Dance 21; conformity and 11–12, 13; Eric Hoffer, and 9–11; Great Replacement Theory, and 38–39; innovation and 12, 13; rebellion and 12, 13; retreatism and 12, 13; ritualization and 12, 13; three-factor model 40; and xenophobia 47–59 Trump, Donald 140 Turkish for Beginners (TV show) 53–54 Turkish minority 45 Turner, Frederick Jackson 67; Frontier Thesis of American History 64–65; “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” 64 Twain, Mark 32 The Two Jakes (Nicholson) 187 Tylor, Edmund 162 Uncle Remus (character) 176 Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe) 175 undercutting opponents 101–104, 108 United Farm Workers 97 United States see America United States Congress 119 Unite the Right Rally of August 2017 71, 72, 126–127 universal vision 186–189, 190 urbanization 5 U-Shaped Curve 168, 168–167, 169, 174–191; applying Kohlberg model 179–189, 190; Kohlberg’s ethical and moral paradigm 177–179, 179; moral and ethical foundations 174–177 Utilitarianism 187–188 van Zant, Ronnie 107 volkgeist 48

Wag the Dog 66 The Walking Dead 66 Wallace, Anthony F. C. 23 Wallace, George 107 Walle, Alf 105; Indigenous and Ethnic Empowerment 146 war/battle 153–154 Washington, George 121 Washington Redskins football team 104–105 “The Way it Is” (Hornsby) 191 Weber, Max 165 Weltfish, Gene: The Races of Mankind 162 Whigs 120 Whisky Rebellion 123 White, Leslie: Marxist/materialistic paradigm 165; Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization 164 “Whiteness as Property” (Harris) 88 white privilege 87–88, 91, 114 Whyte, William H. 66; The Organization Man 65 Wilson, Woodrow 148–149, 151 woke movement 108–109 wokeness 108, 109 Wordsworth, William 32 World War II 45, 54, 56, 58, 69, 76, 101, 122, 131 Wounded Knee incident of 1890 19 Wovoka 18 xenophobia: and racism 168, 174, 202; and Salad Bowls 67–70; and true believers 47–59 Young, Neil: “Alabama” 106, 107; Harvest 107; “Southern Man” 106 Zangwill, Israel 67 zero-sum game 77, 80, 85–87, 90, 119 Zola, Emil 127 zombie apocalypse 66